Handbook for Practice Learning in Social Work and Social Care [1 ed.] 1843101866, 9781843101864

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SECOND

EDITION

H A N D BO O K

for PRACTICE LEARNING in SOCIAL W O R K and SOCIAL CARE Knowledge and Theory

Edited by Joyce Lishman i

I I

*

Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W o rk and Social Care

294643

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Competence in Social Work Practice A Practical Guide for Students and Professionals 2nd edition

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Edited by Gill Mclvor and Peter Raynor ISBN 978 1 84310 538 1

Handbook For Practice Learning in Social W o rk and Social Care Knowledge and Theory Second Edition

Edited by Joyce Lishman

Jessica Kingsley Publishers London and Philadelphia

Extract on p.101 from The Framework for Social Work Education in Scotland is © Crown copyright. Originally published in 1991 as Handbook o f Theoryfor Practice Teachers in Social Work.

\ge HiH University earning Services

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This edition first published in 2007 by Jessica Kingsley Publishers 116 Pentonville Road London N1 9JB. UK and 400 Market Street, Suite 400 Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA www.jkp.com Copyright © Jessica Kingsley Publishers 1991,2007

The right of the editor and the contributors to be identified as authors o f this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission o f the copyright owner except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd. Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC IN STS. Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher. Warning: The doing of an unauthorised act in relation to a copyright work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution. Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Handbook for practice learning in social work and social care : knowledge and theory / edited by Joyce Lishman. -- 1st American paperback ed. p. cm. Rev., expanded and updated ed. of: Handbook o f theory for practice teachers in social work. London : J. Kingsley, 1991. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-84310-186-4 (pbk. :alk. paper) I. Social service. 2. Human behavior. 3. Social work educa­ tion. I. Lishman. Joyce. II. Handbook o f theory for practice teachers in social work. HV40.H2825 2007 361.007 l ' l —dc22 2007026949 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 84310 186 4 Printed and bound in Great Britain by M PG Books Group, Cornwall

Acknowledgement With special appreciation to Claire Booth who has coped with a rather IT-illiterate editor.

Contents Introduction

9

Joyce Lishman, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

Section I : Understanding 1

The Social Policy Context of Practice Learning

13

Steven M . Shardlow, University o f Salford

2

Structural Approaches to Social W o rk

27

Ann Davis, University o f Birmingham

3

Towards Social Theory for Social W o rk

39

Pauline Hardiker and M ary Barker, formerly University o f Leicester

4

The Place of Attachment Theory in Social W o rk with Children and Families

57

Jane Aldgate, Open University

5

Erikson’s Life Cycle Approach to Development

74

Alastair Gibson, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

6

A Psychodynamic Approach to Social W o rk

86

Judith 8 rearley, Scottish Institute o f Human Relations, Edinburgh

Section 2: Assessment 7

Models of Assessment Daphne Statham, formerly The National Institute for Social Work, and Patricia Kearney, Social Care Institute for Excellence

101

8

Assessment and Children

115

Bngid Daniel[ University o f Dundee

9

Assessment: From Reflexivity to Process Knowledge

128

Michael Sheppard, University o f Plymouth

10

Assessment in Criminal Justice

138

Gill Mclvor, Lancaster University

II

Risk Assessment and Management: An O verview

153

Hazel Kemshall, DeMontfort University, Leicester

Section 3: Intervention 12

Cognitive Behavioural Social W o rk

169

Geraldine Macdonald, Queen's University o f Belfast

13

Task-Centred Practice

188

Peter Marsh, University o f Sheffield

14

Crisis Intervention

201

Amy Clark, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

15

Family Therapy and Systemic Practice

216

Steven Walker, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambndge and Chelmsford

16

Theory, Concepts, Feelings and Practice: The Contemplation of Bereavement within a Social W o rk Course

235

Gerard Rochford, formerly Aberdeen University

17

Group Care

249

Colin Keenan, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

18

Empowerment and Advocacy

269

Rob Mackay, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

19

Social W o rk and Community Development Alan Barr QBE, Scottish Community Development Centre, Glasgow

285

Section 4: The Context of Assessment and Intervention 20

Social W o rk with Children and Families: A Case Study of the Integration of Law, Social Policy and Research in the Development of Assessment and Intervention with Children and Families

303

Robert Buckley, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

21

Interdisciplinary Practice

322

Terry M cLean, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

22

Working within the Organizational Context of Dynamic Change

344

Fiona Feilberg, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen

Section 5: Reflective and Evidence-Based Practice 23

Reflective Practice and Critical Reflection

363

Jan Fook, University o f Southampton

24

Research, Evaluation and Evidence-Based Practice

376

Joyce Lishman THE CONTRIBUTORS

391

SUBJECT INDEX

395

AU TH O R INDEX

402

I

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IN T R O D U C T IO N

Joyce Lishman

While the context o f practice teaching and practice learning has changed significantly since the first publication o f the Handbook o f Theoryfo r Practice Teachers in 1991, the need for a reference volume o f theory, knowledge, research and evidence dedicated to practice learning and its teaching and assessment remains. This new edition o f the Handbook has been substantially changed and updated to reflect and represent the changed world of social work and social work education. Section 1 is about our understanding o f the structural, social and individual influ­ ences which may lead us to become users o f social work services. Chapter 1 addresses the importance o f understanding the relevance o f social policy in a devolved United King­ dom to the work we do. Chapter 2 further addresses structural influences on both society and individuals. Chapter 3 is retained from the original volume and in my editor’s note preceding it I explain why. This chapter admirably integrates and applies to our practice the range o f knowledge, theory, research and evidence we should be using and the complexity o f doing so. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 recognize the importance and relevance o f a structural under­ standing o f our life circumstances but also examine the need to understand individual emotional development, including the role o f unconscious thoughts and feelings. Section 2 deals with assessment. Chapter 7 examines assessment in a holistic way and how it contributes to effective practice in social work, social care and integrated ser­ vices, Chapters 8, 9 and 10 examine assessment in specific contexts, i.e. child care, com­ munity care and criminal justice. Chapter 11 examines more general issues in relation to risk assessment and management. Section 3 is about intervention. The Handbook presents a range o f methods of intervention including cognitive behavioural social work, task-centred practice, crisis intervention, family therapy and group care. It does not have a specific chapter on psychosocial intervention but the theme o f psychosocial assessment and intervention, 1 hope, underpins this volume. Each o f these is a useful tool but needs to draw carefully on the conclusions o f assessment. The use o f ‘an assessment’ and thereafter an ‘appropriate intervention’ is not a one-off event but the interaction continues. Assessment may lead to changes in social work intervention over time. We also need to be careful not to assume that an initial assessment automatically leads to a specific method o f intervention. For example, an assessment which is predominantly psychosocial may quite rightly be fol­ lowed by a cognitive behavioural intervention. An initial method o f intervention may change: we need to be flexible. Following a revised assessment and using an evidence

9

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Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

base, we may need to change, in partnership with our service user, for example, from a task-centred intervention to a psychosocial one. We need to be vigilant in continuing to address structural issues in intervention. Rochford’s Chapter 16 on loss with the editor’s addendum is included from the pre­ vious volume. Loss, we should remember, and also problems about attachment underpin a considerable part o f social workers’ intervention. Chapter 17 examines group care, a sometimes neglected but crucial area o f social work intervention, and usefully examines it in the context o f an evidence-based practice (see Chapter 24). Chapter 18 focuses spe­ cifically on how social work and social care can empower service users and advocate for them. More broadly in Chapter 19 we reflect on the role o f social work in community development. Section 4 addresses the context o f assessment and intervention. Chapter 20 exam­ ines law, social policy, assessment, intervention and the evidence base in child care and child protection, i.e. it is a case study o f how as social workers we must analyse and inte­ grate these very different strands, policy, law and knowledge and research into our practice. Chapter 21 examines the interdisciplinary context o f social work and partnership working. Chapter 22 addresses the practice o f social work in its organizational context with the requirements o f organizational change which are a given. Section 5 follows from this chapter. As professional social workers we need to be fully engaged in reflective practice, evaluation and evidence-based practice. The task for social work students, practice teachers and more generally social work­ ers is highly complex: to understand and apply in assessment and intervention law, social policy and research in relation to complex individuals who do not neatly fit into the broad parameters o f policy or o f research findings. 1 hope this book helps students and practitioners to practise in a more knowl­ edge-based way to meet the needs o f individual service users and carers and ensure that we maintain a focus on how we can improve on the outcomes o f our practice.

Section I : Understanding

CH APTER I

THE SOCIAL POLICY CONTEXT OF PRACTICE LEARNING Steven M. Shardlow

Introduction: w hat is the relevance o f social policy for practice learning? Social workers are expected to have a broadly-based professional understanding that in­ tegrates knowledge derived from a range o f academic and professional disciplines into a coherent and usable form, which can be directly applied in practice. Such an expectation may sometimes create an impression, especially for the neophyte social worker, that al­ most all forms o f knowledge have relevance for social work. It is reasonable to expect that a strong, substantial and persuasive argument should be made to justify why social workers should acquire knowledge derived from any given cognate academic or profes­ sional discipline, and vice versa, to limit the expectations about the knowledge that social workers should acquire. Hence, three questions arise. First, what is the justification for the assertion that social workers need to acquire knowledge about a particular do­ main, in this case social policy? Second, what in particular about this discipline should they understand? Third, in what ways can practice teachers assist students during peri­ ods o f practice learning with the acquisition o f a relevant understanding o f social policy? This chapter presents a discussion o f and suggested answers for these questions. As a starting point a preliminary question can be posed: ‘if social workers knew nothing o f social policy would they necessarily be worse as practitioners?’ To answer this ques­ tion, a kind o f ‘acid test' o f the utility o f social policy knowledge, it is necessary to explore the nature o f social policy as a discipline.

W h a t is social policy? Mapping the content and boundaries o f social policy is not a simple matter; the very breadth and scope o f the discipline seem almost boundless - busy practice teachers can be heard to groan in unison, ‘Not another boundless set o f knowledge to acquire and to assist students to grasp'. It is perhaps not then surprising to note that Alcock, Payne and Sullivan (2000) compare the discipline to a elephant: something which can be recog­ nized on sight but which is ‘notoriously difficult to describe’ (see, for example, p. 1 which develops Esping-Andersen’s framework (1990)' by allowing the inclusion o f a southern European model o f welfare). More concretely, Blakemore suggests reasons for

13

Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

14

what he terms the ‘lack o f identity o f social policy’: it is ‘a relatively new’ subject (the or­ igins lie in the early part o f the twentieth century) and it is ‘a “magpie” subject [ ...] that has taken sparkling treasures from other disciplines such as economics, philosophy, politics and sociology’ (Blakemore 2003, p.3). This suggests a natural affinity with the discipline o f social work, which is often taken to possess similar characteristics. To help resolve some o f these problematics both succinctly and helpfully, Alcock (2003) proposes a definition o f social policy which suggests that it comprises both academic discipline and also a form o f social action. If we develop this notion a little further, social policy might be seen as having as four-cornered character, being a field for study that contains a discrete group o f subject areas (the content o f the discipline), which may be approached through a set o f common principles or concepts. These common principles constitute a political arenafo r social action, at both national and municipal levels, and that have the potential for realization through the enactment and delivery o f a particular set o f policies, which are specifically social in character. These italicized notions benefit from further exploration. CONTENT

According to Spicker (1995) ‘social policy’ is usually taken to include the study o f edu­ cation, health, housing, social security and social work.’ This view is echoed by Erskine who contends that the 'most common and traditional approach, within the United K ing­ dom, used to conceptualise to social policy is through these “big five social services’” (Erskine 1998, p. 17).’ However, Erskine also comments that the point o f departure for thinking about social policy may not be these big ‘five social services' but through con­ sideration of: •

social issues (for example, the changing demographic structure o f many industrially developed countries to an increasing proportion o f the population over the age o f 75, who are presumed to require additional financial and social support, relative to the employed population)

•

social problems (for example, the extent o f poverty, the impact o f unemployment or the increasing incidence o f H IV/AIDS)

•

the experiences o f social groups (for example, black people, children, older people, those with a disability and so on).

PRINCIPLES

Principles provide another vantage point from which we can unlock the core o f social policy. Value positions or philosophical principles, which may be either aspirational (i.e. are required to realize a better society according to a given some value position) or nor­ mative (i.e. describe required behaviour in the social field and may contain mechanisms for enforcement), underpin social polices. Blakemore proposes a way o f understanding these principles by suggesting that they may, at various times, have the force o f being moral standards’ which provide justification for beliefs; ‘rules’ which specify behaviour; and 'ideas’ which underpin social policy (Blakemore 2003, pp. 17—18). The values or principles that are most often referred to are: •

altruism and reciprocity

The Social Policy Context o f Practice Learning

•

citizenship

•

equality (egalitarianism; equality o f opportunity)

•

freedom and rights

•

equity and social justice

•

social needs (satisfaction and wants).

15

These principles are often interpreted through their application to one o f several differ­ ent perspectives or political orientations. Some o f the most commonly articulated are: •

communitarianism (socialism)

•

conservativism

•

feminism

•

neo-liberalism

•

social democratism

•

postmodernism.

This configuration o f principles, perspectives and political orientations connect strongly with social work (for example, the satisfaction o f social need and want and the realiza­ tion o f social justice). They find expression through professional ethics and values, al­ though often expressed in different terminology, that are very much the concern o f social work). THE POLITICAL ARENA

When approached from the perspective o f the political arena, social policy provides an understanding o f the forces that shape policy, the way in which these policies are imple­ mented and an evaluation o f their impact. For example, in the United Kingdom, social policy in the political arena can be explored through an examination o f the New Labour government’s (1997-) agenda for policy change, which is badged as the 'Third Way’ this is an ideology neither entirely o f the ‘left’ nor ‘right’ which purports to change the nature o f politics through ‘modernization’. However, some commentators, Powell (1999) for example, have suggested that there has never been a set o f'N e w Labour’ so­ cial policies which cohere around a ‘big idea’ that can compare with the ‘big idea’ o f the 1945 Labour government o f Clement Atlee (an ex-social worker) which is credited with the creation o f the Welfare State. The contested nature o f the relationship o f social policy to political forces provides an excellent mechanism for teachers to promote understand­ ing o f the discipline, as discord provides a sharp tonal distinction to better appreciate the nature o f this relationship. THE SOCIAL CONTENT OF POLICY

Not all government policy is ‘social’ policy, although many policies have a social dimen­ sion, as so far as they affect people. Miller (1999) grappled with defining and containing the nature o f social policy and resolved the problem by referring back Donnison’s long-standing definition o f social policy:4

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Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

What distinguishes a policy as ‘social’ is [ . . . ]the fact that it deals with the distri­ bution of resources, opportunities and life chances between different groups and categories o f people.j...] It follows that every Government department, programme and policy may have social aspects. Meanwhile social policies always have other aspects which for many people will be more important. Health and education services, for example, are primarily designed to raise general standards of health and learning without much regard to their distribution or distributional consequences. Policies for these services become social in the sense defined here, when they deal with the allocation o f resources and opportunities between po­ tentially competing groups, and - as a consequence which may be more distant but equally important - with relations between groups in society, their status and self-respect, their power and their access to broader social opportunities. (Donnison 197 5, p.26) This comment encapsulates to the ‘essence’ o f social policy, helpfully for those, such as social work students who seek to comprehend its complexity in a single graspable statement. SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIAL WORK

In day-to-day practice social work students will encounter people whose experiences represent the realization o f particular social policies. O n a visit to an older disabled person, the student may learn that the service user's weekly allowance o f home care has been significantly reduced. The student can be en­ couraged to explore the reasons for this reduction and may discover that it is not related to the individual’s level o f need but to the operation o f a policy shift at local or national level whereby less funding is available to support this type o f home care due possibly to the budget being exhausted. A direct appreciation o f the policy context allows the student to recognize how policy frameworks contain professional practice, and how these enhance or constrain opportunities for the delivery o f high quality social work. This then provides the answer to the first question posed at the start o f this chapter; the acid test - the utility o f knowl­ edge about social policy for social work students and practitioners. Without an under­ standing o f the social policy context in the above example, the social work student would not be able to make an informed assessment o f need and how that need might be met.' Having dealt with the first question, we have established the importance o f social policy for social work and can shift our attention to the second question addressed by this chapter - which aspects and areas o f social policy students should understand.

Current and recent policy domains in the U K If students o f social work need some knowledge o f social policy, then we require a prin­ ciple to delineate necessary from supplementary knowledge. Clearly they cannot be expected to have a detailed knowledge o f the entire scope o f the discipline. Help is at hand, in that the conventional division o f social policy into the ‘big five’ policy areas (education, health, housing, personal social services) serves social work students well.6 An overall knowledge o f these areas is necessary if their practice is to be grounded on an

The Social Policy Context o f Practice Learning

17

understanding o f the social world. Students should be familiar with the current policy emphasis in these ‘big five’ areas o f social policy - in other words, with the policy aims and aspirations that government is seeking to achieve - and the underlying principles for any given policy approach. To this effect, only most schematic capture o f recent policy trends is possible here. It is helpful to compare some o f the key social policy initiatives as developed by the Conservative government (1979-97) with those o f the current New Labour government (1 9 9 7 -). EDUCATION

•

1979-1997: Policies designed to promote the notion o f consumer choice in education: the removal o f responsibilities and powers from local education authorities (LEAs) and the granting o f increased powers to schools through local management (LMS); the introduction of'league tables’, which purport to demonstrate the academic performance o f individual schools and facilitate cross-school comparisons; and, perhaps most significantly, the introduction o f a national school curriculum with tests (SATS) to measure the performance of individual children.

•

1997-: Policies designed to give increased power to parents, increase the numbers o f children who achieve academic success and enable those at school to become good citizens. Initiatives taken include the following: an increase in the number o f teachers; the introduction o f Sure Start to provide a secure entry point for those under five to the education system; the introduction o f the Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) to increase the number o f those from economically deprived backgrounds who remain in education; an increase in the number o f those attending university, such that by 2010 50 per cent o f 18-year-olds will benefit form higher education. In 2006 government sought to introduce measures to promote greater independence for schools and to turn the LEAs into the commissioners o f education rather than the providers.7

HEALTH

•

1979-1997: Policies designed to introduce market principles into the allocation o f the scare resource o f health care. The most significant development was the N H S and Community Care Act (1990), which introduced an internal market in the N H S with the intention that money should follow the patient. GPs became fundholders who were able to purchase health care, active encouragement was given to the private sector, a significant number o f new private hospitals being built.

•

1997—: Policies intended to increase the efficiency and effectiveness o f the Health Service, notably the creation o f treatment centres for routine operations as one key measure to reduce waiting times for treatment; a major increase in investment year on year leading to increased numbers o f medical staff being trained; and an increase in the number o f employed doctors and nurses.

Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

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HOUSING

.

1979-1997:. Policies introduced that were designed to increase the number o f people who owned their own property, with the intention o f creating a society where as many as possible had a stake in the economic stability o f the country. The most notable policy was the establishment o f the ‘right to buy’, under which many local authority tenants purchased their homes, combined with very significant reductions in the number o f social housing units constructed.

•

1997-: Policies flagged as ‘delivering decent homes for all’; this is being achieved, according to government, by increasing the numbers o f social housing units constructed and by increasing the capital investment in existing local authority housing stock.

SOCIAL CARE

•

1979-1997: Prime policy objective was the introduction o f the ‘mixed economy o f welfare’ to reduce the proportion o f social care provided directly by local government and to increase the opportunity for not-for-profit and private organizations to provide various forms o f social care: the introduction o f the ‘purchaser/provider’ split in the N H S and Community Care Act (1990), which mirrored developments in the health sector.

•

199 7 -: Major policy objective to modernize the provision o f social care and to increase efficiency while valuing people who receive social care. Performance-led management through comparative indicators o f standards and levels o f service delivery (for example, the star ranking o f local authority social services departments) was introduced, substantial change in organization arrangements was made through the creation o f new national regulatory and inspectorial bodies and services for young people increasingly diverged from those for adults.

SOCIAL SECURITY

•

1979-1997: Policies designed to reduce economic dependency on the state and to promote self-reliance. For example, unemployment benefit was replaced with the jobseeker’s allowance, which emphasized limited social security provided for being unemployed per se; stringent eligibility tests were introduced for various social benefits.

•

1997-: Policies designed to protect those in work and to provide encouragement to work, while protecting those unable to work; to provide a more equal distribution o f income, in particular by reducing family poverty. Tax credits to lessen the tax burden on these on low incomes, a minimum wage and the New Deal initiative to help lone parents into employment were all introduced. The Disability Rights Commission (DRC) was established to seek to counter discrimination against disabled people.

This juxtaposition o f the current government approach to the ‘big five’ areas o f social policy with the approach o f the previous government, albeit in a brief and highly

The Social Policy Context o f Practice Learning

19

schematic format, allows students to grasp the character o f social policy, in particular the unity or absence o f underlying principles evident in the policies pursued by different governments. Knowledge o f current policies provides a context for students who are undertaking an agency-based period o f practice learning - a context to better understand the lived reality o f the service user.

K e y policy themes Students need a broad-brush understanding o f social policy in the 'big five’ areas, yet the exploration o f current policy themes may be a particularly pertinent way for social work students to develop their understanding o f social policy, however, although selecting which issues to concentrate upon is inherently problematic. Ellison and Pierson (1998) have identified several ‘social movements’ as the key contemporary issues: gender, race, ecology, the changing dimensions o f poverty, consumerism, and policy in a European context. Examination o f these aspects o f social policy may help to guide a student's developing knowledge. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Developing a theoretical and practice-based understanding o f the impact upon people’s lives o f such key contemporary issues as age, disability, gender, race, sexuality (or other attributes that may impact on people’s lives, e.g. through social exclusion or discrimina­ tion) is a core and fundamental aspect o f social work practice and professional learning (QAA 2000). These themes are discussed from a social work perspective in relevant social work literature and are likely to be familiar to both practice teachers and students - an extended discussion from a policy perspective is not therefore needed here. None­ theless, social work students may be asked to consider the extent to which discussion is differently framed about age (or any o f the other key contemporary issues listed above) when approached from a policy perspective rather than a professional social work prac­ tice perspective. Comparing the way that different bodies o f literature treat a particular theme is something that practice teachers may encourage generally - not just in relation to social policy and social work. While many o f these key contemporary issues are found in parallel discussions in so­ cial policy and social work literature, some are not. For example, ‘ecology’ as an issue does not figure strongly within social work. Possibly increased emphasis should be given to looking for sustainable social work futures (for example, the construction of new residential units that are energy efficient) that reflect concern for both people and the environment. POVERTY

‘Poverty’ is a key policy theme for social workers, encountered daily in professional practice. In their review o f social policy for social workers, Walker and Walker (2002) devote most o f the discussion to poverty with the incisive comment: The majority o f social work service users are poor, yet poverty as an issue is too often marginalised in social work training, even though it is a greater cause o f so­ cial exclusion than are ‘race’ and gender with which it also overlaps. (Walker and Walker 2002, p.52)

Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

20

Poverty is generally understood in three ways. First: 'absolute poverty’, which was de­ fined by the United Nations as: 'A condition characterised by severe deprivation o f basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only upon income but also on access to ser­ vices’ (United Nations 1995, p.57). Second: ‘overall poverty’,8 defined by the United Nations as: Lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hun­ ger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination and exclu­ sion. It is also characterised by lack o f participation in decision-making and in civil, social and cultural life. It occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in many de­ veloping countries, pockets of poverty amid wealth in developed countries, loss of livelihoods as a result o f economic recession, sudden poverty as a result of disaster or conflict, the poverty o f low-wage workers, and the utter destitution of people who fall outside family support systems, social institutions and safety nets. (United Nations 1995, p.57) Third: social exclusion. The prime minister, Tony Blair, has described social exclusion as: ‘a shorthand label for what can happen when individuals or areas suffer from a combina­ tion o f linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown’ (The Scottish Office 1999). Since the so-called ‘rediscovery o f poverty’ in the 1960s,9academic and political in­ terest in the subject waned somewhat until 1997 when Tony Blair gave his famous pol­ icy commitment, at Toynbee Hall, to end child poverty within 20 years and to lift 700,000 children out o f poverty by 2001. The measurement o f poverty is problematic. There is no officially used measure o f poverty in the U K . A standard measure o f poverty commonly used across much o f Europe is the proportion o f the population living on less than half o f the average income (DW P 2006), and a report by U N IC E F using such sta­ tistics placed the U K as the nineteenth worst (of the 23 O E C D countries) in terms o f the number o f children living in poverty, with almost 20 per cent o f children living below the poverty line (U N ICEF Innocenti Research Centre 2000, p.4)." I f this is correct, there appears to be little chance o f meeting the objective o f eradicating poverty in the U K dur­ ing the next ten years. Moreover, using the same statistical measure, in the final quarter o f the twentieth century, poverty has increased in both the numbers living in poverty and the depth o f poverty: for example, the poorest 10 per cent o f the population were 12 per cent worse o ff in 1996 than in 1979 (Gordon 2001, p.62). However, these figures should be treated with some caution. Certainly, they demonstrate that change is occur­ ring, but Johnson, Tanner and Thomas (2000) have demonstrated that this mode o f cal­ culating poverty is very sensitive to changes in the income o f the richest. For example, in the 1980s higher incomes increased dramatically - hence increasing the ‘average’ in­ come - hence increasing the numbers living in poverty as measured by HBAI statistics. The impact o f poverty on the individual will vary greatly by place and time. Blakemore (2003) invited readers to identify which o f the following were necessities

The Social Policy Context o f Practice Learning

21

and to compare the results against the findings o f a study by Gordon etal. (2000) in order to better understand the notion ot poverty. You may like to complete their exercise. Which o f the following items do you think are necessities? •

A damp-free home.

•

Beds and bedding for everyone.

•

A mobile phone.

•

The opportunity to attend weddings and funerals.

•

A refrigerator.

•

A warm, waterproof coat.

•

A home computer.

•

A television set.

•

Toys (for example, dolls or teddies).

•

Celebrations on special occasions.

•

A meal in a restaurant or pub every month.

•

Three meals a day for children; two meals a day for adults.

•

A deep freezer.

•

Fresh fruit and vegetables daily.

•

A hobby or leisure activity.

•

A telephone.

•

A washing machine.

•

A car.

The results o f Gordon’s survey for comparison are to be found at the end o f this chapter in Table 1.1 taken from Blakemore (2003, p.8 1). Poverty is not the only way to understand the experience o f some marginalized groups. The 1990s saw the rise to prominence o f another term, ‘social exclusion', which has many similarities with the notion o f ‘poverty’. 'Social exclusion’ often refers to ex­ clusion from the labour market or educational opportunity. Social workers spend a con­ siderable proportion o f the time engaged in work with people who live in poverty and they need to understand the nature, extent and impact o f poverty and social exclusion. The only certain route out o f poverty is through employment - although even that may not be sufficient as many jobs are low paid and do not lift people out o f poverty. Further­ more the effects o f living in poverty for a period o f time are pernicious and do not just disappear with increased income. COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WELFARE A key element o f social policy discourse is concerned with the comparison o f welfare systems in different countries and how these impact on the lives o f the citizens. Arguably,

22

Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

through such comparisons, judgements can be made about how to secure given levels ot welfare at the most effective cost, the impact o f certain policy initiatives and the effects of ideological shifts on the delivery o f welfare. If government were a rational process, and it clearly is not, such comparison might inform more policy development in a systematic and thorough manner. There are different comparative schema. Titmus (1974), the orig­ inator o f comparative classifications o f different policy regimes, developed a three-point classification, comprising the residual, the achievement and the redistributive models. Currently, however, the conventional starting point to explore comparative social wel­ fare is through the work o f Esping-Andersen (1990, 1996). He described a three-point classificatory system o f the ‘regimes o f welfare capitalism’. The three different types o f regimes identified are named according to the dominant political characteristics o f the countries where they are typically found: neo-liberal (American), social democratic (Scandinavian) and corporatist (Franco-German). These different types o f welfare re­ gime are ‘ideal types’ (i.e. the pure form, as described by Esping-Andersen, may not be found in any actual nation, but countries will have some if not all o f the features o f the particular type o f regime that they most closely resemble). Esping-Andersen suggested that these welfare regimes differed along two fundamental dimensions: 1.

‘Decommodification’ - a measure o f the extent to which welfare goods and ser­ vices are provided through bureaucratic distribution processes according to the needs o f recipients rather than through the operation o f market mechanisms.

2.

'Stratification' - a measure o f the extent to which access to welfare goods and ser­ vices is determined by factors such as inequalities o f income or social class.

These and similar frameworks (for example, Abrahamson 1992, which includes a south­ ern European model o f welfare) provide a mechanism by which social work students can reflect upon the nature o f the welfare regime in which their social work practice is located. There is an interface between international social policy and social work at many different levels: much discussion about social work in various countries is less concerned with the micro-level o f day-to-day practice than with the social policy, legal frameworks and organizational structures in respect o f social work. In seeking to define different types o f international social work, Midgely comments that some argue that social work­ ers need: ‘a global awareness that enhances the ability o f social workers to transcend their preoccupation with the local and contextualize their role within a broad global set­ ting’ (Midgley 2001, p.25). Put crudely, social workers need to understand how the forces o f globalization lead to social change, perhaps through the relocation o f jobs to another country, and how the welfare regime can or cannot respond to such challenges and most particularly what is social workers’ part in the process. Exploring social policy in an international context can thus provide insights for the social work practitioner which help to generate understanding the local and regional level. DEVOLUTION, DIFFERENCE AND IDENTITY

Within the U K , one state within the British Isles,12 a seismic shift has taken place in the political structures and consequent policy frameworks during the past 30 years. In 1998, the passing o f the Scotland Act (and comparable legislation for Wales and Northern

The Social Policy Context o f Practice Learning

23

Ireland), firmly announced that devolution had become a major element o f the political landscape in the U K . The UK had been one o f the most centralized states within the Eu­ ropean Union prior to devolution. Devolution is a growing force which will continue to exercise an influence in the different countries within the U K as the countries develop different social policies. Practitioners need to be aware o f these differences if they move to a different country within the U K . Moreover the differences can be explored in rela­ tion to national identity and provide an opportunity for student practitioners to recog­ nize that different forms o f policy are possible and realizable (Payne and Shardlow

2002

).

In the various countries that comprise the U K , the implications o f being a member o f the EU are ever more strongly felt in many aspects o f life. Geyer comments that EU social policy has not, as yet, 'radically restructured the UK social policy regime’, as ‘ EU social policy is so variable and interwoven in the UK social policy regime it is extremely difficult to disentangle causal relationships and gauge its true impact' (Gyer 2003, p.293). At present, member states have primary responsibility for the delivery o f social policy. Whether this will ultimately continue remains to be seen.

Practice learning and social policy Social policy and social work as disciplines share, as if siblings, a common heritage rooted in the early years o f the twentieth century. Conventionally, the origin o f modern social work in the U K is famously located in the slums o f late nineteenth-century Lon­ don" (Younghusband 1981, p.l 1). If social work first emerged as praxis (the practical performance o f a skill), then the idea o f social policy first emerged through the develop­ ment o f social administration (the forerunner o f social policy) as a field o f study. C o n ­ ventionally, the origin o f social policy is taken to date from the establishment o f the Department o f Social Science and Administration at the London School o f Economics (LSE) in 1912. This shared heritage suggest that those engaged in the practice o f social work and the implementation o f social policy should have something in common and perhaps something to learn from each other. Both social work and social policy as disci­ plines have a long-standing engagement with practical learning: the differences and similarities in the approaches adopted have been explored by Scott and Shardlow (2005). Practice teachers should actively encourage students to identify examples where the impact o f social policy directly affects the lives o f service users - this is most strongly evi­ dent where a change in policy has occurred. Through such examples students are to better understand the opportunities for practice that are complementary with or com­ pensatory for current policy social policy.

C onclusion This chapter began by posing three questions: whether social policy is a necessary disci­ pline for social workers to have knowledge of, if so, what they should learn about the discipline, and how practice teachers might help students to acquire the necessary knowledge o f this knowledge domain. An argument has been advanced that knowledge

Handbook for Practice Learning in Social W ork and Social Care

24

o f social policy is required, while an exploration o f the discipline has suggested some important knowledge areas that students would benefit from acquiring. Throughout the chapter, ways in which practice teachers can assist students have been suggested. Under­ lying these examples and suggestions has been a common principle: that the practice teacher can best assist the student by encouraging and suggesting ways in which social work can be explored within a social policy context. In this way the academic materials presented in a class setting can be enriched and enlivened. Table 1.1 Items deemed to be necessities in a sample survey o f public opinion that compares the results for two years % o f population Item

1999

1983

A damp-free home

94

96

Beds and bedding for everyone

95

97

A mobile phone

8

—

The opportunity to attend weddings and funerals

81

A refrigerator

89

77

A warm, waterproof coat

87

87

A home computer

11

A television set

58

51

Toys (for example, dolls or teddies)

84

71

Celebrations on special occasions

83

69

A meal in a restaurant or pub every month

27

Three meals a day for children; two meals a day for adults

91

A deep freezer

55

—

Fresh fruit and vegetables daily

87

—

A hobby or leisure activity

79

64

A telephone

72

43

A washing machine

77

67

A car

36

22

—

—

—

82

Taken from Blakemore (2003, p. 89). Source: Gordon etal. (2000, p.44).

Notes 1 A detailed account o f Esping-Andersen's model is not provided in the text as Blakemore's model is in es sence similar, with the addition o f another category o f welfare system. 2 The book refers to policies that concern the distribution and allocation o f social work rather than pro fessional practice skills.

The Social Policy Context o f Practice Learning

25

3 He uses the same terms except for ‘social work’, which becomes more helpfully the broader notion of personal social services’. 4 Originally this definition was developed for the Irish government. 5 As required by the National Occupational Standards, (for example, Key Role O ne ‘ Prepare for, and work with individuals, families, carers, groups and communities to assess their needs and circumstances’ (Skills for Care 2002). 6 In large measure these are a policy response to the ‘five giant evils’ which were identified by Beveridge (1942) in his eponymous Report as disease, idleness, ignorance, squalor and want. 7 This parallels developments in health care and social care. 8 ‘Overall poverty’ similar to a concept previously used, ‘relative poverty’. 9 This is usually credited to two academics, Townsend and Abel-Smith, who wrote about rediscovering poverty after Rowntree's Third York Survey in the 1950s had indicated a marked decline: most notable was Townsend’s book Poverty in the United Kingdom published in 1979. 10 Usually termed HBAI - Households Below Average Income statistics. 1 1 Poland and Turkey by this definition had less child poverty than the UK. 12 The archipelago to the north-west o f Europe, known by its correct geographical name as the British Isles, comprises a complex set o f countries and dependencies which share an interwoven history o f con­ quest, oppression and empire, yet have distinct cultural identities and arc likely to diverge in their ap­ proach to the realization o f social policy and social welfare. I 3 Similar work developed about the same time in other countries, notably the US. Interestingly, the UK example is often referred to not just in a UK context but internationally as a precursor o f modern social work.

References Abrahamson, P. (1992) Welfare pluralism-, towards a new consensus for a European social policy.’ In L. Hantrais, M . O ’Brien and S. Man gen (eds) Cross National Research Papers 6: The M ixed Economy o f Welfare. Leicester: European Research Centre, Loughborough University. Alcock, C ., Payne, S. and Sullivan, M . (2000) Introducing Social Policy. Harlow: Pearson. Alcock. P. (2003) T h e discipline o f social policy.’ In P. Alcock. A. Erskine and M . May (eds) The Student's Companion to Social Policy. 2nd cdn. London: Blackwell. Alcock, P. and Craig, G . (eds) (2001) International Social Policy: Welfare Regimes in the Developed World. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave. Alcock. P. and Erskine, A. (2002) Blackwell Dictionary o f Social Policy. Oxford: Blackwell. Beveridge, W. (1942) Soci