Grasses, Sedges, Rushes: An Identification Guide 9780300252651

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​Grasses, Sedges, Rushes

​Grasses, An Identification Guide

​Sedges, ​Lauren Brown and Ted Elliman ​ riginal drawings by Lauren Brown O ​Foreword by Jerry Jenkins

​Rushes

​New Haven and London

Published with support from The Helen Clay Frick Foundation and from Peter and Sofia Blanchard. Published with assistance from the foundation established in memory of Philip Hamilton McMillan of the Class of 1894, Yale College. Copyright © 2020 by Lauren Brown and Ted Elliman. All rights reserved. Original line drawings © 1979, 2020 by Lauren Brown.

An earlier version of this book was published as Grasses: An Identification Guide in 1979 by Houghton Mifflin Company. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers. Yale University Press books may be purchased in quantity for educational, business, or promotional use. For information, please e-­mail [email protected] (U.S. office) or [email protected] (U.K. office).

Set in Utopia, Meta, and Bunday Sans type by Tseng Information Systems, Inc.

Printed in China.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019949034 ISBN 978-­0-­300-­23677-­4 (paperback—flexibound : alk. paper)

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/ NISO Z39.48-­1992 (Permanence of Paper).

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Drawing on page i: switch panicgrass (Panicum virgatum), Lauren Brown. Photo on frontispiece: oat (Avena sativa), H. Zell/Wikimedia Commons.

To John and Charlotte LB To Alice, with love TE

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Contents Foreword by Jerry Jenkins / ix Preface / xi Acknowledgments / xiii Introduction / 1 The American Prairie: Ecology and History / 7 How to Use This Book / 17 Glossary / 19 Identification Key / 23 Species Descriptions and Illustrations / 31 Some Identification Aids / 215 A Word on Rare and Invasive Species / 221 If You Do Not Find Something in This Book / 223 Credits / 237 Index / 243

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Foreword Lauren Brown’s Grasses appeared in 1979. It was a small beauty: 240 pages, about 125 grasses and sedges, a dozen other plants that looked grasslike, all organized by the way the plants looked in the field. Lovely pen-­and-­ink drawings, calligraphic headings, simple, focused prose. It made friends quickly, treated them well, and has kept them for forty years. To keep them, it had to solve a fundamental problem. To cover grasses and sedges well takes space; they don’t reduce to small drawings and field marks like birds. Also, there are a lot of them—sixteen hundred in the United States, several hundred in the Northeast. So a grass-­and-­sedge guide must be either big and complicated or small and incomplete. If big, it scares the beginners. If small and simple, it leaves out common plants and frustrates users. Going small sounds easier, but it isn’t. Knowing what to put in and what to leave out is hard. Everything, or almost everything, that readers are likely to see must go in, or they won’t trust the book. All the things they won’t see, or won’t see at first, must be left out, or they will get bogged down. Doing this requires visualizing, in detail, where readers may go and what they will see. Very few people have that sort of knowledge. Lauren does. Her solution was to realize that the agricultural and post-­agricultural countryside of the Northeast is, in effect, a biome to itself. As long as her readers stayed within it, they would only see around a hundred of the grasses and sedges, a manageable number. By restricting herself to this countryside—I call it the common landscape—she could cover the species her readers would see every day. Not, certainly, the plants of the wild and special places. But rather the neighbors, the plants they would see, daily, between their doors and the wild. Which, of course, is just what an introduction should do. Take you out your door, and help you start seeing what is there. And that is what Lauren did: she wrote a book about the common landscape and put the right plants in it and got the details

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right. Readers used it and trusted it. For many botanists, it was their first grass-­and-­sedge book. When I read the manuscript in 1978, my first thought was how familiar everything was. Here were common plants of dirt roads, meadows, brooks, and woods. The ones I had met, twelve years before, when I left my tumble-­down house with a microscope in a backpack and set out to learn what was outside my door. And the ones, for that matter, that John Torrey and Henry Thoreau had seen a century earlier when they left theirs. My second thought was that Grasses wasn’t familiar at all. It was a new idea. It had simplified a complex subject by restricting it to a familiar landscape and the distance one could walk in a morning. I thought, “Really, there’s nothing like this. It’s going to work and be loved.” Forty years later, it has worked, and there still isn’t anything like it. By 2018 it needed a new edition. Plants don’t change, but botany does. Lauren worked with Ted Elliman, author of Wildflowers of New England. Ted is a talented botanist and teacher long affiliated with the New England Wild Flower Society. He can walk and think and is at home everywhere; they don’t come better. Lauren and Ted worked with science editor Jean Thomson Black. They updated the plant names and added photographs, new information, and a few new species. They kept the plan and feel, and Lauren’s drawings and remarkable prose. The result is a fine new book, ready for a new generation of users. Ready for you. Jerry Jenkins



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Preface This book is a new version of Grasses: An Identification Guide by Lauren Brown, published by Houghton Mifflin in 1979. This edition is co-­authored by Lauren Brown and Ted Elliman. How does this book differ from the original? First, we have added color photographs, at least one for each of the 141 species presented in the book. In conjunction with Lauren Brown’s original line drawings and the text descriptions, the photographs, chosen for their aesthetic quality as well as their representational accuracy, will help guide readers toward correct identifications. For each plant, the images show distinctive features of leaves and flowers and in many instances the species’ typical habitat conditions. Second, we have revised and updated much of the text and the plant descriptions, including additional information on species’ ranges, ecology, and human uses. In a number of the individual species descriptions, we have added brief summaries of common species that are almost identical to those illustrated but are not shown in the book. Our summaries of these similar plants highlight the salient features that distinguish them from the primary species under discussion. Third, we have updated scientific names that have changed since the publication of the original book. In making these changes, we have generally followed the current nomenclature presented in the Integrated Taxonomic Information System website (www.itis.gov); we have also referred to recent floristic treatments to confirm nomenclatural revisions. In the cases of the twenty-four species with names that have changed since the original publication, we have included the former scientific names in parentheses. Finally, we have also updated common names. At the time of the original publication, many of the plants in the book, being little noticed by people, had no common names. In the past several decades, common names have been established and standardized for all of the vascular plants in the United States. In cases where a plant already had a common name,

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the new, standardized name often differs from the original. In this book, we have included the traditional name as well as the new, standardized name, though space has not allowed for the many common names that have sometimes accompanied a species. In spite of this standardization, the spelling, capitalization, and hyphenation of some species still varies. Eragrostis spectabilis, for example, may be presented as Purple Love Grass, purple love-­grass, purple lovegrass, or with further variations among these three forms. We have followed our own preferences in this regard. Aside from these changes, we believe that the book retains the qualities that appealed to readers of the original—­ simplicity, ease of use, and compact size. The goal and the spirit of the book remain the same: to provide an informative, informal introduction and field guide to these often overlooked yet beautiful and fascinating plants.



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Acknowledgments As this book is a revised version of one published many years ago (Grasses: An Identification Guide), I still want to thank some of those who helped make the first one a reality. Many of these people have passed on; these include Sterling Parker, Stephen Collins, Antoni Damman, Robert Meyer, Stanley J. Smith, Claude E. Phillips, and Neil Hotchkiss. Those still with us include Alfred E. Schuyler, Christopher Campbell, Donald Stokes, Bill Tans, Jerry Jenkins, and James E. Rodman. I also am still grateful to the staff at Houghton Mifflin, the publishers of the original, particularly my editor Lisa Gray Fisher. For this edition, the person who deserves the greatest thanks is also no longer with us, having passed away far too soon. This is Elizabeth Farnsworth, Senior Research Ecologist at the New England Wild Flower Society. For several years, Elizabeth encouraged me and cheered me on as I pondered the idea of a new edition. Equally if not more importantly, she connected me with my co-­author Ted Elliman, and she then suggested that I approach Yale University Press. There is no question that this book would not have come into being without her. I am also extremely grateful to Lisa White, current Nature and Field Guides Executive Editor at Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing, for generously helping to ease the transition between publishers, and to Jean E. Thomson Black, Senior Executive Editor at Yale University Press, for accepting the proposal. Michael Deneen, former Editorial Assistant at Yale University Press, deserves special mention for his unending patience and assistance with pesky technological issues as well as for his extraordinary helpfulness otherwise, while Senior Editor Margaret Otzel provided expert guidance through other production challenges. We also appreciate the help of other members of the Press team: Joyce Ippolito, Katie Golden, Elizabeth Sylvia, and Nancy Ovedovitz. Ted Watt, of the Hitchcock Center for the Environment, and Bryan Connolly, of Framingham State University, graciously reviewed the proposal and the final manuscript, offering helpful suggestions; Sonya Wulff also

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gave thoughtful suggestions. Jerry Jenkins, having helped forty years ago, stepped up to the plate again, providing us with a poetic Foreword. Last, I want to thank the many photographers who donated their images and express my deep admiration of all the photographers for their great skill. Immeasurable thanks are due to Ted Elliman, my co-­ author. Ted contributed experience, expertise, skill, patience, fresh ideas, and hard work to the project. Without him, the book would not have seen the light of day. Finally, inexpressible thanks go to my husband, John Herzan, and my daughter, Charlotte Herzan. Charlotte, with her patience and attention to detail, made the inevitable and seemingly overwhelming tedious tasks manageable and ensured that they were done correctly. John patiently endured my preoccupation with the project and from start to finish provided unfailing if unspoken support. I am lucky to have had these two by my side. Lauren Brown Like Lauren, I am deeply appreciative of the support, encouragement, and generosity of many people who have helped so much with this edition of the book. My warmest thanks to Elizabeth Farnsworth (much missed), Bryan Connolly, and Ted Watt; to Jerry Jenkins for his very gracious and thoughtfully written Foreword, and to Jean E. Thomson Black, Michael Deneen, Margaret Otzel, Joyce Ippolito, Katie Golden, Elizabeth Sylvia, and Nancy Ovedovitz. My special gratitude, too, to all of the wonderful botanical photographers who have very kindly and generously contributed their beautiful images to this book, many of them donated or at much reduced rates— thank you! My deepest thanks to Lauren, for asking me to work with her on this revision to her original book, which was for me, as it was for so many, a delightful and illuminating pathway into the challenging world of grass, sedge, and rush identification; it has been a privilege and a pleasure to collaborate with her on this edition. And, finally, my thanks to my wife Alice Cheang, whose love and support have meant so much to me for this project, as in all else. Ted Elliman

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Both of us are very grateful for the generosity of The Helen Clay Frick Foundation and of Peter and Sofia Blanchard, whose support has been so important for the publication of this book.

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​Grasses, Sedges, Rushes

Area covered by this book

Introduction Grasses are everywhere. They cover vast areas of the earth, yet they also grow out of the cracks of city sidewalks. There are few places in the United States where you can walk a short distance without coming across a grass. Yet few people—even those who are passionately interested in nature—take the trouble to learn the names of grasses. Enthusiasts who will travel hundreds of miles to look at “wildflowers” ignore the grasses in their own backyard (even though these are technically also wildflowers). Most popular wildflower guides—even the most comprehensive—do not include any grasses. Misconceptions about grasses abound. “They have no flowers!” one hears. This is not true. Grasses do have flowers, just as roses and daisies have flowers; the only difference is that grass flowers are small, inconspicuous, and slightly different in structure. “They have no color!” This is not true if you just start looking. “They all look alike!” Also not true once you start looking. Once you start to notice various kinds of grasses, you might want names to attach to them. If you have tried to identify grasses from most existing manuals or internet sources, you may have met with frustration. The identification systems in these books are based mainly on the characteristics of the flowers. There are valid scientific reasons for this approach, but the flowers are so small that it is hard to see these characteristics without a hand lens or a microscope. Also, there is a whole terminology for grasses that does not apply to other plants and is not exactly self-­explanatory. To identify grasses with technical manuals or internet sources requires a fair amount of botanical knowledge, considerable patience, and sometimes a dose of luck. Even Charles Darwin was elated when he first identified a grass. For the common grasses that are all around us, such technical identification methods are not necessary. My father, who

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was a very intelligent man but did not know plants, came to me one day after working outside and said, “I just noticed ten different kinds of grasses in the last half hour! What are they?” My father did not notice glumes, lemmas, and paleas—the specialized botanical terms for the very fine parts of the grass flower. Rather, he noticed obvious characteristics—general shape, color, and texture. Identification in this book is based on these and other easily observable characteristics. This book is written for the lay person, and it requires no specialized botanical knowledge. Two other large groups of plants are similar in form to grasses, and easily mistaken for them; these are the sedges and rushes. Common sedges and rushes are also described in this book, as well as a few other plants that could be confused with grasses. Though we explain the differences among these three groups below, you do not need to understand them in order to use the identification system in this book. What is a grass? A grass is a plant in the Grass family, the scientific name of which is the Poaceae. A family is a group of plants with similar flower characteristics. Plants in the Grass family have small, inconspicuous flowers and narrow leaves with parallel veins. The stems are usually round and typically hollow except at the point where the leaf is attached (the node). The stems have joints—easily visible bulges—at the nodes. The base of the leaf wraps around the stem in a structure called the sheath (see p. 232). Grass flowers are arranged on the stalks in two rows. The flowers have a distinctive structure, as shown in the illustration. Cryptic and lacking nectar, grass flowers do not attract insects or other animal pollinators and therefore depend on the wind for cross-­pollination. Wind-­pollination is a random process, so plants that rely on this strategy produce huge amounts of pollen that can cover long distances. Although much of the pollen never reaches its target (a flowering plant of the same species), the combination of air transport and sheer quantity enables fertilization between widely separated individuals and populations. It also makes some people miserable with allergies.

Grass flower cluster (spikelet); flowers arranged in two rows

Grasses are of vast ecological and economic importance, and they move around the earth easily with humans. One-­ quarter of the grass species in the northeastern United States, and some of the most common, are not native to this continent but have arrived since European settlement. Grasses figure large in the world’s economy, not only as essential crops, but also as weeds that thwart the cultivation of crops. Sedges are in the Sedge family, scientifically known as the Cyperaceae. In contrast to the grasses, sedges usually have solid, triangular stems with no joints. (You may have heard that “sedges have edges.” This is true for many, though not all, members of the family.) The flowers are arranged spirally on the stalk and have a slightly different structure from the grass flowers, as illustrated. Sedges grow more often in moist or wet environments than do grasses and are more abundant than grasses in far northern areas. Sedges have not attained the economic importance of grasses. Less used by people, they have migrated less than grasses have, and few sedges have become weeds. Of the sedge species in the northeastern United States, fewer than 10 percent are non-­native, and these are not common. Also with inconspicuous flowers, sedges too are mostly wind-­pollinated. Sedge flower cluster (spikelet); flowers spirally arranged. Sedge flowers do not have the two empty scales (glumes) at the base, nor do they have lemmas or paleas. Each flower is enclosed by just one scale.

introduction [3

The Rush family (Juncaceae) is much smaller than the Grass or Sedge families. Like grasses and sedges, rushes have inconspicuous flowers and linear leaves with parallel veins. The structure of the flowers, however, is more like that of a lily than a grass or a sedge, even though they are closer on the evolutionary tree to the sedges. Like the lilies, rush flowers have three petals and three sepals, arranged in a circle, but these are small and usually dully colored so that you may have never noticed the similarity (see illustration). The fruit in the Rush family is a small three-­parted capsule that stays on the plant well beyond flowering time and is filled with tiny seeds. Their stems can be either solid or hollow. Rushes usually grow in wet or damp soil and are also for the most part wind-­pollinated. Like the sedges, rushes have assumed little economic importance.

Rush flower



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Why Bother with Grasses? The grasses constitute one of the largest families of flowering plants. Worldwide, there are over 10,000 species, in the United States almost 1,400. Grasses grow on every continent, including Antarctica. And the fruit of the grass family—the grain—is a concentrated source of protein, carbohydrates, and minerals. Being dry, it is easy to store and transport, and thus it has become a major food source for humans. The following grains come from plants in the Grass family: wheat, rice, corn, oats, rye, barley, sorghum, and millet. Wheat, rice, and corn alone supply half of the world’s caloric intake. We cannot digest cellulose, which makes up the bulk of grass stems and leaves, but cows and other livestock can, so that even if you eat nothing but hamburger, you are still eating grass, though at a remove. If you eat sugar, you are consuming the product of another member of the Grass family, the sugar cane plant. And

Natural grassland areas of the world

in the Far East, other species of grass, the bamboos, are used for everything from food to a construction material. Grasses cover almost one-­third of the area of the earth, growing in huge expanses. These expanses are called prairies, plains, pampas, steppes, veldt, or savannas, or referred to simply by the umbrella term of grasslands. Why are grasses so successful in covering such large areas of the globe? In the grasslands of the world, the main obstacles to a plant’s survival are drought (dry, windy climates), fire (exacerbated by dry, windy weather), and grazing by animals. Grasses have several features that help them to withstand these stresses and thus dominate large areas. The stems, being jointed, are flexible and wave in the wind, rather than crack or break. The leaves are narrow and point upward, thus reducing water loss (evapotranspiration) that would result from wind and strong sun. Many grasses of dry climates further reduce water loss by having most of their leaves in tight clusters at the base, where there is less wind. The roots, which are staggeringly deep in relation to the whole plant, provide another line of defense against water loss. Big bluestem, for example, a dominant American prairie grass that grows to heights of nine feet, can have roots equally deep. Imagine if a three-­hundred-­foot giant sequoia went similarly far down! Switch grass, another widespread prairie species, can grow three to five feet high above ground but has roots deeper

introduction [5

than ten feet. The roots often reach the water table, where the soil is permanently saturated, so that the plants are not solely dependent on unpredictable rainfall. The roots are also fibrous, with countless rootlets going in every direction, able to come in contact with every drop of water that might be in the soil. This concentration of starch and energy below ground helps grasses to survive grazing and burning as the plants have reserves to fuel regeneration. Another adaptation to grazing and burning is apparent if you look closely at a lawn. You will notice small shoots growing up and sideways from the base of the grass stems. Called tillers, these are little bundles of leaves tucked in at the base of the plant. Unless a fire is too hot, or grazing too close, the tillers survive these pressures and form new shoots. Grasses may not be huge like the red‑ woods or glamorous like the orchids, but they are tough, ubiquitous, and es‑ sential for our survival. Above and below ground growth of switch grass



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The American Prairie Ec olo gy and History Grasslands are present in many parts of our country—the mid-­ elevations of the Southwest, the intermountain West, and parts of California—but the largest unbroken swath is the mid-­continental prairie. Starting just north of North Dakota and Montana, the prairie stretches south into Texas. On the west, it has a firm boundary—the Rocky Mountains—but on the east, the boundary defies clear-­cut delineation and runs imprecisely through Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. This is the prairie that has played such a compelling role in our national history and culture: the heartland, the breadbasket of the nation. From west to east, these central grasslands are ecologically classified into three groups: the short-­grass prairie, the mixed-­

The tall- and mixed-grass prairie borders fluctuate through time.

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grass prairie, and the tall-­grass prairie (see map p. 7). The three zones basically follow a gradient related to precipitation, but they by no means have distinct boundaries. They intergrade and fluctuate through time depending on cycles of rainfall and drought and intensity of grazing. The short-­grass prairie—often called the Great Plains— is dominated by grasses less than a foot high. Two of its most common species are buffalo grass (Bouteloua dactyloides) and blue grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis). Located in the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains, which intercept the moist air blown inland from the Pacific Ocean, the short-­grass prairie gets an average of ten to fifteen inches of rain a year. Average is the important word because the area is subject to cycles of rain and drought, with the precipitation in some years being much less. The region has traditionally been ranching country, but wheat and other crops are grown here too. East of the short-­grass prairie is the mixed-­grass prairie, an area of transition between the short-­grass and tall-­grass prairies, in terms of both rainfall and species composition. The

Buffalo grass, Bouteloua dactyloides

Grama grass, Bouteloua gracilis



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grasses there grow two to four feet tall and include little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), June grass (Koeleria macrantha), and western wheat grass (Pascopyrum smithii) as well as species of the short- and tall-­grass prairies. The boundaries of the mixed-­grass prairie are highly fluid. Following a few dry years, the more moisture-­dependent grasses like little bluestem die out and the short grasses take over. Then, over a few wet years, the little bluestem will recolonize, overtopping the short grasses. Intensive grazing also favors the short grasses over the mid-­grasses, while a relaxation of grazing encourages regrowth of the mid-­grasses. The mixed-­grass prairie region is used both for livestock production and for cultivated crops. The easternmost grassland region is the tall-­grass prairie, sometimes referred to as the true prairie. “Prairie” is the French word for meadow, which is how these grasslands were described by the French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet in 1673. The native grasses in the tall-­grass prairie grow taller than a person, and the soil is black from the accumulation of centuries’ worth of rotted grass roots. The climate is the most humid of the three regions, and the soil is the most persistently moist. Some of the dominant grasses of the American tall-­grass prairie are big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), and switch grass (Panicum virgatum). This is the agricultural bonanza of the continent: an area of deep, rich soils combined with adequate rainfall that ensures a bountiful production of corn, soybeans, and other crops. Ecologically, however, the tall-­grass prairie is an enigma. Trees can and do grow here, presumably because of adequate rainfall. Why, then, is this area not a forest? If the climate does not limit woody growth, what does? The consensus answer is two intertwining forces: grazing and fire. As discussed above, grasses are well adapted not only to survive, but also to thrive in the face of these environmental pressures. The African grasslands are the most famous for their storybook array of mammalian herbivores, but our prairies have their share: the jackrabbit, the prairie dog, the pronghorn, the elk, the white-­tailed deer, and most important of all,

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the bison. Bison roamed the prairies literally in the millions, chewing as they went. The grasses could withstand this, but young, woody plants, which the bison also found palatable, could not. As for fire, early prairie travelers wrote of fires that “obscure the sun, moon, and stars for many days, or until the winter rains descend to quench the fire and purge the thick, ropey air, which is seen, tasted, handled, and felt.” A more positively disposed traveler in 1824 called a prairie fire a “sublime spectacle” more spectacular than “the old Atlantic in his fury, a thunderstorm in the Alps, and the cataracts of Niagara.” Fires were sometimes started by lightning, and especially when the grass stalks were dry, they could spread quickly, driven by the wind. Sometimes, even after a fire had died out, dried clumps of bison dung, known as buffalo chips, could smolder, the wind could catch a spark, and the fire could spread again. Prairie fires were also started by Native Americans, who used fire as a hunting tool. They would burn dead grasses in the spring to encourage the fresh growth that attracted the bison. Or they used a method described by a traveler in 1824: “a great number of hunters dispose themselves around a large prairie where herds of buffalo happen to be feeding, and setting fire to the grass, encompass them on all sides. The buffalo, having great fear of fire, retire towards the center of the prairie as they see it approach . . . and the Indians . . . slaughter immense numbers in a short period.” As discussed in the introduction, prairie grasses can grow back after a fire, but trees and shrubs, with their photosynthetic material high above the ground, are more susceptible. Was the tall-­grass prairie maintained by lightning fires or by those set by humans? Delving back millennia, this can be a difficult question to settle, but many researchers believe the latter. If that is the case, is the tall-­grass prairie really a “natural” ecosystem? If it isn’t, how did it come to be? One theory is that the grasses became established some eight thousand years ago, during a warm dry period that followed the retreat of the Wisconsin glacier, and they were then maintained by Native American fires even as the climate became cooler and wetter.

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The tall-­grass prairie is an ecosystem with a history that is emblematic of the complex interaction of natural and human factors that shape our environment. When the European settlers came to New England in the early seventeenth century, they brought cattle and other livestock. The animals needed grass, but in this forested country, the only grasslands were in river valleys and coastal salt marshes, and eventually these were not adequate for the growing populations of people and livestock. Native species, such as switch grass and little bluestem, which provide good forage, do grow in New England, but not extensively, and it may never have occurred to the colonists to try them. Instead, they created their own grasslands by cutting down the forests and planting familiar forage grasses brought from Europe. These introduced grasses thrived and spread; some of our most common roadside species, such as orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) and timothy (Phleum pratense), are among them. The settlers’ first exposure to prairie-­like habitats was in Ohio and Indiana, where the oak woodlands were interspersed with grassy openings. This was a transitional zone—a sort of uneasy truce—between the midwestern prairie and the eastern deciduous forest, where the boundaries fluctuated through time. It was different from New England, but there were still trees. Westward, when confronted with the unbroken treeless prairie—a completely unfamiliar landscape—observers had mixed reactions. Some were wearied by its perceived uniformity. A member of an 1823 exploring group in Illinois considered the prairie as boring as Lake Michigan, which he called “a waste . . . the fatiguing monotony of which is increased by the equally undiversified prospect of the land scenery, which affords no relief to the sight, as it consists merely of a plain, in which but a few patches of thin and scrubby woods are observed scattered here and there.” Other travelers, however, rejoiced in the openness and the richness of the land. Patrick Shiriff, a Scottish farmer, wrote in 1833, “The works of man are mere distortions compared

Th e A m e r i c a n P r a i r i e [ 11



with those of nature. . . . The wide expanse appeared the gift of God to man for the exercise of his industry; and there being no obstacle to immediate cultivation, nature seemed inviting to the husbandman to till the soil, and partake of her bounty. . . . I felt grateful at beholding a field so well fitted to relieve the depressed and starving population of Great Britain and Ireland, while the conduct of their land-­owning and tithe-­eating legislators, in restricting the circulation of nature’s bounty, appeared sinful.” Many were struck by the vastness of the area. A traveling English writer, Harriett Martineau, wrote in 1836, “When I saw a settler’s child tripping out of home-­bounds, I had a feeling that it would never get back again. It looked like putting out to Lake Michigan in a canoe.” Another traveler wrote in 1824, “I do not know of anything that struck me more forcibly than the sensation of solitude I experienced in crossing this, and some of the other large Prairies. I was perfectly alone, and could see nothing in any direction but sky and grass. . . . Not a living thing could I see or hear, except the occasional rising of some prairie fowl, or perhaps a large hawk or eagle wheeling about over my head. In the woods I have often experienced this silence and solitude, but it struck me more forcibly in these boundless meadows.” The potential of the fertile soil, however, could not be immediately realized because the plows used in the East were inadequate in the thick prairie sod. That obstacle was overcome with the 1837 invention by John Deere of a steel plow that could efficiently cut through the thick masses of roots. The soil had been enriched through millennia of these rotting grass roots, there were no pesky rocks to be gotten out of the way as in New England, and there was decent rainfall. Farmers wasted no time in converting the wild grasslands into the endless neat squares of corn and soybeans visible from an airplane today. By 1900, 70 percent of the tall-­grass prairie had been plowed under; now 99 percent of it is gone. The native prairie vegetation survived only in places too small, wet, dry, or rough for the plow, mainly places like roadsides, railroad track borders, or early cemeteries.

12 ] Th e A m e r i c a n P r a i r i e

The Great Plains, or short-­grass prairie, was similarly misunderstood. The Army explorer Stephen H. Long, in the course of an expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1820, deemed this area “unfit for cultivation and of course uninhabitable by a people depending upon agriculture.” He labeled it the Great Desert, and that term, which morphed into the Great American Desert, held sway for decades. Cattle ranchers in Texas saw its potential, however, and in the second half of the nineteenth century, with the Native Americans forced onto reservations and the bison essentially exterminated, the ranchers spread their herds rapidly northward across the plains. The business reached boom proportions, with the cattle gobbling grass all the way—too many cattle gobbling too little grass. Cattle will not eat everything green, nor will sheep or other grazers. They avoid some plants because they are poisonous, thorny, or simply taste bad. If animals are not too concentrated on a range, the grasses that they eat will come back because grasses are adapted to do this. Too many animals, however, will graze the grasses so far that they lack the photosynthetic tissue necessary to survive. In addition, the constant trampling of animal hooves compacts the soil and reduces water infiltration, making the soil drier and therefore less favorable for perennial grasses. As the palatable plants die out, the unpalatable species, nowadays many of them aggressive non-­ native species, take over. After a point, this process is self-­ perpetuating and irreversible. This overgrazing contributed to a crash in 1885, and in many places its ill effects remained for decades. The final shift in attitude toward the grasslands was reflected in the Homestead Act of 1862, which required farming in exchange for free land. Homesteaders diligently plowed under the prairie grasses to plant wheat. This plan was fine as long as there was rain, but with no deep grass roots to hold the soil in place, the end of this chapter is well known: the droughts of the 1930s that led to the Dust Bowl. This combination of overgrazing from the cattle boom and prairie destruction from wheat farming was the first great insult to the short-­grass prairie, resulting not only in the loss of natural ecosystems, but also in

Th e A m e r i c a n P r a i r i e [ 13



great losses of soil. Agricultural conversion continues today, especially on land that had been previously dismissed as marginal. Ranching also continues, and though the extent or even the definition of overgrazing is debated, it remains an issue in the Great Plains. This ecosystem still faces the possibility of progressive deterioration. The virtual disappearance of the tall-­grass prairie and the many alterations and threats to the short-­grass prairie can be discouraging, but the picture is not as bleak as it may seem. In bits and pieces, dedicated people are working hard to stem or even reverse the tide of disappearance and degradation. The most straightforward aspect of this process has been the outright legal preservation of prairies that escaped the plow. This process started in the 1930s, with tracts of intact prairie being set aside as national wildlife refuges. Though the main goal may have been protection of game species for the hunter, the species could not exist without the habitat, so habitat preservation was a beneficial side effect. The real surge in protection, however, came in the decades following 1970, when private conservation organizations, government agencies, and universities were able to acquire large grassland tracts for protection. The most impressive of these preserves is the Flint Hills, an area of almost ten thousand square miles in eastern Kansas and Oklahoma, where the shallow limestone bedrock had rendered the land unsuitable for cultivation. In 1996, an act of Congress brought much of this area under protection. Another interesting example of a prairie escaping the plow is a former twenty-­thousand-­acre U.S. Army munitions plant in the heart of Illinois corn country. After the plant was decommissioned in 1996, the property became the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie. These are just a few of the many preservation success stories. The second component of this process has been restoration. This concept also was born in the 1930s, when botanists at the University of Wisconsin undertook restoration of an abandoned horse pasture that was dominated by the non-­native Kentucky blue grass. Patiently over the decades, experimenting with various methods of digging and seeding, they have

14 ] Th e A m e r i c a n P r a i r i e

replaced the blue grass with native plants, which now constitute over 80 percent of the species present. As with the land protection efforts, the prairie restoration movement took off in the 1960s and 1970s, and it continues enthusiastically today. Prairies are being reconstituted along roadside strips, in public parks, on Native American lands, and even in backyards. This process can mean replacing non-­native and/or woody vegetation with native prairie plants or—for the truly ambitious—creating a prairie community from scratch, for instance on an abandoned corn field. Neither process is easy. If an area is dominated by shrubs or non-­native grasses, it will not automatically revert to prairie, and a new prairie doesn’t spring up by magic after some seeds are thrown on the ground. Both processes involve considerable labor and expense not only to establish the native grasses but also to ward off the continual invasion of woody plants. As we know, the prairie historically was dependent on burning and grazing, two processes that don’t organically happen now. Most restored prairies are regularly burned, and on some larger preserves, an exciting new development has been the reintroduction of bison. These giants of the prairie contribute the grazing component and help the restored prairies to become self-­sustaining systems. It is only through the deep commitment of many organizations, agencies, and individuals that these projects have come into being and continue to exist. It is unimaginable that we will ever come face to face with the same endless ocean of grasses that met our eighteenthand nineteenth-­century predecessors. However, thanks to the vision and persistence of many, an important part of our ecological heritage is being preserved and returned.

Th e A m e r i c a n P r a i r i e [ 15

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How to Use This Book Identification in this book is based on line drawings, photographs, and descriptive notes of the plants’ distinctive features. The plants are organized by visual similarity, not always by taxonomic groupings. An identification key starts on p. 23. In using the key, it is important to consider all the choices before making a decision, for the third could be better than the second, and so on. In using the pictures, remember that there is variation within a species, and the pictures might not look exactly like the plant you found. For that reason, it is important to read the text carefully and to give it as much consideration as you do the illustrations. The illustrations are only the first step! It is best to identify plants in the field, but this is not always practical or comfortable, and you will sometimes need to collect specimens for indoor identification. If you do this, it is important not just to snatch a little piece of the plant and proceed on your travels. Look at the whole plant and its surroundings. Is it short or tall? Does it grow upright, or does it sprawl or crawl? Does it grow in distinct tufts, or do the plants spread out and form a patch with separate stems? What is its habitat? Also look at various individuals or separate stalks on the same plant. If you take only one stalk, it might be atypical or too young or too old; collecting several specimens will give you a better chance of finding a good match. Developing these habits of observation and collection will help you enormously in identification. Be sensitive about collecting. If the plant seems abundant and common, and is growing in a disturbed habitat like a roadside or a vacant lot, it is generally OK to collect the whole plant. If it doesn’t seem common, however, or if you are on a public or private conservation property, do not collect unless you have permission. Take notes, take pictures, or make sketches so that you can remember the characteristics noted above. It is frustrating to get back indoors and realize that you don’t remember the habitat, the growth form, or other distinguishing characters.

[ 17

Plants can wilt and disintegrate quickly after they are picked, and many botanists have had the experience of a specimen being unrecognizable by the time it gets indoors. To avoid this, it is helpful to press the plant in the field. You can use a book and some absorbent paper, or a professional plant press, but these can be heavy and cumbersome. An alternative is to put the specimens in a plastic bag, tied tightly at the top. If you collect several species, keep them separate so that the leaves of one don’t get mixed up with the leaves of another. If you can’t work on the plants right away, put the bag in the refrigerator to avoid a rotten, moldy mess, but press the plants as soon as you can, as the refrigerator will not keep them fresh for long. A 10× hand lens—small, inexpensive, and easy to use—is very helpful for providing better views of the detailed flower structures. When using a hand lens, bring it up to your eye and then bring the plant to the lens until it is in focus. It is also sometimes helpful, especially with the many grasses that have light-­colored flowers, to look at the flowers against a dark surface. The contrast makes it easier to see the distinctive features. Most of the plants described in this book grow throughout the northeastern and north-­central United States (see map facing p. 1); many also grow beyond. We have noted geographical ranges in the descriptions only when a species has a restricted distribution within the area covered by the book. This book describes the more common grass, sedge, and rush species in this region, and you might find a plant that is not included. In that case, see p. 223 for further recommendations about identification. Meanwhile, enjoy your discoveries!



18 ]

H o w t o U s e Th i s B o o k

Glossary Annual: having a one-­year life cycle. Annual plants produce leaves, flowers, and seeds all in one growing season and then die. Annual plants generally have shallow root systems and produce abundant seeds. Axil: the upper angle between two joining parts, such as the leaf and the stem or a branch and a stem. Brackish: water containing salt, but in a lower concentration than sea water. Bract: a leaflike or bristly structure under the inflorescence.

Cool-­season: a term used for the grasses denoting species that flower and grow most actively in cool, moist weather, specifically spring and fall. Forage: food for domestic animals. Flower cluster: in the Grass and Sedge families, a small group of flowers, attached to a stalk either on the side

[ 19

or at the end. The flower cluster is made up of tiny flowers (or sometimes just one flower), which are enclosed by flower scales. In the Grass family, the flower cluster is known as a spikelet, and the flower scales are called glumes, lemmas, and paleas, depending on their placement in the spikelet. In the Sedge family, the flower cluster as used in this book is either a spike or a spikelet. Only one scale encloses each flower and the scales have no specialized names; they are simply called scales. Genus (pl. genera): A taxonomic grouping that ranks below family and above species. A family is made up of related genera, and each genus includes one or more, often many more, species. Inflorescence: the arrangement of the flowers on the stem or the entire assemblage of flowers.

Invasive: not native to a particular region; spreading rapidly and prolifically in natural landscapes; displacing native flora, and often causing ecological harm. Node: the point where the leaf joins the stem. In grasses, sedges, and rushes, this point is at the bottom of the sheath. Ovary: the part of a flower that contains the ovules. When fertilized, the ovules become seeds and the ovary becomes the fruit. In the Grass, Sedge, and a few other families, the ovary contains only one ovule, which, after fertilization, is either fused or appears to be fused to the ovary, so that the whole structure—technically a fruit—looks like a seed. Ovule: the part of the ovary that becomes a seed when fertilized.



20 ] G l o s s a r y

Perennial: having a life cycle of several to many years, reappearing each year from the same root system. Perennial plants usually have tap roots or fibrous roots, or they spread vegetatively by stolons or rhizomes. Perfect: of a flower; having both male and female parts on the same flower, as opposed to unisexual flowers. Pistil: the female part of a flower, consisting of an ovary, a style, and a stigma. Rhizome: a horizontal underground stem that produces roots and shoots at the nodes. Sheath: the lower part of the leaf that wraps around the stem. It is important to distinguish the sheath from the stem, for the sheath could be fuzzy, for instance, while the stem is not. This distinction can be especially important for grass and sedge identification. Species: The basic unit of biological classification consisting of organisms that share similar characteristics and are capable of interbreeding successfully. Taxonomically, the species ranks below a genus. It is denoted by a genus name, which is always capitalized, and a second name (technically known as a specific epithet), which is all lower case. Examples: Spartina patens, Bromus tectorum. When different species within a genus are referred to sequentially, the genus name can be abbreviated, for instance, Bromus tectorum, B. japonicus, etc. Stamen: the male parts of a flower, consisting of pollen-­ bearing anthers borne on filaments. When grasses are in flower, you can often see the anthers dangling from the flower scales. Stigma: the outermost part of the pistil, usually sticky, where pollen lands. In the Grass family, the stigmas are feathery. Stolon: a horizontal aboveground stem that produces roots and shoots at the nodes. Style: a stalk-­like structure that connects the stigma and the ovary. Grass flowers have no styles; the stigmas are directly attached to the ovary.

G l o s s a r y [ 21

Warm-­season: a term used for the grasses denoting species that flower and grow most actively in warm, dry weather, specifically summer and early fall. Weed: a plant growing where it is not wanted. Also, a species that colonizes and spreads quickly in disturbed areas. The concept of a weed is a human construct.



22 ] G l o s s a r y

Identification Key If your plant has a triangular stem, go to p. 24. Look carefully. If your plant has a round stem with no branches in the inflorescence, go to p. 25. (Look closely and make sure it doesn’t just have branches that are close together.)

If your plant has a round stem and flower branches forking from one point at the top, go to p. 26.

If your plant has a round stem and flowers coming out of one point on the side of the stem, go to pp. 126–128.

If your plant has a round or two-­sided stem with flower branches arranged vertically along the stem, go to p. 27.

[ 23

Plants with a Triangular Stem Flowers come out of the side of the stem Schoenoplectus pungens p. 33 Bolboschoenus robustus p. 34

Branches radiate from one point at the top of the stem

Flowers are in flattened clusters in a featherlike arrangement Cyperus pp. 40–44

Flowers are in three-­dimensional clusters, round or egg-­shaped

There are side branches on the stem, but not much branching in the inflorescence, and there are no long leafy bracts under the inflorescence Cladium p. 45 Rhynchospora p. 46 There are no side branches on the stem, but many in the inflorescence, with long leafy bracts underneath it Bolboschoenus pp. 34–35 Scirpus pp. 36–39



24 ] I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y

Flowers or flower clusters are lined vertically along the stem Carex pp. 47–64

Plants with a round stem and no branches in the inflorescence Inflorescence is conical Eleocharis pp. 65–68 Equisetum Allium Bulbostylis p. 125 Inflorescence is cylindrical; bristly in silhouette Hordeum Setaria Triticum Secale pp. 69–84 Elymus Anthoxanthum Koeleria Distichlis Aristida pp. 99–100 Tripsacum p. 106

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y [ 25

Inflorescence is cylindrical but not bristly in silhouette Triticum p. 74 Phleum Ammophila Alopecurus pp. 85–92 Typha Acorus Plantago Tripsacum p. 106 Spartina p. 134 Sporobolus p. 185 Inflorescence is flat Elymus Lolium pp. 93–95 Paspalum Others Aristida Cenchrus Eriophorum pp. 99–108 Dulichium Oryzopsis Tripsacum Equisetum Sparganium p. 114 Andropogon p. 138 Plants with a Round Stem and Flower Branches Forking from One Point at the Top of the Stem Flowers are lined continuously along the branches with no space between them Paspalum p. 95 Digitaria Cynodon pp. 109–112 Eleusine Andropogon

26 ] I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y

Flowers are lined along the branches with space between them Juncus pp. 115–119

Flowers are in clusters at the end of the branches Scirpus pp. 36–39 Cladium p. 45 Rhynchospora p. 46 Juncus Luzula pp. 120–125 Bulbostylis Schoenoplectus p. 128 Plants with a Round or Two-­Sided Stem and Flower Branches Arranged Vertically Flowers are lined tightly along the branch, often on one side Paspalum p. 95 Microstegium p. 96 Leersia p. 98 Spartina pp. 129–134 Branches are all along the stem, starting near the bottom, mixed in with the leaves; seeds are fuzzy Schizachyrium p. 136 Andropogon pp. 135, 138 Plants are big (over 6 ft.); inflorescence is fuzzy and plume-­like Miscanthus pp. 141–142 Phragmites

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y [ 27

The whole inflorescence droops or most of the branches do

Inflorescence is narrow; branches are short Brachyelytrum p. 144 Bouteloua p. 145 Inflorescence is open, sparse and delicate; branches are thin and wiry, naked for much of their length Glyceria Tridens pp. 146–152 Anthoxanthum Leersia Avenella Inflorescence is relatively coarse and dense, with much overlapping of flowers and branches Flower scales have bristles on the end, long or short Bromus pp. 154–158 Festuca pp. 176–177 Flower scales have no bristles Phragmites p. 142 Anthoxanthum p. 150 Echinochloa p. 190 Glyceria p. 147



28 ] I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y

Poa pp. 198, 201 Schedonorus p. 202 Calamagrostis p. 208

Most of the branches are upright, not drooping This is the hardest group and the reason that people often think all grasses look alike. Within this group are several subcategories. Inflorescence is roundish, bunchy Andropogon p. 135 Dactylis p. 179

Inflorescence is sparse and delicate; branches are thin and wiry, naked for much of their length, with little overlap among the flowers and the branches Leersia p. 151 Avenella p. 152 Zizania p. 194 Agrostis Panicum Dichanthelium pp. 159–174 Eragrostis Digitaria In flower, inflorescence is straight and narrow; branches hug the stem Anthoxanthum pp. 82–84 Koeleria Distichlis Ammophila p. 86 Tripsacum p. 106 Muhlenbergia p. 140 Brachyelytrum p. 144 Danthonia Festuca Dactylis Phalaris Sorghastrum pp. 175–190 Arrhenatherum Sporobolus Bromus Triplasis Echinochloa I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y [ 29

In flower, inflorescence is not straight and narrow, but forms a pyramid, diamond, or oval in silhouette Flower scales have bristles at the tip Festuca pp. 176–177 Arrhenatherum p. 184 Echinochloa pp. 189–190 Sporobolus p. 187 Zizania p. 194 Flower scales have no bristles Phragmites p. 142 Agrostis pp. 159–162 Triplasis p. 188 Sporobolus p. 192 Glyceria pp. 148, 193 Bromus Poa pp. 196–212 Schedonorus Eragrostis Holcus Cinna Calamagrostis Avena Zea



30 ] I d e n t i f i c a t i o n K e y

Species Descriptions and Illustrations

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Three-­square bulrush Schoenoplectus pungens (Scirpus pungens)

Sword grass, chairmaker’s rush Sedge family  Cyperaceae a scaly brown flower clusters come out of the side of the stem, with no stalks b no leafy bracts under inflorescence c triangular stem

A similar species is Schoenoplectus americanus (chairmaker’s bulrush), which grows only in brackish marshes. S. americanus has a more sharply concave stem on the sides.

In spite of a preference for standing water, this species can withstand periods of drought.

1–5 ft. fresh or brackish shores and marshes native perennial June–­July; flower clusters remain through the summer

[ 33

Sea-­coast tuber bulrush Bolboschoenus robustus (Scirpus robustus)

Salt-­marsh bulrush Sedge family  Cyperaceae a scaly brown flower clusters b single scale that covers flower c fruit underneath the scales: flattish, olive to dark brown in color d flower clusters sometimes on stalks, sometimes not e long leafy bracts f thick, sharply triangular stem spreads by rhizomes, so you usually find it in patches 21/2–5 ft. coastal marshes native perennial June–­July; flower clusters remain through the summer Could be confused with Bolboschoenus fluviatilis (p. 35), which grows in fresh water. B. fluviatilis has a more spreading, branched inflorescence, and the fruit of B. fluviatilis is pale, while that of B. robustus is dark green to black.



34 ]

River tuber bulrush Bolboschoenus fluviatilis (Scirpus fluviatilis)

River bulrush Sedge family  Cyperaceae a fruit triangular; white to pale brown in color b scaly brown flower clusters c thick triangular stem d long leafy bracts e widely branching inflorescence, often with several flower clusters at the end of each stalk 4–6 ft. freshwater marshes, along lakes, streams, and rivers; often in large colonies native perennial June–­July; flower clusters remain through the summer Could be confused with Bolboschoenus robustus (p. 34).

[ 35

Wool grass

Scirpus cyperinus Sedge family  Cyperaceae a flower stalks radiate from one point and then radiate out again b end stalks droop c stem obscurely triangular d long leafy bracts 4–6 ft. grows in clumps in wet places native perennial August–­October; most conspicuous when in fruit, with fluffy brownish seeds

in flower (midsummer)



36 ]

in fruit (late summer-­ fall); very fuzzy, brown

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Mosquito bulrush Scirpus hattorianus

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a relatively few branches in the inflorescence b vertical branches are often longer than the others c branches radiate from the top of the stem, then usually branch no more than once again d flowers in round clusters, various shades of brown and dark green e triangular stem 2–5 ft. wet, often disturbed places, such as muddy trails and roadsides native perennial June–­August; flower clusters disintegrate by late summer or fall



38 ]

A very similar species is Scirpus atrovirens (dark green bulrush), which is more robust and usually grows in undisturbed marsh and wet meadow habitats. This and S. hattorianus could both be confused with Scirpus microcarpus (p. 39), but they have no red on the stem and their flower clusters are bigger and fewer. They could also be confused with Juncus canadensis (p. 120), which, however, has a round stem and round leaves. The flower clusters of Scirpus disintegrate if you rub them between your fingers, while those of Juncus do not.

Barberpole sedge Scirpus microcarpus (Scirpus rubrotinctus)

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a triangular stem b dense inflorescence—many flowers in small gray-­green clusters c leafy bracts d inflorescence almost circular in outline e branches radiate from one point at the top of the stem, then radiate again and again f bands of dark red on the leaf sheath

June–­August; flower clusters disintegrate by late summer or fall more common in the northern parts of our range Could be confused with Scirpus hattorianus (p. 38).

2–4 ft. marshes, wet meadows native perennial

[ 39

Great Plains flatsedge Cyperus lupulinus (Cyperus filiculmis)

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a wiry triangular stem b round inflorescences, sometimes with branches c narrow bracts d individual flower cluster gray-­green usually grows in distinct tufts 6 in.–­2 ft. dry, open places; most often in sand native perennial August–­October



40 ]

Straw-­colored flatsedge Cyperus strigosus

Umbrella sedge, Galingale Sedge family  Cyperaceae

C. esculentus are more rounded on the outer edges. These are not always easy distinctions to make. Finally, C. strigosus usually has denser flower clusters, but this feature is variable.

a branches radiate from top of the stem b flower clusters long and narrow, scales yellow-­green c flat flower clusters arranged perpendicular to branch, like a bottle brush d leafy bracts e triangular stem 1–3 ft. shores, meadows, and moist sandy soil; can be weedy native perennial August–­October Could be confused with Cyperus esculentus (p. 42). C. strigosus is swollen at the base of the stem, while C. esculentus is not. Most distinctively, C. esculentus often has hard little tubers at the root tips; the roots of C. strigosus lack these tubers. If you don’t have the underground parts of the plant, however, you need to look at very subtle differences. The flower scales of C. strigosus are 1/6 in. long or longer, while those of C. esculentus are 1/6 in. long or less. The scales of C. strigosus are more sharply folded, thus looking thinner and more pointed, while those of

[ 41

Nut flatsedge

Cyperus esculentus Nut sedge, yellow nut grass Sedge family  Cyperaceae a flower branches radiate from the top of the stem b flower clusters long and narrow, scales yellow-­green c flat flower clusters arranged perpendicular to branch, like a bottle brush d leafy bracts e triangular stem f hard little tubers underground 8 in.–­3 ft. damp sandy soil, lawns, disturbed areas; can be a troublesome weed native perennial August–­October Could be confused with Cyperus strigosus (p. 41).

An African variety of this species, C. esculentus var. sativus, rarely flowers and instead produces many tubers that have a high nutritional value. Known as chufa, this was eaten by the ancient Egyptians and is currently eaten in many African countries. In the southeastern United States, chufa is planted to attract wild turkeys.



42 ]

[ 43

Umbrella flatsedge Cyperus diandrus

Sedge family  Cyperaceae

each scale, while C. bipartitus has them in the center of the scales. Magnification will help you see this difference.

a three leafy bracts b flower clusters arranged horizontally or pointing downward from the stalk c branches radiate from one point at the top of the stem d triangular stem e flower scales in a flattened cluster, each scale lined with red on the upper edges 2–18 in. grows in low tufts in damp places, often on shores native annual June–­October A very similar species is Cyperus bipartitus (shining flatsedge), which grows in similar habitats and sometimes even side by side with C. diandrus. Cyperus diandrus has red markings on the upper edge of



Cyperus diandrus: red on outer edge of scales

44 ] Cyperus bipartitus: red in center of scales

Smooth saw-­sedge Cladium mariscoides

Smooth sawgrass, twig rush (not a rush or a grass) Sedge family  Cyperaceae a stem vaguely triangular; stiff, fleshy, green b a few side branches; most radiate from the top c brown scaly flower clusters d channeled leaves e fruit often grows in large patches 1–31/2 ft. fresh or brackish shorelines, bogs native perennial August–­October Could be confused with Rhynchospora capitellata (p. 46). Cladium has stiffer, thicker stems, but the surest difference is in the fruits. Rhynchospora fruits always have a protuberance (tubercle) on the top and bristles on the bottom, while Cladium fruits do not.

A close relative of this species, Cladium jamaicense, is the sawgrass (not a true grass!) that is the botanical foundation of the Florida Everglades ecosystem.

[ 45

Brownish beaksedge Rhynchospora capitellata Beak rush (not a true rush) Sedge family  Cyperaceae a fruit, with bristles and a “cap” (called a tubercle) on the top b irregularly shaped scaly brown flower clusters c thin, weak stems, vaguely triangular 1–3 ft. wet meadows, pond shorelines, ditches native perennial June–­October Could be confused with Cladium (p. 45).

There are many species of Rhynchospora in our range, most quite similar in appearance. They are distinguished mainly by the color, size, shape, or texture of the fruit, and/or characteristics of the bristles.



46 ]

The Genus Carex The genus Carex, commonly known simply as “sedge,” is the third largest genus of flowering plants in the world, with almost two thousand species. In the northeastern United States, it is the largest genus, with about two hundred species. The genus as a whole is easy to recognize. The flowers are unisexual—that is, the male and female parts are borne on separate flowers. Sometimes the two sexes are borne on separate inflorescences; sometimes they are together. The distinguishing feature of the genus is the enclosure of each female flower in a sac called the perigynium (peri means “around” and gyn refers to female reproductive parts). Sometimes this sac is inflated and easy to see, as in C. lupulina (p. 60) or C. intumescens (p. 61); sometimes it is thin and closely bound to the flowers, as in C. scoparia (p. 53) or C. swanii (p. 56). In our range, all Carex species are perennial, and almost all of them are native. Most grow in wetlands or in shaded upland woods. The name “sedge” comes from the Middle English word segge for “saw,” as many of them have rough-­edged leaves. In spite of this trait, some species of Carex are eaten by cattle and by wild grazers such as elk and caribou. Particularly in mountainous arctic and subarctic areas, species of Carex have been used as fiber for making mats and other objects. In recent decades, gardeners have come to appreciate the understated beauty of many Carex species, which are especially well suited to wet or shady spots.

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Pennsylvania sedge Carex pensylvanica

Oak sedge Sedge family  Cyperaceae a in fruit b male flowers (club-­shaped inflorescence) c female flowers d inflorescence brown to reddish purple e triangular stems f red, fibrous at base g last year’s dead leaves

the most common ground-­layer species in dry oak woods. Because of its unpalatability to deer and an extensive system of spreading rhizomes, Pennsylvania sedge can cover large areas, sometimes forming lawn-­like carpets. These characteristics have caught the attention of horticulturists, who are promoting it as a ground cover or a non-­mowing, non-­ fertilizer-­dependent substitute for conventional lawn grasses.

6–16 in. native perennial dry woods and open sandy areas April–­June; usually flowers very early in the spring, before the leaves are out on the trees. The flower stalks disintegrate by late spring, but the thin rough leaves remain throughout the year. grows in loose tufts but also spreads to form large patches. A similar species is Carex communis (fibrous-­rooted sedge), which grows in distinct tufts rather than spreading through underground rhizomes. Its leaves are slightly wider and not shreddy at the base, and its flower scales are greener. This is a plant you could walk right past even though it is one of

48 ]

Carex pensylvanica in flower, showing male anthers (yellow, above) and female stigmas (white, below)

[ 49

Tussock sedge Carex stricta

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a female flowering spikes are thin and narrow; reddish to purple-­ brown when ripe; made up of small flat sacs b male spikes (tan, shaggy) c rough triangular stem 2–4 ft. swamps, marshes, and wet meadows native perennial May–­June



50 ]

This species grows in big tussocks, 1–3 feet high, usually in wooded swamps. The flowering stalks disintegrate by early summer, so the best way to recognize this sedge later in the season is by the tussocks with very rough-­edged leaves. You might have tried to cross a swamp by jumping from one tussock to another and found that they are not very stable. A similar species is Carex bromoides (broom-­like sedge), also growing in tussocks in wet or damp ground. The inflorescences, which appear

in the spring, are quite different in that the male and female flowers are not separate from each other, and the small flowering spikes are a drab tan. You can also distinguish the two species by the leaves. Those of C. bromoides are narrower, almost thread-­like, with smoother edges, and they grow in more of a fountain-­like form. Also, the clumps of C. bromoides are more stable for jumping.

[ 51

Broad loose-­flowered sedge Carex laxiflora

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a grows in leafy tufts b dead leaves from previous years c leafy bracts under each flower spike d female inflorescence consists of small blunt-­tipped sacs e male inflorescence flower stalks can lengthen as flowers ripen 8 in.–­2 ft. mostly in woods native perennial April–­June This species has many look-­alikes, most growing in woods, flowering in the spring, and having bushy tufts of basal leaves. These species are distinguished on the basis of leaf width, flower arrangement, and size and shape of the flower sacs. The flower stalks wither by midsummer after the fruit has ripened, but you can find the tufts of basal leaves throughout the year.



52 ]

Pointed broom sedge Carex scoparia

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a thin triangular stem b flowers in scaly egg-­shaped clusters at the top of the stem; green, then tan c flat sac encloses flower d female flowers e male flowers f small, bristle-­like bract stems sometimes droop and arch 1–3 ft. many habitats from dry fields and roadsides to woods and wetlands native perennial May–­August

This is one species of a large group within the genus Carex called the Cyperoideae (formerly the Ovales). This group can be recognized by its flattened flower sacs (perigynia), which have winged edges, and the subtle presence of the male flowers under the female (they appear as empty scales). The species look very similar to the naked eye and are distinguished mainly on the basis of tiny characteristics that are not only hard to see and measure but are not always constant within a species. If you like challenges, gaining familiarity with this group can be a good one. Carex scoparia is one of the more common species in the group. [ 53

Yellow-­green sedge Carex flava

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a male flowering spike b female flowering spike c small inflated sacs with beaks pointing downward d long leafy bracts e triangular stem

4 in.–­21/2 ft. grows in clumps in wet meadows and shores, often in profusion; prefers calcium-­rich soil native perennial June–­August more common in the northern parts of our range

Note the red markings of the scales. These help distinguish this species from the similar C. cryptolepis, which has entirely green or yellowish scales.



54 ]

Wooly-­fruited sedge Carex lasiocarpa

(Carex lanuginosa) Wire sedge Sedge family  Cyperaceae a small, slightly fuzzy flower sac with short toothed beak b thin stems c small flower spikes: 1–3 in. The flowering shoots are often inconspicuous among the leaves, which are rolled inwards along the lower edges. 1–3 ft. marshes, shores, often in standing water native perennial May–­August Spreading by rhizomes, this species often forms large uniform expanses, sometimes covering as much as ten thousand acres in open, acidic wetlands. Although some stands seldom produce flowering shoots, you can make a reasonable guess as to the plant’s identity through its habitat, growth habit, and the inrolled leaves. Carex lasiocarpa is circumboreal, meaning that it grows all the way around the world in extreme northern regions, ignoring international political boundaries.

[ 55

Swan’s sedge Carex swanii

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a flower spikes short, cigar-­shaped, pale green; long arching bracts, fuzzy sheaths b uppermost spike; note tapering male flowers at base below female; flower sacs small and fuzzy grows in tufts of narrow fuzzy arching leaves 1–3 ft. woods, fields native perennial June–­July



56 ]

Common fox sedge Carex vulpinoidea

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a puckering on leaf sheath at base of stem b stiff triangular stem c bristle-­like bracts under and throughout inflorescence d narrow asymmetrical inflorescence e single spike f single flower 1–3 ft. grows in clumps in wet places native perennial June–­August Could be confused with Carex stipata (p. 58). The stems and flower sacs of C. stipata are thicker and spongier, and the flower sacs of C. stipata are widest at the bottom rather than in the middle. C. vulpinoidea has more visible thin bracts throughout the inflorescence. A similar species is Carex annectens (yellow-­fruited sedge). C. annectens has the puckered sheath and a similar inflorescence, but the color is more orange-­yellow, rather than green, and its flowering stems are taller than the leaves. In C. vulpinoidea, the leaves overtop the flowering stems.

Carex vulpinoidea (left) and the very similar C. annectens (right). Note more orange coloring of C. annectens.

[ 57

Awl-­fruited sedge Carex stipata

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a irregularly shaped inflorescence with few short branches b fat spongy triangular stem c slightly inflated sac, widest and somewhat spongy at the base d two small teeth; long beak e puckering on leaf sheath at base of stem f single branch spikes yellow-­green; then turn brown while stem stays green 16 in.–­3 ft. grows in clumps in marshes, wet meadows, and along shorelines native perennial May–­August; flowering stalks disintegrate in late summer Could be confused with C. vulpinoidea (p. 57).



58 ]

[ 59

Hop sedge

Carex lupulina Sedge family  Cyperaceae a leafy bracts b inflated sacs, each one with a long beak and two small teeth at the tip c fruit inside sac



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d male flowering spike e female flowering spike, cylindrically shaped f triangular stem 2–4 ft. grows in leafy clumps in swamps and marshes native perennial June–­October

Greater bladder sedge Carex intumescens

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a b c d

triangular stem leafy bracts male flowering spike very inflated, shiny flower sacs in a round cluster

1–3 ft. grows in clumps in moist woods and wetland edges native perennial late May–­September Could be confused with Carex lupulina or Carex folliculata. See p. 62.

[ 61

Northern long sedge Carex folliculata

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a flower sacs are weakly inflated, long and tapering b female flowering spikes often far apart on the stem c male flowering spike d thin triangular stem 11/2–4 ft. grows in clumps in swamps and along stream corridors native perennial Could be confused with C. lupulina (p. 60) or C. intumescens (p. 61). Of these three, C. intumescens has the most inflated sacs, then C. lupulina, then C. folliculata. The spikes of C. intumescens are round in outline, those of the other two are cylindrical. The spikes of C. folliculata are far apart, whereas those of C. intumescens and C. lupulina are clustered.



62 ]

Sallow sedge Carex lurida

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a triangular stem b flower sacs small, slightly inflated, with straight beak c male flowering spike d female flowering spike, cylindrically shaped, with many flower sacs 1–3 ft. grows in clumps in swamps, marshes, and along pond and stream edges native perennial June–­October more common in the eastern parts of our range

[ 63

Fringed sedge Carex crinita

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a triangular stem b drooping, bristly female flowering spike c male flowering spike 2–5 ft. grows in clumps in swamps, marshes, and along pond and stream edges native perennial late May–­August A very similar species is Carex gynandra (nodding sedge). C. gynandra has slightly roughened leaf sheaths at the base of the stem. Also, its flower sacs are widest at the middle, tapering gradually to a short beak at the tip. The basal sheaths of C. crinita are smooth to the touch, and its flower sacs are widest at the top, tapering abruptly to a short beak. C. gynandra is more common in the northern parts of our range, but the two species overlap, and even sometimes grow intermingled, thus calling for close observation.



64 ]

Blunt spike-­sedge Eleocharis obtusa

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a conical inflorescence, one on each stem; stems are soft b fruit with bristles below and a little cap on top grows in clumps in marshes, ditches, and pond and stream shorelines 4 in.–­11/2 ft. native perennial May–­October The genus Eleocharis has a number of species, many of them appearing similar to the naked eye. They all have leafless stems and a single conical flower cluster at the top, and all grow in wet places. They are distinguished mainly on the basis of the small grain-­like fruit: its color and texture, and the characteristics of the little cap, known as a tubercle. The water chestnut popular in Chinese cuisine is the underground part of an Asian species, Eleocharis dulcis.

[ 65

Needle spike-­sedge Eleocharis acicularis

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a very thin stems b small conical inflorescences often forms large colonial mats; hard to pull from the mud where it grows 1–6 in. mudflats, river and lake shores native perennial July–­October A similar species is Eleocharis parvula (little-­headed spike-­sedge), which grows in salt and brackish wetlands.



66 ]

Tall scouring-­rush Equisetum hyemale

Horsetail family  Equisetaceae a rough, hollow stem with no branches or leaves b toothed black bands c conical reproductive structure 1–5 ft. streambanks, ditches, and moist woodlands, often forming large colonies native perennial The horsetails are not flowering plants but reproduce by spores.

[ 67

Crow garlic Allium vineale

Field garlic Onion family  Alliaceae a bulb at base b little bulbs at top smells like onion 1–31/2 ft. fields, lawns, disturbed ground non-­native perennial This species is closely related to garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, and onion.

sometimes produces purple flowers



68 ]

Little barley

Hordeum pusillum Grass family  Poaceae a b c d

grows in little tufts flower clusters in two distinct rows stiff straight inflorescence stiff bristles on flowers

Before the introduction of corn from Mexico, little barley was part of the diet of Native Americans. Now, ironically, it is considered a troublesome weed in agricultural fields. It is related to cultivated barley (H. vulgare), which was brought here from Europe.

4–16 in. grasslands, roadsides, sandy or gravelly soil, wetland edges annual May–­June Could be confused with Elymus virginicus (p. 80). Elymus is bigger (usually over 2 ft.), rougher textured, and does not grow in waste places.

[ 69

Foxtail grass Setaria spp.

Grass family  Poaceae Species of the genus Setaria have a flexible cylindrical inflorescence with many short fine hairs. If you squeeze the inflorescence through your hand, it will wiggle like a wooly bear caterpillar. The three species described here are annuals, with green foxtail germinating and flowering in the spring and the other two appearing in the late summer. Being annuals, they all produce abundant seeds, which provide food for many birds. Since their accidental introduction, these three Eurasian species have spread rapidly, sometimes becoming noxious weeds. Their preferred habitats are open, disturbed areas such as fields, roadsides, gardens, or vacant lots. Foxtails could be confused with Alopecurus (p. 88), but they have stiff outward-­facing bristles and much larger grains. generalized Setaria flower cluster, with bristles and conspicuous grains



70 ]

Chinese foxtail Setaria faberi

Faber’s foxtail, giant foxtail a inflorescence droops the biggest of the three species: 3–5 ft.

Yellow foxtail Setaria pumila (Setaria glauca)

Green foxtail Setaria viridis

Green bristle-­grass Yellow bristle-­grass, pigeon grass b stiff straight inflorescence c yellow-­brown hairs

d inflorescence nods slightly or is upright e green or purple hairs

8 in.–­3 ft.

1–4 ft. This species is the progenitor of foxtail millet, Setaria italica, an important grain cultivated for millennia in China and India.

[ 71

Foxtail barley Hordeum jubatum

Squirreltail grass Grass family  Poaceae a b c d

early flowering stage in flower after fruit has ripened single flower cluster in ripe fruit

goes through a range of colors as it matures: from light green to purple to tan, often also appearing silky-­white ripe inflorescence falls apart quickly



72 ]

1–21/2 ft. roadsides, fields, edges of fresh and saltwater wetlands native perennial, but short-­lived; often weedy in open, disturbed grounds more common in the western parts of our range Many consider this grass to be strikingly beautiful, but to ranchers it is a noxious weed because the bristles pierce their animals’ mouths, ears, eyes, and noses, leading to infections.

[ 73

Wheat

Triticum aestivum Grass family  Poaceae a flower clusters are fat and round, sometimes with long bristles, sometimes not Inflorescence may be upright or nodding when ripe; blue-­green, then tan 2–31/2 ft. roadsides, fields, waste places non-­native annual Could be confused with rye or barley (see p. 78).

Wheat is one of the three most important grain crops of the world, along with corn and rice. Having been in cultivation for almost ten thousand years, it was a major factor in the shift of humankind from a nomadic to a settled existence. Wheat is distinguished from corn and rice by the presence of gluten, a combination of proteins that makes dough stick together, thus enabling the manufacture of bread, pasta, and many other foodstuffs. In the United States, wheat is most often grown in the Great Plains, though there are countless varieties with adaptations to a wide range of climatic and soil conditions.

74 ]

The chaff, as used in the expression “to separate the wheat from the chaff,” refers to the scales (glumes, lemmas, and paleas) that surround any grass flower (see p. 233). The flower itself becomes the grain. Indigestible by humans, the chaff is separated either manually by threshing or winnowing, or mechanically.

[ 75

Rye

Secale cereale Grass family  Poaceae a single flower, with toothed fringe on edge of scales b grain c stiff bristles, all about the same length d inflorescence is heavy; often droops when ripe green at first, yellow-­tan when ripe 2–31/2 ft. non-­native annual fields, roadsides, waste places Could be confused with Elymus canadensis (p. 79), which has curving bristles, or Elymus virginicus (p. 80), which does not droop. Cultivated rye generally grows in more disturbed habitats than these two. Could also be confused with wheat or barley (see p. 78).



76 ]

The most cold-­tolerant of the cereal grains, rye is grown mainly in northern Europe and Russia. It is sometimes called “poverty grain,” being the most adaptable of the cereals to poor soil. In spite of these virtues, rye takes a definite second to wheat for bread-­making, and most of the rye grown in the United States is used for livestock feed, erosion control, or as a cover crop.

Barley

Hordeum vulgare Grass family  Poaceae flower clusters in groups of three long bristles; lower often longer than upper inflorescence upright or nodding 2–4 ft. non-­native annual fields, roadsides, waste places Could be confused with wheat or rye (see p. 78)

An ancient crop, barley is the fourth most important grain in the world. Some is grown for direct human consumption, but most of it is fed to animals or turned into beer or whiskey, providing the calories and the sugar for fermentation. The bracing bitterness of beer comes from the flowers (“hops”) of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus), which is in the same family as marijuana.

[ 77

How to Tell Wheat, Rye, and Barley Apart These three agricultural grains can be hard to distinguish not only because they look quite similar from a distance but also because each species contains a great deal of variation, due to the presence of so many cultivated varieties. You can focus on these characteristics: Wheat has fat, round flower clusters, while those of rye and barley are slender. It may or may not have bristles on the flower clusters. Rye has long slender flower scales with a tooth-­like fringe on the edge, and the flower clusters always have bristles. Barley has flower clusters more tapered than those of wheat, but fatter than those of rye. The bristles of barley can be longer than those of the other two—up to 61/2 inches— while those of rye and wheat rarely exceed 3 inches.



78 ]

Great Plains wild-­rye Elymus canadensis

Grass family  Poaceae a densely flowered, bushy inflorescence; usually straight, sometimes nodding b bristles are coarse, thick, and curved outward c single flower cluster; hard texture d single flower

This species is a good forage grass.

Could be confused with Secale cereale (p. 76) or with Elymus virginicus (p. 80). Elymus virginicus has straight bristles.

21/2–6 ft. dry or moist soil—dunes, prairies, roadsides, river edges native perennial July–­October; inflorescences persist into the winter more common in the western parts of our range

[ 79

Eastern riverbank wild-­rye Elymus virginicus

Grass family  Poaceae a stiff, upright, compact inflorescence b single flower cluster with a hard texture c stiff, straight bristles 1–5 ft. prairies, flood plains, woodlands, salt marsh edges native perennial June–­October



80 ]

Could be confused with Secale cereale (p. 76), Elymus canadensis (p. 79), Hordeum pusillum (p. 69), or Elymus hystrix (p. 81). Elymus hystrix has distinct gaps between the flowers, and its flowers are arranged horizontally on the stem, not upwards as in E. virginicus.

Eastern bottle-­brush grass Elymus hystrix (Hystrix patula)

Grass family  Poaceae a visible gaps between flower clusters b V-­shaped horizontal flower clusters with long, stiff bristles; the name says it all 2–5 ft. woods native perennial June–­August Could be confused with Elymus virginicus (p. 80).

[ 81

Sweet vernal grass Anthoxanthum odoratum Grass family  Poaceae a inflorescence is fairly short, asymmetrical, papery textured b very short branches; looks as if there are none green to reddish-­green, then tan 8 in.–­2 ft. fields, roadsides, waste places non-­native perennial May–­August, but mainly in the spring; stalks usually disappear by late summer

Crush a stem of this grass or walk through a field of it, and you will notice a strong, unusual fragrance. It comes from a compound called coumarin, which is also found in various clovers, so if you want to chew on a piece of grass that has a sweet flavor, choose this one.

Sweet vernal grass may have been introduced to the United States as a pasture grass, but it is now little used for this purpose. It is more tolerant of acidic soils than most of the other introduced pasture grasses.

in flower



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Prairie Koeler’s grass Koeleria macrantha (Koeleria cristata)

June grass Grass family  Poaceae a grows in bunches with narrow leaves at base, no leaves on the stem b dense narrow inflorescence c single flower cluster—papery d two lowest scales are as long as the others 1–2 ft. dry prairies, open woods native and common in the Midwest, introduced and infrequent in the Northeast perennial June–­July Could be confused with Festuca rubra (p. 177) or F. filiformis (p. 176). The most noticeable differences are relative: Festuca species have shorter, more delicate inflorescences and more wiry leaves. However, an absolute difference is that in Festuca, the two lowest scales of each flower cluster are shorter than the others, rather than the same length.

[ 83

Salt grass

Distichlis spicata Spike grass Grass family  Poaceae a compact inflorescence of several flat flower clusters does not grow straight, but sprawls, forming dense mats 4 in.–­3 ft. salt marshes, roadsides, waste places native perennial August–­October Could be confused with Spartina patens (p. 132), especially when seen from a distance, covering large areas in a salt marsh, or without flowers. Spartina leaves are wiry and longer than those of Distichlis; also, Spartina patens often grows in a distinctive cowlick fashion. When flowers are present, the two are easy to tell apart, with Spartina having flowers lined in a row on one side of the stalk, while Distichlis flowers are arranged more cylindrically. This species is unusual among the grasses in having male and female flowers on separate plants.



84 ]

Common timothy Phleum pratense

Grass family  Poaceae a narrow cylindrical inflorescence, sometimes shorter b single flower 1–31/2 ft. fields, roadsides non-­native perennial June–­August

Timothy is native to northern Europe. The first record of it in this country is from 1711 when it was found growing wild in New Hampshire. In 1720, a farmer named Timothy Hanson successfully promoted its use for hay, hence the common name. It is still used for hay today, particularly for horses. When horses provided the energy for transportation and industry, timothy was a big cash crop.

Could be confused with Alopecurus pratensis (p. 88).

[ 85

American beach grass Ammophila breviligulata Grass family  Poaceae a single flower b stiff tufted basal leaves c tall, stiff inflorescence sticks high up above the leaves; pale yellow, sometimes slightly purple This grass covers mile after mile of dunes along the Atlantic Ocean and Great Lakes. Even if you do not find the tall inflorescences, you can easily recognize the tufts of narrow basal leaves that trace circles in the sand as the wind blows them about. 2–31/2 ft. sand dunes native perennial July–­October Beach grass is exquisitely adapted to its unstable, sandy habitat. The plants spread by long rhizomes and stolons, thus forming a network that stabilizes their substrate; they also have the ability to keep growing even if partly buried by blowing sand. Beach grass was much admired by Timothy Dwight, the famous New England preacher and president of Yale College. He saw it growing in Provincetown, Massachusetts, when he traveled there in 1800 and

86 ]

considered it a sure manifestation of “the wisdom and goodness of the Creator.” “But for this single, unsightly vegetable,” he wrote, “the slender barrier which has so long resisted the ravages of the ocean had not improbably been long since washed away. In the ruins, Provincetown and its most useful harbor must have been lost; and the relief which the harbor and the inhabitants furnish to multitudes of vessels in distress . . . must have been prevented.” In a neighboring town, Truro, the inhabitants were required by law to plant the grass, in a crisscross pattern, “to shut up the interstices.” However, Dwight noted that this regulation accomplished little, for the inhabitants then let their cows out to graze on the dunes, thus decimating the plants. American beach grass is still widely planted as a sand binder, on both the east and west coasts of the United States.

[ 87

Meadow-­foxtail Alopecurus pratensis Grass family  Poaceae a narrow, cylindrical inflorescence that is soft to the touch; short bristles on flower scales stalks are sometimes upright, sometimes bent at the base 1–31/2 ft. fields and thicket edges, in dry or moist soil non-­native May–­August Could be confused with Phleum pratense (p. 85). The inflorescence of Phleum is not shiny and is rougher to the touch; the bristles on the flower scales go straight up instead of flaring



88 ]

out as in Alopecurus. Could also be confused with Setaria (p. 70).

In our range, there are five species of Alopecurus, all with soft, dense, shiny, and spike-­like inflorescences.

Broad-­leaved cattail Typha latifolia

Cattail family  Typhaceae a b c d

brown, cigar-­shaped inflorescence male flowers female flowers wide leaves

3–8 ft. freshwater marshes, wet meadows, and pond shallows, often covering large areas native perennial June–­July; flower spikes remain through the winter A similar species is the non-­native Typha angustifolia (narrow-­leaved

cattail), which usually inhabits brackish wetlands rather than fresh. The male and female flower spikes of T. angustifolia are separated from each other on the stalk, while those of T. latifolia are contiguous. Angustifolia means “narrow-­leaved,” while latifolia means “broad-­leaved,” and the leaves of T. angustifolia are indeed distinctly narrower than those of T. latifolia. The two species sometimes hybridize, so if positive identification is presenting a problem, this could be the reason. Cattail marshes of both species provide vitally important habitat for many kinds of birds and for mammals such as muskrats, which not only eat the starchy rhizomes but build their lodges with the stems.

[ 89

Single-­veined sweet flag Acorus calamus

Sweet flag family  Acoraceae a leaves stiff, often red at the base b inflorescence c leaves sharply folded freshly broken leaves have a strong, spicy smell 2–6 ft. wet places, often forming big patches non-­native perennial

A similar species is Acorus americanus (several-­veined sweet flag), which is native. As the name implies, it has several broad veins interspersed with finer ones, as opposed to one main broad vein. Also, the leaf edges of A. calamus are often crinkled, while those of A. americanus are not. For millennia, cultures all over the world have used Acorus for medicine, perfume, candy, or to mask unpleasant odors.

Acorus calamus. Note crinkled leaf edges.



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Common plantain Plantago major

Whiteman’s foot Plantain family  Plantaginaceae a broad basal leaves with prominent veins b flowers extend most of the way down the stalk 5–15 in. a common weed of lawns and roadsides non-­native perennial June–­October; basal leaves and flower stalks persist through the winter

A similar species is Plantago rugelii (Rugel’s plantain), which is native. P. rugelii grows in similar habitats, though not as commonly; it often has red leaf bases, while those of P. major are green. The Native Americans observed that common plantain sprang up wherever European settlers traveled, since they created its preferred habitat of disturbed ground, hence the name whiteman’s foot.

[ 91

English plantain Plantago lanceolata

Plantain family  Plantaginaceae a narrow basal leaves with prominent veins b flowers at top of stalk c buds d flowers e fruits and dried remains 6 in.–­2 ft. a common weed of lawns and disturbed, open habitats non-­native annual May–­October; basal leaves and flower stalks persist through the winter



92 ]

Creeping wild rye Elymus repens

(Agropyron repens) Quack grass, witch grass Grass family  Poaceae a flat flower cluster has two scales of equal length at the bottom b no branches in the inflorescence c flower clusters have their backs toward the stem 1–4 ft. roadsides, meadows, gardens non-­native perennial June–­August Could be confused with Lolium perenne (p. 94). Elymus repens has flower clusters with the broader, back side against the stem, while Lolium flower clusters have their broader side perpendicular to the stem. Lolium flower clusters (except for the terminal one) have only one big scale at the base; Elymus flower clusters have two equal-­sized scales at the base. Spreading by extensive rhizomes, this species is a pesky weed in our gardens, a serious agricultural weed in many countries, and an invasive weed in some grassland natural areas.

[ 93

Perennial rye grass Lolium perenne

English rye grass Grass family  Poaceae a side flower clusters have one big scale, bigger than the others, on the side away from the stem b flat flower clusters face sideways in relation to the stem c stem curves in and out and flower clusters rest inside each curve 1–2 ft. fields and roadsides non-­native short-­lived perennial May–­August Could be confused with Elymus repens (p. 93).

A similar species is Lolium multiflorum (Italian rye), sometimes classified as a subspecies of L. perenne. L. multiflorum has more flowers per cluster, and its flower scales often have noticeable bristles, while the flower scales of L. perenne have none. Both are used in pasture and lawn mixes and for erosion control.



94 ]

Slender beadgrass Paspalum setaceum

Grass family  Poaceae a flat, round seeds lined along one side of the stem may or may not have branches, leaf sheaths sometimes fuzzy grows in tufts, often sprawling

The farther south you go, the more species of this large genus you will find: all with flattened, round or oval flowers tightly lined along one side of the branch. Some species have been introduced for forage from South America, where the genus reaches its greatest diversity.

6 in.–­3 ft. fields and woodland edges, especially in sandy soil native perennial June–­October more common in the southern parts of our range

[ 95

Japanese stiltgrass Microstegium vimineum Nepalese browntop Grass family  Poaceae a small flower clusters that hug stem b wide, bamboo-­like leaves with a pale, translucent stripe down the middle c tuft of hairs where leaf blade joins the sheath sometimes branched, sometimes not 1–31/2 ft. but usually looks shorter because of arching or sprawling growth habit; roots at the nodes where they touch the ground woods, especially along rivers and trail edges, fields, roadsides non-­native annual flowers mid-­August–­October. Seeds germinate in late spring, sometimes forming a soft green carpet. Dead stalks can last through the winter. Could be confused with Leersia virginica (p. 98), which is native. Leersia looks extremely similar and grows in similar habitats, often intermingled with Microstegium. Since Microstegium is an invasive species often targeted for control, it is important to be able to tell these two species apart. While we generally do not advocate uprooting plants, the most obvious distinction is in the

96 ]

underground parts. Leersia spreads horizontally underground by knotty rhizomes which send up shoots sporadically, while Microstegium has shallow thread-­like roots that grow in a stilt-­like fashion (hence the name). Leersia leaves are longer and narrower than those of Microstegium and do not have the white stripe down the middle. While Microstegium has a ring of hairs where the leaf blade joins its sheath, Leersia has a ring of hairs at the node

(the bulge at the bottom of the sheath). Leersia starts to flower a few weeks earlier than Microstegium, but continues to flower throughout the fall along with Microstegium. In spite of all of these differences, it still can take some careful observation to distinguish the two.

A native of southern and eastern Asia, Microstegium was first noted in the United States in Tennessee in 1919; it may have entered the United States from China as packing material for porcelain. Since then, it has spread prolifically in all directions as well as invaded other countries in Asia, South America, and

Africa. The species has an unusual ecological niche as an annual that thrives in the shade; annuals, which need to sprout, flower, and produce abundant seeds in one season, generally grow in sunny areas, maximizing their opportunities for growth and reproduction. Most annuals colonize open or disturbed areas, but Microstegium can invade shaded and well-­vegetated habitats, such as flood plain forests, displacing native plants. If detected early, Microstegium patches can be eliminated through hand-­pulling, but control on any large scale is next to impossible.

[ 97

White grass

Leersia virginica Grass family  Poaceae a delicate; branches far apart with flowers tightly lined along branch b leaves longer and more narrow than those of Microstegium c ring of white hairs at base of leaf sheath d single flower—somewhat D-­shaped 1–31/2 ft. woods, often in moist soil native perennial July–­October Could be confused with Microstegium vimineum (p. 96).



98 ]

Churchmouse three-­awn Aristida dichotoma

Poverty grass Grass family  Poaceae a small bristles stick out horizontally from flowers b single flower plant wiry, sometimes tan, sometimes dark red flowers not conspicuous; whole plant inconspicuous except that it often covers large areas of dry ground 4–16 in. grows in tufts in poor, dry soil native annual August–­October The common name of the genus Aristida is three-­awn, an awn being another word for a bristle. You might think that this species betrays its name by not having three awns, but if you look closely at a single flower, you will see two very small awns alongside the larger one. Could be confused with Sporobolus vaginiflorus (p. 187), which also grows in low tufts in dry soil late in the season. Sporobolus flowers do not have horizontal bristles.

[ 99

Oldfield three-­awn Aristida oligantha

Wiregrass, prairie three-­awn, needlegrass, poverty grass Grass family  Poaceae a three long bristles on each flower, slightly twisted at the base 1–2 ft. grows low to the ground in dry sterile soil, often in large masses native annual August–­October more common in the western parts of our range When mature, the plants turn a stark white, and you can recognize a clump even from a distance by its bleached-­out appearance.

100 ]

This species is a fast and aggressive colonizer of overgrazed rangeland. Most prairie range grasses are perennial and form a dense sod that prevents the germination of annuals like this one. However, if the perennials are grazed too closely, they lose vigor and die, leaving open ground for the three-­awn to sprout and spread. This process is accelerated by the fact that livestock shun three-­awn because it is almost all bristle and no leaves. As a result, its seed production and population increase and the perennials decrease as the cattle continue to consume them. Once established, three-­awn remains dominant for a long time, preventing a return of the perennials.

[ 101

Long-­spined sandbur Cenchrus longispinus Grass family  Poaceae a spiny flower clusters, lightly hairy 6 in.–­21/2 ft., usually low to the ground beaches, sandy soil, waste areas native annual July–­October You will never forget the painfully sharp spines of this species if you step on it in bare feet. You might even find the burs working their way through your socks. A similar species is C. tribuloides (dune sandbur). This grows more to the south, only on coastal beaches, and has rounder, very wooly flower clusters.

102 ]

Tawny cottonsedge Eriophorum virginicum

Bog cotton, cotton grass (not a grass, also not related to commercial cotton) Sedge family  Cyperaceae

There are many species in this genus, all with the cottony hairs, most growing in arctic and boreal regions worldwide. Various species of Eriophorum cover large areas of the tundra.

a fluffy clusters of white or tawny hairs b single fruit 11/2–4 ft. bogs and peatlands native perennial

[ 103

Three-­way sedge

Dulichium arundinaceum Sedge family  Cyperaceae a hollow, leafy stem b short leaves in three distinct rows c flowers in flat clusters 8 in.–­3 ft. marshes and shorelines, often in standing water native perennial July–­October Unlike most members of the Sedge family, Dulichium has a rounded rather than a triangular stem.

104 ]

Roughleaf ricegrass Oryzopsis asperifolia Mountain rice Grass family  Poaceae a short, upright branches b single oval flower cluster with a bristle which soon falls off c empty scales left after the grains have fallen out grows in low, leafy tufts 1–21/2 ft. woods, thickets, and fields native perennial May–­July

[ 105

Eastern gamagrass Tripsacum dactyloides Grass family  Poaceae a b c d e f g

after flowering wide, corn-­like leaves purple stigmas male flowers stamens orange female flowers in flower

31/2–8 ft. prairie lowlands, in pure stands sometimes covering vast acres. In the East, it grows along the edge of salt marshes or woods and sometimes along roadsides. native perennial June–­September; stalks and leaves remain visible throughout the winter does not grow in northern parts of our range This species is unusual among the grasses in having separate male and female flowers. That feature plus its huge size and masses of sprawling leaves make identification unmistakable.

Eastern gamagrass is a nutritious, versatile, and productive forage grass, able to withstand both drought and flooding.

106 ]

[ 107

Field horsetail

Equisetum arvense Horsetail family  Equisetaceae a “leaves” arranged in circles around the stem rough, wiry texture 6 in.–­21/2 ft. disturbed ground, fields, and woodland and wetland edges native perennial These plants absorb silica, and their silica-­roughened stems were once used as scouring brushes. The genus has persisted since the Carboniferous period, some three hundred million years ago, when horsetails were among the dominant vegetation, with some species growing as high as sixty feet.

Spreading underground by rhizomes, field horsetail can form large colonies and be a troublesome weed.

108 ]

Hairy crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis Grass family  Poaceae a smooth oval grains flower branches radiate mainly from the top of the stem leaf sheaths are peppered with hairs that have a pimply base 1–4 ft., often sprawling waste places, lawns, and gardens non-­native annual June–­October

title Crabgrass Frontier for a 1985 book on the suburbanization of the United States. Homeowners expend a great deal of money and emotion on controlling crabgrass, often to no avail. In spite of its negative reputation, crabgrass is grown for forage in our warmer states, preferred by organic farmers. The seeds are eaten by birds, and they have even been used as food by humans.

A similar species is Digitaria ischaemum (smooth crabgrass). D. ischaemum is less robust than D. sanguinalis, appears less often in lawns, and does not have the hairy leaf sheaths of D. sanguinalis.

Hairy crabgrass is among the most unpopular weeds of suburban lawns and gardens, inspiring the

[ 109

Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon

Devil’s grass, wiregrass Grass family  Poaceae a flower stalks radiate like fingers b crawls along by stolons 4 in.–­1 ft., but usually forms mats low to the ground yards, fields, waste places alien perennial Could be confused with the species of Digitaria (p. 109), but these are annuals, so they tend to sprawl on top of the ground rather than forming the dense mats of Cynodon. Where the Cynodon leaf blade joins the sheath, you will find a short tuft of white hairs, not present in Digitaria. Finally, Cynodon is not common in the northern parts of our range.

Highly tolerant of heat, drought, and trampling, Bermuda grass is widely used in the southeastern states on golf courses and athletic fields, but it can be invasive in natural habitats and is a troublesome agricultural and garden weed.

110 ]

Goosegrass Eleusine indica

Grass family  Poaceae a toothed, jagged flower clusters b flower branch looks like a closed zipper 1–2 ft., but usually appears smaller as it spreads out in low tufts yards and waste places non-­native annual July–­October Could be confused with Digitaria (p. 109), but Digitaria is more loosely sprawling while Eleusine grows in a neat, distinct tuft. Also, Digitaria does not have the jagged flower clusters. In spite of its species name, this plant is more likely native to Africa than India. It has spread to so many countries that it is difficult to determine where it is native and where it was introduced. In our range, it is relatively innocuous, but in other parts of the world, it is a serious agricultural weed.

[ 111

Big bluestem

Andropogon gerardii Turkey claw, beardgrass Grass family  Poaceae a inflorescence b single flower c coarse, slightly fuzzy flower branches radiating from the top of the stem d leafy stem 21/2—9 ft. grows in clumps native perennial August–­October This species presents a changing display of subtle but rich colors. In flower, the inflorescence varies from bronze to a steely gray-­blue; later the whole plant turns shades of red, brown, and purple.

112 ]

Tolerant of heat, drought, and fire, big bluestem was the dominant grass of the tall-­grass prairie. Although most of its vast acreage has been plowed under for agriculture, it still grows in the Midwest in surviving prairies, restored prairies, and in disturbed open spots such as railroad corridors and roadsides. In the East it is more thinly scattered, growing in dry woodland openings, in fields, and along roadsides and rocky river shores. It is becoming somewhat more common, as it is often planted in ecological restoration or wildlife enhancement sites.

[ 113

American bur-­reed

Sparganium americanum Cattail family  Typhaceae a stiff, upright leaves, bulging at the base b female inflorescence; round, hard, bur-­like c male inflorescences, which shrivel after flowering 2–31/2 ft. marshes and pond shallows, in standing water native perennial

114 ]

In our range there are a number of Sparganium species, generally similar in appearance, and all occurring in wetland and aquatic habitats. They are differentiated by features of their flowers and fruits as well as by the size and shape of their leaves, with some growing upright while others float on the water. The flowers of the genus are clustered in round, ball-­like inflorescences; the male inflorescences, which are considerably smaller than the female, wither after flowering, while the female inflorescences develop into densely packed clusters of pointed fruits.

The Rush Family: Juncaceae The Rush family is a small one, with about four hundred species worldwide. (The Grass family has about ten thousand; the Sedge family about four thousand.) Though the rushes are most closely related to the sedges, the flowers are arranged like lily flowers, with a symmetrical cluster of three petals and three sepals (see p. 236). In contrast to the lilies, rush flowers are tiny and dully colored. The fruit is a small capsule enclosed by the sepals and petals; inside the capsule are the seeds. The biggest genus in our area is Juncus, which bears the common name of the family: rush. Many of the species of Juncus can be challenging to identify because the distinguishing features are small and there is considerable variation within some species. However, the six rush species described here are common ones that you should be able to recognize fairly easily. The only other genus in the Rush family in our area is Luzula. An obvious difference between the two genera is the presence of wispy white hairs on Luzula plants, but another difference can be found in seed production. While most species of Juncus produce innumerable tiny seeds and have many capsules, Luzula species consistently have only three per capsule, and the capsules are not numerous. The two genera therefore exhibit polar-­opposite seed dispersal strategies. Many Juncus species seeds are dispersed by wind, which is essentially a random and seemingly wasteful process. Luzula seeds, however, have a much more targeted method, one found in many low-­growing early spring woodland plants such as the wildflowers that we enjoy every year. Each seed has a fatty appendage known as an eliasome. These are an attractive food source to ants, which carry the seeds to their nests, not far from the parent plant. The ants eat the eliasome but leave the seeds, which then have a good chance of germinating since they are in their proper habitat.

[ 115

Path rush

Juncus tenuis Rush family  Juncaceae a usually grows in clumps b tough stems c curly bracts longer than the inflorescence d three-­parted capsule 11/2 in.–­2 ft. woodland paths, fields, disturbed areas, shores native perennial; hard to pull up June–­September Could be confused with J. gerardii (p. 118), which grows in salt marshes and has bracts shorter than the inflorescence. Also, in J. tenuis, the sepals and petals are longer than the capsule, making the fruit look bristly;

116 ]

in J. gerardii, the sepals and petals are shorter so that the capsule looks round.

Path rush, not surprisingly, is often found along paths as well as in disturbed areas such as roadsides and hardened dirt parking lots. This apparent habitat preference suggests a tolerance for compacted soil, but the plant’s method of dispersal might also have something to do with this. In rainy weather the seeds stick together into what one author calls “slimy transparent masses . . . resembling frog’s spawn.” They can thus easily stick to the feet of people and animals as well as to car tires and continue to spread along paths and in parking lots. Path rush also grows in more natural areas, where it has an entirely different growth form.

young plant growing in a field; straight and tall

growing in a parking lot; tight scraggly clumps

[ 117

Saltmarsh rush Juncus gerardii

Black grass Rush family  Juncaceae a bracts shorter than the inflorescence b fruit c sepals and petals In flower, the stigmas are a brilliant magenta. 6 in.–­21/2 ft. grows in salt marshes, usually along the upper edges; occasionally occurs inland along salted roadsides native perennial June–­September From a distance in a salt marsh, large patches of this species will often look brown. Could be confused with Juncus tenuis (p. 116). In the early days of European settlement, this species was harvested as a nutritious forage for livestock.

118 ]

Toad rush

Juncus bufonius Rush family  Juncaceae a branches start forking halfway down the plant b flowers relatively few on each stem; scattered c no bracts (or very short ones) under the inflorescence d thin wiry stems e short thin leaves f fruit 11/2–14 in. damp, open ground; roadsides native annual, easy to pull up June–­November

[ 119

Canada rush

Juncus canadensis Rush family  Juncaceae a leaves round b faint horizontal rings around leaves; these are sometimes more easily felt than seen, and are more obvious when the plant is dry c fruit d sepals and petals e bract usually shorter than inflorescence f flowers thick-­textured; always in clusters, which vary in shape from round to semi-­circular to fan-­shaped 1–4 ft. marshes, edges of fresh or brackish wetlands native perennial July–­October This species varies considerably. The inflorescence is sometimes widely spaced, with many forking branches, but sometimes it is densely clustered, with few branches. The clusters of flowers can vary in shape, as described above. Its constant characters are round leaves with horizontal bands and the flowers in clusters. Could be confused with Scirpus hattorianus (p. 38), which has similar inflorescences but has triangular 120 ]

stems and long leafy bracts under the inflorescences. Also could be confused with Juncus marginatus (p. 123), but J. marginatus has flat leaves. If your specimen has no leaves, note that J. marginatus tends to be more delicate, with round, thin-­walled fruits. J. canadensis fruits are thick and usually longer and narrower. There are many species of Juncus similar to this one, distinguished by characteristics that are hard to see, such as the size and shape of the seeds. Juncus canadensis is one of the more common of these.

[ 121

Gall on Juncus canadensis In a patch of Canada rush, you might see structures like these and be hard pressed to make out any of the flower parts. That is because these are not flower parts but a gall, which is a deformation of plant tissue caused by a female insect laying its eggs in the plant. Gall-­making insects are species specific; that is, one species of insect deposits its eggs in one species of plant, with the resulting tissue always having the same form. The larvae find food and shelter inside the plant tissue and hatch out when they are fully grown. If you cut open one of these galls, you might find the small and squishy larva. The gall-­making insect for Juncus canadensis is Livia bifasciata, a sucking insect in a group known as plant lice.

122 ]

Grass-­leaved rush Juncus marginatus

Rush family  Juncaceae a flowers in round or half-­round clusters, papery texture b flat leaves (unlike many rushes which have round or channeled leaves) delicate 1–21/2 ft. swamps, marshes, wet meadows native perennial June–­September Could be confused with Juncus canadensis (p. 120).

[ 123

Common wood rush Luzula multiflora

Rush family  Juncaceae a wispy white hairs scattered on stem and leaves b fruiting capsule green, then red-­brown 6 in.–­2 ft. woods, fields, roadsides native perennial April–­July, usually appearing early in the spring before the leaves come out on the trees

124 ]

Tufted hair-­sedge Bulbostylis capillaris

Sedge family  Cyperaceae a wiry stems: green, then brown or orange b several tiny flower clusters at top of stem c wiry basal leaves 1–12 in. grows in clumps in dry open soil native perennial July–­October

[ 125

Common soft rush Juncus effusus

Rush family  Juncaceae a inflorescence emerges from one point on the side of the stem b fruit c flower with sepals and petals grows in clumps 2–4 ft. swamps, marshes, pond and stream shorelines native perennial July–­September Consistent with a species which depends on the wind to disperse its seeds, common soft rush produces many of them. A scientist in Britain

126 ]

once did some counting and extrapolating and came up with over a million seeds per plant. The species, however, also has some “back-­up” strategies. When the seeds become wet, they develop a slime which helps them stick to the fur of animals, which then carry them away. The seeds also of course can fall into the wet ground where they are growing and be washed some distance by rain. No wonder this species is called “common.” As with all the rushes, the stems and leaves of common soft rush are too tough to be appealing to grazers, which could be another factor that accounts for its abundance; you will often see this species in small damp spots of pastures.

[ 127

Soft-­stemmed bulrush

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (Scirpus validus)

Great bulrush Sedge family  Cyperaceae a stem round and soft, easily squashed b spreading inflorescence emerges from the top of the stem, variable in its branching c single flower cluster often forms large colonies 4–10 ft. fresh or brackish standing water native perennial June–­September

128 ]

A similar species is Schoenoplectus acutus (hard-­stemmed bulrush). The main difference between the two, as their common names indicate, is in the texture of the stems, with S. acutus stems being tougher and not easily squashed. Since both species can grow in water up to several feet deep, you might need waders or a boat to get close enough to make this determination!

Big cordgrass

Spartina cynosuroides Salt reed grass Grass family  Poaceae a flowers lined along one side of the branch b bristle on the end of the flower scale very short (less than 1/16 in.) or non-­existent c single flower, flat 4–10 ft. brackish or saltwater marshes along the coast native perennial August–­October not found inland or in northern New England; in our range, most common along the mid-­Atlantic coastline Could be confused with Spartina pectinata (p. 130).

[ 129

Freshwater cordgrass Spartina pectinata

Prairie cordgrass Grass family  Poaceae a stiff branches widely spaced b flowers all lined on one side of the branch c long thin leaves d bristle on the end of flower scale 2–7 ft. low prairies, marsh edges native perennial July–­September In the Midwest, this is a common prairie grass, often forming large stands in areas that are too wet for grasses such as big bluestem and Indian grass. In the East, it is usually on the upland edges of salt marshes, where the soil is relatively dry. The species is sometimes used for hay.

Could be confused with Spartina cynosuroides (p. 129), which only grows along the Atlantic seaboard in salt or brackish water. S. cynosuroides is generally bigger and more robust than S. pectinata and typically

130 ]

grows more with its roots and lower stems in the water. The definitive difference, however, is in the flowers: S. pectinata flower scales have a bristle longer than 1/8 in.; those of S. cynosuroides either have no bristle or the bristle is less than 1/16 in. long. Though this might sound like a hair-­ splitting difference, it is apparent when you look closely at each species.

[ 131

Saltmarsh hay Spartina patens

Salt meadow cordgrass Grass family  Poaceae a thin stems and leaves b flowers lined along one side of the branch c single flower does not grow upright but creeps along; stems bend easily and often form circular cowlicks 1–21/2 ft. salt marshes, beaches native perennial late June–­October Could be confused with Distichlis spicata (p. 84).

132 ]

When you look out over a salt marsh and see a large flat area covered with short grass, most of it is this species. Saltmarsh hay grows on the higher, drier parts of salt marshes than does smooth cordgrass. It does not survive in the low marsh where plants are more frequently flooded. Even into the twentieth century, saltmarsh hay was harvested for forage and bedding for livestock. Now, it is sometimes used as a garden and lawn mulch, valued because its tough leaves and stems resist decay and its seeds do not germinate outside of their native environment.

Wantonly filled and drained for development well into the twentieth century, tidal wetlands are now protected by state and federal laws.

[ 133

Smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora Saltwater cordgrass a tall, shaggy, narrow inflorescence b single flower (flat) 2–6 ft. tidal marshes native perennial July–­September Smooth cordgrass is an important coastal species. In the Northeast it grows on the outer edge of salt marshes and along the edges of creeks and marshes, where it is flooded twice daily by the tides. It also grows on mud flats and protected beaches, where it acts as a colonizer, forming a dense underground network of rhizomes. Along with the stems, these trap sediments, causing the elevation to rise and leading to the formation of a salt marsh, the first line of defense against storms and rising seas.

Ironically, this species, which serves such a valuable ecological function on the east coast, has been an ecological disaster on the west coast, where it was accidentally introduced. It has taken over mudflats which formerly supported wintering and breeding bird populations as well as economically important populations of fish and oysters. 134 ]

Bushy bluestem

Andropogon glomeratus

(Andropogon virginicus var. abbreviatus) Grass family  Poaceae a leafy clump at the top of the stem encloses the flowers, which produce conspicuous fluffy white seeds 2–5 ft. wet meadows, pond shorelines, low swales in powerline corridors, roadside ditches native perennial August–­October; stalks persist through the winter more common in the southern parts of our range, along the coastal plain Andropogon glomeratus is sometimes planted as an ornamental, as it is appealing with its changing colors, winter persistence, and fluffy seed heads.

[ 135

Little bluestem

Schizachyrium scoparium (Andropogon scoparius) Grass family  Poaceae a fuzzy flowers lined along the branches b wiry branches extend beyond the leaves c flowering branches go most of the way down the stem, intermingled with the leaves d single flower cluster Colors proceed through the season from blue-­green to wine-­red, steel-­ gray, and golden brown. 11/2–5 ft. prairies, roadsides, old fields, dry sandy or rocky soil native perennial July–­October; dried stalks persist through the winter

136 ]

Could be confused with Andropogon virginicus (p. 138)

As the dominant species of the mixed-­grass prairie, little bluestem is the state grass of both Kansas and Nebraska, where it covered endless miles before the prairies were plowed under. It continues to be a productive, palatable forage grass. It is also used in naturalistic gardens, appreciated for its interesting colors and drought tolerance. In its natural habitats, little bluestem thrives under a regime of periodic burning.

[ 137

Broomsedge bluestem Andropogon virginicus

Broomsedge (not a true sedge) Grass family  Poaceae a flower stalks are tucked inside leaves b silvery white hairs surround flower tan yellow color grows in clumps 2–4 ft. prairies, fields, dry sandy or rocky soil, roadsides, and railroad tracks native perennial August–­October; the bronze stalks last through the winter and into the next growing season more common in the southern parts of our range Could be confused with Schizachyrium scoparium (p. 136), which used to be classified in the same genus (Andropogon). Andropogon virginicus is generally leafier, and the flowers are tucked inside the leafy bracts. Schizachyrium has longer flower branches that stick out beyond the leaves. In spite of their visual similarities, these two species occupy very different ecological niches. With shallow roots, broomsedge bluestem does not form a dense sod like little bluestem, and unlike little bluestem, 138 ]

which is an enduring member of the prairie plant community, broomsedge bluestem is more of a colonizer, coming into overgrazed grasslands, abandoned crop fields, and disturbed sites with poor soil. Broomsedge bluestem is neither appealing nor nutritious for livestock.

[ 139

Nimblewill

Muhlenbergia schreberi Grass family  Poaceae a inflorescence 2–8 in. long b inflorescence is long and narrow, with short branches that hug the stem c short, delicate bristle on each flower d stems rarely grow straight up, but fall over and sprawl, often rooting at the nodes shiny; green to purple 6 in.–­2 ft.; usually looks small due to sprawling growth habit roadsides, woodlands, lawns, gardens native perennial July–­November Nimblewill can be a troublesome lawn weed, forming large patches of dead leaves in the spring when the rest of the lawn is green.

140 ]

Chinese silver grass Miscanthus sinensis

Eulalia, Miscanthus Grass family  Poaceae a big plumy inflorescence b single branch grows in distinct clumps 4–12 ft. roadsides, fields, disturbed areas non-­native perennial September–­November Though this Asian plant was introduced to the United States as an ornamental in the nineteenth century, it wasn’t until the late twentieth century that its drought tolerance and ease of care made it extremely popular, seemingly ubiquitous, in both residential and institutional settings. Plants occasionally established themselves in the wild, but in recent years naturalized populations have spread more widely, and some states have listed this as an invasive species.

[ 141

Common reed

Phragmites australis

(Phragmites communis) Phragmites Grass family  Poaceae a b c d

stiff, wide leaves coarse, thick, ridged stem big plumy inflorescence individual flower cluster

usually grows in large colonies 6–15 ft. fresh and brackish marshes, ditches, roadsides with moist soil non-­native perennial flowers July–­September; stalks and inflorescences last through the winter

142 ]

In the nineteenth century, Phragmites was an infrequent presence in the Northeast, but by the mid-­twentieth century, it had come to dominate freshwater and brackish wetlands throughout the region, one of the most notable examples being the thousands of acres in the New Jersey Meadowlands just outside of New York City. The history of Phragmites’ presence in the Northeast is complicated by the fact that it is a circumglobal grass, growing naturally in Europe and Asia as well as in North America. Its rapid spread and range expansion in our area coincided with an increase in ocean transport and construction of ports, overall development, and concomitant diking, filling, and general disturbance of wetlands along the Atlantic Seaboard and the Great Lakes. From these loci, it has continued to spread inland. Though peat cores and archeological remains have shown its existence in the United States long before European settlement, scientists and naturalists watching its spread began to wonder if this wasn’t a non-­native strain. This suspicion was confirmed in 2002 by Yale University biology graduate student Kristin Saltonstall, who showed that the invasive Phragmites was the Eurasian version of the plant. As a result of Saltonstall’s genetic analysis, Phragmites is now classified into two separate species: P. australis,

the non-­native, Eurasian plant, and P. americanus, the native, North American species. Although the vast majority of Phragmites on the landscape is the invasive, Eurasian species, the native Phragmites americanus persists here and there in wetlands throughout the range of this book.

Differentiating the two species requires close observation. The best field character distinguishing the two is the chestnut-­red color of the lower and middle stem of P. americanus during the growing season (this color fades in the fall). P. australis stems are tan or grayish in color throughout the year. Also, P. americanus stems are smooth (without ridges) and sometimes have dark fungal dots. The stems of P. australis are distinctly ridged, and have no dark fungal dots.

Phragmites spreads mainly through underground rhizomes and aboveground stolons. You can easily find some five to ten feet long crawling along the ground. Forming dense monocultures, the non-­native Phragmites australis has displaced native species and decreased biological diversity in wetlands throughout the range of this book. In other parts of the world, however, Phragmites is a valued resource. In Europe it is harvested for use in thatched roofs, and in China it is used for the manufacture of paper.

[ 143

Southern long-­awned woodgrass Brachyelytrum erectum Southern shorthusk Grass family  Poaceae a flower stalks hug the stem b long, narrow, slightly fuzzy flower clusters, each with a bristle at the end c wide leaves; rough to slightly fuzzy 1–31/2 ft. grows in the woods, usually in patches native perennial June–­August A similar species—almost identical— is Brachyelytrum aristosum (northern long-­awned woodgrass), which formerly was classified as a variety of B. erectum. Although their ranges overlap to some extent, B. aristosum is more common in the northern parts of our range, while B. erectum is more common and widespread in the central and southern parts. To see the very slight differences between the two species, you will need to look closely with a hand lens. The main difference is on the flower scale, which bears the species’ most conspicuous feature: the long bristle. In B. erectum, this scale (excluding the bristle) is slightly longer and 144 ]

hairier than in B. aristosum; also in B. erectum, the middle vein is more prominent than the side veins. In B. aristosum, all five veins are equally visible. The length of the bristle itself is about the same in both species.

Sideoats grama

Bouteloua curtipendula Mesquite grass Grass family  Poaceae a short flower clusters hanging mainly from one side of the stem b individual flower clusters 1–3 ft. prairies, dry woods native perennial June–­September common in the central and western parts of our range, extremely rare in the Northeast As a native prairie grass, this species is very drought-­tolerant. That feature, combined with its brilliantly colored stamens and subtle blue-­green leaf colors, is making it popular for home gardens.

In flower, the brilliant red stamens are unmistakable.

[ 145

Fowl manna grass Glyceria striata

Grass family  Poaceae a flower scales with relatively prominent veins b flower clusters small, less than 1/8 in.; grainy; green or purplish at time of flowering, then tan c most branches droop, become straight later in the season 1–5 ft. swamps and marshes native perennial June–­July To compare to other species of Glyceria, see p. 148.

Could be confused with Tridens flavus (p. 149). Tridens has a sticky stem and little tufts of hairs in the axils, neither of which you will find in Glyceria; also, Tridens grows in

146 ]

dry places and flowers in the late summer and early fall, while Glyceria species grow in wet places and flower in the spring and summer. This is a grass that prefers cool environments, growing all through Canada and far into the Arctic Circle.

Rattlesnake manna grass Glyceria canadensis

Grass family  Poaceae a drooping branches b flower clusters fat and heavy; green, turning to tan 1–31/2 ft. swamps and marshes native perennial July–­August To compare to other species of Glyceria, see p. 148.

[ 147

American manna grass Glyceria grandis

Grass family  Poaceae a lowest two scales white, transparent; the others purple, strongly ribbed b stem soft and fat toward the base c long branches, upright, spreading, or drooping d relatively flat flower cluster stems sometimes flop at the base and root at the nodes 3–6 ft. marshes, flood plains, wet meadows native perennial June–­August How to distinguish these species of Glyceria: G. striata flower clusters are smaller, less than 1/8 in. long, and often purple. The branches droop and the stems are slender. G. canadensis flower clusters are fat and green and over 1/8 in. long; the stems are slender and drooping. G. grandis flower clusters are intermediate in size and are usually purple, but the branches do not droop so strongly, and the stems are thicker than those of the other two species.

148 ]

Purpletop tridens Tridens flavus (Triodia flava)

Purpletop, grease grass Grass family  Poaceae a little tufts of hairs in leaf axil b stem sticky toward the top c drooping, widely spaced branches d individual flower cluster, red-­purple at first, then tan 2–6 ft. dry fields, woodland openings, roadsides native perennial August–­October less common in the northern parts of our range

Could be confused with Glyceria spp. (pp. 146–148).

[ 149

Sweet grass

Anthoxanthum nitens (Hierochloë odorata)

Vanilla grass Grass family  Poaceae a short stiff leaf b short inflorescence c some branches droop, others point upward d flower cluster wide, bell-­shaped and shiny; tan, bronze, green, or purple When dry, the leaves smell like vanilla. 1–2 ft. wet meadows, bogs, edges of salt marshes

150 ]

native perennial May–­June Sweet grass held and still holds great significance to Native American tribes from the Northeast to the Great Plains. Braided and dried, it is used to invoke beneficial spirits and is also woven into baskets, where the smell lasts for decades.

Rice cut grass Leersia oryzoides

Grass family  Poaceae a prickly leaves, ring of hairs at base of leaf sheath b single flower cluster, shaped like the letter D c small yellow-­green flower clusters overlap and stay close to branch d branches droop slightly 21/2–5 ft., often arches over swamps, marshes, open stream corridors native perennial June–­October Could be confused with species of Poa (pp. 198, 201), but the flowers are different. Poa flower clusters have several overlapping scales, while those of Leersia do not. Leersia got its common name for good reason. If you walk through a patch of it in shorts, you will never do so again, as the sharp edges on the leaves can rip clothing and draw blood. No other grass cuts like this one. The other part of the common name—rice—is also no accident, as the genus Leersia is related to cultivated rice (Oryza sativa). This relationship is also reflected in the species name, oryzoides.

[ 151

Wavy hair grass Avenella flexuosa

(Deschampsia flexuosa) Grass family  Poaceae a large tufts of straight, wiry basal leaves that last through the winter b inflorescence is only on the upper part of the stem c thin delicate branches fork at wide angles to each other

Could be confused with Agrostis perennans or A. scabra (pp. 159, 162). The inflorescences of these two are generally wider and occupy a much greater portion of the stem. A. perennans, especially when it is growing in the shade, can have a narrower inflorescence, but unlike Avenella, it does not have drooping branches or the clump of fine, wiry leaves at the base.

flowers shiny; green or silvery before flowering, then bronze or purple turning to tan 1–21/2 ft. sandy or rocky soil, sun or thin shade, common in light oak woods native perennial June–­August more common in the eastern parts of our range

before flowering—green to silver

152 ]

after flowering—orange to brown

[ 153

The Genus Bromus The common characteristics of all bromes (genus Bromus) are several flowers per cluster and two small forked teeth at the tips of each flower scale. Though these are not always easy to see, with practice you can soon develop an instinctive familiarity with the genus. In our range and throughout the United States, there are many species of weedy non-­native bromes, so you are likely to encounter more species in the genus than are described here, especially since they vary in abundance from one region to another. Almost all of the weedy non-­native species in our range have bristles on the flower scales and—since they are annuals—have shallow root systems and grow in disturbed areas. Therefore, if you see plants that match these various characters, they are likely in the genus Bromus.

154 ]

Fringed brome Bromus ciliatus

Grass family  Poaceae a branches drooping to one side b overlapping scales, each with a short bristle at the end; fuzziness of scales is thicker on the inside edge flowers pale green, sometimes tinged with brown or purple, then turning tan 1–5 ft. woods and wood edges, flood plains, lake shores perennial July–­October Could be confused with Bromus japonicus (p. 158) or B. tectorum (p. 156), but these introduced annuals are both weedy grasses that grow in waste places; they are also much smaller than B. ciliatus.

A similar species is Bromus pubescens (hairy wood brome), also native. B. pubescens has scales that are uniformly fuzzy, and it grows in drier, rockier woodland habitats than does B. ciliatus.

[ 155

Downy brome Bromus tectorum

Downy chess, cheatgrass Grass family  Poaceae a b c d e f

usually sprawls at the base leaves and sheaths fuzzy drooping inflorescence fuzzy flower scales long bristles flowering: bristles straight, scales closed; silvery-­green to wine-­red, shining g after flowering: scales and bristles curved out; wine-­red to tan

8 in.–­2 ft., usually low to the ground roadsides, waste places, beaches annual flowers May–­September, but mainly in the spring; completes its life cycle in a few months and is dead for most of the summer Could be confused with Bromus japonicus (p. 158) or B. ciliatus (p. 155). In our range, we might dismiss this plant as just another of the many non-­native species that populate roadsides and vacant lots. In the high deserts between the Rockies and the Cascade Mountains, however, downy brome (often called cheatgrass) has had a profound impact on the landscape, covering millions of acres and effectively remaking the native ecosystem of sagebrush and perennial grasses. 156 ]

Like many invasive annuals, it gets its start when existing plant cover is diminished, usually through overgrazing or fire. As a winter annual that germinates in the fall, it has a head start on growth in the spring and uses up the limited moisture in the soil before the native perennials start their growth, thus weakening them and creating more areas of bare soil for downy brome to colonize. The brome plants die by midsummer, providing fuel for wildfires. The native plants are not as well adapted to fire; they die, and even more habitat for downy brome is created. The takeover does not seem to be a temporary phenomenon; in some places the cheatgrass has persisted as the dominant cover for over forty years, basically creating a new plant community.

[ 157

Japanese brome Bromus japonicus

Grass family  Poaceae a in fruit b overlapping flower scales with a bristle on each one c in flower d branches drooping; flower clusters heavy; rattle a little bit if you shake the plant leaf sheaths are fuzzy 8 in.–­31/2 ft. roadsides, waste places non-­native annual Could be confused with B. tectorum (p. 156), with which it shares a weedy habit and habitat, or Bromus ciliatus (p. 155). B. tectorum has completely fuzzy flower scales which are not heavy.

Japanese brome, like a surprising number of flowering plants, pollinates itself, thus ensuring a high production of seed if not a lot of genetic diversity. Its seeds can be dispersed in animal dung or by other means, and it therefore can readily colonize open sites. If the site becomes shaded, the brome is likely to die out. Like downy brome (p. 156), Japanese brome is a winter annual.

158 ]

Autumn bentgrass Agrostis perennans

Grass family  Poaceae a grows in clumps, which are leafy at the base; leaves are withered by flowering time b inflorescence is large and wide with delicate branches; can be narrower in shady places c branches are naked for much of their length 1–3 ft. woods and shaded areas, also dry or moist open soil native perennial late July–­October Could be confused with Agrostis scabra (p. 162). A. scabra has a wider, more wiry inflorescence than A. perennans, with the branches forking beyond the middle; also, these are rough to the touch (A. perennans branches sometimes are, but rarely). Finally, the basal leaves of A. scabra are green throughout the year, while those of A. perennans have withered by flowering time. Could also be confused with Avenella flexuosa (p. 152).

[ 159

Redtop bentgrass Agrostis gigantea (Agrostis alba)

Redtop Grass family  Poaceae a branches in bunches with flowers close to the main stem b flower cluster only has one flower c inflorescence contracted before and after flowering flower clusters often shiny, silky to the touch; wispy and delicate In flower, this species is distinguished by a red-­purple color, visible even from a distance when it creates a haze over a meadow. Turns tan after flowering. 8 in.–­3 ft. fields, roadsides, disturbed areas non-­native perennial June–­September, generally later than the first cohort of mid-­spring roadside and pasture grasses Could be confused with various species of Poa (pp. 198, 201) or Calamagrostis canadensis (p. 208). Poa flower clusters have several overlapping scales rather than just one, and Poa species have a boat-­ shaped leaf tip. Agrostis is usually purple or brown in flower, while Poa species are green; Poa flowers are not shiny and silky like those of 160 ]

Agrostis. Also, Poa flowers earlier than Agrostis: in mid-­spring rather than late spring or early summer. Calamagrostis grows more often in wet places and has a little tuft of silky hairs at the base of each flower. A very similar species is A. capillaris (Rhode Island bent), but that species has the flower clusters at the tips of the branches, not close to the main stem. Spreading vigorously by rhizomes, redtop bentgrass forms a dense sod. This has made it useful for lawns, pastures, and golf courses, but in some parts of our range it is considered a weed. Rhode Island bent is also a common turf grass.

[ 161

Rough bentgrass Agrostis scabra

Ticklegrass, fly-­away grass Grass family  Poaceae a small shiny flower clusters at the ends of the branches b long delicate branches that fork again toward the outer end. If you run your fingers along the branches, they will feel rough. c inflorescence is wide and occupies most of the height of the plant 1–3 ft. dry or moist open soil, sandy areas, fields

native perennial June–­November The inflorescence is at first green-­ purple and shining, then tan. After flowering, it breaks off and floats around like a tumbleweed. Could be confused with A. perennans (p. 159) or Avenella flexuosa (p. 152).

A very similar but less common species is winter bentgrass (A. hyemalis), which flowers from early spring to early summer.

Note basal leaf tufts which stay green throughout the year.

162 ]

[ 163

Switch panicgrass Panicum virgatum

Switch grass Grass family  Poaceae a grows in big leafy clumps b flowers are borne singly at the ends of the branches; grain is hard and bony c inflorescence: 2–20 in. long 2–6 ft. prairies, meadows, shores, upper edges of salt marshes, roadsides native perennial July–­September

164 ]

This is another dominant species of the tall-­grass prairie. Vigorous, beautiful, and adaptable to many growing conditions, switch grass has lent itself to the development of countless cultivars for agriculture, horticulture, and bio-­energy, with strains being selected for size, color,

disease resistance, nutrient content, and other characters. Though switch grass flowers in the summer and fall, the leafy clumps last through the winter, with their yellow color providing some brightness on dark rainy days.

[ 165

Witch panicgrass Panicum capillare

Old witch grass Grass family  Poaceae a very hairy b many fine branches with small flowers huge inflorescence, almost as big as the whole plant; breaks off and floats around like a tumbleweed, thus dispersing seeds often purple at flowering time and as grains are ripening 8 in.–­21/2 ft. dry sandy or rocky soil, roadsides, fields, gardens native annual July–­October Could be confused with Panicum dichotomiflorum (p. 167), another weedy late-­summer annual with a large inflorescence. P. dichotomiflorum is smooth, not hairy, and has a flattened stem. Also could be confused with Eragrostis spectabilis (p. 172) or Digitaria cognata (p. 173), neither of which is hairy.

166 ]

Fall panicgrass

Panicum dichotomiflorum Grass family  Poaceae a smooth flat stem b relatively wide leaves c many branches inflorescence is large, green or purple often grows in sprawling clumps 2–6 ft. wet meadows, ditches, roadsides; moist, disturbed grounds native annual July–­October Could be confused with Panicum capillare (p. 166). With large seeds, this and other Panicum species are a good food source for dozens of types of birds, including sparrows, longspurs, and wild turkey.

[ 167

The Genus Dichanthelium The species in the Dichanthelium genus can be difficult to distinguish. For most of them, the distinctions are based on very fine features. Also, there is considerable variation within many of these species, making it difficult to latch onto one consistent field character. Patience and magnification are essential for the identification process. The common name “panicgrass” derives from the fact that this and other species of Dichanthelium used to be included in the genus Panicum. The addition of “rosette” to the common name refers to the tuft of short, stiff leaves at the base of Dichanthelium species, one of the features that separates it from Panicum (see Dichanthelium acuminatum, p. 169). The main difference between Dichanthelium and Panicum, however, is the unusual life cycle of Dichanthelium, which consists of two phases each growing season. The first, which happens in the spring, is known as the vernal phase, when the plant produces flowers that are well-­exposed and pollinated by wind like other grass flowers. Later in the season, the plants produce a second round of flowers, often hidden inside the sheaths, which are self-­pollinated. This is called the autumnal phase, even though it can happen any time between July and November. In the autumnal phase, many of the species undergo a partial transformation, changing their growth form to become low-­lying or sprawling so that they look like completely different plants.

168 ]

Hairy rosette-­panicgrass Dichanthelium acuminatum (Panicum lanuginosum) Grass family  Poaceae a short, wide basal leaves in a tight clump which lasts through the winter b inflorescence open, branches naked for much of their length c small oval flower clusters, one at the end of each branch d single flower stems, leaves, and sheaths sometimes hairy, sometimes not 6 in.–­2 ft. sandy soil, rock outcrops, thin woods, prairies, fields native perennial vernal phase: May–­July This species has much variation, which has recently led botanists to propose the creation of distinct species. Discerning the differences requires very close examination and exact measurements.

[ 169

Deer-­tongue rosette-­panicgrass

Dichanthelium clandestinum (Panicum clandestinum) Deer-­tongue grass Grass family  Poaceae a often forms big clumps of stiff, wide leaves b inflorescence 3–6 in. c leaf sheath pulls conspicuously away from the stem d sheaths usually have rough hairs with little pustules at the base resembling a grain of sand e single flower f stigmas g small oval grainy flowers, one at the end of each branch, widely spaced

170 ]

2–5 ft., often in patches fields, open woods or woods edges, shores, waste places native perennial The flowering stalks appear from May through September, but lose the flowers rapidly. The leaf masses last through the winter. A similar species is Dichanthelium latifolium (broad-­leaved rosette-­ panicgrass), which usually has smooth sheaths. If the sheaths are hairy, the hairs do not have the little pustule at the base. D. latifolium also has fewer leaves (less than seven) on the flowering stems.

[ 171

Purple love grass Eragrostis spectabilis Grass family  Poaceae a tufts of hair in leaf axils b flower clusters flat, with overlapping scales inflorescence delicate, almost as large as whole plant; purple, then tan grows in tufts, low to the ground 1–2 ft. sandy or gravelly soil, roadsides, railroad tracks, prairies native perennial July–­October

172 ]

A beautiful grass of late summer and early fall that forms clouds of purple along roadsides. After flowering, the inflorescence breaks off and floats around like a tumbleweed.

Could be confused with Digitaria cognata (p. 173). Digitaria does not have overlapping scales on the flower clusters. Also could be confused with Panicum capillare (p. 166).

Fall crabgrass Digitaria cognata

(Leptoloma cognatum) Fall witch grass Grass family  Poaceae a small tufts of hair in the axils of the flower branches b small oval-­pointed flower clusters borne singly at the ends of the branches c long wiry branches; wide inflorescence d young shoot 1–21/2 ft. sandy soil, roadsides, open woods, lawns, prairies native perennial June–­October less common in the northern and western parts of our range In spite of its airiness and low growth habit, this is a conspicuous grass. In maturity, the whole inflorescence is a purple-­pink, and a patch forms a colored mist noticeable even from a distance. With its delicate, purplish inflorescence, this species could be confused with Eragrostis spectabilis (p. 172). Could also be confused with P. capillare (p. 166).

[ 173

Tufted lovegrass Eragrostis pectinacea Grass family  Poaceae thin delicate branches flower clusters thin and flat, tan to lead-­colored; disintegrate fairly quickly, giving the plant a scraggly, bedraggled appearance 6 to 18 in., usually growing in low tufts roadsides, prairies, waste areas, cracks in pavement annual native July–­October In Ethiopia and Eritrea, a dietary staple for millennia has been a grain called teff, which comes from a species of Eragrostis called Eragrostis tef.

174 ]

Poverty oatgrass Danthonia spicata

Poverty grass Grass family  Poaceae a grows in clumps with wiry stems naked for much of their length b flower clusters relatively transparent, delicate c short bristles going in different directions d two lowest scales longer than the whole flower cluster e short narrow inflorescences f basal tufts of wiry, curly leaves throughout the year There are short tufts of hairs at the top of the leaf sheath. 1–3 ft. dry, often rocky soil, fields, woods, prairies native perennial May–­July; stalks disintegrate and fall off by late summer Could be confused with Festuca rubra (p. 177). F. rubra has straight, wiry basal leaves, not curly, and the flower bristles are straight, not crooked.

A very similar species is Danthonia compressa (flattened oatgrass). Much of the difference between this and D. spicata is in the basal leaves. Those of D. spicata are always curly, narrow, and sometimes inrolled, and they are much shorter than the flowering stem. Those of D. compressa are flat and half as long or as long as the flowering stem, and they do not form such a distinct, neat tuft as those of D. spicata. In fruit, the lower branches of D. spicata point upwards, while those of D. compressa spread outwards. D. compressa generally grows more in the shade and in moister, more organic soil [ 175 than does D. spicata.

Fine-­leaved sheep fescue Festuca filiformis Grass family  Poaceae a grows in distinct tussocks with wiry blue-­green basal leaves b inflorescence is stiff, with few short branches; green or violet, then tan flower clusters small and delicate 1–2 ft. dry soil, lawns, fields non-­native perennial June–­July; the flowering stalks disintegrate, but the basal leaf tufts last throughout the year

176 ]

Could be confused with Festuca rubra (p. 177), but F. rubra leaves are dark and shreddy at the base.

A similar species is Festcua ovina (sheep fescue), which is also non-­ native. In F. ovina, there are small bristles at the tips of the flower scales; in F. filiformis, there are none.

Red fescue Festuca rubra

Grass family  Poaceae a tufts of round wiry basal leaves, dark and shredding at the base b stem leaf rolled in at the edge c no bulge at the base of the leaf d individual flower cluster e several overlapping scales, each with a short bristle on the end 6 in.–­3 ft. sandy soil, roadsides, fields, lawns non-­native in most of our range perennial Could be confused with Festuca filiformis (p. 176).

Although in the wild red fescue usually grows in tufts, it also spreads by rhizomes and therefore has become a much-­used lawn grass, helpful in shady spots. With its wiry leaves, it is easily spotted among the other turf species. Most of the red fescue that you will see is non-­native, but there is a native strain with subtly different characters which grows mainly in eastern coastal habitats.

(continued on next page)

[ 177

open during flowering

after flowering (contracted) before flowering (contracted)

178 ]

Orchard grass

Dactylis glomerata Grass family  Poaceae a short, stiff side branches b flowers in irregular rounded clusters; rough texture

of all the others is in my opinion the best mixture with clover; it blooms precisely at the same time, rises quick again after cutting, stands thick, yields well, and both cattle and horses are fond of it green or in hay.” It is still an important pasture crop.

2–5 ft. non-­native fields, roadsides, waste places perennial May–­September, but mainly in the spring Orchard grass was brought over from Europe to be cultivated for forage. George Washington grew it at Mount Vernon and wrote, “Orchard Grass

in flower

[ 179

Reed canary grass Phalaris arundinacea Grass family  Poaceae a b c d

wide leaves, up to 3/4 in. single flower two scales of about equal size short branches

inflorescence green or slightly purple at first, then tan inflorescence is open at time of flowering, then closes up 3–7 ft. river and lake shores, marshes, wet meadows, usually forming large colonies; sometimes grows in fields mainly non-­native perennial May–­August; flowers mostly in the spring but the dried inflorescences remain, overtopping the leaves. Dried leaves and stems last through the winter, forming tangled, messy mats. Could be confused with Dactylis glomerata (p. 179), especially just before flowering, but Dactylis grows in uplands, is shorter, and has much narrower leaves—under 1/4 in. wide. Furthermore, Dactylis, though it can spread, grows more in clumps than in colonies. Could also be confused with Calamagrostis canadensis (p. 208). Calamagrostis also forms 180 ]

large expanses in wetlands, but the flowers have a little tuft of hairs at the base and the leaves are much narrower (rarely over 1/4 inch).

Originally planted for forage and erosion control, reed canary grass has become a widespread and aggressive invasive plant in wetlands. A Minnesota website, for instance, calls it the “single most destructive, invasive wetland species in the state.” Its provenance, however, has been difficult to determine. A few historical documents and herbarium records suggest that the species is native to far northern parts of our region, but it was brought over from Europe many times for agricultural uses. Native and non-­native strains have interbred, and it is these, along with pure non-­native strains, that are so aggressive. In the field, the various strains are indistinguishable.

[ 181

Indian grass

Sorghastrum nutans Grass family  Poaceae a b c d

twisted bristles on the flowers flowers slightly fuzzy before and after flowering (closed) during flowering (open)

inflorescence is tall and narrow, golden-­brown and shining 3–7 ft. prairies, roadsides, fields native perennial August–­September

182 ]

Indian grass is especially common in the Midwest, where it was a dominant species of the tall-­grass prairie. It is less common in the East, where it is occasionally found in dry upland meadows or along roadsides. With roots going as deep as nine feet, it is drought tolerant and, like other prairie species, grows back vigorously after fire. In addition to being nutritious for livestock, Indian grass is strikingly beautiful. Its tall, graceful form, coppery-­bronze color, and long, delicate, wispy inflorescence have made it a horticultural favorite. It is the state grass of both Oklahoma and South Carolina.

[ 183

Tall oat grass

Arrhenatherum elatius Grass family  Poaceae a papery scales b twisted bristle c inflorescence tall and narrow, shining, silvery green at time of flowering 2–61/2 ft. roadsides, fields non-­native perennial June–­July; flowering stalks then disintegrate

184 ]

Could be confused with Sorghastrum nutans (p. 182). Sorghastrum flowers in the fall, not the spring, and is tan rather than green or silver. Sometimes planted for forage.

Rough dropseed

Sporobolus compositus (Sporobolus asper)

Grass family  Poaceae a single papery flower b long narrow inflorescence which stays partly hidden inside the sheath c long narrow dried leaves grows in tufts flower scales purple at first, then tan 1–4 ft. rocky, gravelly, or sandy soil; prairies, fields native perennial August–­October more common in the Midwest

[ 185

Soft brome

Bromus hordeaceus (Bromus mollis)

Soft chess Grass family  Poaceae a leaf sheaths fuzzy b inflorescence is compact, with branches pointing upward; flower clusters are plump, sometimes fuzzy c bristle on each flower scale 1–3 ft. grows in small tufts in waste places, along roadsides, and in agricultural fields non-­native annual July–­August

186 ]

This species, native to Eurasia, has become established in every continent except Antarctica. This strong colonization ability, of course, can make it an ecologically invasive species and an agricultural weed, which it is in many locations.

Poverty dropseed

Sporobolus vaginiflorus Grass family  Poaceae a inflorescence stays tucked inside sheath grows in scraggly tufts when dry, often has alternating patches of light and dark on the stem shallow root system; easy to pull up

Could be confused with Aristida dichotoma (p. 99) but does not have the horizontal bristles found on Aristida. Also could be confused with Triplasis purpurea (p. 188). Triplasis has purple flower clusters on branches which extend farther from the sheaths and also has little tufts of hair at the leaf nodes. Triplasis grows more often on sand beaches than in disturbed habitats.

6–18 in. dry, sterile soil: roadsides, parking lots, waste areas; sometimes in dry open woods native annual August–­October

[ 187

Purple sand grass Triplasis purpurea

Could be confused with Sporobolus vaginiflorus (p. 187).

Grass family  Poaceae a grows in small clumps, with the lower part of the stem sometimes sprawling b stems stiff, conspicuously jointed, often with alternating sections of light and dark c flower branches short, often tucked inside the leaf sheaths d leaves are short and stiff with little tufts of white hairs at the nodes 1–3 ft. sandy beaches, river shores, and prairies native annual

Note purple flower scales.

188 ]

Coast barnyard grass Echinochloa walteri

Grass family  Poaceae a long fine bristles on flower scales b dense, arching inflorescence, usually purplish c stiff hairs on sheath, usually with a blistery base 3–8 ft. brackish, alkaline, and freshwater shores and marshes native annual Could be confused with Echinochloa crus-­galli or E. muricata (p. 190), but E. walteri has hairs with warty bases on its lower sheaths, while the others have smooth sheaths. Also, though all three species can grow in freshwater wetlands, only E. walteri will be found in salt or brackish waters.

[ 189

Common barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-­galli Grass family  Poaceae a flat oval flower has short bristles covering the outer scales and a bristle of variable length at the end branches are far apart, either upright or spreading shallow-­rooted with several somewhat flattened, sometimes red-­purple stems radiating from the center; stems often sprawl or bend at the base 2–31/2 ft. waste ground, cultivated fields, ditches non-­native annual June–­November Could be confused with E. walteri (p. 189).

An extremely similar species is Echinochloa muricata (American barnyard grass), which, though also weedy, is native and has been found in Native American archeological remains. The distinguishing features involve very fine differences between the flower scales of both species, and need careful examination with a hand lens or microscope.

190 ]

Common barnyard grass has two faces. Native to the Asian tropics, where it is productively used for fodder and for wetlands purification and restoration, it has become a highly destructive weed in other parts of the world.

American barnyard grass is sometimes used in wetlands restorations, as it grows fast and produces abundant seeds that are appealing to ducks and other wildlife.

[ 191

Prairie dropseed

Sporobolus heterolepis Grass family  Poaceaeae a papery blackish scales b big round grain enclosed in scales c thin branches flower clusters green, purple, or black grows in bunches with wiry basal leaves 1–3 ft. prairies, sandy soil, rocky outcrops native perennial August–­October more common in the Midwest, occasional to rare in the eastern states

192 ]

A true prairie species, with typical drought-­resistant adaptations: a dense mass of fibrous roots and thin leaves that minimize evapotranspiration.

Atlantic manna grass Glyceria obtusa

Grass family  Poaceae a plump flower cluster b branches all point upward c dense inflorescence 2–4 ft. wet places native perennial July–­September grows mainly in the coastal plain region of the Atlantic seaboard states; not found west of Pennsylvania

[ 193

Southern wild rice Zizania aquatica

Grass family  Poaceae a very wide leaves b thin branches in bunches c female flowers hug branches; fall off easily d male flowers droop down, straw-­ color to purplish e single female flower f cluster of male flowers inflorescence is big, bright yellow-­ green when ripe; branches stay after flowers have fallen off 4–10 ft. quiet waters, fresh to brackish rivers, lakes native annual June–­September A similar species is Zizania palustris (northern wild rice), once classified as a subspecies of Z. aquatica. In Z. palustris, the female flower branches hug the stem when the seeds are ripe, but in Z. aquatica, they spread out. Also, Z. palustris leaves are less than an inch wide, while those of Z. aquatica measure almost two inches across. Wild rice (Zizania) is in a different genus from cultivated rice (Oryza). Wild rice, a native North American plant, has been called the “caviar of 194 ]

grains,” more expensive than other rice but appreciated for its nutty flavor and its superior nutritional value. The epicenter of wild rice is lake-­filled Minnesota, where Native American tribes have been harvesting the grains for centuries by canoe; one person paddles (pushes,

actually) and the other knocks the grains off with a specialized stick. Many grains fall into the water, but this is not a loss; rather, it represents the seed bank which will germinate into next year’s crop. In addition to providing a nutritious and tasty food for humans, wild rice is a banquet for many birds: various ducks, blackbirds, rails, bobolinks, among others. Geese also enjoy the seeds, but, in rooting them out from the mud, can devastate a population. The traditional harvesting method described above currently accounts for a small percentage of wild rice on the market. The species has yielded to domestication and is now

grown in artificial paddies not only in Minnesota, but strangely enough in California, where the climate is different in many ways. It is now mechanically harvested like any other modern crop. An annual, wild rice grows to amazing heights in one season and can form huge stands. Thus it might appear vigorous and invincible, but the annual growth habit means that plants must start anew from seed every year, and this doesn’t always happen successfully. Changing water levels, overgrazing by geese or muskrats, competition from invasives, or poor water quality can hamper survival and reproduction.

[ 195

Smooth brome Bromus inermis

Hungarian brome Grass family  Poaceae a very short bristle at end of flower scale (unlike most other species of Bromus, which have long bristles) b single flower cluster, long and pointed c branches sometimes point slightly upward 2–4 ft. roadsides, fields, waste places non-­native perennial May–­June Could be confused with Schedonorus pratensis (p. 202). Schedonorus has shorter, wider flower clusters and scales, minimal bristles on the scales, and a pair of little bulges where the leaf encircles the stem.

196 ]

An introduced species, smooth brome is widely grown for livestock feed, but like many introduced species, it has become invasive and difficult to control in natural grasslands.

Flat-­stemmed blue grass Poa compressa

Canada blue grass (not from Canada but from Eurasia) Grass family  Poaceae a short branches, usually in twos, which make for a narrow inflorescence Two-sided stem will not roll between your fingers; shows alternating bands of tan and green in late season; often bends at the base 4 in.–­21/2 ft. fields, roadsides, dry woods, trailsides; small patches of dry soil non-­native perennial May–­September, but mainly in the spring; the dried stalks persist through the summer and fall Could be confused with Poa pratensis (p. 198), but is distinguished by its flat stem, generally smaller size, and narrower inflorescence. Spreading by rhizomes, this unassuming plant has become invasive in woodlands and rocky ridges in the Northeast and dry prairies in the Midwest. Since Canada blue grass is not a true prairie grass, it is sensitive to fire, so it is sometimes controlled by prescribed burns.

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Kentucky blue grass Poa pratensis

Grass family  Poaceae a boat-­shaped leaf tip, like a canoe (characteristic of all species of Poa) b short leaves c branches in bunches of 3–5 d whole flower cluster; remove bottom two scales and will see small tufts of cobwebby hairs at base of remaining scales (a characteristic unique to Poa, though not present in all species) 1–3 ft. fields, roadsides, lawns, prairies, shores non-­native perennial May–­August, mainly in the spring Could be confused with Poa compressa (p. 197), Agrostis gigantea (p. 160), Schedonorus pratensis (p. 202), or Eragrostis cilianensis (p. 204). Only Poa has the cobwebby hairs and the boat-­shaped leaf tip. Schedonorus has flower scales that are more pointed at the tip, has a paired bulge at the base of the leaves where they join the stem, and is generally larger and coarser. Eragrostis cilianensis is a tufted annual, not a sod-­forming perennial like Poa pratensis, and it flowers in the summer or fall rather than the spring. 198 ]

Spreading by rhizomes and tillers, Kentucky blue grass forms a dense sod, a feature which has made it one of the most widely used lawn grasses in our area. Also widely planted as a pasture grass, it tolerates close grazing, a feature which well adapts it to mowing. The origin of the common name is not clear, as Kentucky blue grass is not native to Kentucky. It is native to Canada, as well as to Europe, from where it was brought by early settlers. As a grass of northern origin, it is a cool-­season species: one that grows best in the spring and the fall and goes dormant in the heat of the summer. (This is why lawns go brown in hot dry spells but come back when the weather turns.) The species prefers limestone soils (which is why homeowners are frequently instructed to put lime on their lawns). Limestone soils

are prevalent in eastern Kentucky, and Kentucky blue grass grows well there, a fact perhaps giving rise to the common name.

Because of its tolerance of close grazing and cool season habit, which give it a head start over native warm-­ season grasses such as big and little bluestem, Kentucky blue grass can be invasive in prairies.

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Annual blue grass Poa annua

Spear grass Grass family  Poaceae a low tufted growth form b boat-­shaped leaf tips (characteristic of all species of Poa) c flower clusters, with several overlapping scales; one of the few species of Poa without cobwebby hairs 2–16 in., usually very small lawns, dooryards, damp waste ground native annual

200 ]

This grass is often so tiny you could easily walk right past it. It appears very early in the spring and sometimes again in the fall, occasionally flowering as late as December. It cannot tolerate hot weather, and usually disappears in the summer. Though it occasionally spreads by rooting at the nodes, it does not spread by rhizomes like its congener Poa pratensis.

Fowl blue grass Poa palustris

Fowl meadow grass Grass family  Poaceae

each flower scale of Poa palustris are tufts of cobwebby hairs, not found in Glyceria, and the veins on the scales are less noticeable than those of Glyceria.

a delicate branches in bunches b single flower with cobwebby hairs at base flowers green, bronze, or purple at flowering time, then turn tan 2–5 ft. wet meadows, marshes, pond and stream shorelines native perennial June–­September Could be confused with Glyceria striata (p. 146), which also grows in wet places. Glyceria is usually smaller and flowers in the spring, not the summer. To be sure of the difference, you need to look closely at the flower clusters. At the base of

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Meadow rye grass (Festuca elatior, Festuca pratensis)

non-­native perennial June–­August

Meadow fescue Grass family  Poaceae

Could be confused with Bromus inermis (p. 196).

Schedonorus pratensis

a before and after flowering, when inflorescence contracts b several overlapping flower scales, without bristles c branches sometimes go in different directions, sometimes all go to one side d flat leaves with little bulges at the bottom where the blade joins the sheath (look carefully for this trait; it is not always obvious) 2–4 ft. meadows, prairies, lawns, roadsides

202 ]

A similar species is Schedonorus arundinaceus (tall fescue), formerly classified as a variety of S. pratensis. S. arundinaceus has four to five flowers per flower cluster, while S. pratensis has five to eleven, but there is overlap between the two species.

This species is widely planted for forage and also used in lawns, though it is coarse and tough for the latter purpose. It has become invasive in prairie natural areas.

contracted before and after flowering open while flowering

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Stinking love grass Eragrostis cilianensis

(Eragrostis megastachya) Grass family  Poaceae a grows in small tufts, with stems bent at the base b short stiff branches c flower cluster; scales green or sometimes lead-­colored 8 in.–­3 ft. roadsides, waste ground, gardens, cropland non-­native annual; easy to pull up July–­October The most noteworthy trait of this grass is evident from its name: a strong smell from fresh plants when you crush them.

204 ]

Could be confused with Poa pratensis (p. 198). A very similar species growing in similar habitats is Eragrostis minor (little love grass). Through most of the growing season, the easiest distinguishing character is the lack of smell in E. minor. Late in the season, or when the plants are dried, you cannot depend on scent, and will need a hand lens to look at the flower scales. Those of E. cilianensis have little warty glands along the outer edge, while those of E. minor do not. Also, E. minor, in accordance with its common name, is generally smaller than E. cilianensis, but their sizes do overlap.

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Common velvet grass Holcus lanatus

Grass family  Poaceae a single papery flower, almost transparent b gray-­green velvety leaves and sheaths inflorescence is wispy, pale gray-­green to purple, then tan

contracted before and after flowering, open while flowering

206 ]

1–31/2 ft. fields, roadsides non-­native perennial May–­July; flower stalks then wither, but the soft, velvety leaves remain more common in the eastern part of our range A British name for this plant is Yorkshire fog, which is apt, since a field of it in flower seems to be shrouded in a low mist. No other grass in our area has this velvety texture.

Sweet wood reed Cinna arundinacea

Grass family  Poaceae big inflorescence: 4–16 in. many branches, pointing upwards, spreading, or drooping flower scales pale green to pale purple, then tan

the decisive differences between the two requires a hand lens and precise measurements, you can sometimes tell them apart on the basis of leaf length; if any of the leaves are over ten inches long, your specimen is C. arundinacea.

3–5 ft. damp woods, swamps native perennial August–­October The combination of size, habitat, and season are helpful identifying characters for this species as few grasses grow in the woods and those that do usually are smaller and/or flower in the spring or summer. A similar species is Cinna latifolia (slender wood reed), which has a more open, drooping inflorescence and sometimes grows in upland habitats where you will not find C. arundinacea. Though discerning

C. arundinacea—usually more densely flowered, with inflorescence branches pointing upward

C. latifolia—more sparsely flowered, with inflorescence branches spreading or drooping

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Blue joint

Calamagrostis canadensis Grass family  Poaceae a little tuft of fuzz at base of flower, which can give whole inflorescence a slightly fuzzy look b inflorescence wispy, with symmetrical diamond-­shaped silhouette and branches in bunches c after flowering, branches hug the stem delicate small flowers; purple, lead-­ colored or green, then turning tan Bunches of spear-­like leaves often grow out from the leaf axils. 3–5 ft. marshes, wet meadows, stream corridors, often forming large colonies native perennial June–­August Could be confused with Agrostis gigantea (p. 160), Phalaris arundinacea (p. 180), or Cinna arundinacea (p. 207), but none of these has the fuzz at the base of the flower scales. Cinna grows in shaded swamps, not in large open wetlands, and does not form large colonies. Phalaris does form large colonies in wetlands like Calamagrostis but has 208 ]

much wider leaves (usually well over 1/4 inch). This species often comes into beaver meadows after the animals have exhausted their food supply and moved elsewhere.

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Oat

Avena sativa Grass family  Poaceae a two big scales b big flowers that hang down 1–3 ft. fields, roadsides, croplands, waste places non-­native annual June–­August This is the grain that makes oatmeal and other cereals, but oats are mainly cultivated for animal food and as a winter cover crop. Oats grow in cooler and fairly wet climates, with Russia and Canada leading world production.

210 ]

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Corn

Zea mays Maize Grass family  Poaceae a b c d

212 ]

wide leaves fat strong stem male flowers (tassels) female flowers (the strands of “silk” are the styles, and each kernel is an individual fruit, with the flower cluster being known as the “ear”)

occasionally spontaneous in fields and roadsides but never persists native to North America annual July–­August Corn is the only important grain crop to have originated in North America, eight thousand to ten thousand years ago in southwestern Mexico. As its use spread throughout North and South America, it became the staple food of most indigenous populations. Today, corn is the most widely grown

grain in the world, used for livestock feed, human consumption, ethanol production, and even for industrial purposes, with the United States

being the lead producer. Corn grows best in the warm, humid part of the country that once was covered by tall-­grass prairie.

Native Americans grew corn in countless varieties.

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Some Identification Aids When you are considering an identification, you may notice something distinctive about a plant that is not mentioned in the Identification Key. For example, you may notice that your plant is tiny. You would consider that a distinctive character that would separate it from many other species, but not find the small size mentioned in the Key. We provide here some supplemental lists that focus on habitat, flowering time, and overall plant size. Keep in mind that these are quite general, only cover certain species, and will be most useful when taken as an additional aid rather than a substitute for the Key.

Habitat

This list will be most useful for specialized habitats that support a narrow range of species, such as salt marshes and dunes. Be careful to note the habitat precisely. For instance, a roadside ditch will support wet-­site species, not roadside plants, and a bare rock sticking up in the middle of a swamp will have dry-­ site species, not wet. Fields, roadsides, and grasslands support over two-­thirds of the species in the book, so listing the plants that grow there would not be helpful. As you use this guide, remember that many of the species in this book, being adaptable and growing in many habitats, therefore might not fit neatly into one of these categories. Dunes and Beaches Ammophila breviligulata Bromus tectorum Cenchrus longispinus Cyperus esculentus Cyperus lupulinus Koeleria macrantha Spartina patens Triplasis purpurea

Brackish Shores and Waters Bolboschoenus fluviatilis Bolboschoenus robustus Cladium mariscoides Cyperus diandrus Echinochloa walteri Phragmites australis Schoenoplectus pungens Spartina cynosuroides Zizania aquatica

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Salt Marshes and Their Edges Anthoxanthum nitens Bolboschoenus robustus Distichlis spicata Elymus virginicus Hordeum jubatum Juncus gerardii Panicum virgatum Phragmites australis Schoenoplectus pungens Spartina alterniflora Spartina patens Spartina pectinata Wet Places: Freshwater Marshes, Wet Meadows, Lake and River Shores, Flood Plains, Wooded Swamps, Peat Bogs Acorus calamus Alopecurus pratensis Anthoxanthum nitens Bolboschoenus fluviatilis Bolboschoenus robustus Calamagrostis canadensis Carex crinita Carex flava Carex folliculata Carex intumescens Carex lanuginosa Carex lupulina Carex lurida Carex scoparia Carex stipata Carex stricta Carex vulpinoidea Cinna arundinacea 216 ] S o m e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n A i d s

Cladium mariscoides Cyperus diandrus Cyperus strigosus Dulichium arundinaceum Echinochloa walteri Eleocharis acicularis Eleocharis obtusa Equisetum hyemale Eriophorum virginicum Glyceria canadensis Glyceria obtusa Glyceria striata Juncus bufonius Juncus canadensis Juncus marginatus Juncus tenuis Leersia oryzoides Phalaris arundinacea Phragmites australis Poa palustris Rhynchospora capitellata Schoenoplectus pungens Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani Scirpus cyperinus Scirpus hattorianus Scirpus microcarpus Sparganium americanum Spartina pectinata Typha latifolia Zizania palustris Waste Ground: Vacant Lots, Bare Embankments, Parking Lots, Cleared or Stripped Land, City Sidewalks Agrostis scabra Anthoxanthum odoratum

Aristida dichotoma Avena sativa Bromus hordeaceus Bromus japonicus Bromus tectorum Digitaria sanguinalis Distichlis spicata Echinochloa crus-­galli Eleusine indica Eragrostis cilianensis Eragrostis pectinacea Holcus lanatus Hordeum pusillum Hordeum vulgare Plantago lanceolata Plantago major Poa annua Schedonorus pratensis Secale cereale Sporobolus vaginiflorus Triticum aestivum Dry, Sandy Soil Andropogon gerardii Andropogon virginicus Aristida dichotoma Aristida oligantha Bulbostylis capillaris Carex pensylvanica Cyperus esculentus Cyperus lupulinus Deschampsia flexuosa Dichanthelium acuminatum Digitaria cognata Digitaria sanguinalis Eragrostis spectabilis Festuca filiformis Festuca rubra

Hordeum pusillum Panicum virgatum Paspalum setaceum Poa compressa Schizachyrium scoparium Sorghastrum nutans Sporobolus compositus Sporobolus heterolepis Sporobolus vaginiflorus Triplasis purpurea Rocky Outcrops Avenella flexuosa Carex pensylvanica Danthonia spicata Dichanthelium acuminatum Poa compressa Sporobolus compositus Sporobolus heterolepis Upland Woods and Shaded Roadsides Agrostis perennans Brachyelytrum erectum Bromus ciliatus Carex laxiflora Carex pensylvanica Carex scoparia Carex swanii Elymus hystrix Juncus tenuis Leersia virginica Microstegium vimineum

S o m e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n A i d s [ 217

Flowering Times

Grasses, sedges, and rushes are seasonal, just like other flowering plants, and a May landscape will feature different species from one in September. However, the precise flowering time is not critical or necessarily even helpful for identification since many of the plants in this book retain their inflorescences in recognizable forms well past the time of actual flowering. Keep in mind that differences in latitude or altitude influence flowering times; for example, individuals of a particular species growing in cooler conditions will come into flower later than those growing in warmer conditions. This category is therefore approximate and primarily includes those species that flower either very early or very late in the growing season. Early Spring These species flower before or while the trees leaf out. Agrostis scabra Anthoxanthum nitens Carex laxiflora Carex pensylvanica

Luzula multiflora Oryzopsis asperifolia Poa annua

Late Summer or Fall The richness of fall flowering makes grasses a joy to observe. Some of the most glorious native perennial grasses stay hidden until fall, when their flowering stalks give the landscape a whole new look. Late summer and fall grasses also include the late summer annuals; these are the ones that you see popping up in cracks in the sidewalk or in your garden. Agrostis perennans Andropogon gerardii Andropogon glomeratus Andropogon virginicus Aristida dichotoma Aristida oligantha Cinna arundinacea Digitaria cognata 218 ] S o m e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n A i d s

Digitaria sanguinalis Eragrostis cilianensis Eragrostis pectinacea Eragrostis spectabilis Miscanthus sinensis Muhlenbergia schreberi Panicum capillare Panicum dichotomiflorum

Panicum virgatum Poa annua Schizachyrium scoparium Scirpus cyperinus (in fruit, its most conspicuous stage) Sorghastrum nutans

Sporobolus compositus Sporobolus heterolepis Sporobolus vaginiflorus Tridens flavus Triplasis purpurea

Size

In this category, we have also listed here the extremes: plants which are very short or very tall at maturity. For the tall species, not all of the individuals in a population will necessarily grow over six feet. Focus on the tallest members of the population! Very Tall Plants—Frequently Growing over 6 Feet Andropogon gerardii Spartina cynosuroides Miscanthus sinensis Spartina pectinata Phragmites australis Tripsacum dactyloides Schoenoplectus Typha latifolia tabernaemontani Zizania aquatica Very Small Plants—Under 8 Inches at Maturity Obviously, all plants start life small, so make sure that your specimen is mature—having flowers or fruits. Also, any plant can be smaller than average if it is growing in poor conditions. Listed here are species that are almost always diminutive. Aristida dichotoma Bulbostylis capillaris Carex pensylvanica Cyperus bipartitus

Eleocharis acicularis Eragrostis pectinacea Poa annua Sporobolus vaginiflorus

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A Word on Rare and Invasive Species Most of the grass, sedge, and rush species discussed in this book are common and widespread throughout the northeastern quarter of the United States. They include both native and non-­native plants, the latter a large category which encompasses those species, growing and persisting in natural conditions, that have been accidentally or deliberately introduced to the region since the time of European colonization. The introductions are primarily from Europe and Asia, with a small number coming from Africa, South America, or other regions of the United States. A very few of the plants in the book are listed as “rare” species by one or more of the states within the range covered in this book. A rare species is by definition a native plant which exists in limited numbers and/or population groups within a state. State evaluations and rarity listings are made by botanists working for individual state Natural Heritage Programs for the purpose of protecting rare species; they base their listings on extensive field surveys, mapping, and numerical documentation. On the national level, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists rare and threatened plants following a similar system of documentation. None of the plants discussed in this book is federally listed, but a very small handful appear on the Rare Plant Lists of several states. To take one example from each of the three primary plant groups covered in the book: Swan’s sedge (Carex swanii), a common woodland sedge in the eastern part of our range, is listed as rare in Wisconsin; grass-­leaved rush (Juncus marginatus), a fairly common wetland rush in much of the range, is listed in Minnesota, Vermont, and Wisconsin; and sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), a common grass in prairies and meadows in the western and central parts of our range, is listed as rare in Connecticut. If a plant does not appear in a state at all (sideoats grama, for example, has not been documented in New Hampshire or Vermont), it does not receive a listing in that state.

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An invasive plant, by contrast, is a non-­native, introduced species, a small subset of the thousands of introduced (sometimes called “exotic”) plants that now grow without cultivation in our landscapes. How is an invasive plant different from a lawn, garden, or agricultural “weed” or many of the introduced plants which colonize old farm fields, roadsides, pavements, and vacant lots? An invasive plant is disruptive of natural habitats—forests, swamps, grasslands, flood plains, shorelines, and so on—becoming rampant in these conditions and displacing native plants. Determinations of invasiveness are made by ecologists and natural land managers faced with the formidable management goal of eliminating infestations that blight the ecological quality of natural landscapes. In our book, a number of the grass species (though none of the sedges and rushes) we discuss are non-­native plants. Many of them were originally introduced to our region for pasturage, but only a few are invasive in natural habitats. Examples of invasive grasses include downy brome or cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum), and common reed or Phragmites (Phragmites australis). These and a few other invasive grasses, and the habitats each infests, are discussed in more detail in the species description pages. If you would like more information about rare and invasive plants, each state’s Natural Heritage Program and Natural Resources Department websites have listings for that state. In the case of invasive plants, the listings often include links to management recommendations.

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If You Do Not Find Something in This Book If you do not meet with success in identification, there could be several reasons. You might have made a mistake! Take a break and try again, making different choices in the Identification Key. Like all living organisms, plants exhibit a good deal of variation that can make them hard to fit into one category, and some characteristics are subject to interpretation. Remember to consider all the choices, and when narrowing down the possibilities, to read the text. Do not just rely on the illustrations. Your specimen might be too young or too old. An advantage of identifying grasses, sedges, and rushes over showy wildflowers is that the structures essential for identification stay on the plants for at least a month after the actual flowering, giving you a broader window of opportunity for accurate identification. However, they will disintegrate sooner or later, so you might have just found a plant that is too far gone. Conversely, the plant might be immature, with the flowers or fruits necessary for identification not yet developed. For the sedges and rushes especially, mature fruits are essential for identification. If the plant is immature, you will have to collect again later in the season, or, if the plant is well past prime, you will have to resign yourself to waiting for the next growing season. Finally, you might have found a plant that is not in the book. This book focuses on common and widespread species in its range; hundreds of grass, sedge, and rush species are not included. If that is the case, you will have to consult other, more comprehensive sources, whether print or digital. Most of these sources are technical (see reference list below), and we offer here suggestions for using them successfully. Follow the same advice as on p. 17 for considering the whole plant, habitat, and other field features, but be even more sensitive about collecting. For equipment, you will need a 10× hand lens, fine-­pointed forceps, dissecting needles, and a metric ruler that shows millimeter fractions. For plants with particularly small fruits or flower parts, a 10× to 20× power microscope

[ 223

is very helpful (and you can buy one with a measuring reticle installed, thus making minute measurements more exact). Small dry plant parts sometimes “jump around” the microscope stage when handled, an annoyance you can reduce by keeping on hand a small dropper bottle of water with a few drops of detergent added. With one exception, the sources listed below require a more detailed understanding of the flower, fruit, and leaf parts than does this book, along with acquisition of a specialized botanical vocabulary. While all of these books and websites have their own glossaries, some with very instructive photographs, this section also will help you to understand the specialized terminology you will encounter. Most of these sources use an identification system known as a dichotomous key—the traditional approach to identification which involves a series of forking choices that narrow down the species possibilities as you go along. If you are not familiar with the use of a dichotomous key, it helps to practice first by using a species that you know. Take it through the key, consulting the glossary when necessary. If you end up in the wrong place, find the answer and go backwards through the key; this will help familiarize you with the terms and the author’s approach. In books that have dense, small type, a ruler or other straight edge can keep your eyes from wandering onto a wrong line. A key can sometimes take you to a wrong answer even if you think you made good choices. Therefore, it is essential to check your answer against a written description of the plant. Some manuals do not contain full plant descriptions; those that do, and websites as well, are so noted below.

Books Identification Aids The following are useful in explaining grass terminology; they are like having a teacher by your side. They are good to consult before embarking on identification or for clarification. Chase, Agnes. First Book of Grasses: The Structure of Grasses Explained for Beginners. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1922. A classic, written by a woman with only a

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grammar school education who became a Senior Botanist at the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Its style might seem antiquated, but it offers clear, straightforward explanations of the different types of grass flowers. Chase, Agnes, Lynn G. Clark, and Richard W. Pohl. Agnes Chase’s First Book of Grasses: The Structure of Grasses Explained for Beginners. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 1996. An expanded, updated, and revised version of the previously listed volume. Harrington, H. D. How to Identify Grasses and Grasslike Plants (Sedges and Rushes). Chicago: The Swallow Press, 1977. Clear explanation of terms accompanied by simplified line drawings and general helpful advice. Identification Manuals These lead you to identification of species. With one exception, they all use specialized terminology, but they vary considerably in approach and design, so it is beneficial to try several. Some of these manuals include all the vascular plants of a certain region, in which case you would simply consult the section on the relevant family; others are limited to one state, but these are worth consulting no matter where you live, as many plants have wide distributions, growing throughout and even beyond the range covered in this book. Comprehensive Works Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. Gray’s Manual of Botany. 8th edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1950, corrected printing 1970. Potentially intimidating in its size and detail, and with some nomenclature out of date, but contains very thorough species descriptions. Gleason, Henry A., and Arthur Cronquist. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden, 1991. Thorough descriptions. See Holmgren, below, for illustrated companion. Haines, Arthur. Flora Novae-­Angliae. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011. Authoritative volume on all the

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vascular plants of New England, offering many features useful for identification and clear, explanatory drawings of plant details. Holmgren, Noel H. Illustrated Companion to Gleason and Cronquist’s Manual. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden, 1998. Black-­and-­white line drawings of each species described in Gleason and Cronquist 1991 (above), including fruit and flower details. Voss, Edward G., and Reznicek, Anton A. Field Manual of Michigan Flora. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012. Approachable keys, clear and informal commentary for each species, with helpful comparisons to similar plants. Books Focusing on Selected Families or Genera Arsenault, Matt, Glen H. Mittelhauser, Don Cameron, Alison C. Dibble, Arthur Haines, Sally C. Rooney, and Jill Weber. Sedges of Maine: A Field Guide to Cyperaceae. Orono: University of Maine Press, 2013. Abundant color photographs for each species and in the keys; extensive descriptions with comparisons to similar species. Chamberlain, Sarah. Field Guide to Grasses of the Mid-­ Atlantic. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2018. Black-­and-­white line drawings; approachable key with schematic icons; many tips to aid in understanding terminology. Clemants, Steven E. Juncaceae (Rush Family) of New York State. Albany: New York State Museum, The University of the State of New York, 1990. Detailed descriptions and line drawings of thirty-­one species of Juncus and five species of Luzula. Includes habitats, flowering and fruiting periods, and range distribution. Hipp, Andrew L. Field Guide to Wisconsin Sedges: An Introduction to the Genus Carex (Cyperaceae). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008. Stunning watercolor illustrations accompany detailed descriptions. Jenkins, Jerry. Sedges of the Northern Forest: A Photographic Guide. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, an

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imprint of Cornell University Press, 2019. Multi-­image composite close-­up color photographs against black backgrounds provide great clarity; includes picture-­based identification guides, concise descriptive notes, and two wall-­sized fold-­out charts. Judziewicz, Emmett J., Robert W. Freckmann, Lynn G. Clark, and Merel R. Black. Field Guide to Wisconsin Grasses. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2014. Line drawings and color photographs, both macroscopic and microscopic, the latter labeling detailed flower parts. Knobel, Edward. Field Guide to the Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes of the United States. 1899; New York: Dover Publications, revised by Mildred E. Faust, 1977. Simple, non-­technical, with black-­and-­white line drawings. Magee, Dennis W. Grasses of the Northeast: A Manual of the Grasses of New England and Adjacent New York. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2014. Compact; contains line drawings and concise species descriptions. Includes a DVD with many photographs and innovative identification techniques. Mittelhauser, Glen H., Matt Arsenault, Don Cameron, and Eric Doucette. Grasses and Rushes of Maine. Orono: University of Maine Press, 2019. Diagnostic close-­up color photographs for each species and in the keys; extensive descriptions with comparisons to similar species. Smith, Welby R. Sedges and Rushes of Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2018. Generously illustrated with color photographs; thorough descriptions with comparisons to similar species. Standley, Lisa. Field Guide to Carex of New England. Cambridge, MA: New England Botanical Club, 2011. In addition to a dichotomous key, provides a creative alternative system of identification.

Websites

Chayka, Katy. “Minnesota Wildflowers.” https://www .minnesotawildflowers.info. Abundant photographs and clear, thorough descriptions.

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Clark, Lynn. “Grasses of Iowa.” Iowa State University. http:// www.eeob.iastate.edu/research/IowaGrasses. Contains many close-­up photographs of grass flower parts and a nontechnical identification key. Hilty, John. “Illinois Wildflowers.” http://www.illinois wildflowers.info. Many photographs for each species with clear, thorough descriptions, notes on garden uses and faunal associations. Mangold, Jane, Hilary Parkinson, and Matt Lavin. “Grass Identification Basics.” Montana State University, 2014. http://store.msuextension.org/publications/AgandNatural Resources/MT201402AG.pdf. Native Plant Trust. “Go Botany.” https://gobotany.native planttrust.org. A popular website covering all vascular plants in New England, with extensive photographs and an interactive “Simple Key” which requires the use of only the characters that you can see or understand. Contains many notes about Native American uses of the plants. Turner, Jean. “An Easy Guide to Grass Identification.” http:// www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/grass_id. Written for the United Kingdom, but contains many grasses found in the United States. Has a good identification system, and good photographs.

Explanation of Some Terms Found in Technical Manuals

Following are diagrams and definitions to help you understand the specialized terms for the flower, fruit, and leaf/stem parts of plants in the Grass, Sedge, and Rush families. This section only covers the terms that specifically relate to these parts, not the many other new words you might find (like “terete” meaning round or “livid” meaning lead-­colored), which are all defined in glossaries. Here, the terms are grouped by the part of the plant in which they appear. Many of the sources listed above also have excellent glossaries and illustrations.

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Flowers Bract: a leaflike structure under a flower or an inflorescence. Bracteole: a little bract. Dimorphic: literally, having two forms; not being uniform. “Spikelets dimorphic” can mean that some are male, some female; some fertile, some sterile; or simply that they are different from each other in some way. Disarticulation: in the Grass family, the point where the flower falls off the plant, usually either above or below the glumes, and often a dividing character in keys. Disarticulation happens naturally when the grains are ripe and ready to be dispersed, but if you wait until this stage to determine the point of disarticulation, there will be nothing left for you to identify. To determine the point of disarticulation before the grains are ripe, take a firm hold of a lemma—a lemma only—with tweezers. Pull the lemma(s) and see if the glumes come with it. If they do, disarticulation is below the glumes, if they don’t, it is above. This is not a fail-­proof method, and this character can be difficult to determine. Sometimes the whole inflorescence will come apart as you handle the inflorescence, as in Hordeum jubatum, or it will all fall off in one piece. In these cases, disarticulation is either in a group of spikelets or below the whole inflorescence. You will also see the word articulation. Articulation is the point of attachment, while disarticulation is the point of detachment; for the purposes of keying out a plant, these are the same. Floret: an individual flower. Glumes: in the Grass family, two empty scales at the base of the spikelet. Inflorescence: the arrangement of the flowers on the stem or the whole cluster of flowers. There are many types of inflorescences, and the terminology is the same as for other flowering plants. Involucre: an assemblage of bracts under the inflorescence. Lemma: in the Grass family, a scale that encloses a single flower. Facing the lemma you will find another scale—the

I f Y o u D o N o t F i n d S o m e t h i n g i n Th i s B o o k [ 229

palea—and inside the two you will find the flower parts: stamens and pistil. A fertile lemma is one with a functional flower inside, either pistillate or staminate. If you find any flower parts at all, or if you find a grain, you can consider a lemma fertile. A sterile lemma has no functional flower inside it, either pistillate or staminate. Sterile lemmas are found in Panicum, Dichanthelium, and related genera. Sometimes the sterile lemma is so small that it may be overlooked (as in Phalaris) or so large that it may be mistaken for a fertile one or a glume. Palea: in the Grass family, a scale facing the lemma that also encloses the flower. The palea is usually smaller than the lemma and is sometimes hard to see because it may be folded inside the lemma. Some species of Agrostis and Alopecurus have no palea. Pedicel: a stalk that supports a single spikelet. Perigynium (pl. perigynia): in the genus Carex, a sac that encloses the female flower. Sometimes the perigynium is inflated and obvious; sometimes it is compressed and less obvious. Prophyll: in the genus Juncus, one of the pair of bracteoles that are sometimes found under the flower. Rachilla: the axis of the spikelet. Rachis: the axis of the inflorescence. Spike: a type of inflorescence, a group of flowers directly attached to a stem or stalk. Spikes are longer than wide. Spikelet: a grouping of grass or sedge flowers arranged in a spike. Spikelets, as the name implies, are small. Sessile: having no stalks, being attached directly to the main stem or a branch. Fruits Achene: a small, hard, dry fruit that looks like a seed; it consists of the dry ovary wall and one seed. The fruit of the Sedge family is an achene. Capsule: a dry fruit that opens into more than one section and contains many seeds, which will fall out when they are ripe. The fruit of the Rush family is a capsule.

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Caryopsis: the fruit of the Grass family, where the single seed is fused to the wall of the ovary. Also small, hard, and dry and looking like a seed, usually referred to as such, or as a grain. Leaves and Stems Auricle: a lobe or appendage sometimes found at the base of the leaf blade. Auricles usually come in pairs. Blade: the part of the leaf that extends out from the stem. Culm: the flowering stem. Internode: the space between two nodes. Ligule: a little projection at the top of the leaf sheath, on the inside. Node: the point where the leaf joins the stem, at the bottom of the sheath. In the Grass family, the node forms a little bulge encircling the stem. Septate: divided into sections, usually horizontal. Applies to leaves, most often of the rushes. It is sometimes more easily felt than seen and shows up better on dried plants. Sheath: the part of the leaf that wraps around the stem. It is important to distinguish the sheath from the stem, for the sheath could be fuzzy, for instance, while the stem is not, and making the wrong determination could get you to the wrong point in the key. All grasses have noticeable sheaths. Some sedges have them and some don’t, and they are not always so obvious; they look like a vertical swelling below the blade.

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Grass Family (Poaceae)

232 ]

[ 233

Sedge Family (Cyperaceae)

In the Cyperaceae, each scale encloses a flower.

234 ]

On plants with uniform spikes, it can be hard to tell which flowers are male and which are female. If the plant is in flower, you will see the stamens, but this stage is too early to key it out. When the plant is in fruit, generally, scales with perigynia and achenes inside them are female and empty ones are male.

The genus Carex is distinguished by having unisexual flowers and by the presence of the perigynium, a sac that encloses the female flower. The perigynium varies greatly in form.

[ 235

Rush Family (Juncaceae)

The stamens are still present, tucked underneath the sepals and petals. The three sepals and three petals are similar and are collectively called the perianth.

This characteristic is more easily felt than seen, if you rub the leaf with your fingers; it also shows up better on dried plants.

When looking for the prophylls, be careful not to confuse them with the little bracts at the base of the pedicel.

236 ]

Credits Line Drawings Original line drawings: © Lauren Brown Drawings on page 8, buffalo and grama grass, adapted from A. S. Hitchcock, Manual of the Grasses of the United States, 2nd ed., revised by Agnes Chase (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1950). Photographs Acorus calamus: Christian Fischer / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Agrostis gigantea: Kristian Peters / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Agrostis perennans: Glen Mittelhauser Agrostis scabra: Matt Lavin / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 2.0 Allium vineale: Arthur Haines Alopecurus pratensis: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Ammophila breviligulata: Royalbroil / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Andropogon gerardii: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Andropogon glomeratus: John Gwaltney, southeasternflora.com Andropogon virginicus: Harry Rose / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0 Anthoxanthum nitens: Marilee Lovit Anthoxanthum odoratum: © Gary P. Fleming Aristida dichotoma: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Aristida oligantha: Keir Morse Arrhenatherum elatius: Virginia DCR-­DNH, Gary P. Fleming Avena sativa: H. Zell / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0 Avenella flexuosa: Anton A. Reznicek Bolboschoenus fluviatilis: Charles E. Smith © 2015 Bolboschoenus robustus: Jim Brighton Bouteloua curtipendula: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Brachyelytrum erectum: Dan Tenaglia, missouriplants.com Bromus ciliatus: Anton A. Reznicek Bromus hordeaceus: Keir Morse Bromus inermis: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Bromus japonicus: Max Licher Bromus tectorum (with pale inflorescence): Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org Bromus tectorum (with red inflorescence): Gary A. Monroe at USDA, NRCS, National Plant Database

[ 237

Bulbostylis capillaris: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Calamagrostis canadensis: John Hilty, Illinois Wildflowers, www.illinoiswildflowers.info Carex annectens: Donald Cameron Carex crinita: Bruce Patterson Carex flava: Glen Mittelhauser Carex folliculata: Virginia DCR-­DNH, Gary P. Fleming Carex intumescens: Virginia DCR-­DNH, Gary P. Fleming Carex lasiocarpa: Hugues TINGUY / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 2.0 Carex laxiflora: Jerry Jenkins, © Northern Forest Atlas Foundation Carex lupulina: Anton A. Reznicek Carex lurida: John Hilty, Illinois Wildflowers, www.illinoiswildflowers.info Carex pensylvanica: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Carex scoparia: © Michael Hough Carex stipata: Arthur Haines Carex stricta: Arthur Haines Carex swanii: © Michael Hough Carex vulpinoidea: Donald Cameron Cenchrus longispinus: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Cinna arundinacea: D. L. Nickrent, Source: PhytoImages Cinna latifolia: R. W. Freckmann Cladium mariscoides: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Cynodon dactylon: Steve Dewey, Utah State University, Bugwood.org Cyperus bipartitus: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Cyperus diandrus: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Cyperus esculentus: John Cardina, Ohio State Weed Lab Archive, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org Cyperus lupulinus: Arthur Haines Cyperus strigosus: Arthur Haines Dactylis glomerata: Xemenendura / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Danthonia spicata: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Dichanthelium acuminatum (inflorescence): Max Licher Dichanthelium acuminatum (whole plant): Arieh Tal, http://botphoto.com Dichanthelium clandestinum: Virginia DCR-­DNH, Gary P. Fleming Digitaria cognata: Robert W. Smith Digitaria sanguinalis: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Distichlis spicata: Max Licher Dulichium arundinaceum: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Echinochloa crus-­galli: Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org Echinochloa walteri: Anton A. Reznicek Eleocharis acicularis: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com 238 ] c r e d i t s

Eleocharis obtusa: Arthur Haines Eleusine indica: © Gary P. Fleming Elymus canadensis: Christopher Noll Elymus hystrix: Arthur Haines Elymus repens: Glen Mittelhauser Elymus virginicus: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Equisetum arvense: John Cardina, Ohio State Weed Lab Archive, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org Equisetum hyemale: Douglas McGrady Eragrostis cilianensis: Max Licher Eragrostis pectinacea: Max Licher Eragrostis spectabilis: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Eriophorum virginicum: Glen Mittelhauser Festuca filiformis: Glen Mittelhauser Festuca rubra: Anton A. Reznicek Glyceria canadensis: Arthur Haines Glyceria grandis: © G. D. Bebeau Glyceria obtusa: Arthur Haines Glyceria striata: Robert W. Smith Holcus lanatus: Forest & Kim Starr / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0 Hordeum jubatum: André Karwath / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 2.5 Hordeum pusillum: Robert W. Smith Hordeum vulgare: Luigi Rignanese Juncus bufonius: Glen Mittelhauser Juncus canadensis: Steve D. Eggers Juncus effusus: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Juncus gerardii: Matti Virtala / Wikimedia Commons Juncus marginatus: Dan Tenaglia, missouriplants.com Juncus tenuis: Glen Mittelhauser Koeleria macrantha: Paul S. Drobot Leersia oryzoides: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Leersia virginica: Virginia DCR-­DNH, Gary P. Fleming Lolium perenne: Arthur Chapman / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0 Luzula multiflora: Amanda Klain Microstegium vimineum: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Miscanthus sinensis: Christopher W. Evans, University of Illinois, Bugwood.org Muhlenbergia schreberi: Russ Schipper Oryzopsis asperifolia: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Panicum capillare: Max Licher Panicum dichotomiflorum: Neal Ratzlaff, Fontenelle Forest Panicum virgatum: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com

credits [ 239

Panicum virgatum (roots): Dehaan (Steve Renich) / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0 Paspalum setaceum: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Phalaris arundinacea: Katy Chayka, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Phleum pratense: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Phragmites australis: Donna Kausen Plantago lanceolata: Dalgial / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Plantago major: Rasbak / Wikimedia Commons, CC-­BY-­SA-­3.0 Poa annua: Theodore Mankovich Poa compressa: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Poa palustris: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Poa pratensis: Keir Morse Rhynchospora capitellata: Jerry Jenkins, © Northern Forest Atlas Foundation Schedonorus pratensis: Alexey Zinovjev and Irina Kadis, salicicola.com Schizachyrium scoparium: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Schoenoplectus americanus: Virginia DCR-­DNH, Gary P. Fleming Schoenoplectus pungens: Peter M. Dziuk, Minnesota Wildflowers (www.minnesotawildflowers.info) Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani: Steve D. Eggers Scirpus cyperinus: Anton A. Reznicek Scirpus hattorianus: Robert W. Smith Scirpus microcarpus (stem): Marilee Lovit Scirpus microcarpus (inflorescence): Glen Mittelhauser Secale cereale: Niels Sloth Setaria faberi: Kropsoq / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Setaria pumila: Stefan.lefnaer / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 4.0 Setaria viridis: Rasbak / Wikimedia Commons, CC-­BY-­SA-­3.0 Sorghastrum nutans: Dale A. Zimmerman Herbarium, Western New Mexico University (courtesy of the Herbarium) Sparganium americanum: Dan Tenaglia, missouriplants.com Spartina alterniflora: David G. Smith, delawarewildflowers.org Spartina cynosuroides: Jim Brighton Spartina patens: Marilee Lovit Spartina pectinata: Marilee Lovit Sporobolus compositus: John Hilty, Illinois Wildflowers, www.illinoiswildflowers.info Sporobolus heterolepis: John Hilty, Illinois Wildflowers, www.illinoiswildflowers.info Sporobolus vaginiflorus: CJChapm / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 4.0 Tridens flavus: Bill Harms Triplasis purpurea (whole plant): Anton A. Reznicek Triplasis purpurea (inflorescence): John Hilty, Illinois Wildflowers (www.illinoiswildflowers.info) Tripsacum dactyloides: Richard Orr 240 ] c r e d i t s

Triticum aestivum (with long bristles): Robert W. Smith Triticum aestivum (with short bristles): Bluemoose / Wikimedia Commons, CC-­BY-­SA-­3.0 Typha latifolia: Le.Loup.Gris / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-­SA 3.0 Zea mays: Derek Ramsey, © 2006 (Ram-­Man), / Wikimedia Commons, GFDL 1.2 Zizania aquatica: Will Cook / carolinanature.com Maps Range Map: Words by Jen World Map: Cartography by Bill Nelson Map on page 7, Prairie Regions of the United States (drawn by Words by Jen), adapted from World Wildlife Fund (https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/terrestrial-ecoregions -of-the-world), Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D’Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. 2001. “Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth.” Bioscience.

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Index to Species Primary common names are given in boldface; alternate common names are also listed. Acorus americanus, 90 calamus, 90 Agropyron repens See Elymus repens Agrostis alba. See A. gigantea capillaris, 160 gigantea, 160–161 hyemalis, 162 perennans, 159 scabra, 162–163 Allium vineale, 68 Alopecurus pratensis, 88 American barnyard grass, 190 American beach grass, 86–87 American bur-reed, 114 American manna grass, 148 Ammophila breviligulata, 86–87 Andropogon gerardii, 112–113 glomeratus, 135 scoparius See Schizachyrium scoparium virginicus, 138–139 virginicus var. abbreviatus See A. glomeratus Annual blue grass, 200 Anthoxanthum nitens, 150 odoratum, 82 Aristida dichotoma, 99 oligantha, 100–101 Arrhenatherum elatius, 184 Atlantic manna grass, 193 Autumn bentgrass, 159 Avena sativa, 210–211

Avenella flexuosa, 152–153 Awl-fruited sedge, 58–59 Barberpole sedge, 39 Barley, 77 foxtail, 72–73 little, 69 Barnyard grass American, 190 coast, 189 common, 190–191 Beach grass, American, 86–87 Beadgrass, slender, 95 Beak rush, 46 Beaksedge, brownish, 46 Beardgrass, 112–113 Bent, Rhode Island, 160 Bentgrass autumn, 159 redtop, 160–161 rough, 162–163 winter, 162 Bermuda grass, 110 Big bluestem, 112–113 Big cordgrass, 129 Black grass, 118 Bladder sedge, greater, 61 Blue grass annual, 200 Canada, 197 flat-stemmed, 197 fowl, 201 Kentucky, 198–199 Blue joint, 208–209 Bluestem big, 112–113 broomsedge, 138–139

[ 243

Bluestem (continued) bushy, 135 little, 136–137 Blunt spike-sedge, 65 Bog cotton, 103 Bolboschoenus fluviatilis, 35 robustus, 34 Bottle-brush grass, eastern, 81 Bouteloua curtipendula, 145 Brachyelytrum aristosum, 144 erectum, 144 Bristle-grass green, 71 yellow, 71 Broad-leaved cattail, 89 Broad loose-flowered sedge, 52 Brome, 154 downy, 156–157 fringed, 155 hairy wood, 155 Hungarian, 196 Japanese, 158 smooth, 196 soft, 186 Bromus, 154 ciliatus, 155 hordeaceus, 186 inermis, 196 japonicus, 158 mollis See B. hordeaceus pubescens, 155 tectorum, 156–157 Broom-like sedge, 50–51 Broomsedge bluestem, 138–139 Brownish beaksedge, 46 Browntop, Nepalese, 96–97 Bulbostylis capillaris, 125 Bulrush dark green, 38 great, 128 244 ] i n d e x

hard-stemmed, 128 mosquito, 38 river, 35 river tuber, 35 salt-marsh, 34 sea-coast tuber, 34 soft-stemmed, 128 three-square, 33 Bur-reed, American, 114 Bushy bluestem, 135 Calamagrostis canadensis, 208–209 Canada blue grass, 197 Canada rush, 120–122 Carex, 47 annectens, 57 bromoides, 50 communis, 48 crinita, 64 flava, 54 folliculata, 62 gynandra, 64 intumescens, 61 lanuginosa See C. lasiocarpa lasiocarpa, 55 laxiflora, 52 lupulina, 60 lurida, 63 pensylvanica, 48–49 scoparia, 53 stipata, 58–59 stricta, 50–51 swanii, 56 vulpinoidea, 57 Cattail broad-leaved, 89 narrow-leaved, 89 Cenchrus longispinus, 102 tribuloides, 102 Chairmaker’s rush, 33 Cheatgrass, 156–157

Chinese foxtail, 70 Chinese silver grass, 141 Chufa, 42 Churchmouse three-awn, 99 Cinna arundinacea, 207 latifolia, 207 Cladium mariscoides, 45 Coast barnyard grass, 189 Common barnyard grass, 190–191 Common fox sedge, 57 Common plantain, 91 Common reed, 142–143 Common soft rush, 126–127 Common timothy, 85 Common velvet grass, 206 Common wood rush, 124 Cordgrass big, 129 freshwater, 130–131 salt meadow, 132–133 saltwater, 134 smooth, 134 Corn, 212–213 Cotton grass, 103 Cottonsedge, tawny, 103 Crabgrass fall, 173 hairy, 109 smooth, 109 Creeping wild rye, 93 Crow garlic, 68 Cut grass, rice, 151 Cynodon dactylon, 110 Cyperus bipartitus, 44 diandrus, 44 esculentus, 42–43 filiculmis See C. lupulinus lupulinus, 40 strigosus, 41

Dactylis glomerata, 179 Danthonia compressa, 175 spicata, 175 Dark green bulrush, 38 Deer-tongue rosette-panicgrass, 170–171 Deer-tongue grass, 170–171 Deschampsia flexuosa See Avenella flexuosa Devil’s grass, 110 Dichanthelium, 168 acuminatum, 169 clandestinum, 170–171 latifolium, 170 Digitaria cognata, 173 ischaemum, 109 sanguinalis, 109 Distichlis spicata, 84 Downy brome, 156–157 Downy chess, 156–157 Dropseed poverty, 187 prairie, 192 rough, 185 Dulichium arundinaceum, 104 Eastern bottle-brush grass, 81 Eastern gamagrass, 106–107 Eastern riverbank wild-rye, 80 Echinochloa crus-galli, 190–191 muricata, 190 walteri, 189 Eleocharis acicularis, 66 obtusa, 65 parvula, 66 Eleusine indica, 111 Elymus canadensis, 79 hystrix, 81

index [ 245

Elymus (continued) repens, 93 virginicus, 80 English plantain, 92 English rye grass, 94 Equisetum arvense, 108 hyemale, 67 Eragrostis cilianensis, 204–205 megastachya See E. cilianensis minor, 204 pectinacea, 174 spectabilis, 172 Eriophorum virginicum, 103 Eulalia, 141 Faber’s foxtail, 70 Fall crabgrass, 173 Fall panicgrass, 167 Fall witch grass, 173 Fescue fine-leaved sheep, 176 meadow, 202 red, 177–178 sheep, 176 tall, 202 Festuca elatior See Schedonorus pratensis filiformis, 176 ovina, 176 pratensis See Schedonorus pratensis rubra, 177–178 Field garlic, 68 Field horsetail, 108 Fine-leaved sheep fescue, 176 Flatsedge Great Plains, 40 nut, 42–43 shining, 44 straw-colored, 41 246 ] i n d e x

umbrella, 44 Flat-stemmed blue grass, 197 Fly-away grass, 162–163 Fowl blue grass, 201 Fowl manna grass, 146 Fox sedge, common, 57 Foxtail, 70 Chinese, 70 Faber’s, 70 giant, 70 green, 71 yellow, 71 Foxtail barley, 72–73 Freshwater cordgrass, 130–131 Fringed brome, 155 Fringed sedge, 64 Galingale, 41 Gamagrass, eastern, 106–107 Garlic, crow, 68 Giant foxtail, 70 Glyceria canadensis, 147 grandis, 148 obtusa, 193 striata, 146 Goosegrass, 111 Grama, sideoats, 145 Grass-leaved rush, 123 Grease grass, 149 Great bulrush, 128 Greater bladder sedge, 61 Great Plains flatsedge, 40 Great Plains wild-rye, 79 Green bristle-grass, 71 Green foxtail, 71 Hair grass, wavy, 152–153 Hair-sedge, tufted, 125 Hairy crabgrass, 109 Hairy rosette-panicgrass, 169

Hard-stemmed bulrush, 128 Hay, saltmarsh, 132–133 Hierochloë odorata See Anthoxanthum nitens Holcus lanatus, 206 Hop sedge, 60 Hordeum jubatum, 72–73 pusillum, 69 vulgare, 77 Horsetail, field, 108 Hungarian brome, 196 Hystrix patula See Elymus hystrix Indian grass, 182–183 Italian rye, 94 Japanese brome, 158 Japanese stiltgrass, 96–97 Juncus bufonius, 119 canadensis, 120–122 effusus, 126–127 gerardii, 118 marginatus, 123 tenuis, 116–117 June grass, 83 Kentucky blue grass, 198–199 Koeleria cristata See K. macrantha macrantha, 83 Koeler’s grass, prairie, 83 Leersia oryzoides, 151 virginica, 98 Leptoloma cognatum See Digitaria cognata Little barley, 69 Little bluestem, 136–137 Little-headed spike-sedge, 66

Lolium multiflorum, 94 perenne, 94 Long-spined sandbur, 102 Love grass little, 204 purple, 172 stinking, 204–205 Lovegrass, tufted, 174 Luzula multiflora, 124 Manna grass American, 148 Atlantic, 193 fowl, 146 rattlesnake, 147 Meadow fescue, 202–203 Meadow-foxtail, 88 Meadow rye grass, 202–203 Mesquite grass, 145 Microstegium vimineum, 96–97 Miscanthus, 141 Miscanthus sinensis, 141 Mosquito bulrush, 38 Mountain rice, 105 Muhlenbergia schreberi, 140 Narrow-leaved cattail, 89 Needlegrass, 100–101 Needle spike-sedge, 66 Nepalese browntop, 96–97 Nimblewill, 140 Nodding sedge, 64 Northern long-awned woodgrass, 144 Northern long sedge, 62 Northern wild rice, 194 Nut flatsedge, 42–43 Nut sedge, 42–43 Oak sedge, 48–49 Oat, 210–211

index [ 247

Oatgrass flattened, 175 poverty, 175 Oat grass, tall, 184 Oldfield three-awn, 100–101 Old witch grass, 166 Orchard grass, 179 Oryzopsis asperifolia, 105 Panicgrass. See also Rosettepanicgrass fall, 167 switch, 164–165 witch, 166 Panicum capillare, 166 clandestinum See Dichanthelium clandestinum dichotomiflorum, 167 lanuginosum See Dichanthelium acuminatum virgatum, 164–165 Paspalum setaceum, 95 Path rush, 116–117 Pennsylvania sedge, 48–49 Perennial rye grass, 94 Phalaris arundinacea, 180–181 Phleum pratense, 85 Phragmites americanus, 143 australis, 142–143 communis See P. australis Plantago lanceolata, 92 major, 91 rugelii, 91 Plantain common, 91 English, 92 Rugel’s, 91 Poa annua, 200 248 ] i n d e x

compressa, 197 palustris, 201 pratensis, 198–199 Pointed broom sedge, 53 Poverty dropseed, 187 Poverty grass, 99, 100–101, 175 Poverty oatgrass, 175 Prairie dropseed, 192 Prairie Koeler’s grass, 83 Prairie three-awn, 100–101 Purple love grass, 172 Purple sand grass, 188 Purpletop, 149 Purpletop tridens, 149 Quack grass, 93 Rattlesnake manna grass, 147 Red fescue, 177–178 Redtop, 160–161 Redtop bentgrass, 160–161 Reed, common, 142–143 Reed canary grass, 180–181 Reed grass, salt, 129 Rhynchospora capitellata, 46 Rice cut grass, 151 Ricegrass, roughleaf, 105 River bulrush, 35 River tuber bulrush, 35 Rosette-panicgrass broad-leaved, 170 deer-tongue, 170–171 hairy, 169 Rough bentgrass, 162–163 Rough dropseed, 185 Roughleaf ricegrass, 105 Rye, 76 Italian, 94 Rye grass English, 94 meadow, 202–203 perennial, 94

Sallow sedge, 63 Salt grass, 84 Salt-marsh bulrush, 34 Saltmarsh hay, 132–133 Saltmarsh rush, 118 Salt meadow cordgrass, 132–133 Salt reed grass, 129 Saltwater cordgrass, 134 Sandbur, long-spined, 102 Sand grass, purple, 188 Sawgrass, smooth, 45 Saw-sedge, smooth, 45 Schedonorus arundinaceus, 202 pratensis, 202–203 Schizachyrium scoparium, 136–137 Schoenoplectus acutus, 128 americanus, 33 pungens, 33 tabernaemontani, 128 Scirpus atrovirens, 38 cyperinus, 36–37 fluviatilis See Bolboschoenus fluviatilis, hattorianus, 38 microcarpus, 39 pungens See Schoenoplectus pungens robustus See Bolboschoenus robustus rubrotinctus See Scirpus microcarpus validus See Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani Scouring-rush, tall, 67 Sea-coast tuber bulrush, 34 Secale cereale, 76 Setaria, 70 faberi, 70 glauca See S.pumila pumila, 71 viridis, 71 Several-veined sweet flag, 90 Shining flatsedge, 44

Sideoats grama, 145 Silver grass, Chinese, 141 Single-veined sweet flag, 90 Slender beadgrass, 95 Slender wood reed, 207 Smooth brome, 196 Smooth crabgrass, 109 Smooth cordgrass, 134 Smooth saw-sedge, 45 Soft brome, 186 Soft chess, 186 Soft-stemmed bulrush, 128 Sorghastrum nutans, 182–183 Southern long-awned woodgrass, 144 Southern shorthusk, 144 Southern wild rice, 194–195 Sparganium americanum, 114 Spartina alterniflora, 134 cynosuroides, 129 patens, 132–133 pectinata, 130–131 Spear grass, 200 Spike grass, 84 Spike-sedge blunt, 65 little-headed, 66 needle, 66 Sporobolus asper See S. compositus compositus, 185 heterolepsis, 192 vaginiflorus, 187 Squirreltail grass, 72–73 Stiltgrass, Japanese, 96–97 Stinking love grass, 204–205 Straw-colored flatsedge, 41 Swan’s sedge, 56 Sweet flag several-veined, 90 single-veined, 90 Sweet grass, 150

index [ 249

Sweet vernal grass, 82 Sweet wood reed, 207 Switch grass, 164–165 Switch panicgrass, 164–165 Sword grass, 33 Tall oat grass, 184 Tall scouring-rush, 67 Tawny cottonsedge, 103 Three-awn churchmouse, 99 oldfield, 100–101 prairie, 100–101 Three-square bulrush, 33 Three-way sedge, 104 Ticklegrass, 162–163 Timothy, common, 85 Toad rush, 119 Tridens flavus, 149 Triodia flava See Tridens flavus Triplasis purpurea, 188 Tripsacum dactyloides, 106–107 Triticum aestivum, 74–75 Tufted hair-sedge, 125 Tufted lovegrass, 174 Turkey claw, 112–113 Tussock sedge, 50–51 Twig rush, 45 Typha angustifolia, 89 latifolia, 89 Umbrella flatsedge, 44 Umbrella sedge, 41 Vanilla grass, 150 Velvet grass, common, 206 Vernal grass, sweet, 82

250 ] i n d e x

Wavy hair grass, 152–153 Wheat, 74–75 White grass, 98 Whiteman’s foot, 91 Wild rice northern, 194–195 southern, 194–195 Wild-rye eastern riverbank, 80 Great Plains, 79 Wild rye, creeping, 93 Winter bentgrass, 162 Wiregrass, 100–101, 110 Witch grass, 93, fall, 173 old, 166 Witch panicgrass, 166 Woodgrass northern long-awned, 144 southern long-awned, 144 Wood reed slender, 207 sweet, 207 Wood rush, common, 124 Wool grass, 36–37 Wooly-fruited sedge, 55 Yellow bristle-grass, 71 Yellow foxtail, 71 Yellow-fruited sedge, 57 Yellow-green sedge, 54 Yellow nut grass, 42–43 Zea mays, 212–213 Zizania aquatica, 194–195 palustris, 194–195

About the Authors Lauren Brown has taught field botany courses in many venues, was instrumental in creating state scenic road legislation, and has been active in local land and rare plant conservation efforts. She is the author of Weeds and Wildflowers in Winter, published by Countryman Press, and Grasses: An Identification Guide, published by Houghton Mifflin. For many years, Ted Elliman worked as a botanist and plant ecologist at the Native Plant Trust (formerly the New England Wild Flower Society) in Framingham, Massachusetts. Now retired, he continues to teach numerous field courses for the Trust and many other conservation organizations in New England. Ted is the author of Wildflowers of New England, published by Timber Press.