Great ages of man : a history of the world's cultures : African kingdoms

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excommunicate Venetian and Genoese merchants

in

Egypt and the Middle If

and Europe,

might never have gotten out of

it

years after Columbus'

first trip

across the Atlantic

the Spanish throne issued a proclamation legalizing the import of slaves to

its

colonies in the Americas.

Very soon, the African slave trade was transformed into a major element in the

commerce

this

respect,

human

Westbeings

titudes of

men

in the slave trade rapidly

at-

conformed

to the essential cruelty of the business. Just as en-

terprising

one another. In

of the

were thrust into foul and leaking ships, and the

captive

to

had never advanced

hand. As things turned out, however, only nine

ways

them

slavery

beyond the immediate domestic needs of Africa

sold their slaves to Europeans just as they had alsold

Muslim

East.

the African slave trade

ern world. Appalling numbers of

influence and power.

But

to

for selling Christian captives into

Europeans saw nothing wrong

humans

in

buying

for transportation across the seas,

so

it

soon appeared right

Africa to

them

sell

can rulers

like

powerful

to the

men

purpose. The few

for this

Nzinga Mbemba who

of

Afri-

tried to inter-

one of the sources of the gold that moved north through the Sudanese trading empires

Not

rican markets.

for

their kings

be effective and were quickly thrust aside.

Ashanti tradition, "came

Out

of this grim but profitable business,

political units

came

The

into being.

city-states of

grew prosperous and formed themselves

into

organized trading network based almost

a highly

men and women brought

wholly on the export of

downriver from the inner regions of the Niger ba-

when

sin.

Even

was

finally

still

shipping out approximately 20,000 people

as late as the 1820s,

coming

year. Needless

the coast

were

to a stop, the delta states

to say,

new

this

was often gained

European goods came

The

economic

acquisition

depend on

to

a

prosperity along

at the cost of

suffering in older, inland societies. of

the slave trade

a

never-

ceasing supply of captives, forcing states into con-

and violence against one

tinual acts of aggression

another— acts that

after

1700 were

ried out with European firearms. ties

likely to be car-

Many communi-

were grossly persecuted and some were utterly

migrated far from their ancestral homes. slavery gave

Even the winners eventually

lost, for

Europe

and thereby prepared

the

a foothold in Africa

way

And

for

yet

the

damage (except

terms) can be put too high.

in

humanitarian

Some African

states

within the slave-trading region were scarcely disturbed by able

it

at all.

kingdom

One

of these

of the Ashanti,

was the remark-

which included

after

1800 more than half of modern Ghana and parts of the neighboring states of the Ivory Coast

Togo. The Ashanti kingdom was by successful of

all

the late

far the

and most

kingdoms of precolonial

Africa. Initially the Ashanti

had

built their strength

on gold trade with the Western Sudan: they were

of

that,

in

down from Heaven" and

The Ashanti took

They looked upon

the slave trade in their stride.

the presence of European mer-

chants along the coast simply as a fresh source of

commerce and political

a

new means

power— one

of these

of strengthening their

new means being mus-

Birmingham. Never dominated

kets from faraway

by the pressures of European demands, the Ashanti skillfully

played

off the

and developed an tion of their

efficient slave-trading

own.

was run by

It

and

literate clerks,

Dutch against the English

it

organiza-

a

bureaucracy of

commanded

armies that no

neighboring power could match. The Ashanti capital

of

itable it

its

Kumasi was

the heart of a complex and prof-

economic empire. Europeans, who

wide

saw

first

Century, were impressed by

in the early 19th streets, clean

houses and sanitary

facilities

that included such things as built-in plumbing.

They were

also impressed

dence of Ashanti power. tered

Kumasi

in

by the abundant

trading company,

evi-

Thomas Bowdich, who

1817 as the secretary of wrote that the

greeted with great ceremony:

European colonial invasion.

office

golden stool

Osei Tutu in about 1695.

destroyed, while others, in order to avoid the slave raiders,

a

alighted gently on the knees of their hero-founder

the Niger delta, formerly nothing but fishing villages,

North Af-

nothing was the

symbolized by

fere with the process were not strong enough to

new

to

dred bands burst [forth]

at

en-

a British

company was

"More than once on our

a

hun-

arrival,

with the peculiar airs of their several chiefs;

the

horns flourished their defiances, with the beating of

innumerable drums and metal instruments, and

then yielded for awhile to the soft breathings of their long flutes.

... At least a hundred large

brellas, or canopies,

which could

um-

shelter thirty per-

up and down by the bearers with being made of the most showy

sons, were sprung brilliant effect,

cloths and silks,

.

.

.

and crowned on the top with

cents, pelicans, elephants"

cres-

and other gold symbols, 107

with valances "fantastically scalloped and fringed." of 5,000 people, the greater part war-

"Upwards

met Bowdich and

riors,"

company "with awful

his

bursts of martial music

.

.

and

.

Dutch and Danish."

flags, English,

confusion of

a

In

and captains moved with superb

chiefs

all

.

.

.

Roman

the

wear-

outmaneuvering the Europeans

the competition completely. But equal.

By 1885

Britain

Given

were sandals of

The King

cieties

a chance,

ing times

ornamented with gold." Later the

were received its

a little,

"lofty and regular" architecture.

Kumasi

in

is

essentially true.

indeed have

its

own

Oth-

the 19th Century noted

other evidences of Ashanti's political power. service,

civil

by Muslim and African

did

It

bureaucracy

a

clerks.

It

also

had

an unusually good courier system connecting parts of the empire.

"By day and

orders are despatched in

Frenchman 1870.

And

in the service of the its

excellent

master to train recruits.

by the

night, the king's

Ashanti King

army had

When

overwhelmed

finally

modern world.

were by no means alone. Although

most of 19th Century Africa was

behind Eu-

far

industry and technology, here and there a

revolution was underway. The dynamic delta city-states,

for

instance,

from the dwindling slave trade

known

in

drill-

British in 1901, after a devastating colonial

In this they

in

German

a

war, the Ashanti had one foot in the

rope

all

directions," wrote a

all

as "legitimate trade,"

little

Niger

of

an essential ingredient

two of these delta

it

successfully

as

youthful

the

as

most of them

they

was usually because the problems were and

too great, too puzzling for their venerable

ways

tra-

of doing things. Either they did not

have the strength or

delta

When

tried.

to control the conditions of

they did not have the flexibility

change

adapt to

to

them. Thus the once-powerful kingdom of Benin

human

perished in a flood of

and

sought to ward

priests

sacrifice as its kings

off

economic bankrupt-

way they knew how— by appeasing And the old Yoruba kingdom of Oyo,

cy in the only their gods.

attacked by

neighbors and weakened by inter-

its

no resources

nal strife, had almost

was an easy mark In fact, over

was

for colonial invasion.

much

Century

of Africa the 19th

time of unprecedented turmoil and violence.

a

Instead of being allowed to tions with the

rience

work out

its

own

rela-

modern world, Africa was shattered

by the impact of foreign

only

upon and

to call

partition.

It

from which the majority of

now beginning

to

recover.

while the fabric of his society

was an expe-

its

peoples are

Through

fell

apart,

it

all,

the in-

dividual African survived, drawing strength for this

what became

task from the long experience at disciplining him-

to

and were soon deeply

in soap.

states

perhaps other, older African so-

turned vigorously

involved in the production and marketing of palm oil,

failed,

ditional

pen run away with

his

let

but his picture

er visitors to

staffed

Brit-

and Bowdich

in the royal palace,

Bowdich may have

him

their

]a Ja

might also have met the challenge of chang-

states. Certainly,

admired

ended

two countries, and Pepple and

posure of a monarch"; he was seated on "a low

ish

their

careers in British captivity.

their feet

things

all

things were not

all

like

On

that,

had seized control of

and

toga."

so skillful

being equal, they might very well have conquered

was "majestic yet courteous," displaying the "com-

chair richly

Opobo were

size

"green, red and delicate white leather."

And

the rulers

proved themselves

be the match of European traders 108

at

Ja Ja of

thrown over the shoulder exactly

shimmering robes "of an incredible

ing

weight

this the

effect,

monopoly. Indeed, King Pepple of

for industrial

Bonny and King

in

to

the struggle

self to the

demands

of his

environment— but even

more, drawing strength from moral and spiritual beliefs of great

antiquity and power.

spiritual heritage

may

be seen

at

Today

work

in

a

this

new

context, as Africans seek to transform a continent.

ROYAL SENTRIES and fanbearers guard

the Oba's palace; the serpent on the roof symbolizes his power.

THE METROPOLIS OF BENIN Long before Europeans

what

set

foot

now

in

tropical

Africa,

A

the powerful

was thriving

in

ple, the Bini

paid proud obeisance to their king, or Oba,

is

southern Nigeria.

dignified

well-ordered hierarchy of counselors and local governors. called Benin, of the

is

nation of

Benin

and law-abiding peo-

who

ruled through a

The

capital city, also

today only a small provincial town, but for centuries

was one

it

most important commercial and cultural centers of western Africa.

Since the Bini had no written language, the only detailed descriptions of in

Benin are

in the journals of early

European explorers. The Bini

did,

leave an eloquent record of their civilization in bronze plaques commissioned the

Oba

to

adorn the

pillars of his palace (above).

the Bini as vigorous and very

human members

These remarkable

life

however,

reliefs

by

show

of a uniquely African culture. 109

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oris

1

A'

A

I A RESPLENDENT MONARCH,

f/ie

Oba

(second from right)

is

«

«*#

flanked by chieftains and protected by heavily armed royal guards

(left).

His oversized necklace

var hammer, anklets and ornamented

THE QUEEN MOTHER, who groomed the Oba's lived with her

heir for kingship,

handmaidens and bodyguards a few miles from

Benin— far enough away

to

keep her from meddling

in politics.

THE AWESOME POWER OF BENIN'S KING The Oba

of Benin

was an absolute monarch who

command anything he wished

could

with the knowl-

edge that he would be instantly obeyed. The actual business of governing was

who

left

to

his

directed military, economic and

counselors, agricultural

matters in the Oba's name. This state of affairs

was probably agreeable

to the

Oba, whose time was

taken up by countless ceremonies and

by

his

But

harem

of a

hundred

or

in spiritual matters the

Not only was he the

sacrifices,

and

more wives.

Oba was paramount.

earthly representative of

all

Benin's gods, but he was himself godlike; anyone

who kilt are all

symbols of

believed otherwise

was executed

as a heretic.

his majestic power.

Ill

DRUMMER

A COURT

tattoo. Bini

gourd pets.

nuts,

beats

rhythmic

a

musicians also played

bells,

and elephant-tusk trum-

rattles

At upper right

a container of kola

is

chewed as a stimulant;

same

cola drinks contain the

WHIRLING ACROBATS perform

modern

ingredient.

in

rope har-

nesses (right) during an annual festival.

At times

the

heights, a

European

even the

merriment reached such visitor noted,

Oba would

that

"tread a dignified

measure for the true delight of his people."

A ROYAL HOLIDAY At

least

once

a

month

the citizens of Benin put

aside their

work and embarked on

exuberant

festivities.

a

day or more of

The nobles gathered

in

the

Oba's court, where they would sip bamboo wine, dance, play games, the

women

The high were the

112

chew

kola nuts and frolic with

of the court.

points of these celebrations generally

sacrificial

executions of slaves or convict-

who it

IN

BENIN

created and ruled the earth; they considered

useless to worship him, however, since he

was

already benevolent. Instead, they worshiped numer-

ous lesser gods,

who

they

felt

could mediate for

them with the supreme god. The human were offered not the Bini

blamed

rarely struggled;

to the gods,

for all

some

actually assisted the execu-

few even volunteered

tioner,

but the Bini apparently believed in a supreme god

—powerful proof of the intensity of

a

whom

their misfortunes. Victims

ed felons. Accounts of religion in Benin are vague,

and

sacrifices

but to the devil,

to

be sacrificed

their religion.

CAMOUFLAGED

in large,

bushy helmets, hunters warily stalk

a leopard.

HUNTING: AN ELITE PROFESSION

When

they finally cornered their prey, they often proved their courage by capturing

Among ers, a

the

most prestigious

were the hunt-

kingdom. Only the most exceptional boys could become hunters,

and then only

after

completing

They had to learn how to how to move swiftly and brush, 114

citizens in Benin

group of rugged professionals who were the envy of the

how

track

a rigorous apprenticeship.

game

silently

in every type of terrain,

through the thorny under-

to survive in the forest

for days without food.

if

alive

and bringing

They als,

also

it

back

had

to

to

the Oba's

memorize

a

court.

A STEALTHY ARCHER, an arrow

whole catechism of secret

such as the ceremony that was supposed

to

make

a

ritu-

hunt-

er invisible to his prey. If a

boy proved

to

be an outstanding student, he might be

fitted to his

bow, takes aim at a plump

work was exceedingly dangerous. The worked slowly; ly

their frenzied victim

branch above him.

ibis

poison, though lethal,

might go crashing blind-

through the forest for several days before

One of

the elephant's tusks

went

to the

fortunate enough to become not only a hunter, but an ele-

sible for the kill received the

phant hunter. Armed with blowguns and poisoned darts, elephant hunters were a special, almost legendary, class. Their

and lungs, which were considered that assured

him

it

finally died.

Oba; the man respon-

other— along with the head, heart to

be powerful talismans

of even greater success

on

his next venture.

115

r»

A NATION OF TRADERS When ready

the a

first

large-scale trade

merchants dealt

wood

Europeans arrived, Benin was

al-

bustling commercial center that conducted

throughout western Africa. Bini ironwork, weapons, farm

tools,

carvings and foodstuffs ranging from

yams

to dried lizards.

in

And

since Benin had mastered the

concept of money, transactions were not restricted to simple bartering. rie shells

The currency

consisted of cow-

and metal rings called manillas.

Early European traders, expecting easy pickings,

were surprised when they found what shrewd busi-

nessmen they were dealing with. One trader complained that

days before

"we have generally to wait eight or ten we can agree upon a price with them."

AN ELEGANT RIDER

arrives

from

the north. His feathered headdress

suggests that he

may

be a body-

guard of an emir from northern Nigeria to

who sometimes

traveled

Benin on important business.

A MASTER MERCHANT licensed by the

Oba

(right) to

was

deal with

Europeans, an honor accorded only to the craftiest traders.

CHIEF OF PROTOCOL, the Royal Greeter officially welcomed

cent in his left

merchants and distinguished

Benin's most valuable

visitors to the

Oba's court.

hand

is

The

cres-

a manilla,

money

unit.

A

WARRIOR

FIERCE

hurl his

spear.

shield of thin

gets

His

Set

to

ornamented

bamboo was

little

protection against a direct spear thrust, but

it

probably could ward

off glancing

blows.

decorative kilt

spun

to

the

His

highly

was made of

fibers

texture of fine silk.

I

TRIUMPHANT ly

IN BATTLE elaborate-

armored Bini swordsmen lead a

prisoner of war (immediate right)

back

to

Benin as a slave.

soldiers, early explorers

•

HLm

WARFARE, DECLINE War was

a

constant of

life in

territorial

were highly disciplined, and would not yield a step even

were

AND

in

when

they

imminent danger of death.

FALL

Benin; according to some accounts the na-

tion could mobilize 100,000 warriors in a day.

was

Such

reported,

The

object of their fighting

expansion and the acquisition of booty and slaves.

After the Europeans arrived, the slave trade mushroomed; farming

and commerce were slighted and the economy— inevitably— started lapse.

The Oba,

believing his bad fortune

dered more and more disintegration

Benin

all

human

was complete;

was the work of the

sacrifices to turn the tide.

that year a British force

to col-

devil, or-

But by 1897 the

found the

city of

but deserted and littered with the bodies of sacrificial victims.

After four centuries of greatness, Benin had finally passed into history. 118

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,

A

middle-aged African carrying three spears and

wooden bowl comes down doorway

before a

clay wall. Tall trees

climb on every hand, but the

tonwood

path and stops

a forest

brown

in a

tallest

giant Cot-

a

is

from within the walled compound.

rising

The African pauses

at the

door, leans his spears

He

respectfully against the lintel and steps within. is

there to consult the Priestess of the Python, and

his

bowl contains an offering of mashed plantains

and kola nuts, hot from the heat of

6

nervous

his

hands, for visiting a priestess can be an anxious business. Lansana

is

skilled metalsmith,

a

has come to the priestess because he last

GODS AND

a

SPIRITS

week two

of his

and he worried;

is

beehive furnaces col-

little

lapsed for no reason he can understand, and two

valuable smeltings were ruined.

Lansana's story

would have been

contemporary one, but

a

is

essentially the

and very probably even long before

ago,

where

Africa's

is

than in

traditionalism

more

that.

for centuries,

have enormously influenced Africa, the old gions are

still

and reli-

used for practical problems by prac-

men

tical-minded

No-

apparent

Although Islam and Chris-

religions.

its

have coexisted with them

tianity

it

same 100 years

Lansana. Given

like

mystery,

a

he prefers to find an answer through the tried and

proven methods of his ancestors. The priestess and her kind administer those methods, and in a cu-

way

rious

their ministrations

As Lansana speaks

work.

to the priestess of the

age to his furnace and smeltings, with

hidden

evil, of

witch-made malice by

its

a

dam-

hint of

person or

persons unknown, Lansana becomes excited. But the

priestess

remains calm. She asks questions,

endless questions, and says nothing.

no more questions she goes of the

Cottonwood

thing.

It

in the

is

a

tree,

When

she has

to the silver-gray roots

stoops and picks up some-

beautiful snake, slender and shining

sun. She places

it

before an altar of en-

chanted stones while Lansana waits, hoping for the best, the

noonday heat beating upon

The python

gives no sign of

life

except for a faint

pulsing beneath the golden skin of

A THE SPIRIT OF FERTILITY

is

invoked by a figure of a

woman

to rising

long time passes. At

last

his bare head.

its

throat.

the priestess turns

Lansana with her answers. He has offended the

from a

much

calabash, or gourd, in this fetish once used by the Congo's Baluba tribe.

ancestors by too

The spiraling

remiss in his social duties, has behaved meanly to

snail shells

below the figure symbolize continuous growth.

haste for wealth, has been

121

Camara. Let him

his cousin

make amends help

is

ford

him

to

Camara,

let

sacrifice a goat and him give help where

due, and once again the ancestors will afprotection. Lansana listens

their

annoyed, but

the

at

away from him,

same time

for the

his

and

is

worries drop

mystery of the smeltings

solved.

is

Lansana's priestess and her python exist

numerable variations

in

nent, performing the local equivalents of this

function.

They

and elaborate African beliefs

as

life.

in-

over the African conti-

all

are the very

same

bedrock of an ancient

set of religious beliefs that

permeate

But what sort of religious ideas and

can be expressed in such terms? Were they,

one 17th Century missionary called them, "hell-

ish

Were they

delusions"?

blind and pointless su-

perstitions, crude

and childish make-believe? Were

Africans

fetish

simply

worshipers,

wood and

magical lumps of

idolaters

of

stone? All these and

many similar labels were pinned on Africans by non-Africans— sometimes with unconscious irony ("fetish" comes from the Portuguese feiti(o, a magic talisman worn by Portuguese sailors as protection against evil spirits). More thoughtful men, armed with the findings of modern research, see

things otherwise.

African religion,

in

William Howells, general kind."

more

or less

is

Its

the

words of anthropologist

"a godly religion of a

most

gods have attributes that are

human, and

offer their worshipers the

kind of sympathy and protection

common

to

many

other religions. Africans evidently thought about

God

in

earliest

ways deserving

of respect from the very

time of their dispersal across the continent.

Religion, in fact, can be said to have been the regulating force in

all

they said and did. Like Christians

of the Middle Ages, A SNAKE SYMBOL carved by West African Baga tribesmen was part of a tradition of snake worship. Pythons were regarded as reincarnations of ancestors—and treated with appropriate respect.

122

of faith.

pagan Africans

£x ecclesiam non

lived in

est vita, "there

outside the Church," runs the Christian

and so might

it

is

an age

no

life

maxim—

run for Africa. The priestess and

A NAIL FETISH,

this

wooden dog was used

wanted special

a merchant rior

woman

sought painless

was driven

battle,

in

childbirth,

into a figure such as

her kind were not a

profits, or a

wished invulnerability

rounded and

itual teaching,

mumbo

efficacious

to

When

invoke magical powers for good luck.

waror a

a

nail

this

one.

jumbo, but elements in

system of moral and spir-

without which the Africans could

never have built and maintained their stable societies, their

patterns of law and order, their stand-

many

similar ideas about the supernatural world.

Nearly

all

whom

from

garded as

Africans believed in a single High all

God

things flowed. He was seldom

human

in

that differentiated

re-

form, but rather as the Energy

life

from matter,

a

sort of Life-

conviction about a Life-Force, Af-

ards of good and bad, their measures for bringing

Force.

From

this

troubled and

ricans

drew

certain conclusions about the nature of

comfort

and

to the sick

relief to the

man. One of these was that the dead do not

despairing.

African religion achieved these ends different

ways— in

almost as

many ways

in

widely

die.

They

there

but

at the

as

were African peoples. As each migrant group splin-

away from

tered

search of

new

parent

its

land,

it

carried

tribe, its

moving out

gradually modifying and changing them to suit

new

conditions of

rain forests of the

sky,

came

origin

to

life.

Thus people

Congo, scarcely ever seeing the

have very different ideas about the

and operation of the world from people

And

its

living in the

ing in the sky-enclosing plains of the lands.

in

old beliefs along,

liv-

open grass-

people whose homes lay within sound

of the Atlantic surf developed different religious

needs from people living inland, along the banks of rivers. But their beliefs

however varied the particulars of

and

practices, African religions shared

ty.

And

really

leave the earth to rejoin the Life-Force,

same time they

since

no one

retain a spiritual identi-

dies, in

the sense of being

utterly abolished, every community of the living also includes the spirits of that,

born.

it

also includes the

An

its

spirits

dead.

African chief once explained

commission

of inquiry into

More than

of those not yet to a British

West African customs

that he thought of the land as belonging to "a vast

family, of

which many

countless

members

are dead,

few

are living,

and

are unborn."

The High God, most Africans also believed, once lived down among men, and the explanations for why he left are strikingly similar. The Dinka, in the Sudan, and the Ashanti, far to the

west

in

Ghana, both say that the cause was women. God, 123

A

MOUSE ORACLE,

in the

guarded by a human

more

form of a small urn

figure,

esoteric devices used

was one of

the

by Baule diviners

of the Ivory Coast. Sticks were carefully ar-

ranged inside the it.

and then mice placed

jar

By reading the new patterns of

in

sticks pro-

duced by the moving animals, a diviner

told

fortunes, settled disputes, identified witches

and

thieves,

and even located

lost articles.

Diviners were frequently consulted by

cli-

ents needing personal or business guidance.

man

say the Dinka, withdrew from

day

deplorably greedy

a

than her

fair

Forthwith,

God with

share of land, hit

God

because one

woman, wanting more her hoe.

sent a small, blue bird, a bird as

nla,

who

was performed by

a lesser

watery waste,

scattered earth over the

planted trees and later created

god, Orisha-

human

bodies into

blue as the sky of the Sudan, to cut the rope that

which Olodumare breathed

had always given people

touch of village practicality, Olodumare sent along

Ashanti they say that

woman

God

link with heaven.

a

left

man

was making fufu

plantains or yams).

because an old

(a

dish of

"Then one day God

cause of what you are doing to me,

myself far up into the sky where me.'

In

repeatedly jolted him with her pounding

stick while she

And

men

I

am

indirect role in

man's

host of lesser gods

who

affairs.

taking

cannot reach

played only an

Beneath him was

a

acted as intermediaries and

workings of the

universe— gods of storm, of mountains, of thunder, rivers, snakes, seas, trees, iron.

Olodumare, the

High God of the Yoruba of Nigeria, the earth but did not do

work. In

fact,

he made

it

for example,

any of the actual

in four days, setting aside

the fifth as a day of rest and

nla

Most to

chameleon

worship— a work week

(With

life.

how

check on

to

was carrying out

typical

a

well Orisha-

his orders.)

of these lesser gods were local gods, sacred

one community, and each community evolved

what might be

called

its

with the supernatural— its spiritual reassurance

God

also presided over the physical

made

a sacred

mashed

said, 'Be-

of a truth he did."

For the most part this High

124

happily suited to the climate of the tropics. But the real labor

and

own own

"spiritual charter"

particular

form of

identity. For a long time

the nature of these charters

was hidden from the

outside eye by the simplicity and crudity of the religious equipment. Africans built

no monumental

churches and seldom bothered with the panoply of priestly garb. Their

humble

often containing an altar that

affairs,

no more than

temples and shrines were

a

lump

and were frequently

of

littered

pots and other everyday shrines and

altars,

wood

was

or piece of stone,

with

objects.

seemingly so

a

collection of

And

yet

makeshift

these

and

AFRICAN MAGIC CHARMS however, eclectic Africans used magical ob-

Threatened by unknown forces, and sometimes by

tice,

hunger and beasts of prey, Africans,

jects less

ples, enlisted the

like other peo-

techniques

aid of magic. Their

were largely pragmatic and derived from everyday experience; for example,

if

a

seemed

mon

by category than by what they actually Following are some of the most com-

to do.

African charms, and their uses-

farmer plucked a round

black stone from a river bed and was thereafter

to consider

round black stones standard insurance

BUNDLES OF FEATHERS

was

RAFFIA

dreaded lions

of

ANIMAL CARVINGS

hunter wore

ANIMAL TEETH

a

if

them and returned successfully from the hunt. Ob-

BUNDLES OF STICKS

became stand-

BAMBOO WHISTLES

ardized and stylized into symbolic magical devices.

GOATSKIN POUCHES

work were

did were widely copied, and gradually

many

vices into talismans, or general

good luck charms,

HEAVY ANKLETS

off specific evils. In prac-

TWISTED COPPER RINGS

and amulets, used

to

of these de-

were revered and even dignified places of

casual,

worship— made so by the

sincerity of the worship-

ject

conduct.

shakings.

important of

it

.

come

to consult

and characters

would

be.

most were ical

Yet

as if

as varied in their talents

any such body

of

specialists

some were frauds and

rascals,

skillful practitioners in the arts of

phys-

and mental healing. Their authority came part-

from

a

broad knowledge of herbal medicine, plus

psychological insight and an intimate understanding of local circumstances. But

it

also

came from

the general belief in the priest's or priestess'

power

Promote

Guard

good hunt wild animals fertility

the

home

Defend against witchcraft

Ward

off illness

Prevent quarrels Protect

weak

children

Prevent snake bites

"This he

Such

a bell,

drumming, and, most

up

its

will

know when

abode in the body pro-

The okomfo then addresses

.

.

the custodians of the

doubt they were

a

off

by being seized with tremblings and

and gives

No

Keep

by dancing. He

the spirit has taken

spirit

tance.

ly

all,

Because religious beliefs and practices played so life,

Ensure

"by tinkling

pologist,

temples and shrines were people of great impor-

room

wrote Robert Rattray, the British anthro-

does,''

vided for

large a part in African

of a

through which he evoked the god.

They were sacred places where men and women could come to consult their oracles and pray to their gods— behind their simplicity lay complex systems of spiritual homage and social beliefs.

harm

Keep away burglars

CHEWING STICKS

African scholars have classified

ward

Guard occupants

IRON BRACELETS

discarded; those that

jects that did not

Protect crops from

Shield villages from disease

BROOMS

and crocodiles were regarded as powerful medicine against wild beasts— particularly

ers'

STRAW

PALM-FROND ARCHWAYS

good crops. Similarly, the teeth

for

PIECES OF

likely

blessed by several good crops, in time he

skills

answers

its it.

.

.

to

those

the

who have

.

required arduous training, and

some African peoples there was

among

a regular course of

schooling for shrine priests. In Ashanti,

a

novice

studied for three years, during which time he said to be "married" to the god.

The

first

was

year he

learned the ceremonial use of herbs— which leaves to

rub on his ankles to strengthen them for danc-

ing;

his

which

to

rub on his eyes so that he could "see

god daily"; which

the spirit of possession.

to take in order to arouse

During the second year he

learned the laws and taboos of the god.

He was

example, the shrine priest was called an okomfo,

told never to drink intoxicating liquors,

never to

from kom, which means

gossip, never to quarrel or fight, never to call

to

mediate with the

and

his

spirit

main duty was

world. In Ashanti, for

to

prophesy or predict,

to care for the sacred ob-

his

god

to kill

anyone, never

to

upon

attend the chief's 125

court unless invited, never to go out at night to join other

young men.

to salute his elders

by bending

knee and

his right

touching the ground with his right hand. Finally, the priest-to-be learned the arts

in his last year,

of divination

and incantation and the proper forms

of Africa controlled the mysteries of

nature; they were the spirits to

whom

one appealed

for help

and protection against the unknown. But

when

came

it

mundane

to

religious beliefs

came

"founding fathers"

good and safe path

tread.

for

was they who had

It

country," as the Africans put

to

sur-

who had

laid

and of nations. The great Ashanti empire

villages

Ghana toward

that arose in

each community

come

"first it,

ti

to

into the

and who had de-

and prosperous

number

der in a

duty

At puberty, along with the customary

a

duced

to his ancestors.

founded

how

to the

to the ancestors,

and

their

and was

learned that his

as they

had

At the end

all

nately, or even those for

Consequently, a

introduced

cult objects associated

what they stood

told

own

with

life

for.

would prosper only

down by

the ancestors, lived

no worse but not much

of this period of indoctrination, a

number

better.

which

of weeks, the child

considered an adult and a

member

was

of his

community's "secret society." These governing

as-

whom

but members could attend their ceremonies. Other-

he might have

shiped only those

who were

a

He wor-

recognized as standing

succession from some distant

wise, everyone

it was these societies of men (and somewomen) who applied the ancestral laws, modithem when necessary and made sure they were

times

founder; only these authorized ancestors could act

fied

carried out.

the "appointed ancestors" were not un-

was aware of them, and indeed had

to be, for

as intermediaries with the original ancestral spirit.

way

them-

sociations were secret only to the extent that none

admiration or respect.

In a

for

his ancestors indiscrimi-

special, personal

in the direct line of

laid

lived,

officially

this contract.

they had

he obeyed the ancestral will— observed the rules

sometimes lasted

did not worship

how

way of life descendants. He was

masks and other

pected to look after the interests of the other, and

honor and renew

learned

with the help of the gods and

his village

the ancestors

He

He

they had organized a

selves

contract or a

tests for

bravery and maturity, a child was ritually intro-

meticulous ceremonies and rituals were employed to

in-

utors of the ancestral laws.

ignored

but the ancestors owed one in return: each was ex-

man

were

agency of the "secret societies" that were the exec-

and regulations

a

of different ways: they

timately connected with the traditional "rites of

if

owed

single

ancestor cults assured law and or-

at village level,

were power-

life; if

were dangerous enemies.

living

a

symbol, the Golden Stool of Osei Tutu. But even

another element, in the nature of

The

the close of the 17th

peoples to unite their ancestors under

not simply one of awe and respect. There was also

bargain.

regulated

It

the lives of individuals, of villages, of groups of

down

But the relationship of the living to the dead was

126

organizing factors in African society.

they controlled the village economy through the

rules. If suitably served, the ancestors

or insulted, they

of the central

speak for them,

cided the community's religious, moral and social

ful aids to a secure

was one

passage"— birth, puberty, marriage and burial— and

was the ancestors who guaranteed the

were the

of ancestors

each

in

and prosperity of the communal group. They

vival

the

These concerned

and the people

community who were appointed it

another set of

affairs,

into play.

the spirits of the ancestors,

for

The worship

Century rested on an agreement between the Ashan-

of addressing his god.

The gods

canonized saints of the Christian church.

like the

was always

In addition, he

Some

of

these

societies

powerfully influenced

with Europe. Visiting mari-

Africa's early trade

ners in the 15th Century found that they could

buy nor

neither

sell

goods along the Guinea coast

without the approval of the elders

Poro society. Like other such

was of

membership, backed by the authority of an-

cestral sanctions,

gave

practical aspects of

Poro existed it

the

the Poro

democracy

essentially religious. But the broad

its

but

who headed

societies,

a

it

strong role in

community

life

all

as well.

the

The

to interpret the will of the ancestors,

also arranged public festivals, settled secular

disputes and set market prices for everything from

yams in

to gold. Religion

and

politics thus

went hand

hand. For the individual African, however, religion did

not end with prayer to the gods and respect for the ancestors.

The supernatural made

itself

felt

at

a

third level: in sorcery

and witchcraft. Like Euro-

peans before the age of

scientific explanation, Afri-

cans believed in magic. There was good magic and bad; the former could be helpful, even benevolent,

when

the latter disastrous, especially deliberate

work

of sorcerers. But evil could

INITIATION MASKS, topped by figures of beasts and birds, and fringed with

come from

bushy

These were malicious

raffia collars,

ating to

are

donned by Bayaka boys

manhood. Their formal

the boys return

receiving

in the

Congo upon gradu-

initiation into adult status

from a "bush school," where they have

instruction

in

secret

rites

and

is

held

lived for

responsibilities

to

the

when weeks tribe.

of their

work

the unpremeditated

human

was the

it

who

spirits

left

also

of witches.

the bodies

hosts and flew about at night on

secret missions, just as they did in 16th

and 17th

Century Christian Europe. To deal with them— and, in fact, to deal

with

all

forms of sorcery— Africans

turned to a specialist in magic,

commonly

called a

witch doctor. The real function of the witch doctor

was

to advise

evil spirits,

and protect people threatened by

but occasionally

himself "go bad" and

The

a

witch doctor would in

traffic

dangerous

spells.

force of such beliefs varied greatly.

peoples, like the

were obsessed

Zande

by

of

southern Sudan,

the

witchcraft

and

witches influenced every facet of ples, like the Tallensi of

Some

believed

life;

that

other peo-

Ghana, had no such ap-

prehensions. But no matter

how

prevalent the fear 127

few Africans believed

of witches,

that

unusual oc-

knowledge

and of human nature

currences were wholly supernatural; even the Zande

nity,

distinguished between the act of bad magic and the

usual for him to function as

cause of the

What

him.

A

act.

very well that

Zande

was

it

by

bitten

wanted

know why

to

had bitten him and not someone snake

that willed the

To find

when

fatal.

the snake

and who

it

oracle.

Most

a certain

fed to a chicken, might or might

While the poison was being admin-

istered the questioner ritually petitioned the oracle for

an answer. Depending upon whether the chick-

en lived or died, the petition was granted or

left in

When

psychologist.

of the

Python about

was

to use a great

many

chickens.

Tests and ordeals that used herbal brews were also

common

practice in witch-doctoring.

The famous

vomited

them

if

they were innocent

if

they were guilty.

and that purged

The same

technique, the

Scottish doctor observed, had been used in his

country, in witch, being into a pond;

guilty ...

if

reverse.

In

Scotland,

bound hand and if

own

"the supposed

foot,

was thrown

she was considered

she floated,

she sank and was drowned, she was

pronounced innocent." Witch-doctoring

is

written off

in

the

modern

in traditional

the witch doctor served a real

and useful purpose,

quite aside from his magic.

He was

Africa

often able to

disputes between rivals that might have led to

violence,

and

his

an

indi-

ers,

re-

and mental therapeutic pow-

why

helps to explain

Islam and Christianity

have never completely wiped out traditional African

But

beliefs.

their

not the only explanation. In

is

it

way, African religions offered Africans an

in-

digenous version of the concept of immortality. The

worship of the ancestors, with

that,

life

beyond death.

gave the individual African

it

with

spiritual identity life

extended

profound sense

its

a

group whose pattern of

a

had never changed,

as far

back as the mind

could remember.

Undoubtedly

this

one main reason

is

why

the

old Christian missionaries so often complained of

among

backsliding Islam, for

all

its

their African

tolerance

and

flocks,

of certain

why

traditional

African customs, was long resisted. For Africans the goal in lived. It

was

life

as one's fathers

to live

might not be progress, but

it

was

had

stability.

Thus, the force and dignity of African religion was not in

its

parts, but

its

whole.

Men

such as Lan-

sana were embraced from cradle to grave by a sys-

world as arrant nonsense, but

settle

as

This faith in the healing qualities of African ligion, in its physical

Dr. David Livingstone noted that suspected Afri-

can witches were given powerful emetics that they

was

the priestess,

able to provide them.

More than

man

And

from long acquaintance with Lansana vidual,

came high— a

drive a troubled

was not un-

his ruined smeltings, he

there for comfort and advice.

of tribal continuity,

problem could

it

a sort of prescientific

Lansana stepped through the

abeyance. Sometimes the cost of this consultation particularly worrisome

in general,

commu-

door of the brown clay wall to consult the Priestess

to be lying in his path.

medium he used was

often the oracular

poison that,

else,

Zande consulted an

out, the

not prove

harmed

for the snake's bite. Disbelieving in

the accidental, he

was

snake knew

a

the snake's poison that

he did not know, and what he feared,

was the reason

knowledge of the medicinal

val-

ue of herbs frequently led him to prescribe remedies that actually cured. Also, 128

of the lives of the people in his

through his intimate

tem of

beliefs

and moral guides that had been

evolved, however unconsciously, through centuries of trial

and

error.

personal and

smoothly; cieties. all

the

it

The system

community was

life

oiled the wheels of

and made them run

the very heart of

So well did

it

work

turmoil of colonial

serves Lansana today.

that

it

all

African so-

lasted through

times— and thus

still

A SAINT

IN

STONE on one

of Lalibela's churches

is

inscribed St. George but

may

be Lalibela himself.

CHURCHES HEWN FROM ROCK In

1520 the Portuguese explorer and missionary Francisco Alvares penetrated the

highlands of central Ethiopia and found himself in the midst of a nation of intensely pious Christians. Ethiopia, in fact, for

more than

three centuries

was

had been converted

in lively contact

center of the faith in North Africa. But in 640 A.D. Egypt

Ethiopia

was cut

off

from the mainstream of Christianity

Alvares was doubly amazed ticularly the monolithic

had been Ethiopia's

when he saw the

for

much

alive:

to Islam,

and

years.

Ethiopians' places of worship, par-

Ten of

these churches had been carved from solid rock

during the 13th Century under the direction of King Lalibela, town. Unlike so

fell

more than 800

churches in Lalibela, a remote mountain village that once

capital.

to the

333 A.D., and

in

with Alexandria, the spiritual

many

relics of

ancient Africa, the churches are

through the centuries Lalibela has become

lem of Ethiopia," and pilgrims

still

who gave

travel

known

hundreds of miles

to

name

his still

very

as "the Jerusa-

worship

there. 129

.•>*

V-*-

.

*•

!:%

THE LEGEND OF A HEAVENLY TASK For centuries scholars have wondered what

could have inspired King Lalibela to undertake the enormous task of carving 10

churches from solid rock. According to a

HEWING STONE with an

adze, a

workman

(said to be Lalibela) completes a church.

19th Century Ethiopian manuscript, three

whose

of

left,

reproduced

illustrations are

God

inspired Lalibela to build

at

the

churches; moreover, after Lalibela's subjects

had finished each day's work, the

angels pitched in at night.

Historians give a

somewhat

different

account. Lalibela's ancestors, they say, had

usurped the Ethiopian throne from the

Solomonid dynasty about 1100 A.D. and

begun

the

Zagwe dynasty. But

under the Zagwes declined prestige,

the country

in

power and

and the Solomonids grew dan-

gerously strong. Lalibela built the churches to give

grandeur to his capital

shadow

city, to

over-

the Solomonids and, most impor-

tant, to gain the favor of Ethiopia's Chris-

tian clergy as the legitimate king.

However been

secular his motives

at first, Lalibela

was

a

may have man

changed

by the time the work was done. According to legend he

had spent

finance the project.

He

all

slept

only herbs and roots and,

his

wealth to

on rocks,

when

ate

the last

church was completed more than two decades life

FINISHED CHURCHES are depicted as

SAINTHOOD

is

promised by God

tall

structures enclosed by a symbolic wall.

(left) to Lalibela

as a reward for his holy task.

later,

abdicated the throne to lead a

of Christian

contemplation.

Today,

though other Zagwe rulers are regarded

by Ethiopians

as unmitigated scoundrels,

King Lalibela

is

revered as a true saint.

DEEP IN A HILLSIDE of volcanic rock, the L hurch

f St.

George

is

reached by a narrow subterranean trench, visible as a dark rectangle at the

CONCENTRIC CROSSES level

A HIDDEN SANCTUARY Nowhere

in Lalibela

builders' task

Church

of

St.

chipped away a

is

the enormity of the church-

more vividly

illustrated than in the

George, seen

here.

The workers

bedrock until they had dug

at the

trench 40 feet deep,

leaving a

huge block

of

which they painstakingly carved into the shape of a Greek cross and then hollowed out. stone,

A it

legend connected with the church states that

was

built after St.

George,

no church had been erected into

town and ordered

one. Supporting the tale clearly imprinted in 132

it

who was

furious that

in his honor, galloped

the workers to is

is

a

construct

stone near the church;

a curious hooflike

mark.

are carved into the church's roof,

which

with the surface of the ground from which the put around

left

is it

of the picture.

almost exactly

was excavated.

§:

v

?5*S^"'

:

_-

A STEPPED

BASF, follows the

massive contours of the church, widening out at the main entrant

ana

at a

door

to

a side chapel at the right.

I WINDOWS:

LALIBELA'S

-

A MEETING OF CULTURES The

architecture of the churches of Lalibela reflects

the blending of a great fluences, as

shown ments

many

different cultural in-

can be seen in the array of windows

The Greek, Roman and Byzantine elethe designs of some of the windows prob-

here. in

ably filtered into Ethiopia with Christian refugees

from Muslim persecution

in Egypt.

One

authority

has claimed to have identified motifs from as far

away

as Persia, central Asia

tirely plausible:

off

from the Christian nations

Mediterranean, cial

and China. This

and cultural

East,

which

is

en-

although Ethiopia was largely cut

it

to the

north of the

had established strong commer-

ties

with the nations of the Middle

in turn

were trading with the Orient.

POINTED WINDOWS of Muslim origin appear above Christian crosses on

Abba

partially rebuilt of

masonry

Libanos. The church after

was

an earthquake.

SWASTIKA MOTIFS, ancient mystical symbols comin Persia and the East, are interspersed with

mon

other kinds of crosses on the Church of

St.

Mary.

A GREEK CROSS, as elaborate as the gold altarpieces

134

used by Lalibela's priests,

reflects

with the Orthodox Church

in

early contacts

the Mediterranean.

__________

ru

;

\.-'

T^siyi — f

...

i

.':,, Hill

i&V

K.

J*.:

'

.

.

a\ *_

ROMANESQUE ARCHES on of

St.

Mascal

of swastikas

A

rise

the

and twinned

openings below

it

were probably

inserted after this church

AN ORNATE FRAMEWORK,

in the

wall of the Church of

tendrillike tracery, all

surmounted by a Maltese

cross.

crosses.

ROMAN CROSS and two ornamen-

tal

Golgotha, combines a pointed opening with a delicate,

Church

above a window

was

built.

exposing columns and vaults

ceivable that

to

hold up the roof. Finally these were decorated with elaborate geometric designs such as the intertwined circles seen above.

some of the workers were

skilled artisans

from

Byzantium, or even from Rome. Even the great European architects of the

period— who could build from the ground up with

stones and mortar, bricks and beams,

ing— were scarcely achieving better

plumb

lines

results.

and scaffold-

The rock from

which the churches tuff

common

of Lalibela

were hewn

is

a red volcanic

throughout the mountains of Ethiopia. This ma-

terial is relatively

easy to carve- but while European builders

could correct their errors, in Lalibela a surveying miscalculation or a

moment of carelessness might have

ruined a whole church. 137

£* >

JM

«r

-

Almost from

all

African sculpture was made

a single piece of

a still-growing tree

wood, selected from

by the sculptor, who

above. der of

The figure reflects the single cylinwood from which it was made: the

arms are held close are

when he

—all lending the

carved. This close collaboration

of artist with his material

is

reflected in

the funerary figure seen in three views at right,

and

in the detail of a

man's head

flat to

strength.

and

to the

body, the feet

the ground and the head

scrupulously stayed within the tree's form

body

The head shown above,

erect, illustrates

is

great tension

erect

and

also taut

the dramatic detail

possible within such a compressed form.

wflBflj

M

V

.

HE

nHSi

I

v

it

/y

>

i

SI '.

1 By

rotating

the

seen at far

left

five-inch

Dogon

through 180°

in

ancestor figure multiple expo-

It

was

precisely these qualities that so impressed

the revolutionaries of

Western art— Pic?sso, Braque,

sures (below), photographer Elisofon followed the

Matisse, Derain— when they

techniques of cubism to dramatize Africa's contri-

in the

butions

to

modern

shows the African of

body

parts;

art.

The photograph

idea of abstraction

the feeling of

clearly

and emphasis

the original

wood

early 1900s.

to

go beyond

strict

representation of natural forms,

gradually appeared in radically

such as

surfaces broken into distinct planes; the patina of

surface changes, these

and rubbed

to a

deep glow.

cubism and

LU

new movements

surrealism.

same African

flow deep in the mainstream of

f

1

encountered them

themselves had been searching for in their efforts

block in the firm stance and muscular tension; the

these planes, preserved

first

Such techniques, which they

e

,$

H

Today,

below

traditions

modern Western

still

art.

Although many of

most impres-

tropical Africa's

sive achievements occurred

from the 10th

to

the

16th Centuries, to most Westerners the continent's history did not

really begin until the European powers took over. In the 19th Century, when the

nations of Europe had finally settled

which was

selves

and the

to

8

the Americas

in

East, they turned their attention to Africa

in their search for

By

have what

among them-

new markets and

colonial sites.

the end of the century they had remade the

whole African map, drawing the boundaries ac-

own

cording to their

relative military

strength or

aggressiveness at the conference table, and often

without regard to the existing social and

A CONTINENT TRIUMPHANT

political

structures in Africa.

The invaders, hostile

and out across grasslands tawny

forests

as a lion's

mane, and finding what seemed

a wild

human

silence

around themselves and called

made

confusion,

guns and Maxims

a

typical

"the [British-led troops]

bank without

up and

a

halting,

retired within

mained but

As

a great

"The

contemporary

reached the river

and the Fulah force broke

now

the city. Nothing

re-

to shell the place."

matter of fact

a

were determined that

even

if

much

of it was The invad-

civilized institutions

shed their peaceful light— by force,

—over peoples who were thought stitutions of their

same

great deal of the

sort of persuasion remained,

to

them

having been

carried out with the best of intentions. ers

to

and sudden peace.

it

[machine guns]

brought into action," ran report,

way through

cutting their confident

if

were

necessary

to possess

no

in-

own.

Yet even then, in that heyday of brash imperialism, there were misgivings.

observers

had any

questioned

real

At

whether

least a

the

pointedly— or wittily— than the Victorian traveler all

much

new

critical

trustees

notion of what they were so wantonly

destroying. Perhaps no one put

were

few

Mary

this

view more

intelligent

Kingsley,

young

whose writings

the harder to set aside because she had had

experience in Africa. Miss Kingsley repeat-

edly chided the colonial powers for abolishing political

A EUROPEAN VIEW of Africa is reflected in this Spanish map of 1500. Even the dry Sahara is crowded with European-looking kings, prelates and cas-

tles—many of them ranged along a forked Nile that runs west

to the coast.

systems that they did not understand, and

for then

showing pained surprise when the natives

failed to reveal a

The

imperial

proper gratitude. story,

she wrote, was very like 167

improving fable of the kind-hearted she-

"that

elephant who, while out walking one day, inad-

upon

vertently trod

partridge and killed

a

observing close at hand the bird's nest callow fledglings, dropped a

have the feelings of

upon

the brood. This

a

mother myself,'

resenting the 19th Century Africa. a tear

She destroys the guardian and

upon

sits

Pesky

warm

in

.

warm

drops

were

until the 1920s.

The

regions

ignored at the time,

had offered

long resistance to conquest became a favored theme

among

those

who spoke

for the African side of

"To put

it

of

shortly," said a veteran African proearly

nationalism,

the

Joseph Ephraim Caseley Hayford, to a

our

own

1920 address

Much

ideas of government."

African

the same.

air,

later,

due place

in

Against a background of world history, what

zation, of

its

of traditional African civili-

teachings,

its

beliefs,

and

politi-

its

and moral patterns of behavior? Where and

sum

Africans contributed to the

of man's

still

play a part in shaping the developing Africa

today? Over the past two decades of historical reconstruction, students of Africa a

number

while

drummed

have returned

of replies of varying worth.

much

Significantly,

of the

answer can be best

discovered by observing the African influence on

The

the Western Hemisphere. icas

would have been

can

arts

and African

a

Amer-

history of the

very different one without

made by African skills.

The

labor, Afri-

African's role in

the growth of the sugar and tobacco plantations

known.

of the Caribbean

and North America

Less familiar

the African contribution in other

fields.

At

is

least

until

is

well

the early 19th Century, the

mines of Brazil were mainly worked by Africans

who had

learned their

The Negroes

skill at

also lent

tional African style to the

home.

something of the

American

crafts in

tradi-

which

own

now," an American

concerns," declared a

confer-

in the

traveler could

say of Brazil

mid-19th Century, "seen slaves working as

their con-

carpenters, masons, pavers, printers, sign and or-

proclaimed that the world began and ended

namental painters, carriage and cabinet makers,

their

horizons. All

developed

in

its

own

unknown pattern,

to

in

them, Africa

growing

in its

own

life."

These statements argued 168

answer sev-

they engaged, and they engaged in many. "I have

ence on African unity in 1963, "and,

at

that

emo-

parts of this earth occu-

Emperor of Ethiopia when opening

ceit,

having

another generation would say

"Men on other

pied themselves with their

the

came

devel-

a

institutions,

the slogans of a renewed independence in the

Coast's

the British

we were

into relations with our people,

oped people, having our own

Gold

in a

London audience, "before ever

to

now less

about the African past in ways

the great contribution

the question.

tagonist

in

achievement? Will some aspects of that old culture

many

of precolonial institutions that

becomes possible

was the human value

how have

critics,

past,

of

the story of mankind.

forest

continue in

It

is

that can at last give Africans their

from beyond the

were afterward remembered when the validity and

power

tional language.

eral large questions

cal

sitting she finds it."

to

largely

sound

strength of Africa's "guardian institutions," wars of pacification

can be examined,

the colonial period

as the

certainly proved. Because of the

it

this precolonial reality

West

.

.

the brood with motherly in-

of distant gunfire echoed

skyline, "pesky

down

sat

institution,

added Miss Kingsley

tentions; and,''

'I

what England rep-

doing

is

of

full

and saying

tear,

precisely

is

and

it,

The nature

they also spoke for a deeper reality.

fabricators of

slaves a

political

case,

but

military

silversmiths, jewellers,

made many

ornaments,

lamp-makers,

and lithographers."

things that Africa

If

the

had never

known, they nevertheless created them with the

art-

and

istry

Why

skill that

derived from their native culture.

then should Africans

own

to

develop their

in

a consideration of

at

home have

those qualities and

tions of traditional African culture that

an outstanding aptitude wardness all

failed

The answer

industries?

time,

was

that

imbued with

itself a

a

of harsh ecological necessity.

point about Africa's guardian institutions. For the

The consequent

were often highly experimental— and,

that

atti-

the

at

profound conservatism

product of long stability and in-

grained tradition.

Dinka met

needs— and were bound

their

only

farming

strict

and

ligious, social

had

to

be flexible enough to allow a tolerance for

individual error, for occasional disputes between

groups of kin, and for periods of natural

different

enough

more than

absorb such

to

sternly and inexorably, of

ity to their

own

native environment.

tinent's populations, cut off

past adaptabil-

Most

of the con-

from the outside world

vival

ways

and even

information

is

of living that were adequate to surto a

fair

scant,

degree of comfort. Real

but the available evidence

suggests that most peoples south of the Sahara

had

a

standard of living far above the

minimum

subsistence level, and enjoyed a reasonably secure life.

Having

they had

this,

little

and lacking industrial examples,

to

achieve a comfortable existence, or even bare surtraditional

practices

Hence the Africans' often

had

to

be

fanatical

observed.

distrust

of

change. So long as the Dinka, for example, were careful to follow cattle

the

from these well-tried ensue.

them

practices,

Haphazard though

seriously depart

and disaster might

their

community

or-

ganization might seem to the uninstructed eye,

it

it

had

troubles,

to

be strong

and

to

on the continued

insist,

stability

During centuries of

society.

and

trial

such as these spread across

continent and learned to survive on

their

systems

it,

emerged that were carefully balanced against the various threats to

life.

By about 1800 A.D., periment

in

traditional

the centuries of such ex-

Africa— Iron-Age Africa-

were practically over. Most of

its

systems had de-

veloped to their point of ultimate maturity. Rural

methods of production

prosperity, based firmly on for

more

or

immediate consumption or ex-

less

change, depended not on expanding the overall

supply of goods but on steadily maintaining

farmer or craftsman usually

or craftsmen, felt

market he already had. His

manner

he needed not a

was

"Good

would be

was pos-

well.

behavior, respect for elders, and conform-

ity to the

life

no wealth

guardian

the

to live in the

of his forebears; so long as this

sible, all

or

ideal

it.

and the

bigger market but a continued assurance of

annual regulation of their

camps and sowing seasons, they would be

sure of a year's supplies. Let

that,

Most Africans were farmers

motivation to strive for more.

But the key condition was always present:

vival,

Dinka

error, as peoples

by seas of sand and water, had worked out preindustrial

re-

and customs that

ensured that the rules would be kept. This network

with spears, or bows and arrows, or ancient

arms of imported manufacture, the Africans were

do so

but also a network of

rules,

political beliefs

rope in the 19th Century, meeting machine guns fire-

to

they were going to survive— by observing not

if

adversity; but

Facing the supremacy of an industrialized Eu-

in a large sense victims of their

every detail to

limita-

combined

tudes resulted in approaches to everyday problems

same

framework

in

In every detail: here, of course, lies the central

for the arts with a back-

pretechnological societies.

a

shaped and fashioned

really

lies

sciences— a characteristic typical of

in the

was

led

by one's fathers, seeking

little

or position": these admonitions of the

spirits of the

Shona people

of Rhodesia

were not exceptional. Abnormalities of ambition or behavior

were

to

be condemned: what was good 169

was what was

down by

usual,

and what was usual was

the teachings of ancestors.

their continent

and made

laid

Having tamed

serve them, African

it

grow without

culture: they are about the size

and

We

finely flavoured.

have also spices of different kinds,

particularly

communities did not welcome the idea of progress,

pepper; and a variety of delicious fruits which

because progress would mean change, and change

have never seen

could only threaten the subtle balance that

man

and nature had wrought between them.

The beginning dividing

because

line,

it

was followed by

At that

the

a

point, the factors

overwhelm

ing for disintegration began to stability

a clear

very

mak-

the old

and peace. One of these new elements was

Europe.

in

.

.

All our industry

.

exerted to improve those blessings of nature. riculture

Century marks

of the 19th

different situation.

Thus we

are

is

Ag-

common

in

it.

habituated to labour from our

all

Every one contributes something

earliest years.

the

I

our chief employment, and every one,

is

even the children and women, are engaged

stock;

we

and, as

to

are unacquainted

with idleness, we have no beggars."

tremendous eruption of Nguni peoples out of

They

had few manufactured products, Equi-

also

southeastern Africa into the central plateau and as

ano admitted, except cotton

far north as the great lakes of

ments and instruments of war and husbandry."

was the growth

of a

the east.

new and

Another

destructive slave

trade inland through East Africa

the

was the Muslim

convenience rather than ornament. Each master of

war which unsettled many of the formerly regimes of West Africa. Finally there was

a family has a large square piece of ground, sur-

A

third

mounting pressure and penetration

ans. Large regions

of Europe-

were increasingly engulfed

in

tumult and upheaval.

stands clearly in the record until about 1800. Even

many

today, in the oral history of

catch the glimmer of

glow, dignified and serene.

its

peoples,

one

long nostalgic after-

One

or

two descriptions

of that evening of traditional maturity

were also

of

is

little

rounded with

moat

a

sole use of the master,

family, the other his friends

.

.

.

is

And

the day with his

as our

manners

are simple, our

luxuries are few."

Other accounts confirm the essential accuracy of Equiano's picture.

None

is

more convincing,

haps, than a down-to-earth report

Pedro Joao Baptista and

from Iboland

in eastern Nigeria,

remarkable

published

a

book about

somewhat

idealized for the purposes of the anti-

Though

sits in

apart for the reception of

left

rope's great year of revolution, 1789, a former slave

homeland.

In the middle

and consisting of two apart-

one of which he

in

by

his

...

or fence

written at the time by Africans themselves. In Eu-

Olaudah Equiano,

a pair of traders, the

feat.

made

Amaro

Nearly half

a

ingstone and other European pioneers

gal of her favours, our

supplied

.

.

.

We

prodi-

wants are few, and easily

have plenty of Indian corn, and

vast quantities of cotton and tobacco.

Our

pine ap-

a

made

the

crossing of middle Africa, these two traders tra-

then quietly back again from east to west, is

was

century before Liv-

versed the greater part of

country where nature

1811

in

Jose. Theirs

authentic note. live in a

per-

Afro-Portuguese mulattoes

slavery campaign, this Nigerian account strikes an

"As we

we study

use ... In our buildings

stands the principal building, appropriated to the

ments;

Yet the great achievement of stability and peace

may

should they need more? "In such a state

money

religious

stable

why

But

cloth, pottery, "orna-

from the Arab-

ruled island of Zanzibar.

170

ples

of the largest sugar-loaf

about 4,000 miles. The ply in the tista els.

was

Two

way

it

trip,

from west

to east,

and wrote

of

which they made sim-

of business, took nine years.

literate,

and

a total

a

Bap-

journal of their trav-

points of great interest emerge from

it.

The on

that the peoples

first is

their

way through middle

whom

they passed

Africa, like those of

Iboland in western Africa described by Equiano a little earlier,

had attained by 1800 an easy and even

comfortable

mode

of everyday

of

Kazembe," wrote Baptista

of

Katanga

in

.

.

.

manioc

all

flour, millet,

fruits ... as

and much

what

is

the southeastern Congo,

plied with provisions year:

"The

life.

of

fish."

territory

now

part

"is

sup-

the year round and every

maize, large haricot beans

bananas, sugar-canes, yams

There was also

.

.

.

a variety of live-

stock, he reported, including oxen and goats.

But the second point, concerning law and order afterward notorious for their lack of

in territories either,

is

even more interesting. Baptista and

ro told their Portuguese

employers that clear across

this vast stretch of Africa,

between inland Angola

on the west and inland Mozambique on the the

way was

two powerful authorities was

assured. These were the rulers of that

had arrived there

first.

The King, wearing European boots and a

miniature gold cross on one elbow, delier; the inscription

above

sits

beneath an imported chan-

his throne hails

him

as

"Don Alvare."

east,

easy enough to follow, provided only

that the goodwill of

A DUTCH DELEGATION, shown prostrate before the King of Kongo in 1642, came to make an alliance, but Portuguese and Spaniards

Ama-

two great

states

dominated the whole region, the one being

centered on the upper waters of the Kasai River

and the other on the Luapula River. Once these monarchs, the zembe, or

Mwata Yamvo and

their counselors,

were

the

Mwata Ka-

satisfied

by ap-

propriate gifts and proof of peaceable intentions, the law

would

was on the

prevail.

and the law

side of travelers,

Much

of the precolonial

Congo,

in

other words, offered an orderly and peaceful contrast to the violence

Some

of the

first

and confusion of

European pioneers of the

land country were early enough of the old

way

of

later times.

life

before

to

catch

the

the 19th Century began sweeping

it

a

in-

glimpse

upheavals of

away. In 1831

two Portuguese explorers, Major Jose Maria Monteiro

and Captain Antonio Candido Gamitto, made

way from Mozambique to the court of the reigning Mwata Kazembe. There they confirmed their

the observations of the

two mulatto traders

of 20 171

years earlier.

but

it

was

The Kazembe's was

a

powerful

also a comfortable one.

"We

state,

certainly

never expected to find," Gamitto wrote afterward, "so

much

pomp and

ceremonial,

ostentation in the

potentate of a region so remote from the seacoast,

and

in a nation

which appears so barbarous and

savage."

Some 40

years later another adventurer,

Morton Stanley, returned

Henry

comparable judgment

a

on the Ugandan kingdom of the Ganda and King Mutesa. Visiting

marked

in his

its

court in 1875, he re-

this

notebook that Mutesa was neither

who

goods.

could be ransomed for cattle and other

comparison

In

ward, Africa was

A

would be long and complex.

tury.

Northward

reigning ab-

solutely over a vast section of Africa, loved

more

Mono-

In 1800 the

the greater

basin, along with

part of

Westward

series of states of various sizes.

Oyo

empire of

Nigeria

in

to

still

than

existed, while that

its

dignity or power,

reach

zenith.

its

the

If

Western Sudan were

memory,

a

the old

still

great empires of the medieval

now no more

Congo

the

periphery, was enclosed in a

its

and Ashanti had

humane king

after-

motapa empire, which held sway over much of modern Rhodesia, was well into its fourth cen-

of current European fable, "but a pious

an intelligent

came

catalogue of the African states then existing

of Benin had not yet lost

Mussul-

what

with

at peace.

the "tyrannous savage" nor "wholesale murderer"

man and

dimly

glittering

than hated, respected more than feared." Better

with a vanished glory, others had taken their place.

acquaintance with Ganda history has

And among them

shown

since

number

lay a

of lesser systems,

then that Stanley was exaggerating somewhat; yet

some with kings

he was certainly right

without, most of which could also claim, like the

wrote. Mutesa's

in the

kingdom

a well-functioning

time, already

Ganda possessed

system of law and order. Long it

was, in Stanley's

more than three centuries

about 18th

tesa being

substance of what he

of the

past the experimental stage,

in the line of

old,

Mu-

Ganda kings

who had first assumed the throne about 1600 A.D. And what was true of the country of Mutesa or the

Kazembe was

also true of the greater part of

Africa south of the Sahara. Nearly everywhere, in

ways bility

Dinka and

or central authorities and others

Tallensi,

Nyakyusa and Tonga,

solved the major problems of level

and

to

But African conservatism was complete.

sal or

become important. Arriving ian

town

of

Kano

in the

from univer-

far

in the

most perceptive of

the

northern Niger-

all

the 19th Century

explorers,

techniques.

cotton-weaving industry were being sold

permanent. States that had kings suffered

from dynastic al

demand

conflicts. In

for captives

encouraged

a

host of

western Africa the coast-

who

could be sold as slaves

damaging border

where there was no lack of petty

fights

raids. Else-

and clashes.

But these, as often as not, amounted to

little

more

way from

some

traveler Heinrich Barth, in

past experiments in social relations and productive

sal or

had

middle of the 19th Cen-

German

those

a

often proved highly adaptable,

It

tury, the

all

limits,

particularly wherever the pressures of trade

ways

the result of

have

to

preindustrial

true stability.

had come about

as

life at a

have reached, within those

that differed greatly in detail, a political sta-

This stability was not, of course, either univer-

172

than a brandishing of spears and a taking of prisoners

found that the products of the Kano the

all

the shores of the Atlantic to the fringes

of the forests of the

Congo.

This Kano industry, Barth calculated, might annually be worth as

kurdi

(a

shells),

much

as three

hundred million

currency unit reckoned generally in cowrie

"and how great

be understood by

my

this national

wealth

readers," Barth

is

will

went on

to

explain,

"when

know

they

with from

that,

thousand kurdi, or from four

sixty

sterling a year,

a

to five

whole family may

live

fifty

to

pounds that

in

country with ease, including every expense, even that

come

this

and that even

was

its

advanced methods of

relatively

exchange and transport continued

by of

traditional rules

and customs.

to be restricted

arrived

radical changes.

upon

When

the structure

If

society underwent many reforms,

went any

re-

strictly a handicraft industry,

the

it

never under-

machine guns

the scene, half a century after Barth,

they could not be met with effective retaliation.

(Whence

who

invaders

they do, for

when he mocked

could boast:

we have

"It little

matters what

Maxim

gun, and they

got the

This relative isolation from the outside world intensified

by the action of

a string of trading

states along the seaboard. Their erect

and maintain

interest

was

to

middleman monopoly between

a

the maritime Europeans and the producer peoples of the inland regions.

At

least until the 1850s,

were generally successful

inland Africa they sion, but

in this attempt.

may have

often

they

inter-

to

prepare for the

African conservatism was coastal states than

produced for immediate use

or trade rather than for

saving and investment,

of these states displayed a viable capacity to

adjust themselves to

new

opportunities.

customs of tradition

some

made them-

and the presence

on the island of Lagos, 150 miles

shown, old,

could have was

effect these pressures

in a curious

combination of new ideas with

by the work of Brohimi's energetic Chief Nana.

Opposing

Nana

British penetration,

Here we see one

British "punitive force" in 1894.

kind of adaptability:

repulsed a

Nana had taken good

care to

learn from British partners before they turned into

of

swamps and

creeks,

invading

the

found

force

Nana's township girdled by gun positions, the of

first

which was equipped with 23 cannon "loaded,

trained, fire

and primed" (though the gunners

failed to

them) and with charges consisting of "three-

pound

balls

and tubular bamboo frames

with

filled

broken iron pots."

forty

to a

attack Brohimi

warm

cannon— in

fire

itself,

from "at

the

least

British

thirty or

addition to plenty of rifles,"

of the cannon being "trained

directly

some

down

the

creek so as to render the approach by boats most

more marked among these

of a civilization that

trade,

What

away.

done—

changes and reforms. Here the

selves felt through the slave trade

of the British

Going on

Europe.

adaptability of

ried the

partial

pressures of a different world had long

came under

Europeans

elsewhere. While remaining within the framework

some

by these

re-

how much

the end of the 19th Century

and

from having any opportunity

The

By

they also prevented the inland peoples

challenge of

Brohimi startlingly

of

could be done— but also what could not be

delayed foreign inva-

between the

themselves

posing

at

to be-

enemies. Struggling through Brohimi's surrounding

have not.")

was

vealed

the bitter words of one of England's anti-

imperialist poets, Hilaire Belloc,

man

tycoon.

a relative

The Nigerian town

Yet the picture should be completed with a

trad-

ing canoes that could carry scores of men, could

enable an intelligent and enterprising

of their clothing.''

minder that

"corporations," based on

capitalism. Their

to

They mar-

new methods

which were actually

of

early forms of

hazardous,

much to

if

not impossible." This

for the punitive force,

be sent

in. Its

commanding

and

proved

too

bigger one had

a

admiral, having then

captured Brohimi, was able to confirm what the earlier

The township's

expedition had reported.

defenses showed months and perhaps years of preparation,

"and

a considerable

amount

The guns were admirably placed tack from the direction expected

.

of intelligence.

to .

.

meet any

at-

and were well 173

and strongly mounted," numbering altogether no

weave

fewer than 106 of various

and

virtues. All this

and

belief that

sizes.

But the admiral also reported something

and its

Chief Nana's situation

this that puts

is

it

At Brohimi the

true perspective.

else,

British

in

behavior but was

In the course of their long cultural development

the Africans

made

several large, productive contri-

butions to the wealth and progress of the rest of

gargantuan appetite for alcohol, yet the appear-

the world. Yet their principal gift to the general

ance

all.

at first

Nana had not

misleading. Chief

is

collected

strong drink in anticipation of festive or-

all this

but because European gin had become an

gies,

heritage of

man may

aspects of

life

of gold

and

dealt in the

the average price of bottled gin had never ceased

more subtlety

on the

to rise

local barter

shown again

hundred thousand

bottles,

had

the foresight of a good investor. But this

however well considered

were

ited king.

investment of

a capital

He was

for that time

really

vanced than the peasant

and

narrowly lim-

a

no more economically ad-

who

turns his profits into

gold coins to cache in a sock.

Change, then, continued

many

traditional societies

at the

make

to the

its

mark on

eve of the co-

Even the subjects

Out

The

the individual.

it

brilliantly.

came

a

number

and talents that the

of attitudes,

rest of the

has come to recognize as uniquely African.

world

An

en-

during gaiety of temperament (so often noted that it

has become a cliche, but a true characteristic

tolerance, a joy in esthetic forms, colors,

and

a genius for

and sounds,

producing these.

any other non- Western

of

his

enced

they

still

stood

outside

an

money wages and profits, and very much as they had in the years be-

of cash, of

to

have any general

effect,

of hindsight, the

was

its

culture.

They have

influ-

painting and sculpture (as in the case of

Picasso and his followers),

its

American Negro

and

jazz, blues

music (by way of spirituals),

and

its

way the

of looking at life (this also chiefly by way of Negro American's intimate contact with white

Americans).

the findings of scientific research and the

civilizations

community and

of this there

characteristics,

the

modern world can now

draw some general conclusions about Africa. The central value of this series the

they practiced

of

even along the coast.

wisdom

nature with

or ease, or so successfully welded the

Africans practiced the art of social happiness, and

Nana remained untouched by

life.

Reforms were slow

With

others

These attitudes and characteristics have probably

it

frugal propensities:

fore.

Few

had more impact on the Western world than those

bustling Chief

they lived

than the uses

labor.

human

of

in

edges of the continent or in the fringe

activities of daily

economy

and skilled

lie

was mainly peripheral change,

lonial period, but

change

defined

nonetheless), a certain indomitable optimism and

to

up

probably be found to

easily

raw material

interests of the

the conservative in action. Chief Nana's

is

savings, place,

market, and Chief Nana,

less

iron, ivory

outstanding growth investment. For several years

in saving nearly a

that they enabled

whole of habitable Africa

men

and

and flourish there and, while carrying 174

a matrix of

parallels elsewhere,

glance this might suggest

tles in

a

Now

formed

had

nonetheless uniquely African.

found

8,300 cases of imported European gin, 99,600 bot-

a rich fabric of traditional patterns, practices

ly to

survive from the African past.

like-

They appear

traditional

destined to endure through the difficult years that

of ancient

lie

to to

These are the human values that seem most

ahead— to impose

their

stamp more strongly not

populate

only on the rest of the world, but also on the

multiply

Africa that

this out, to

isted the

is

arising in our time

thriving

new

where once ex-

kingdoms of another century.

TRADITIONAL DESIGNS, structures

like the

pole-and-thatch roof of this hut in Cameroon are

still

being built today exactly as they were centuries ago.

THE ENDURING FORMS All over Africa

men have

buildings large and small. nent's inhabitants

was

is

still

The

to find

record of achievement not in documents, but in

and most formidable problem of the conti-

first

ways

to live in

an immense and varied landscape

savannas and mountains. Their success

of deserts, rain forests,

challenge

left a

in

celebrated whenever a village family builds a

But such simple

tribal

meeting

home

this

(above).

dwellings were not the only structures raised by Africa's

people. Scattered across the continent today are ruins that testify to the great-

ness and diversity of

Some

tribal societies.

role

more advanced

of these ruins are the relics of

civilizations

that

grew

kingdoms with firm

Others, showing a distinct

Muslim

in

African

influence, suggest the vital

that foreign cultures played. Still others, like the crumbling

fortress at Kilwa,

symbolize

a later,

soil.

roots in traditional

Portuguese

darker era in Africa's long and complex past. 175

CIRCULAR HUTS AND COMPOUNDS of woven rushes, thatch and

mud shelter

millet farmers in

Chad. Though the village

is

divided into 600 homes, children are

ANCIENT VILLAGE PATTERNS In

4W

many

parts of the continent

today, close-knit villages preserve

record of Africa's earliest forms of

community

life.

a

living

Sometimes simple, some-

times intricate in appearance, these villages

show how various ancient peoples learned to temper their particular climate by ingenious uses of the most humble materials-sun-dried

ways

mon

mud,

grass, wicker,

of these villages also echo patterns of

bamboo, woven bark. The

life

folk-

evolved long ago for the com-

many villages, tribesmen still live as part of immense "families" that collectively own land, tend crops and livestock, administer justice-and venerate the ancestors who devised these patterns for them centuries ago. good. In

M'

*^

«"«

THICK

MUD

WALLS, decorated with Arabic designs, keep Nigerians cool

i> i

blazing

summer

heat.

d$9>

t \t\

_

raised by the

community

as

a whole.

SLENDER STILTS

raise a

-

Dinka dwelling and

its

storage hut above the flood waters of the Upper Nile.

ZIMBABWE'S GREAT TEMPLE, enclosed by a massive wall 800

feet in circumference,

housed a

tribal king, his wives, courtiers

and servants.

A MONUMENT TO A VANISHED NATION In 1871 the

German

geologist Karl

ing through Rhodesia,

Mauch, wander-

came upon

with "houses of stone"— Zimbabwe, plex of

brush-choked temples

that he decided ple

valley filled

a a

massive com-

and

fortifications

must be copies of Solomon's Tem-

and the Queen of Sheba's palace. But arche-

ologists

who

relics of a

later

explored the ruins discovered the

vanished African civilization which had

erected sweeping granite walls in the pattern Africa's

own

circular

mud-and-thatch

Zimbabwe's ruins shed new

light

of

villages.

on

a

majestic

episode in Africa's past.

Once

a

center for a large

confederacy of tribes that extended some 500 miles

from the Zambezi River

babwe reached

the

to

the height of

its

the 15th and 18th Centuries.

Transvaal, Zim-

prosperity between

Its

rulers, a

played their power by erecting the Great Temple (above). This grandiose stone version of a chief's enclosure

was the

site

tical

tribal

of ceremonial rites

kept well hidden from the public view by an

ellip-

wall that contained 15,000 tons of cut stone.

GRANITE BLOCKS,

skillfully fitted together

curving walls that rose as high as 32

178

dynasty

of kings enriched by gold and ivory tribute, dis-

dor that leads

to

without mortar into

feet, line

an inner ceremonial shrine

a concealed corri-

in the

Great Temple.

A RUINED GATEWAY TO THE WORLD As

Portugal's explorers sailed

on

their

such

way

to India, they

glittering ports as

up

were

Kilwa,

Africa's east coast filled

with awe by

Mombasa,

Sofala,

Malindi and Zanzibar. These trading centers linked

Zimbabwe with the East, and their culture drew upon both African and Muslim traditions. In Kilwa's Great Mosque (below), colo-

inland kingdoms like

nists

and merchants from Arabia and India wor-

shiped alongside Swahili-speaking Africans whose faces were decorated with strange ceremonial

mark-

ings.

Many

of the city's

newly

their

prestige

by

aristocratic

families

in

though African born, enhanced claiming ancestry Persia

among

rich businessmen,

and Arabia.

Today

the ancient stone and coral buildings of

these once-thriving cities

lie

in ruins. In the

Century the Portuguese, eager

to

seize

the

16th rich

Indian Ocean trade, ravaged the ports, eventually

turning the east coast into

a

commercial backwater

whose most valued exports were human

slaves.

k.

-

'

errun Zimbabwe

Great Temple

BUGANDA Lwo

peoples

occupy Uganda

Lwo Bunyoro kingdom dominates lakes region

Buganda subkingdom takes over Bunyoro territories, develops as a strong central state

"-

M. Stanley

vistts

King Mutesa •

BIBLIOGRAPHY

These books were selected during the preparation of this volume for their interest and authority, and for their usefulness to readers seeking additional information on specific

GEOGRAPHY

points An asterisk (*) marks works available in both hardcover and paperback editions; a dagger (i) indicates availability only in paperback.

Oltenberg, Simon and Phoebe,

eds.,

Cultures and Societies of Africa.

Random House,

1960.

Brown. Leslie, Africa: A Natural History. Random House, l^oO tFordham. Paul. The Geography of African Affairs. Penguin Books, 1965. Sthulthess, Emil, Africa.

Simon

&

Van Velsen,

The

J.,

'Wilson, Monica, ed..

Schuster, 1958

Humanities Press, 1964. Good Company: a Study of Nyakyusa Age-Villages. Peler Smith

Politics of Kinship.

1951.

ART AND ARCHEOLOGY

GENERAL HISTORY Ady, P. H., Regional Economic Atlas: Africa. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1965. Blake, |ohn William. Europeans in West Atncii, 14?0-15o0. 1 vols. Hakluyt Society, 1942. "Bohannan, Paul, Africa ami Africans. Doubleday. 19o4 Bovill, E The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press, 1959.

W A

Budge, E

,

A

Wallis,

History of Ethiopia, 2 vols.

Methuen

&

Co., Ltd.. 1928.

Davidson.

Basil, Basil,

The African Past. Little. Brown and Co. l^c-4 Black Mother: The Years of the African Slave Trade.

]. Desmond, The Prehistory of Southern Africa. Penguin Books. 1959. and William Fagg, The Sculpture of Africa. Frederick A Praeger. 1958 Fagan, Brian, Southern Africa. Frederick A. Praeger. 1965. Fagg, William. Nigerian Images Frederick A. Praeger, 1963 Fagg, William, Tribes and Forms in African Art. Tudor, 1965. tFagg, William, and Margaret Plass, African Sculpture. Dutton, 1964

tClark,

Elisofon, Eliot,

Curtin, Philip D., The Image of Africa University of Wisconsin Press, 1964.

Davidson.

Arkell, Anthony ]., A History of the Sudan to 1821. Oxford University Press. 19ol Bacon. Edward, ed.. Vanished Civilizations. McGraw-Hill, 1963. Carrington. J.F., Talking Drums of Africa The Kingsgate Press. 1949

Little,

Brown and

Co., 1961.

The Lost Cities of A frica. Little, Brown and Co., 1959. Basil, Which Way Africa? Peter Smith, 1964. Dike. K O., Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta. 1830-85. Oxford University Press, 1956. Fage. D, An Introduction to the History of West Africa. Cambridge University Press,

Davidson, 'Davidson.

Fraser, Douglas, Primitive Art.

Basil,

Kirkman, James

Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P., ed.. The East African Coast: Select Documents from the First to the Earlier Nineteenth Century Clarendon Press. Oxford I^pZ

Oxford University Press, 1964. Hodgkin, Thomas, ed., Nigerian Perspectives. Oxford University Press, 1960. Jones, ARM., and Elizabeth Monroe, A History of Ethiopia. Oxford University

Press.

1955 Oliver, Roland, and Gervase

Mathew.

eds..

History of East Africa. Vol.

I

Oxford Uni-

versity Press, 19o3

"Oliver. Roland, and

J

D

J.

D. Fage, eds.. The Journal of African History. 6 vols.

Fage,

A

Short History of Africa.

New

York University

Doubleday, 1962. on the East African Coast. Lutterworth Press,

Men and Monuments

1964.

Kyerematen, A.A.Y.. Panoply of Ghana. Frederick A Praeger. 1964 Leuzinger, Elsy, The Art of Africa. Crown Publishers, 10 o

J

1964.

Fyfe, Christopher. Sierra Leone Inheritance.

S.,

Lhote, Henri, The Search for the Tassili Frescoes: The Story of the Prehistoric RockPaintings of the Sahara. Transl by Alan H Brodenck E P Dutton & Co., 1959. Paulme. Denise, African Sculpture. Viking Press, 1962, Radin. Paul, and James Johnson Sweeney, eds., African Folktales and Sculpture. Pantheon Books, 1964.

Trowell, Margaret, Classical African Sculpture. Frederick A. Praeger, l«o-l "Turnbull. Colin The Forest People Simon & Schuster, 1961. 'Wingert, Paul S., Primitive Art, Its Traditions and Styles, Oxford University Press, 1962.

M

.

Press,

1963 Oliver, Roland, and

RELIGION

Cambridge

AND PHILOSOPHY

University Press, 1960-1965.

Rotberg, Robert Rotberg, Robert

I

1

,

,

A

& World. 1965. Central Africa. Harvard University Press,

Political History of Tropical Africa. Harcourt, Brace

The Rise of Nationalism

in

Shinnie, Margaret, Ancient African

Kingdoms

St.

Martin

s

tForde, Daryll, ed., African Worlds. Oxford University Press, 1954.

tHowelts, William White. The Heathens Doubleday, 1963. Idowu, E B-, Olodumare: God in Yoruba Belief. Frederick

A Praeger, 1903 Lienhardt, Godfrey, Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka. Oxford University Press, 1961.

1965. Press, 1966.

Wolfson, Freda, Pageant of Ghana Oxford University Press, 1958.

tParrinder, E

ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY T

O

Parrinder,

Traditional Religion.

Geoffrey. West African Religion

Hutchinsons University Library

The Epworth

Press, London, 1961 Rotberg, Robert L. Cnrisrian Missionaries and the Creation of Northern Rhodesia, 18801924. Princeton University Press, 1965. E.

The Nature of African Customary Law. Oxford University Press, 1956. Evans-Pritchard. E. E.. Essays in Social Anthropology. The Macmillan Co., 1963. tFortes, Meyer, and E. E Evans-Pritchard. eds. African Political Systems. Oxford Univer-

Trimingham.

19oo "Miner, Horace, The Primitive City of Timbuctoo American Philosophical Society. 1953,

Trimingham, Trimingham,

Elias,

Geoffrey, African

London 1954

,

J.

Spencer,

A

History of Islam

in

West Africa. Oxford University Press

1962

sity Press,

J.

Spencer, Islam

m

J.

Spencer, Islam

in the

Ethiopia Barnes

&

Sudan. Barnes

Noble, 1905 Noble. 1965.

&

ART INFORMATION AND PICTURE CREDITS The sources

for the

illustrations in

this

book are

set forth

below. Descriptive notes on the works of art are included. Credits for pictures positioned from left to right are separated by semicolons, from top to bottom by dashes. Photographers'

Nevertheless, most of this African sculpture, though relatively

are not dated in the

back several centuries.)

list

below because of lack of accurate

1; lo— Queen Mother of Benin from Nigeria, bronze sculpture, l6th c, UniverMuseum, Philadelphia (Arnold Newman) 20-21-Drawings by Lowell Hess. 23— Title page from Description et recit Histonal du Riche Royaume dor de Gunea by Pieter de Marees, Amsterdam. 1605, Rare Book Division. New York Public Library. 24-31Drawings by Leo and Diane Dillon.

sity

180

jects is

names which follow a descriptive note appear in parentheses. Abbreviations include "c." for century and "ca." for circa. (NOTE: Figures, masks and other art objects made of wood

Cover— The Oba of Benin and his court, from Nigeria, bronze plaque, ca 1600. British Museum. London (Arnold Newman) 10-11— Glacier icefall in Ruwenzori Range, CongoUganda border (Emil Schulthess from Black Star), south flank of Mount Kahusi in Congo (Kinshasa) (E. S. Ross)— view of dunes in Central Sahara (Helfned Weyer). 12-13-Hut village in Lama-Kara region of Togo (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette). 14-15-Ruins of Meroitic pyramids in Sudan (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Cuillumette) chapter

However, it may be assumed that none of these obmore than 150 years old: due to destruction by insects and weather, few wooden artifacts last in their native surroundings more than 20 or 30 years, and it is only in the records

hist

century that great care has been taken to preserve them.

recent, reflects

traditions of art

and craftsmanship that go

chapter 2; 32— Meroitic site of Musawwarat es Safra in Sudan, built 1st c. A.D. (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Cuillumette) 38-39— Frieze from Meroitic Musawwarat es Safra site in Sudan (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette) 40— Slab from refectory floor of Monastery of Apa Jeremias, Sakkarah. Egypt, marble, 6th l A.D., Coptic Museum, Cairo (Werner Forman) 41— Nubian Queen Mother Martha protected by Madonna and Child, fresco, ca. 10th c. A.D., Khartoum Museum. Sudan (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette). 43— View trom the Shelter of Horses Tassili n Ajjer Range, Algeria, photograph by Mission Henri Lhote. 44-57— Original renderings of rock paintings by Mission Henri Lhote, photographed at Musee de Homme, Paris (Erich Lessing from Magnum), 44-45— Hares from Period of Hunter, ca 4500 B.C. oxen from Period of pre-Herder. ca 4000 B C -elephants from Period of Herder, ca 3500 B C; giraffe from Period of Horse, ca 1500 to oOO BC —camel with rider from Period of Camel, ca. oOO BC to 1000 A.D. 46-47— Dancing figures from Period of Hunter, ca oOOO to 4000 I

B.C.— men with sheep from Period of Herder, ca. 3000-2500 B.C. 48-49— Camp scene from Period of Herder, ca. 3500-3000 B.C.; well scene from Period of Horse, ca 1000 B.C.— women gathering grain from Period of Herder, ca. 4000-1500 B.C. 50-51— Musical scene from Period of Horse, ca. 800-700 B.C.— processional dance from Period of Hunter, 6000 to 4000 B.C. 52-53-Seated woman from Period of Herder, ca. 3500-3000 B.C.; women riding cattle from Period of Herder, ca. 4000 to 1500 B.C. 54-55— War scene from Period of Herder, ca. 3000-2500 B.C. —women with burrowing sticks from Period of Herder, ca. 3500-3000 B.C. 56-57—Trial scene from Period of Herder, ca. 4000-1500 B.C. chapter 3: 58— Ashanti blacksmith, Ghana (Larry Burrows). 61— Conical tower of Zimbabwe. Rhodesia (Mitsuo Nitta), drawing by Nicholas Fasciano, courtesy National Museums of Rhodesia. 62— Wall detail from Zimbabwe, Rhodesia, photograph courtesy Rhodesia National Tourist Board— wall detail from Naletale ruins. Rhodesia, photograph courtesy Central African Airways— wall detail from Naletale ruins, Rhodesia, photograph courtesy Central African Airways. 64-65— Drawings by Nicholas Fasciano from James Walton. African Village, J. L. Van Schaik Ltd., Pretoria, 1956, after diagram by Siegfried Frederick Nadel. 67-77-Photographs by Leni Riefenstahl. chapter 4: 78— Arab camel rider, illumination from Maqamat manuscript by Hariri, ink and color on paper, Baghdad, 1237. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, photograph courtesy American Heritage 83— Copper ingot from Congo (Kinshasa), photograph courtesy Royal Museum of Central Africa. Brussels, spearhead currency from Congo (Kinshasa), photograph courtesy Royal Museum of Central Africa, Brussels; iron manilla from Ghana, photograph courtesy Chase Manhattan Bank Monev Museum— iron chain from Uganda (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette) courtesy Uganda National Museum, circlet of cowrie shells from Uganda (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette) courtesy Uganda National Museum; bifurcated iron spear from Uganda (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette) courtesy Uganda National Museum. 86-87 —Elephant tusks in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette); gold coins from North Africa, photograph courtesy American Numismatic Society; salt from Bilma mines in Niger (Maurice Fievet); The Tribute Giraffe with Attendant by Shen Tu, ink and color on silk. 1414. courtesy Ralph Chait Galleries. New York 89— The King of Mali, detail from facsimile of Catalan Atlas bv Abraham Cresques, colored ink on parchment. 1375, British Museum. London (R B. Fleming) 92-93— View of Djanet. Algeria (Victor Englebert), came! caravan in Niger (Victor Englebert) 94-95— Two views of Lamu Island off Kenya coast (Lynn Millar from Rapho Guillumette) 96— Salt pits of Tegguida NTisemt in Niger (Afrique Photo, Cliche Naud, Paris). 97— View of Bilma oasis in Niger (Victor Englebert)— salt blocks of Fort Lamy in Chad (Afrique Photo, Cliche Naud, Paris). 98-99— Grain market at Marrakech, Morocco (Douglas Faulkner)— animal market at Goulimine. Morocco (Douglas Faulkner)

M

5: 100— The Oba of Benin. Nigeria (Dr R. E. Bradbury) 102-103— Culver Pic105— Copper engraving by unknown artist, German, 15th c. (Bettmann Archive). 106 —Man on horse. Ashanti goldweight from Ghana, brass, collection of Chaim Gross, New York (Eliot Elisofon). 109— Royal gateway of Benin, Nigeria, bronze plaque. 16th or 17th c, British Museum, London (Werner Forman). 110-111— Armed warriors and Oba of Benin

chapter tures.

with attendants, Nigeria, bronze plaques. late 17th or early 18th o, British

Museum, Lon-

don (Arnold Newman); Queen Mother of Benin with attendants, Nigeria, bronze sculpture, late 18th or early 19th c, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Museum fur Volkerkunde (Werner Forman). 112-113— Slit-gong player from Benin, Nigeria, bronze plaque 16th or 17th c, British Museum. London (Werner Forman). acrobats from Benin, Nigeria, bronze plaque, late 16th c, British Museum, London (Werner Forman) 114-115— Leopard hunters from Benin, Nigeria, bronze plaque, late 16th or early 17th c, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Museum fur Volkerkunde (Werner Forman); hunter shooting ibis. Benin, Nigeria, bronze plaque,

Museum, London (Werner Forman). 116-117— Man with box, Nigeria, bronze plaque, loth or 17th c, British Museum. London (Werner Forman); visitor to Benin, Nigeria, bronze sculpture, late 18th c, British Museum, London (Werner Forman) Benin merchant holding manilla, Nigeria, bronze plaque, early 17th c, British Museum, Lon-

Congo (Brazzaville), Loango tribe, wood and 124-Mouse oracle from Ivory Coast, Baule

ure from

iron,

Musee de

1

Homme,

Paris

wood, Musee de Homme. Bayaka tribe (Eliot Elisofon). 129— Life-sized stone relief of St. George, Church of Golgotha-Mikael in Lalibela. Ethiopia, red volcanic tuff. 13th c. (Dr. Georg Gerster from Rapho Guillumette) 130-131— Three illuminations from 19th c. manuscript The Life of St. Lalibela: "The making of the covenant between God and King Lalibela"; "Building the Church of St. Mary"— The buildings of Lalibela,' British Museum, London (Derek Bayes). 132-133— Three views of Church of St. George in form of Greek cross, Lalibela, Ethiopia, red volcanic tuff, 13th c. (Dr. Georg Gerster from Rapho Guillumette). 134-135— Window details from Lalibela churches: Church of St. Mary; Church of Abba Libanos; Church of Saint Mascal— Church of Golgotha-Mikael; Church of Golgotha-Mikael; Church of St. Mary, carved red volcanic tuff, 13th c. (Dr. Georg Gerster from Rapho Guillumette). 13o-137— Interior scenes of columns and vaults of Lalibela churches: Church of St. Mary, Church of the Savior of the World; Church of St. Mary, carved and painted red volcanic tuff, 13th c (Dr. Georg Gerster from Rapho Guillumette). 138-139—Composite scene of Jesus and the Samaritan Woman and Jesus and the Man Disabled 38 Years, painted on wall of Church of St. Mary, 13th c (Dr, Georg Gerster from Rapho Guillumette)— Scene variously interpreted as Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego or Kings Christos, Lalibela and Naakuto-Laab, painted on wall of Church of St. Merkurios, 13th c, (Dr. Georg Gerster from Rapho Guillumette). 140-141— Crypt in Church of Golgotha-Mikael, red volcanic tuff, 13th c. (Dr. Georg Ger(Eliot Elisofon),

tribe,

1

Paris (Eliot Elisofon), 127-Congolese boys in ritual masks,

ster

from Rapho Guillumette)

chapter

142—Door

to secret-society shrine, from Ivory Coast, Senufo tribe, wood. UniPhiladelphia (Eliot Elisofon). 144— Stone head of a woman by Amedeo Modigliani, Paris, 1912, collection of Baron Boel. Brussels, photograph from Alfred Wer-

versity

7:

Museum.

ModigUani the Sculptor, Arts Inc., New York, 1962. 145— Dance mask from Gabon, Fang tribe, painted wood, collection of Pierre Verite, Paris (Eliot Elisofon) 14o— Head from Nigeria (Nok), terra cotta, ca. 2nd or 1st c. B.C.. Jos Museum. Nigeria (Eliot Elisofon); memorial head from Nigeria (Ife). brass, 13th c. A.D.. Ife Museum, Nigeria (Eliot Elisofon) 147—Head from Nigeria (Benin), bronze and iron, ca 1650, Museum of Primitive Art, New York (Charles Uht). 149— Drawing and notation by Nicholas Fasciano in consultation with Nicholas England, Columbia University, and Bertram Buckner. 151165— Photographs by Eliot Elisofon 151— Female figure, detail of heddle pulley from Ivory Coast, Guro tribe, wood, collection of Harold Rome, New York. 152-153— Three views of ancestor figure from Mali, Dogon tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection; akua'ba doll from Ghana, Ashanti, wood, Elisofon Collection, man on horse from Mali, Bambara tribe, iron, Elisofon Collection; two views of rhythm pounder from Ivory Coast, Senufo tribe wood, Elisofon Collection. 154— Details from two cosmetic boxes from Congo (Kinshasa), Bushongo tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection 155— Detail of heddle pulley from Ivory Coast, Baule tribe, wood, collection of Harold Rome, New York 156-157— Eight heddle pulleys in silhouette from Ivory Coast, Guro tribe, wood, collection of Harold Rome, New York. 158 —Detail of ancestor figure from Congo (Kinshasa). Bena Lulua tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection 159— Reliquary figure from Gabon, Fang tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection. 160161— Seven ritual masks, all wood: from Ivory Coast, Baule tribe; from Mali, Bambara tribe— from Mali, Bambara tribe; from Cameroon, Grassland tribes; from Congo (Kinshasa), Basonge tribe; from Upper Volta, Bobo tribe, from Ivory Coast-Liberia region Ngere-Dan tribe, Elisofon Collection. 162-163— Cup for palm wine from Congo (Kinshasa!. Bushongo tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection, knife from Congo (Kinshasa)-Sudan region, Azande tribe, iron, Elisofon Collection; stool from Mali. Bambara tribe, wood. Elisofon Collection; spoon from Mali, Bambara tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection, headrest from Mali Dogon tribe, wood, collection of Harold Rome, New York— headrest from Rhodesia, Mashona tribe, wood, collection of Harold Rome, New York. 164-165— Ancestor figure from Mali, Dogon tribe, wood, Elisofon Collection. ner,

M

16th c. British

don (Werner Forman) 118-119— Warrior from Benin, Nigeria, bronze plaque, late 16th c Museen zu Berlin, Museum fur Volkerkunde (Werner Forman); battle scene, Nigeria, late 16th c. Staatliches Museum fur Volkerkunde, Dresden (Werner Forman) ,

Staatliche

chapter 8: 166— Portion of map by Juan de la Cosa, 1500, facsimile, British Museum, London (Alan Clifton). 170-171— The King of Kongo, illustration from Umbstandliche und EigentUche Beschreibung von Afrika, by Oliver Dapper. Amsterdam, lo70 (New York Public Library). 175— Hut in Cameroon (Peter Larsen from Nancy Palmer Photo Agencv). 17o177— Village in Chad, photograph courtesy Editions Hoa-Qui. Paris; house in Kano, Nigeria (Klaus Paysan)— Dinka huts in Sudan (Klaus Paysan). 178-179— Great temple at Zimbabwe, Rhodesia (D. Atrenborough). the parallel passage at Zimbabwe, Rhodesia Terence Spencer from Black Star). 180-181— Two views of Great Mosque at Kilwa, Tanzania (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette) 182-183—Gereza Fortress, Kilwa, Tanzania (Marc and Evelyne Bernheim from Rapho Guillumette) l

chapter

6:

120-Increase fetish from Baluba, Congo, wood, calabash,

collection of

Tristan

Tzara,

painted wood, collection of

Paris

Armand

(Eliot

Bartos.

Elisofon).

New

York

122— Gaboon (Eliot Elisofon)

and snail shells, viper from Guinea,

123— Nail-fetish

fig-

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The

book are particularly indebted to Robert Rotberg, Assistant Professor Harvard University, and the following individuals and institutions UNITED

editors of this

of History,

STATES*

I

New

M

York; Nicholas England, Center for Studies in Ethnomusicology, Columbia University: Margaret Plass, Curator of African Art. University Museum. University of Pennsylvania, Lloyd Cabot Briggs. Research Fellow in North African Anthropology, Peabody Museum, Harvard University; Leslie Elam, Editor, American Numismatic Society. New York; Harold Rome, New York; John B Schmitt, Professor of Entomology, Rutgers University, Victor Englebert. New York; Gerard Alexander. Chief of Map Division, New York Public Library. Matila Simon, New York. EUROPE: William Fagg, Deputy Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum, London; School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London; Dr. R. E. Bradbury, Centre of West African Studies, University of Birmingham, Raymond Mauny, Professor of Tropical AfEliot

Elisofon,

rican History, University of Paris; Jean Leclant, Professor of Egyptology, University of Paris; Henri Lhote. Chief of Research, National Center for Scientific Research. Paris; Director, Section of Religious Sciences, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. University of Paris, Bertrand de Saboulin Bollena. Deputv Director, Compagnie des Salins du Midi et des Salines de Djibouti, Paris: Dr. Kurt Krieger, Museum fur Volkerkunde. Ber-

Andre Caquot.

lin; Fritz

Hintze. Professor of Egyptology

Museum fur AFRICA Richard

Humboldt

University, East Berlin:

Dr 5 Wolf,

Volkerkunde, Dresden; Antonio Mordini, Barga, Lucca Province. Pankhurst, Director, Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa Roland C. Stevenson, Linguistic Consultant, Nairobi; H. Neville Chittick. Director, and Brian Fagan. British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa, Nairobi; James S. Kirkman, Keeper, Kenya National Museum, Fort Jesus. Mombasa; Vincent Monteil, Director, Institut Fondamental d Afrique Noire. Dakar Staatliches Italy

INDEX *This symbol in front of a page number indicates a photograph or painting of the subject mentioned.

MAPS

IN THIS

VOLUME

Housing, '24-25. 36. *62, 80, 88. 104. 170. See also Huts Howells. William. 122 Human sacrifice, 108, 112, 118

Food, 21. 170; Nuba, 65, Songhai, 85 map 8-9. '10-11. 20

Forests,

Meyer. 65 19 Fourth Dynasty, Egypt, 34, 35 French trade with West Africa, 102 Frobenius, Leo, 144 Funeral, Nuba. '74-77 Funerary figure, *159 Fortes.

East Africa; anthropological fossil finds, 19; cities of, 17. 18, "16-29, 88, map 91, 94. '180-181. slave trade. 87. 170,

180; trade. "28-29. 37. 41. 86, 87-88.

map

91, "94-95, 105. 180

Ed-Dukkali, Sheik Uthman, 84 Education: African religious, 125- 12o

European missionaries pp. Western Sudanese merchant cities, 24,80,82,84

Fossils, anthropological,

Hunter period, Saharan peoples,

18,

Gamitto, Antonio Candido. 171-172 Ganda. kingdom of the. 172

Gambia

Nubia and

with, 41; expansion into

Sudan, 35, under Fatimid rulers, 40; under Kushite control, 35-36; Kushite trade with, 37. Libyan princes of, 20, Islamization of 40, 129. political de-

under Saracen rulers. 40; unification of, 34 Ehengbuda, King of Benin, 104 Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt, 35 cline of, 35.

Elephants: in African art, 37, '44-45; hunting of, '115; use in warfare and

ceremonies, 37, "38-39

map

8, 86,

map 90

8,

map

I

90, 91; descrip-

by Leo Africanus, 85 Garamantes people. 55 Geez language, 42. 138 Genoa, and African trade, 84. 85 Geography of Africa, map 8-9, '10-15. tion

map Gereza

19 fortress, Kilwa,

'182-183

Ghadames. map 90, 91 Ghana, Kingdom of, 80, map

can sculpture by. "151-165

81, 82, 83,

I. Queen of England, 86 map 90, 91, 101

of:

Ashanti

of,

107-108,

of. 65-66. 127 See also Gold

123-124, 126; Tallensi

Elizabeth

Empires. See Kingdoms and empires English traders, So, 102-103, 107; descriptions of Africa by. 102. 103, 107-108

Ghana. Republic Coast

of, 87.

Goats, domestication, 4o

Esarhaddon. King of Assyria, 36 Esie, stone sculpture finds at, 147-148

Gods, 123-126. High God. 123-124; lesser, 124. 125-126

Ethiopia, ancient Greek references

Gol, social unit of Dinka, 63

meaning Kush,

36; Christianity in. 41,

42, 129, 140-141;

churches

of. 42.

"129,

Gold: basis of wealth and power of West

African kingdoms, 80, 81, 83-84, 86-87;

ethnic composition. 139; history of, 4142, 131, 139; invasion of Kush by. 38-

29, 86, 87, 88,

demand

39; legend, 41. 131, 132, 139; Portu-

90-91; in North and

129; Solomonid dynasty

of (Lion of |udah). 41, 131, 139; trade. 41, 42, 134;

Zagwe dynasty

Ethiopian Highlands,

Europe: colonialism

map

of 131, 139 .

9

of, 107. 108,

167-168,

169. 170; crusades, 40, medieval and

post-medieval, comparisons with Afri60-01, "105, 122, 127, 128.

ca. 21. 42.

143; need for gold, 22. 86; in North

West African °1

and

trade, *23, 84-85, 86,

101. 102-103, 104-107. occultism in.

*105, 127, political relations with

West African kingdoms, around 1500, 101-102; and slave trade, 105-107 European concepts of Africa. 17-18, 2122. 122. 143-144. around 1500. 21. 103. map 166; misjudgment of art as "primitive," 143-14o. myths. 18; 19th Cen-

map

91, 94, Europe's

for, 22, 86,

mining. 87,

map

map

90.

91. 106. 107; sources. 86-87, 107 Gold Coast, map 90: encounter of Europeans with natives, *23. 101, trade, 104-105 Golden Stool of Osei Tutu, 107. 126 Gondar. map 91 Good Hope. Cape of. map 9 Goulimine. animal market, '98-99

map

8-9, '12-13, 19, 20;

88, '178-179

Greeks, ancient, 33, 37; cultural influence in Ethiopia, 134, "135; references to Ethiopia meaning Kush, 3o

Ezana, King of Ethiopia, 38, 41, 42

Fagg, Bernard, 146

Haile Selassie. Emperor of Ethiopia. 41.

tury, 22, 59-60, 62, 64, 167

E

E.

.

64-65

Ewuare the Great, King

of Benin. 103

Excavations, 19 See also Archeological

excavations

in,

123, 128. See also

Ancestor worship Imperialism, European. 167. See also Colonialism India: East African trade of, 87, 88, 91; Ethiopian trade with, 42, Kushite trade with, 37

H

Indian

Ocean

tribe, ritual

mask

of,

*145

39 Farming. See Agriculture Fatimids, in Egypt, 40 Ferrer, Jacme, 84 Fertile plains,

map

Fertility fetish. Fertility

Head porterage,

8-9, *14-15

'120

symbols, animal, "142

Festivals Benin. '112-113;

and dance.

Fetishes, "120, '122-123

Feudalism, in Ethiopia 42

map

8,

map 90

Florence, and African trade, 84 85

Folk

map

Nuba

Irtet,

tales,

150

cline of, 38;

Egypt under control

of,

35-36; under Egyptian control, 35;

Egyptian influences

in. 35, 37;

Ethiopian

invasion of, 38-39: main periods of hisperiod, 35-36, trade. 37, 38

129; in Nubia, 40-41, religious war in Africa, 170; in Western Sudanese kingdoms, 27, 80, 82, 84. 103. See also

West

Lake Tonga, See Tonga Lalibela. King of Ethiopia, 42, 129, '130131,139,141 Lalibela, town, map 9. 129; churches of, '129. 131, '132-141 Lamu, map 9, map 91, *94 Landscape, map 8-9, '10-15. 20 Languages. 21; Bantu, 21; Geez, 42. 138: Swahili, 29 Law and order Kingdom of Benin, 104;

Kingdom

Italian city-states,

and African

the

trade,

Kingdom

of Mali. 82-83.

Ganda. 172;

in precolonial

of

Congo,

Baptista's account of, 171; role of

84,85

map 90. 107, 144 Ivory trade, 29, 42 '86, 87, 88, 91, 94, 102 Ivory Coast,

ancestor cult

in,

126-127. 128;

King of Opobo, 108 map 90 fesus, the. 102-103

Saharan peoples, *56-57 Tallensi. 65-66 Lasta. mountains of, 42 LeoX, Pope, 17.84, 86 Leo Africanus (Hassan Ibn Muhammad), 24, 79, 84. 86, 97, The History and Description of Africa, 85 Lhote, Henri, 43, 44, 45, 49. 51, 56 Libraries. Timbuktu, 84

Jobson, Richard, 103

Libya:

Jenne. 84,

;

nomads

9,

map 90 of. map

River,

map

9.

59

Lion, in religion, 37

Lion of ludah. Ethiopian dynasty. 41

See also Solomonid dynasty Lion Temple, Musawwarat, frieze, '38-39 Lip ring, *74

West African

coastal region,

103. 107, 108; Western Sudanese kingdoms, 82, 103. See also Writing Literature: Geez, 42; Islamic. Western Sudan. 84, oral, 150 Living standard, advanced African socie81. See

ties,

21. 169, 170-171

Livingstone. David, 66, 128, 170

Bornu Kanissa'ai, King of Ghana. 80 Kano map 8. 86, map 90, 172 9,

of,

14o 151

Limpopo

also

map

settlement

Life-Force, religious concept. 123, 145,

Literacv

map

of, 35;

20

John Lackland, King of England. 60-61 John III. King of Portugal. 105 John of Ephesus, 39-40 Jos, museum at, 146 Jose, Amaro, 170. 171 Julian, missionary, 39-40, 42 Justice, sense of. 82-83. See also Law and order [ustinian, Roman Emperor, 40, 42

Lloyd, A.

B.,

149

Locust, pest, *21

Luanda, map 90 Luapula River, 171

171

map

90 Kazembe, Mwata, 171-172 46,

Kemalke,38 Kenya, historical reference Khartoum, map 9 Kilwa.

to region of,

87

map 9, 22. 88, map 91, 94, 180, Mosque of. '180-181, harbor of,

Great

•28-29, 94; Portuguese fortress

at,

175.

•182-183

Leo Africanus. 85 Holy Roman Empire, 40 of,

•38-39; civilization of, 36-38. 39; de-

Lagos, island of, 173

Islam. 42. 103. 121, 128; in Egypt, 40,

Katsina, 86,

High God, 123-124 History and Description of Africa, The,

Horse, domestication

22. 35-38, 103, archi-

tecture of, '14-15, *32, 36, 37; art of,

wrestlers, '70-71; Sahara,

Katanga. 171

18

Herder period, Saharan peoples. 19, '48-55; eclipse of, 55 Herodotus. 3o, 55; quoted, 3i

Kumbi Salih, 80 Kush. Kingdom of,

Napatan

weapons. working. Ashanti, *58 under Egyptian control. 35

Kasai River,

90-91

of,

Hieroglyphs: Egyptian, 3", Meroitic, 37

148 Fetish worship. 122

Fez,

89,

Headless people, myth Heliodorus, 38

91

Africa, 108, 172-173. iron, Kushite, 37

Kalahari Desert,

168 Hair styles. '52-53 Hawkins, John, 102-103

map

Initiation ceremonies, 126, 160; Bayaka,

,

Fang

79, 80. 83, 85,

Industry: beginnings of, in precolonial

Kanem-Bornu Kingdom

Faras,

royal courts

,

West African. '26-27.

104.107-108, '110-111

tory of, 35; Meroitic period, 35. 36-38;

trade: East African, 87-88,

Ja Ja,

Western Sudan, empires of, 80-81 Great Mosque, Kilwa. '180-181 Great Temple, Zimbabwe. 59, *61, *62,

Guangara, Kingdom of, 86 Guinea, Description of, Marees. 103-104 Guinea. Gulf of, map 8. trade, map 90. 91 Guinea. Republic of, 79, 87 Guinea coast, 102, 103, 127 Guinea Highlands, map 8 Guro sculpture, '151, '156-157

Evans-Pritchard,

sculpture, 103, 145. *14o. 147

Muslims

West African

trade. 81-82, 85, 86-87. 89.

Grasslands,

8,

21, 36;

89; coins, "8o. East African trade in,

in, 42.

map

trade. East Africa, 29, 37, 38,

131, '132-141. civilization of, 41-42;

guese

Ife,

127, of

Gizeh, pyramids of, 34

to.

Iboland, 170, 171

Immortality, belief

Stone Age, '46-47 Initiation masks, '127, '160-161 Inventions, 22 Iron Age, coming of, 21, 36-37, 146 Iron: mining and working, Meroe, 37,

map 8. map 90 Ghiarou, map 90 Ghat,

Equiano. Olaudah, 170, 171 Ergamenes. King of Kush, 37

of

Kota people: geometrical art of, 145. 148; masks of. 144 Kumasi, map 8, map 90, 107-108

94. 105, 180, Ethiopian, 41, 42

istence of, 81; trade, 81-82

Ghana, region

Kings: divinity of, 34. Ill

Kosseir,

Ibn Battuta. 82-83, 88 Ibn Hawqal, 82

86-87, civilization of, 80; dates of ex-

Elisofon. Eliot, 151; photographs of Afri-

Elmina.

Gao,

map

River,

22. 59-60. 66, 88,

Kinship patterns, 60, 63. 65, 66. 106 Kisimani-Mafia, 88 Kongo. Kingdom of. 101. 105. "171 Korongo, Nuba tribe, 67

in, 36. cul-

Gabon, 104

Ghana; Mali; Son-

Zimbabwe.

'178-179

Kingsley. Mary, 167-168

wickerwork, 49

kingdoms of, 33-34; Ethiopian trade

81, 82-84, 101, 103,

105, 172 (see also

"64-65, '68-69; Saharan Herder period,

tural interaction with rest of Africa, 34-35; dynastic times, 34-35: early

map

ghai).

Nuban. mud.

Kanem-

Bornu; Kongo; Oyo); of Western Su-

Husuni Kubwa.

ka, "177; Nigerian, "177,

forest regions,

172 (see also Ashanti. Benin, dan. 79-80,

palace, Kilwa. 88 Huts, »24-25, '175-177; Ashanti, '58; Cameroon. '175; Chad, "176-177, Din-

and

coastal

101-102, 103-105, 107-108, '109-119,

Hunting, 21, 46, 49. '114-115

127; by

Egypt, ancient. 20: Assyrians

19, 46

West African

4o

Horse period. Saharan peoples. 4o 55

Kingdoms and empires, 22. 171-172. Ethiopia (Avuml, 22, 41-42, 131 139, Kush. 22, 35-38, Nubian, 39-40, '41; of

M Madagascar, map 9, map 91 Magic, 127-128, charms, table 125; comparison with Europe, '105. 127. 128 Makuria, Kingdom of, 39, 40 Malaguetta, '103 Malaguetta (Pepper) Coast, map 90, 103 Malaria. 20, 21

map

Malawi, Lake (Lake Nyasa)

9, 66,

map °1 !rading contacts. 88 Malequen-bar, King of Kush, 38 Malfanle. Antonio. 85

N

Persia: cultural influence in Ethiopia,

Naga, 37

Philip, apostle. 38

Rovuma

Mali,

Kingdom

map

of, 26,

81, 82-84, 85.

Phoenicians, 81

Rozwi

Piaggia, Carlo. 64

Rufisque,

power

dates of existence of, 81, military of,

101

j

s.ilt

Naletale, stone walls

ceremony, "26-27, 83;

87, 88; court

Nail fetish, '123

mining, 97; trade, 81, 86,

'89

at,

'62

Desert, map 9. map 90 Nana, Chief of Brohimi, 173-174

Namib

Napata,

map

map

9,

35,36,37

Mali. Republic of, 79, 80 Malindi, map 9, 87, 88, map^l. 180

Nastasen. King of Kush, 37

Political organization. 22, 60, 105, 171,

Manan, map 90 Manilla.com llo."lI7

Negrilude, 22

Negro ancestry, 20

See also Law and order; Social order Polygamy, 64, 85

Mansa Musa See Musa Manuel, Kingof Portugal, 101, 105 Marees, Pieter de, 23, 103 Marketplaces, '96-99 Marrakech, map 8, map 90, 91, market, 98,*99 Marseilles, and African trade, 84, 85 Masks, 144, "145, 148, 150, '160-161;

160

initiation, "127,

Matisse, Henri, and African

art,

region

to

of,

89, map 90-91 Portuguese: in Ethiopia, 42, 129, explora-

Ngere mask, "loO-lol Nguni peoples. 170 Niani, map 90 Niger delta, city-states slave trade of, 107

map

tion

map

8.

Benin);

hut. '177,

Oyo

map

9,

map

34,

map

81.

map

Kushite seizure

of,

35-

Gold; Iron, Mining Migrations, 19,20,21, 107 Military power: Bornu, "30-31,

West Af-

rican kingdoms, 101. 107. 108, 1 18- See also Warfare. Weapons Mining, 21, 22; gold, 87, map 90-91; iron, 37; salt, 82. "96-97

Modern

art, influence of African art on, "144-145, 'lo4-lo5, 174

Modigliani. Amedeo, influence of African art on,

88,

Mombasa, map

map

91

9, 88.

map

38. 39, 41, 42

Kingdom

of. 39. 40.

'41

sculpture. '146, 147

Nomads:

infiltration of

by, 38, 39;

85, 86,

map

39-40,

of, 88,

in,

Nul,

40-41

and priestesses, 121-122. 125-126 Psammetichus II, King of Egypt, 36

Salt

See Initiation ceremonies Punt, expeditions to, 35 Pygmies. 20, 21, 61-62

Saracens, in Egypt, 40 Savanna, map 8-9, '12-13, 20; period of

Pyramids of Egypt, 34; of Kush, "14-15,

Schebesta, Father, 61

Puberty

rites.

Python,

in

African religion, 121, "122

9. 66,

91, trading contacts. 88

172

to,

42.

and

warfare, 65 of Songlui. Bl

Morocco, markets in, '98-99 Moslems. See Islam; Muslims Mosques, '24-25, 80; Great Mosque, Kilwa. "180-181 Mountains, map 8-9, "10, 20 Mouse oracle, "124

91; historical refer-

ences to region of. 59, 171

Mozambique Channel, map

9

Muhammad,

Askia See Askia the Great Murals in Ethiopian churches, *13B-139 Nubian. 39, "41 See also Rock painl

map

91

ings at,

religious, "120, '142. 143. 145, 147, 148.

60 Rain forests, tropical, map 8-9, '10-11; pygmies of, 61-62 Ram, in religion. 34, 37

Ramusio, Giovanni

Battista,

Music, 143, 146, 148-149, 174; rhythm, 148. 149-150, Saharan Stone Age peoples, "50.51 Musical instruments, *50, 107. "112,

drums, 146, 148. '149.150 of North Africa Bl

Muslims conquest

cultural influences of, '24-25. 80. 82. 84. "134-135, 175, "177. '180-181 East

African trade. 87, 170,

in

Egypt, 40,

North African trade, '78,81. '8 l>, North African trade barrier of, 84; religious war in West Africa, 170. See 129,

also Islam

Mutesa. King of the Ganda, 172 Mutota, Kingof Monomotapa, 88

,

,

Religion. African. 121-128; ancestor

worship, '122, 126-127, 128, *152; animal worship, 37, 121, '122; of Ashanti, 123-124. 125, 12o, basic con-

Oracles. "124, 128

122, 125-126; temples

124, fetish worship, 122.

High God.

145 146, 151; and magic, table 125, 127-128. priests and priestesses, 121-

and shrines,

124-125 See also Christianity, Islam. world

Sacrifice.- Spirit

Religious art. "120, "142, 143. 145 148, 150, 151, "152-153, '160-161

1

1"

Renaissance Europe: and slavery, 106, and witchcraft, 127 Rhodesia: Monomotapa empire, 88, 172, Shona people of. lt>°; Zimbabwe empire, 59, 62, 88, 178

frieze at, 37, '38-39

Painting Ethiopian church murals. *138139; Ethiopian manuscript. '130-131,

Nubian murals,

39. *41; rock, in

Sahara, 35. "43-57, 14c

Kumasi. 108. of Benin, 18, 104, 109; Husuni Kubwa, Kilwa. 88; Kush, 36; Western Sudanese kingdoms, 24, *2o-27, 80 Palm oil industry and trade, Niger delta, Palaces: Ashanti. at

108 Pepper (Malaguetta) Coast, map 90, 103 Pepple, King ol Bunny 108 Perelra Duarto Pacheco, 102

Rift Valley,

map

"142

ceremonies Rituals: ancestor worship, 12o,

and

dance, 148, 150, 160; funeral. "74-77; Nuba wrestling, "67, "70-73, 76, Stone

Age, in Saharan rock painting, "4o-47. See aba Initiation ceremonies

Roads and Kingdoms, Book of, al-Bakn, 80,82 Rock paintings, in Sahara, 19. 35 '43 57. 146 12

Sena, map 91 Senegal. VVoloff people of. 101

map

Senegal River,

8,

Senufo people: masks

map

90, 102

of, 144, 145, 148;

shrine, *142 Sex morality, 64, 82 Shabako, King of Kush, 36 Sheba, Queen of, 41, 139, 178 Sheep, domestication of, '46-47 Sherakarer, King of Kush, 39 Shipping, 89; dhows, '28-29. 91. '94-95;

Ethiopian. 42, Portuguese, "2^ routes,

Shiva,

map

i

'l

90-91

Hindu god, 37

Shona people. lt> a Shrines, communal. 124-125. '142 5hrub.

map

8-9

Sierra Leone, 102 Sijilmasa, 81, 82,

map

90, 91

Sixth Dynasty, Egypt, 35

Slave Coast,

map

90

Slave labor, 105-106; in Americas, 168L69; sacrificial executions, 112

Slave trade. 22.

among

Africans, 105-

106. 107, east coast, 87, 170, 180; ef-

on African societies. 66, 106-107. 118. 170, 172; Europe and. 105-107; West Africa. 85, 102, 103, 104. 105-107. fects

9

Rites of passage, 12o See also Initiation

K..h.i

sculpture

Semna. 35

123-124; Kushite, 37; lesser gods, 124, 125-126; Life-Force, concept of, 123,

Musa, Mansa. Kingof Mali, 83-84. *89

Wood

Secrecy imposed on results of early ex"Secret societies," 126-127, 160, shrine,

Records, written, 18, 79-84. '85. 86, 88,

Olduvai Gorge, fossil site, 19 Olodumare, god 124 Olokun.god, 102 Opobo, kingdom. 108

Osei Tutu, Ashanti King. 107, 126 Oyo, kingdom, 108, 172

150, 151. "152-153, "160-161. See also Bronze plaques, Bronze sculpture; Clay

sculpture; Masks. Stone sculpture.

ploration, 21, 85

86

Rattray, Robert. 125

of Dinka. 123-124; diversity of, 123,

"32; elephant

103. 145, '146, 147,

;

R

cepts of, 122-124, 128; of Benin, 112;

9

Ife,

impact on Western art, "144-145. "lo4105, 174; initial European misjudgment as primitive, " 143-146; Kushite temple frieze, "38-39. Nok. "146, 147 proportions of human figure. 146-14"

Ohen-Okun, 102 Okomfo, priest, 125

Orange River, map

22, '106, '152; of Benin. '16, 22,

•l5o-157; of

Quelimane,

southern end of 41 42. trade. 37, 87, map 91, 94

Orisha-nl.i. god, 124

19

147 [see also Benin. Ife). Dogon, "152, •164-165, Ethiopian. "129, Guro. '151,

at

Songhai, 85 in

fertility,

Scrub, map 8-9, 20 Sculpture. 22. 146-148. "151-165. Ashan103, '109-119, 144-145. "147. court,

Red Noba, 38, 41 Red Sea. map 9, 35. Ethiopian influence

Oases, map 90 Oba (King) of Benin, '100. 109. '110-111 Officials Ashanti. 108, Benin, 109, 111, •116-117; Saharan peoples, '56-57;

mining. 82. '96-97

Salt trade. 81-82, »86, *97

ti,

Racial superiority, European notions of. 9

map 90

O

social responsibility basic

Musawwarat: columns

Saladin. Saracen ruler, 40

*41, Egyptian expansion to. 35, Islam

Nubian Desert, map

Thomas Aquinas. 105

St.

'64-65, '68-69; wrestling, *67, 68,

in,

map

90-91

Prester John, 42

'70-73, 76

Nubia Christian kingdoms

in,

Pottery, Kushite, 37

90, 91, '92-93

North America. African contributions in: cultural, 168-169; economic, 168 Nuba, 65, "67-77; funeral, "74-77; village.

Morality, African, 22; sexual. 64, 82.

Mozambique, map

60

map

Sailing routes,

170

Monteiro, Jose Maria. 171

Moroccan invasion

90-01, "92-93,105

;

Nzinga Mbemba, King of Kongo, 101. 105.107

See Coins, Currencies

trade of. 105

3o

Kush

82. "96-

navigation. 93. salt mining

of Libya, 35 North Africa: markets, *98-99 Muslim Arab conquest of. 81, trade, 81-82, 84-

map

91, 180

Manophysite monastery, prayer, *40

Mongol Empire, 84 Monomotapa, Kingdom Monsoon. 94

Nok

Nyakyusa, 63-64, 66, 172 Nyasa, Lake (Lake Malawi), map

"144-145

Mogadishu,

Noba. nomads, Nobatia.

paintings. 19, 35, '43-57, 146; Stone Age peoples of. 33, 34-35. 43. '46-57 Sahara Desert, map 8, 9, '10-11, map 81. 97; trade across, "78. 81-82, 88,

Priests

91

Nile Valley, settlement of, 33 9,

Monomo-

human. 108.112,118

55, period of fertility, 19, 34. 43; rock

103, relations with Kongo, 101. slave

Posselt, Willi, 59,

empire.

17, 18.

90-91, 101-102. in Kilwa,

122;

Sahara: desiccation of, 19-20. 36. 43, 46,

tapa. 88; relations with Benin, 102,

map 90

81,

map

'28-29, 88, 180, '182-183, in

of Benin, 18, 109 (see also

mud

and trade on African coast,

85, 86,

and

of, 107, 108;

148 (see also Benin. Ife; Nok); Yoruba 14"

36 Menelik. King of Ethiopia, 41, 139 Menes. King of Egypt, 34 Meroe. map 9, map 34; Kushite capital, 35,36-38 Mesakin. Nuba tribe. 67 Metals. 21, 22. See also Bronze; Copper;

Money

Sacrifice: of animals, "46-47. 63, '76-77,

Porters, use for transportation of goods,

Geez translation

42

Nile River,

20

Memphis, map

"10

New Testament,

of. 108, 124, 145,

Medicine, herbal. 125, 128 Mediterranean peoples and cultures,

9,

Sabaeans, 41

108, 172, sculpture of, 145, 146, 147-

80 Mecca, map 9

90 Ruwenzori Range, map Ruyters. Dierick, 104

Poro society, 127

Kingdom

of.

91

Zimbabwe, 88

map

Porcelain trade, 29, 88, 91

Nigeria: Ibo civilization of, 170, 171;

Mauritania, historical reference

map

River,

rulers of

Nero, Roman Emperor. 38 Netherlands, the See Dutch traders

Niger River,

lo5

Mauch, Karl, 178 Mauny, Raymond, 80

190

'135. 137

Piankhy, King of Kush, 35, 36 Picasso, Pablo, and African art. 144. 165. 174 Plains, fertile, map 8-9. "14-15

34; Kushite capital,

Rome, ancient contacts with Kush, 3738. cultural influence in Ethiopia, 134.

134. Ethiopian trade with. 42 Pharaoh, divinity of, 34

.

118, 172 Sleeping sickness, 20, 21

Snake

in

African religion, 121, "122

Social order and organization, 21, 22, 6066, lo9, 174, age patterns. 63-64; captive labor

and slavery, 105-10o;

of

Dinka. 62-63, lo«, 172. Ethiopian feudalism. 42

kinship patterns 60, 63, "2 Nyakyusa, 63-64

65, 66, 106; of

I

morality determined by adherence

to.

42; role of ancestor cults in, 12b, 128;

19, historical references to region of,

role of "secret societies," 126-127; of

87, 94;

Saharan Stone Age peoples, '5o-57, of Tallensi, 65-o6, 172; of Tonga. 66. 172; trading kingdoms and cities, 22,

Zanzibar

79-84. 88. 103, 104, 105, 108, 109. 171172; village societies, 22, "56-57, 6066, 172. 175. See also

Law and

order

Social welfare, 21 Sofala,

map

map

9, 88,

91. 180

Solomon, King. 41. 139, 178 Solomonid dynasty in Ethiopia. 139 Somali Peninsula,

map

of,

map

8. 43, 4j>

Stone Age rock paintings, "44-57 Tattooing, 154 Technological simplicity. 22. 103. lo Tegguida NTisemt, salt mining. "96 Temples: communal, 124-125, "142; at

Zimbabwe,

Textiles trade, 29, 86, 88, 91. 103, 10481,

84; dates of existence of, 81; description by Leo Af ricanus, 79. 85, 81.86 Songs. 146. 150 Sorcery, 127-128

trade,

Spirit world. 123, loO. ancestors. 60. 123,

126-127. 153; communication with, *74. 125; deities, 125-126- sculptured

homes," '152-153; unborn

generations. 60. 123, 153 Stanley.

map

Tunis,

86,

map

8,

of,

8-9

Stone Age. 21. 146, peoples remaining on level of, 61-62. Saharan peoples, 33, 34-35, 43, "46-57, Saharan rock paintings, 35, *43-57, 146

Stone sculpture, 147-148 Storytelling, art of, 143, 150 Sudan: Dinka of. 62-63, 123-124, 169, 172, Egyptian expansion to, 35: Kushite civilization in. 35-38; Kushite pyramids in, "14-15. Nuba of, "64-65. "6777; Zande of. 64-65, 127-128. See also Central Sudan, Western Sudan Sudan, Republic of the, 67 Sudd, map 9 Swahili, language, 29

Swastikas, as ornamentation of Ethiopian churches. '134-135

35

of.

Vaal River,

map

Victoria Falls,

map

9,

map

165

90

map

91,

gems. 29, 88. 91; gold. 29. 81-82. 85,

87. 88; ivory. 29, 42, "86, 87, 88, 91, 94,

West African

coastal

90, 91, 101,

102-103, 104-107, 108, "116-117; kingof Western Sudan. "78, 81-82,

doms ite

map

90, 91, 105, 107;

Kush-

(Meroitic), 37, 38, marketplaces,

"98-99; palm

oil.

108; porcelain, 29, 88,

91. role of "secret salt,

societies" in,

127;

81-82, "86, "97; slave, 22, 85, 87,

camp, 63

cattle

Age

X-Group

culture, 39

W Yamvo, Mwata, 171 Walata,

map

8. 82,

toise shell, 87; trans-Saharan, "78, 81-

tor-

90-91, "92-93. 105; various

products, 29, 88, 89, 91, 94, 104-105, 116 map 90-91, 92

Yoruba people, 140; kingdom

of (Oyo).

108, 172; religion of, 124; sculpture of

103 145 "14o, 147. talking

life!,

of,

drum

"149

use of elephants. 37; Zande, 64-65. See also Military power. raids, 107. 172,

Weapons Wargla, map 90 Water-raising device. Sahara, Stone Age.

Zagwe dynasty,

•49

Wawat, under Egyptian control, 35 Weapons, 21. Benin, "110, "116-117. Bornu, "30-31; bronze vs. iron, 36; hunting, "114-115, of Saharan Stone Age herdsmen, "54-55

West

29.86.88,91.102,104-105,172;

Tanganyika. See Tanzania Tanganyika. Lake, map 9, map 91 Tangier, map 90 Tanuatanum. King of Kush, 36 Tanzania: anthropological fossil finds

Yellow fever. 20

90. 91

prevalence of. among African tribes, 64-65; Saharan peoples. "54-55; slave

180, spices, 91, 102, 103. 104; textiles,

Tallensi, 65-66, 172; religion of, 127

map

Warfare: Benin, "118-119; Bornu, "3031: European misconceptions about

Welfare, social, 21

map

Wut, Dinka

Nuba, "67-77; Nya-

Chad. "176-177, Nuba.

102, 103. 104, 105-107, 118, 170, 172,

82, 88.

"67, 68, '70-73, 76

kyusa, 63-64, 172; Saharan Stone Age, 43, "46-57; Tallensi, 65-66. 172. Tonga.

"64-65, "68-69; Saharan Stone

90, 91, 101, 102-103, 104-107;

map

among Nuba,

Sabaean, 41

peoples, "48-49

opian, 41, 42, 134; European, with North and West Africa, "23, 84-86,

forest regions,

Age peo-

sculpture "142. 143-144, 148, '151-

6o, 172

"28-29, 37, 41, 86, 87-88,

of

of, 101

Writing: Kushite (Meroitic), 36, 37;

"94-95, 105. 180; Egyptian, 35, Ethi-

kingdoms

90,

"16.27. "74,82, "111; priestesses,

Wrestling,

Village societies, 22, 60-66. 175. Dinka,

62-63, 169, 172;

79-80,

map

91,105,107 Wilson, Monica, 63. 64 Witchdoctors. 127-128 Witchcraft, 127-128; comparisons with

Wood

9

Van Velsen, Jaap. 6b Venice, and African trade, 84 Victoria, Lake, map 9, map 91

Villages, 177;

Towns. See Cities and towns Trade, 21, 89. 173; book. Timbuktu. 1718, 84, copper, 88; East African coastal

102;

of,

121-122, 125; Saharan Stone ples, "48-53

17-18.84

Toure. Samori ibn Lafiya. 79 Toure. Sekou, 79 Towerson, Captain. 102

map

kingdoms

81. 82-84. 101. 103, 105, 172,

trade, "78, 81-82, 84-87, "89,

"24-25, 26, 79, 84, 85.

Tortoise-shell trade, 87

84-87, *89,

in.

map

U

Europe, 105, 127, 128 Woloff people, military power

counterweight, "106; household, "162-163; iron, 21. 36, "58; sense of form and function, 162; Stone Age, Hunter period, 46

and

Taghaza, 82, map 90, 97 Taharqa. King of Kush. 36 Takedda, map 90, 91 Talismans. 125 Talking drum, *149

See also Western Sudan West Indies slave trade, 103 Western Sudan: cities of, 17-18, "24-27,

Uganda, historical references to region 37, 172 Ukwangala, fireside fellowship, 63

Tlemcen, map 90 Togo, historical reference to region of, 107 Tonga, 66. 172 Tools and utensils: artistry in. "106. "154-157. "162-163; bronze and copper,

cities.

90, 91. "92-93,

79, 80, 81. 82, 84, 85, 86; Islam in, 27,

86-87, 88, 91, 94, 107; inland, central Africa. 18, 88. 89, map 90-91; iron, 29.

Surrealism, 165

map 90 map 90

Women, trade.

map

101, 102-103. 104-107. 108. "110-117

8

book

90, 91;

"145-147, 148, "151-165; slave trade. 81-82, 84-87. *89,

Turnbull. Colin, 62

VS. iron. 3o.

Henry Morton. 172

Steppe, semiarid.

map

Timbuktu, map

Spice trade, 91. 102, 103. 104

"spirit

105,172 Thebes, map 34; Kushite seizure Thomassey. Paul, 80 Thutmose I, King of Egypt, 35 Tibesti Massif,

Spain, legalization of slave trade by. 10o

85. 102, 103. 104, 105-107; trade, "78.

80, 82, 84, 103,

87 Songhai. Kingdom

map

Tropical rain forests. See Rain forests Tsetse fly, "20 Tuaregs, in camel caravan. "92-93

59, "61, "62, 88,

Textiles industry, Kano. 172-173

79-80.

coast of. 85, 101. 102; sculpture of, "16. 22. 103. "106. "109-119, *142, 144.

"178-179; Kushite, 37, "38-39

Somalia, historical reference to region of, of, 22.

170, Portuguese exploration of

in,

Transportation of goods, means of, 89, map 90-91. See also Camel; Shipping Tripoli, map 8, map 90

Tuat, 85,

Terra-cotta sculpture, 145. "146. 147. 148 Tete, map 91

9

war

174; in art. 143, 145. 148, "156-157

63-64. See also

Tartkh al-Fettash, al-Kati,79 Tassili n'Ajjer plateau,

Great, 41, 131,

Nyakyusa

9,

map

90-01

Zambia, historical reference to region 88 Zande, 64-65. religion of, 127-128 Zanzibar,

map

map

9,

of,

91, 180; slave

170 Zeila, map 91 trade,

Africa: cities of coastal and forest

regions, 18, 101-102, 103-104, 107-108.

109. 118; cultural similarities with

Egypt. 34; European colonialism 108. lo7-168;

Ethiopia. 131, 139

Zambezi River, map

kingdoms

in.

of coastal and

Trade routes,

forest regions, 101-102. 103-105, 107-

Traditionalism. African, 169-170. 172-

108, "109-119. 172;

Muslim

religious

Zimbabwe, map

9, 22,

59-60, 66, 88, 178;

Great Temple, 59. *bl, "62. 88, '178179; Monomotapa dynasty. 88. 172;

Rozwi dynasty,

map Zuila,

88, trade center. 88,

91. 180

map

90

191

Printed in U.S.A.

xzzzzz 192

I Vfi:

I