Handbook of Research on Consumerism in Business and Marketing: Concepts and Practices 9781466658806, 9781466658813, 9781466658837, 1466658800

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Handbook of Research on Consumerism in Business and Marketing: Concepts and Practices Hans Ruediger Kaufmann University of Nicosia, Cyprus & International Business School at Vilnius University, Lithuania Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni City University, Bangladesh

A volume in the Advances in Marketing, Customer Relationship Management, and E-Services (AMCRMES) Book Series

Managing Director: Production Editor: Development Editor: Acquisitions Editor: Typesetter: Cover Design:

Lindsay Johnston Jennifer Yoder Austin DeMarco Kayla Wolfe Christina Barkanic Jason Mull

Published in the United States of America by Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2014 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of research on consumerism in business and marketing : concepts and practices / Hans Ruediger Kaufmann and Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni, editors. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4666-5880-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-5881-3 (ebook : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-46665883-7 (print & perpetual access : alk. paper) 1. Consumption (Economics) 2. Social responsibility of business. 3. Consumer behavior. 4. Customer relations. I. Kaufmann, Hans Ruediger, 1958- II. Panni, Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan, 1981HC79.C63H36 2014 658.8’343--dc23 2014001784 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Marketing, Customer Relationship Management, and EServices (AMCRMES) (ISSN: 2327-5502; eISSN: 2327-5529) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Marketing, Customer Relationship Management, and E-Services (AMCRMES) Book Series

Eldon Y. Li National Chengchi University, Taiwan & California Polytechnic State University, USA

Mission

ISSN: 2327-5502 EISSN: 2327-5529

Business processes, services, and communications are important factors in the management of good customer relationship, which is the foundation of any well organized business. Technology continues to play a vital role in the organization and automation of business processes for marketing, sales, and customer service. These features aid in the attraction of new clients and maintaining existing relationships. The Advances in Marketing, Customer Relationship Management, and E-Services (AMCRMES) Book Series addresses success factors for customer relationship management, marketing, and electronic services and its performance outcomes. This collection of reference source covers aspects of consumer behavior and marketing business strategies aiming towards researchers, scholars, and practitioners in the fields of marketing management.

Coverage • B2B Marketing • CRM and Customer Trust • CRM in Financial Services • CRM Strategies • Customer Relationship Management • Data Mining and Marketing • E-Service Innovation • Ethical Considerations in E-Marketing • Legal Considerations in E-Marketing • Online Community Management and Behavior • Relationship Marketing • Social Networking and Marketing • Web Mining and Marketing

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Marketing, Customer Relationship Management, and E-Services (AMCRMES) Book Series (ISSN 2327-5502) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-marketing-customer-relationship-management/37150. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2014 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: www.igi-global.com

Strategies in Sports Marketing Technologies and Emerging Trends Manuel Alonso Dos Santos (Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Chile) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 323pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466659940) • US $235.00 (our price) Handbook of Research on Consumerism in Business and Marketing Concepts and Practices Hans-Ruediger Kaufmann (University of Nicosia, Cyprus & International Business School at Vilnius University, Lithuania) and Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni (City University, Bangladesh) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 608pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466658806) • US $365.00 (our price) Handbook of Research on Management of Cultural Products E-Relationship Marketing and Accessibility Perspectives Lucia Aiello (Unviersitas Mercatorum, Italy) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 486pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466650077) • US $345.00 (our price) Marketing in the Cyber Era Strategies and Emerging Trends Ali Ghorbani (Payame Noor University, Iran) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 357pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466648647) • US $185.00 (our price) Transcultural Marketing for Incremental and Radical Innovation Bryan Christiansen (PryMarke, LLC, USA) Salih Yıldız (Gümüşhane University, Turkey) and Emel Yıldız (Gümüşhane University, Turkey) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 588pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466647497) • US $185.00 (our price) Progressive Trends in Knowledge and System-Based Science for Service Innovation Michitaka Kosaka (Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Japan) and Kunio Shirahada (Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Japan) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 511pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466646636) • US $185.00 (our price) Innovations in Services Marketing and Management Strategies for Emerging Economies Anita Goyal (Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Lucknow, India) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 331pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466646711) • US $185.00 (our price) Internet Mercenaries and Viral Marketing The Case of Chinese Social Media Mei Wu (University of Macau, Macau) Peter Jakubowicz (The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong) and Chengyu Cao (Tsinghua University, China) Business Science Reference • copyright 2014 • 326pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781466645783) • US $175.00 (our price)

701 E. Chocolate Ave., Hershey, PA 17033 Order online at www.igi-global.com or call 717-533-8845 x100 To place a standing order for titles released in this series, contact: [email protected] Mon-Fri 8:00 am - 5:00 pm (est) or fax 24 hours a day 717-533-8661

Editorial Advisory Board Natarjan Chandrasekhar, University of Applied Sciences Ingolstadt, Germany Barry Davies, University of Gloucestershire, UK Pirjo Laaksonen, University of Vaasa, Finland Samuel Rabino, Northeastern University, USA Carmen Santos, University of Leon, Spain Alkis Thrassou, University of Nicosia, Cyprus Demetris Vrontis, University of Nicosia, Cyprus Len Tiu Wright, University of Huddersfield, UK

List of Reviewers Tindara Abbate, University of Messina, Italy Wazir A. F. Ahmad, University of Liberal Arts, Bangladesh Barbara Aquilani, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy Casarin Francesco, Ca’ Foscari University, Italy Peter Jones, University of Gloucestershire, UK Srikant Manchiraju, Iowa State University, USA Nikolaos Pappas, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK Cecilia Silvestri ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Terry Smith, University of Chester, UK George S. Spais, Graduate Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece, Greece Marion Tenge, University of Latvia, Latvia & University of Applied Sciences Kufstein, Austria

Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xxi 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chfwd

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxii 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chpre

Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xxix 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chack

Section 1 Conceptual Evolution and Philosophical Underpinnings 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs01

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Chapter 1 Consumerism: Some Fundamental Insights.............................................................................................1 Ioanna Papasolomou, University of Nicosia, Cyprus 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch001

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Chapter 2 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept....................................................18 Pinelopi Athanasopoulou, University of Peloponnese, Greece 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch002

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Chapter 3 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education: A Critical Discussion Based on Mezirow’s Critical Reflection................................................................................................................45 George S. Spais, Graduate Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece, Greece 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch003

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Chapter 4 CyberEthics Case Study.........................................................................................................................78 Georgia Sakka, Youth Board of Cyprus, Cyprus Iliada Spyrou, Cyprus Neuroscience & Technology Institute (CNTI), Cyprus 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch004

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Section 2 Macro and Interdisciplinary Issues on Consumerism 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs02

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Chapter 5 Green Marketing Strategy: A Pedagogical View...................................................................................92 A F Wazir Ahmad, University of Liberal Arts, Bangladesh (ULAB), Bangladesh Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni, City University, Bangladesh 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch005

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Chapter 6 Anatomy of Green Marketing..............................................................................................................125 Elif Yolbulan Okan, Yeditepe University, Turkey Neva Yalman, Yeditepe University, Turkey 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch006

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Chapter 7 Towards Sustainable Data Centre Operations in the UK.....................................................................143 Peter Jones, University of Gloucestershire, UK Robin Bown, University of Gloucestershire, UK David Hillier, Centre for Police Sciences, University of Glamorgan, UK Daphne Comfort, University of Gloucestershire, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch007

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Chapter 8 Sustainable Food Consumption Macro Issues: Case Study of Latvian Consumer Behaviour............155 Skaidrite Dzene, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia Aija Eglite, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia Gunta Grinberga-Zalite, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch008

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Chapter 9 Consonant, Resonant and Social Relations between Firm and Consumer..........................................182 Gianpaolo Basile, University of Salerno, Italy & Vitez University, Bosnia and Herzegovina 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch009

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Section 3 Implications of Identity on Marketing and Branding from Consumerist Perspectives 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs03

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Chapter 10 The Meaning of Consumption.............................................................................................................202 Terry Smith, University of Chester, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch010

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Chapter 11 Predicting Behavioral Intentions Toward Sustainable Fashion Consumption: A Comparison of Attitude-Behavior and Value-Behavior Consistency Models..............................................................225 Srikant Manchiraju, Iowa State University, USA 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch011

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Chapter 12 Consumer Preferences and Key Aspects of Tourism and Hospitality Marketing on Island Destinations................................................................................................................................... 244 Nikolaos Pappa, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch012

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Chapter 13 Consumer Confidence in Responsible Tourism: How Business Reporting Systems can Encourage Respectful Behaviour...........................................................................................................................264 Mara Manente, CISET (International Centre of Studies on the Tourist Economy) - Ca’ Foscari University,, Italy Valeria Minghetti, CISET (International Centre of Studies on the Tourist Economy) - Ca’ Foscari University, Italy Erica Mingotto, CISET (International Centre of Studies on the Tourist Economy) - Ca’ Foscari University, Italy Francesco Casarin, Ca’ Foscari University, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch013

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Chapter 14 The Psychology of Consumerism in Business and Marketing: The Macro and Micro Behaviors of Hofstede’s Cultural Consumers...........................................................................................................286 Ben Tran, California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University, USA 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch014

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Section 4 Consumerism as a Source for Innovation and Corporate Strategies 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs04

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Chapter 15 Consumerism and Innovation: The Starting Points for the Creation of University Spin-Off..............310 Enrico M. Mosconi, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Michela Piccarozzi, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Cecilia Silvestri, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch015

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Chapter 16 Open Innovation through Customers: Collaborative Web-Based Platforms for Ethically and Socially Responsible New Products Part 1........................................................................................................335 Barbara Aquilani, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy Tindara Abbate, University of Messina, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch016

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Chapter 17 Open Innovation through Customers: Collaborative Web-Based Platforms for Ethically and Socially Responsible New Products Part 2........................................................................................................375 Barbara Aquilani, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy Tindara Abbate, University of Messina, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch017

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Chapter 18 Crowdsourcing Corporate Sustainability Strategies............................................................................413 Peter Jones, University of Gloucestershire, UK David Hillier, Centre for Police Sciences, University of Glamorgan, UK Daphne Comfort, University of Gloucestershire, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch018

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Chapter 19 Consumerism, Market Analysis and Impact on Business Plan Definition...........................................425 Alessandro Ruggieri, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Cecilia Silvestri, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Michela Piccarozzi, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch019

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Chapter 20 Consumer Boycotts as a Consequence of Consumerism.....................................................................458 Dursun Yener, Beykoz Vocational School of Logistics, Turkey 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch020

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Section 5 Consumerism Cases in Selected Industries 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs05

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Chapter 21 The Social Side of Consumerism: Human Need Satisfaction as Antecedents of Economic Need Satisfaction in an Online Environment – Empirical Evidence from the Airport Industry...................473 Marion Tenge, University of Latvia, Latvia & University of Applied Sciences, Austria 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch021

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Chapter 22 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House...............................................................500 Bernd Hallier, European Retail Academy, Germany 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch022

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Chapter 23 Consumption, Anti-Consumption and Consumption Communities: The Football Clubs and its Fans..........................................................................................................................................510 Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Portugal Ana Regina Pires, University of Aveiro, Portugal Ricardo Cayolla, University of Aveiro, Portugal 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch023

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Compilation of References . .............................................................................................................. 537 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chcrf

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 627 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chatc

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 636 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chidx

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xxi 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chfwd

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxii 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chpre

Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xxix 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chack

Section 1 Conceptual Evolution and Philosophical Underpinnings 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs01

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Chapter 1 Consumerism: Some Fundamental Insights.............................................................................................1 Ioanna Papasolomou, University of Nicosia, Cyprus 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch001

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This chapter reveals that the term ‘consumerism’ encompasses a number of meanings which create confusion regarding the term. The discussion that follows, attempts to distinguish the different perspectives regarding the term by presenting its historical development and discussing the three definitions that have marked it. It explores the relationship between consumerism, marketing and corporate social responsibility (CSR). The growth of consumerism has led to the over-use of marketing which provided a flourishing ground for compulsive buying and consumption. There is evidence in the literature to suggest that in an era of increasing social problems and environmental challenges, there is a need for CSR and sustainable marketing. In fact, the second definition of consumerism is inextricably linked with CSR and societal marketing. The chapter is conceptual in nature and provides an in-depth review and discussion of some fundamental dimensions associated to consumerism based on the existent literature. The overarching aim is to provide an insight into the evolution and growth of consumerism based on the existent literature related to the topic. The discussion also focuses on exploring the relationship between marketing and consumerism shedding light onto compulsive buying, consumer attitudes and concerns on the micro consumerism issues, sustainable consumption and sustainable marketing. The chapter proceeds to raise some concerns related to the impact of the global economic crisis on consumerism by using as an example Cyprus based on the author’s observations and thoughts. The chapter concludes with a list of suggestions to practitioners and directions for future research. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch001

Chapter 2 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept....................................................18 Pinelopi Athanasopoulou, University of Peloponnese, Greece 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch002

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CSR has been a widely-researched concept during the last three decades. However, there is no agreement on its definition or its dimensions; antecedents and consequences and there is no comprehensive model for its analysis. The origins of CSR lie in philanthropy and the highest level of CSR is considered to involve philanthropic actions. CSR is a people-caring concept that is incorporated in firms’ strategy. Strategic CSR is based on stakeholder theory and is used to provide competitive advantages through product or brand differentiation. Although there have been many efforts to measure the effectiveness of CSR, there is no single way of assessing CSR performance. Also, effective CSR communication is a very important matter for firms and although there is a lot of research on this subject, the debate is still on regarding what to say; through which channels, and how to say it in order to avoid consumer scepticism and reap strategic benefits. Based on this analysis, emergent themes of research are identified in this chapter and areas of further research are proposed. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch002

Chapter 3 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education: A Critical Discussion Based on Mezirow’s Critical Reflection................................................................................................................45 George S. Spais, Graduate Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece, Greece 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch003

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The chapter examines how consumerism- one of the primary key themes in marketing and business courses- has evolved the last decade and envisages the shape of these set of courses in the future. From the 1,935 words for 20 key-concepts counted in 141 online course descriptions in English of the last 10 periods delivered by Business and Management Schools or Business/Marketing Academic Depts. of 88 Universities and Colleges, “Marketing,” “business,” “ethics” and “social responsibility” were included in 100% of the course descriptions analyzed, indicating their coverage by all courses. In order to investigate the five (5) research objectives, HCA was adopted for an exploratory analysis based on single-linkage clustering method to reveal natural groupings of the key concepts within a data set of word counts that were not apparent and then multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. The trend analyses indicated prospects for the increasing focus around specific topics. The interpretation of the research results based on the assumptions of Mezirow’s critical reflection provided very strong recommendations. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch003

Chapter 4 CyberEthics Case Study.........................................................................................................................78 Georgia Sakka, Youth Board of Cyprus, Cyprus Iliada Spyrou, Cyprus Neuroscience & Technology Institute (CNTI), Cyprus 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch004

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This chapter analyses the role of cyber ethics and other related issues such as electronic commerce (ecommerce) and customers’ protection, privacy, anonymity, psychological and mental wealth-being. It focuses on consumerism cybercrimes such as consumer fraud, online deceptive advertisements, financial fraud and also on social cybercrimes such as pornography, racism, xenophobia, bullying, sexting, cyber hate and cyber staking. Most importantly, this chapter identifies and illustrates how confrontation and prevention tools, including security education and research, are instrumental to overcoming cybercrime on a longer term basis. The chapter is based on a case study and examines the existing literature review in correlation to the existing practices of the Cyprus Safer Internet Center operating in Cyprus – CyberEthics. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch004

Section 2 Macro and Interdisciplinary Issues on Consumerism 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chs02

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Chapter 5 Green Marketing Strategy: A Pedagogical View...................................................................................92 A F Wazir Ahmad, University of Liberal Arts, Bangladesh (ULAB), Bangladesh Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni, City University, Bangladesh 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch005

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Within the campus of business ethics and social responsibility, green marketing strategy has become a much discussed issue in today’s academic world as well as in the profession. Though corporate greening has gained a widespread recognition, different studies have found the concept still facing much confusion especially on norms of ideal green marketing practices. As a consequence, many organizations which are professing green marketing are not profound about it. Among those firms some are partially involved while some are not yet convinced to adopt the green marketing strategy mostly because they do not find it worthwhile regarding revenue and profit. In academia, there are considerable amount of literature providing scattered individual insights from different perspectives. A chapter synthesizing these literatures can be helpful for both academics and marketing practitioners. This chapter attempts to review the literature to understand the origin and evolution of green marketing and green marketing strategy with all its major fundamental dimensions. Based on the existing mainstream literature, the chapter also reveals the green marketing strategy from the strategic consumer behavioral perspective. Furthermore, it summarizes the key success factors behind green marketing, its impact on the organizational performance as well as recommendations for successful implementations. The chapter is a synthesis of the green marketing philosophy and green marketing strategy that might serve as an extensive reference material to both the researchers and marketing practitioners in conducting interesting future research in the field as well as in formulating and adopting appropriate green marketing strategies. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch005

Chapter 6 Anatomy of Green Marketing..............................................................................................................125 Elif Yolbulan Okan, Yeditepe University, Turkey Neva Yalman, Yeditepe University, Turkey 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch006

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There has been much discussion since the late 1980s concerning “green” issues. Society is becoming increasingly concerned with the rapid depletion of the world’s resources and the increasing rate that the environment is being polluted by our activities. Since environmental improvement and competitiveness are defined as the new paradigm for the world economy, green marketing has been one of the most popular topics in the business arena. This chapter aims to examine this concept from several different perspectives. The first section summarizes the evolution of the green marketing concept with the help of theoretical underpinnings. The criticisms regarding green marketing are also discussed. The second section investigates green consumer behavior. In order to position green product offerings, companies need to understand the characteristics and buying patterns of different segments of the green consumer. This section helps to identify the Turkish green consumer. The language and appeals used in environmental communication are very important in changing attitudes. Thus, the third section focuses on the effectiveness of green messages. In the last part of the chapter, the Gezi Park protests from Turkey are examined as an important case with political, economic, social and international impacts as well as its triggering effect of leading to mindful consumption. This chapter explores existing literature on an interest provoking subject--green marketing--as well as integrating theoretical concepts with a recent social event from an emerging market with a case study approach. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch006

Chapter 7 Towards Sustainable Data Centre Operations in the UK.....................................................................143 Peter Jones, University of Gloucestershire, UK Robin Bown, University of Gloucestershire, UK David Hillier, Centre for Police Sciences, University of Glamorgan, UK Daphne Comfort, University of Gloucestershire, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch007

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The purpose of this chapter is to provide an exploratory review of the sustainability agendas being addressed and publicly reported by the UK’s leading data centre operators. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the characteristics of sustainability and an outline of the origins and development of data centres within the UK. The chapter draws its empirical material from the most recent information on sustainability posted on the UK’s leading data centre operators’ corporate web sites. The findings reveal that all the UK’s leading data centre operators provide only limited information on their commitment to sustainability with the dominant focus being on its environmental dimension and with little attention being paid to social and economic issues. More critically, the authors argue that these commitments are driven more by the search for efficiency gains, that they are couched within existing business models centred on continuing growth, and that as such the UK’s leading data centre operators are pursuing a ‘weak’ rather than a ‘strong’ model of sustainability. The chapter suggests that the leading data centre operating companies may need to extend their sustainability reporting and to introduce external assurance procedures. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch007

Chapter 8 Sustainable Food Consumption Macro Issues: Case Study of Latvian Consumer Behaviour............155 Skaidrite Dzene, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia Aija Eglite, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia Gunta Grinberga-Zalite, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch008

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The chapter presents an analysis of food consumption macro issues in Latvia. The authors have aggregated scientific literature on various aspects of consumption with an emphasis on sustainable consumption fundamental issues. The purpose of the chapter is to characterise the factors affecting consumer behaviour in food consumption and identify the profiles of the sustainable and unsustainable consumer in Latvia. In scope of the research, the authors have performed analysis of business cycle effects on consumption as well as effects of the state support to promote sustainable food consumption. The empirical research aims to study the present and potential behaviours of consumers, identifying their attitudes and intentions towards purchasing sustainable food products. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch008

Chapter 9 Consonant, Resonant and Social Relations between Firm and Consumer..........................................182 Gianpaolo Basile, University of Salerno, Italy & Vitez University, Bosnia and Herzegovina 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch009

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The aim of this chapter is to propose a conceptual framework, based on an interdisciplinary approach, which integrates the Viable Systems Perspective, Institutional and neo-Institutional Theory and Structuration Theory with the Consumer Behaviour Theory. The reason for this is to show the relational dynamics between the firm-brand and the individual-consumer, and between these and the direct-indirect stakeholder. The chapter is based on the reflection that the consumption system can be thought of as having two levels. The first is a micro-level, where the consumption system is characterized by the momentum of the creation and maintenance of consonant relationships between the firm-brand and the individualconsumer in order to achieve mutual systemic viability. The second is a macro-level, characterized by the concept that relationships between firm-brand and individual-consumer influence both direct and

indirect stakeholders. Within these relationships, according to Stakeholder Theory, it is therefore very important to consider the reciprocal influences the indirect stakeholder has on and receives from the relationships. The results of these relationships affirm the legitimate conditions on which sustainability requirements (economic, social and environmental) are based. For these reasons the proposed conceptual framework will analyze the firm-brand three-dimensional social role when it is engaged to create and/ or maintain and/or guarantee a long term enduring relationship. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch009

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Chapter 10 The Meaning of Consumption.............................................................................................................202 Terry Smith, University of Chester, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch010

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The “un-contestable hegemony of consumer capitalism” (Gabriel & Lang, 2006, p. 2) as the prevailing ideology of our times locates it as the primary creator and driver of production, competition, innovation, value and, latterly, values. In 1995, Miller recognised that “consumption, rather than production, was the vanguard of history” (p. 1). In that same year, the United Nations issued alarming statistics highlighting the influence of marketing on materialism and the fact that inequality in consumption was far wider than expected, severely undermining the environmental resource base. The backdrop of social theory and political economy within which consumerism and consumption are framed is a fragmented and complex one which has an unstable nature influenced by a range of complicated macro environmental factors. It is a postmodern landscape characterised by an all-pervasive consumer culture, the imperative of consumer rights and the use of consumption as a source of meaning. This chapter attempts to present a critical examination of the dominant academic, political, cultural and ecological discourses which constitute and contribute to this debate. At the epicentre is a post-modern dilemma about the delusion of choice, the illusion of freedom and the imperative of control - shifting priority from conspicuous consumption to conscientious conscience consumption. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch010

Chapter 11 Predicting Behavioral Intentions Toward Sustainable Fashion Consumption: A Comparison of Attitude-Behavior and Value-Behavior Consistency Models..............................................................225 Srikant Manchiraju, Iowa State University, USA 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch011

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In recent years, sustainable consumption has received considerable attention. In fact, to save the planet Earth and future generations, it has been proposed the issue of sustainable consumption should be addressed. Consequently, in the present chapter, two theoretical models are analyzed separately, as well as in conjunction, to understand sustainable consumption in the context of fashion. Furthermore, the present study’s theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch011

Chapter 12 Consumer Preferences and Key Aspects of Tourism and Hospitality Marketing on Island Destinations................................................................................................................................... 244 Nikolaos Pappa, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch012

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The decision of destination’s selection is almost always accompanied by hotel selection. Hence, it is essential for tourism stakeholders to understand the marketing means’ correlation toward destinations and hotels. In addition the purchasing behavior of consumers in tourism and hospitality needs to be examined in order to give the ability to optimize marketing strategies and promotional campaigns. The

purpose of this chapter is to examine and present the perspectives on the island’s destination and hospitality marketing held by consumers visiting Crete. The study’s contribution is based on the clarification of consumers’ purchase behavior and consumerism patters in tourism with reference to destination and hotel selection. It also gives an understanding for the marketing’s influential importance for tourism purchases. The research was undertaken with departed tourists from Crete. As the research findings revealed, the perspectives of tourists concerning destination and hospitality marketing may vary significantly toward gender, age, education, and income. The research findings also indicate that younger and more educated consumers seem to have better knowledge and higher use of Information Technologies. On the contrary, elder people and those who are less educated are dependant to traditional ways of advertising. Furthermore, income plays a significant role dealing with additional services, better accommodation, and – in general – higher quality of provided products, whilst pricing policy still remains crucial for all tourists, no matter their financial revenues. The chapter also provides suggestions for further destination and hospitality marketing development, and information for the importance of each marketing mean used to lure tourists to visit the destination. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch012

Chapter 13 Consumer Confidence in Responsible Tourism: How Business Reporting Systems can Encourage Respectful Behaviour...........................................................................................................................264 Mara Manente, CISET (International Centre of Studies on the Tourist Economy) - Ca’ Foscari University,, Italy Valeria Minghetti, CISET (International Centre of Studies on the Tourist Economy) - Ca’ Foscari University, Italy Erica Mingotto, CISET (International Centre of Studies on the Tourist Economy) - Ca’ Foscari University, Italy Francesco Casarin, Ca’ Foscari University, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch013

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The chapter focuses on reporting systems which assess responsible tourism and Corporate Social responsibility (CSR) in the tourism industry. These tools have recently received more and more attention from the international academic and professional community, given the urgent need to promote a socially, environmentally and economically sustainable development of tourism. The use of reporting systems can encourage responsible practices by tourism businesses, improving internal processes and activities along the tourism value chain, as well as enhance consumer confidence in respectful companies and in responsible tourism. Through the application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), the chapter develops a critical assessment of the reporting systems currently available in Europe, in order to support the diffusion of responsible policies and practices in the tourism industry and the businesses’ commitment towards clients. Particular attention is paid to small and medium-size tourism enterprises, since they have more difficulties in organising their business according to social and ecological principles and to develop the conditions under which a product can be defined as “responsible”. The analysis underlines that the evaluation of these tools, in terms of their effectiveness and reliability in monitoring business responsibility, depends on the criteria taken into account for the analysis and then on the auditors’ selection of appropriate variables. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch013

Chapter 14 The Psychology of Consumerism in Business and Marketing: The Macro and Micro Behaviors of Hofstede’s Cultural Consumers...........................................................................................................286 Ben Tran, California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University, USA 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch014

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In the past decade or so, various models have emerged concerning the study of culture and marketing in regards to consumerism, of which Geert Hofstede’s dimensional model of national culture has been applied to various areas of global branding and advertising, and the underlying theories of consumer behavior. Hofstede’s model has been used to explain differences regarding the concepts of self, personality and identity, which in turn explain variations in branding strategy and communications. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to address the psychology of consumerism in business and marketing from the macro and micro behaviors of Hofstede’s cultural consumers. The chapter emphasizes Hofstede’s fifth cultural dimension, long-term versus short-term orientation regarding marketing. In so doing, both macro and micro paradigms on the psychology of consumers’ behaviors will be covered in relation to marketing, as well as a brief history of marketing and the marketing field. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch014

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Chapter 15 Consumerism and Innovation: The Starting Points for the Creation of University Spin-Off..............310 Enrico M. Mosconi, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Michela Piccarozzi, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Cecilia Silvestri, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch015

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In the current economic environment companies are progressively required to focus in innovation. In particular, consumerism is one of the major pulses to innovation. Today, consumers are looking for more and more innovative and qualitative products and so companies seek to heavily invest in technological advancements to meet the needs of customers. Even universities try to follow the trend of consumerism and adapt their activities to the market demands: first of all, in the way of teaching and transferring culture, and secondly, using their knowledge to create innovative companies. So, this second mission that allows universities to commercialize research results, has assumed a strategic role and primary importance in government policies, in Europe as well as in the rest of the world. University spin-off (USOs) can be considered one of the most important vehicle to create innovative firms based on scientific and new technological product. The trend of consumerism can be followed with spin-offs. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the link between spin-off planning, especially during the business plan preparation, and consumerism. This area is investigated through a systematic review of the literature about the consumer, consumerism and the spin-off phenomenon. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch015

Chapter 16 Open Innovation through Customers: Collaborative Web-Based Platforms for Ethically and Socially Responsible New Products Part 1........................................................................................................335 Barbara Aquilani, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy Tindara Abbate, University of Messina, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch016

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This chapter aims at analyzing how firms can successfully embrace an Open Innovation (OI) process through customers, involving them, individually or in communities, in the co-creation of ideas, knowledge, products, services, processes, putting into action and integrating their creativity with firms’ resources. Three main areas of interest are analyzed through a literature review process, to create a framework able

to show the challenges organizations have to meet simultaneously externally (i.e. consumerism) and internally (i.e. organizational changes) in this shift of the innovation paradigm: consumerism features and challenges, OI approach and web-based platforms, and organizational issues involved in the OI paradigm shift. This chapter affords consumerism and OI approach, while the next, which is the sequel of this one, discusses OI platforms and organizational changes as well as the resulting framework. Four contributions distinguish this study: (i) the link between consumerism and OI; (ii) the focus on customers as a source of external innovation; (iii) the identification of alternative ways to access OI with customers and their features; (iv) the disclosure of a “hybrid” mode to develop OI through customers. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch016

Chapter 17 Open Innovation through Customers: Collaborative Web-Based Platforms for Ethically and Socially Responsible New Products Part 2........................................................................................................375 Barbara Aquilani, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy Tindara Abbate, University of Messina, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch017

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This chapter aims at analyzing how firms can successfully embrace an Open Innovation (OI) process through customers, involving them individually or in communities, in the co-creation of ideas, knowledge, products, services, processes, putting into action and integrating their creativity with firms’ resources. Three main areas of interest, essential in the authors’ opinion to meet this new challenge, have been analyzed through a literature review process, to create a framework able to show the challenges organizations have to meet externally (i.e., consumerism) and internally (i.e., organizational changes) in this shift of the innovation paradigm: consumerism features and challenges, OI approach and webbased platforms, and organizational issues involved in the OI paradigm shift. The previous chapter has discussed consumerism and OI approach, while this one will afford OI platforms and organizational changes as well as the resulting framework. Four contributions distinguish this study: (i) the link between consumerism and OI; (ii) the focus on customers as a source of external innovation; (iii) the identification of alternative ways to access OI with customers and their features; (iv) the disclosure of a “hybrid” mode to develop OI through customers. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch017

Chapter 18 Crowdsourcing Corporate Sustainability Strategies............................................................................413 Peter Jones, University of Gloucestershire, UK David Hillier, Centre for Police Sciences, University of Glamorgan, UK Daphne Comfort, University of Gloucestershire, UK 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch018

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This chapter provides cameo case studies of the way in which three large companies -- Unilever, Sony and J. Sainsbury -- have employed crowdsourcing exercises to review, refine and develop their corporate sustainability thinking, commitments and strategies. It also offers some wider reflections on this process. The chapter begins with an outline of the origins and basic characteristics of crowdsourcing, followed by a short discussion of the concept and contested meanings of sustainability. The material for the three cameo case studies is drawn from the reports Unilever, Sony and J. Sainsbury posted on the Internet about the crowdsourcing exercises they conducted to review their sustainability plans and strategies during 2010, 2011 and 2012. The findings reveal that the crowdsourcing exercises undertaken by the three companies attracted a wide range of constructive comments and produced a number of recommendations designed to develop new sustainability initiatives and to enhance their existing corporate sustainability strategies. While crowdsourcing offers a number of attractions to companies looking to review and develop sustainability strategies, not least in that it seems to offer a cost effective way of tapping into a number of other corporate organisations and to a potentially large number of consumers, it is not without its problems. The chapter provides an accessible exploratory review of how three major companies are employing crowdsourcing in developing and reviewing their corporate sustainability thinking, commitments and strategies. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch018

Chapter 19 Consumerism, Market Analysis and Impact on Business Plan Definition...........................................425 Alessandro Ruggieri, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Cecilia Silvestri, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy Michela Piccarozzi, ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo, Italy 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch019

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Creating a company is an event of great uncertainty and complexity. Many variables are to be considered and trying to predict the future development of the business is particularly important. A set of market and strategic analysis instruments can help entrepreneurs to define and solve problem in the start-up phase and to understand the potentialities of business. In particular, the analysis of consumerism is a particularly important factor in order to outline the development of demand and consumer behaviour. Therefore, the first instrument is certainly the business plan; it is necessary to explain and show the aspects of the market where firms will work. This chapter analyzes, through a qualitative analysis, the techniques of market analysis useful for drawing up a business plan focused on the consumer and the dynamics of consumerism. The goal is to emphasize the role the evolutionary dynamics of the consumer and his or her preferences play in leading the company planning towards specific market positioning and in determining the business volume. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch019

Chapter 20 Consumer Boycotts as a Consequence of Consumerism.....................................................................458 Dursun Yener, Beykoz Vocational School of Logistics, Turkey 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch020

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Consumerism is not a new concept for marketing, but it has grown in importance in the recent years. Researchers have studied consumerism from within different dimensions. However, its relationship with consumer boycotts has not been dealt with accurately. A consumer boycott is a type of consumer behaviour in which consumers collectively prefer not to use their purchasing power towards a product, brand, or all products of a country. Motivations for participating in boycotts differ in accordance with various factors such as consumers’ beliefs, needs, or attitudes. Being boycotted by consumers may cause economic damage and decreased amount of reputation incurred in return. Organizing a boycott and calling for people’s participation is much easier today than it used to be in the past. The Internet, especially social media, is an effective tool to inform people about boycotts and free of charge. However, that does not mean all the information circulating in the Internet is always of a reliable nature. In this chapter, the case of Danone in Turkey is thoroughly analyzed. Danone has been the target of Turkey’s biggest Internet smear campaign which resulted in 26% shrinkage in its whole category sales. The aim of this chapter is to examine the case of Danone in Turkey as an example of the relationship between consumerism and consumer boycotts. The research for the case of Danone, which has a special importance in Turkey, uses secondary sources such as the daily newspapers, news pages in Internet, and Danone’s web page. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch020

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Chapter 21 The Social Side of Consumerism: Human Need Satisfaction as Antecedents of Economic Need Satisfaction in an Online Environment – Empirical Evidence from the Airport Industry...................473 Marion Tenge, University of Latvia, Latvia & University of Applied Sciences, Austria 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch021

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In the old consumerism paradigm there has been a clear cut distinction between business organizations (producers) and customers (consumers). The advent of Social Software Platforms (SSP), such as online social networks, is destabilizing this duality. SSP provide business organizations with the infrastructure to extend beyond organizational boundaries and establish network ties with their customers with the purpose to include the customer in the value creation process. The chapter reports on the findings of a mixed-methods study. The study describes how major German airports profit economically from online consumerism, i.e. collaborative conversation with passengers, while focusing on the SSP Facebook. The second purpose of the chapter is to model and test the relationship between socio-psychological human need satisfaction of passengers and their engagement level on the corporate Facebook pages of airports. Finally, the chapter offers recommendations for airport managers how to further foster passenger engagement on SSP and embrace online consumerism for economic benefit. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch021

Chapter 22 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House...............................................................500 Bernd Hallier, European Retail Academy, Germany 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch022

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This chapter is intended as “food for thought” for a holistic perspective on Food Waste Management, linking inductive research of an EU-project with the scope of an interdisciplinary vision combining aspects of macro-economics, ecology and ethics. The academic contribution is to demonstrate the broad variety of choices for decision-makers in different geographical and ethnic regions in a joint international effort to optimize the availability of harvested food through all the global/national food chains to the consumers; this includes those consumers who are for various reasons not able to pay the market-price at all. The original terminus “distribution” taken from the business administration literature is enlarged in this chapter by categories such as “food-recovery” and Food banks/charities. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch022

Chapter 23 Consumption, Anti-Consumption and Consumption Communities: The Football Clubs and its Fans..........................................................................................................................................510 Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Portugal Ana Regina Pires, University of Aveiro, Portugal Ricardo Cayolla, University of Aveiro, Portugal 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch023

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Broadly, consumerism can be considered as a set of beliefs and values integrated into, but not exclusive to, the global market system, intended to make people believe that happiness is best achieved through possessions. In literature there are several other definitions of consumerism, consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to (i) present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic, based on a systematic literature review and using the following databases to search information: Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI web knowledge; (ii) formulate a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (iii) discuss consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. The current study also carried out semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans with an average duration

of 60 minutes each. Findings revealed four main types of anti-consumption: Global impact consumers or anti-consumption society; Selective consumption or anti-loyalists market activists; Conservative or Simplifiers; and Rejection of brand hegemony. Football fans are avid consumers of many products, such as information, knowledge, travels, tickets to matches, and diverse merchandizing from brands that sponsor the team and the club. Nevertheless, they are also selective consumers, rejecting everything connected to the rival clubs. Finally, the chapter provides insights for further research and managerial implications. In this vein, this chapter contributes to the existing literature giving insights for a better understanding of football clubs and fans as consumers and anti-consumers. 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch023

Compilation of References . .............................................................................................................. 537 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chcrf

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 627 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chatc

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 636 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.chidx

xxi

Foreword

Witnessing an intensifying academic debate, I perceive the time to be ripe for a heightened reflection on current Marketing practices and a reconsideration of the conceptual underpinnings of the Marketing discipline. It appears that there is the emergence of a new paradigm which identifies and applies itself towards socially responsible, caring and curative properties. This consumerism centered book is a valuable stepping stone on this still quite unchartered journey.   Mapping the evolution of the concept and highlighting possible areas for future research, the chapters of this book bridge the often existing divides between pure and applied science and between different scientific disciplines. Importantly, the book contributes to the development of the concept of consumerism with innovative topics, such as cyber ethics, sustainability reporting of UK data banks, conceptualization of consumer-firm/brand relationships, the interdisciplinary nexus between consumerism and identity, current reflections of consumerism topics in marketing education, as well as consumerism as an indispensable source for innovation. Other interesting topics relate to green marketing strategies, the country specific consumer profile of Latvian consumers, the critical phenomenon of consumer boycotts and case studies on currently much debated industries (airports, food supply chain, and football). I commend this book as a very useful reference for a diverse audience including educators, researchers, practitioners, research students and, last but not least, consumers. It gives you a glimpse of the future which may well have a major impact on your long term success. Michael R. Czinkota Georgetown University, USA

Michael Czinkota teaches international business and trade in the Graduate School of Business at Georgetown University, where he also served as the chairman of the National Center for Export-Import Studies.  He also holds an appointment as chair of international marketing of the Birmingham Business School in the U.K. Fluent in Spanish and German, he has held professorial appointments in Asia, Australia , Europe, and the Americas.  Dr. Czinkota serves on the Global Advisory Board of the American Marketing Association, the Global Council of the American Management Association, and on the Board of Governors of the Academy of Marketing Science. He is a member of the American Council on Germany.  For his work in international business and trade policy, he has been awarded honorary degrees from the Universidad del Pacifico in Peru and the Universidad Pontificia Madre y Maestra in the Dominican Republic.  He was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Academy of Marketing Science and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts in the United Kingdom. Prof Czinkota also served as Assistant Secretary of Commerce in the Reagan Administration.

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Preface In this present turbulent and dizzily changing global business arena and marketing practice, there is a growing concern for ethics and social responsibility issues. Within this thematic campus “consumerism” is considered as the most salient concept. If we look back into the history of consumerism, it can be observed that the concept was gradually evolving from the social welfare bill initiated by the late US President John F. Kennedy which is popularly known as the “Consumer Bills of Rights”. This social welfare bill has given rise to the consumerist activism/movement and was further enhanced by Ralph Nader in his book “Unsafe at any speed” (Unsafe at any speed, n. d.). In this wave, this movement has been gradually transferred into an academic concept in business and marketing named “Consumerism”, and the marketing philosophy increasingly embraces the societal marketing concept. Consequently, the modern era of marketing reflects customer centricity and consumer welfare. Though, initially considered as a fad it has become increasingly important to use this concept especially in corporate/business promotional campaigns to build trust and confidence among the organization’s clients/consumers and stakeholders to guarantee a long term, enduring and loyal relationship. From observing the growth of the body of literature, numerous studies are found from a standalone perspective. These studies so far developed in a scattered manner focus on individual topical perspectives. However, despite its growing importance it is difficult to find a comprehensive research reference book on consumerism covering all the major issues that will serve as an urgently required firsthand knowledge to marketing academics, students and practitioners. Conclusively, this book intends to cover this gap and portray a more complete picture of the concept. Catering for the ongoing globalization process, this mainly research based book has a strong international orientation representing about 37 chapter authors from around 11 different countries like Austria, Bangladesh, Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Turkey, USA and UK. Summarizing, the contributions in this book provide a useful body of literature on Consumerism drawing a kind of literature map on the evolution, diverse perspectives of the concept and on Consumerism related multidisciplinary concepts. Certain detrimental and phenomena of Consumerism, such as extensive materialism reflected in compulsive buying, anti-consumptions attitudes mirrored by social movements or consumer boycotts or cyber crimes are addressed in this book and call for regulatory answers and improved consumer protection and mental well being. On the other hand, the book provides a number of contributions regarding Consumerism as a strategic cornerstone and motor of corporate performance, growth and innovation. Regarding the latter, innovation is considered as a source of competitive advantage for any organization. For this reason, this book commits a separate section on consumerism as a source for innovation and product development which contains interesting and innovative studies on consumerism ranging from the perspectives of the role of the university for the creation of such innovation, the role of open innovation in web-based platform particularly for ethically and socially responsible new products. The concepts available to explain, cure and utilize those phenomena draw from a multidisciplinary knowledge pool provided by this book: customer relationships, branding, green marketing, corporate social responsibility, ethics and, innovatively, cyber ethics, sustainability (economics), socio-psychological

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consumer motivation, identity and culture, viable systems perspective, institutional and neo-institutional theories as well as structuration theories. Furthermore, one contribution reviewed the previous foci of marketing education in this research field and projects a future scenario. In addition, a number of possible future research agendas and practical implications are outlined. In addition, the book illuminates the different dimensions of Consumerism in a variety of contexts: various industries, such as airline, tourism, food sector, fashion and the popular but still under researched football sector; established and transitional economic settings. The book concisely summarizes up to date knowledge based on secondary and primary data on these concepts and dimensions epitomizing the increasing importance of consequent customer orientation and consumer welfare to develop sustainable competitive advantage. The reader becomes familiarized with the specific factors of this concept from both an academic (in terms of pure conceptual and empirical perspectives) as well as a practical standpoint.

Target Audience The book can be seen as a nexus between research and practice with a strong international orientation. As a result, the book is expected to serve as a high level reference to the University library, researchers and research students. Since the topic of the book covers the most important consumerism dimensions, it will also help to prepare an upper-level course supplement in the marketing discipline like consumer behavior, marketing management, strategic marketing or international/global marketing. Finally, the book reveals these consumerism concepts from a managerial/application standpoint and, thus, it will be a useful resource and reference to the marketing practitioners, for example, in the area of Customer Care, Consumer Advisory Cell, Customer Complaints, Innovation, Strategic Marketing and Marketing Communications.

Objectives/Purpose of this Book This book contains innovative contributions on consumerism dimensions from both an academic point of view as well as practical/application perspective. Hence, it will serve as a comprehensive guide and reference to both academics and practitioners since it will broaden their understanding of the role of these different cutting edge consumerism concepts and studies as learning tools for the academics, marketing students and marketing practitioners. The book contains 23 chapters critically engaging the reader with mainstream consumerism concepts under 5 different sections. The structure of the book has been designed to achieve the overall objectives of the book as to provide deeper conceptual understanding of Consumerism as well as revealing different conceptual/ theoretical frameworks, its critical success factors along with, partially, extensive empirical studies on both, micro and macro issues.

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Rationale of the Sequence of the Chapters within the Different Sections Section 1, ‘Conceptual Evolution and Philosophical Underpinnings,’ begins with a contribution by Ioanna Papasolomou (Chapter 1) representing a fundamental chapter and orientation for the reader by discussing dimensions associated to consumerism and defining the term. The overarching aim of the contribution is to provide an insight into the evolution and growth of consumerism. The discussion focuses on exploring the relationship between marketing and consumerism by shedding light onto compulsive buying, consumer attitudes and concerns on micro consumerism issues, sustainable consumption, sustainable marketing and CSR. It raises concerns related to the impact of the global economic crisis on consumerism by using Cyprus as a setting based on the author’s observations and experience and outlines implications for practitioners and the future research agenda. Crystallizing the central importance of CSR for Consumerism, the next chapter 2 by Pinelopi Athanasopoulou is a comprehensive conceptual analysis of dimensions of this currently particular popular concept. The author provides a deep conceptual insight into CSR in terms of definitions and analytical models as well as its relation to consumerism, antecedents, consequences and socially responsible business and marketing performances and communication. Suggestions to further develop the research stream are provided. The third chapter of this section, by George S. Spais, presents the results of a comprehensive empirical study on the development of consumerism in marketing education. The author examines the coverage of the consumerism theme in marketing courses in the last decade and projects the shape of these set of courses into the future by having conducted an extensive review of 141 online course descriptions in 88 universities and colleges. The data were analyzed using High Content Analysis, single linkage clustering, multiple linear regression analyses and trend analysis. As a result, the terms “Marketing”, “business”, “ethics” and “social responsibility” were covered by all courses’ descriptions. The results were interpreted based on the assumptions of Mezirow’s critical reflection and provide useful recommendations for marketing educators. The last chapter (Chapter 4) of Section 1, by Georgia Sakka and Iliada Spyrou, intensively discusses the relation between consumerism and cyber ethics. The main purpose of Sakka’s and Spyrou’s contribution is to illustrate how confrontation and prevention tools, including security education and research, are instrumental to sustainably overcoming consumerism and social cybercrime. The authors analyse the role of cyber ethics and other related issues such as electronic commerce (e-commerce), and customers’ protection, privacy, anonymity, psychological and mental well-being. It juxtapositions consumerism cybercrimes, such as consumer fraud, online deceptive advertisements, financial fraud and social cybercrimes such as pornography, racism, xenophobia, bullying, sexting, cyber hate and cyber staking. In addition, it emphasizes new cyber crimes that are related to the recently developed social networks. The chapter correlates a literature review with existing practices of the Cyprus Safer Internet Center operating in Cyprus- CyberEthics. Section 2, ‘Macro and Interdisciplinary Issues on Consumerism,’ starts with a conceptual chapter on green marketing strategy by A F Wazir Ahmad and Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni (Chapter 5). The authors synthesize major dimensions of the green marketing strategy ranging from its evolution, consumer perceptions on the green marketing mix, the necessary synchronization of the green marketing strategy with consumer behavior perspectives to identifying the critical success factors of green marketing strategies and its impact on organizational performance.

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Closely interlinked with the latter, the next contribution by Elif Yolbulan Okan and Neva Yalman (Chapter 6) centers on the anatomy of green marketing. The authors related to the perspective that environmental improvement and competitiveness is the new paradigm for the world economy. Based on a case approach from Turkey, Okan and Yalman discuss in detail conceptual constructs of green marketing and its different criticisms as well as provide factors for effectiveness of green marketing strategies such as green consumer segmentation and green marketing communication. The next chapter by Peter Jones, Robin Bown, David Hillier & Daphne Comfort (Chapter 7) embraces a specific macro consumerism issue namely sustainability with its contested meanings. Reviewing the origins and development of data centers within the UK, Jones et al. refer to data centers as the unseen engines that power much of consumption. The authors provide a review of the sustainability agendas and achievements being publicly reported by some of the leading data centre operators within the UK and critically reflect on the sustainability of data centers. The next chapter by Skaidrite Dzene, Aija Eglite and Gunta Grinberga-Zalite (Chapter 8) furnishes sustainable food consumption issues from the context of Latvian consumer behavior. The authors present aggregated scientific literature on various aspects of consumption emphasising sustainable consumption issues. The objective of the chapter is to characterize the factors affecting consumer behaviour in food consumption and identify the profiles of sustainable and unsustainable consumers in Latvia. The authors have conducted an analysis of business cycle effects on consumption as well as effects of state support to promote sustainable food consumption. Indications for a new consumer/corporate/brand relationship paradigm are given by Gianpaolo Basile in the last chapter in this section (Chapter 9). He provides an exploratory conceptual underpinning to the readers in terms of the evolutionary preconditions and philosophical thoughts of fundamental consumerism related perspectives. The author proposes a variety of conceptual frameworks, based on an interdisciplinary relationship between the Viable Systems Perspective, Institutional and neo-Institutional Theory and Structuration Theory and the Consumer Behaviour Theory. Due to the increasing salient importance of the identity concept for explaining consumer behavior, Section 3 is dedicated to ‘Implications of Identity on Marketing and Branding from Consumerist Perspectives’. The stage-setting conceptual Chapter 10 by Terry Smith illuminates the concepts of identity and branding from a consumerist perspective. The author explains in detail the constructs of identity and branding from the perspective of consumerism and social responsibility. In fact, this chapter attempts to present a critical examination of the dominant academic, political, cultural and ecological discourses which constitute and contribute to consumption and consumerism issues and their debates. Next, Chapter 11 by Srikant Manchiraju is an empirical study focusing on a specific sustainability agenda in terms of sustainable fashion consumption from a consumer behavioral perspective. The present study has important theoretical implications with regard to the differentiated predicting capacity of attitude-behavior, value-behavior, or augmented attitude and value behavior consistency models. Managerial implications refer, for example, to segmentation and value based advertising and marketing campaigns. After the discussion of basic conceptual constructs the next two Chapters 12 and 13 by Nikolaos Pappas and Mara Manente, Valeria Minghetti, Erica Mingotto and Francesco Casarin reported the results of extensive empirical studies on how to successfully apply identity related aspects for island destinations and responsible tourism. Pappa’s contribution portrays how consumer preferences ultimately lead to favorable images in destination branding among the European Consumers. Manente’s, Minghetti’s,

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Mingotto’s and Casarin’s work focuses on the recent trend of ethical and responsible tourism. This chapter has been developed based on the notion that tourists are often suspicious towards companies who exhibit opaque and unknown certifications affecting perceptions of trust. Thus, this chapter proposes to creating a system to identify and recognize the best programs currently employed for reporting on and certifying travel and company responsibility which is suggested to especially applicable for SMEs. From a culture theory perspective, the next chapter by Ben Tran (Chapter 14) relates to macro and micro behaviors of Hofstede’s cultural consumers. Tran specifically uses Hofstede’s model to explain differences of the concepts of self, personality and identity, which in turn explain variations in branding strategy and communications under the domain of the consumerism concept. The first chapter of section 4 ‘Consumerism as a source for Innovation and Corporate Strategies’by Enrico M. Mosconi, Michela Piccarozzi, and Cecilia Silvestri (Chapter 15) concentrates on a very specific perspective of innovation elaborating on an innovative approach regarding a University Spin-off start-up in an Italian setting. The main purpose of this paper is to highlight the link between spin-off planning, especially during the business plan preparation, and consumerism. As consumerism has become an integral element in innovation, the authors argue that universities attempt to follow the trend of consumerism and tailor their activities to the market demands: first of all, in teaching and in the mode of transfer of culture, and secondly, in the use of their knowledge as to the creation of innovative companies. The next contributions (Chapters 16 and 17) by Barbara Aquilani and Tindara Abbate delineate the increasingly popular concept of open innovation (OI) by utilizing creative resources of customers. These chapters pay attention to open innovation platforms built and managed by firms to develop ethically and socially responsible new products. Derived from a literature review a framework was created to show the challenges organizations have to meet simultaneously when fine tuning external (i.e. consumerism) and internal (i.e. organizational) changes triggered by the shift of the innovation paradigm. Due to a very broad focus the first part of this sequel (Chapter 16) concentrates consumerism and OI approach, while the second one (Chapter 17) discusses OI platforms and organizational changes resulting in a conceptual framework. Concluding, four contributions distinguish this study: (i) the link between consumerism and OI; (ii) the focus on customers as a source of external innovation; (iii) the identification of alternative ways to access OI with customers and their features; (iv) the disclosure of a “hybrid” mode to develop OI through customers. The next chapter (Chapter 18) by Peter Jones, David Hillier & Daphne Comfort focuses on corporate sustainability strategies using crowd sourcing. The authors garnish these particular strategies by the demonstration of three cameo case studies, thus, further enhancing understanding on sustainability. The material for the three cameo case studies is drawn from the reports Unilever, Sony and J. Sainsbury posted on the Internet about the crowd sourcing exercises they conducted to review their sustainability plans and strategies during 2010, 2011 and 2012. The findings reveal that the crowd sourcing exercises undertaken by the three companies attracted a wide range of constructive comments and produced a number of recommendations designed to develop new sustainability initiatives and to enhance their existing corporate sustainability strategies. The next chapter of the section (Chapter 19) by Alessandro Ruggieri, Cecilia Silvestri & Michela Piccarozzi discusses the impact of consumerism on market analysis and business plan definition. The authors suggest a processual model based on market analysis to support promoters in the start-up phase of a business, to simplify the analysis of the level of profitability of the initiative and, in particular, to

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manage the complex phenomena in the context of consumerism. This work has analyzed, through a qualitative study, the techniques of market analysis useful for drawing up a business plan which focuses on the consumer and the dynamics of consumerism. The goal is to emphasize the role the evolutionary dynamics of the consumer and his preferences play for the company’s planning towards market positioning and determining the business volume. The next chapter of this section (Chapter 20) by Dursun Yener is a conceptual chapter on consumer boycotts and social movements. The author sheds light on the perspective of consumer boycotts as a possible threatening outcome of consumerism calling for preventive strategies. After having highlighted the basic types and forms of consumerist relationships between firm and customer, the author demonstrates a very specific mode of expression of consumerist activism and illustrates possibly detrimental effects of social media in terms of ‘shitstorming’ that may cause consumer boycotts. The first chapter of section 5 ‘Consumerism Cases in Selected Industries’(Chapter 21) represents an extensive empirical study by Marion Tenge on the social dimension of consumerism in an online environment against the setting of the airport industry. The chapter reports on the findings of a mixed-methods study which describes how major German airports profit from online consumerism, i.e. collaborative conversation with passengers, while focusing on the SSP Facebook. The second purpose of the chapter is to model and test the relationship between socio-psychological human need satisfaction of passengers and their engagement level on the corporate Facebook pages of airports. The next chapter (Chapter 22) by Bernd Hallier elaborates on both, a pragmatic approach and an interdisciplinary holistic challenge. Based on the initial findings resulting from an EU supported project the author calls for the necessity to direct the individual maximum demands on economy, ecology and ethics towards an optimal equilibrium of a holistic global ‘house’. The chapter interlinks economics, ecology and ethics and shows how a concrete pragmatic project in an ecological/environmental context is going to contribute to this objective. Basically, the chapter could be considered as a catalyst for the classroom learning, strategic lessons for the practitioners as well as for the government. The last chapter (Chapter 23) by Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro, Ana Regina Pires & Ricardo Cayolla investigates consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities regarding the increasingly global social phenomenon of the relationship between football clubs and their fans. The purpose of this chapter is to explore these phenomena within the context of consumerism in the football (soccer) consumption field which currently has not yet been addressed in the body of knowledge. In addition, the contribution provides useful suggestions for further research and managerial implications. The value of the Book can be summarized as follows: 1. Detailed conceptual and philosophical underpinnings of consumerism concepts. 2. An extensive review of conceptual and empirical studies in this area from new, dynamic innovative and international contexts and perspectives. These clarified their role, interrelationship, characteristics, and critical success factors to the readers and future researchers of the discipline. 3. A number of innovative insights on the emerging and new dimensions of this concept like implications of identity on marketing and branding from consumerist perspectives, consumerism in the cyber world (online consumerism) and cyber ethics or consumerism as a source for innovation and product development. 4. An extensive review of different multi disciplinary frameworks, models and constructs.

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5. A detailed empirical analysis of the concept in terms of some new innovative dimensions like evolution of consumerism concepts in the marketing education, predicting behavioral intentions towards sustainable fashion consumption, innovative empirical evidences from the perspectives of identity and branding particularly from the hospitality marketing and tourism sectors, social dimension of consumerism in an online environment from an airport industry, consumerism and consumption issues for the football fans and their clubs. 6. Interesting insights from some cases on cyber ethics, consumer boycotts and sustainable food consumption. 7. Recommendations to guide practitioners to successfully implement the concept in practice. 8. Overall, a synthesis of ground-breaking consumerism concepts and their dimensions that will serve as a holistic reference to academics and practitioners.

REFERENCES Unsafe at any speed. (n. d.). Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsafe_at_Any_Speed

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Acknowledgment

This edited book could not have been accomplished without a collective effort. Therefore, we would like to gratefully acknowledge the selfless support of people who extended their hands to help us to make this project successful. First of all, we sincerely thank the chapter authors for their valuable contributions to this endeavor and their disciplined cooperation. In addition, many thanks go to the Editorial Advisory Board members, Pirjo Laaksonen, Barry Davies, Len Tiu Wright, Carmen Santos, Alkis Thrassou, Demetris Vrontis, Samuel Rabino and Natarjan Chandrasekhar for their precious academic advice in selecting and reviewing the chapters in the manuscript and providing constructive comments. Furthermore, we would like to express our gratitude to all the subject experts for volunteering in the chapter review process. We would like to acknowledge the friendly and supportive role of the editorial staff of IGI Global, especially Allyson Gard, for her relentless help and support at different stages of the manuscript development starting from the book proposal acquisition to the final manuscript development. Last, but not least, we are very grateful to all our family members for their continuous encouragement and inspiration to make this project a success.

Section 1

Conceptual Evolution and Philosophical Underpinnings

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Chapter 1

Consumerism:

Some Fundamental Insights Ioanna Papasolomou University of Nicosia, Cyprus

ABSTRACT This chapter reveals that the term ‘consumerism’ encompasses a number of meanings which create confusion regarding the term. The discussion that follows, attempts to distinguish the different perspectives regarding the term by presenting its historical development and discussing the three definitions that have marked it. It explores the relationship between consumerism, marketing and corporate social responsibility (CSR). The growth of consumerism has led to the over-use of marketing which provided a flourishing ground for compulsive buying and consumption. There is evidence in the literature to suggest that in an era of increasing social problems and environmental challenges, there is a need for CSR and sustainable marketing. In fact, the second definition of consumerism is inextricably linked with CSR and societal marketing. The chapter is conceptual in nature and provides an in-depth review and discussion of some fundamental dimensions associated to consumerism based on the existent literature. The overarching aim is to provide an insight into the evolution and growth of consumerism based on the existent literature related to the topic. The discussion also focuses on exploring the relationship between marketing and consumerism shedding light onto compulsive buying, consumer attitudes and concerns on the micro consumerism issues, sustainable consumption and sustainable marketing. The chapter proceeds to raise some concerns related to the impact of the global economic crisis on consumerism by using as an example Cyprus based on the author’s observations and thoughts. The chapter concludes with a list of suggestions to practitioners and directions for future research.

INTRODUCTION The consumer movement has evolved into a powerful force in many developed countries. Organizations in these countries are under constant pressure to demonstrate social responsibility in addressing the needs of the society. The term consumerism is linked to the behavior of organizations and the

expectations of the society. Corporations should identify and define their purpose and objectives in a way that align with the expectations of society. If customers lack trust in businesses because they are not meeting customers’ and society’s expectations then they perceived unnecessary and unproductive. In other words corporate social responsibility is a prerequisite for business success.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch001

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Undoubtedly the consumers of the 21st century is becoming more caring and socially aware, moving towards a more responsible and responsive attitude to issues which do not directly concern them such as Third World exploitation. The cover stories and articles publish in the mass media and world-wide Web suggest that there is increased consumer and general public concern about health, animal welfare, environmental protection, and ethical trading. It seems that an increasing number of consumers move away from leading a life of excessive consumption and materialism towards more enduring values such as respect, compassion, and empathy. At the same time, the business sector has become more responsive to consumerism. This is manifested in the wide acceptance and practice of societal and sustainable marketing across the business sector. The increasing acceptance of consumerism by managers and corporations is founded on its positive role on society and the economy. Consumerism has the potential to play a constructive role in building a sustainable business environment by emphasizing for example consumer awareness, fair trading, codes of conduct and ethical business practices. It encourages managers to think beyond the narrow boundaries of generating short-term sales and profits. It motivates them to adopt a sustainable approach to production which is not at the expense of the standard of living of future generations. An underlying factor of such provision includes fair trading, providing for the needs of the least advantaged in society, and adopting a people-orientated marketing approach. As it has already been said the chapter’s overarching aim is to provide an insight into the evolution and development of consumerism with an emphasis on exploring the relationship between consumerism and marketing. The key objectives of the chapter are to primarily provide an analysis and secondly to link a set of fundamental dimensions that link consumerism with marketing such as compulsive buying, consumer attitudes towards consumerism, sustainable consumption

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and sustainable marketing as well as provide some reflective thoughts on the impact of the global economic crisis on consumerism.

EVOLUTION AND FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS OF CONSUMERISM “Consumerism” can be defined as a social and economic trend that stimulates the purchase of goods and services in ever-greater amounts. Early criticisms of consumerism are present in the works of Thorstein Veblen (1899). Veblen studied the newly emergent middle class emerging at the turn of the twentieth century and wrote a detailed social critique of conspicuous consumption. According to Veblen the upper social class at the time engaged in practices of conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure (Veblen1899). Consumerism is usually considered as a part of the media culture (Thoman, 1992; Jansson, 2002) that emerged and developed in the 20th century under the influence of mass media. The mass media, TV, the press, radio and cinema shaped public opinion as well as consumers’ values, tastes and preferences. “Consumerism” has also been used to refer to something quite different called the consumerists movement, consumer protection or consumer activism, which seeks to protect and inform consumers by requiring such practices as honest packaging and advertising, product guarantees, and improved safety standards. In this sense it is a movement or a set of policies aimed at regulating the products, services, methods, and standards of manufacturers, sellers, and advertisers in the interests of the buyer. The word ‘consumerism’ has acquired several meanings over time that add to confusion and disagreement regarding the term since many of them are not related to each other and conflict with each other. The literature reviewed revealed that consumerism can be defined in different ways based on different perspectives. Three definitions have marked the term and these are: (1) the first definition of consumerism refers to manipulative

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business activities to entice consumers to buy products, (2) the second definition refers to consumer groups and government actions to protect consumers’ rights, and (3) the third definition refers to consumption as a way of life or ideology (Yani-de-Soriano & Slater, 2009). 1. The First Definition – The “Manipulative Perspective”: Day and Aaker (1997, p. 44) refer to the early definition of the term given by Vance Packard that states that consumerism is related to strategies and techniques that aim at encouraging consumers to consume more hence, expanding their needs and desires. According to this view, consumerism is associated with the overuse of promotion, aggressive selling and advertising. Packard (1957) raised concern in relation to the overuse of advertising highlighting the risk of manipulating customers into overconsuming. The evolution of marketing was marked by a phase whereby marketers were mostly concerned with stock levels aiming at selling as many products as possible through an overemphasis on aggressive selling and promotion. This philosophy was labeled ‘selling orientation’ by Kotler et al. (2008) and it was a philosophy that created fertile ground for consumerism as the marketers’ focus shifted to aggressive selling rather than meeting customers’ needs and expectations. This orientation caused intense criticism for exploitation and manipulation targeted at marketers with detrimental consequences for customers and the society. 2. The Second Definition – Consumers’ Movement in the USA: In an effort to counteract manipulative techniques and aggressive marketing, public authorities enacted legislation for the protection of consumers’ rights. At the same time consumers joined efforts and formed associations to protect themselves hence, providing the foundation for the second definition of consumerism.

This definition is founded on reactions portrayed by the society to the type of marketing used in the first definition. According to this perspective “consumerism is defined as a “social movement seeking to augment the rights and powers of buyers in relation to sellers (Kotler, 1972, p. 49). Later on, Kotler (2000, p. 152) redefined consumerism as follows: “an organized movement of citizens and government to strengthen the rights and powers of buyers in relation to sellers.” Mclllhenny (1990) describes consumerism as a citizens’ movement with demands on suppliers of goods and services with social, ecological and political implications. The consumer movement emerged in the USA with President Kennedy’s 1962 call for a “Bill of Consumer Rights and with the appointment in 1964 of a special assistant to the president of Consumer Affairs (Lampman, 1988). According to the second perspective of consumerism marketing emphasizes the consumers’ short-term needs which can be detrimental for the consumers’ long-term wellbeing. This view is shared by another social movement, environmentalism, which is defined as: “an organized movement of concerned citizens and government agencies to protect and improve people’s living environment (Kotler et al., 2005, p. 184). The second definition of consumerism highlights the need for the efficient satisfaction of consumers’ needs and wants. This perspective gave ‘birth’ to the “societal marketing concept” that is founded on a concern for the consumers’ and society’s wellbeing (Kotler & Keller, 2006, p. 22). 3. The Third Definition – The Consumer Culture: According to Yani-de-Soriano and Slater (2009) the third definition of consumerism refers to consumption as a means for happiness and wellbeing. Murphy (2000, p. 636) defines consumerism as: “the doctrine that the self cannot be complete

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without a wealth of consumer goods and that goals can be achieved and problems solved through proper consumption.” From an economic perspective the consumer culture is a reflection of the emphasis of economies from exchange or production to consumption. From a social perspective, the notion of a consumer culture is founded on the notion of acquiring products as a form of communicating the owner’s wealth and using them as “status symbols.” Consumers use these products as a form of signaling to others their social standing and power. Slater (1997, p. 31) posits that “it is partially through the use of goods and services that we formulate ourselves as social identities and display these identities.” In essence, this third definition of consumerism is equating personal happiness with material consumption. The discussion in relation to the first definition on consumerism suggested that the over-emphasis on customers’ needs, wants and desires has provided the foundation for consumerism “consumption as a means of happiness and wellbeing” with detrimental consequences for consumers and society (Abela, 2006; Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002). Since the idea of identifying and satisfying customers’ needs and wants is at the heart of the marketing discipline one can argue that the term ‘consumerism’ is inextricably linked to marketing.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MARKETING AND CONSUMERISM Marketing tends to be the most visible of all managerial functions and as such it tends to reflect in the eyes of marketers the ethical and moral values of the organization. Consumerists claim that excessive marketing in terms of product differentiation and segmentation in mass consumption societies has caused anxiety among consumers (Straver, 1977). 4

The rise of consumerism and the increase in the quantity and sophistication of marketing efforts have grown in parallel. Stearns (2001) provides evidence that supports the argument that the growth of marketing efforts has supported the emergence of a consumer culture. Examples include the use of consumer credit and publicity by retailers to attract the attention of consumers, the development of more complex retail channels such as department stores and catalogue distributors and the creation of more sophisticated advertising based on the use of visuals, colors and emotional appeals. Consumer researchers have suggested the existence of a causal relationship between advertising and materialism (Zinkhan, 1994; Zinkhan & Prenshaw, 1994; Pollay, 1986; Belk & Pollay, 1985) and a number of studies have drawn a link between watching television and TV advertising with higher levels of materialism especially among children (Kinsey, 1987). Despite these evidence causality has not been demonstrated and the causal direction may in fact be in the opposite direction since higher levels of materialism might stimulate more TV watching rather than the reverse (Roedder, 1999; Ahuvia & Wong, 2002; Sirgy et al., 1998). Even though there is a tendency to exhibit materialistic behavior quite often and hence, this maybe inextricably linked to our human nature, it must not be ignored that there is ample evidence that supports that consumerism grew in parallel to the growth of modern marketing and might have even contributed to the growth of compulsive buying.

Compulsive Buying In a study carried out by Roberts and Mabolis (2000) that focused on consumers’ tendency towards compulsive buying it was found that baby busters (those born between 1965-1976), compared with baby boomers (those born between 1946-1964) are more favorably predisposed toward marketing and advertising. Baby busters are more favorably predisposed towards material possessions and shopping. Baby busters were

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the first generation to be exposed to malls from their early years. Dunn (1993) suggests that this generation’s aspirations are to make money and buy products. Bartlett (1997) further claims that baby busters were the first generation to have access to cable stations during their early years. Average television viewing grew from five hours and six minutes per day in 1960 to seven hours and four minutes in 1992. In addition to TV, the Internet and an increased exposure to marketing messages created a very consumer-oriented and consumer-savvy generation. Spires (1992) claimed that baby busters are very materialistic and often desire to indulge their materialistic values. This finding has implications for marketing academics and practitioners. The baby buster generation’s preoccupation with money and shopping in combination with their high exposure to advertising have influenced their attitudes towards marketing, advertising and promotions in general. “Compulsive buying” has been described as “chronic, repetitive purchasing that becomes a primary response to negative events or feelings” (O’Guinn & Faber 1989, p. 155). There is research evidence to suggest that 1%-6% of adult consumers are compulsive buyers. In a more recent study carried out by Roberts and Manolis (2000) this percentage was even higher: 7% of baby boomers and 11% of baby busters were classified as compulsive buyers. The degree of compulsive buying has important implications for public policy and research. Roberts (1998) claims that high rates of compulsive buying among consumers can potentially have a negative impact on economic as well as natural environments. The impact of compulsive buying on the economy can take the form of increased incidents of personal bankruptcy and credit abuse (Lamiell, 1996). Compulsive buying has potentially severe consequences for the individual affected, others around him/her and society at large. In 1996, personal bankruptcies reached 1 million whereas charge-offs of credit card debt rose to 4.4% in 1996, compared to 1.9% in 1983 (Lamiell, 1996).

Schmookler (1991) postulates that the impact of compulsive buying has a direct negative impact on the natural environment since it results in an increased usage of the earth’s natural resources: “the materialistic appetite of Western civilization serves as the engine of our environmental destructiveness. It is therefore important to understand why it is that, having so much, we are still fast devouring the earth in our hunger for more.” Similarly, Droge and Mackoy (1995) claimed that the culture of consumption discourages the creation of a culture where the focus is on environmental concerns. Corporations need to realize that consumerism harms the consumers’ wellbeing and has a detrimental impact on consumers and society (Abele, 2006; Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002). They have a responsibility towards the society to adopt strategies and instill mechanisms that protect and enhance the well-being of consumers, the society, and provide quality life for future generations. The existent literature on consumerism revealed that there is some limited empirical data on consumer attitudes and concerns on issues associated to consumerism.

Consumer Attitudes/Concerns on the Micro Consumerism Issues The concept of consumerism has been explored by several academics (Bloom & Greyser, 1981; Bloom & Smith, 1986; Greyser & Diamond, 1974; Greyser, 1977). Over the last decade, a number of studies attempted to investigate the consumer attitudes towards marketing and consumerism issues (Keown, 1982; Dubinsky & Hensel, 1984) which in a way they signal the relationship between marketing and consumerism through the eyes of consumers. The majority of these studies were carried out in different national settings. Barksdale and Darden (1972) showed that 70% of respondents in the USA believed that most manufacturers were not satisfactorily handling complaints associated with the quality of

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products, reliability and safety. It was widely shared that firms were promoting products that were potentially dangerous for people’s health and life. Studies that were carried out in Venezuela and Norway (Arndt et al., 1980), England (French et al., 1982) and in other countries (Barksdale et al., 1982) revealed common problems associated with high prices, lack of product quality, lack of adequate repair and maintenance services, deceptive advertising and ineffective handling of complaints. Wee and Chan (1989) identified that consumers in Hong Kong tend to have more favorable attitudes towards marketing than those in the USA mainly due to better marketing practices in Hong Kong. Studies carried out by Anon (2003); Bhushan (2003); Brunk (1973); Koslow (2000); and Lisa (2004) support that the majority of consumers share the perception that corporations do not practice business ethics and they are not socially responsible. Darley and Johnson (1993) studied marketing and consumerism issues in multiple countries: Singapore, India, Nigeria and Kenya. They found differences among the countries but some degree of disagreement was identified as well. In a study carried out by Uray and Menguc (1996) it was evident that consumers also had negative perceptions towards the consumerism practices. Varadarajan et al. (1990) showed that consumers were dissatisfied with marketing practices and desired greater government regulation. In general, consumers’ degree of awareness towards consumerism issues varies significantly across demographic profiles especially in terms of age, gender, education qualification and income level. This finding was corroborated by Panni (2006) who found that consumers’ concerns towards the consumerism issues significantly vary across demographic profiles. Bhuian et al. (2001) revealed that young adults with a business education background in Saudi Arabia had more favorable perceptions towards marketing and consumerism than those with a non-business background. Evidence generated by empirical studies (for example Berkowitz & Lutter-

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man, 1968; Bourgeois & Barnes, 1979; Anderson & Cunningham 1972) found that the individuals who are most likely to express consumerist views toward marketing tend to be younger. Authors like Hustad & Pessemier (1973); Bourgeois & Barnes (1979); Peattie (1992); & Ruiz, Arcas & Cuestas (2001) claimed that the socially conscious consumers are typically female. Anderson and Cunningham (1972); Hustad and Pessemier (1973); Kinnear et al., (1974); and The Roper Organization (1971) found that consumerists tend to have higher socio-economic profiles (Berkowitz and Lutterman1968; Bourgeois and Barnes 1979). Knauer (1971) argued that in general consumerist issues tend to attract the better educated and better informed consumers. At the micro level, studies have explored consumer dissatisfaction with and complaints about specific products and services. At a macro level, national and cross-national studies have addressed consumer attitudes towards marketing practices, consumerism and government regulations (Barksdale, 1982; French et al, 1982; Gaski & Etzel, 1986). While most studies reported to date are cross-sectional in nature, there have been recent attempts to provide a longitudinal perspective of consumers’ attitudes towards marketing. In a study carried out by Lysonski et al. (2003) it was found that consumers appeared to be less negative about marketing and consumerism issues since 1986. This is largely due to the fact that marketers have adopted a more proactive approach towards consumers’ complaints and discontents. The study revealed that consumers have relatively more favorable attitudes toward product quality and when compared to the attitudes held 15 years ago, consumers today believe that manufacturers are more customer centered in that they make products that satisfy customers’ needs. The results from this study indicate that there has been a significant change in consumer perceptions over the last 15 years (2001 vs 1986) and that manager demonstrated more responsiveness to consumer issues. Nevertheless, this

 Consumerism

scenario differs from country to country where is some countries it is found that the consumers are still skeptical regarding the firms’ engagement and involvement towards consumerism practices (Panni, 2006; Ismail & Panni, 2008).

Sustainable Consumption The second perspective of consumerism that relates to the “consumer movement” provided an environment that has been conducive to the growth of sustainable consumption. Consumerism has the potential to play a constructive role in building a sustainable business environment by emphasizing for example consumer awareness, fair trading, codes of conduct and ethical business practices. It encourages managers to think beyond the narrow boundaries of generating short-term sales and profits. It motivates them to adopt a sustainable approach to production which is not at the expense of the standard of living of future generations. Several studies in the existent literature like (Biswas, Liecata, Mckee, Pullig & Daughtridge, 2000; Mainieri, Barnett, Unipan & Oskamp, 1997; Schwepker & Cornwell, 1991) revealed that a growing number of consumers are becoming inclined towards purchasing green and environmentally friendly products. Others, such as Beach-Larsen(1996); Eagly & Kulesa (1997); and Swenson & Wells (1997) found that there is a growing environmental consciousness among consumers, that leads to a general positive attitude towards brands that are perceived as environmentally sound. As a result, managers and corporations may find it difficult to neglect or avoid this issue in designing their corporate strategy. Heightened corporate responsibility emerged as a phenomenon in the 1980s and early 1990s when corporations such as Cadbury’s, Body Shop, and Ben & Jerry’s were increasingly adopting ethical consumerism in their purchasing and supply policies. Food retailers such as Tesco, Sainsbury’s and Safeway have played a crucial role in the green consumer revolution. There are

also examples of businesses that had to replace components of their products that were found to be dangerous or harmful for use or consumption such as Johnsons and Johnsons that replaced the baby acre oil bottles in the USA market following a legal dispute as well as Sony which replaced the battery of the Dell brand at their own cost. These examples suggest that the business sector has become more responsive to consumerism, societal and sustainable marketing. The increasing acceptance of consumerism by managers and corporations is founded on its positive role on society and the economy. Corporations that have realized this have identified and defined their purpose and objectives in a way that aligns with the expectations of society. The emphasis on sustainable consumption is also highlighted by several international bodies and associations. The European Commission (2012) stipulates that Europe’s environmental footprint is one of the largest on the planet and suggests that if the rest of the world lived like Europeans, it would require the resources of more than two and a half earths to support all humans. The European Environment Agency (2012) claims that ‘the consumption of products and services impacts the environment in many different ways’ implying that ‘the things we buy contribute, directly or indirectly through the product life cycle, to climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss and resource depletion’. According to the agency unsustainable consumption is the main cause of all environmental issues. The World Economic Forum (2012) emphasizes the importance of businesses reshaping demand by making sustainable consumption more personal and relevant to consumers and by investing in redesigning products and services to deliver increased value with fewer resources. According to Jackson (2006), sustainable consumption appears to be a major challenge for corporations as they will have to carry out major improvements in the efficiency with which they turn resources into finished goods whilst from the perspective of consumers, sustainable consumption involves

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changes in consumer behavior and lifestyles as consumers need to consume more efficiently, responsibly and of course in fewer quantities. Consumerism and sustainable consumption have also flourished as a result of consumers becoming more caring, environmentally and socially aware and are demanding a say in the production, processing and resourcing of the products that they regularly purchase. The increasingly well-informed consumers and their heighten expectations and demands have put pressure upon marketers for fairly traded products, for guarantees of the ethical claims marketers make about their products, for safe products, and for the careful disposal of waste. This trend puts pressure on the business sector to respond and adapt but it also creates a market opportunity for companies since those that manage to respond quickly to the shopping public’s concern about for example issues such as health, animal welfare and environmental damage have the potential to build a strong reputation, a consumer preference and gain a competitive advantage. Another trend which nourishes sustainable consumption and consumerism is that an increasing number of consumers move away from leading a life of excessive consumption and materialism towards more enduring values such as respect, compassion, and empathy. Similarly, studies have supported the emergence of environmentally and ethically conscious consumers who have shown increased demand for fairly-traded products. These consumers demonstrate an increased demand for fairly traded products which led to the development of the “Fair Trade Label” introduced by the Fair Trade Foundation, an independent fair trade validating body that is supported by many charities. The consumers of the 21st century are becoming more caring and socially aware, moving towards a more responsible and responsive attitude to issues which do not directly concern them such as Third World exploitation. There is evidence of increased consumer concern about health, animal welfare, environmental protection, and ethical

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trading. Numerous media reports on sustainable development, fair pay, safety, fair trading, and a steady cash flow for Third World producers are regularly featured in newspapers with a mass circulation such as The Guardian, The Financial Times, Marketing Week, and The Independent (Cowe, 1993; Hargreeves, 1994; Matthews, 1994). The media often extensively covers stories on exploitation and scandalous corporate behavior. Strong (1996)makes reference to ethical consumerism, a marketing concept which has emerged only recently in the UK but like green consumerism is a source of motivating consumers to become more actively ecologically and ethically aware gaining a competitive advantage for organizations that are socially and ethically conscious. The emergence of ethical consumerism has been supported by a number of features: the evolving caring consumer of the 1990’s; pressure group support for Third world countries; fair trade issues endorsed by media interest, heightened corporate responsibility, and supplier power. Strong’s study revealed that consumers were not solely interested in price, quality, delivery and environmental issues but were also concerned about the ethical dimension of the marketing exchange. This finding highlights the importance of managers realizing the power of ethical consumerism which drives consumers towards brands with an ethical marketing focus.

Sustainable Marketing: The Demand for More Social Responsibility The growth of consumerism has resulted in consumers being critical of questionable business practices and led to the imposition of increasing regulation on the corporate sector. Corporate behavior varies when it comes to responding to consumer issues. Some corporations are simply inactive whereas others have adapted to the growing trend of consumerism. Adapting and responding to consumerism has become routine exercise for most businesses operating in the Western part of the world. However, in the developing

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countries, the level of corporate attitude and action has been rather slow. Consumers in the least developed countries emphasize the satisfaction of their physiological needs. The prevalence of seller’s market conditions in the least developing countries has also contributed to the low response of business. Consumers in these markets tend to accept whatever it is offered to them and have very little voice in the marketplace (Reddy & Campell, 1994; Kaynak, 1985; Kaynak et al, 1992). Another important factor that contributes negatively to the growth of consumerism in the least developed countries is the lack of a supportive macro-economic environment, which is an essential condition for consumerism activity. In these countries, consumerism is concerned with micro issues including product safety, packaging, unit pricing, misleading advertising or labeling and product quality. In the developed countries consumerism focuses on macro issues such as pollution, poverty, welfare system, health care, tax system and anti-nuclear issues (Kaynak 1985). These areas are reflected in the attitudes and actions of corporations in the developed world. Sustainable marketing is defined by Kotler et al. (2013, p. 11) as: “socially and environmentally responsible marketing that meets the present needs of consumers and businesses while also preserving or enhancing the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” Marketers have to re-examine their attitudes and relationships with social values and responsibilities as worldwide consumerism and environmentalism movements gain ground and prevail. Cherrier et al. (2012) claim that managers and senior executives have a critical role to play in corporate environmentalism which is defined as “processes by which firms integrate environmental concerns into their decisions (Banerjee, 2002, p. 117). The company’s stance towards corporate ethics, environmental concerns and social responsibility has the power to influence customer relationships. Customers are no longer indifferent as to the impact of company actions on the well-being of consumers, the society and

the environment. Today’s consumers expect companies to deliver value in a socially and environmentally friendly way. Some companies such as Marks & Spencer’s, the Body Shop, and others invest in sustainable marketing creating a reputation for being civic minded and responsible. They embed social responsibility in their mission statement and company values. Marks & Spencer’s 2003-2004 CSR Report focused on five key issues: sustainable raw materials, responsible use of technology, animal welfare, ethical trading and community programmes. These issues were identified as being important to consumers. Other companies resist movements such as consumerism and environmentalism and simply abide to legislation or do the very minimum just to get by. However, it can be suggested that today’s consumers who have experienced the impact of the recent global economic crisis, are buying less and look for greater value demand greater responsibility and accountability from companies as well. They are not willing to ignore, forgive or forget corporate unethical behavior, mistakes and scandals. In order to build competitive and sustainable brands, companies need to understand the mindset, and concerns of consumers by engaging in a more proactive way with society and its citizens. They also need to instill trust and loyalty with customers to form the foundations for long lasting customer relationships.

THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS ON CONSUMERISM The beginning of 2008 marked the outburst of a global economic crisis, unlike anything since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The financial crisis left millions of consumers in turmoil and despair. Many lost their jobs whilst others had a severe reduction in their salaries. The global crisis had a severe impact on some European countries such as Greece and Cyprus. Cyprus’s exposure

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to the Greek financial crisis led to the failure of the Cypriot banking system. Cyprus’s two largest banks, the Bank of Cyprus and the Cyprus Popular Bank, collapsed. Depositors in the second bank, the Cyprus Popular Bank, lost all their deposits above € 100,000. Depositors in the country’s largest bank, the Bank of Cyprus, lost 47% of their unsecured amount (over € 100,000) converted into shares and 37.5% of their deposit converted into six deposits depriving them access to their money for a period ranging from 1-3 years. As consumers experienced losses in income, declining home values, rising unemployment and uncertainty they had to reconsider their spending priorities and decrease their uncontrolled spending. Consumers had to readjust their lifestyles and make a transition from overspending and compulsive buying to frugality. This change will not simply concern the short term but rather will remain for several years as economies will need time to ‘recover’ and return to prosperity. Frugality will reshape consumer behavior, consumer spending and patterns. Even wealthier consumers have been influenced by frugality as compulsive spending can signal the lack of sensitivity to those who are less fortunate and have been affected by the economic crisis the most. Conspicuous free spending is not trendy any more. Shoppers are likely to suffer from what Bain and Co. labeled ‘luxury shame’, feeling guilty about buying indulgences. In addition, consumers have lost trust in business, they have become more skeptical, critical and intolerant towards corporate practice. These negative feelings are likely to influence consumer behavior and brand preferences. At the same time, consumers are likely to become more demanding and develop higher expectations in terms of corporate behavior such as product safety, information privacy, community projects, use of sustainable ingredients, recycling and reduction of solid waste. It is inevitable that sellers will have to adjust their marketing strategies with the new economic realities. Since customers have adopted a back-

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to-basics frugality in terms of their spending and lifestyle marketers will have to focus more on value marketing in order to offer today’s more financially cautious customers, greater value. Companies will also have to adopt marketing sustainability in order to demonstrate more responsible actions towards the natural and social environments.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS TO PRACTITIONERS •

•

Undoubtedly there is confusion and disagreement in terms of what the term “consumerism” means and what are its key principles. Practitioners can study its origins and evolution in order to gain an understanding of the term. The two most popular notions of the term are that: (a) consumerism is the manipulative and aggressive marketing strategy followed by businesses to encourage consumers to consume more than what they really need or desire and (b) consumerism is the joint effort of consumers, consumer associations and governments aimed at protecting consumer rights against aggressive, unethical and irresponsible business practices. The rise of consumerism and the growth of modern marketing have grown in parallel. There is sufficient evidence in the literature to support that the heightened emphasis on marketing efforts by corporations has created a consumer culture that nourishes materialism and compulsive buying. The intensity of marketing efforts and the aggressive approach followed by marketers in their promotion and selling efforts has created compulsive buyers, credit abuse and personal bankruptcy. Practitioners need to acknowledge their ‘power’ over consumers and must be accountable for their actions especially since these contribute in shaping consumers’ values and buying

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•

•

behavior. Similarly corporate behavior has a direct impact on the natural environment since the tendency towards materialism leads to environmental destructiveness caused through the increased usage of the earth’s natural resources. Subsequently, practitioners have a duty and responsibility to preserve and protect the physical environmental for the current and future generations. They need to adopt practices such as recycling, energy efficiency and renewable sources of energy. Managers can also reshape demand towards sustainable consumption by informing and educating consumers through integrated marketing communications that highlights the importance of practicing ethical and green consumerism. Practitioners need to address the concerns, expectations and demands of an ever growing number of green and ethical consumers. Similarly they need to respond to the increasing power of pressure groups that campaign for environmental and ethical issues and principles of fair trading. More importantly, they need to develop appropriate marketing management strategies that address these concerns, and develop an organizational philosophy that is embedded and guided by ethical, environmental and social responsibility principles. At times where the uncertain economic environment has touched practically most countries in the developed world and in a world where consumers are more demanding, cynical, and fickle, corporations and brands are faced with the task of becoming more responsible and accountable. Corporations cannot afford to ignore the power of consumers and public opinion. They need to become good corporate citizens and adopt a more proactive approach towards consumerist issues both micro and macro such as fair pricing, advertising eth-

•

•

ics, environmentalism, green marketing and sustainability. Companies need to provide evidence regarding their sustainability agendas through their Websites and annual reports as part of their commitment to corporate social responsibility. The agendas need to encompass environmental, social and economic issues: economic issues such as economic regeneration and proving support for local economies; environmental initiatives that have the potential to reduce waste, energy and resources and finally, social initiatives such as training, health and safety at work to increase employee security and efficiency amongst the workforce as well as morale and productivity. As the level of importance and acceptance of consumerism increases in a society, the likelihood of consumer pressure for increased regulation will increase and a favorable commitment of business translated into responsive action is likely to follow. Companies that are guided by consumerist issues, have embedded them into their principles and have turned them into practice are the ones that will see them as an opportunity to gain a competitive advantage, strengthen their corporate reputation and instill customer trust and loyalty at a time which are mostly needed.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Since the empirical data on consumer attitudes towards consumerism is rather limited there is a need to carry out more empirical studies in different countries (European, developed, developing) in order to heightened knowledge and understanding in this area. It will be interesting to explore consumers’ similarities or differences in terms of the perceived importance, expectations, and experiences of macro and micro consumerist issues in each

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country. Businesses need to be aware of consumer attitudes towards issues related to consumerism as these have direct implications on customers’ perceptions of brands and corporations. Marketers will have to adjust their marketing strategies and practices to accommodate and respond to the issues that are prioritized by consumers. Future research could also focus on collecting evidence in relation to the impact of the global economic crisis on corporate attitudes and behavior towards consumerism. Emphasis can be given on whether the crisis has had a negative or positive impact on corporate behavior towards consumerist issues, macro and micro. Other areas for future research could include exploring sustainable marketing and particularly, collecting evidence regarding the practice of sustainable marketing in Europe. The implementation of a cross-European research study can enable the comparison of data which could reveal similarities and differences between European countries.

Arndt, J., Barksdale, H., & Perreault, W. (1980). Comparative study of attitudes toward marketing, consumerism and government regulation: The United States versus Norway and Venezuela. In R. Day, & H. K. Hunt (Eds.), New findings in consumer satisfaction and complaining (pp. 66–72). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

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Kotler, P., & Keller, K. L. (2006).Marketing management (12thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Lamiell, P. (1996, July 23). Banks now tightening their credit card standards. Waco Tribune Herald, p. 6A. Lampman, R. J. (1988). JFK’s four consumer rights: A retrospective view. In E. S. Maynes (Ed.), The frontier of research in the consumer interest (pp. 19–33). Columbia, MO: American Council of Consumer Interests. Lisa, A. (2004). Is it unfair pricing? Tire Business, 22(14), 15. Lysonski, S., Durvasula, S. &Watson, J. (2003). Should marketing managers be concerned about attitudes towards marketing and consumerism in New Zealand? A longitudinal study. European Journal of Marketing, 37(3, 4), 385-406. Mainieri, T., Barnett, E. G., Unipan, J. B., & Oskamp, S. (1997). Green buying: The influence of environmental concern on consumer behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137(2), 189–204. doi:10.1080/00224549709595430 Matthews, V. (1994, 13 May). Give farmers a coffee break. Marketing Week, p. 26. McIllhenny, J. H. (1990). The new consumerism: How will business respond. At Home with Consumers, 11(5), 9-10. Murphy, P. (2000). The commodified self in consumer culture: A cross-cultural perspective. The Journal of Social Psychology, 40(October), 636–647. doi:10.1080/00224540009600504 PMID:11059210 O’Guinn, T. C., & Faber, R. J. (1989). Compulsive buying: A phenomenological exploration. The Journal of Consumer Research, 16(September), 147–157. doi:10.1086/209204

Packard, V. (1957). The hidden persuaders. London: Longman. Panni, M. F. A. K. (2006). The effect of consumerism towards customer attitudinal behavior in food industry in Malaysia (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia. Peattie, K. (1995). Environmental marketing management. London: Pitman Publishing. Pollay, R. W. (1986). The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. Journal of Marketing, 50(2), 18. doi:10.2307/1251597 Reddy, A. C., & Campell, D. P. (1994). Marketing’s role in economic development. London: Quorum Books. Roberts, J. A. (1998). Compulsive buying among college students: An investigation of its antecedents, consequences, and implications for public policy. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 32, 2. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6606.1998.tb00411.x Roberts, J. A., & Manolis, C. (2000). Baby boomers and busters: An exploratory investigation of attitudes toward marketing, advertising and consumerism. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17(6), 481–499. doi:10.1108/07363760010349911 Roedder, J. D. (1999). Consumer socialization of children: A retrospective look at twenty-five years of research. The Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 183–213. doi:10.1086/209559 Ruiz, S., Arcas, N., & Cuestas, P. (2001). Consumer attitudes towards ecological agrarian fruits and vegetables in Spain. A Segmentation Approach. Acta Horticulturae, 559, 681–686. Schmookler, A. B. (1991). The insatiable society. The Futurist, (July –August): 17–19.

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Schwepker, C. H., & Cornwell, R. B. (1991). An examination of ecologically concerned consumers and their intention to purchase ecologically packaged products. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 10(2), 77–101. Sirgy, J. M., Lee, D. J., Kosenko, R., Lee, H., & Rahtz, D. (1998). Does television viewership play a role in the perception of quality of life? Journal of Advertising, 27, 125–142. doi:10.1080/00913 367.1998.10673547 Slater, D. (1997). Consumer, culture and modernity. Cambridge, UK: Policy Press. Spiers, J. (1992, May 11). Will the busters be spenders? Fortune, 26. Stearns, P. N. (2001). Consumerism in world history: The global transformation of desire. New York, NY: Routledge. Straver, W. (1977). The international consumerist movement. European Journal of Marketing, 11(2), 93–117. doi:10.1108/EUM0000000004998 Strong, C. (1996). Features contributing to the growth of ethical consumerism – A preliminary investigation. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(5), 5–13. doi:10.1108/02634509610127518 Swenson, M. R., & Wells, W. D. (1997). Useful correlates of per-environmental behavior. In M. E. Goldberg, M. Fishbein, & S. E. Middlestadt (Eds.), Social marketing: Theoretical and practical perspectives (pp. 91–109). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. The Roper Organization. (1971). The cost of cleaner air: How much do people want it? (6th ed.). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.

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Thoman, E. (1992). Rise of the image culture: Re-imagining the american dream. Media & Values, (57). Uray, N., & Menguc, B. (996). Testing the cross-cultural generalizability of the scale of consumer attitudes toward marketing and consumerism. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 9(2), 65–93. Varadarajan, P., Rajan, P., & Thirunarayana, P. (1990). Consumers’ attitudes towards marketing practices, consumerism, and government relations: Cross-national perspective. European Journal of Marketing, 24(6), 6–24. doi:10.1108/03090569010137934 Veblen, T. (1994). The theory of the leisure class: An economic study of institutions. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. (Original work published 1899) Wee, C. H., & Chan, M. (1989). Consumer sentiment towards marketing in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific International Journal of Marketing, 1(1), 25–29. doi:10.1108/eb010202 World Economic Forum. (2012). More with less: Scaling sustainable consumption and resource efficiency. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum. org/docs/IP/CO/WEFCo ScalingSustainableConsumpionResource Efficiency Report 2012.pdf Yani-de-Soriano, M., & Slater, S. (2009). Revisiting Drucker’s theory: Has consumerism led to the overuse of marketing. Journal of Management History, 15(4), 452–466. doi:10.1108/17511340910987347 Zinkhan, G. M. (1994). Advertising, materialism and quality of life. Journal of Advertising, 23(2), 1–4. doi:10.1080/00913367.1994.10673437

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Zinkhan, G. M., & Prenshaw, P. J. (1994). Good life images and brand name associations: Evidence from Asia, America and Europe. Advances in Consumer Research. Association for Consumer Research (U. S.), 21, 496–500.

ADDITIONAL READING Abela, A. (2006). Marketing and consumerism: A response to O’Shaughnessy and O’Shaughnessy. European Journal of Marketing, 40(1, 2), 5-16. Lysonski, S., Durvasula, S., & Watson, J. (2003). Should marketing managers be concerned about attitudes towards marketing and consumerism in New Zealand? A longitudinal study. European Journal of Marketing, 37(3, 4), 385-406. Quazi, A.M. (2002). Managerial Views of Consumerism. European Journal of Marketing, 36(1,2), 36-50.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Compulsive Buying: A consumer behavior and consumption patterns characterized by overspending and overconsumption. Consumerism: An initiative supported by both citizens and government agencies to improve the rights and power of buyers in relation to sellers. Marketing: An organizational activity and a management philosophy focusing on satisfying customers’ needs and building profitable customer relationships by creating value for customers. Sustainable Consumption: Consumption behaviour shaped by a concern towards the environment and the society. Sustainable Marketing: Socially and environmentally responsible marketing addresses the needs and concerns of present and future generations.

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Chapter 2

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept Pinelopi Athanasopoulou University of Peloponnese, Greece

ABSTRACT CSR has been a widely-researched concept during the last three decades. However, there is no agreement on its definition or its dimensions; antecedents and consequences and there is no comprehensive model for its analysis. The origins of CSR lie in philanthropy and the highest level of CSR is considered to involve philanthropic actions. CSR is a people-caring concept that is incorporated in firms’ strategy. Strategic CSR is based on stakeholder theory and is used to provide competitive advantages through product or brand differentiation. Although there have been many efforts to measure the effectiveness of CSR, there is no single way of assessing CSR performance. Also, effective CSR communication is a very important matter for firms and although there is a lot of research on this subject, the debate is still on regarding what to say; through which channels, and how to say it in order to avoid consumer scepticism and reap strategic benefits. Based on this analysis, emergent themes of research are identified in this chapter and areas of further research are proposed.

INTRODUCTION In today’s highly competitive environment that is characterised by rapidly changing customer needs but also by economic problems in many countries, actions of social caring can lead to a sustainable competitive advantage if firms create a brand image that is associated with philanthropic actions. That is why Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been developed based on the “resource-based” view of the firm and has been shown to provide

a competitive advantage (Fahy, 2000). Defined broadly as a commitment to improve societal wellbeing through discretionary business practices and contributions of corporate resources (Kotler & Lee, 2005), CSR is one of the most important issues on the global corporate agenda. More than ever, companies are devoting substantial resources to various social initiatives, ranging from community outreach and environmental protection, to socially responsible business practices.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch002

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

However, although businesses have embraced CSR and researchers have analysed CSR for more than three decades, there is no agreement on the definition of CSR or on its antecedents; consequences, and dimensions and there is no comprehensive model for its analysis. This paper aims to present past research on CSR and focus on the philanthropic part of CSR in order to show how philanthropic actions have become increasingly prevalent nowadays due to the importance placed on how much companies should care about people and the environment. First, the concept of CSR is presented; then the philanthropic and strategic role of CSR is described; next the importance of CSR is explained and its antecedents and consequences are analysed, and finally its effectiveness and communication are discussed. Also, emergent themes of research are identified and some recommendations for the future of the concept and related CSR research are made.

THE CONCEPT OF CSR CSR is a concept that has a long history although researchers even now cannot agree on one definition. The origins of CSR lie in philanthropy, the oldest social initiative among American private enterprises (Godfrey, 2009). Since governments retreated partly or completely from directly providing public services in several areas (e.g., utilities, health care, education) (Whetten et al., 2002), corporate philanthropy was needed. CSR has emerged as a concept in 1953 with Bowen’s book “Social Responsibility of the businessman”. Bowen (1953, p.6) defines the social responsibilities of business at that time as “the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions or follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of society”. That is why Carroll (1999, p. 270) argues that “Bowen should be called the “Father of Corporate Social Responsibility””. From then onwards, CSR has

evolved in the 1970s with the work of Davis (1973), Carroll (1979), and Wood (1991). Researchers have been investigating CSR for over three decades (Carroll, 1979; Margolis & Walsh, 2003; McWilliams & Siegel, 2000) and therefore, there has been a proliferation of definitions of CSR in the last 40 years. In the 1970’s, Sethi (1975) suggested that CSR contained three logically distinct elements: social obligation (responsibility to obey the law); social responsibility (congruence with prevailing societal norms; values, and expectations), and social responsiveness (development of policies; programs, and capabilities that would minimize adverse consequences of societal demands). A common definition in the management literature comes from Davis (1973, p. 312), who defines CSR as ‘‘the firm’s considerations of, and response to, issues beyond the narrow economic; technical, and legal requirements of the firm to accomplish social and environmental benefits along with the traditional economic gains which the firm seeks”. Also, Carroll (1979; 1991) concluded that CSR is the social responsibility of business that encompasses the economic; legal; ethical, and discretionary (philanthropic) expectations that society has of organizations. This definition has become fairly widely accepted (Mohr et al., 2001; del Mar Garcia de los Salmones et al., 2005). Later, Ullmann (1985, p. 543) described CSR as “the extent to which an organization meets the needs; expectations, and demands of certain external constituencies beyond those directly linked to the company’s products/markets”. In the 1990s, the World Business Council offers its own definition (World Business Council, 1999, p. 3), which is that “CSR is the continuing commitment by business to contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the community and society at large”. Also, McWilliams & Siegel (2000) describe CSR as a set of actions aimed to further some social good, beyond the explicit pecuniary interests of the firm, that are not required

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by law whereas Vogel (2005, p. 2) defines CSR as “practices that improve the workplace and benefit society in ways that go above and beyond what companies are legally required to do”. Furthermore, Marrewijk (2003, p. 101-102) argues that CSR and corporate sustainability (CS) can be used synonymously (see also Montiel, 2008, p 264), as he defines both terms as follows: “In general, corporate sustainability and CSR refer to company activities – voluntary by definition – demonstrating the inclusion of social and environmental concerns in business operations and in interactions with stakeholders”. Also, more recently Hopkins (2007, p. 15) argues that “CSR is concerned with treating the stakeholders of the firm ethically or in a responsible manner”. Bradish and Cronin (2009, p. 692) define CSR as “the responsibility of an organisation to be ethical and accountable to the needs of their society as well as to their stakeholders”. The European Commission (2010) defines CSR as ‘‘a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis’’. Finally, Russell (2010, p. 44-50) provides a comprehensive overview of different definitions of CSR and argues that “there is only general consensus among scholars on the core of the CSR idea” and further points out that “social responsibility, according to theses definitions, refers to idealistic views on organisations performing activities that protect and improve society´s wellbeing beyond the extent required to serve the direct economic and technical interests of these organisations, thus the society at large”. In an analysis of the many definitions of CSR, Matten and Moon (2008) suggest that a lack of a common definition of CSR is to be expected because (a) CSR is an umbrella term for many related concepts, and (b) CSR naturally evolves over time as values change. Thus, CSR might be seen as inherently subjective. In fact, the meaning of CSR is constantly changing and means different things to different stakeholders,

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firms and countries (Dawkins & Lewis, 2003; Kitchin, 2002; Welford et al., 2007; Fafaliou et al., 2006). Crane et al. (2008, p. 4) emphasize that “for a subject that has been studied for so long, it is unusual to discover that researchers still do not share a common definition or set of core principles”. However, although CSR is not the same for everyone, researchers agree that it is a multidimensional concept (Pasquero, 2005, p. 115) and the domains of socially responsible behavior identified by researchers are diverse (Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001). In the 1970’s, Carroll (1979) has presented a model that defines a pyramid of four social responsibilities i.e.: 1. Economic responsibility: be profitable; producing products that meet quality and safety standards; be competitive, and have high level of operational efficiency. 2. Legal responsibility: compliance with laws and regulations. 3. Ethical responsibility: to act in accordance with moral principles of society. 4. Philanthropic responsibility: to act with benevolence and charity towards society. Carroll (1979) postulates that each level of responsibility can be exercised only when previous levels have been respected following the reasoning of Maslow in his Hierarchy of Needs pyramid. The economic responsibility is at the base of the pyramid because profitability is an essential condition to the survival of the company, and therefore it is the first responsibility to society. The legal responsibility is in second place, followed by ethical responsibility, and finally the philanthropic responsibility that depends on the goodwill of leaders. Later, Owen and Scherer (1993) suggest that the five most important CSR activities are: environmental pollution; corporate philanthropy; disclosure of social information; representation of women, and representation of minorities.

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

Lately, Kanji & Chopra (2010) emphasise again the multidimensionality of the concept and posit that CSR means operating a business in a socially responsible manner whereby the business undertakes ethical practices in employment and labour by improving workplaces; is involved in building local communities and communicates with concerned communities regarding the consequences of its policies and products; invests in building social infrastructure; contributes to a cleaner environment, its protection and sustainability; and contributes by way of its corporate governance to economic development at large. Thus, we can safely conclude that CSR is multidimensional and empirically consists of clearly articulated and communicated policies and practices of corporations that reflect business responsibility for some of the wider societal good (Matten & Moon, 2008).

THE PHILANTRHOPIC AND STRATEGIC ROLE OF CSR The conceptualization of CSR and the type of actions it involves lead us to the conclusion that a major part of CSR has to do with protecting and assisting people. In fact, according to Carroll (1979) the highest level of CSR concerns philanthropic actions. CSR aims to protect consumers and society or people in general by raising a customer-friendly profile and realising peoplecaring or society-caring activities. That is why we argue that CSR is a people-caring concept that has developed partially because companies have realised that, strategically, it is important to show that they care about their customers and society. A number of factors has led to this realisation and are responsible for the steep rise in the number of corporations adopting CSR. First, consumers across the globe are becoming more and more aware of the environmental and social implications of their purchases and hence they take these issues into consideration when making

their decisions. Second, globalisation has given rise to new challenges for corporations in terms of government regulations; tariffs; varying standards; ethical issues; environmental restrictions; labour exploitation, and so on. These issues can be very costly for corporations, and hence, corporations need to use socially responsible policies (Kanji & Chopra, 2010). Whereas in the past the question, whether corporations have social responsibilities or not, has raised enormous amounts of controversy, today it is widely accepted that firms have responsibilities beyond simply making a profit (Crane & Matten, 2010). The realisation that CSR is a concept that should be viewed strategically and can provide organizations with marketplace advantages led to the development of “strategic CSR” (Lantos, 2001; Quazi & O’ Brien, 2000). Strategic CSR considers CSR activities as a form of investment (McWilliams & Siegel, 2001) where the use of an ‘optimum’ level of CSR, maximizes profit, while also satisfying stakeholder demand for CSR. Strategic CSR is based on stakeholder theory (e.g. Donaldson & Preston, 1995) that suggests that management decisions should not be tailored just to the interest of ‘shareholders’ (i.e., those who have invested in the company), but also to ‘‘stakeholders’’ who are similarly affected by the company’s actions, such as consumers and suppliers (e.g., Clarkson, 1995). The theory posits that since negative actions, such as polluting the environment or abuse of employees, will eventually lead to a backlash from stakeholders, part of a company’s management strategy should be to engage in CSR (Freeman, 1984). Freeman (1984) first incorporated stakeholder theory to CSR mentioning that stakeholders are any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives, while Matten et al. (2003) noted that stakeholder theory is a necessary process in the operationalisation of CSR as a complimentary rather than conflicting body of literature.

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

So, the integration of stakeholder theory led to a significant change in CSR. CSR stopped being a ‘‘fad’’ or an ‘‘extra option’’ but is described as a deeper change in looking at organisations and their relationships to their stakeholders (Lewis, 2001). This shift in thinking in CSR literature led to companies applying practices that aim to align management of stakeholder relations and the achievement of various corporate performance goals (Donaldson & Preston, 1995). These practices, that were often termed “strategic CSR,” were defined by Porter and Kramer (2006, p.80) as, “a new way to look at the relationship between business and society that does not treat corporate success and social welfare as a zero-sum game”. As a result, latest thinking shows that if firms care for society they can also help their corporate performance. Corporate success can result from looking after social welfare. This trend in CSR literature led to the increasing importance of philanthropic responsibility towards stakeholders. Philanthropic responsibility is the highest level of CSR according to Carroll (1979) and considers the improvement of life and social conditions that are desired but not demanded by society and therefore have a completely voluntary origin (Maass & Clemens, 2002). The inclusion of philanthropic responsibilities in CSR led to the emergence of Strategic Corporate Philanthropy defined as donation of “corporate resources to address nonbusiness community issues that may also benefit the firm’s strategic position” (Saiia et al., 2003, p. 170). The notion of strategic corporate philanthropy has been accepted as a welcome alternative to checkbook corporate charity. Smith (1994, p.105) describes the new corporate philanthropy, stating confidently that: “Philanthropic and business units have joined forces to develop giving strategies that increase their name recognition among consumers; boost employee productivity; reduce R&D costs; overcome regulatory obstacles, and foster synergy among business units....the strategic use of philanthropy has begun to give companies a powerful competitive edge”. Several authors

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suggest that strategic corporate philanthropy can provide various benefits to the firm such as: “create goodwill and buy influence” (Gan, 2006, p. 218); “generate positive moral capital” (Godfrey, 2005, p. 782), and “achieve a synergistic outcome by targeting corporate resources at societal issues that resonate with the firm’s core values and mission” (Saiia et al., 2003, p. 170). Therefore, we conclude that strategic corporate philanthropy can provide significant advantages to firms that incorporate such actions into their strategy. In fact, as Carroll (2009, p. 21) states “After considering the pros and cons of corporate social responsibility, most businesses today embrace the concept, but insist on linking discretionary aspects of corporate citizenship with business objectives and strategy”.

WHY COMPANIES USE CSR, WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? The development and rising importance of strategic corporate philanthropy led to the closer examination of why CSR is important for businesses and the rationale for businesses adopting CSR. Since the adoption of CSR activities has spread globally, many researchers have started to be concerned about the rationality and the potential strategic benefits of companies engaging in CSR (e.g. Burke & Logsden, 1996; Porter & Kramer, 2002; McAlister et al., 2005). Throughout the literature, it is generally agreed that corporate social responsibility is vital for business survival and success (Trapp, 2009). The reason most often cited for practicing CSR is that it is good financially for the organization and can lead to greater profits or greater public support which may in turn bolster profits (Margolis & Walsh, 2001; Pava & Krausz, 1996; Stanwick & Stanwick, 1998; Ullman, 1985). Risk management; institutional relevance; organizational functioning; market positioning, and ethical assumptions are said to be core reasons why businesses get involved in CSR management (Paine, 2003). Among the

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

pragmatic reasons for CSR are, projecting a positive image; generating goodwill among various stakeholders; countering negative media scrutiny, and/or receiving tax breaks and subsidies from government bodies (Porter & Kramer, 2002). Furthermore, Sprinkle & Maines (2010) propose 6 reasons to do CSR: firms’ altruistic intentions in being a good global citizen; “Windowdressing’’ to appease various stakeholder groups, such as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); to recruit; motivate, and retain employees; motivate customers e.g. to buy a company’s products or services; reduce production costs by focusing on environmental concerns (e.g. environmental packaging), and help risk management efforts by easing legal or regulatory constraints (e.g. reduce emissions). Also, Carroll & Shabana (2010) argue that the business case for CSR may be categorised into four arguments: (1) reducing cost and risk; (2) strengthening legitimacy and reputation; (3) building competitive advantage, and (4) creating win–win situations through synergistic value creation. So, a CSR policy is beneficial not only for a corporation’s bottom line but also for its employees; stakeholders; consumers, and for communities; the environment, and society at large (Kanji & Chopra, 2010). Indeed, findings from both marketplace polls and academic research suggest that key stakeholders such as consumers; employees, and investors are increasingly likely to take actions to reward good corporate citizens and punish bad ones. According to a Cone research study (2007), 87% of American consumers are likely to switch from one brand to another (price and quality being equal) if the other brand is associated with a good cause; conversely, 85% will consider switching to another company’s products or services because of a company’s negative corporate responsibility practices, and 66% will boycott such a company’s products or services. However, although the potential benefits of CSR are varied the understanding of how and where CSR can contribute to achieving organiza-

tional objectives is grounded in what is known as the ‘‘resource-based view of the firm’’ in strategic management (Fahy, 2000). This approach stresses the value of intangible and interactive assets of a company as the main competitive factors leading to competitive advantages in the marketplace. Ultimately, the quest for a competitive advantage is the main reason behind the adoption of CSR actions aimed at the welfare of society. The “moral claims” logic for CSR engagement may be rhetorically justified; however, in practice “morallybased” CSR activities look and behave in ways consistent with other motivations for engagement such as institutional legitimacy or the search for competitive advantage (Godfrey & Hatch, 2007). The adoption of CSR leads to differentiation from competitors, which is the main motive for CSR engagement (Ingenhof & Sommer, 2011). Specifically, CSR initiatives can be used strategically to achieve product and brand differentiation and provide a sustainable competitive advantage (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988; Smith & Higgins, 2000; Smith, 2003; Porter & Kramer, 2006). This approach makes CSR an integral element of a firm’s differentiation strategies and a form of strategic investment comparable to R&D and advertising (Gardberg & Fombrun, 2006; McWilliams et al., 2006).

ANTECEDENTS OR DRIVERS OF CSR ENGAGEMENT Since CSR actions have a long-term goal of developing a sustainable competitive advantage, research has looked into a variety of factors that lead to CSR engagement. First, the literature on CSR has increasingly indicated how external forces such as customers (Lewis, 2003; Vogel, 2005); activist groups (Den Hond & De Bakker, 2007); legislation (Dawkins & Lewis, 2003), and members of local communities (Boehm, 2005) influence the type and focus of CSR activity in which an organization engages. Also, literature

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

has explored whether CSR initiatives have been adopted as a strategic response to external pressures (Hess et al., 2002; Marquis et al., 2007). Belliveau et al. (1994) proposed a model that predicts an organization’s social responsiveness based on external factors such as institutional variables (e.g., CSR behavior in the industry); economic variables (e.g., level of concentration, market share), and managerial variables (e.g., innovation). Far fewer studies, however, have explored the internal resources and competencies an organization brings to bear on their CSR-related activities (Bruch & Walter, 2005; Porter & Kramer, 2006). Some researchers such as Joyner and Payne (2002) have explored internal forces such as values and ethics as drivers of CSR behavior and highlighted the positive link between these areas and financial performance. Finally, Charpavang (2012) argues that market orientation has a significant positive relationship with CSR.

THE BENEFITS OR CONSEQUENCES OF CSR Can firms benefit by engaging in corporate social responsibility (CSR)? According to the literature, for over three decades scholars have studied the relationship between CSR and firm performance (FP) to answer the question (Margolis & Walsh, 2003). Although not empirically conclusive, there are persuasive indications that CSR pays off, according to both empirical and theoretical studies. Most of the argumentation and analysis on the benefits of CSR is focused on the quest for correlations between corporate financial performance (CFP) and CSR, which some authors call corporate social performance (CSP), when used as a macro measure for comparison purposes (Griffin & Mahon, 1997; Stanwick & Stanwick, 1998; Orlitzky, et al., 2003; Brammer & Millington, 2008; Hull & Rothenberg, 2008). The positive relationship between CSR and

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CFP is mentioned or reported in various studies (Orlitzky et al., 2003; Maron, 2006; Wu, 2006; Beurden & Gossling, 2008). However, there are still studies, which found a negative relationship between CSR and CFP (Griffin & Mahon, 1997; Wright and Ferris, 1997; Roman et al., 1999). This may suggest that CSR is not risk free, and in some cases, it might harm business interests. Although results are mixed, the trend seems to suggest a moderately positive CSR-FP relationship (Griffin & Mahon, 1997; Stanwick & Stanwick, 1998; Orlitzky et al., 2003). It is interesting to observe, however, that this financial association is not often directly linked to CSR itself. Financial rewards are most frequently considered a direct consequence of benefits from reputation or image status gained through CSR. This leads us to the conclusion that the scale and nature of the benefits of CSR go beyond the financial ones. That is why Margolis and Walsh (2003) called for a change in empirical research away from justifying CSR to examination of the impacts of CSR on recipients and society at large. It seems that CSR can provide benefits such as improved perceptions of the company; proactive management of risk; building loyalty-based customers on account of distinctive ethical values; building a genuine culture of ‘doing the right thing’ within the organization; following steps to implement issues related to labour standards and health and safety policies, and so on (Bhattacharya et al., 2008). CSR improves the company in social respects, as well as the financial and nonfinancial performance of a company and creates an environment of health and safety practice at the workplace and in society at large. The benefits of CSR practice are immense for corporations; the community, and the environment. The CSR benefits identified by researchers are varied; have been documented in various studies and have been aggregated into the construct of Corporate Social Performance (CSP). One major area of corporate performance that indirectly influences the bottom line of firms is

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

the response of customers to CSR engagement. Several marketing studies have reported that CSR behaviours can positively affect consumer attitudes towards the firm and its offerings (McWilliams & Siegel, 2001; Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Lichtenstein et al., 2004; Luo & Bhattacharya, 2006). In fact, socially responsible actions have been shown to positively affect the perceptions of quality placed on the firm’s products (Brown & Dacin, 1997; Purohit & Srivastava, 2001), and lead to higher levels of trust and loyalty among consumers (Maignan et al., 1999). This results in positive word-of-mouth and repeat purchasing (Zeithaml et al., 1996). Podnar & Golob (2007) found that expectations of ethical-philanthropic CSR positively influence CSR support by customers (including purchase intentions). Also, CSR is reported to affect, either directly or indirectly, consumer responses such as attitudinal loyalty (Mandhachitara & Poolthong, 2011) and perceived service quality mediates the relationship between CSR and repeat patronage intentions (behavioral loyalty) (Mandhachitara & Poolthong, 2011). Furthermore, de los Salmones et al. (2005) reported a positive relationship between CSR and overall evaluation of service quality; Scholder et al. (2006) conclude that CSR positively influences both consumers’ purchase intent and their perceptions of companies’ products, and Charpavang (2012) finds that CSR has a significant positive effect on marketing performance in terms of customer loyalty and financial benefits. Numerous other researchers suggest that companies involved in CSR can obtain consumers’ positive product and brand evaluations; brand choice, and brand recommendations (Brown & Dacin, 1997; Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001; Vitell, 2003); good attitude towards the firm (Webb & Morr, 1998; Mohr et al., 2001); good impression/image of the firm (Lachowetz et al., 2002); purchase intention (Adkins, 1999), and even enjoy a premium price (Lachowetz et al., 2002). More importantly, “when a corporation behaves in a manner that is perceived as socially responsible, consumers are

likely to infer that it has certain desirable traits that resonate with their sense of self” (Lichtenstein et al., 2004, p. 17). That is why Du et al. (2007) suggest that CSR has longer-term relational benefits such as customer loyalty and advocacy (e.g., positive word-of-mouth, resilience to negative brand information), which prior research (Klein & Dawar, 2004; Sen et al., 2006) suggests may be the primary payback of CSR. As it becomes clear from the analysis above, companies that practice CSR can reap substantial benefits from consumers. By being a good corporate citizen, a company can foster consumer loyalty and turn consumers into company/brand ambassadors and champions who engage in advocacy behaviours (e.g. positive word-of-mouth, willingness to pay a price premium and resilience to negative company news) (Du et al., 2007). Of course, the business rewards of CSR are rarely confined to the consumer domain. Another very important area of benefits from CSR involves the factors that increase corporate financial performance either directly or indirectly. Several scholars have demonstrated that CSR positively affects various aspects of firm performance, such as corporate reputation (Brammer & Millington, 2005; Turban & Greening, 1996; Brickley et al., 2002; Lai et al., 2010; Hsu, 2012); consumer satisfaction (Luo & Bhattacharya, 2006; Hsu, 2012); customer attraction and retention (Weber, 2008); attractiveness of a firm as an employer (Backhaus et al., 2002; Turban & Greening, 1996), and organizational commitment among employees (Peterson, 2004). Maignan et al. (1999) and Maignan and Ferrell (2001) find that CSR is positively linked with employee commitment. Also, Greening and Turban (2000) and Turban and Greening (1997) find that demonstrating CSR is important for attracting prospective employees. Sprinkle & Maines (2010) note that socially responsible firms may become more attractive to suppliers; are more likely to attract capital from investors (e.g., start-ups), and may receive more favourable terms from creditors.

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

Also, another stream of research evaluates the effect of CSR on brand equity. They all agree that CSR toward each of the stakeholder groups has a positive impact on brand equity (Lai et al., 2010; Hsu, 2012; Torres et al., 2012). Furthermore, Galbreath (2010) finds that the adoption of CSR activities is likely to increase customer satisfaction, and provides visible signals from which stakeholders infer various positive characteristics of firms, thus creating an avenue to increase overall firm reputation. The reputation of companies is one of the most important determinants of corporate social performance as described in the literature. CSR has been identified as a tool to create and maintain favourable reputations and safeguard their interests in the event of socially irresponsible conduct (Brammer & Pavelin, 2005). A favourable reputation has also been identified as enhancing consumer perceptions of product quality (Grewal et al., 1998); raising employee morale; increasing productivity; improving recruitment and retention (Turban & Cable, 2003), and allowing easier access to capital (Beatty & Ritter, 1986). Also, Williams and Barrett (2000) show that corporate philanthropy and social activities in particular can even lessen the damaging effects on corporate reputation of certain criminal activities and bad behaviours (e.g. violations of employee safety standards; criminal misconduct, or product recalls). So, we conclude that a strong reputation image creates reputational capital that has a significant effect on firms’ performance. McWilliams and Siegel (2001) argue that CSR creates a reputation that a firm is reliable and honest and that consumers will tend to assume that products from such corporations would be of a higher quality than those from companies that do not enjoy this perception. Roberts and Dowling (2002) share a very similar view, remarking that those corporations perceived to have a good reputation are better able to sustain superior profit outcomes over time. Through and by reputation, companies engaging in

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CSR would be rewarded by their stakeholders and ultimately, in the long run (Roberts & Dowling, 2002; Porter & Kramer, 2006; Moneva & Ortas, 2008), this will be reflected in superior financial performance. Reputational capital along with the other intangible, difficult-to-replicate assets (Lantos, 2001; Roberts & Dowling, 2002; Branco & Rodrigues, 2006) create a competitive advantage ultimately leading to an enhanced financial performance. However, although CSR triggers the corporate-image-building process, its relationship to company success can vary significantly based on company size; industry, and marketing budget (Arendt & Brettel, 2010). The previous discussion proves that the use of CSR has many benefits for organisations although the effect of such benefits may not be readily apparent. Although firms may not receive tangible; explicit, or discrete exchange value, CSR activities can generate intangible strategic assets such as reputational capital (Fombrun et al., 2000; Lewis, 2003) and employee commitment (Turban & Greening, 1996; Vogel, 2005) as well as acquiescence among key regulatory institutions or legislative bodies (Campbell, 2007; Vogel, 2005); the development of the firm’s business and institutional environments (Porter & Kramer, 2002), and help to mitigate negative media scrutiny (Alsop, 2002). The potential for such intangible value creation is one of the most promising benefits from engagement in CSR. Figure 1 summarises the most important antecedents and consequences of CSR.

EFFECTIVENESS OF CSR Τhe assessment of CSR performance is an important issue both for business and society (Carroll, 2000). The real question, though, is whether valid and reliable measures can be developed for its measurement (Carroll, 2000). In fact, considerable attempts have been made to measure the

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

Figure 1.­Antecedents and consequences of CSR: a summary

performance of socially responsible activities of organizations both in the academic and business communities. Wood (1991) has developed a model of corporate social performance (CSP). Wood (1991) combines Corporate Social Responsibility (companies’ intentions; philosophies, and commitments to social engagement) with Corporate Social Responsiveness (companies’ effectiveness in dealing with stakeholder concerns in both calm and stormy times). Also, she adds an assessment of the impact of corporate actions on specific stakeholder groups and society at large and develops a measure of Corporate Social Performance (CSP). Maignan and Ferrell (2000) categorised the alternative methods of measuring corporate social performance into three main approaches: expert evaluations; single- and multiple-issue indicators, and surveys of managers. Expanding on the latter classification, the following approaches are suggested as viable to measure CSR: reputation indices or databases; single- and multiple-issue indicators; content analysis of corporate publications; scales measuring CSR at the individual level, and scales measuring CSR at the organizational level.

The Boston College Center and Reputation Institute, regarded as the world’s leading reputation consulting firm, has created a CSR Index where the top 50 companies in the USA are distinguished by their CSR initiatives. This is a general public’s perceptions index investigating three main dimensions: Citizenship; Governance, and Workplace. Furthermore, Kanji & Chopra (2010) develop and test a Corporate social responsibility index (CSRI) with eight items that depend on strategic planning systems that influence CSR through 4 major areas of CSR activity, namely environmental protections and sustainability (EPS); governance and economic responsibility (GER); ethics & human resources (HER); and social accountability and social investment (SASI). Each area and its contribution to CSR of the company is visible and this helps in identifying the areas in which each company is lacking. Also, Turker (2009) develops a scale of CSR measurement including 17 items split into four major factors: CSR to social and non-social stakeholders; employees; customers, and government. In the business world, various indices have been used to measure CSR performance, such as the Fortune reputational and social responsibility indexes or Moskowitz’ reputational scales

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

(McGuire et al., 1988; Herremans et al., 1993; Preston & O’Bannon, 1997). Also, in an effort to systematise measurement of CSR performance, CSR reporting emerged which is a new type of nonfinancial reporting that multinational companies have increasingly used (Jones & Jonas, 2011). CSR reporting covers various nonfinancial issues, such as the environment or community relations, and companies are increasingly beginning to create separate CSR reports detailing their environmental concerns or social relations. Due to the qualitative nature of the data in these reports, it is difficult to compare companies based on CSR. As a result, several rating systems have been created for investors and the general public to rely on as a measure of a company’s CSR performance. For example, Boston-based KLD introduced its CSR performance-rating system in 1991, with about 300 companies; since 2003, it has expanded its coverage tenfold. KLD gathers data through exclusive research processes and provides a full report on each company’s CSR performance within six categories: community; corporate governance; environment; employee relations; diversity, and product (Dhaliwal, et al., 2011; Cho et al., 2012). Although there have been many efforts to measure the effectiveness of CSR, there is no single way of assessing CSR performance (Wolfe & Aupperle, 1991) as different methodological approaches are recommended by researchers using different types of indicators (Igalens & Gond, 2005; Turker, 2009; Hino, 2006). On one hand, certain studies propose the use of generic indicators which are adaptable to all types of sectors (Graafland et al., 2003; 2004), while others favour the use of both generic and sector-specific indicators in order to take into account the direct and indirect effects of each sector (Aravossis, et al., 2006; Bichta, 2003). The lack of studies regarding the examination of indicators’ weight is noted in the assessment procedure. It is a fact that among

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the different CSR measurement methodologies, no consensus exists concerning the weight of each indicator probably because they adopt diverse perceptions for the concept of CSR. As a result, we observe that although there have been many attempts to measure the effectiveness of CSR actions, methodologies differ greatly and there is no comprehensive model or scale to be used for such measurement.

COMMUNICATING CSR ACTIONS The role of CSR communication is becoming important and relevant for firms (Podnar, 2008). As a result, there seems to be a growing interest for CSR in the marketing and corporate communications field. The most important reason behind this development is that there are increased expectations from stakeholders not only to engage in CSR efforts but also to communicate about this engagement (Beckmann, Morsing, and Reisch 2006). Consumers, for example, increasingly expect organizations to behave in a socially responsible manner and they care whether a company promotes employees of minority ethnicities; does not employ children, and takes care of the local school (Harrison et al., 2005). In addition, consumers want to be informed about CSR practices because they often find it difficult to determine if a company’s operations meet their standards for social responsibility (Podnar, 2008). According to McWilliams, Siegel, and Wright (2006), we can distinguish between two types of CSR communication, persuasive and informative. Persuasive communication tends to positively influence customer buying intentions for products with CSR attributes or their attitudes toward a company as a socially responsible entity. Kotler and Lee (2005) mention cause promotions as a form of persuasive communication. In this type of communication effort, a company initiates and

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

manages the promotion of a certain CSR issue (e.g. against animal testing), trying to engage its customers into supporting its view and finally into buying its products (e.g. products that are not tested on animals). Informative CSR communication, on the other hand, provides plain information about the CSR practices of a company. The intention of this kind of communication is to build the company’s reputation and not to directly persuade customers into buying its products. Interestingly, as argued by Morsing and Schultz (2006), subtle ways of CSR communications, such as annual and other types of reports and websites, are perceived by customers as more appropriate when communicating CSR compared to corporate CSR campaigns and other persuasive forms of communication. Be it persuasive or informative, CSR communication is a delicate issue that needs to be addressed with caution because while different stakeholders claim they want to know about the good deeds of the companies they interact with, they can easily become leery of extrinsic motives when companies promote their CSR efforts (Ingenhof & Sommer, 2011). So, as Morsing and Shultz (2006) argue, managers should engage important stakeholders in a dialogue to mutually construct and shape effective CSR communication. Effective communication of CSR practices can have a lot of significant advantages for firms. McWilliams et al. (2006), as well as several other authors, argue that intensified and well-considered CSR communication can positively influence corporate reputation; evoke trust, and be a signal of product or company quality. Furthermore, CSR communication can be understood as a moderating factor of responsible behaviour, which aims to present CSR images; identify stakeholders and their expectations, as well as foster stakeholder interactions (Maignan & Ferrell 2004). The literature on CSR communication is not very extensive. However, there are three main themes that dominate relevant research efforts. First, one very important issue that researchers are trying to answer is how to build a framework

for communicating CSR. Podnar (2008) argues that CSR communication should start with the identification and anticipation of consumers and other stakeholders’ expectations about CSR. When the CSR policy is set, the management must decide why; what; how intensive, and to whom the company will communicate its CSR activities and how it will engage important stakeholders. Furthermore, the decision about appropriate communication tools and media must be set. When the message is delivered, communication feedback from stakeholders must be obtained. Also, Podnar (2008) emphasises that CSR communication should focus on a variety of things, such as stakeholder expectations and issues; strategic communication models; employment of appropriate communication tools, as well as selection of issues that underpin communications. Furthermore, Morsing et al. (2008) develop another CSR communication model that explores the ‘Catch 22’ of communicating CSR, in other words, the problem companies face in engaging in CSR communication without over-communicating CSR practices. This model proposes two different communication processes for targeting internal as well as external stakeholders with CSR messages. Communicating CSR in order to achieve favourable reputation should start directly with the organizational members and only indirectly target other stakeholder groups, such as the public and customers. The authors propose the ‘expert CSR communication process’ aimed at opinion leaders and experts such as media and local decision makers, who should further communicate CSR activities to consumers and the general public via the ‘endorsed CSR communication process’. Kerr et al. (2008) examine the nature of Australian government advertising processes within a broader framework of CSR and propose a modified framework based on Wood’s (1991) Corporate Social Performance model, and Maignan and Ferrell’s (2004) CSR principles in order to advance a CSR framework for government advertising practice as a guide for program decision-making.

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

Finally, Du et al. (2010) develop a framework about CSR communication that argues that message content (e.g. importance of the issue; commitment to a social cause; social impact of CSR actions, and fit between issue and company’s business) and the channels used for the message (corporate or independent) impact on internal (e.g. awareness; attitudes, and trust) and external (e.g. consumer or employee or investor loyalty or consumer/employee advocacy), communication outcomes. This relationship is mediated by two types of contingency factors, stakeholder characteristics (e.g. stakeholder types and social value orientation) and company characteristics (e.g. reputation and type of industry). Although the development of a model for CSR communication is important, research has also focused on the characteristics of successful CSR communication. For example, an important consideration for communicators, when dealing with CSR, should be to communicate the truth without any over-promises that will dissatisfy customers (Podnar, 2008). Furthermore, Kotler & Lee (2005) emphasise that a firm should not brag about corporate social initiatives, but just keep stakeholders informed. They conclude that the best approach for successful communication from a strategic perspective is to do good and let others talk about it (for example the non-profit partner). For example, firms should make sure they get an award or thank you on their website. Finally, research shows that CSR communication should be integrated into corporate strategy in order to be successful (Porter & Kramer, 2006). It seems that the more a firm can benefit from its social initiatives the more it will be inclined to integrate CSR on a strategic decision-making level. Strategic integration increases the effectiveness of corporate social initiatives in promoting good causes. Porter and Kramer (2006) even argue that without such a strategic integration, the result will be ‘‘a hodgepodge of uncoordinated CSR and philanthropic activities disconnected from the company’s strategy that neither make

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any meaningful social impact nor strengthen the firm’s long-term competitiveness’’. The third important area of CSR communication research is concerned with CSR reporting. Sweeney and Coughlan (2008) suggest that there is a significant difference between how organizations in different industries report on CSR. It is suggested that organizations report on CSR in line with what their key stakeholders expect. Therefore, CSR reporting is a tool in the marketing communicators’ toolbox. Also, firms tend to use a variety of reporting media for their CSR actions. The most used reporting media are annual reports and websites. These help organizations to increasingly use CSR activities to position their corporate brand in the eyes of consumers and other stakeholders (Sweeney & Coughlan, 2008; Maignan & Ralston, 2002; Wanderley et al., 2008). Basil and Erlandson (2008) examine the use of websites to demonstrate CSR practices and find that a strong increase in communicating internal CSR activities (e.g. a code of ethics) is evident. Additionally, companies that are more successful indicate more CSR activity on their websites. Also, Insch (2008) examines the Internet as an effective means of communicating CSR messages and shows that the majority of companies present their environmental initiatives on their websites; however, most do not employ interactive features to encourage dialogue with stakeholders and enhance these relationships. Although there are various attempts to study CSR communication, relevant research is still considered limited (Reisch, 2006) and it cannot be analysed from a single disciplinary perspective. Several authors highlight the need for more emphasis on CSR communication directed towards customers (Beckmann et al., 2006). Also, literature still debates whether organizations should communicate about their CSR initiatives and, if organizations choose to communicate, whether traditional marketing tools are appropriate (Van de Ven, 2008). According to recent research, communicating about social activities does not

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

always benefit the communicating organization, notably because CSR communication may trigger stakeholders’ scepticism and cynicism (Mohr et al. 2001; Schlegelmilch & Pollach, 2005). Also, recent studies with real stakeholders revealed that awareness of a company’s CSR activities among its external stakeholders (e.g. consumers) or even among its internal stakeholders (e.g. employees) is typically low, hence constituting a key stumbling block in the company’s quest to reap strategic benefits from its CSR activities (Bhattacharya et al., 2008; Du et al., 2007; Sen et al., 2006). So, two important questions related to CSR communication are what to say and through which channels, and then how to talk about an organization’s CSR programs and achievements, without appearing self-serving or risking stakeholder cynicism (Lindgreen & Swan, 2010).

EMERGING THEMES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH After the analysis of the field of CSR it is important to identify the emerging themes in CSR research and propose areas for future study. Lee (2008) concludes that CSR research has evolved along two avenues. In terms of the level of analysis, researchers have moved from a discussion of the macro social effects to an organizational-level analysis of CSR and its impact on organizational processes and performance. In terms of the theoretical orientation of this field, researchers have shifted from explicitly normative and ethicsoriented arguments to implicitly normative and performance-oriented managerial studies (Lindgreen & Swan, 2010). So, in light of these developments there are a number of areas that CSR research can focus on. First, although there are numerous studies on CSR, researchers are not in agreement on the definition of CSR and the best framework for implementing strategic CSR. So, one of the most

important areas of CSR research involves designing an optimum framework for successful CSR. This will help companies integrate CSR in their strategy and determine who should be involved in the process; how; which actions are best to use, and how these actions should be communicated to maximise relevant benefits. However, this framework is very difficult to develop since CSR-related problems are often particular to an industry or country or CSR actions used differ. That is why a lot of current studies analyse CSR activity into specific industries such as hotels or sports (Kucukusta et al., 2013; Walker & Parent, 2010) and specific countries such as China; USA; Mexico and India (Bouvain et al., 2013; Becker-Olsen et al., 2011; Gupta & Hodges, 2012). In fact, Wellford (2005) points out that there is a link between the development of CSR and the economic development of countries and that many CSR policies are based on localised issues and cultural traditions at a country level. Therefore, more studies that analyse CSR in many countries or many industries are needed in the future to develop cross-industry and cross-cultural CSR models. Thirdly, another major area of CSR inquiry is the relationship of CSR to other major marketing concepts such as customer loyalty or brand equity and generally the role that CSR can play in the marketing discipline. Since CSR has been a prevalent subject in marketing studies, the marketing concept has affected CSR theory. Companies form relationships with customers because they lead to customer loyalty and favourable purchase intentions. CSR researchers are using customer loyalty or brand equity as measures of CSR effectiveness. However, the integration of CSR into marketing models, particularly relationship-based models, is an interesting area for further research. For example, it would be interesting to examine how CSR actions affect the quality of relationships firms have with customers and perceived product and service quality. Also, apart from relationships, the link between CSR and innovation has been

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

accepted by different authors (e.g. McWilliams & Siegel, 2000), although scarce empirical literature is available and only in the first direction, from CSR to innovations (e.g. Lockett et al., 2006). So, the investigation of the link between CSR and innovation success is another field of investigation within the marketing discipline. Fourthly, the effectiveness of CSR needs to be studied more closely and a model should be developed including financial and non-financial performance indicators. Measures of whether CSR is useful for the bottom line should be the focus of research into CSR. Fifth, CSR philanthropic actions are the most important dimension of CSR as postulated by Carroll (1979; 2000). People feel good when their favourite companies look out for the good of society and the environment. Thus, CSR can be included in the umbrella of consumerism since the goal of CSR actions is to protect consumers e.g. from unfair trade practices or environmental pollution. This relationship of CSR and consumerism is an interesting area of future investigation. Sixth, CSR communication presents many interesting areas for further investigation. First, one crucial question is how we can communicate CSR activities in order to maximise the development of positive reputational capital or other financial or non-financial indicators. In that respect, we have to find out whether it is cost effective to communicate CSR activities or not and under which circumstances. Secondly, another important area of enquiry is determining the media that are the most effective for communicating CSR practices. In addition to annual reports or web sites, which other media can be used effectively to communicate CSR actions? Furthermore, another important consideration and a key challenge in designing an effective CSR communication strategy is how to reduce stakeholder scepticism over communication of CSR actions and convey favourable corporate motives in a company’s CSR activities. Also, it is important to determine how CSR communication can be integrated into a firm’s strategy. For

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example, researchers need to develop a framework to guide the communication effort of companies that practice CSR and provide suggestions as to how to incorporate such communications into their product campaigns or link them to their main communication efforts. Finally, overall we need a systematic; interdisciplinary examination of CSR communication that can offer an essential definition of the field of CSR communication and outline key CSR communication tactics. Finally, the relationship of CSR to firm strategy and competitive advantage should be studied more thoroughly. Under which circumstances CSR actions provide a sustainable competitive advantage to organisations and how? If most firms can do the same CSR actions, how can firms use these actions to create an advantage that competitors cannot duplicate easily? If CSR is strategic nowadays, how can firms integrate CSR in their strategy in order to reap competitive advantages?

THE FUTURE OF CSR The future of CSR seems if anything uncertain. There is no agreement on its definition or the dimensions that make up the concept. Also, it is not clear whether it actually saves or makes any money for organizations. However, the trend is towards increasing CSR actions particularly those that provide an image of caring for society and the environment. This is mainly driven by the fact that some firms feel obligated to give back to society and because it has been proved to be an effective way to keep customers into close relationships and also attract new customers by enhancing corporate image and brand value. In fact, consumers seem to reward companies that focus on CSR actions, especially philanthropic ones, with their business. As a result, CSR is a concept that will probably have a long life-cycle. However, it needs to be analysed more thoroughly and researchers need to determine under which circumstances it is useful for firms.

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

CONCLUSION This chapter has tried to analyse the state of research in the area of CSR and particularly determine its role as a people-caring concept through its philanthropic actions. Although CSR is useful for both firms and society and its benefits have been repeatedly documented by researchers, the jury is still out on whether CSR actions are actually cost-effective for organisations and whether CSR can create a sustainable competitive advantage that will benefit firms far more than the amount invested in such actions. Future research may answer those questions in time.

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Murray, L. S., & Vogel, C. M. (1997). Using a Hierarchy of Effects Approach to Gauge the Effectiveness of CSR to Generate Goodwill towards the Firm: Financial versus Nonfinancial Impacts. Journal of Business Research, 38(2), 141–159. Okoye, A. (2009). Theorising corporate social responsibility as an essentially contested concept: is a definition necessary? Journal of Business Ethics, 89(4), 613–627. Panapanaan, V., Linnanen, L., Karvonen, M.-M., & Phan, V. T. (2003). Roadmapping corporate social responsibility in Finnish companies. Journal of Business Ethics, 44(2/3), 133–148. Russo, A., & Perrini, F. (2010). Investigating stakeholder theory and social capital: CSR in large firms and SMEs. Journal of Business Ethics, 91(2), 207–221. Simpson, G. W., & Kothers, T. (2002). The link between corporate social and financial performance: evidence from the banking industry. Journal of Business Ethics, 35(2), 97–109. Vyvyan, V.C.Ng & Brimble, M. (2007). Socially Responsible Investing: The Green Attitudes and Grey Choices of Australian Investors. Corporate Governance, 15(2), 370–381. Wayne, V. (2010). CSR 2.0: from the age of greed to the age of responsibility. In W. Sun, J. Stewart, & D. Pollard (Eds.), Reframing Corporate Social Responsibility: Lessons from the Global Financial Crisis. Critical Studies on Corporate Responsibility, Governance and Sustainability (Vol. 1, pp. 231–251). UK: Emerald Publishing. Werre, M. (2003). Implementing corporate responsibility—the Chiquita Case. Journal of Business Ethics, 44(2/3), 247–260. Yan, J. (2003). Corporate responsibility and the brands of tomorrow. Journal of Brand Management, 10(4/5), 290–302.

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 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a People Caring Concept

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Brand Equity: The value of a brand. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Responsibility of firms towards society. Corporate Social Responsiveness: Companies’ effectiveness in dealing with stakeholder concerns in both calm and stormy times. Corporate Social Performance (CSP): The sum of financial and non-financial CSR benefits. Corporate Sustainability: Company voluntary activities demonstrating the inclusion of social and environmental concerns in business operations and in interactions with stakeholders.

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CSR Engagement: Level of practice of CSR actions. Stakeholders: Any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives. Strategic Corporate Philanthropy: Donation of corporate resources to address non-business community issues that may also benefit the firm’s strategic position. Strategic CSR: CSR activities aimed at creating sustainable competitive advantages and maximising profits.

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Chapter 3

The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education: A Critical Discussion Based on Mezirow’s Critical Reflection

George S. Spais Graduate Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece, Greece

ABSTRACT The chapter examines how consumerism-one of the primary key themes in marketing and business courses- has evolved the last decade and envisages the shape of these set of courses in the future. From the 1,935 words for 20 key-concepts counted in 141 online course descriptions in English of the last 10 periods delivered by Business and Management Schools or Business/Marketing Academic Depts. of 88 Universities and Colleges, “Marketing,” “business,” “ethics” and “social responsibility” were included in 100% of the course descriptions analyzed, indicating their coverage by all courses. In order to investigate the five (5) research objectives, HCA was adopted for an exploratory analysis based on single-linkage clustering method to reveal natural groupings of the key concepts within a data set of word counts that were not apparent and then multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. The trend analyses indicated prospects for the increasing focus around specific topics. The interpretation of the research results based on the assumptions of Mezirow’s critical reflection provided very strong recommendations.

INTRODUCTION Consumption of goods and services has risen steadily in industrial countries in the previous century, and it is growing rapidly in many developing countries (Worldwatch Institute, 2013) by a large middle class driving the global economy (e.g., Kharas, 2010). The middle class is an ambiguous social classification, broadly reflecting the ability to lead a comfortable life (e.g., Kharas,

2010). Consumerism, as the new consumption role of the middle class, is majorly emphasized in the economics’ literature worldwide (e.g., Murphy, Shleifer & Vishny, 1989; Schor, 1999; Elfick, 2011). There are now more than 2 billion members of the consumer class—nearly half of them in the developing world (Worldwatch Institute, 2013). The new consumption role of the middle class is the axis of a lifestyle and culture that became common in Europe, North America and

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch003

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 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Japan and today is going global (e.g., Worldwatch Institute, 2013). Today’s human economies are designed with little attention to the residuals of production and consumption. WWF’s Living Planet Index shows a thirty-five percent decline in Earth’s ecological health since 1970. The executive Summary (2008) of the “Breaking the Climate Deadlock Report – A Global Deal for Our Low Carbon Future” (a briefing paper by the Climate Group and Mckinsey’s Global institute’s consultants) underlines that without a change in energy policies and consumption behavior, global energy demand and energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions will grow by forty-five percent to 2020. According to the 2011, Annual Energy Outlook (Energy Information Administration of U.S., 2011) energy-related CO2 emissions will grow by 16 percent from 2009 to 2035, reaching 6.3 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (or 1.7 GtC). Further, individuals often face personal costs associated with heavy consumption (Wordwatch Institute, 2013): i) the financial debt; the time and stress associated with working to support high consumption; ii) the time required to clean, upgrade, store, or otherwise maintain possessions; and iii) the ways in which consumption replaces time with family and friends. Mass consumption is responsible for the decline in health indicators in western societies. According to Worldwatch Institute (2013) consumer advocates, economists, environmentalists and policymakers are developing creative solutions for responding social needs while dampening the environmental and social costs associated with mass consumption. In addition, helping individuals find the consuming balance, they stress placing more emphasis on publicly provided goods and services, on services in place of goods, on goods with high levels of recycled content, and on genuine choice for consumers. Definitely, governments can reshape economic incentives and regulations but this is not enough.

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Without the active participation of the truly marketing oriented organizations, social behavior in the sense of encouraging responsible consumption with ecological imperative is meaningless. Only businesses can radically transform their customers through continuous sensitization and ctitical reflection. Based on the above, it is quiet easy for anyone to blame the toady marketing practitioners, as Drucker (1969) done it 44 years ago -and it seems that he was right. If there is a serious reason to blame the marketing society, then there is a responsibility share that marketing educators must carry. The marketing educators today have to transform the meaning perspectives of societal marketing and social behavior of businesses and this has a profound impact on marketing educators’ life in and out of the class. It changes the way they see themselves (as consumers, as teachers and as philosophers) and it changes the way they continue to learn and construe new meanings about the marketing world become critically reflective on their assumptions of marketing discipline. By strengthening involvement of observation, asking questions, putting facts, new ideas, and marketing and promotion experiences together to derive new meaning of consumerism based on critical thinking leading them and the learners to a new set of personal values and ethics. This new meaning may benefit themselves, the organizations they choose to work for, and society as a whole (Rundle-Thiele & Wymer, 2010). Based on the above, this study examines how consumerism key concept in marketing and business courses such as: “corporate social responsibility”, “marketing ethics”, “business ethics”, “social marketing”, “marketing and society”, “green marketing” and “sustainable marketing” has evolved the last decade (2003-2013) and envisages the shape of these set of courses in the next years (from 2013-2014 to 2015-2016). Although consumerism has received attention by the most well-known scholars of marketing science (Drucker, 1969; Kotler, 1972a, 1972b;

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Barksdale & Darden, 1972; Miller & Sturdivant, 1977; Kaynak & Wikström, 1985; Varadarajan & Thirunarayana, 1990; Darley & Johnson, 1993; Smith & Cooper-Martin, 1997; Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001; Lyonski, Durvasula & Watson, 2003; Vitell, 2003; Vitell, 2009) quiet surprisingly the research activity of this research theme in the marketing education subdiscipline is at zero. No published article –research, review or discussion paper- with a primary focus in consumerism was found in the leading marketing education scholarly journals (Journal of Marketing Education and Marketing Education Review). For the first time in the marketing education literature, it is conducted an analysis of textual information of courses’ descriptions in English delivered by Business and Management Schools or Business/ Marketing Academic Depts. from all over the world the last ten periods in order to investigate consumerism theme. The content analysis based on word frequencies of key-concepts to use as independent variables in assessing the “consumerism” theme. The adoption of: i) HCA for an exploratory analysis based on single-linkage clustering method (“nearest neighbor”) to reveal natural groupings of the 20 key concepts (“marketing,” “business,” “ethics,” “social responsibility,” “consumer,” “green,” “sustainability,” “society,” “moral,” “value,” “consumption,” “knowledge,” “skill,” “action,” “challenge,” “consumerism,” “dilemma,” “reflect,” “awareness” and “ecology(ical)”) within a data set of word counts that were not apparent; ii) sets of alternative models tested by multiple linear regression analyses; and ii) trend analyses from 2013-2014 to 2015-2016 indicated prospects for increase of focus around specific topics are the three main characteristics that are not met before in the marketing education literature -make this study unique in this sense. The chapter is organized as follows. The first section explores the background context presenting: (1) the evolution of marketing thought and the marketing problematization leaded to the societal marketing concept because of the rise of consum-

erism; (2) the value of incorporating Mezirow’s critical reflection in this study –a new interpretation in marketing education for consumerism and consumption in a set of marketing and business courses; and (3) the research questions. The next section summarizes the theoretical framework. Next, I explain the investigative approach adopted in conducting the data collection for this review of courses’ descriptions. Following this, I present the research results based on: (1) Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) exploratory analysis to reveal natural groupings of the 20 key concepts within a data set of word counts; (2) multiple linear regression analyses; and (3) discuss the thematic areas and research trends identified in the modeling. Finally, I draw conclusions about the study and offer some suggestions for future research.

BACKGROUND Based on the history of marketing, four fundamental schools of thought have emerged: (a) classical and neoclassical economics (1800-1920); (b) early/formative marketing (1900-1950); (c) marketing management (1950-1980); (d) marketing as a social and economic process (since 1980). In the last years, more and more commentaries (see Witkowski, 2005) stress the issue of strengthening the sense of proportion among the fundamental schools of marketing thought despite the predominance of the managerial school of marketing thought. These discussions lead “green marketing” or “environmental marketing” originating in the early ‘70s (see Lavidge, 1970; Kelley 1971; Fisk, 1973) -one of the three component fields of macromarketing- to gain the appropriate attention from the beginning of the ‘90s (see Crane, 2000). The environmental parameter has been included in the marketing strategy (see for example, Peattie, 1999; Lampe & Gazda, 1995), under rubrics such as ‘green marketing’, ‘environmental marketing’, ‘ecological marketing’, ‘eco-marketing’ and ‘sustainable marketing’ (Fuller, 1999). ‘Environmental

47

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

marketing’, ‘green marketing’ and ‘sustainable marketing’ are used as synonyms. The above terms were introduced with the purpose of describing and fine-tuning this form of marketing that aims at addressing social and environmental concerns (Peattie & Crane, 2005). The year that signs the beginning of the era of marketing problematization is 1969, as Peter Drucker explained the rise of consumerism by blaming the marketers for failing their consumers and publics in using the marketing concept. This is how the societal marketing concept raised in the marketing literature in the beginning of the ‘70s. The relative concepts developed and presented in the American literature under the rubrics, ‘societal marketing’ (Kotler, 1972a, 1972b) and ‘ecological marketing’ (Henion & Kirner, 1976), in terms of a critical self-reflection in the debate in the marketing literature regarding to the role of marketing in the processes of social and environmental. García-Rosell and Moisander (2008) underlined that this self-reflection also involved an ethical and societal problematization of marketing (as an institution) and forces the businesses to adopt a social responsible and ethical marketing behavior and accept more responsibility in society as corporate-citizens. This is the only pathway to make long-run profits as well as be beneficial to society as a whole (e.g., Abratt & Sacks, 1988). While societal marketing responded primarily to the concerns of consumerism, other marketing scholars, who realized that the ecological challenge would call for deep changes in the marketing discipline, including the education of both consumers and marketers regarding the relationship between their daily decision-making and the natural environment (e.g. García-Rosell & Moisander, 2008), took up the demands of environmentalism. Under this prism, Fisk (1973) introduced a revolutionary theory of responsible consumption and the ecological imperative, which stress the responsibility of marketers to work towards limiting individual consumption (García-Rosell & Moisander, 2008).

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Therefore, consumerism is not only the primary philosophical component of societal marketing but also includes the marketing impact of any organization on the natural environment –and this means a radical change of marketing discipline and marketing practice focusing on the development of organizations’ social behavior. This means that one of the most crucial strategic marketing goals is to encourage responsible consumption with ecological imperative by strengthening responsibility of consumers and stakeholders through continuous information, in terms of transformative learning and critical reflection processes, in a continuous basis (Spais, 2010). Further, this means a radical change of the role of marketers that seems to become adult educators. The above arguments was the beginning point that motivated my research to examine how consumerism key concept in marketing and business courses such as: “corporate social responsibility,” “marketing ethics,” “business ethics,” “social marketing,” “marketing and society,” “green marketing” and “sustainable marketing has evolved the last decade and envisages the shape of these set of courses in the next years.

Mezirow’s Critical Reflection of Transformative Learning Theory on Consumerism and the Research Objectives Mezirow’s conceptualization of critical reflection in terms of Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) [please read in the “Additional reading” section (e.g., Taylor, 2009; Elsey & Henschke, 2011) and the definitions in the “Key terms definitions” section, in order the reader to deepen his/her understanding about the difference between “TLT” and “Andragogy”] has be proven an emerging fundamental concept, with valuable implications in the entrepreneurship education literature (Spais, 2010) and in the marketing education literature (Spais, 2011).

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Transformative learning theory -a metacognitive epistemology of evidential (instrumental) and dialogical (communicative) reasoning (e.g., Mezirow, 2009)- has been growing and changing for almost 40 years. It draws on sociology, philosophy, developmental and cognitive psychology, and psychotherapy. Mezirow focuses on adult learning and, in particular, on how the ways in which adult learners see things – their frames of reference – can become more differentiated, open, inclusive, and integrated, and thus, transformed (e.g., Peltier, Hay & Drago, 2005; Percy, 2005; Peltier, Hay & Drago, 2006). A theory, quiet underestimated by the marketing education literature focusing majorly on Kolb’s (1984), experiential learning model (Spais, 2011), (see in the “Additional reading” some interesting reviews for the five major experiential learning theorists: Schön, Revans, Knowles, Mezirow, and Kolb and the discussion of experiential learning model in TLT, e.g., Malinen, 2000; Percy, 2005). It is a conceptualization of high value, which can offer a new interpretation in marketing education for consumerism and consumption in a set of marketing and business courses such as: “corporate social responsibility,” “marketing ethics”, “social marketing”, “green marketing” and “sustainable marketing” and provide valuable recommendations. Recommendations of how business schools and marketing educators can create a learning environment to motivate them and future marketing and promotion managers to evaluate their experiences and provide them the opportunity to review their beliefs, opinions, and values about consumerism. This can be achieved by strengthening involvement of observation, asking questions, putting facts, ideas, and marketing and promotion experiences together to derive new meaning of consumerism -benefiting themselves, the organizations they choose to work for, and society as a whole- and this is a major challenge for marketing educators, globally. Based on a functional view of “business science” and “marketing science” and the focus of

“business studies” and “marketing studies” (see the definitions in the “Key terms and definitions” section), this work investigates the following objectives: (a) Is it possible to cluster the 20 key concepts into two groups (“business key concepts” and “marketing key concepts”)? (b) Is consumerism a marketing key concept or a business one? (c) Which set of business-related and marketing related key concepts can predict better the consumerism theme? (d) Can Mezirow’s critical reflection key concepts predict consumerism theme? (e) What are the prospects for increase of focus around the 20 key concepts?

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this section, I present the theoretical framework of this study based on Mezirow’ s theoretical perspective of transformative learning theory (the concept of “transformative learning” launched by Mezirow in 1978) and his model of critical reflection, introducing the fundamental assumptions. Influences in the development of this concept included Freire’s ‘conscientization’, Kuhn’s ‘paradigms’, the concept of ‘consciousness raising’ in the women’s movement, the writings and practice of psychiatrist Roger Gould, philosophers Jurgen Habermas, Harvey Siegal and Herbert Fingerette (e.g., Mezirow, 2009). The critical reader may consult the interesting review of Botella (1995) –see “Additional reading” section- from a personal construct psychology view- in order to deepen his/her understanding about the uniqueness of experiential learning theories compared to mechanistic constructivism learning approaches (information-processing cognitive theories and social learning theories).

Assumptions of Mezirow’s Theoretical Perspective The beginning point of the line of argument for transformative learning is the axiom about the

49

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

way that reality is interpreted, which is determined by each individual’s system of perceptions. This system of perceptions is imposed from individuals’ cultural context and is unconsciously internalized through the process of socialization. Often, it contains wrong and problematic values, beliefs, assumptions, and presuppositions. Therefore, the interaction of the individuals with reality presents many dysfunctions. Mezirow (1991) considers “reflection” as the means to achieve this and defines it as a process of reviewing perceptions and values to comprehend reality and act. Reflection is possible to be limited in the investigation of the procedural and methodological sides of a problem. Sometimes, however, reflection is extended in questioning established assumptions and presuppositions, as a basis for facing problems (i.e., it does not concern simply how adults act but why they do, the deeper reasons and consequences of their behavior). Critical reflection can lead to the re-assessment of the problematic beliefs for the reality that adults got used to consider them as given – and reach even in the critical auto-reflection (the holistic revision of the way adults perceive, believe, feel and act (Brookfield, 1990). Mezirow describes transformative learning as having several stages that progress from a characteristic “disorienting dilemma” in an individual’s life as an opportunity for considering new perspectives. From this new vantage point, the individual may continue to examine unfamiliar views, critically reflect and evaluate them, test and explore new perspectives, and make choices as to whether to adopt those positions and finally reintegrate these new perspectives.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Method, Sample and Data Collection I targeted textual information sourced (guided by McKeone, 1995) from online courses’ short descriptions in English of the last 10 periods (from 50

2002-2003 to 2012-2013) delivered by Business and Management Schools or Business/Marketing Academic Depts. The underlying assumption of content analysis is that the words and phrases mentioned most often in a text or series of texts are those that reflect the salient concerns of that particular discourse (e.g. Muema & Mutisya, 2012). Consequently, I addressed the key concepts of the study using a survey method to facilitate the quantitative content analysis focusing on word frequencies. To strengthen the validity of inferences made from the data (Stemler, 2001), I used Word-MS Office to conduct frequency counts of the following key words of the short courses’ descriptions related to specific set of marketing education courses: “corporate social responsibility”, “marketing ethics”, “business ethics”, “social marketing”, “marketing and society”, “green marketing” and “sustainable marketing”. I sourced the courses’ descriptions from Google. The organized search leaded to the collection of 141 online courses’ short descriptions available on Universities/Colleges websites. Altogether, I identified 141 online courses’ short descriptions delivered by Business and Management Schools or Business/Marketing Academic Depts. of 88 Universities and Colleges from 26 countries, with the periods 2011-2012 and 20122013 accounting for 53.90% of all courses’ descriptions. The allocation of courses descriptions is as follows: 2002-2003 (3 courses’ descriptions, 2 universities/colleges); 2003-2004 (2 courses’ descriptions, 2 universities/colleges); 2004-2005 (5 courses’ descriptions, 5 universities/colleges); 2005-2006 (8 courses’ descriptions, 5 universities/ colleges); 2006-2007 (7 courses’ descriptions, 6 universities/colleges); 2007-2008 (8 courses’ descriptions, 7 universities/colleges); 2008-2009 (9 courses’ descriptions, 7 universities/colleges); 2009-2010 (10 courses’ descriptions, 8 universities/colleges); 2010-2011 (13 courses’ descriptions, 13 universities/colleges); 2011-2012 (23 courses’ descriptions, 20 universities/colleges); and 2012-2013 (53 courses’ descriptions, 48 universities/colleges).

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

From a population of 21,604 words in 141 courses’ descriptions -based on frequency counts1,935 words were collected for 20 key-concepts, namely: “marketing”, “business”, “ethics”, “social responsibility”, “consumer”, “green”, “sustainability”, “society”, “moral”, “value”, “consumption”, “knowledge”, “skill”, “action”, “challenge”, “consumerism”, “dilemma”, “reflect”, “awareness” and “ecology(-ical)”. “Marketing”, “business”, “ethics” and “social responsibility” included of the 100% of the courses’ descriptions analyzed, indicating their coverage by all courses’ descriptions. Although, one of the most known conceptual variations of “consumerism” (Swagler, 1994) is the connection to the the selfish and frivolous collecting of products, or “economic materialism,” during the frequency counts’ stage only two word counts were found for the key concept “materialism”.

RESEARCH RESULTS Descriptive Statistics and Frequencies As shown in Table 1, based on the confidence levels (95%), there is a statistically significant difference between the samples. The largest standard deviations found (79.94, 23.72, 18.72, 16.53, 15.27, 13.39, 10.80 and 10.16) are in relation to the concepts: “marketing”, “consumer”, “business”, “sustainability”, “society”, “ethics”, “consumption” and “social responsibility” respectively. The Jarqe-Bera statistic is significant for all key concepts except for “reflect,” “awareness” and “ecology (-ical),” suggesting that seventeen from twenty concept counts are not distributed normally. Tests for skewness reveal a positive asymmetry for the seventeen concept counts. The distribution for ten key concepts is attributed to the platykurtosis, and for the rest ten concepts to the leptokurtosis.

From the 1,935 words counted in 141 online courses’ descriptions, 23.82% of counts were for “marketing,” followed by “business” (15.76%), “ethics” (9.45%), “social responsibility” (6.25%), “consumer” (6.04%), “green” (5.73%), “sustainability” (5.32%), “society” (4.75%), “moral” (3.41%), “value” (3.35%), “consumption” (2.68%), “knowledge” (2.37%), “skill” (2.32%), “action” (1.49%), “challenge” (1.65%), “consumerism” (1.34%), “dilemma” (1.18%), “reflect” (1.03%), “awareness” (1.03%) and “ecology(-ical)” (0.93%). Figure 1 shows several interesting developments indicated by shifts in the frequency counts from year to year. For example, interest in consumerism increased nineteen-fold in 2012-2013 in comparison with 2011-2012. Interest in consumer increased sixteen-fold and interest in consumption increased six-fold in 2012-2013 in comparison with 2011-2012 and for society there is an increase by five times in 2012-2013 in comparison with 2011-2012. Similarly, there was a very significant increase in interest in “sustainability,” “green,” “challenge,” “dilemma,” “reflect,” “awareness” and “ecology(-ical)”. A significant interest was noticed in “ethics,” “value,” “moral” and “reflect” in 2011-2012 relative to 2010-2011. Substantial increased focus was noticed for concepts such as: “sustainability,” “green,” “knowledge,” “society,” “consumption,” “consumer,” “ecology(-ical)” and “consumerism” in 2010-2011 compared to 2009-2010.

Hierarchical Cluster Analysis for Count Data Based on “Nearest Neighbor” – Grouping the 20 Key Concepts Meaningful groups of the key concepts related to “consumerism” are crucial in this study in order to deepen the understanding of the key concept “consumerism” in marketing education. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) in this content analysis is adopted for an exploratory analysis to reveal

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 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Table 1. Descriptive statistics – characteristics of the distribution N

Min

Max

Median

Mean

S.D

Confidence (a=.05)

Skew

Kurtosis

JarqueBera

P-Value

marketing

461

0

274

9

42

79.9481

7.2980

2.9202

8.9108

1085.2972

0.0000

business

305

9

64

20

28

18.7248

2.1014

1.0779

-0.0381

714.3634

0.0000

ethics

183

6

50

12

17

13.3961

1.9409

1.8843

3.4975

208.7494

0.0000

social responsibility

121

0

34

7

11

10.1686

1.8118

1.5868

1.3889

354.1704

0.0000

consumer

117

0

80

1

11

23.7246

4.2989

3.5267

9.2738

434.4231

0.0000

green

111

0

40

3

10

13.7219

2.5527

1.9299

0.8244

90.7918

0.0000

sustainability

103

0

43

0

9

16.5365

3.1935

2.3187

1.2669

105.1822

0.0000

society

92

0

53

2

8

15.2727

3.1208

3.8290

9.2655

375.2910

0.0000

moral

66

0

12

5

6

3.6056

0.8699

1.0050

-0.6020

46.7883

0.0000

value

65

0

22

3

6

7.3410

1.7846

2.5293

1.6015

74.6041

0.0000

consumption

52

0

36

0

5

10.8082

2.9377

3.9960

8.7368

209.6989

0.0000

knowledge

46

0

16

1

4

5.6536

1.6338

2.2141

0.4014

50.5263

0.0000

skill

45

0

15

3

4

4.4599

1.3031

2.5437

2.8836

48.5533

0.0000

action

29

0

10

2

3

2.8381

1.0329

2.3439

4.5452

29.4387

0.0000

challenge

32

0

17

0

3

5.1275

1.7765

3.3530

6.4178

75.5344

0.0000

consumerism

26

0

19

1

2

5.5906

2.1489

3.2262

10.2416

101.9142

0.0000

dilemma

23

0

9

1

2

2.7002

1.1035

1.8428

4.0012

13.9787

0.0009

reflect

20

0

6

1

2

1.7215

0.7545

0.6802

2.7919

1.5784

0.4542

awareness

20

0

7

2

2

2.0889

0.9155

1.0158

3.2379

3.4864

0.1750

ecology(-ical)

18

0

5

1

2

1.8586

0.8586

0.3923

0.2128

6.2880

0.0431

Figure 1. Graphical representation of the frequencies from the word counting for the twenty key concepts

52

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

natural groupings of the key concepts within a data set of word counts that are not apparent (e.g. Namey, Guest, Thairu & Johnson, 2007). The objects in this hierarchical cluster analysis are 20 variables (key concepts), as I intend to examine the relationships between the key concepts. HCA is best for small datasets because this procedure computes a proximity matrix of the distance/ similarity of every case with every other case in the dataset. An agglomerative method was used to cluster cases. The agglomerative method begins with each case being a cluster by itself and continues until similar clusters merge. The definition of ‘shortest distance’ is what differentiates between the different agglomerative clustering methods. In single-linkage clustering (“nearest neighbor), a single element pair makes the link between two clusters, namely those two elements (one in each cluster) that are closest to each other. Mathematically, the linkage function – the distance D(X,Y) between clusters X and Y – is described by the expression

D(X, Y) = min d(x, Y), x∈X,y∈Y

where X and Y are any two sets of elements considered as clusters, and d(x,y) denotes the distance between the two elements x and y. Table 2 shows the proximity matrix, which is a distance matrix, showing the numbers on the on the lower half will be the same as the numbers in the top half. Quite often only the lower half of a symmetric matrix is displayed, with other information being displayed in the upper half (such as a combination between distances and correlation coefficients). Values on the diagonal are zero, since a case does not differ from itself. The smallest difference between key-concepts is .117, the distance between “marketing” and “consumerism”. The largest difference between key concepts is .703, the distance between “sustainability” and “moral”. In addition, the key concepts “consumerism” and “moral” are farthest apart (.599). As key concepts

“marketing” and “consumerism” are clustered together must also be far from “moral”. Looking at the matrix (Table 2), this shows that indeed key concepts “marketing” and “moral” are relatively far apart (.405). In Table 3, the agglomeration schedule is presented showing the results of the analysis of clustering cases, showing the change in the distance measure. The column labeled “Coefficients” has the values of the distance statistic used to form the cluster. Based on Table 3, the agglomeration schedule shows that the key concepts “social responsibility” and “skill” are combined in a cluster first at stage 1, labeled “social responsibility” with a coefficient value .105. At stage 2, key concepts “marketing” and “consumerism” from to become cluster labeled “marketing”. The key concepts “business” and “ethics” become cluster “business” and key concepts “marketing” and “challenge” become cluster “marketing,” at stages 3 and 4 respectively. At stage 5, key concept “action” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 6, key concept the key concept “consumption” is added to cluster “marketing”. At stage 7, key concept “social responsibility” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 8, key concept “ecology(-ical)” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 9, key concept “awareness” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 10, key concept “reflect” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 11, key concept “society” is added to cluster “marketing”. At stage 12, key concept “consumer” is added to cluster “marketing”. At stage 13, key concept “dilemma” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 14, key concept “value” is added to cluster “business”. At stage 15, key concept knowledge is added to cluster “marketing”. At stage 16, cluster “business” joins cluster “marketing”. At stage 17, key concept “moral” is added to cluster “marketing”. Key concept “green” is added in cluster “marketing” in stage 18. In the last stage, key concept “sustainability” is added to cluster “marketing”. Figure 2 presents the icicle plot, a visual representation of the agglomeration schedule (see

53

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Table 2. Proximity matrix Case

Matrix File Input Marketing

Business

Ethics

Social Responsibility

Consumer

Green

Sustainability

marketing (1)

.000

.444

.400

.352

.233

.355

.394

business (2)

.444

.000

.127

.151

.491

.323

.439

ethics (3)

.400

.127

.000

.190

.504

.386

.529

social responsibility (4)

.352

.151

.190

.000

.468

.369

.459

consumer (5)

.233

.491

.504

.468

.000

.416

.382

green (6)

.355

.323

.386

.369

.416

.000

.280

sustainability (7)

.394

.439

.529

.459

.382

.280

.000

society (8)

.180

.377

.369

.344

.307

.435

.458

moral (9)

.405

.241

.282

.377

.672

.578

.703

value (10)

.277

.199

.248

.212

.533

.426

.509

consumption (11)

.146

.412

.442

.444

.203

.375

.335

knowledge (12)

.214

.220

.307

.280

.423

.263

.361

skill (13)

.226

.154

.183

.105

.426

.398

.483

action (14)

.345

.151

.145

.296

.510

.389

.542

challenge (15)

.137

.271

.304

.312

.316

.462

.446

consumerism (16)

.117

.333

.352

.377

.185

.423

.446

dilemma (17)

.424

.196

.240

.342

.527

.511

.583

reflect (18)

.220

.171

.172

.288

.521

.533

.647

awareness (19)

.303

.161

.185

.204

.415

.529

.535

ecology(-ical) (20)

.278

.155

.245

.202

.424

.291

.457

Case

Matrix File Input Society

Moral

Value

Consumption

Knowledge

Skill

Action

marketing (1)

.180

.405

.277

.146

.214

.226

.345

business (2)

.377

.241

.199

.412

.220

.154

.151

ethics (3)

.369

.282

.248

.442

.307

.183

.145

social responsibility (4)

.344

.377

.212

.444

.280

.105

.296

consumer (5)

.307

.672

.533

.203

.423

.426

.510

green (6)

.435

.578

.426

.375

.263

.398

.389

sustainability (7)

.458

.703

.509

.335

.361

.483

.542

society (8)

.000

.557

.383

.270

.343

.315

.412

moral (9)

.557

.000

.416

.678

.476

.362

.433

value (10)

.383

.416

.000

.497

.292

.233

.375

consumption (11)

.270

.678

.497

.000

.402

.472

.526

knowledge (12)

.343

.476

.292

.402

.000

.313

.386

skill (13)

.315

.362

.233

.472

.313

.000

.371

continued on following page 54

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Table 2. Continued Case

Matrix File Input Society

Moral

Value

Consumption

Knowledge

Skill

Action

action (14)

.412

.433

.375

.526

.386

.371

.000

challenge (15)

.318

.507

.390

.303

.381

.360

.472

consumerism (16)

.215

.599

.455

.273

.409

.431

.517

dilemma (17)

.376

.522

.372

.514

.417

.431

.332

reflect (18)

.394

.272

.403

.612

.485

.293

.394

awareness (19)

.374

.424

.364

.532

.507

.302

.403

ecology(-ical) (20)

.391

.404

.346

.565

.291

.304

.430

Challenge

Consumerism

marketing (1)

.137

.117

.424

.220

.303

.278

business (2)

.271

.333

.196

.171

.161

.155

ethics (3)

.304

.352

.240

.172

.185

.245

social responsibility (4)

.312

.377

.342

.288

.204

.202

consumer (5)

.316

.185

.527

.521

.415

.424

green (6)

.462

.423

.511

.533

.529

.291

sustainability (7)

.446

.446

.583

.647

.535

.457

society (8)

.318

.215

.376

.394

.374

.391

moral (9)

.507

.599

.522

.272

.424

.404

value (10)

.390

.455

.372

.403

.364

.346

consumption (11)

.303

.273

.514

.612

.532

.565

knowledge (12)

.381

.409

.417

.485

.507

.291

skill (13)

.360

.431

.431

.293

.302

.304

action (14)

.472

.517

.332

.394

.403

.430

challenge (15)

.000

.308

.452

.513

.429

.537

consumerism (16)

.308

.000

.461

.566

.538

.528

dilemma (17)

.452

.461

.000

.531

.500

.493

reflect (18)

.513

.566

.531

.000

.347

.512

awareness (19)

.429

.538

.500

.347

.000

.532

ecology(-ical) (20)

.537

.528

.493

.512

.532

.000

Case

Matrix File Input Dilemma

Reflect

Awareness

Ecology(-ical)

55

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Table 3. Agglomeration schedule Stage

Cluster Combined Cluster 1

Coefficients

Stage Cluster First Appears

Cluster 2

Cluster 1

Next Stage

Cluster 2

1

4

13

.105

0

0

7

2

1

16

.117

0

0

4

3

2

3

.127

0

0

5

4

1

15

.137

2

0

6

5

2

14

.145

3

0

7

6

1

11

.146

4

0

11

7

2

4

.151

5

1

8

8

2

20

.155

7

0

9

9

2

19

.161

8

0

10

10

2

18

.171

9

0

13

11

1

8

.180

6

0

12

12

1

5

.185

11

0

15

13

2

17

.196

10

0

14

14

2

10

.199

13

0

16

15

1

12

.214

12

0

16

16

1

2

.220

15

14

17

17

1

9

.241

16

0

18

18

1

6

.263

17

0

19

19

1

7

.280

18

0

0

Table 3). The diagram is read as follows (bottom to top). The first column is for the key concept “sustainability” and the last column is for the key concept “marketing”. Based on Figure 2, at 20 clusters, key concepts “skill” and “social responsibility” are joined to form one cluster and the remaining 18 key concepts are individual clusters. At 19 clusters, key concepts “marketing” and “consumerism” make one cluster, “skill-social responsibility” is clustered and the remaining 17 key concepts are individual clusters. At 18 clusters, key concepts “business” and “ethics” make one cluster, “skillsocial responsibility,” “marketing-consumerism” are clustered and the 16 key concepts are individual clusters. At 17 clusters, key concepts “consumerism” and “challenge” make one cluster, “skillsocial responsibility,” “marketing-consumerism,”

56

“business-ethics” are clustered and the 15 key concepts are individual clusters and so on. Ending, at 1 cluster, where all key concepts join to make one cluster, the “marketing” cluster. In Figure 3, the dendogram plot shows how far (or close) concepts were combined. The length of the branch (or link) shows how far apart each case is from the other cases in its cluster. The plots rows represent each case on the y-axis and x-axis is rescaled distance coefficients. Cases with low distance/high similarity are close together. The plot shows that the key concepts are clustered into two groups. Group 1 “business key concepts”, “social responsibility”, “skill”, “business”, “ethics”, “action”, “ecology”, “awareness”, “reflect”, “dilemma” and “value” and Group 2 (“marketing key concepts”): “marketing”, “consumerism”, “challenge”, “consumption”,

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Figure 2. Icicle plot

“society”, “consumer”, “knowledge”, “moral”, “green” and “sustainability”.

Linear Correlations and Trend Analyses In this section, linear correlations and trend analyses are computed for the research needs implied by the fifth research objective of this study. Table 4 presents the linear correlations between each pair of key concepts, (as an estimate of proportion of variability due to “true score” rather than error) showing the straight-line relationships between two key concepts that are met only in courses’ descriptions. This analysis allows us to deepen our understanding of the relationships that are tested in the following linear regression analyses1 and to heighten confidence that the tests are valid (from problems such as autocorrelation). Strong

correlation between a pair of key concepts implies that both measure the same and one concept is redundant. In this subsection, the trend analyses for the predicted values are presented (see Tables 5 and 6): (i) marketing and business courses that cover consumerism-related issues; and (ii) universities/colleges offering these courses; and (iii) key concepts relative to consumerism for the periods (2013-2014, 2014-2015 and 2015-2016), based on linear regressions. Least squares criterion was in order to find the best fit under that criterion. Table 5 presents the results of trend analysis for the predicted number of marketing and business courses covering consumerism issues and universities/colleges offering such courses for 2013-2014, 2014-2015 and 2015-2016. Y’s represented data (from 2002-2003 till 2012-2013) on the dependent variables [(i) marketing and business courses

57

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Figure 3.Dendrogram plot

covering consumerism issues; and (ii) universities/colleges offering such courses] and x’s the periods 2002-2003 till 2012-2013. The new x’s represented the predicted values for marketing and business courses covering consumerism issues and universities/colleges offering such courses for the periods 2013-2014, 2014-2015 and 2015-2016. Table 6 shows the highest relative increases in key concepts of the underlined set of marketing and business courses of the last 10 periods were connected to the following: “marketing,” “business,” “ethics,” “social responsibility,” “consumer,” “green,” “sustainability,” “society,” “consumption,” “value” and “consumerism”. Table 6 also shows that the focus for the next three periods (from 2013-2014 till 2015-2016) will most likely be connected to the key concepts: “marketing,” “business,” “ethics,” “consumer,” “green,” “sustainability,” “society,” “social responsibility,” “consumption,” “consumerism,” “value,” “knowledge” and “skill”. There is no evidence that the

58

focus of this set of marketing and business courses will slow down in the next three periods for any of the 20 key concepts.

Alternative Models and Validity Tests 1. The alternative models for the second research objective: a. First Model: Conism = f (M), Conism is the consumerism and M the marketing. b. Second Model: Conism = f (B), Conism is the consumerism and B the business. For the first alternative model, 95.00% the variance of the dependent variable is explained by the independents. F=170.966 with sig.F=.000 show that the model is valid. Colinearity and autocorrelation diagnostics show that there are no colinearity and autocorrelation problems, as

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Table 4. Linear correlations 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

marketing (1)

1.0000

0.8107

0.9281

0.8801

0.9678

0.8337

0.7238

0.9867

0.5044

0.7401

business (2)

0.8107

1.0000

0.9193

0.9679

0.7435

0.9034

0.8181

0.7644

0.5599

0.9397

ethics (3)

0.9281

0.9193

1.0000

0.9382

0.8469

0.8423

0.6800

0.8820

0.5735

0.8772

social responsibility (4)

0.8801

0.9679

0.9382

1.0000

0.8448

0.9303

0.8498

0.8616

0.5346

0.8815

consumer (5)

0.9678

0.7435

0.8469

0.8448

1.0000

0.8476

0.7824

0.9813

0.3718

0.6038

green (6)

0.8337

0.9034

0.8423

0.9303

0.8476

1.0000

0.9429

0.8272

0.3598

0.7833

sustainability (7)

0.7238

0.8181

0.6800

0.8498

0.7824

0.9429

1.0000

0.7470

0.2717

0.6552

society (8)

0.9867

0.7644

0.8820

0.8616

0.9813

0.8272

0.7470

1.0000

0.4050

0.6800

moral (9)

0.5044

0.5599

0.5735

0.5346

0.3718

0.3598

0.2717

0.4050

1.0000

0.5969

value (10)

0.7401

0.9397

0.8772

0.8815

0.6038

0.7833

0.6552

0.6800

0.5969

1.0000

consumption (11)

0.9868

0.8001

0.8874

0.8780

0.9905

0.8720

0.8001

0.9899

0.4234

0.6916

knowledge (12)

0.8330

0.9262

0.8288

0.9306

0.8154

0.9627

0.9416

0.8226

0.4562

0.8510

skill (13)

0.9224

0.9391

0.9446

0.9878

0.8868

0.9116

0.8334

0.9082

0.5783

0.8555

action (14)

0.9289

0.8673

0.9510

0.8767

0.8845

0.8637

0.7297

0.8916

0.4300

0.7854

challenge (15)

0.9655

0.8319

0.8963

0.8899

0.9500

0.8259

0.7729

0.9467

0.5842

0.7117

consumerism (16)

0.9747

0.7108

0.8392

0.8109

0.9903

0.7895

0.7145

0.9833

0.4118

0.5979

dilemma (17)

0.8913

0.7857

0.8470

0.7758

0.8435

0.7393

0.6509

0.8721

0.2979

0.7370

reflect (18)

0.8536

0.6839

0.8164

0.7940

0.8233

0.6696

0.6103

0.8547

0.6122

0.5920

awareness (19)

0.8765

0.8014

0.8551

0.8804

0.8884

0.7961

0.7577

0.8768

0.4647

0.6314

ecology(-ical) (20)

0.6781

0.7727

0.6488

0.8254

0.7564

0.9150

0.9320

0.7062

0.2238

0.6130

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

marketing (1)

0.9868

0.8330

0.9224

0.9289

0.9655

0.9747

0.8913

0.8536

0.8765

0.6781

business (2)

0.8001

0.9262

0.9391

0.8673

0.8319

0.7108

0.7857

0.6839

0.8014

0.7727

ethics (3)

0.8874

0.8288

0.9446

0.9510

0.8963

0.8392

0.8470

0.8164

0.8551

0.6488

social responsibility (4)

0.8780

0.9306

0.9878

0.8767

0.8899

0.8109

0.7758

0.7940

0.8804

0.8254

consumer (5)

0.9905

0.8154

0.8868

0.8845

0.9500

0.9903

0.8435

0.8233

0.8884

0.7564

green (6)

0.8720

0.9627

0.9116

0.8637

0.8259

0.7895

0.7393

0.6696

0.7961

0.9150

sustainability (7)

0.8001

0.9416

0.8334

0.7297

0.7729

0.7145

0.6509

0.6103

0.7577

0.9320

society (8)

0.9899

0.8226

0.9082

0.8916

0.9467

0.9833

0.8721

0.8547

0.8768

0.7062

moral (9)

0.4234

0.4562

0.5783

0.4300

0.5842

0.4118

0.2979

0.6122

0.4647

0.2238

value (10)

0.6916

0.8510

0.8555

0.7854

0.7117

0.5979

0.7370

0.5920

0.6314

0.6130

consumption (11)

1.0000

0.8633

0.9175

0.9190

0.9649

0.9849

0.8850

0.8301

0.8834

0.7562

knowledge (12)

0.8633

1.0000

0.9194

0.8397

0.8458

0.7792

0.7718

0.6613

0.7567

0.8920

skill (13)

0.9175

0.9194

1.0000

0.8877

0.9275

0.8648

0.7964

0.8620

0.9036

0.8006

action (14)

0.9190

0.8397

0.8877

1.0000

0.8977

0.8726

0.9051

0.7424

0.8142

0.6928

challenge (15)

0.9649

0.8458

0.9275

0.8977

1.0000

0.9501

0.8529

0.8703

0.9226

0.6992

consumerism (16)

0.9849

0.7792

0.8648

0.8726

0.9501

1.0000

0.8588

0.8180

0.8540

0.6973

continued on following page

59

 The Evolution of Consumerism in the Marketing Education

Table 4. Continued 11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

dilemma (17)

0.8850

0.7718

0.7964

0.9051

0.8529

0.8588

1.0000

0.6278

0.7478

0.5851

reflect (18)

0.8301

0.6613

0.8620

0.7424

0.8703

0.8180

0.6278

1.0000

0.9075

0.5086

awareness (19)

0.8834

0.7567

0.9036

0.8142

0.9226

0.8540

0.7478

0.9075

1.0000

0.6509

ecology(-ical) (20)

0.7562

0.8920

0.8006

0.6928

0.6992

0.6973

0.5851

0.5086

0.6509

1.0000

Table 5. Results of the trend analysis for the predicted number of courses and universities/colleges for the next three periods (2013-2014, 2014-2015 and 2015-2016) 2003-2004

2004-2005

2005-2006

2006-2007

2007-2008

2008-2009

Courses (N=141)

3

2002-2003

2

5

8

7

8

9

Universities/ Colleges (n=88)

2

2

5

5

6

7

7

VIF=1.000 (VIF10 but there is no autocorrelation problem. D= 2.011 for a=.05, (dL < d < dU), which means that the test is inconclusive for positive autocorrelation and dL< (4-d) 10 but there is no autocorrelation problem, as d= 2.068 for a=.05. Further (dL < d < dU), which means that the test is inconclusive for positive autocorrelation and dL< (4-d) 0.05: normally distributed data 5-point likert-scale: 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = somewhat disagree; 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 4: somewhat agree; 5: strongly agree

488

 The Social Side of Consumerism

Table 4. Relationship between socio-psychological need satisfaction of passengers and their activity level on the Facebook pages of major German airports (Man Whitney U-Test) Activity

Mean Rank of Socio-Psychological Need Satisfaction Activity Performed

Mean Rank of Socio-Psychological Need Satisfaction Activity not Performed

Sig. Level

N

Read (all respondents)

313.50

n/a

Like posts

347.41

265.14

p < 0.001

626

Share posts

348.47

292.54

p < 0.001

626

Comment on existing posts

388.93

278.86

p < 0.001

626

Write own posts

408.49

300.77

p < 0.001

626

626

Note. Confidence interval: 95.0%; p < 0.001: statistically significant difference between the mean ranks of groups

From the results of the Man-Whitney U-Test it was possible to draw the conclusion that passengers that report a higher degree of socio-psychological need satisfaction are more active on the airports’ Facebook pages.

EMBRACING ONLINE CONSUMERISM FOR ECONOMIC BENEFIT: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE AIRPORT INDUSTRY The research results support the postulated hypothesis that socio-psychological need satisfaction of passengers on SSP can be considered as a precondition for economic need satisfaction of airport organizations. The source of economic need satisfaction on Facebook seems to be linked with the way airports can harness the cooperation and engagement of their passengers on their corporate Facebook profiles. To embrace online consumerism for economic benefit, it is therefore vital for airport managers to understand how the motivation of passengers to enter into a collaborative conversation with airports can be increased. The findings of the passenger survey suggest that socio-psychological human need satisfaction results into a higher activity level of passengers on the airports’ Facebook pages. Hence, airports need to generate appropriate need satisfiers to foster passenger engagement on SSP (see Table 5).The

distinction between human needs and need satisfiers draws on the work of economist Max-Neef (1991). The need-satisfier-approach of Max-Neef focuses on the relationship between individuals and society to explain the difference between prosperous and poor countries. Notwithstanding, the author considers the framework as a valuable theoretical foundation to also explain the difference between successful and failing organizations. Organizations with efficient processes, talented employees and state-of-the-art technology may still fail due to eroded social relations with their customers (Cohen & Prusak, 2001). Social relations are created through communication. On SSP communication can be compared to interactions related to information exchange. Both, communication context and communication content on SSP need to support the satisfaction of the human needs for self-determination, competence, relatedness and meaning to support customer engagement, such as the volunteering of information. The satisfaction of the need for self-determination demands for an autonomy-supportive communication context. Meaning that the communication between airports and their passengers is not controlled by events, for example the deletion of critical user posts. Passengers must be free to express their ideas and opinions with regard to the airport and their services. Otherwise, the motivation to volunteer information will decrease. A competence-supportive communication content

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Table 5. Generating satisfiers for human needs on SSP to foster online consumerism for economic benefit Human Need / Theoretical Concept

Need Satisfier

Self-determination refers to a feeling of autonomy and choicefulness. In an autonomy-supportive social context the self-determined activity is characterized by integration and the absence of conflict or pressure to cooperate. Events that control the behavior of individuals have been found to negatively influence well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1987).

Autonomy-supportive communication context: • Communication is not controlled by events – for example deletion of critical user posts. • Passengers are free to express their ideas and opinions with regard to the airport and their service.

Competence can be described as the motivation to succeed at optimally challenging tasks and being able to achieve expected outcomes. The need to feel competent and challenged is often linked to human actions that are targeted at fostering progress and is associated with feelings of curiosity and interest. Identities are formed during communication with others. Individuals can suffer distortion, if a picture of themselves is mirrored back to them that is too restricted or even demeaning and degrading (Dambmann, 2004; Taylor, 1997).

Competence-supportive communication content: • Communication enables passenger to achieve expected outcomes (fast resolution of service request etc.) • Communication is interesting and opens up new perspectives Competence-supportive communication tonality: • Passenger ideas and suggestions are valued and encouraged • Airport provides positive competence feedback

Relatedness refers to the need to be connected to others. Human beings need affectionate care and a sense of belonging from infancy on. Relatedness is not concerned with outcomes, but rather with a need to belong and to feel cared for (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Personalized communication:      • Communication acknowledges unique distinctness of passenger. Community building communication:      • Communication creates a sense of belonging – passengers feel like part of a larger airport community.

Meaning is provided by values and norms that can be regarded as “a foundation for stable expectations that are efficient, because individuals act with greater assurance of the outcome” (Hetcher, 2004, p. 82). SSP facilitate access to peer reviews and recommendations. Both convey a public understanding of the superiority of a product or service relative to its asserted value propositions. By this SSP support orientation with regard to customer buying decisions.

Orientation supportive communication: • Transparent communication of value propositions regarding the airport service portfolio. • Fulfillment of promised value propositions. • Authentic communication in case of service shortfalls.

on SSP is required to generate satisfiers for the human need for competence. Competence-supportive communication not only enables passengers to achieve expected outcomes, for example a fast resolution of a service request, but is also interesting, while opening up new perspectives for the passengers. By ensuring a competence-supportive communication tonality and positive competence feedback, passenger ideas and suggestions are valued and further encouraged. Satisfiers for the human need for relatedness include a personalized communication that acknowledges the unique distinctness of each passenger. Equally important is a community building communication, which creates a sense of belonging, so that passengers feel like part of a larger airport community. The satisfaction of the human need for meaning depends on an orientation-supportive communication on SSP. This requires a transparent communication

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of value propositions, the fulfillment of promised value propositions and an authentic communication in case of service shortfalls.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The chapter reports on a cross-sectional study with focus on major German airports (> 5 million passengers). This is a rather specific research focus. Accordingly, the airport sample size was rather small, which inhibited the application of advanced statistical analysis, such as structural equation modeling. Future academic research agendas can be identified regarding the adaptation and replication of the study for other industries or countries with larger sample sizes. As SSP are a fast changing phenomenon there is also

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the need for a longitudinal study to assess the changes in economic need satisfaction of airport organizations upon further commoditization of online consumerism. Further research effort is also needed to enhance our understanding how online consumerism affects or even transforms corporate culture and organizational structures of business organizations.

CONCLUSION Drawing on quantitative and qualitative research, the study described in this chapter has contributed to an understanding to what extend German airport organizations currently profit economically from online consumerism, i.e. a collaborative conversation with passenger on SSP. The findings suggest that interacting with passengers on the online social network Facebook increases the economic need satisfaction of airport organizations as compared to traditional communication channels. Notwithstanding, despite a constantly increasing number of passengers connecting to airport organizations on Facebook, airports are not yet able to fully exploit the potential of online consumerism, as the critical mass for passenger feedback to be representative is not yet reached. As SSP are a relatively recent phenomena still very little is known about the underlying motivation of customers to engage with organizations and volunteer information. Touching on theories of human needs the chapter has proposed and tested a theoretical framework that considers human need satisfaction as the source of engagement motivation of passengers on SSP. The research findings suggest that the satisfaction of the human needs for self-determination, competence, relatedness and meaning increases the activity level of passenger on the corporate Facebook pages of airports. Finally, the chapter has offered recommendations for airport organization how to further embrace

online consumerism for economic benefit. This is achieved by generating satisfiers for human needs, when communicating with passengers on SSP. For decades management scholars were taught that profit always comes before humanity. The online consumerism paradigm, however, places the emphasis again on the “psychosocial structure of markets” (Varey & McKie, 2010, p. 327) and urges organizations to adhere to age old social interaction principles again.

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Constant, D., & Kiesler, S. (1996). The kindness of strangers: The usefulness of electronic weak ties for technical advice. Organization Science, 7(2), 119–135. doi:10.1287/orsc.7.2.119 Dittmar, H., & Kapur, P. (2011). Consumerism and well-being in India and the UK: Identity projection and emotion regulation as underlying psychological processes. Psychological Studies, 56(1), 71–85. doi:10.1007/s12646-011-0065-2 Eckersley, R. (2013). The mixed blessings of material progress: Diminishing returns in the pursuit of happiness. In A. Della Fave (Ed.), The exploration of happiness. Present and future perspectives (pp. 227–246). Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5702-8_12 Foster, A. (2008). Listen up: understanding the bottom-up influence of social technologies on consumer behavior. The Lawlor Review, 2(XVI), 10–15. Gossieaux, F., & Moran, E. K. (2011). The hypersocial organization: Eclipse your competition by leveraging social media. New York: McGraw-Hill. Haefling, S., Monteiro, E., Foray, D., & von Kroh, G. (2011). Social software and strategy. Long Range Planning, 44, 297–316. doi:10.1016/j. lrp.2011.08.001 Kaplan, A. M., & Haeinlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite!: The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons, 53, 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003

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 The Social Side of Consumerism

Wilkie, W. L., & Moore, E. S. (2012). Expanding our understanding of marketing in society. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 53–73. doi:10.1007/s11747-011-0277-y

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Facebook: Globally most adopted online social network founded in 2004 by Harvard student Marc Zuckerberg (see also Social Software Platforms). Network Organization: In a network organization a clear cut distinction between employees and otherwise involved stakeholders, such as customers, cannot be drawn. More human resources, i.e. people involved, are available for the company than the people employed (Gummesson, 2006). Online Consumerism: Collaborative conversation of customers with business organizations

and among customers on SSP with the purpose to tailor product and service offerings to customers’ needs. Self-Determination Theory: Self-determination theory addresses factors that either foster or undermine the motivation of an individual to engage in activities. Social Capital: Investment in social relations governed by norms of reciprocity. Social Software Platforms: Web-based services, such Facebook, that allow users to set up a profile, virtually connect to other users and share information, videos, photos etc. with their network of connections based on privacy settings. Socio-Psychological Human Needs: Human needs for self-determination, competence, relatedness and meaning. Socio-psychological need satisfaction is vital for human well-being and intrinsic motivation.

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Chapter 22

From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House Bernd Hallier European Retail Academy, Germany

ABSTRACT This chapter is intended as “food for thought” for a holistic perspective on Food Waste Management, linking inductive research of an EU-project with the scope of an interdisciplinary vision combining aspects of macro-economics, ecology and ethics. The academic contribution is to demonstrate the broad variety of choices for decision-makers in different geographical and ethnic regions in a joint international effort to optimize the availability of harvested food through all the global/national food chains to the consumers; this includes those consumers who are for various reasons not able to pay the market-price at all. The original terminus “distribution” taken from the business administration literature is enlarged in this chapter by categories such as “food-recovery” and Food banks/charities.

INTRODUCTION The growing population around the globe will need about 40 percent more food by the year 2050. On the other hand at the moment about 40 percent of the food volume intended for human consumption worldwide is lost at the fields /within the logistics or wasted in the distribution/at consumers. Scarce resources hit poor segments of the population first: within the countries as also seen on a global scale. Within an inductive study of applied sciences the EU-project Forward tries to optimize the total supply chain from farm to fork by focusing critical points of food waste with the solutions to return waste into the production or to

pass on unsold products to charities / food banks. The result is a guide of awareness and training of food waste managers. Another result of that study is that optimization is still seen mainly under parameters of short-term economics/business while future models of equilibrium should also be aware of parameters of ecology and ethics.

DATA-FRAME AND ESTIMATES Within the scope of this chapter, some selected macro- and micro-data will demonstrate the relevance of the topic for the economies, ecology and ethics.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch022

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 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House

Macro-Data Concerning Food Availability The first researcher creating a mathematical axiom to demonstrate the increasing gap between the growth of population and the growth of food was Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834). In his publication of 1798 “An Essay on the Principle of Population” (Malthus, 1798), he stated that the population would grow in a geometric progression, while food supply would be increased only in a arithmetic progression. What Malthus could not know was the agro-chemical revolution in the following century which helped to increase the food-volume dramatically. Nevertheless two hundred years later – and especially since the World Economic Crisis of this decade - the topic is gaining momentum again reflected, for example, by Jamann (2013): • • •

The FAO-Food Price Index shows the impact of price-volatility on market situations. The World Hunger Index shows how many countries in Africa suffer. PNAS-data of 2012 reveal in which degree poor countries sell their farm land to richer countries which try to secure its population against hunger in the long run (see Table 1).

Those activities and needs stimulated the EU-Commission to develop its own forecasts and counter-actions to stop the increasing gap Table 1. Transfer of agricultural potential - Papua-New Guinea:

90 percent to Malaysia

-Gabun:

74 percent to Singapore

- Mozambique:

69 percent to South Africa

- Ukraine:

66 percent to the USA

- Uruguay:

51 percent to Argentina

- Tanzania:

45 percent to Sweden

between supply and demand and between the rich and the poor. The EU-Commission is now focusing its efforts on improving the environmental sustainability of the food chain towards food waste minimization and packaging optimization (Forward, 2013).

National Estimates Trade structures are globally very different – and this is also true for the awareness of food waste (i.e. concerning the different levels where food waste appears). Even the terminus “food waste” is under discussion in the EU-Project “Fusions” and will be agreed upon most probably in 2014 (Fusions, 2013). In Germany, public discussions started after the film “Taste the Waste” (Thurn, 2011).The topic was highlighted in the print media and on TV – and, due to its extreme examples and its estimate of total waste, the discussion became very controversial in the food-sector. At the present stage, the players of the different organizations follow the following scenario: • •

•

In the film of Valentin Thurn a total waste of 20 million tons per year is estimated for Germany. Taking this data for granted and subtracting retail and consumer-waste data, this means estimated 13 million tons for the level of agriculture/processing (inclusive bakers, butchers and catering). According to an EHI-panel (EHI, 2012), in retail there are annually 310.000 tons in a total of 41.000 outlets. The main critical volumes are relating to: ◦◦ Bread/Cakes etc in Self-Service: 10.4 percent of volume ◦◦ Instore Baking Shops: 6.5 percent ◦◦ Fruit and Vegetables: 5.1 percent ◦◦ Meat/Fish: 2.1 percent ◦◦ Milk Products: 1.6 percent

Source: Jamann/Welthungerhilfe/Presentation March 19th 2013

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•

Referring to an individual consumer-level, Cofresco (2011) claims an annual volume of food waste per person of 80kg.

Tupper (2013) of the British IGD points out in a study concerning food-waste in the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand that only 48 percent of the harvested fruit and vegetables are consumed while the rest is wasted within the product-flow. Second ranking in his waste-study is seafood, followed by grain products, meat and milk. The waste quota in retail for those four countries are quantified by 12 percent for fruit and vegetables, 10 percent for seafood, 4 percent for meat and 2 percent for grain. Those data of Tupper taken in comparison with the German survey give a hint that local retail structures / organizations as well as consumer habits vary around the globe. Potential solutions for food waste control have to be based therefore on regional scenarios.

THE EU-PROJECT FORWARD One of the initiatives of the EU is the FORWARD project under the Leonardo da Vinci program: food recovery and waste reduction: published in permanent updates under www.foodrecoveryproject.eu.

The Forward Consortium The idea is to create a consortium and selecting partners from Eucrea Merchant in Italy (project leader) and other partners from the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Lithuania, Netherlands and Poland. Their competences are explained in the next section. Important for such EU-projects is that, from academic perspectives, also other combinations of partners are possible – potentially with other competences/focus than reflected by this consortium. In so far, each project of the EU is aimed not only as a singlechoice option of partners – but also to integrate

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people of different cultures/nations/experiences. Each project illustrates the European integration process. The idea of Leonardo da Vinci programs is twofold: • •

Projects should bring together several countries to solve a project mostly within a time- frame of two or four years. Projects are co-sponsored by the EUCommission: in the case of FORWARD by 75 percent of the expenses.

Competences of the Consortium While Eucrea Merchant is the project leader within the flow of the products from agriculture via processing and distribution to the consumer, Greenport Innovation Center/NL has competences in agriculture and retail, the European Retail Academy/Germany in retail and branded goods industry, the Hungarian Food bank Association, the Lithuanian Charitable Foundation “The Food Bank” and the Federation of Polish Food Banks in recovery and re-distribution of unsold food, and AVACA Technologies/Greece in IT-support for the Consortium and Tempo Training; Consulting/ CZ is leading in the working packages of training.

Methodology for Joint Action Essential are personal meetings of the group-members – rotating in the different partner countries. The kick-off of FORWARD started in Milano/Italy, the second workshop was in Budapest/Hungary – visiting there also the distribution center of the national food bank. A second tool uniting the team is a joint homepage (www.foodrecoveryproject. eu). It is a joint publication requiring the translation in all languages of the partners. The most specific third project-tool was the development of a joint questionnaire to harmonize the know-how of the group members concerning the two target groups processing/retail and food banks/charities

 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House

on the one side and the national characteristics on the other. Again it has to be pointed out that the limitation to eight countries instead of twentyeight member states of the EU is a kind of trial and error – nevertheless, it opens the possibility of creating an indicator for further improvement by a bigger research audience after a first result has been presented as a kind of catalyst. This FORWARD-study could be interpreted as a prestudy if other countries/organizations join during the dissemination in 2013/2014. In all the participating countries the ambition was to collect responses from 15 companies and 5 food banks/charities concerning their experiences with food waste, recovery programs and the willingness to cooperate in the development of a profile for a food waste manager/ certificate and to build an IT-data bank for benchmarking over-supply in food and need for distribution via charities.

LEARNINGS FROM THE RETURNED QUESTIONNAIRES Initial Quantitative Results Ujhelyi from the Hungarian partner reports in her summary about the 151 companies and 100 charities/food banks in detail (Ujhelyi, 2013). The total of 251 returns from 8 countries with an average of 31 responses shows that the overall target of 160 questionnaires had been fulfilled. Answers came in either by eye-to-eye interview, by phone-interviews or via e-mail.

Qualitative Results In the frame of the Chapter “From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House” only keypoints of the responds of the questionnaires can be mentioned – just to demonstrate the potential for action to take.

The most mentioned answers from production/ processing/distribution to reduce food waste are: • •

Better planning of production quantities. Better coordination and communication between consumer demand and production – also well known in retail marketing by Efficient Consumer Response: ECR (Hallier, 1987,1997,1999). Concerning the food donations the answers are:

• • •

More monitoring of donated food (37 percent). Better communication with charities in the existing network (36 percent). Also contacts above the existing panel of partners (34 percent).

Another 34 percent indicated an interest in the possibility to share experiences with other companies in food waste reduction and treatment. Derived from these results is the idea to establish a bestpractice flow-chart as an online-training platform for the total supply chain (food banks/Charities included) to help at specific questions or even to create a certification for food waste managers as an online-tool covering learning-modules on all supply chain aspects. Retail chains could use that additional qualification of its personnel in their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programs. The most interesting answers of food banks/ charities are: • •

39 percent of the food banks/charities do not have contracts with their donors. 32 percent are interested in receiving info about food safety regulations and best practices especially within the ‘cold’ chain (storage and transportation.)

Combining these two answers with the general point of risk-management in the total supply chain there seems to be a big potential scope of

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 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House

co-operation. Joint action could be based on tracing/ tracking systems (Hallier, 2012).

A Learning Flow Chart Academically the traditional thinking of the terminus “distribution” was enriched by two add-ons: re-distribution of unsold but still eatable food and the enlargement of the total supply chain by food banks/charities. The practical implication is to use this flowchart as a frame for an e-learning platform with modules. The aim is an interactive game to understand the product-flow from harvest up to the consumer, its waste potentials and anti-waste actions as well as benchmarks for the work of food banks/charities. The learning modules can be used threefold: • • •

To get to know problems/solutions from all players involved to build info-material and benchmarks. To give answers with those modules to most upcoming individual questions. To build a Zero-Version of a complex training-schedule for a food-waste-manager certificate.

The content of the Zero-Version is based on the evaluation of the questionnaires discussed by the consortium in the Budapest meeting. A second step is homework of the participating countries to describe more in detail what is exactly expected in each of the modules, what the aim of the content is for the different target groups and how the learning results can be checked in each module. This work will be supported by one external peer per country who, based on her/his sector-experience, gives further recommendations. Step three will be taken in spring 2014 testing the interactive game with 20 partners in each of the eight countries of the FORWARD consortium. It is aimed to have a similar mix like with the panel of interviews. In summer 2014, the roll-out of the game is planned via conferences and media. Independently from those three internal steps of the project consortium and its decisions about the evaluation of participants working with the Zero-module, either educational units for the labor-force or academia can enrich that basic module to version 1, version 2 – also in the context of defining credit-points according to the Bologna-process.

Figure 1. Integration of food recovery and food donation

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 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House

The Holistic Global House Food Waste Management is strategically only a small sub-part of the vision to bridge economic and ecological/sustainable and, last but not least, ethical aspects towards ‘Building’a Holistic Global House.

Economics This section should not elaborate all economic questions concerning food, but only indicate the variety of answers being very controversial in different countries – or being different over a time axis.

The Present Economic Crisis It is obvious, that in a booming economy problems of wealth distribution are smaller than during a time of crisis. It starts with the level of employment/unemployment: having for example 25 percent unemployment instead of 10 percent is not only a bigger amount of people in need – but it means also less money to be spent on people in need as taxes from income are lacking. Quite often unemployment in regions coincide with declining business in local sectors – like in 2013 in Detroit/USA with problems of the US-car industry or ship-yard industry in East Germany. Another factor is that in declining/closing companies young people looking for a first job have no chances to get integrated into the work-force as could be seen in 2013 in Greece and Spain.

National and International Migration It is also a fact that in times of crisis mostly migrants are hit first by having limited access to favored countries or being already in the country otherwise declared officially or in- officially as abundant. Foreign workers in Dubai for example have to leave the country immediately after hav-

ing lost their job. Food is a basis need factor of the Maslow-Pyramid (Maslow, 1943) and, in so far, migrants are a special target-group also for food-programs. Another facet of migration is the question of an unbalance of wealth between the North and the South – or after the fall of the iron curtain also between East and West. The problem of refugees escaping from Africa would be softened if jobs could be created where people live. The existence of three food banks from the former socialistic block in the FORWARDconsortium is an indicator of the need in those countries.

Ecology/ Sustainability Since the Rio-Protocol in 1992 and the KyotoProtocol in 1997 the ecology/ sustainability/ green issues are getting into the focus of governments globally. Most probably a global agreement on ecological standards is difficult to be reached as the warming of the world has not been acknowledged by politicians around the world in the same degree, and the impact is indeed differently in the various areas on the globe. Another problem of a world-wide agreement relates to the question of the level of CO 2 emission to be fixed. Should developing countries be given more expansion while decreasing the volumes for those having been the biggest “CO 2 - sinners” in the past? But even in Europe there is no uniform answer on the question if, for example, agricultural products should be used for fuel to decrease CO 2 or if agricultural products should be reserved for human consumption directly or indirectly by feeding animals. In this context, consumption has to be reconsidered as beef-production is one of the biggest CO 2 – suppliers; on the other hand, it is for some countries such as Argentina an important export sector.

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 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House

Ethics The total food chain in the 21st century is a global system with national and international facets. In most of the rich countries there is a broad assortment of products available to offer consumers certain agricultural products all over the year as somewhere on the globe there is harvest-time for that demand. On the other hand, even with that product-flow the distribution of margins between small growers on the one hand side and big producers/ distributors on the other is not always balanced. Organizations like Fair Trade focus on the improvement of this situation. But apparently quite often a gap is opened by market forces which create the need for donations at a later stage. The national and international policy should, as a basic standard, enable the local people to create work to allow for a decent life. In Germany, after World War II, the “free market economy” concept was complemented by the word “social”. By this constitution the government took on responsibility for those being not able to compete in the free market without support. Another indicator for considering ethics is the religions worldwide. Even if religions differ in their belief, all have in common to share donations with the poor. On the operational level ethnological history and local behavior is reflected on. Insofar no “standard behavior” can be demanded in the frame of a holistic global house but examples as benchmarks can be communicated. In addition, the topic of food banks belongs into such a category especially as it is often closely connected with charities on a local basis. Food banks can be a special tier in ethics: either by handing over freshly produced food or recovered food. Sharing know-how in this sector might be regarded as sharing a part of ethics.

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SOME IMPORTANT SUGGESTIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF CONSUMERSISM Starting research for food waste and food recovery, it becomes apparent that it relates to consumer behavior either directly within the households or indirectly via buying behavior influencing distribution and processing. On the other hand it can be claimed, of course, that industry and distribution act vice versa with their packaging of products or pricing strategies on consumer behavior.

Mass Production and Government Guidance Again only some selected examples from industry/ distribution and potential governmental actions will be provided as suggestions for further research.

Availability of a Broad Assortment The economic boom after World War II was based in Western Europe as a copy of the USA and its mass production/mass distribution pattern. Andy Warhol’s picture of the Coca Cola bottles was a symbol of mass consumption and even of mass art production. The message of the Coca Cola picture was: “Everybody can drink Coca Cola – drinking Coca Cola is American life-style. American self-service in modern supermarkets offer you as much Coca Cola as you can drink” (Hallier, 2004). Forty years later A.Gurski continues this story by his “99 Cent” pictures (Hallier, 2004)): in the huge assortment of consumer products the consumer is lost as only the 99 Cent advertisement can be recognized. In 2002, the department store Kaufhof placed a giant 2200 square meter poster at its outlet with the slogan “You want it – you buy it – you forget it” in reference to an exhibition in Frankfurt about the affluent society (Hallier, 2004).

 From Food Waste Management to a Holistic Global House

In this context, the advertisement components “cheap/cheapest price,” “three for the price of two”, “big portion”, “all you can eat” aim to increase volume in the mass distribution. Hallier showed in his case study of pack-sizes in vendingmachines for cigarettes that German consumers smoked a pack of cigarettes per pack independently if the content was 23 cigarettes or, due to tax increases, only 17 or 18 cigarettes (Hallier, 1983). Into the same contextual direction goes the industry/distribution project “ECR: Efficient Consumer Response”. Although in the word itself the consumer implicitly is in the center – in real life, however, it is an optimization of distribution costs. As picking costs remain the same with one or ten units of sales the system promotes big-volume products due to better logistic costs. Therefore, units are sometimes created which afford losses of unsold products, for example of 10 percent just because the same unit saves costs of perhaps 20 percent. From a business administration point of view, that calculation would still fit the profitorientation. Changing consumer behavior is the central objective of the Fair Trade movement by devoting more margins to farmers and SMEs in developing countries, Fish Labels or organics taking into account sustainability and even Corporate Social Responsibility projects start to create new consumer advertisement strategies.

Government Guidance The author of this chapter is advocating a “social market economy” which favors frameworks for private initiatives but not neglecting underprivileged groups. Nevertheless government has a strong role to play in education and taxation. If consumers are wasting 40 percent of sold products in the affluent society it does not show to attribute the right value to food. Subsidies should be reconsidered. It is suggested to move away from the agriculture level to reveal the “real price” and change to tax-cuts for low-income groups. Of course, this step could not be restricted to the national

level but has to be done in an international joint effort as otherwise it would come to distortions in the agricultural sector between the countries. Governments can also support “new thinking” by integrating the topic of “food value” into its schooland university education. Moreover, there could be a certified food waste manager. Also the public understanding of what is labeled by the MHD-date (‘Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum’ in German-translate into English): the last date for consumption or the last date for taste/quality-assurance by industry (“best before…”) could be a topic of government campaigns. Last but not least on an European level there could be united tax-systems for foodrecycling and food donations which in globalized markets is essential. On the other hand food being dumped as waste could be punished for certain volumes in relation to turnover.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE CHAPTER In macro-economics the traditional model of the equilibrium-theory is based on a rather short-term scope of supply and demand which is due to the increasing speed of the globalization within the last twenty years already a big challenge in itself. The country ranking for investment opportunities is changing annually due to heavy fluctuation of capital. Nevertheless the equilibrium-theory has to be enlarged by ecological and ethical parameters to ensure sufficient food supply in the long-run for growing populations in an environment of climate changes and increasing gaps between rich and poor. The micro- level of the FORWARD-project shows potential to enlarge the traditional total supply chain from farm to fork by the new category of food-recovery to reduce waste and a category of welfare to share unsold products with underprivileged people. Both measures save resources and are therefore innovative for the ecology and for ethics. Thus, the chapter has portrayed a

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pragmatic picture of a food waste management from the holistic perspective and has highlighted its relevance from the context of economy, ecology and ethics. The chapter can be considered as a catalyst for strategic lessons for the managers and practitioners. The content can also be taught as a classroom lesson to the senior or advanced students of strategic marketing and marketing management to have a demonstration of application of a holistic marketing concept/perspective from a very practical perspective.

REFERENCES FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (n. d.).World food situation. Retrieved from www. fao.org/worldfoodsituation/ FoRWaRd. (2013-2014). Establish a platform between the total supply chain and food banks/charities. Retrieved from www.foodrecoveryproject.eu FUSIONS. (n. d.). A research-consortium defining food waste and waste quantities. Retrieved from http://www.eu-fusions.org/ Hallier, B. (1983). Organisation und Marktstrategie. Goettingen, Germany: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht. Hallier, B. (1987). Sich ins Regal hineinrechnen. Absatzwirtschaft, 10, 17–21. Hallier, B. (1997). Wal Mart mythos fuehrt zur falschen ECR positionierung. Dynamik im Handel, 4(1992), 4-9. Hallier, B. (1999). Wird ECR zum Club der Grossen. In A. von der Heydt (Ed.), Handbuch efficient consumer response (pp. 55–60). Muenchen, Germany: Vahlen. Hallier, B. (2004). EuroShop – Inspiration, motivation, innovation. Cologne, Germany: EHIPublishing House.

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Hallier, B. (2012). From crisis to competence. Bonn, Germany: Orgainvent. Jamann. (2013, March 19). Welthungerhilfe. Lecture in Cologne. Malthus, T. R. (1966). An essay on the principle of population. London: Duesseldorf. (Original work published 1798) Maslow, A. (1943/1981). A theory of human motivation (P. Krunotorad, Trans.). New York: Rowohlt. Mett. (2012). Neue Werke. Lebensmittel Praxis, 5, p. 13. Mihr. (2011). Hilft Geld gegen Hunger?. Lebensmittel Praxis, 16, p. 3. Taste the waste. (n. d.). Retrieved from www. tastethewaste.com The DG Health and Consumers of the European Commission. (n. d.). Food-topics. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/sustainibility/index. en.htm The International Food Policy Research Institute. (1975). To help feeding the growing population around the world. Retrieved from www.ifpri.org/ ourwork/ The University for Applied Sciences. (n. d.). Workshop for industry and research to reduce food waste. Muenster, Germany. Retrieved from www.fh-muenster.de/Reducing_Food_Waste/ Toppits. (2011). Save food instead of wasting food. Retrieved from www.essen.pr-gateway.de/ save-food-statt-lebensmittelverschwendung Tupper, J. (2013). Food consumed vs. food wasted. In Food from farm to fork to landfill. London.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FoRWaRd: EU Project “Food Recovery and Waste Reduction.” Food Bank: Non-Government Organisation collecting food for underpriviledged individuals or Charities. Food Losses: Food intended for human beings lost by either bad weather conditions or insufficient technologies. Food Waste: Food not sold due to oversupply and landing in the waste box.

Food Waste Manager: Person being trained especially for waste reduction and food recovery. New Equilibrium: Finding an optimum between economics, ecology and ethics. Total Supply Chain I: Value chain starting from agriculture uptill retail ending finally at the consumer. Total Supply Chain II: Enlarged Total Supply Chain I by Food Banks and charities receiving not sold products.

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Chapter 23

Consumption, AntiConsumption, and Consumption Communities: The Football Clubs and its Fans Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Portugal Ana Regina Pires University of Aveiro, Portugal Ricardo Cayolla University of Aveiro, Portugal

ABSTRACT Broadly, consumerism can be considered as a set of beliefs and values integrated into, but not exclusive to, the global market system, intended to make people believe that happiness is best achieved through possessions. In literature there are several other definitions of consumerism, consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to (i) present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic, based on a systematic literature review and using the following databases to search information: Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI web knowledge; (ii) formulate a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (iii) discuss consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. The current study also carried out semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans with an average duration of 60 minutes each. Findings revealed four main types of anti-consumption: Global impact consumers or anti-consumption society; Selective consumption or anti-loyalists market activists; Conservative or Simplifiers; and Rejection of brand hegemony. Football fans are avid consumers of many products, such as information, knowledge, travels, tickets to matches, and diverse merchandizing from brands that sponsor the team and the club. Nevertheless, they are also selective consumers, rejecting everything connected to the rival clubs. Finally, the chapter provides insights for further research and managerial implications. In this vein, this chapter contributes to the existing literature giving insights for a better understanding of football clubs and fans as consumers and anti-consumers. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5880-6.ch023

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 Consumption, Anti-Consumption, and Consumption Communities

INTRODUCTION According to the Oxford English Dictionary (Simpson & Weiner, 1989), postmodernism is a philosophical movement, largely a reaction against the philosophical assumptions and values of the modern period of the Western (specifically European) from the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries to the mid-20th century. Indeed, many of the ideas characteristically associated with postmodernism can fairly be described as the straightforward denial of the general philosophical viewpoints of modernism. The term postmodernism may have different perspectives (Borgmann, 1992; Rosenau, 1992); some have been linked to the loss of a sense of historical past or the replacement of reality by images, simulations, and even unchained signifiers (Featherstone, 1991, p. 11). Howsoever, postmodernism exercises its influence on consumption. As Firat and Dholakia (1982) noted, the postmodern consumer is the consumer and the consumed. The postmodern consumer is involved in consumption experiences (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Holbrook, 1987; Schmitt, 1999), materialism (e.g., Belk & Pollay, 1985), meanings of possessions (Belk, 1988; Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988), semiotics (McCracken, 1988; Mick, 1988; Sherry, 1989), and consumption patterns (e.g., Firat & Dholakia, 1982). Consumers seek to self and social express themselves through the products they buy; they do not hesitate to demonstrate feelings through products and brands (such as love and hate) (Batra et al., 2012); and consumer self-image is dependent on the symbolic meanings attached to products and the relationships established through them. Thereby, postmodern consumers have a large number of possibilities to choose from even in a simple everyday purchase. This selection process influences the identity and consumption becomes a ‘looming threat of personal meaningless’ (Giddens, 1991, p. 201).

In this vein, the postmodern era becomes the tipping point for a new and more diverse vision of consumerism. So, consumption versus anticonsumption or alternative consumptions arises as a discussion topic, which will be addressed throughout this chapter. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is threefold: (i) to present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic, based on a systematic literature review and using the following databases to search for information: Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI web knowledge; (ii) to formulate a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (iii) to discuss consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. Football consumption is a field which has not yet been extensively explored within the context of consumerism. However, given football’s worldwide importance in economic terms (Szymanski, 2003), popularity (Nicolau, 2011), and the existence of committed consumers (fans), it becomes relevant to explore consumption and anti-consumerism in this context. The remainder of this chapter is organised as follows. First, a systematic literature review on consumerism and consumption is presented. This is followed by the theoretical arguments about consumption and anti-consumption concepts, typology of anti-consumption, anti-consumption movements, a framework showing consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations, and a discussion on consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. In order to better understand the consumption football phenomenon, this study carried out semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans with an average duration of 60 minutes. Finally, the chapter provides a set of future research directions and conclusions and managerial implications.

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SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW ON CONSUMERISM AND CONSUMPTION

Specification and Justification of the Time Frame to be Examined by the Systematic Literature Review

The search strategy of the present systematic review was implemented by using an automated search. The aim of this procedure is to collect information and increase the knowledge about consumerism and consumption. We intend to identify, document and conceptualize the key ideas of these concepts. In the context of the present systematic literature review, the following English search terms were used in the B-On System, containing electronic databases, such as Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI Web of Knowledge, which were used to search for information. The main search terms were “consumerism” and “consumption”. The variety of search terms used enhanced the possibility to include as much as possible relevant literature. Therefore, the preference for the search terms mentioned above emanates from the fact that they are sensitive for the present research topic. Here upon, this reduced the possibility of missing research papers that could be relevant to the present study. Moreover, the selection process for the identification and inclusion of the relevant research papers included the following three steps:

Due to the fact that one of the objectives of this study is to identify and document all of the recent research about consumerism, we applied the last five years filter, i.e., we included the period ranging from 2009 to 2013 in our research.

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A broad screen of the titles of the citations retrieved from the literature search and extraction of the studies irrelevant to the present study. A broad screen of the abstracts of the citations passed from stage one and selection of the most relevant to the present research topic. A strict screen of the remaining studies that passed the previous two stages and selection of the most appropriate and relevant ones to the present research topic.

Ancillary Procedures during Search The references of all articles that fulfilled the selection criteria were screened to identify other articles within the review period that are relevant to the research question.

The Aggregate Outcome of the Search Strategy The sum of the results retrieved from the literature search is shown in Figure 1 as a flow diagram.

Selection Criteria The selection criteria of the remaining 30 articles from the screening process are analysed below: •

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Time Frame: As already mentioned, the time period for the investigation of the existing literature was set from 2009 to 2013 in order to identify and document all the recent literature about the main theme. Study Topic and Study Type: Included only research papers, in English, which meet the aim of this study. Thus, studies that were irrelevant to the research propose were excluded from the final selection. Aiming to include only research papers on the best-quality evidence, this study excluded any literature that was not classified as primary. Methodology Adopted: As mentioned in the previous section, research papers that

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Figure 1. Selection process

adopted both the qualitative and quantitative methodology approach were included for two reasons: to limit the possibility of excluding significant and highly relevant studies, and to maximize the possibility of finding and documenting the most recent literature on consumerism.

Quality Assessment A quality checklist was developed in order to assess the quality of the selected studies, which includes four basic components: Validity, Reliability, Credibility and Integrity, each one graded with three marks. An explanation of these elements of quality measurement is provided below: •

Validity refers to how successful and accurate the study measurement is in relation to its research question. In other words, it concentrates on the study’s successfulness when measuring what the researcher intents to investigate and measure (Caldwell et al., 2010).

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Reliability refers to the consistency and the degree of replication of the results and how generalisable they are (Caldwell et al., 2010). Credibility reflects the researchers appropriate academic qualifications in order to be able to undertake the research project along with the writing style of the paper (Caldwell et al., 2010). In addition, this study measures the credibility of the research papers according to the ranking of the journal in which they were published. The selected studies will pass the quality assessment only if they were published in journals that are included in the Harzing quality list of journals. The reason for selecting the Harzing quality list of journals rests on the fact that is based on the analysis and ranking of 19 business and management official journal rankings (Mingers & Harzing, 2007). By applying the Harzing quality list of journals as a credibility measure, the quality of this paper will be in-

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creased because it will include studies published in the best journals worldwide. Integrity is translated on how robust the research study is and if there is a strict adoption of the chosen research process. It can be measured by evaluating if the methodology adopted by the researcher of the study is identified and justified (Caldwell et al., 2010).

Data Extraction In this systematic review, a developed data extraction form was used in order to extract the data from the selected studies and to document the data extraction process. Regarding the elements that have been extracted, we present a table providing a visualization of the general publications scenario about the developed theme. This process is done through a data extraction form that reduces human error and documented this process (Magarey, 2001; Tranfield et al., 2003; White & Schmidt, 2005). Table 1 shows the developed data extraction form along with the data extracted from each of the selected studies. Based on the systematic literature review, a group of the most relevant definitions of consumerism, consumption and anti-consumption is shown in Table 2. Consumerism or better yet the culture-ideology of consumerism (Arnould & Thompson, 2005) is a set of beliefs and values which ensure that happiness is best achieved through consumption, possessions, materialism (Sklair, 2010). Consumers desire to find fulfilment in things, objects and God is not part of the equation (Setmeyer, 2010). For Campbell (1995, 2004) the pleasures of consumerism lie in the endless deferral of the pleasure of fulfilment (Campbell, 1995, 2004). Consumption is the use of goods and services that somehow represents the understanding of ourselves in the world (Miller, 1995). Borgmann

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(2000), in turn, considers consumption as an everyday process. Thus, ethical consumption emerges as a postmodern idea. Ethical consumption requires making adaptations in consumer lifestyle, aiming at reducing the negative effects on the environment, people and animals (Clark, 2006). Ethical consumption has been associated to terms such as fair-trade (e.g., Clarke et al., 2007; Dolan, 2008), local (Pratt, 2008; Seyfang, 2006), organic (Clarke et al., 2008; Dombos, 2008), sustainability (Seyfang, 2004), environmental responsibility (Hobson, 2006), and community (Thompson & Coskuner-Balli, 2007). For Lee et al. (2009) anti-consumption literally means against consumption. Zavestoski (2002) considered anti-consumption, in a postmodern area, as a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption. Research in anti-consumption tends to focus on the reasons behind product/brand avoidance and sustainable lifestyles. Anti-consumption is to try to live a more sustainable life. For example, green consumers refuse to purchase products that are adverse to the environment (Moisander, 2007), ethical consumers reject products from enterprises which are not socially responsible (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2006), and consumers with strong political ideology do not purchase products/brands that do not correspond to their political ideology (Sandıkcı & Ekici, 2009; Black & Cherrier, 2010). The alternative consumptions are motivated by alternative intrinsic pleasures, the alternative hedonics. For example, alternative hedonics could be the pleasure of walking and cycling instead of driving a car, to cut down on packaging and plastic, to spend time cooking rather than consuming fast food (Soper, 2008). The systematic literature review allows formulating a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (see Figure 2). The components of the framework are explained in next sub-sections.

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Table 1. Data extracted from the selected files Key Concept

Key Results

Kozlowski, Bardecki, and Searcy (2012)

Authors

Journal of Corporate Citizenship

Journal

Fashion Industry; Apparel; Environmental impacts; Lifecycle assessment; Stakeholder analysis; Corporate social responsibility; Supply chain management

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a standard tool used to investigate the environmental impacts of all stages of a product’s life. An LCA provides a systematic means of identifying impacts of each stage and can lead one to an understanding of the appropriate responses. The stakeholder analysis is a systematic process of identifying individuals and groups whose interests should be taken into account when developing a policy or a program. This paper provides a conceptual and analytical framework by conflating LCA and stakeholder analysis to incorporate these considerations into the design process of fashion products, allowing for a systematic and holistic response. The paper illustrates that the identification of stakeholders and their interests, responsibilities and accountability provides a basis for the development and implementation of appropriate policies and programs.

Krishnamurthy and Kucuk (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Internet; Branding; Anti-consumption; Online consumption; Hate sites

Study 1 investigates the brand value’s impact on the likelihood of the presence of anti-brand sites. Strong brands are more likely to have antibrand sites. Study 2 is a content analysis of a representative sample of anti-brand sites that assesses the nature of the language used by such sites. Anti-brand sites use three types of language - market, ideological and transactional speech.

Sussan, Hall, and Meamber (2012)

Journal of Business Research

Brand divorce; Brand relationship; Introspection meditation; Spirituality; Selftransformation

In this paper brand divorce is viewed as a benefit transformational experience from the perspective of the introspecting author. This view stands in contrast to literature which considers brand divorce, from the perspective of the firm as negative.

Wiedmann, Hennigs, Pankalla, Kassubek, and Seegebarth (2011)

Journal of Business Research

Alternative fuels; Natural gas vehicles (NGV); Perceived risk; Innovation resistance

The results strongly suggested the presence of four clusters: The StatusOriented Sceptics, The Ecology-Minded Non-Drivers, The PerformanceOriented Traditionalists, The Risk-Averse Drivers.

Cherrier (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Consumer resistance; Identity; Voluntary simplicity; Culture jamming

By stressing the importance of hero resistant identities and project resistant identities, this article offers the concept of identity formation as central rather than peripheral to the development of consumer resistance.

Ahuvia (2008)

Journal of Economic Psychology

Happiness; Income; Life satisfaction; Motivation; Evolutionary theory

This essay has suggested that subjective well-being is not our only goal in life, that people are overly attracted to near-term rewards, and that our actions often are driven by evolved desires that can be inconsistent with personal subjective well-being.

Mady (2011)

Journal of Consumer Behaviour

Alienation from the marketplace; Readiness to embrace new technologies; Consumer sentiment towards marketing

Alienation from the marketplace is found to be negatively associated with sentiment towards marketing and the drivers of technology readiness, but positively associated with the inhibitors of technology readiness. More significantly, readiness to embrace technology is found to exhibit a strong and consistent relationship with sentiment towards marketing.

Davies (2011)

New Statesman

Football tourism

One excitement at time.

Portwood-Stacer (2012)

Journal of Consumer Culture

Activism; Anticonsumption; Consumption; Ethics; Identity; Politics; Subculture

Analytically, they can identify at least five motivations for anticonsumption behaviour: individuals may be motivated by personal, moral, activist, identificatory, and/or social concerns. In any given instance, multiple concerns may be at play and at different degrees of consciousness or acknowledgement on the part of the anti-consumers themselves. It is useful to tease out the various types of motivations, not only because this gives a fuller picture of why people behave the way they do, but also because this can help us to assess the potential effects achieved by anticonsumption practices and lifestyles.

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Table 1. Continued Authors

Journal

Key Concept Brand avoidance; Anti-consumption; Undesired self; Consumer resistance; Negative symbolic consumption

Key Results

Lee, Motion, and Conroy (2009)

Journal of Business Research

This study reveals three types of brand avoidance: experiential, identity and moral brand avoidance. Experiential brand avoidance occurs because of negative first hand consumption experiences that lead to unfulfilled expectations. Identity avoidance develops when the brand image is symbolically incongruent with the individual’s identity. Moral avoidance arises when the consumer’s ideological beliefs clash with certain brand values or associations, particularly when the consumer is concerned about the negative impact of a brand on society.

Black and Cherrier (2010)

Journal of Consumer Behaviour

Iyer and Muncy (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Anti-consumption; Self-actualization; Assertiveness; Selfconsciousness; Global impact consumers; Simplifiers

This research presents an initial attempt to develop scales that differentiate between people who engage in general anti-consumption for societal concerns and those who do so for more personal reasons. The results were promising, as a set of “We” anti-consumption statements and a set of “I” anti-consumption statements emerged from the factor analysis.

Ozanne and Ballantine (2010)

Journal of Consumer Behaviour

Sharing; Anticonsumption;

The study reveals four groups – Socialites, Market Avoiders, Quiet AntiConsumers and Passive Members. Socialites enjoy the social benefits of active participation in their library. Market Avoiders also perceive social and community benefits, are interested in sharing and are the least materialistic of the groups. Quiet Anti-Consumers feel a sense of belonging to their toy library and hold strong anti-consumption, frugality and sharing values. Passive Members are not socially involved, nor do they hold strong anti-consumption values. Thus, the authors found evidence that sharing may be one possible alternative market structure that may be adopted by anti-consumption consumers.

Moraes, Szmigin, and Carrigan (2010)

Consumption Markets & Culture

Anti-consumption; Consumer culture; Community; Ethnography

Reported findings are part of a three-year ethnographic research project and suggest that such communities have been overly perceived as presenting radical resistance to prevailing ideologies of consumer society. Collectively, they are more interested in entrepreneurial positive discourses, practices and choices, than in acting against consumer culture or markets. This view is buttressed by their varied production-engaged practices, which in turn are problematized in relation to (perhaps outdated) notions of consumers, producers and their interrelationships.

Sharp, Høj, and Wheeler (2010)

Journal of Consumer Behaviour

Proscription; anticonsumption; ban’s announcement; plastic bags;

Shoppers grouped according to their level of voluntary anti-consumption of plastic bags before the ban; the analysis finds that shoppers who voluntarily showed anti-consumption behaviour were the only group showing any voluntary shift in anti-consumption behaviours during the phasing-out period. These shoppers are supportive of forcing others to show anticonsumption, while the level of behavioural and attitudinal resistance from shoppers that showed little or no voluntary anti-consumption is low. These findings support the use of proscription to achieve anti-consumption behaviours; however, proscription does not necessarily engender full anticonsumption attitudes.

Albinsson and Yasanthi Perera (2012)

Journal of Consumer Behaviour

Alternative marketplaces; collaborative consumption; sharing; unconsumption; Sense of community

Their findings indicate that a sense of community is both a driver of participation and an outcome of these events. Organisers and participants utilise these venues to share knowledge and possessions for various ideological and practical reasons. Our findings also indicate that these events challenge the entrenched notions of exchange and reciprocity. Our research contributes to the literature by highlighting the importance of community, collaboration, and changing consumer mindsets to the success of such sharing efforts.

Overall, we find that anti-consumption is an integral part of trying to live a more sustainable life and, in particular, the acts of rejecting, reducing and reusing consumption are key elements to sustainable consumption. Indeed, we found that green consumption, while practiced, is not an essential part of sustainable living.

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Table 1. Continued Authors

Journal

Key Concept

Key Results

Banbury, Stinerock, and Subrahmanyan (2012)

Journal of Business Research

Subjective personal introspection; Sustainable consumption; Ecology; Self-fashioning

The authors uncover several dimensions that, taken together, form a more comprehensive explanation of why individuals may or may not succeed in their effort to consume in a more sustainable way. Several of the dimensions revealed included the presence or absence of public infrastructures of one’s place of residence, family composition, and the educational awareness of consumers.

Phipps et al. (2013)

Journal of Business Research

Social cognitive theory; Sustainable consumption; Reciprocal determinism; Sharing; Conservation

What is new in this article is the depiction of the interdependency of the three general factors – personal, environmental and behavioural – using an established theoretical framework, Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Rather than offer a contrary view, what this article proposes is a logical next step on how researchers conceive sustainable consumption and how researchers define the problems that they address.

Cromie and Ewing (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Anti-consumption; Brand hegemony; Open source; Brand dominance

Findings elucidate the necessary conditions for the rejection of brand hegemony to occur, revealing valuable lessons for vendors. These conditions comprise environment, positive motivation and negative motivation factors. The first two conditions are relatively constant, regardless of the vendor’s actions, while the last is largely of the vendor’s creation.

Peattie and Peattie (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Consumption reduction; Sustainability; Social Marketing

McGinnis and Gentry (2009)

Journal of Business Research

Anti-consumption; Creolization; Counter-conformity; Globalization; Identification; Underdogs

Findings suggest that underdog consumers support underdogs out of empathy, as a way to ensure the maintenance of equal opportunity in competition, and as a way to provide personal inspiration. Some motives for underdog support can be interpreted to be anti-consumption (or, at least, anti-corporate) in nature. On the other hand, many underdog consumers support and identify with underdogs not necessarily as a way to keep the top dog down, but as a means to keep the little guy competing.

Wheeler (2012)

Cultural Studies

Citizen-consumers; consumer movements; fair-trade consumption; globalization; mobilization; reflexivity

The citizen-consumer has many faces depending upon the audience, from compassionate Christian/Oxfam supporter, to supermarket retailer, campaigning activist, caring government department, free-market champion and Western/middle-class supermarket shopper. This paper has shown how the Fair-trade movement can offer some consumers, retailers and organisations the opportunity to act as citizens both within the market and as political campaigners to improve the livelihoods of some producers in the developing world.

Youngberg (2009)

The Explicator

Edward Albee; Superficiality; American Dream

In our push to satisfy our own vain pleasures, in our vain attempts to “get satisfaction,” Americans just might end up spawning monsters and killing our own better selves in the process.

Varman and Belk (2009)

Journal of Consumer Research

Nationalist ideology; anti-consumption; Coca-Cola; Globalization

The research shows that the creation of national space is a reflexive local response to the historical perceptions about the displacements caused by globalization in the region. They identified the role of a nationalist ideology that, apart from the images of the economic exploitation of the local, involves invocations of tradition, patriotism, and an alternate local identity to create deeper challenges to authenticity. Their findings show that authenticity is being created around a particularized notion of nationhood. In the national space, consumers are reflexively taught to become like themselves. Temporal heterogeneity is a reflexive dimension of postcolonial anti-consumption that remains elided in extant theory.

Setmeyer (2010)

Dialog: A Journal of Theology

Consumerism, Theology of the Cross, Douglas John Hall, Stephen B. Bevans, Anthropology

Their message is anthropological and eschatological, not technical, though also practical. The message to North America, like is that there is “More!” and they will help you find it, set it free from within, and discover it in the humanity of others.

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Table 1. Continued Authors

Journal

Key Concept

Key Results

Penny (2012)

New Statesman

Capitalism; Consumerism; Teenagers; Shopping

The violence and frenzy of consumerism is terrifying – but that does not mean that shopping is inherently evil.

Hall (2011)

Geoforum

Ethics; Consumption; Ethnography; Ethical consumption; Family

By exploring the everyday ethics of money, waste and health choices in family consumption practices, this paper makes the case for recognising the ethical nature of everyday practices and choices of consumption. It is argued that rather than consumers subscribing to a given set of ethics in consumption, there are multiple ways of recognising consumption as an ethically-embedded process.

Tiwsakul and Hackley (2012)

Journal of Business Research

Asian; Identity; Thai; Consumption; Cultural; Autoethnography

Their study supports the suggestion that consumption is a primary site for the negotiation of the deep identity conflicts and postmodern paradoxes generated by the Asian encounter with the West and its values. It also contributes to a more nuanced understanding of ‘Asianness’ as a complex, conflict and variable concept in Western consumer and marketing research, rather than an unproblematic unity.

Soper (2008)

Cultural Studies

Consumerism; sustainable consumption; alternative hedonism; needs and desires; aesthetics of consumption

In pressing the case for the development of a new ‘hedonist imaginary’ with which to subvert current perceptions of the attractions of a consumerist material culture, the article also considers the possible contribution of cultural and artistic activities to the formation of an anticonsumerist aesthetic.

Sklair (2010)

Theory, Culture & Society

Consumerism; globalization; iconic architecture; shopping; transnational; capitalist class

In this article the author has tried to show that most iconic architecture of the global era is also best analysed as a form of hegemonic architecture, serving the interests of the transnational capitalist class through the creation of consumerist space or, more accurately, through the attempt to turn more or less all public spaces into consumerist space.

Figure 2. Framework of consumption wave and anti-consumption motivations and types

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Table 2. Conceptualization of consumerism, consumption and anti-consumption Consumerism

Consumption

The culture-ideology of consumerism refers to a set of beliefs and values integral, but not exclusive, to the system of capitalist globalization, intended to make people believe that human worth is best ensured and happiness is best achieved in terms of our consumption and possessions (Sklair, 2010, p. 135)

Use of goods and services in which the object or activity becomes simultaneously a practice in the world and a form in which we construct our understandings of ourselves in the world. (Miller, 1995, p. 30).

It is the phenomenon produced by the misdirected desire to find fulfillment in things outside of God, particularly in the consumption of material possessions (Setmeyer, 2010, p. 306)

Consumption is an essential everyday process; ‘to live is to consume’ (Borgmann, 2000, p. 418).

Consumption Waves and New Consumption Communities According to Lang and Gabriel (2005), Hilton (2003) and Moraes, Szmigin and Carrigan (2010), the Western consumption movements’ cycles evolved over four main waves beginning in the late 1800s, (1) consumer cooperatives (late 1800s to early 1900s), (2) consumer information (1930s), (3) mass consumption (1960s), (4) green to ethical consumption (late 1980s): 1. The consumer cooperatives wave is marked by a strong desire for social change (in this period the first consumer cooperatives were organised). 2. The consumer information wave was the “first time that consumer activism saw itself as enabling consumers to take best advantage of the market, rather than trying to undermine the market through cooperative action or political agitation” (Lang & Gabriel, 2005, p. 44). 3. The mass consumption wave accepts capitalism and the market. 4. The green to ethical consumption wave emerged because of the rapid growth in consumer organisations and coalitions and proliferation of internet access. Groups of consumers are more aware of ethical issues

Anti-Consumption Anti-consumption is ‘a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally’.(it is not merely a behavioural phenomenon but also an attitudinal one) Zavestoski (2002, p. 121) in (Cherrier, 2008).

and their purchase process takes into consideration societal, environmental and animal welfare concerns (Harrison, Newholm, & Shaw, 2005). The green to ethical consumption wave is the birthplace of the new consumption communities, innovative, creative and collaborative through the diffusion of networking technologies. Consumption in online environments is indivisible from production. Consumers act as double agents, entrepreneurs and buyers in a market evolving into experience service. Therefore, social networking sites, websites, blogs and other online sites become the new marketplace.

Motivations for Anti-Consumption Portwood-Stacer (2012) considers and explains five motivations for anti-consumption behaviour, that is, (1) personal, (2) moral, (3) activist, (4) identificatory, and/or (5) social concerns: 1. Personal motivations relate to immediate personal benefit achieved through alternative consumption experiences. 2. Moral describes the practices motivated by judgments about right and wrong. 3. Activist: Activist consumers act to put pressure on a system or larger entity to alter a

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pattern of immoral practice. As Kozinets and Handelman (2004, p. 693) pointed out, activists “repeatedly emphasized that they were also trying to elevate consumers’ collective awareness and, through it, change consumer culture and ideology”. 4. Identificatory: Norms, rituals can establish “practices which an individual embraces, not only because such practices fulfil utilitarian needs, but because they give material form to a particular narrative of self-identity” (Giddens, 1991, p. 81). Anti-consumers who wish to be identified as anarchists would be motivated to orient their behaviours towards those ideas and habits that are most commonly accepted by their peers (the anarchist group they belong to) and perceive themselves as authentically anarchist. 5. Social: Social anti-consumption is a means of achieving solidarity among participants in the anarchist movement. The anarchist anti-consumers reject the mainstream consumption (Veblen, 1994). Therefore, they unite around their symbolic rejection of mainstream consumption.

Typology of Anti-Consumption Cromie and Ewing (2009) propose that anticonsumption emerge from at least two distinct phenomena and four distinct sub-groups. The two phenomena are: (1) the consumers who seek to reduce consumption and (2) consumers who have no such intention. The first group of consumers refers to the social movements intending to reduce society’s acceptance of consumption as a way of life (Kozinets, 2004; Zavestoski, 2002) and those who are conservative and motivated by personal values. The second group does not have a direct intention to reduce consumption, but is intentionally selective in its consumption, selection of product/ brand based on political, values or lifestyle convic-

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tion, or rejects brand hegemony; the people in this group tend to avoid dominant brands in the market. Iyer and Muncy (2009) suggested a similar typology of anti-consumers regarding four groups: 1. Global impact consumers, interested in reducing the general level of consumption for the benefit of society. 2. Simplifiers, who wish to adopt a less consumer-oriented lifestyle (Zavestoski, 2002), they believe that it is morally wrong to focus so much energy on self-serving consumption activities (Shaw & Newholm, 2002). 3. Market activists are those who avoid using a product/brand because it could cause a specific societal problem. 4. Anti-loyalists are consumers not committed to repurchasing a brand and avoid purchasing a product because of perceived inferiority or because of a negative experience associated with it (Lee et al., 2009). The first group, global impact consumers, is designated by Cromie and Ewing (2009) as the anti-consumption society. The second group, simplifiers, is similar to what Cromie and Ewing (2009) mentioned as conservative. The third group of market activists is known by Cromie and Ewing (2009) as the selective consumption. Finally, anti-loyalists are connected, in part, to selective consumption, but also to rejection of brand hegemony.

SPORTS IN POSTMODERN SOCIETY The following parts and sub-parts are devoted to the discussion of sports in postmodern society and consumption/anti-consumption of football fans. For such, in addition to the literature review, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans personalities with an average duration of 60 minutes. Some comments made

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by them are inserted in the text and their names showed in brackets and/or in italic. In the last two decades, professional sports have been studied from perspectives like sociology, ethnography and anthropology (Benkwitz & Molnar, 2012), public relations (Hopwood, 2007; L’Etang & Hopwood, 2008), sponsorship (Frank, 2012), cultural studies (Benkwitz & Molnar, 2012), demographic characteristics (e.g., Branvold, Pan, & Gabert, 1997), attraction motives (e.g., Snyder, Lassegard, & Ford, 1986), cognitive, affective and behavioural factors (e.g., Madrigal, 1995), even committed sport fans (e.g., Mahony, Madrigal, & Howard, 2000) and also a variety of ideological positions (e.g., Sugden & Tomlinson, 2000). Football and society are not separated by the Wall of China (Claussen, 2006, p. 587), but football seems to have been almost ignored as a consumer behaviour (consumption) topic of research, especially because it has always been seen as having characteristics that fall on the less ‘respectable’ and relevant set of dichotomies that assures the dominant social values (Tiesler & Coelho, 2006). Football, as team sport, provides a social experience that is not easy to describe: the whole is more than the sum of its parts (Claussen, 2006, p. 584) as “the individual no longer merely prefers the team, but by making it a part of the self, the team becomes an extension of the individual” (Funk & James, 2004, p. 11).

Football Fan as Consumer If consumption is an everyday essential process (Borgmann, 2000, p. 418) and consumerism is a result of human activity (Setmeyer, 2010), the football fan is a consumer. Knowing that football allows the possibility to attract to the level where the senses and emotions are well presented (Morrison & Crane, 2007), we can define consumption as the “use of goods and services in which the object or activity becomes simultaneously a practice in the world and a form in which we construct our understandings of ourselves in the world”

(Miller, 1995, p. 30). Assuming consumption as a behaviour that generally provides consumers with self-satisfaction of needs and comfort (Zavestoski, 2002), then football fans are consumers. Based on the definition of consumerism by Sklair (2010, p. 136), that is, a “set of beliefs and values intended to make people believe that human worth is best ensured and happiness is best achieved in terms of our consumption and possessions,” it seems that this definition is silent regarding emotions. We would include the emotions here, those emotions that Bagozzi, Gopinath & Nyer (1999) refer as emotions from the events or thoughts. But even these emotions are not enough to explain the phenomenon. To be a football fan is a way of being, with repercussions at professional and family levels. According to Setmeyer (2010, p. 306), a football fan is just “more”. To be a football fan is more than a “consumption of material possessions” or the “misdirected desire to find fulfilment in things outside of God,” it is a unique experience, with rituals, a pride in the club, a lifetime experience, sometimes more important than family and work.

Consumption Society Nowadays “living and consuming are more complexly interdependent than at any other time in human history” (Mick, 2006, p. 1). Individualism and materialism have led individuals to purchase goods regardless of its usefulness. The concept of consumer society emerges, precisely, from these practices and the high degree of dependence on consumables (McCracken, 1990). We do not speak only of basic needs in order to have a better quality of life. Consumerism is to acquire something superfluous and unnecessary, sometimes persuaded by several advertising means. Consumers tend to acquire expendable goods, setting the overconsumption as a frequent practice, placing themselves in situations of high dependency and fragility (McCracken, 1990). A football fan might follow his/her team, even travel abroad. To be

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connected to the club is not something superfluous, it is a way of life, and it is his /her identity. We live in a time when “the industry has evolved into a complex, fragmented, global system which at its very core is based on the notion of continual consumption of the ‘new’ and the discarding of the ‘old’” (Kozlowski, Bardecki, & Searcy, 2012, p. 18). The case of football equipment, for instance, in one season there is one primary, two alternatives and even equipment for commemorative editions or special ones. The following year, everything starts again. So, consumerism also has unpleasant consequences. “Consumerism is now compromised by its specific displeasures (stress, congestion, pollution, ill-health...)” (Soper, 2008, p. 567). Nevertheless, consumers nowadays are playing a role in the consumption process (Barnett, Cloke, Clarke, & Malpass, 2005). Look at this example: “I would rather have two sandwiches for lunch and have money for football” [Sara Pereira]. Having physiological needs minimally met, who defines what is needed? Is there any of “thermometer of needs”? Some “scale of needs”? We cannot forget that the beliefs and cultural values have a clear interference in the decisions of consumers.

FOOTBALL FANS A football fan, who evolved through a process of internalisation in order to fully integrate a football team within the self and makes the team and the football club an extension of him/herself, can be regarded as having a deep passion, being in love with a football club. Strongman (1996) pointed out that love includes various emotions, some of them being positive. The following positive emotions contribute to the explanation of this very complex phenomenon: interest, joy, pleasure, happiness, euphoria, victory, own intense satisfaction, delight, and so many others. Those emotions are present in football sport. In fact, Ahuvia (1993, 2005a, 2005b), an empirical

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research pioneer in the field of brand love, found that many consumers do have intense emotional attachments towards some loved objects such as a brand, a product, or a service. With respect to service there is not discussion about the intellect (Heaven & Ciarrochi, 2012), for the football fan the important thing is past experiences, emotions, feelings, joy, meetings, routines, needs and even the meaning of life. Even when all needs are satisfied “individuals still experience deficiencies in their human fulfilment” (Iyer & Muncy, 2009, p. 162). See the testimony of José Pedro Ribeiro: “After an intense week at work, football is my way to get some adrenaline pumping.” But, in football not everybody can win and in the end the victory is just for one team. So, what about fans of other team, the team that loses? Why do they follow their teams? Supporters of small clubs do it not only to keep the smaller teams in the competition (McGinnis & Gentry, 2009), but also because of personal issues: “Being a fan of my club is the greatest honour of my life” [António Américo], which confirms the words of Sussan, Hall, & Meamber, (2012, p. 520): “It is equally important to report how consumers dispose of their dependence on brands which may contribute to their well-being”. As in the school context, personality plays an important role in the way of being and experiencing the club (Heaven & Ciarrochi, 2012, p. 521). For the people we interviewed, to be committed to the club is forever. Building the self-identity through the club brand gives confidence. A self-transformation occurs with the brand always present. It is through the club brand, with the club brand. “After people, my team is the most important thing in my life” [Fernanda Rita]. Curiously, after the interview, Fernanda Rita talked about several episodes showing that she missed the birthdays of her parents because of team matches. She manages her time depending on matches, spends several hours on club blogs, and even puts her marriage at risk.

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Consumer Motivations The individual motivations and values play a very important role in their consumption activities and behaviours. Campbell (2005a, p. 23)notes that “the consumer typically brings skill,knowledge, judgment and passion while being motivated by a desire forself-expression.” Hall (2011, p. 627) remembers that “our consumption may alsoimpact our appearance and health.” It is true, but not only that: what about the confidence? The mood? The willingness to work? Ahuvia (2008, p. 497) added that “the pursuit of subjective well-being is not the ultimate end of allaction, but just one possible value competing with others such as the pursuit of honour orthe desire to follow cultural traditions”. When I was a kid, if there were a match, every Sunday afternoon I was there in the stadium with my grandfather. First, we went to the same restaurant, over and over, and then to the stadium. [Artur Sampaio] The sharing of a set of values and beliefs is a function of individual strengths, social and cultural rights, encouraging the formation of groups with similar values, and conditioning consumption. Consumption is a behaviour that generally provides consumers with satisfaction of self-needs and comfort, and assists them in constructing their self-identity (McGinnis & Gentry, 2009; Zavestoski, 2002). Consumers’ motivations emerge from a wide range of ideals including culture, socialization (Albinsson & Perera, 2012), negative market-based experiences, and political ideology (Sandıkcı & Ekici, 2009). Nowadays, where the consumer browses between goods and services, the factors ‘want’ and ‘need’ are clearly different and circumstantial (Hall, 2011, p. 631), even more so for a football fan. However, here, a ‘need’ is defined as somethingthat cannot be compromised upon, as a neces-

sity. On the otherhand, a ‘want’ is something that is desirable but not necessarily vital or worthy of sacrifice (Miller, 1998). I’m unemployed, I’m single, and instead of living with my mother I live in a rented room because my mom does not understand that I follow my team as I do, spending money I often do not have and we were always arguing. Thus, I ended all arguments. I live much worse materially speaking (accommodation, food, facilities), but I do what I need for my well-being. [Sara Pereira]

Self and Social Identity People use “consumption not just tobe happy, but to manage their identity and social relationships” (Ahuvia, 2008, p. 504) and in the case of football, the club and the team are like an anchor that shapes the daily life of the fan (Tuominen, 2007). Being a supporter requires means to have rituals, whatever that may be: the scarf they take to the stadium, putting the right foot first when entering the stadium, the restaurant where to eat and so on. Indeed, the fans have different behaviours. Some fans prefer to stay home and watch football alone. Others prefer to go to the café with friends or go to the stadium. But a few just only want to hear the result. My father stopped watching matches because he lost control. He was very nervous, he kicked the air, this was the degree of his involvement in the match, besides all the screaming and swearing. [Hilary Cruz] Rituals are very important because they create the link between the self-concept and these symbolic practices (Giddens,1991), they give meaning to the fun life and have an implication on identity. Through consumption, the fan builds a strategy to

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defend himself/herself from the ‘looming threat of personal meaningless’ (Giddens, 1991, p. 201). This authenticity (Varman & Belk, 2009) is created around the notion of team, the values of the club. Considering our consumption behaviour, some authors do not give much credit to personal choice, but instead give importance to collective norms, practices and institutional frameworks, where people act (e.g., Shove, 2003a, 2003b; Halkier, 2010; Southerton, Chappells, & Van Vliet, 2004; Warde, 2005). Others mention the importance of being “contextually embedded” (Banbury, Stinerock, & Subrahmanyan, 2012, p. 498). Identity-making is a dialectical process, continuously negotiated between our internal voices and the external world (Tiwsakul & Hackley, 2012) where the behaviour of the team has great impact. Considering the undesired self and image congruity, fans intend to maintain their selfconcepts, while simultaneously avoiding objects that could add undesired meaning to their lives, or objects they consider to be incongruent with their existing self-concept (Banister & Hogg, 2004; McCracken, 1989; Sirgy, 1982). These are the “symbolic resources for the construction of the self” (Tiwsakul & Hackley, 2012, p. 492), where even having in consideration the “memorydecay” with time (Nenycz-Thiel, Beal, Ludwichowska, & Romaniuk, 2013, p. 225) the fan has multiple means to fight that. I have a brief movie of the most important victories of my team on my cell phone and I watch it lots of times and I’m thrilled every time. [João Soares] We may say that “most of us have many layers of identity” (Khan, 2012) but the importance of the club for the identity of the fan is huge. My name is in the stadium as a founder and every match I go and I see it on the wall, it is an honour, an unspeakable pride [AR].

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In a world where everything moves so fast and with technologies that help to shape our way of being, act and consume, we have a “new visibility and its consequences” (Thompson, 2005, p. 32), where “these self-consciousconsumers are concerned about how society views them andhence they make conscious decisions to do the right things byengaging in behaviour that is very visible to the outside world” (Iyer & Muncy, 2009, p. 166).

Lifestyle A lifestyle can be defined as “a more or less integrated set of practices which an individual embraces, not only because such practices fulfil utilitarian needs, but because they give material form to a particular narrative of self-identity” (Giddens, 1991, p. 81). In this journey of identity, the individual focuses on “positive ways of living,” even the underdog (McGinnis & Gentry, 2009). To be a fan it is not simply to look for a positive way of living, it is a necessity, a recharging of energy, or a social life. “I have to, I need to see my team play.” [Nicolau Oliveira] The fan does not live in a bubble isolated and, therefore, the behaviour of each fan can be adjusted due to the constant exchange of information (internal and external) (Bandura, 1986). It took me another year to finish my degree. This was not well understood by my parents, who have made sacrifices for me to be able to study away from home, with increased expenditure. This happened because I always followed my team, so I had to work in order to get money to be able to do this without overburdening my parents. Clearly, the studies were affected. [David Arnês]

Sharing Football clubs are part of a brand community. Brand community is defined as “a specialized, non-geographically bound community, based

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on a structured set of socialrelationships among admirers of a brand” (Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001, p. 412). A fan should be engaged in a group, to feel part of a whole where the emotional component is so important (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012). However, if brand communities are described in the literature as “communities of consumption” (Cromie & Ewing, 2009, p. 219), then the football fans group is not a classic brand community. Although the first three traits that characterise brand communities a) consumption and co-creation b) connection to the brand, c) interrelationship brand-community can occur in football fans communities, the fourth trait d) the brand and the product, is not under anyone’s control, it rather results from a complex set of factors, unstable and highly permeable to sudden changes in performance. In a match, if one player fails a penalty it usually implies a defeat for his team. Consider the following example: Emirates CUP 2013, a friendly tournament between four teams: Arsenal, FC Porto, Galatasaray and Napoli. In the first match between FC Porto and Galatasaray, FC Porto had failed, in regular time, two penalties. The final result was 1-2. This defeat has led to: i) the loss of the first trophy of the season, ii) the creation of doubts in the team considering the beginning of the season, iii) increased difficulty to impose a new coach before a group accustomed to victories. And who failed the penalties? “Only” the top scorer for the previous season (Jackson Martinez) and “only” the most charismatic team player [Lucho Gonzalez]. Who controls the brand? Overall, football fans collaborate in the community (with few exceptions): “To go to the stadium, the singing, the noise, to celebrate the goals, the cheers. Having my seat and watch the match with my friends, everything is perfect!” [José Américo]. To travel to other countries with the football team, where the most wealthy fans can even travel in the same flight as the players, the fact that there are services that provide team sweaters thus creating a uniform colour throughout the wave of supporters,

means that there are new services and business models (Botsman & Rogers, 2010). The European crisis is forcing fans to be more engaged in community, for instance, sharing a car to go to the matches that according to Sheth, Sethia, & Srinivas (2011) facilitate a simultaneous reduction in personal consumption. Moreover, fans are part of the experience, they contribute to create the events and sustain the magic (Piven, Davis, & Lim, 2012), as Soper (2008 p. 568) mentioned “as a matter of private expenditure, self-styling and gratification.”

Pleasure of Consumption Consuming is inevitable (Clarke, 2003), it is in the human nature itself (Clarke, 2003; Elliott, 1997, p. 289). Consumerism probably reflects the moral nature of contemporary human existence as much as any other widespread modern practice; significant change here would therefore require not a minor adjustment to our way of life, but the transformation of our civilization (Crocker & Linden, 1998). Football is uncertainty, it is out of the routine, it is passion, it is joy, and it is socialization. Football helps to mitigate this insatiable quest for gratification, allows us to have moments where monotony and the pillars of a life insipid and repetitive (Giddens, 1991; McCracken, 1990) disappear as if by magic, even for brief moments. When I see a football match, during that hour and a half I do not think of anything else, to me it seems that the world stops. [José Saraiva]. Although there is no support in the literature for increasing happiness with wealth and material possessions (Argyle, 1987; Frey & Stutzer, 2002; Layard, 2005), what we do know is that football fans experience is more than achieving happiness, it is “the emotion-laden experiences of the consumer” (Elliott, 1997, p. 293). Being a football fan, following the team with passion

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and devotion, the fan shows his/her behaviour as a sign of “capacity to support andenhance life” (Mick, 2006, p. 1), his life, and consequently the life of those around him. As Campbell (2004, 2005b) states, the pleasures of consumerism lie precisely in the endless deferral of the pleasure of fulfilment.

ANTI-CONSUMERISM IN FOOTBALL Considering anti-consumption as a consumerbased phenomenon on a “conscious choice” (Cherrier, 2009, p. 186), that can be manifested in many ways, somehow a football fan can be an anti-consumer, when he/she rejects a product not based on its negative tangible features, but because it resembles a rival club, even if the product has nothing to do with the rival club. For example, in clothes: “I never wear any clothes with the colour red, I don´t feel good, I do not like it.” [JPR]. Zavestoski (2002, p. 121) described anticonsumption as “a resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally”. The football consumer, the fan is selective, specific, cannibal: “I never drink Sagres beer. I do not give them money, they can support the rivals but not with my money! It is a matter of congruency.” [Ricardo Silva] Regardless of the extent of the change, “one of the main qualities of an anti-consumer isthat they choose to become an anti-consumer voluntarily (Sharp, Høj, & Wheeler, 2010, p. 473)”. To be a football fan is a personal choice, linked to a way of being, as a code of honour. For the fan “anticonsumption is better understood as a lifestyle orientation than as a straightforward description of actual abstinence from consumption” (PortwoodStacer, 2012, p. 88). Globally, anti-consumers are less likely than others to use consumption to satisfy needs (Zavestoski, 2002), instead they cultivate nonmaterialistic sources of satisfaction and meaning (Etzioni, 1998). That could be, in part, the case of football fans. 526

For the football fan, the motivations of not consuming do not have to do with having an immediate advantage in that action or have benefits in experiencing alternative consumption. The motivations, beyond the question of social and peer recognition, are clearly intrinsic and personal, are a matter of personal affirmation, a way to be clear and objective in his/her life: “Just got the coded sports channel to watch the matches from my club. Just that. Not even the matches of the national team. It is an added cost that shows how much I love my club.” [JA]. A football fan is a consumer of products related to their loved team and club (e.g., matches, travel to follow the team, team and club merchandizing), but avoids or boycott what is not about his/her team and club. Craig-Lees and Hill (2006) suggest that although anti-consumption behaviour often focuses on the reduction of all consumption activities, it is also possible to focus on the reduction of the purchase of specific products and brands. Kozinets and Handelman (2004, p. 692) conceptualize consumer resistance as movements, but positioning them against the “ideology and culture of consumerism” and Cherrier (2009) refers that it is not merely a behavioural phenomenon, but also an attitudinal one. In other words, for consumers to become anti-consumers they need to hold attitudes that are in line with their anti-consumption behaviours (Iyer & Muncy, 2009). Understanding the relationships between the fans and the club is crucial to understand the importance of the behaviour of the fan in his/her daily living (Cherrier, 2009). For consumers, “brand benefits are less significant, but thepenalties are potentially burdensome” (Cromie & Ewing, 2009, p. 220). When a brand does not satisfy its consumers or the consumers do not have money to buy that brand’s products, the consumers will change brands, they can even trade it for a cheaper brand. However, this behaviour is not comparable to brands which are at the same time football clubs. Football fans will not change clubs, not even when the team loses or when the benefits are apparently smaller than the sacrifices, not even

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when fans have no money to go and watch the matches: “Just because I have no money I’m not a worse fan compared to those who have money and can follow the club everywhere. I am always present even if only in thought and I help my club a lot, maybe much more than others.” [João A.] Phipps et al. (2013, p. 1232) summarised it: “The question remains as how tothink about the relationship between behaviour and the wide varietyof personal factors related to behaviour.” Peattie & Peattie, (2009, p. 262) argued that a tool that has“considerable potential to contribute to consumption reduction is Social Marketing” (Andreasen, 1995; Kotler, Roberto, & Lee, 2002) as a means to influence an audience to voluntarily act differently towards society.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Regarding future empirical research, some suggestions may be made: 1. Investigate the drivers to anti-branding attitude, who are the initiators, the leaders and the organisers of the bloggers or other viral mechanisms of anti-branding movements; what are the new attitudes and behaviours. 2. A new group of constructs should be developed and the relationship among them explored: spirituality, brand divorce, and consumption choices. 3. Integrating the research in an international context with several possible economic (e.g., fuel price ratio), ecologic (e.g., directly human life affecting climate change effects), social–cultural (e.g., different perceptions of eco-friendly behaviour), political (e.g., public regulations dictate to the automotive industry), and technological factors (e.g., development of zero-emission vehicles). 4. Understanding if the postmodern activist consumers are really motivated and mobilized for projects of social change.

5. Analysing the meaning and the relationship between post-material values, anticonsumption and frugality; to understand if green consumers are truly interested in environmental and sustainable issues or if it is more about self-interested issues. 6. Differentiating between global impact consumers and simplifiers, the new constructs and scales developed may change from “I” to “we”. 7. Studying consumer behaviour concerning sharing behaviour, such as, car sharing, home sharing through co-housing, free cycling or clothes swapping, to determine whether other groups of sharers also hold anti-consumption attitudes. Moreover, future research could examine permanent facilities and programs that foster sharing and their effect on the communities. For example, North Carolina’s Warren Wilson College’s Free Store, a storefront stocked with goods donated by university members that are, in turn, available to the campus community, and sharing programs such as university sponsored ride and car sharing programs. How to engage consumers, with individualistic-oriented self-enhancement values (i.e., power and achievement), in collaborative consumption efforts is fodder for future research. 8. Understanding the political process to drive sustainability (civic engagement), for instance, a change in behaviour can influence personal motivations, which, in turn, can reinforce behaviours. 9. Differentiating more effectively underdogs from loser consumers. Study is needed to determine just how much of underdog preference is due to resentment towards “corporate” entities, and how much is due to strong attractions to the underdog itself. To the extent that the latter is more important than the former, pro-active positioning of the underdog may be far more effective than

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any anti-corporate style of positioning, even if done in a subtle fashion. 10. Exploring how ethics in consumption is translated from narrative and experience into practice, and to recognise ethics as something that is integral to consumption choices, as the ‘ethical everyday’. 11. Understanding how Asian traditions and practices, in a globalized economy, can influence Western marketing and consumers. 12. Go further in understanding the effect of iconic architecture and space on postmodern consumer behaviour, as well as in understanding how sport culture and spirit influence postmodern consumers.

CONCLUSION AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS The current chapter carried out a systematic literature review which allows researchers, managers and marketers to have a glimpse of society and consumers’ behaviour changes in a postmodern era. The chapter presents a discussion of definitions and typologies on consumption, consumerism and anti-consumption. The consumption waves over time were shown in a framework of consumption wave and anti-consumption motivations and types. The chapter also deals with the emerging phenomenon of consumption and anticonsumption in the sports (especially football) context. Football fans could be avid consumers of information, knowledge, travels (to follow the team abroad), tickets to matches, diverse merchandizing, brands that sponsor the team and the club and so on. However, they could also be anti-consumers or at least selective consumers, when they have resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption of everything connected to rival teams.

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In an emerging postmodern era where uncertainties and doubts are numerous, there is much to investigate. Thus, as a suggestion for future research, this chapter presents a set of 12 lines for future research directions. Thereby, the chapter provides readers with the most up-to-date knowledge about new trends in consumption and new consumers’ attitudes, behaviours, values and ethics. Considering managerial implications, managers should be aware of the new communities of consumers who reject brand hegemony or are selective or even simplifiers. The knowledge about these new consumers, their profile and behaviour help managers to design appropriate products/ brands. However, marketing is not only about products/brands, it is also about establishing and maintaining relations. Marketing can operate in such communities, for instance, as a facilitator for new types of productive-consumptive relations and an integral part of the cultural structure of enduring communities of production-engaged consumption. Marketers and managers should follow and listen to how anti-consumption movements operate and inform consumers and change their view and the way they communicate products/brands. Consumer practices are a mix of an expression of independent, personal and unique identities and a vehicle to facilitate the relationship and harmony with others and groups affiliation, like football. The process in which fans (consumers) become deeply committed to a football club brand should be better understood. For instance, football club are brands, but fans do not see it has a brand (a profit-oriented brand). As we exposed above, we can find several motivations for why a consumer becomes a fan of a certain football team and, when it happens, the relationship between a consumer (fan) and a brand (football club) becomes a lifestyle.

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Anti-Consumption: A resistance to, distaste of, or even resentment or rejection of consumption more generally (Zavestoski, 2002, p. 121). Consumerism: A set of beliefs and values, integral but not exclusive to the system of capitalist globalization, intended to make people believe that human worth is best ensured and happiness is best achieved in terms of our consumption and possessions (Sklair, 2010, p. 135). Consumption: Use of goods and services in which the object or activity becomes simultaneously a practice in the world and a form in which we construct our understandings of ourselves in the world (Miller, 1995, p. 30). Consumption Communities: Consumption in online environments (social networking sites, websites, blogs and other online sites become the new marketplace), green and ethical consumption. Consumption Society: Individualism and materialism have led individuals to purchase goods regardless of their usefulness; high degree of dependence on consumables (McCracken, 1990). Football Fans: A way of being with repercussions at professional and family levels; it is a unique experience, with rituals, a pride in the club, a lifetime experience, sometimes more important than family and work. Systematic Literature Review: Retrieve, appraise and summarise all the available evidence on a specific thematic (designed to reduce the effect of the reviewers’ own bias; the appropriate resources should be in place before undertaking a review; identify relevant work; extract relevant data on outcomes and quality; summarise the evidence; and, interpret the evidence).

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About the Contributors Hans Rüdiger Kaufmann. After extensive experience in German Bank Management, Hans Ruediger Kaufmann completed his sponsored PhD in 1997 and was a research assistant and then lecturer (p-t) at Manchester Metropolitan University. Later, he worked in Budapest, first as Course Director Marketing for a company affiliated with the Chartered Institute of Marketing and then as an Assistant Professor in Marketing at the International Management Centre Budapest as well as its contractual consultant. He launched his international management consultancy in 1997. At the University of Applied Sciences Liechtenstein he was Academic Director Private Banking and, later, Head of the Competence Centre International Management. Since October 2006 he was an Associate Professor at the University of Nicosia and was ranked Full Professor in February 2013. He has been a launching member and President (2007-2009) of the international research network on consumer behaviour, CIRCLE. He is currently Vice-President of the EuroMed Research Business Institute (EMBRI). In 2011, Rudi was elected into the Board of the AMA Global Marketing SIG as Vice Chair Communications. He is member of the editorial board of a variety of journals and an Associate Editor of the World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development. He is Visiting Professor the International Business School of Vilnius University and an Adjunct Professor of the University of Vitez. Mohammad Fateh Ali Khan Panni is an Assistant Professor in the School of Business at City University, Bangladesh. He has an MPhil degree (by research) in the area of marketing from Multimedia University, Malaysia. He has published many research articles in the area of consumerism, CRM, CKM, brand loyalty, online shopping behavior, internet banking green consumer behavior index and educational marketing etc in numerous international journals like JLERI, IJBEP, IJECRM, WJBAM, JIKM, IJTEM, and Amfiteatru Economic. Currently, he is a research committee member of three different research interest committees such as marketing, ethics and social responsibility and green economy consortium of Euromed Research Business Institute (EMRBI). He is also regularly involved as a track chair of Annual Euromed Conferences. He regularly reviews paper for different international refereed journals and has already served as a reviewer in AJBM, AJAR, WREMSD, IJEBR, AJMM, JIKM etc. He has co-edited an edited reference book on customer centric marketing strategies (an IGI Global Publication). He is an editorial team member of African Journal of Marketing Management (AJMM) (Academic Journal series) and a listed reviewer of Journal of Information and Knowledge Management (JIKM) (World Scientific Publication). *** Tindara Abbate is Assistant Professor of Business Economics and Management at the University of Messina (Italy), where she teaches Territorial Marketing and Service Marketing. She has been involved, as presenter, in several national and international conferences. She has been involved in national/international research projects, as member and scientific coordinator. Her research interests refer to market orientation; technology transfer processes (actors, relationships between firms and universities) within open innovation perspective; destination marketing strategies.

About the Contributors

Abul Fazal Wazir Ahmad is teaching accounting and finance courses over last fifteen years at the graduate and undergraduate level. He has served four reputed Universities in Bangladesh in his teaching career. Currently he is working for the Department of Business Administration, University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh (ULAB). Wazir has earned his MBA (Accounting CPA Track) from RIT, Rochester, NY. He has graduated with accounting major from University of Dhaka before he has obtained MBA in finance from the most reputed business school of Bangladesh- IBA, DU. Apart from teaching Wazir takes active role in academic administration under various capacities. He has recognized works on private universities in Bangladesh- a recent development in regional education. Wazir has research interest on capital market development, consumer right, customer knowledge management and corporate social responsibility. Barbara Aquilani is Associate Professor of Management at the Department of Economics and Management (DEIM) of ‘Tuscia’ University of Viterbo (Italy) where she held the courses of Management and International Marketing. She worked as Assistant Professor at the Siena University from 2005 to 2009 - Communication Department, Faculty of Letter and Philosophy where she held the courses of Marketing and Marketing Communication. She has been involved, as presenter, in several national and international conferences and in several national/international research projects, as member or scientific coordinator. Her research interests refer to: (i) firm management and especially on firm growth (on which she published a book) and corporate governance; (ii) marketing (among others she published papers on university marketing and online marketing); (iii) innovation and open innovation. Pinelopi Athanasopoulou is an Assistant Professor of Services Marketing in the Sport Management Department of the University of Peloponnese, Greece. She holds a PhD in Marketing from Cass Business School, an MBA from Manchester Business School, UK, and a BA in Business Administration from the Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece. She has worked for many years in the banking sector; she is the author of several academic papers and has participated in many international conferences. Her research has been published in various marketing journals including the International Journal of Bank Marketing; Managing Service Quality, Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing and the European Journal of Marketing. Her research interests include sponsorship, relationship quality, branding, and new service development. Gianpaolo Basile completed his doctoral studies in Communication Sciences at University of Salerno (Italy). In 2005 he taught Marketing at the Department of Sociology, University of Salerno (Italy). In 2012 he taught Corporate Communication at the Department of Economics of University of Palermo (Italy), he has been teaching Place Marketing at the Department of Political, Social and Media Sciences, University of Salerno (Italy) since 2008. He also teaches International Management in Phd and in MBA at Vitez University of Travnik (Bosnia and Herzegovina). His research interests focus on consumer behaviour, business systems, marketing and communication, place marketing. He is the author and co-author of several books on those subjects and he has written many scientific articles published on international journals. He is also member of the editorial board of many international journals. He is President of Business Systems Laboratory (www.bslaboratory.net), a nonprofit association for the promotion of research and teaching in the field of business and social systems.

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About the Contributors

Robin Bown is an experienced lecturer and researcher whose expertise lies in the development and delivery of courses in research methodology and approaches to research. Currently he holds the post of Senior Lecturer in Market Interpretation at the University of Gloucestershire. He has a MA in Strategic Marketing and a PhD. His PhD was on the topic of ‘Constructing the Small Business and its Market: A Heideggerian Perspective. @He is a member of the UK Higher Education Academy. Before starting at the University of Gloucestershire Robin had successful experience in running a number of his own businesses, which were then sold to trade buyers. This experience informed and developed his research interests in market interpretation and understanding, together with sustainability, often in the context of Small or Entrepreneurial Businesses. Francesco Casarin is Professor of Marketing Strategy at Ca’ Foscari University Venice, and a member of the Department of Management. He has written widely on consumer behaviour, market segmentation, tourism marketing and marketing for arts & culture, is the author of 5 books and the editor of 3 books. His current research interests include new tools for tourism marketing, communication for arts & culture, and cultural tourist behaviour. He has been involved in several national and international benchmarking projects like Coberen Consumer Behaviour Erasmus Network. Ricardo Cayolla is a PhD student in Marketing and Strategy from the University of Aveiro, Portugal. His current research includes brands, consumer-brand relationships, football marketing. His articles will be published shortly (already accepted) in the International Journal of Business and Globalisation and International Journal of Management Cases. Ricardo has been presenting his work at international symposiums, such as WIN, Circle, consumer-brand relationship conference at Boston (USA) and EMAC and also has acted as a reviewer for international conferences. Has published 4 books on tennis and was named best TV sports commentator (national channel). Ricardo is a sports entrepreneur and owner of a tennis academy and a football club. Daphne Comfort is a Research Associate in the Business school at the University of Gloucestershire, UK. She is a geography graduate and her research interests are in sustainable development, corporate social responsibility, retailing and woodland management. Skaidrite Dzene is a holder of doctor’s degree in economics and bachelor degree in food science. In 2014, she defended her doctoral thesis on sustainable food consumption in Latvia. S. Dzene has five year experience in pedagogical work giving the lessons in microeconomics, macroeconomics, marketing and tourism. She is an author of 10 scientific publications and has worked as a trainer in rural youth organizations with the focus on environmental issues. Her research interests are: sustainable consumption and consumer behaviour. Aija Eglite is an associate professor in economics at Latvia University of Agriculture, the holder of a doctor’s degree in economics and a master’s degree in engineering. Dr. Eglite has graduated from Latvia University of Agriculture and has been a DAAD scholarship holder and doctoral student at the University of Bonn (Germany). A trainer of different courses in economics: home economics, microeconomics, macroeconomics, and research methodology. Her research interests are food market and consumer behaviour. Many doctoral dissertations have been elaborated and defended under the guidance of Aija

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About the Contributors

Eglite. She is the author of more than 120 scientific publications. Aija Eglite is an expert of the Latvian Council of Science, a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals, and a member of the Promotion Council for Economics. Aija Eglite was included in Who’s Who in the World, 2012 (29th Edition). She is married and has three sons. Gunta Grinberga-Zalite is Assistant Professor of Marketing at Latvia University of Agriculture and a freelance writer, consultant and trainer of different Marketing courses – Global Marketing, Social Marketing, Globalisation of Business, and Service Marketing. Dr. Grinberga-Zalite has 10 years experience in pedagogical work and supervising and reviewing of bachelor, master, and doctoral theses as well as in administrative work of organising scientific conference events and editing of scientific conference proceedings. Gunta Grinberga-Zalite is an author of 15 scientific publications and has participated in international education programmes in Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania, Estonia, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Poland. Bernd Hallier was born in Hamburg in 1947 where he later studied macro-economics finishing with a MA. As an external student his PhD followed in 1982 with the topic of new technologies for the total supply chain (published in 1983).Working from 1974-1984 in the management of an international cigarette-manufacturer he changed then to become managing-director of a retail-think tank from 19852012. By merging two units the EHI Retail Institute was created which today is an European player and world-leader in the exhibition-sector with ist EuroShop and benchmark for agriculture Globalgap. In the academic field Hallier lectured case-studies around the world becoming part-time professor in Germany and abroad - being honoured by Doctor honoris causa and Professor Honoris causa in CZ and Russia. In 2005 he created the European Retail Academy and joined in 2013 Vitez University/Bosnia as an Adjunct Professor. His publications cover micro- and macro-economics but also interdisciplinary topics. Culture and History of Trade is translated from the German text also into the Korean and Russian version. David Hillier is Emeritus Professor within the University of Glamorgan. From 1994-2006 he was Head of Geography at Glamorgan. His principal research interest is in crime and the design of the urban fabric and work he has undertaken with Paul Cozens, now of Curtin University in Perth Western Australia, has been widely disseminated by the UK’s Home Office. He also has research interests in retail change, corporate social responsibility and urban regeneration and his work has been extensively published in a range of marketing, business and management, transport, planning and geography journals. Peter Jones is a Professor in the Business School at the University of Gloucestershire and he has served as Head of the Department of Retailing and Marketing at the Manchester Metropolitan University and as Dean of the Business School at the University of Plymouth. He has undertaken educational and commercial consultancy work in Norway, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Greece, Spain, India, Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia. His current research interests are in corporate social responsibility and sustainability within the service sector of the economy and in the past he has published on the introduction of information and communication technologies within retailing and on urban fringe management projects.

630

About the Contributors

Sandra Maria Correia Loureiro is Professor of Marketing at the ISCTE-IUL Business School and a researcher in the Business Research Unit (BRU/UNIDE) and SOCIUS Research Center. Her current research interests include consumer-brand relationships, online purchase behaviors, tourism marketing, and corporate social responsibility issues. Her papers have been published in a variety of peer-reviewed journals that include International Journal of Hospitality Management, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, and Journal of Brand Management. Her work has also been presented at respected international conferences such as EMAC, ANZMAC, and KAMS-GMC. Sandra serves as a reviewer for several international journals and conferences and has participated in several research projects funded by the EU and FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology). She recently won the 2012 Best Paper Premier Award presented by the Global Marketing Conference (comprised of EMAC, ANZMAC, KSMS, and the Japanese Association of Marketing). Srikant Manchiraju is a PhD candidate in the College of Human Sciences at Iowa State University. Broadly speaking, his research interests are related to marketing and psychology. Mara Manente is Director of CISET- Ca’ Foscari University Venice, Italy. She has over 20 years experience in teaching and researching on the macroeconomics of tourism, the economic impact of tourism, tourism demand analysis and forecasting, transport and tourism and tourism statistics. She is a member of the Tourism Sustainability Group of the European Commission, who is working on draft of Charter for Sustainable and Responsible Tourism. She is also a member of the UNWTO Steering Committee on Statistics, Macroeconomic Analysis of Tourism and Tourism Satellite Accounts and consultant for many national and international institutions (ISTAT, Eurostat, etc.). Valeria Minghetti is Senior Researcher at CISET- Ca’ Foscari University Venice, Italy. She has over 15 years experience in teaching, researching and writing on tourism subjects and has worked on a number of projects for national and international organisations (Eurostat, European Commission, UNWTO, etc.). Her main research interests include tourism demand analysis and forecasting, the economic impact of tourism and the diffusion of innovation technologies in the tourism industry. She was the co-ordinator of CISET activities within the European project EARTH (European Alliance for Responsible Tourism and Hospitality). Erica Mingotto is junior researcher at CISET- Ca’ Foscari University Venice, Italy. She graduated in Tourism Economics in November 2010, discussing a thesis on responsible tourism and CSR in the tourism sector. At CISET, besides different activities of tourism demand analysis and forecasting, her research interests include the study of sustainable development, responsible tourism and CSR and the assessment of effectiveness and efficiency of public actions in tourism. She has contributed to different publications and articles about sustainable tourism and reporting/certification systems for responsible tourism and CSR. Enrico Maria Mosconi is Associate Professor at the Department of Economics and Management (DEIM) of University ‘Tuscia’ in Viterbo (Italy) where he holds the courses of Technology, Innovation and Quality and Quality Management Techniques. Phd in 2001 in Commodity Science at the University of Rome “La Sapienza”. The Research activity is focused on three main areas: (i) Analysis and evaluation

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About the Contributors

of enterprise innovation dynamics. (ii) Economic study and implementation models of Environmental Aspects for industrial production. (iii) Quality instruments for the enterprice innovation management. Director and member of the board of academic research centers. Chartered accountant and Auditor. Elif Yolbulan Okan received her Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration from Middle East Technical University, Ankara in 1995 and her Master of Marketing from University of Salford Manchester, UK, in December 1996. Between 1997 and 2002, she worked as an account officer in Turkish Economy Bank and Osmanlı Bank. She is a lecturer at the Department of Business Administration at Yeditepe University at both undergraduate and graduate levels since 2002. She is also the business program directing manager of Management Application and Research Center at Yeditepe University. Her current research focuses on consumer behavior, international marketing and integrated marketing communication. Ioanna Papasolomou is a Professor and the Head of the Department of Marketing, School of Business Administration, at the University of Nicosia in Cyprus. Dr Papasolomou has contributed papers to a number of international conferences and journals such as the Journal of Marketing Management, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Journal of Brand Management, Journal of Product and Brand Management, and the Journal of Marketing Communications. She has also contributed chapters and case studies to several academic books. She was the Chair for the 10th and 14th International Conference on Corporate and Marketing Communications hosted in 2005 and 2009 respectively the University of Nicosia. She is a reviewer for a number of academic journals such as the International Journal of Bank Marketing, Journal of Marketing Communications, International Journal of Corporate Communications, International Journal of Social Responsibility, and Euro Mediterranean Journal in Business. Nikolaos Pappas holds a Bachelor (BSc) and a Master (MSc) degree in Tourism Management, a Doctorate (PhD) in Tourism Development, and a Post Doctorate (PDoc) in Risk and Crisis Management. He is currently Senior Lecturer in Hospitality and Retailing at the School of Events, Tourism and Hospitality at Leeds Metropolitan University, UK. In terms of research since 1998 he continuously participates in nationally and internationally funded research projects, whilst he has more than 30 publications in international scientific journals and conferences. His current research focuses on hospitality marketing and management towards crisis periods, impacts of community participation in events, and expression of social status through tourism. Michela Piccarozzi is a Researcher of Business Administration at the Department of Economics and Management (DEIM) at the University of Tuscia, Viterbo (Italy) where she held the courses of Accounting and Economy of extraordinary corporate operations. She had her PhD in “Planning and Control” during 2010 at University of Florence. Consistent with carried out studies, her research has developed along the following guidelines: (i) University and academic Spin-off. In particular, her research has focused on the analysis of the problems of start up and development of these enterprises. From financial problems to corporate governance aspects, (ii) strategic planning, business plan and firms creation’s process (iii) Venture capital and business angles.

632

About the Contributors

Ana Regina Pires has a Master in Science (Management, Marketing and International Business) at University of Aveiro and she is preparing to start her PhD at Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTEIUL). Her current research includes online communities, branding and consumerism. Her articles are published in the Journal of Tourism and Development and the International Journal of Virtual Communities and Social Networking. She has also articles presented and published at conference proceedings such as INVTUR, ANZMAC and EuroMed. Ana Pires has also some experience working at enterprises. Alessandro Ruggieri is Full Professor at the Department of Economics and Management (DEIM) of University ‘Tuscia’ in Viterbo (Italy) where he holds the courses of Technology, Innovation and Quality, Quality Management and Certification and Quality Management Techniques. From 21st July 2011 to date is the Director of the Department of Economics and Management (DEIM) at the University of Tuscia. His research has developed mainly under the following guidelines: (i) Quality of goods, products and services. Studies and research on the quality according to the approaches of “Total Quality Management” and “Quality Certification” by “ISO 9000” standards; (ii) The relationship between quality and consumer, with particular reference to customer satisfaction; (iii) Quality and innovation in the agrofood industry; (iv) Environmental issues, with particular reference to management and environmental certification; (v) Innovation and technology transfer, with particular attention to the role of innovation for regional development. Georgia Sakka has a bachelor degree in History and Archaeology from the Aristotle University of Greece, a MEd in Educational Leadership and School Improvement from the University of Manchester and an MSc in Management from the Brunel University in London. She is currently working as a Youth Worker at the Youth Board of Cyprus. She is also involved in European mobility programs and trainings related to Youth. She is studding for a PhD Degree in Human Resource Management at the University of Nicosia and participating in EU funded research programs. Cecilia Silvestri is Researcher of Commodity Science at the Department of Economics and Management (DEIM) at the University of Tuscia, Viterbo (Italy) where she held the course Quality and Customer Relationships. She had her PhD in 2011 in “Economics and local development” at the University of Tuscia. Consistent with carried out studies, her research has developed along the following guidelines: (i) Quality of goods, products and services. Studies and research on the quality according to the approaches of “Total Quality Management” and standards “ISO 9000”, (ii) The relationship between quality and consumers, with particular reference to satisfaction and loyalty, (iii) Quality and innovation in the agro -food, (iv) Innovation and technology transfer, with particular attention to the role of technological innovation for territorial development. Terry Smith is Senior Lecturer in Marketing at the University of Chester Business School, with a first degree in English, a Masters in Marketing, and currently completing a Doctorate in Marketing. Teaching across the Marketing spectrum, specialising in Marketing Communications, Buyer Behaviour and Service Marketing, his research focuses on branding, consumer behaviour, marketing communications and critical marketing. Has had over 18 years’ experience in a number of senior B2B Marketing positions and over 15 in Higher Education. He has published a number of journal articles and has a particular interest in the “Marketing of Meaning”.

633

About the Contributors

George S. Spais is an adjunct professor of marketing at the (Graduate) Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece. Dr. Spais serves as: (1) a member of the Board of Directors of the Clute Institute for Academic Research (Colorado, USA), (2) an associate editor of the Journal of Applied Business Research and (3) a member on the editorial boards of 9 international academic journals. Additionally, he is regular reviewer of many leading international academic journals and academic conferences of marketing. He is an elected Fellow Member (FCIM) and certified Chartered Marketer of the Chartered Institute of Marketing. He worked as a freelance marketing consultant for small-medium sized profit and non-profit organizations and as a marketing consultant for the entrepreneurship-consulting program of the Small Enterprises’ Institute of the Hellenic Confederation of Professionals, Craftsmen and Merchants (GSEVEE). He is as a trainer and educator for major significant Greek agencies, associations and unions. Iliada Spyrou has a BA in Psychology from the European University Cyprus. Before assuming the coordination of the Cyprus Safer Internet Helpline, she worked at the Hiltonia Summer Junior Club, as secretary in a company and as Laboratory Assistant. She has collaborated with Future Worlds Center since August of 2009. She is the Project Coordinator of the Cyprus Safer Internet Helpline, which is being implemented by the Pancyprian Coordinating Committee for the Protection and Welfare of Children in the context of the Cyberethics project. Marion Tenge is the Director of Corporate Development of Hanover Airport, Germany. Since 2010 she is a doctoral candidate of the University of Latvia and University of Applied Sciences Kufstein, Austria. Her research interests focus on the convergence of social and technological networks, social business, social software and social capital. Marion Tenge has lectured at universities in Germany and Austria and cooperates with universities on practical projects related to the aviation industry, while bridging science and managerial practice. She has more than ten years of experience in the travel industry holding different positions. Her responsibilities included among others the development of online distribution strategies and social software strategies for the hotel division of Europe’s leading travel group TUI. Ben Tran received his Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D) in Organizational Consulting/Organizational Psychology from California School of Professional Psychology (formerly known as the Marshall Goldsmith School of Management) at Alliant International University in San Francisco, California, United States of America. Dr. Tran’s research interests include domestic and expatriate recruitment, selection, retention, evaluation, & training,CSR, business and organizational ethics, organizational/international organizational behavior, knowledge management,and minorities in multinational corporations. Dr. Tran has presented articles on topics of business and management ethics, expatriate, and gender and minorities in multinational corporations at the Academy of Management, Society for the Advancement of Management, and International Standing Conference on Organizational Symbolism. Dr. Tran has also published articles and book chapters with the Social Responsibility Journal, Journal of International Trade Law and Policy, Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, Financial Management Institute of Canada, and IGI Global.

634

About the Contributors

Neva Yalman is an assistant professor at Yeditepe University, Faculty of Business Administration in Istanbul, Turkey. She received her undergraduate degree from İstanbul University, Business Administration Department, her MBA degree from University of New Hampshire, Whittemore School of Business and Economics and her PhD degree on Marketing from Boğaziçi University. Her areas of interest include Marketing, Market Orientation and Retailing. She teaches Marketing Management courses and Retailing courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. She is a member of PhD faculty at Yeditepe University teaching an advanced course: Seminar in Retailing. She also has experience as a professional in brand management, business development and sales. Dursun Yener is assistant professor at Beykoz Vocational School of Logistics in Istanbul, Turkey. He received his PhD degree on Marketing from Marmara University in 2011. He has published various academic papers in national and international journals. His main research area is consumer behavior.

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Index

A Andragogy 49, 75-76 Anti-Consumption 461, 510-511, 514, 518-520, 526-534, 536 Attitude-Behavior Consistency Models 227, 243 Attitude Towards a Behavior 229, 243

B Boycott Effectiveness 463, 472 Brand Equity 27, 32, 38, 42, 45, 212, 214, 216, 451, 531 Business Plan 311, 327-328, 426, 428-429, 443-454, 457-458 Business Science 50, 76, 494, 497 Business Studies 39, 50, 71, 76, 300, 303 Buycotts 463, 472

C Certification Program 274, 286 Co-Creation 184-186, 209, 214, 336, 359, 376, 381, 383-384, 388, 399, 405-411, 413, 525 Competitive Advantage 8, 11, 19, 24, 27, 33-34, 37, 40-41, 96, 101, 103-104, 118-119, 121, 123, 129, 139, 151, 188, 215, 246, 258, 285, 312, 315, 330, 352, 354-355, 369, 378, 382, 403, 415, 421-422, 429-431, 449, 451, 453-456, 458, 475, 479 Compulsive Buying 1-2, 4-5, 10, 15, 17 Confucian Work Dynamism 294, 297, 309 Conscientious Conscience Consumption 203, 217, 225 Consonance 185, 187, 192-195, 200 Consumer Behaviour Theory 183, 200 Consumer boycotts 370, 459, 461, 464, 470-472 Consumer Profiles 176, 182, 353 Consumption Communities 510, 519, 533, 536

Consumption Habit 182, 240 Consumption Society 521, 536 Content Analysis 28, 48, 51-52, 75-77, 137, 139, 465 Corporate Social Performance (CSP) 25, 28, 45 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 1, 19, 25, 36, 43-45, 99, 154, 215, 265, 285, 326, 352, 504 Corporate Social Responsiveness 28, 34, 45 Corporate Sustainability 21, 39-40, 45, 154, 360, 364, 374, 414-415, 417, 420, 423-425 Crete 245, 248-249, 260-261, 263-264 Critical Reflection 46, 48-51, 68-72, 74-77 Crowdsourcing 374, 379, 404, 408, 414-418, 420425 CSR Engagement 24, 26, 45 Cybercrimes 79-80, 87, 91 Cyber Ethics 79-80, 85, 87-91

D Danone 459-460, 466-472 Data Centre 144-153, 155 Destination 245-252, 254, 257-259, 261-264, 275, 281, 285, 480

E Eco Friendly 94, 116, 124 Economic Condition 182 Education Security 79 Electronic Commerce or E-Commerce 91 Environmental Consumerism 108, 115, 124, 140

F Facebook 83-84, 86, 152, 417-418, 420, 466, 474476, 479-481, 484-487, 489-490, 492, 497, 499-500 Food Bank 503, 509

Index

Food Losses 509 Food Waste 161, 172, 418, 501-505, 507-509 Food Waste Manager 504, 508-509 Football Fans 510-511, 520-522, 525-526, 528, 536 FoRWaRd 151, 501-503, 505, 508-509

G Geert Hofstede 287-289, 293-294, 296-297, 309 Green Advertising 101, 121, 127, 135-136, 140-141, 143 Green Consumer 7-8, 11, 94, 99-100, 107, 110, 114, 116-118, 120, 122-124, 126-127, 130-132, 134-135, 140, 142-143, 205, 238, 241-242, 353, 364, 368-369, 371-372, 375, 416, 424, 514, 527, 533 Green Marketing 11, 47-51, 68-69, 71, 73-74, 93102, 104-107, 109, 111, 113-126, 128-130, 132-133, 135, 138-143, 325-326, 329, 332, 353, 368 Green Wash 98, 121, 125, 140-141, 143, 272, 276, 286, 415

H High-Tech Market 334

I Ideology of Consumption 206, 217, 225 Institutional and Neo-Institutional Theories 200 Internet Smear Campaign 459, 472

L Levels of Going Green 125 Local Food 169-171, 182

M Marketing Information System (MIS) 431, 458 Marketing Science 14, 39, 41, 47, 50, 77, 118, 124, 143, 196, 199, 224, 263, 306, 361, 363, 365, 369, 371-372, 456, 496-497, 500, 529, 534 Marketing Studies 26, 32, 50, 71-72, 75, 77, 192, 195 Market Research 74, 383, 429, 441, 447, 449, 453, 456-458 Materialism 2, 4, 8, 10-13, 16, 52, 203, 206, 217, 232, 240-241, 290-293, 298-300, 302, 304-309, 342-343, 360-363, 366, 369-371, 373, 511, 514, 521, 536

N Network Organization 477, 500 New Equilibrium 509

O Online Consumerism 80, 474-477, 479, 490-492, 500 Open Innovation 336, 338, 355-356, 361-368, 370377, 384-387, 389, 392, 397, 399, 402-413 Open Innovation Customer Communities 413 Open Innovation Customers 413 Open Innovation Intermediary (OII) 377, 413 Open Innovation through Customers 336, 355, 376, 413

P Perceived Behavioral Control 178, 228-230, 234235, 237, 243-244 Policy Instruments 164, 166, 182 Purchasing Attitudes 245, 264

Q Qualitative Research 74, 331, 400, 438-439, 455, 457-458, 492, 497 Quantitative Research 438-439, 458

R Reporting System 269, 272-274, 277, 279, 281-282, 286 Responsible Tourism 265-272, 274-276, 278-286

S Self-Determination Theory 304, 478, 482-483, 489, 497-498, 500 Shades of Green 99, 101, 116, 122, 124-125, 127, 139 Social Capital 44, 146, 223, 374, 394, 475, 478, 483, 493-498, 500 Social Media 79, 81-82, 90-91, 134, 137, 147, 151, 153, 259, 280-282, 284, 346, 351, 381, 420422, 425, 455, 459, 466, 468, 472, 495-496, 498-499, 533 Social Norm 210, 214, 228-230, 234, 236, 238, 243-244

637

Index

Social Responsibility 1, 8-9, 11, 19-21, 23, 25, 28-29, 34-52, 54, 57, 59, 63, 67-69, 71, 74, 93-94, 99, 107, 125, 140, 149, 154, 157, 161, 182, 215, 219, 222, 263, 265-267, 283-286, 325-326, 330, 351-352, 362-363, 368-372, 407, 422, 467, 477, 494, 504, 507, 533 Social Salience 204, 206, 208-213, 216, 225 Social Software Platforms 474, 476-477, 497, 500 Socio-Psychological Human Needs 478, 500 Stakeholders 21-24, 27-32, 35, 42-43, 45, 49, 80, 87-88, 96, 129, 183, 192, 194-195, 200, 245246, 251, 268-269, 272, 274, 278, 280, 282, 286-287, 323, 327, 352, 362, 415, 419, 430, 435, 475, 477, 500 Stakeholder Theory 19, 22-23, 36, 42, 44, 183, 194, 200 Strategic Corporate Philanthropy 23, 45 Strategic CSR 19, 22-23, 32, 34, 41, 45 Strategic Planning 28, 43, 96, 430, 443-444, 458 Strong Sustainability 146, 155 Structuration Theory 183, 200 Sustainability Reporting 144, 148, 155 Sustainable Consumption 1-2, 7-8, 11, 16-17, 132133, 142-143, 154-166, 169, 171, 173-182, 184, 196, 219, 224, 226-232, 239-240, 242243, 423-425, 529, 533-534 Sustainable Marketing 1-2, 7-9, 12, 17, 47-51, 68, 71, 73, 120, 127-128, 195, 198, 224, 352-353, 364, 415 Symbolic Consumption 206, 209, 212, 214, 225, 529 Systematic Literature Review 510-512, 514, 528, 536

638

T Technology Transfer 312, 319-321, 324, 326, 329, 333, 335, 377, 403, 409 Total Supply Chain 509 Tour Operator 273-274, 281, 283, 286 Transformative Learning 49-51, 71, 74-76, 78

U University Spin-Off Means 335

V Value and Values 214, 225 Value-Behavior Consistency Models 226-227, 230, 234, 236, 243 Viable Systems Perspective 183, 200

W Weak Sustainability 146, 153, 155