Gournes, Pediada: A Minoan Cemetery in Crete (Prehistory Monographs) 9781931534260, 9781623034276, 1931534268
The results of the excavation of an Early Bronze Age cemetery—including 37 tombs and an associated rectangular Minoan bu
214 3 29MB
English Pages 460 [477] Year 2021
Early Minoan IB Cemetery
Spatial Distribution of EM I–III Domestic and Burial Sites in North-Central and East Crete
Calliope E. Galanaki and Joanna Triantafylidi
Early Minoan IB Cemetery
Calliope E. Galanaki
Catalog of EM IB Tombs and Their Finds
Calliope E. Galanaki, Danae Z. Kontopodi, and Joanna Triantafylidi
Early Minoan IB Pottery
Yiannis Papadatos
Petrographic Analysis of the EM IB Pottery
Eleni Nodarou
Analysis of the EM IB Pottery with Scanning Electron Microscopy
Ioannis Iliopoulos
Metal Objects from the EM IB Cemetery: Jewelry and Implements
Calliope E. Galanaki
Technological Observations Based on the Analyses of Metal and Steatite Finds from the EM IB CemeteryYannis Bassiakos, Chrysa Apostolaki, Vassilis Perdikatsis, and Sophia Sotiropoulou
Small Finds of Stone from the EM IB Cemetery: Obsidian, Chert, and Stone Jewelry
Doniert Evely
Material of Marine Origin from the EM IB Cemetery
Anastasios Eleftheriou, Joanna Triantafylidi, Lilian Karali, and Calliope E. Galanaki
Discussion I: The EM IB Cemetery as Part of the Aegean World
Yiannis Papadatos and Calliope E. Galanaki
Part II
Minoan Building
Spatial Distribution of Protopalatial–Neopalatial Domestic and Burial Sites in North-Central Crete
Calliope E. Galanaki, Joanna Triantafylidi, and Christina Papadaki
Minoan Building
Calliope E. Galanaki
Architecture of the Minoan Building
Calliope E. Galanaki and Christina Papadaki
Introduction to the Pottery from the Minoan Building
Christina Papadaki and Calliope E. Galanaki, with statistics by Charalambos Stratigis
Pottery from the Minoan Building
Christina Papadaki, Eleni Nodarou, and Calliope E. Galanaki
Petrographic Analysis of Pottery from the Minoan Building
Eleni Nodarou
Discussion II: Stratigraphy, Dating, and Use of the Minoan Building
Calliope E. Galanaki, Evangelos Kyriakidis, and Christina Papadaki
Part III
REGION of GOURNES
Region of Gournes during the Historic Period: A Hidden Rural Landscape?
Alexandros Kastanakis
Geological Observations on the Gournes Area
Charalambos Fassoulas
Discussion III: Gournes Region through Time
Alexandros Kastanakis and Charalambos Fassoulas
Gournes and Its Landscape
Calliope E. Galanaki
Excavation, Museum, and Sample Numbers, andCatalog Numbers, and Publication Numbers
Figure 3.1. Vases from Tomb 1 (P1, P12, P93, P95). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.2. Plan of Tomb 1. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.3. Photograph of Tomb 1, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.4. Objects from Tomb 2 (P13, P23, P48, P49, P102, St2, St3, St12, St22). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.5. Plan of Tomb 2. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.6. Photograph of Tomb 2, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.7. Selection of objects from Tomb 3 (P9, P20, P50, P105, T.S2). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.8. Plan of Tomb 3. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.9. Photograph of Tomb 3, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.10. Selection of objects from Tomb 4 (P2, P14, P29, P30, P51, P70–P72, P85, P94, P96, St4, St5, T.S4). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.11. Plan of Tomb 4. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.13. Detail photograph of the cavity in the burial chamber of Tomb 4. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.14. Selection of objects from Tomb 5 (P3, P25, P92, St13). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.15. Plan of Tomb 5. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.16. Photograph of Tomb 5, from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.17. Selection of objects from Tomb 6 (M1, M2, P33, P34, P52, P53). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.18. Plan of Tomb 6. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.19. Photograph of Tomb 6, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.20. Detail photograph of Tomb 6 showing finds in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.21. Vases from Tomb 7 (P10, P54). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.23. Photograph of Tomb 7, from the south, showing P54. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.25. Plan of Tomb 8. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.26. Photograph of Tomb 8, from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.27. Detail photograph of the antechamber of Tomb 8 showing P21 and P97 in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.28. Selection of objects from Tomb 9 (P7, P55, P73, P74, St14, T9.6). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.29. Plan of Tomb 9. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.30. Photograph of Tomb 9, from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.31. Detail photograph of the burial chamber of Tomb 9. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.32. Skeletal remains from Tomb 9. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.33. Pyxis (P35) from Tomb 10. Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.34. Plan of Tomb 10. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.35. Photograph of Tomb 10 from the north, showing P35 in situ . Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.36. Photograph of Tomb 10 from the south, showing P35 in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.37. Selection of objects from Tomb 11 (P4, P31, P36, P37, P75, P76, P86, P87, St15). Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.38. Plan of Tomb 11. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.39. Photograph of Tomb 11, from the west. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.40. Photograph of Tomb 11, from the north, showing vessels in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.41. Vases from Tomb 12 (P18, P32, P56, P77, P88). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.42. Plan of Tomb 12. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.43. Photograph of Tomb 12, from the north, showing vessels in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.45. Plan of Tomb 13. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.46. Photograph of Tomb 13 from the south, showing P38 and P57 in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.47. Selection of objects from Tomb 14 (P24, P58, P78, P99, T.S10). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.48. Plan of Tomb 14. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.50. Selection of objects from Tomb 15 (P59, P79, P80, St23, St29, St36). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.51. Plan of Tomb 15. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.52. Photograph of Tomb 15, from the west. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.53. Selection of objects from Tomb 16 (P5, P39, P60, St6, St37). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.54. Plan of Tomb 16. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.55. Photograph of Tomb 16, from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.56. Selection of objects from Tomb 17 (P17, P40, P41, P61–P63, St16, St27). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.57. Plan of Tomb 17. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.58. Photograph of Tomb 17, from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.59. Selection of objects from Tomb 18 (M3–M7, P42, P64, P101). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.60. Plan of Tomb 18. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.61. Photograph of Tomb 18 from the southwest, showing vessels in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.62. Photograph of Tomb 18 from the east, showing vessels in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.63. Vase from Tomb 19 (P65). Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.64. Plan of Tomb 19. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.66. Selection of objects from Tomb 20 (P11, P81, St7, St19, T20.2). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.67. Plan of Tomb 20. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.68. Photograph of Tomb 20, from the north. For scale, see Figure 3.67. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.69. Selection of objects from Tomb 21 (P6, P8, P82, P90, T.S18). P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.70. Plan of Tomb 21. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.71. Photograph of Tomb 21, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.72. Selection of objects from Tomb 22 (P26, P43, P91, St8, St28, St43). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.73. Plan of Tomb 22. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.74. Photograph of Tomb 22, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.76. Plan of Tomb 23. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.77. Photograph of Tomb 23, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.78. Selection of objects from Tomb 24 (M8, M9, P19, P44, P83). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.79. Plan of Tomb 24. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.80. Photograph of Tomb 24, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.81. Pyxis (P45) from Tomb 25. Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.82. Plan of Tomb 25. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.83. Photograph of Tomb 25, from the south, showing P45 in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.84. Bowl (P15) from Tomb 26. Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.85. Plan of Tomb 26. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.86. Photograph of Tomb 26, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.87. Plan of Tomb 27. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.88. Photograph of Tomb 27, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.90. Photograph of Tomb 28, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.91. Objects from Tomb 29 (M9, P28, P67, St20, St33, St46, T.S23). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.92. Plan of Tomb 29. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.93. Photograph of Tomb 29, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.94. Obsidian (St21) from Tomb 30. Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.95. Plan of Tomb 30. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.96. Photograph of Tomb 30, from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.97. Selection of objects from Tomb 31 (P46, T.S25). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.98. Plan of Tomb 31. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.99. Photograph of Tomb 31, from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.100. Objects from Tomb 32 (P89, P104, St47). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.101. Plan of Tomb 32. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.102. Photograph of Tomb 32, from the south-east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.103. Spouted bowl (P22) from Tomb 33. Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.104. Plan of Tomb 33. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.105. Photograph of Tomb 33, from the southeast. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.106. Alabastron (P103) from Tomb 34. Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.107. Plan of Tomb 34. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.108. Photograph of Tomb 34, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.109. Objects from Tomb 35 (M11, P16, P68, T.S29). Photos P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.110. Plan of Tomb 35. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.111. Photograph of Tomb 35, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.112. Vases from Tomb 36 (P69, P84). Photo P. Stefanaki.
Figure 3.113. Plan of Tomb 36. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.114. Photograph of Tomb 36, from the south-east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.115. Plan of Tomb 37. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 3.116. Photograph of Tomb 37, from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 1. Early Minoan I–III sites of North-Central and East Crete. M. Spyridakis.
Figure 2. Early Minoan I sites of Hagioi Theodoroi, Pyrgos, and Gournes in the Pediada. M. Spyridakis.
Figure 3. Plan of Sector 1 of the EM IB cemetery. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 4. Plan of the western portion of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 5. Plan of the eastern portion of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 6. Topographical map of Gournes showing Sectors 1 and 2 of the EM IB cemetery and the Minoan Building, showing numbered tombs. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 7. Sections of Sector 1 of the EM IB cemetery. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 8. Sections of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 9. Plan of EM IB sherds found within tombs/pits and surrounding areas in Sector 1. For sections, see Figure 7. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 10. Plan of EM IB sherds found within tombs/pits and surrounding areas in the eastern portion of Sector 2. For sections, see Figure 8. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 11. Plan of EM IB sherds found within tombs/pits and surrounding areas in the western portion of Sector 2. For sections, see Figure 8. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 12. Plan of tombs in Sector 1. K. Sbonias.
Figure 13. Plan of tombs in Sector 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 14. Graph of tomb types in Sectors 1 and 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 16. Graph of dimensions (length, width, depth) of tombs and pits in Sectors 1 and 2. Tombs arranged by sector and type (built vs. pit) in descending order according to length. K. Sbonias.
Figure 17. Graph of the shapes of burial chambers at the Gournes and Hagia Photia cemeteries. Hagia Photia: Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 7–230. K. Sbonias.
Figure 18. Charts showing the depth of tombs at the Gournes (a) and Hagia Photia (b) cemeteries. Hagia Photia: Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 7–230. K. Sbonias.
Figure 19. Charts showing the length (a) and width (b) of burial chambers at the Gournes cemetery. K. Sbonias.
Figure 20. Graph showing depths of built tombs and pits in Sectors 1 and 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 21. Graph comparing offerings deposited in the rock-cut tombs and pits of Sector 1. T = Tomb. K. Sbonias.
Figure 22. Plan showing the locations of offerings in the tombs and pits of Sector 1. K. Sbonias.
Figure 23. Graph showing dimensions (width and length) of burial chambers at Hagia Photia. K. Sbonias.
Figure 25. Graph showing the lengths of burial chambers at Gournes (a) and Hagia Photia (b). K. Sbonias.
Figure 26. Plan showing the distribution of offerings in the tombs of Sector 1. K. Sbonias.
Figure 27. Plan showing the density of broken sherds from the excavation of Sector 1. K. Sbonias.
Figure 28. Graph showing finds in the pits of Sector 1. K. Sbonias.
Figure 29. Plan of distribution of pottery in the tombs of Sector 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 30. Plan of distribution of non-pottery finds in the tombs of Sector 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 31. Plan of density of broken sherds from the excavation layers of Sector 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 32. Graph of distribution of offerings in tombs of Sectors 1 and 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 33. Graph of distribution of pottery types in the chambers of tombs in Sectors 1 and 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 34. Graph of distribution of pottery types in the antechambers of Sectors 1 and 2. K. Sbonias.
Figure 35. Graph of distribution of obsidian at Gournes. K. Sbonias.
Figure 36. Graph of distribution of obsidian in the tombs of Hagia Photia (after Davaras and Betancourt 2004). K. Sbonias.
Figure 37. Dark Burnished ware chalices: P1–P3. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 38. Dark Burnished ware chalices: P4–P6. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 39. Dark Burnished ware chalices (P7, P8) and bowls (P9–P11). Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 40. Dark Burnished ware bowls: P12–P19. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 41. Dark Burnished ware spouted bowls (P20–P33), bottle (P24), and cups (P25–P28). Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 42. Dark Burnished ware jars with fenestrations: P29–P32. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 43. Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides: P33–P39. Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 44. Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides: P40–P46. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 45. Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P47–P54. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 46. Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P55–P62. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 47. Dark burnished ware spherical pyxides: P63, P64, P66–P68, P70. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 48. Dark burnished ware lids from conical and spherical pyxides (P71, P73, P75–P79, P82, P83, P81) and spool pyxides (P86–P88). Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 49. Dark Burnished ware spool pyxis (P85), cylindrical pyxis (P89), alabastra (P90, P91), and jar (P92). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 50. Dark Gray Burnished ware chalices: P93, P94. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 51. Dark Gray Burnished ware chalices: P95–P97. Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 52. Dark Gray burnished ware chalices (P98, P99), bowl (P100), jar (P101), lid (P102), and alabastron (P103). Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 53. Dark on Light Painted ware pyxis (P104) and tankards (P105, P106), and Red Slipped and Burnished ware tankard (P107). Scale 1:2. Drawings P. Stefanaki.
Figure 54. Map of locations of FN–EBA metal objects in the Peloponnese, the Cyclades, and Crete. M. Spyridakis.
Figure 55. Plan of the distribution of metal objects in tombs at Gournes. G. Pantermarakis.
Figure 56. Silver necklace M1. Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 57. Silver beads from Gournes: M6, M10, M11. Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 58. Copper awls (M3, M4, M8); bronze shank (M7); bronze earring (M9). Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 59. Metal objects M1 and M2. Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Figure 60. X-ray powder diffraction spectrum of a stone bead from necklace M5. Anode: Cu. Y. Bassiakos.
Figure 61. Raman spectra acquired under 50x magnification on a steatite bead from necklace M5: (a) gray particles in bulk; (b) whitish particles on surface. Y. Bassiakos.
Figure 62. Fourier transform infrared spectrum acquired in transmission mode on KBr pellets of the 1–2 mg sample from stone bead from necklace M5. Y. Bassiakos.
Figure 63. Map of Crete showing sampling locations of steatite. After Jones et al. 2007.
Figure 64. Obsidian tools: St2–St5, St12, St22. D. Evely.
Figure 66. Obsidian tools: St7, St8, St17–St19, St28. D. Evely.
Figure 67. Obsidian tools (St1, St9–St11, St24–St26, St30–St32, St34, St35, St38, St39), and potential tools (St20, St33, St37). D. Evely.
Figure 68. Potential stone tools (St40–St42) and stone jewelry (St43–St47). D. Evely.
Figure 69. Plan of tombs in Sector 1 showing stone objects. D. Evely.
Figure 70. Plan of tombs in the eastern part of Sector 2 showing stone objects. D. Evely.
Figure 71. Plan of tombs in the western part of Sector 2 showing stone objects. D. Evely.
Figure 72. Plan of the EM IB cemetery and the Minoan Building showing the distribution of seashells. A. Eleftheriou.
Figure 73. Plan of distribution of seashell material in and around the tombs of Sector 1. A. Eleftheriou.
Figure 74. Plan of distribution of seashell material in and around the tombs of the western part of Sector 2. A. Eleftheriou.
Figure 75. Plan of distribution of seashell material in and around Tombs T17 and T19 of Sector 2. A. Eleftheriou.
Figure 76. Percentages of different mollusk species in the entire assemblage. A. Eleftheriou.
Figure 77. Map of Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and Postpalatial sites in North-Central Crete. A. Eleftheriou.
Figure 79. Distribution of pottery forms in layer 1. G. Panermarakis.
Figure 80. Distribution of pottery forms in layer 2. C. Stratigis.
Figure 81. Distribution of pottery forms in layer 3. C. Stratigis.
Figure 82. Distribution of pottery forms in layer 4. C. Stratigis.
Figure 83. Pithoid jars (P108, P109), jugs (P110–P115), jar (P116), and bridge-spouted vessels (P117, P118). Scale 1:2. Drawings D. Kontopodi.
Figure 84. Hole-mouthed jar (P119), indeterminate medium-/large-sized closed vessels (P120, P121, P123), and basins (P124–P130). Scale 1:2. Drawings D. Kontopodi.
Figure 85. Indeterminate medium-sized open vessel (P131), indeterminate small-sized vessel (P132), cooking dishes (P133–P146), and cooking jar (P147–P149). Scale 1:2. Drawings D. Kontopodi.
Figure 86. Bowls (P150–P163). Scale 1:2. Drawings D. Kontopodi.
Figure 87. Cups (P164–P171), straight-sided cups (P172–P184), and decorated conical cups (P185–P191). Scale 1:2. Drawings D. Kontopodi.
Figure 89. Roman sherds: hemispherical bowls (a, b), cooking pots (c, d), basins (e, f), and jugs (g, h). Scale 1:2. Drawings A. Kastanakis.
Figure 90. Portion of the Mochlos geological map (IGME 1989). 1:50,000. Black circle = location of study area; 1 = Pleistocene-Holocene beach rocks; 2 = Finikia marls; 3 = Hagia Varvara limestone; 4, 5 = Pindos flysch and limestone, respectively; 6, 7 = T
Plate 1. Aerial photograph of Sector 1 of the EM IB cemetery. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 2. Aerial photograph of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery with the Minoan Building. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 3. Sherds: S1.1–S1.3, S1.5, S1.7, S1.9–S1.16. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 4. Sherds: S1.17–S1.22. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 5. Sherds: S1.23–S1.39. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 6. Sherds: S1.40–S1.43, S1.45–S1.56. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 7. Sherds: S1.57–S1.59, S1.63, S1.67–S1.71, S1.82, S1.84, S1.85. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 8. Sherds: S1.87–S1.91, S1.93–S1.97, S1.99–S1.110. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 9. Sherds: S1.112–S1.115, S2.117, S2.118, S2.121, S2.122, S2.124. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 10. Sherds: S2.125–S2.130, S2.132, S2.134, S3.135–S3.150. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 11. Sherds: S3.151–3.181, S3.184–S3.191. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 12. Views of the visible upper portions of the vertical slabs that closed the entrances: (a) Tomb 23; (b) Tombs 31 and 32. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 13. Blocking stones of entrances visible on the surface in a triangular or linear arrangements: (a) Tomb 21; (b) Tomb 22; (c) Tomb 24. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 14. Preserved beginning of sloping roof of Tomb 17. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 15. Modes of blocking tomb entrances at Gournes: (a) Tomb 5; (b) Tomb 18; (c) Tomb 21. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 16. Flat stones on the antechamber floor probably for paved anteroom: (a) Tomb 25; (b) Tomb 31. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 17. Pits in Sector 1: (a) Tomb 12; (b) Tomb 15; (c) Tomb 13; (d) Tomb 11. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 18. Shallow pit Tomb 14 with offerings. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 19. Two views (a, b) of a pit filled with smashed sherds within Tomb 4. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 20. Pit Tomb 11 with offerings and nearby pebbled area. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 21. Lithic formation by pit Tomb 11. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 22. Wall by Tomb 20. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 23. Chamber of Tomb 3 with offerings in situ. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 24. Chamber of Tomb 6 with offerings. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 26. Antechamber of Tomb 1. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 27. Pit Tomb 12. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 29. Position of offerings in burial chambers: (a) Tomb 21; (b) Tomb 29; (c) Tomb 35; (d) Tomb 22. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 30. Smashed sherds on blocking stones in the anteroom of Tomb 22. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 31B. Detail of skeletal remains from Tomb 9, Sector 1, from the west. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 32. Bone fragments visible in the larger of two soil masses recovered for analysis from Tomb 9. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 33. Dark Burnished ware chalices: P1–P3, P5, P7, P8. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 34. Dark Burnished ware bowls (P9, P10, P13, P16–P18) and spouted bowls (P20, P21). Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 35. Dark Burnished ware bottle (P24) and cups (P25–P28). Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 36. Dark Burnished ware jars with fenestrations: P29–P32. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 37. Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides: P33–P38. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 38. Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides: P40–P46, Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 39. Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P48–P57. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 40. Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P58–P64, P66. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 41. Dark burnished ware spherical pyxides ( P67, P68, P70) and lids (P71, P73, P75–P77). Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 42. Dark Burnished ware lids (P78, P79, P82), spool pyxides (P85–P88), cylindrical pyxis (P89), and alabastron (P91). Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 45A. Fabric Group 1a, x50. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 45C. Fabric Group 1b, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 45E. Fabric Group 2, x50. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 46C. Sample GOU 03/12, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 46E. Sample GOU 03/64, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 47A. Sample GOU03/58 (surface and body). Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 47C. Sample GOU03/12 (S1.37; body). Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 49A. Photograph of Sector 1 with Tomb T6, from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 49B. Photograph of Sector 2 with Tombs T18, T24, T29, and T35, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 50. Silver necklace M5 before conservation. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 51. Silver necklace M5 after first stage of conservation. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 52. Silver necklace M5 after final stage of conservation. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 53. Detail of silver necklace M5 with the three cast squat and spherical beads. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 54A. Detail of silver necklace M5 with one of the miniscule cylindrical beads of dark gray (bluish) steatite. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 55A. Silver necklace from Tomb 26 of the cemetery at Louros, Naxos. Courtesy Archive of the National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
Plate 55B. Silver necklace from Alepotrypa, Diros Mani. After Papathanasopoulos 1988, 65, fig. 5, no. 65 (NM D 918 a–c).
Plate 56. Silver beads from Gournes: M5, M10, M11. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 57. Bronze awls/borers (M3, M4, M8); bronze shank (M7); bronze crescent-shaped earring (M9). Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 58. Bronze awls/borers from Tomb 26, from the cemetery at Louros, Naxos. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 60. Characteristic microstructure of the badly corroded silvery inlay from silver necklace M5. Note beneath the outer totally corroded surface layer (top), the degradation of the once solid metal silver core leaves only some islets of pure metal, wh
Plate 61. Microscopic image of bead from silver necklace from Alepotrypa Cave. Photo Y. Bassiakos.
Plate 64. Average XRF spectrum of M5. Y. Bassiakos.
Plate 65. Point XRF spectrum of M5. Y. Bassiakos.
Plate 66A. Photomicrograph of exterior (left) and interior (right) tiny broken stone bead from necklace M5 under stereomicroscope. Photo Y. Bassiakos.
Plate 68. Obsidian tools: St2–St27. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 69. Obsidian tools (St28–St39), potential stone tools (St40–St42), and stone jewelry (St43–St47). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 70. Seashells (TS4, TS18, TS25, TS34). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 71A. General view of the excavation of the Minoan Building, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 71B. Excavation of the Minoan Building, from the west. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 72A. Minoan Building and Tombs 26–28, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 72B. Minoan Building and Tombs 26–28, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 73A. Minoan Building: Rooms 1 and 3, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 73B. Detail of the Minoan Building and Tombs 26–28, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 74A. General view of Minoan Building, from the southeast. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 74B. General view of Minoan Building and EM IB cemetery, from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 75A. General view of the Minoan building and the EM IB cemetery, from the northeast. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 75B. General view of the Minoan building and the EM IB cemetery, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 76A. Minoan Building, Room 1: Tomb 26, from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 76B. Minoan Building, Room 1: Tomb 27, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 77. Minoan Building, Room 3: Tomb 28, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 78. Sherds P108–P120. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 79. Sherds P121–P128. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 80. Sherds P129–P145. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 81. Sherds P146–P160. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 82. Sherds P161–P181. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 83. Sherds P182–P194. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 84. Sherds P195–P208. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 85A. Fabric Group 1a, x25, low fired. Note light-colored and optically active matrix. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 85C. Fabric Group 1a (x25), used for basins. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 85E. Fabric Group 1c, x25. Note the presence of microfossils. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 86A. Fabric Group 1d, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 86C. Fabric Group 2a, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 86E. Fabric Group 2b, x25. Note large clay pellets. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 87A. Fabric Group 2c, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 87C. Fabric Group 3, with fine clay pellets. x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 87E. Fabric Group 5, fine calcareous, x25. Photo E. Nodarou.
Plate 88A. Conical cups in Room 1 of the Minoan building, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 88B. Conical cups in Room 1 of the Minoan Building, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 89. Conical cup in Room 1 of the Minoan building, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 90. Roman cistern north of Gournes from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 91. Roman sherds: basins (a, b), hemispherical bowls (c, d), cooking pot (e), amphorae (f, g), jugs (h, i), pithos (j), and cup (k). Scale 1:2. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Plate 92A. Dark dolomite from the Tripolitsa unit used as construction material in the building at the first site. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 92B. Various lithologies of the construction materials of the first site: (1) gray limestoneof the Tripolitsa unit ; (2) sandstone of the Pindos unit; and (3) marly limestone from Neogene settlements. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 93A. Limestone breccias with dark limestone of the Tripolitsa unit from the walls of the building at the first site at upper right. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 93B. White (left) and marly (center) neogene limestone, dark limestone (far right), and gray limestone (bottom) from the construction material of the first site, all belonging to Neogene rocks. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 94A. Cherty limestone from the construction material of the first site, possibly from the Pindos unit. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 94B. Cemented conglomerate with fossil remains from the nearby recent marine terraces used as construction material at the first site. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 95A. Sandy beach rocks with fossils. Photo C. Fassoulas.
Plate 95B. Dolomitic boulder with holes of Lithodomus lithofaga. Photo C. Fassoulas.
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Gournes, Pediada A Minoan Cemetery in Crete
PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 63
Gournes, Pediada A Minoan Cemetery in Crete
by Calliope E. Galanaki
with contributions by Chrysa Apostolaki, Yannis Balis, Yannis Bassiakos, Anastasios Eleftheriou, Doniert Evely, Georgios Fanourakis, Charalambos Fassoulas, Eleni Filippaki, Ioannis Iliopoulos, Lilian Karali, Alexandros Kastanakis, Danae Z. Kontopodi, Evangelos Kyriakidis, Argyro Nafplioti, Eleni Nodarou, Georgia Pachaki, Georgios Pantermarakis, Christina Papadaki, Yiannis Papadatos, Vassilis Perdikatsis, Kostas Sbonias, Sophia Sotiropoulou, Charalambos Stratigis, and Joanna Triantafylidi
Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2021
Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, PA Printing and Binding HF Group – Acmebinding, Charlestown, MA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Galanaki, Calliope E., 1955- author. Title: Gournes, Pediada : a Minoan cemetery in Crete / by Calliope E. Galanaki. Description: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania : INSTAP Academic Press, 2021. | Series: Prehistory monographs ; 63 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020011624 (print) | LCCN 2020011625 (ebook) | ISBN 9781931534260 (hardback) | ISBN 9781623034276 (adobe pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Minoans--Funeral customs and rites--Greece--Gournes (Crete) | Cemeteries--Greece--Gournes (Crete) | Burial--Greece--Gournes (Crete) | Bronze age--Greece--Gournes (Crete) | Excavations (Archaeology)--Greece--Gournes (Crete) | Gournes (Crete, Greece)--Antiquities. Classification: LCC DF221.C8 G35 2021 (print) | LCC DF221.C8 (ebook) | DDC 393/.1093918--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020011624 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020011625
Copyright © 2021 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America
Dedicated to Emmanuel A. Galanakis
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations in the Text. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix List of Tables. ................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... xiii List of Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv List of Plates. .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... xix Preface..................................................................................................................... xxv Acknowledgments...................................................................................................... xxix List of Abbreviations................................................................................................... xxxi PART I: EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY 1. Early Minoan I–III Domestic and Burial Sites in North-Central and East Crete, Calliope E. Galanaki and Joanna Triantafylidi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 3 2. Early Minoan IB Cemetery, Calliope E. Galanaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3. Catalog of the Early Minoan IB Tombs and Their Finds, Calliope E. Galanaki, Danae Z. Kontopodi, and Joanna Triantafylidi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4. Catalog of the Early Minoan IB Pottery Sherds, Joanna Triantafylidi and Georgios Pantermarakis.... 55 5. Burial Architecture and Funerary Practices at the Early Minoan IB Cemetery, Kostas Sbonias. . . . . . . 69 6. Human Skeletal Remains in the Early Minoan IB Cemetery: The Question of the Missing Bones, Argyro Nafplioti. ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 107 7. Early Minoan IB Pottery, Yiannis Papadatos................................................................... 117
viii
GOURNES, PEDIADA: A MINOAN CEMETERY IN CRETE
8. Petrographic Analysis of the Early Minoan IB Pottery, Eleni Nodarou.................................... 141 9. Analysis of the Early Minoan IB Pottery with Scanning Electron Microscopy, Ioannis Iliopoulos. .. 151 10. Metal Objects from the Early Minoan IB Cemetery: Jewelry and Implements, Calliope E. Galanaki... 153 11. Technological Observations Based on the Analyses of Metal and Steatite Finds from the Early Minoan IB Cemetery, Yannis Bassiakos, Chrysa Apostolaki, Vassilis Perdikatsis, Eleni Filippaki, and Sophia Sotiropoulou with Georgia Pachaki, Georgios Fanourakis, and Yannis Balis.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 161 12. Small Finds of Stone from the Early Minoan IB Cemetery: Obsidian, Chert, and Stone Jewelry, Doniert Evely. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 13. Material of Marine Origin from the Early Minoan IB Cemetery, Anastasios Eleftheriou, Joanna Triantafylidi, Lilian Karali, and Calliope E. Galanaki............................................... 181 14. Discussion I: The Early Minoan IB Cemetery as Part of the Aegean World, Yiannis Papadatos and Calliope E. Galanaki.......................................................................................... 185 PART II: MINOAN BUILDING 15. Protopalatial to Neopalatial Domestic and Burial Sites in North-Central Crete, Calliope E. Galanaki, Joanna Triantafylidi, and Christina Papadaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 197 16. Minoan Building, Calliope E. Galanaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201 17. Architecture of the Minoan Building, Calliope E. Galanaki and Christina Papadaki................... 203 18. Introduction to the Pottery from the Minoan Building, Christina Papadaki and Calliope E. Galanaki, with Statistics by Charalambos Stratigis.............................................. 207 19. Pottery from the Minoan Building, Christina Papadaki, Eleni Nodarou, and Calliope E. Galanaki. . . 209 20. Petrographic Analysis of Pottery from the Minoan Building, Eleni Nodarou............................ 219 21. Discussion II: Stratigraphy, Dating, and Use of the Minoan Building, Calliope E. Galanaki, Evangelos Kyriakidis, and Christina Papadaki...................................... 227 PART III: REGION OF GOURNES 22. Region of Gournes during the Historic Period: A Hidden Rural Landscape? Alexandros Kastanakis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 23. Geological Observations on the Area of Gournes, Charalambos Fassoulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 239 24. Discussion III: The Gournes Region throughout Time, Alexandros Kastanakis and Charalambos Fassoulas............................................................................................ 241 Epilogue: Gournes and Its Landscape, Calliope E. Galanaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 243 Concordance: Excavation or Herakleion Museum Numbers, Preliminary Publication Numbers, and Final Catalog Numbers. ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 245 References. . ..................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 249 Index.. . . . . . . ..................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 269 Tables Figures Plates
List of Illustrations in the Text
Illustration 3.1.
Vases from Tomb 1 (P1, P12, P93, P95). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Illustration 3.2.
Plan of Tomb 1.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 12
Illustration 3.3.
View of Tomb 1 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Illustration 3.4.
Objects from Tomb 2 (P13, P23, P48, P49, P102, St2, St3, St12, St22). . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 13
Illustration 3.5.
Plan of Tomb 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Illustration 3.6.
View of Tomb 2 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Illustration 3.7.
Selection of objects from Tomb 3 (P9, P20, P50, P105, T.S2).............................. 14
Illustration 3.8.
Plan of Tomb 3.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 15
Illustration 3.9.
View of Tomb 3 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Illustration 3.10. Selection of objects from Tomb 4 (P2, P14, P29, P30, P51, P70–P72, P85, P94, P96, St4, St5, T.S4)......................................................................... 16 Illustration 3.11. Plan of Tomb 4.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 16 Illustration 3.12. View of Tomb 4 from the north. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Illustration 3.13. Detail of the cavity in the burial chamber of Tomb 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 17 Illustration 3.14. Selection of objects from Tomb 5 (P3, P25, P92, St13). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 17 Illustration 3.15. Plan of Tomb 5.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 18 Illustration 3.16. View of Tomb 5 from the southwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
x
Illustration 3.17.
GOURNES, PEDIADA: A MINOAN CEMETERY IN CRETE
Selection of objects from Tomb 6 (M1, M2, P33, P34, P52, P53). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 19
Illustration 3.18. Plan of Tomb 6.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 19 Illustration 3.19. View of Tomb 6 from the south................................................................. 19 Illustration 3.20. Detail of Tomb 6 showing finds in situ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 19 Illustration 3.21. Vases from Tomb 7 (P10, P54). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Illustration 3.22. View of Tomb 7 showing P54, from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 20 Illustration 3.23. Plan of Tomb 7.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 20 Illustration 3.24. Plan of Tomb 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Illustration 3.25. View of Tomb 8 from the southwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Illustration 3.26. Selection of objects from Tomb 8 (P21, P97, St45).......................................... 21 Illustration 3.27. Detail of the antechamber of Tomb 8 showing P21 and P97 in situ..................... 21 Illustration 3.28. Selection of objects from Tomb 9 (P7, P55, P73, P74, St14, T9.6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Illustration 3.29. Plan of Tomb 9.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 23 Illustration 3.30. View of Tomb 9 from the east................................................................... 23 Illustration 3.31. Detail of the burial chamber of Tomb 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Illustration 3.32. Skeletal remains from Tomb 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 23 Illustration 3.33. Pyxis (P35) from Tomb 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Illustration 3.34. Plan of Tomb 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Illustration 3.35. View of Tomb 10 showing P35 in situ, from the north. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 24 Illustration 3.36. View of Tomb 10 showing P35 in situ, from the south..................................... 24 Illustration 3.37. Selection of objects from Tomb 11 (P4, P31, P36, P37, P75, P76, P86, P87, St15). . . . . 25 Illustration 3.38. Plan of Tomb 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Illustration 3.39. View of Tomb 11 from the west. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Illustration 3.40. View of Tomb 11 showing vessels in situ, from the north. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 26 Illustration 3.41. Vases from Tomb 12 (P18, P32, P56, P77, P88).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 26 Illustration 3.42. Plan of Tomb 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Illustration 3.43. View of Tomb 12 showing vessels in situ, from the north. . ................................ 27 Illustration 3.44. Plan of Tomb 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Illustration 3.45. View of Tomb 13 showing P38 and P57 in situ, from the south.......................... 27 Illustration 3.46. Vases from Tomb 13 (P38, P57).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Illustration 3.47. Selection of objects from Tomb 14 (P24, P58, P78, P99, T.S10).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 28 Illustration 3.48. Plan of Tomb 14......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 28 Illustration 3.49. View of Tomb 14 taken from the southwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 28 Illustration 3.50. Selection of objects from Tomb 15 (P59, P79, P80, St23, St29, St36).................... 29 Illustration 3.51. Plan of Tomb 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
xi
Illustration 3.52. View of Tomb 15 from the west. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Illustration 3.53. Selection of objects from Tomb 16 (P5, P39, P60, St6, St37).............................. 30 Illustration 3.54. Plan of Tomb 16......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 30 Illustration 3.55. View of Tomb 16 from the southwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Illustration 3.56. Selection of objects from Tomb 17 (P17, P40, P41, P61–P63, St16, St27)............... 31 Illustration 3.57. Plan of Tomb 17................................................................................... 32 Illustration 3.58. View of Tomb 17 from the southwest.......................................................... 32 Illustration 3.59. Selection of objects from Tomb 18 (M3–M7, P42, P64, P101)............................ 33 Illustration 3.60. Plan of Tomb 18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Illustration 3.61. View of Tomb 18 showing vessels in situ, from the southwest............................ 33 Illustration 3.62. View of Tomb 18 showing vessels in situ, from the east.................................... 33 Illustration 3.63. Vase from Tomb 19 (P65)....................................................................... 34 Illustration 3.64. View of Tomb 19 from the southwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 34 Illustration 3.65. Plan of Tomb 19......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 34 Illustration 3.66. Selection of objects from Tomb 20 (P11, P81, St7, St19). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Illustration 3.67. Plan of Tomb 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Illustration 3.68. View of Tomb 20 from the north. . ............................................................. 35 Illustration 3.69. Selection of objects from Tomb 21 (P6, P8, P82, P90, T.S18)............................. 36 Illustration 3.70. Plan of Tomb 21. . ................................................................................. 37 Illustration 3.71. View of Tomb 21 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Illustration 3.72. Selection of objects from Tomb 22 (P26, P43, P91, St8, St28, St43)...................... 38 Illustration 3.73. Plan of Tomb 22. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Illustration 3.74. View of Tomb 22 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Illustration 3.75. Plan of Tomb 23................................................................................... 39 Illustration 3.76. View of Tomb 23 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Illustration 3.77. Vases from Tomb 23 (P27, P66, P100)........................................................ 39 Illustration 3.78. Selection of objects from Tomb 24 (M8, M9, P19, P44, P83). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 40 Illustration 3.79. Plan of Tomb 24......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 40 Illustration 3.80. View of Tomb 24 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 40 Illustration 3.81. Pyxis (P45) from Tomb 25...................................................................... 41 Illustration 3.82. Plan of Tomb 25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Illustration 3.83. View of Tomb 25 showing P45 in situ, from the south..................................... 41 Illustration 3.84. Bowl (P15) from Tomb 26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 42 Illustration 3.85. Plan of Tomb 26......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 42 Illustration 3.86. View of Tomb 26 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 42
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Illustration 3.87. Plan of Tomb 27......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 43 Illustration 3.88. View of Tomb 27 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 43 Illustration 3.89. Plan of Tomb 28. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Illustration 3.90. View of Tomb 28 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 44 Illustration 3.91. Objects from Tomb 29 (M10, P28, P67, St20, St33, St46, T.S23). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 45 Illustration 3.92. Plan of Tomb 29......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 45 Illustration 3.93. View of Tomb 29 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Illustration 3.94. Obsidian (St21) from Tomb 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Illustration 3.95. Plan of Tomb 30. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Illustration 3.96. View of Tomb 30 from the southwest.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 46 Illustration 3.97. Selection of objects from Tomb 31 (P46, T.S25)............................................. 47 Illustration 3.98. Plan of Tomb 31. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Illustration 3.99. View of Tomb 31 from the southwest.......................................................... 47 Illustration 3.100. Objects from Tomb 32 (P89, P104, St47). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Illustration 3.101. Plan of Tomb 32......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 48 Illustration 3.102. View of Tomb 32 from the southeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 48 Illustration 3.103. Spouted bowl (P22) from Tomb 33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Illustration 3.104. Plan of Tomb 33......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 49 Illustration 3.105. View of Tomb 33 from the southeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 49 Illustration 3.106. Alabastron (P103) from Tomb 34. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 50 Illustration 3.107. Plan of Tomb 34................................................................................... 50 Illustration 3.108. View of Tomb 34 from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Illustration 3.109. Objects from Tomb 35 (M11, P16, P68, T.S29).............................................. 51 Illustration 3.110. Plan of Tomb 35................................................................................... 51 Illustration 3.111. View of Tomb 35 from the south. . ............................................................. 51 Illustration 3.112. Vases from Tomb 36 (P69, P84). . .............................................................. 52 Illustration 3.113. Plan of Tomb 36.. ................................................................................. 52 Illustration 3.114. View of Tomb 36 from the southeast.......................................................... 52 Illustration 3.115. Plan of Tomb 37. . ................................................................................. 53 Illustration 3.116. View of Tomb 37 from the east................................................................. 53 Illustration 4.1.
Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Illustration 4.2.
Sherds from Tomb 26, Tomb 27, and the Minoan Building.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Illustration 4.3.
Sherds from the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 63
List of Tables
Table 1.
Comparison of tomb dimensions from the cemeteries of Gournes, Hagia Photia, Agrilia, and Manika.
Table 2.
Size and weight of bone fragments from Tomb 9.
Table 3.
List of cataloged vases.
Table 4.
List of samples selected for thin-section petrography.
Table 5.
Results of the SEM-EDS analyses.
Table 6.
Metal objects: jewelry and implements from the Gournes cemetery.
Table 7.
X-ray fluorescence surface analyses of metallic finds from the excavation at Gournes.
Table 8.
Laboratory XRF analyses of irregular ferrous sample M2.
Table 9.
Multiple SEM-EDX analyses (“window”) on a worn silver bead and on a tiny bead of blue stone from necklace M5.
Table 10.
Cataloged stone objects and their findspots in and around the tombs.
Table 11.
Cataloged stone objects and their findspots from the surrounding area of the cemetery.
Table 12.
Cataloged seashells from the EM IB cemetery.
Table 13.
Cataloged seashells from the surrounding area of the cemetery.
Table 14.
Frequency of shell material found in the EM IB cemetery tombs.
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GOURNES, PEDIADA: A MINOAN CEMETERY IN CRETE
Table 15.
Excavation data of the Minoan Building.
Table 16.
Correspondence between fabric groups and shapes.
Table 17.
Sherds of the historic period.
List of Figures
Figure 1.
Early Minoan I–III sites of North-Central and East Crete.
Figure 2.
Early Minoan I sites of Hagioi Theodoroi, Pyrgos, and Gournes in the Pediada.
Figure 3.
Plan of Sector 1 of the EM IB cemetery.
Figure 4.
Plan of the western portion of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery.
Figure 5.
Plan of the eastern portion of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery.
Figure 6.
Map of Sectors 1 and 2 of the EM IB cemetery and the Minoan Building, showing numbered tombs.
Figure 7.
Cross-sections of Sector 1 of the EM IB cemetery.
Figure 8.
Cross-sections of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery.
Figure 9.
Plan of EM IB sherds found within tombs/pits and surrounding areas in Sector 1.
Figure 10.
Plan of EM IB sherds found within tombs/pits and surrounding areas in the eastern portion of Sector 2.
Figure 11.
Plan of EM IB sherds found within tombs/pits and surrounding areas in the western portion of Sector 2.
Figure 12.
Plan of tombs in Sector 1.
Figure 13.
Plan of tombs in Sector 2.
Figure 14.
Graph of tomb types in Sectors 1 and 2.
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GOURNES, PEDIADA: A MINOAN CEMETERY IN CRETE
Figure 15.
Graph of dimensions of tombs and pits in Sectors 1 and 2 (depth and maximum length).
Figure 16.
Graph of dimensions of tombs and pits in Sectors 1 and 2 (length, width, depth).
Figure 17.
Graph of the shapes of burial chambers at the Gournes and Hagia Photia cemeteries.
Figure 18.
Charts showing the depth of tombs at the Gournes (a) and Hagia Photia (b) cemeteries.
Figure 19.
Charts showing the length (a) and width (b) of burial chambers at the Gournes cemetery.
Figure 20.
Graph showing the depths of built tombs and pits in Sectors 1 and 2.
Figure 21.
Graph comparing offerings deposited in the rock-cut tombs and pits of Sector 1.
Figure 22.
Plan showing the locations of offerings in the tombs and pits of Sector 1.
Figure 23.
Graph showing dimensions (width and length) of burial chambers at Hagia Photia.
Figure 24.
Graph showing dimensions (width and length) of burial chambers at Gournes.
Figure 25.
Charts showing the lengths of burial chambers at Gournes (a) and Hagia Photia (b).
Figure 26.
Plan showing the distribution of offerings in the tombs of Sector 1.
Figure 27.
Plan showing the density of broken sherds from the excavation of Sector 1.
Figure 28.
Graph showing the number and types of finds in the pit tombs of Sector 1.
Figure 29.
Plan of the distribution of pottery in the tombs of Sector 2.
Figure 30.
Plan of the distribution of non-pottery finds in the tombs of Sector 2.
Figure 31.
Plan of the density of broken sherds from the excavation layers of Sector 2.
Figure 32.
Graph of the distribution of offerings in tombs of Sectors 1 and 2.
Figure 33.
Graph of the distribution of pottery types in the chambers of tombs in Sectors 1 and 2.
Figure 34.
Graph of the distribution of pottery types in the antechambers of Sectors 1 and 2.
Figure 35.
Graph of the distribution of obsidian at Gournes.
Figure 36.
Graph of the distribution of obsidian in the tombs of Hagia Photia.
Figure 37.
Dark Burnished ware chalices: P1–P3.
Figure 38.
Dark Burnished ware chalices: P4–P6.
Figure 39.
Dark Burnished ware chalices (P7, P8) and bowls (P9–P11).
Figure 40.
Dark Burnished ware bowls: P12–P19.
Figure 41.
Dark Burnished ware spouted bowls (P20–P22), bottle (P24), and cups (P25–P28).
Figure 42.
Dark Burnished ware jars with fenestrations: P29–P32.
Figure 43.
Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides: P33–P39.
Figure 44.
Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides: P40–P46.
Figure 45.
Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P47–P54.
Figure 46.
Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P55–P62.
Figure 47.
Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides: P63, P64, P66–P68, P70.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 48.
xvii
Dark burnished ware lids from conical and spherical pyxides (P71, P73, P75–P79, P82–P84) and spool pyxides (P86–P88).
Figure 49. Dark Burnished ware spool pyxis (P85), cylindrical pyxis (P89), alabastra (P90, P91), and jar (P92). Figure 50.
Dark Gray Burnished ware chalices: P93, P94.
Figure 51.
Dark Gray Burnished ware chalices: P95–P97.
Figure 52. Dark Gray Burnished ware chalices (P98, P99), bowl (P100), jar (P101), lid (P102), and alabastron (P103). Figure 53.
Dark on Light Painted ware pyxis (P104) and tankards (P105, P106), and Red Slipped and Burnished ware tankard (P107).
Figure 54.
Aluminum oxide-iron oxide biplot showing compositional difference between clay body and surface of analyzed pottery samples.
Figure 55.
Map of locations of FN–EBA metal objects in the Peloponnese, the Cyclades, and Crete.
Figure 56.
Plans of the distribution of metal objects in tombs at Gournes.
Figure 57.
Silver necklace M5.
Figure 58.
Silver beads from Gournes: M6, M10, M11.
Figure 59.
Copper awls (M3, M4, M8); bronze shank (M7); bronze earring (M9).
Figure 60.
Metal objects M1 and M2.
Figure 61.
X-ray powder diffraction spectrum of a stone bead from necklace M5.
Figure 62.
Raman spectra acquired under 50x magnification on a steatite bead from necklace M5.
Figure 63.
Fourier-transform infrared spectrum acquired in transmission mode on KBr pellets of the 1–2 mg sample from stone bead from necklace M5.
Figure 64.
Map of Crete showing sampling locations of steatite.
Figure 65.
Obsidian blades: St2–St5, St12, St22.
Figure 66.
Obsidian blades: St7, St8, St17–St19, St28.
Figure 67.
Obsidian tools: bladelet (St6), blades (St13–St16, St21, St23, St27, St29), and chunk (St36).
Figure 68. Stone tools: obsidian blades (St1, St9–St11, St24–St26), obsidian bladelet (St20), obsidian blades/flakes (St30–St32), obsidian flake (St33), obsidian chunks (St34, St35, St37), and chert (St38, St39). Figure 69.
Possible stone tools (St40–St42), stone bead (St43), and stone pendants/beads (St44–St47).
Figure 70.
Plan of tombs in Sector 1 showing findspots of stone objects.
Figure 71.
Plan of tombs in the eastern part of Sector 2 showing findspots of stone objects.
Figure 72.
Plan of tombs in the western part of Sector 2 showing findspots of stone objects.
Figure 73. Plan of the Early Minoan IB cemetery and the Minoan Building showing the distribution of seashells. Figure 74.
Plan of the distribution of seashell material in and around the tombs of Sector 1.
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Figure 75. Plan of the distribution of seashell material in and around the tombs of the western part of Sector 2. Figure 76.
Plan of the distribution of seashell material in and around Tombs 17 and 19 of Sector 2.
Figure 77.
Percentages of different mollusk species in the entire marine assemblage.
Figure 78.
Map of Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and Postpalatial sites in North-Central Crete.
Figure 79.
Plan of the Minoan Building with labeled balk sections and grid squares.
Figure 80.
Distribution of pottery forms in layer 1 of the Minoan Building.
Figure 81.
Distribution of pottery forms in layer 2 of the Minoan Building.
Figure 82.
Distribution of pottery forms in layer 3 of the Minoan Building.
Figure 83.
Distribution of pottery forms in layer 4 of the Minoan Building.
Figure 84. Pithoid jars (P108, P109), jugs (P110–P115), jar (P116), bridge-spouted vessels (P117, P118), hole-mouthed jar (P119), and indeterminate medium-/large-sized closed vessels (P120, P121, P123). Figure 85.
Basins (P124–P130), indeterminate medium-sized open vessel (P131), indeterminate small-sized vessel (P132), and cooking dishes (P133–P142).
Figure 86.
Cooking dishes (P143–P146), cooking jars (P147–P149), bowls (P150–P161), and indeterminate small-sized open vessels (P162, P163).
Figure 87. Cups (P164–P171), straight-sided cups (P172–P184), and decorated conical cups (P185– P191). Figure 88. Plain conical cups (P192–P197), rounded cups (P198–P204), goblets/footed cups (P205– P207), and Vapheio cup (P208). Figure 89.
Roman sherds: hemispherical bowls (a, b), cooking pots (c, d), basins (e, f), and jugs (g, h).
Figure 90.
Portion of the Mochlos geological map.
List of Plates
Plate 1A.
Aerial photograph of Sector 1 of the EM IB cemetery.
Plate 1B.
Aerial photograph of Sector 2 of the EM IB cemetery with the Minoan Building.
Plate 2.
Sherds: S1.1–S1.3, S1.5, S1.7, S1.9–S1.16.
Plate 3.
Sherds: S1.17–S1.22.
Plate 4.
Sherds: S1.23–S1.39.
Plate 5.
Sherds: S1.40–S1.43, S1.45–S1.56.
Plate 6.
Sherds: S1.57–S1.59, S1.63, S1.67–S1.71, S1.75, S1.82, S1.84, S1.85.
Plate 7.
Sherds: S1.87–S1.91, S1.93–S1.97, S1.99–S1.110.
Plate 8.
Sherds: S1.112–S1.115, S2.117, S2.118, S2.121, S2.122, S2.124.
Plate 9.
Sherds: S2.125–S2.130, S2.132, S2.134, S3.135–S3.150.
Plate 10.
Sherds: S3.151–S3.181, S3.184–S3.191.
Plate 11A. Views of the visible upper portions of the vertical slabs that closed the entrances: (a) Tomb 23; (b) Tombs 31 and 32. Plate 11B. Blocking stones of entrances visible on the surface in triangular or linear arrangements: (a) Tomb 21; (b) Tomb 22; (c) Tomb 24. Plate 11C. Preserved beginning of the sloping roof of Tomb 17 from the north.
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Plate 12A. Modes of blocking tomb entrances at Gournes: (a) Tomb 5; (b) Tomb 18; (c) Tomb 21. Plate 12B. Flat stones on the antechamber floor, probably for paved anteroom: (a) Tomb 25; (b) Tomb 31. Plate 12C. Pits in Sector 1: (a) Tomb 11; (b) Tomb 12; (c) Tomb 13; (d) Tomb 15. Plate 13A. Shallow pit Tomb 14 with offerings in situ. Plate 13B. Two views (a, b) of a pit filled with smashed sherds within Tomb 4. Plate 13C. Pit Tomb 11 with offerings in situ and nearby pebbled area. Plate 13D. Lithic formation near pit Tomb 11. Plate 14A. Wall near Tomb 20. Plate 14B. Chamber of Tomb 3 with offerings in situ. Plate 14C. Chamber of Tomb 6 with offerings in situ. Plate 14D. Antechamber of Tomb 8 with finds in situ. Plate 14E. Antechamber of Tomb 1 from the south. Plate 15A. Pit Tomb 12 with finds in situ. Plate 15B. Offerings in pit Tomb 11. Plate 15C. Position of offerings in burial chambers: (a) Tomb 21; (b) Tomb 22; (c) Tomb 29; (d) Tomb 35. Plate 16A. Smashed sherds on blocking stones in the antechamber of Tomb 22. Plate 16B. Skeletal remains (T9.6) in Tomb 9, Sector 1. Plate 16C. Detail of skeletal remains (T9.6) in Tomb 9, Sector 1. Plate 16D. Bone fragments visible in the larger of two soil masses recovered for analysis from Tomb 9. Plate 17.
Dark Burnished ware chalices (P1–P3, P5, P7, P8).
Plate 18.
Dark Burnished ware bowls (P9, P10, P13, P16–P18), spouted bowls (P20, P21), and bottle (P24).
Plate 19.
Dark Burnished ware cups (P25–P28) and jars with fenestrations (P29, P30).
Plate 20.
Dark Burnished ware jars with fenestrations (P31, P32) and conical pyxides (P33–P38).
Plate 21.
Dark Burnished ware conical pyxides (P40–P46) and spherical pyxides (P48–P51).
Plate 22.
Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides (P52–P62).
Plate 23.
Dark Burnished ware spherical pyxides (P63, P64, P66–P68, P70) and pyxis lids (P71, P73, P75, P76).
Plate 24.
Dark Burnished ware pyxis lids (P77–P79, P82), spool pyxides (P85–P88), cylindrical pyxis (P89), and alabastron (P91).
Plate 25.
Dark Gray Burnished ware chalices (P93–P97).
Plate 26.
Dark Burnished ware chalice (P99), jar (P101), and alabastron (P103); and DoLPW pyxis (P104) and tankard (P105).
Plate 27A. Fabric Group 1a, x50. Plate 27B. Fabric Group 1a, x50.
LIST OF PLATES
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Plate 27C. Fabric Group 1b, x25. Plate 27D. Fabric Group 1c, x50. Plate 27E. Fabric Group 2, x50. Plate 28A. Fabric Group 3, x50. Plate 28B. Fabric Group 3, sample GOU03/34, x50. Plate 28C. Sample GOU03/12, x25. Plate 28D. Sample GOU03/63, x25. Plate 28E. Sample GOU03/64, x25. Plate 29A. Sample GOU03/58 (surface and body). Plate 29B. Sample GOU03/39 (P96; body). Plate 29C. Sample GOU03/12 (S1.37; body). Plate 29D. Sample GOU03/12 (S1.37; surface). Plate 29E. Photograph of Sector 1 with Tomb 6, from the east. Plate 30A. Photograph of Sector 2 with Tombs 18, 24, 29, and 35, from the south. Plate 30B. Silver necklace M5 before conservation. Plate 31A. Silver necklace M5 after first stage of conservation. Plate 31B. Silver necklace M5 after final stage of conservation. Plate 32A. Detail of silver necklace M5 with the three cast squat and spherical beads. Plate 32B. Detail of silver necklace M5 with one of the miniscule cylindrical beads of dark gray (bluish) steatite. Plate 32C. Steatite bead from silver necklace M5. Plate 33A. Silver necklace from Tomb 26 of the cemetery at Louros, Naxos. Plate 33B. Silver necklace from Alepotrypa, Diros Mani. Plate 33C. Silver beads from Gournes: M6, M10, M11. Plate 34A. Bronze awls/borers (M3, M4, M8); bronze shank (M7); bronze crescent-shaped earring (M9). Plate 34B. Bronze awls/borers from Tomb 26 of the cemetery at Louros, Naxos. Plate 35A. Irregular corroded copper object (M1) and irregular ferrous masses (M2). Plate 35B. Characteristic microstructure of the badly corroded silvery inlay from silver necklace M5. Plate 35C. Microscopic image of a bead from the Alepotrypa Cave silver necklace. Plate 35D. Scanning electron microscopy of stone bead from necklace M5. Plate 36A. Scanning electron microscopy of stone bead from M5 in fine structure. Plate 36B. Average SEM-EDX spectrum of M5. Plate 36C. Point SEM-EDX spectrum of M5.
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Plate 37A. Photomicrograph of exterior (left) and interior (right) of the tiny, broken stone bead from necklace M5 under stereomicroscope. Plate 37B. Photomicrograph detail of the section of the bead from necklace M5 under optical microscope. Plate 38.
Obsidian tools (St1–St27).
Plate 39.
Obsidian tools (St28–St39), potential stone tools (St40–St42), and stone jewelry (St43–St47).
Plate 40A. Seashells: T.S4, T.S18, T.S25, T.S34. Plate 40B. General view of the excavation of the Minoan Building from the south. Plate 41A. Excavation of the Minoan Building from the west. Plate 41B. Minoan Building and Tombs 26–28 from the north. Plate 42A. Minoan Building and Tombs 26–28 from the south. Plate 42B. Rooms 1 and 3 of the Minoan Building from the north. Plate 43A. Detail of the Minoan Building and Tombs 26–28 from the north. Plate 43B. General view of the Minoan Building from the southeast. Plate 44A. General view of the Minoan Building and the EM IB cemetery from the east. Plate 44B. General view of the Minoan Building and the EM IB cemetery from the northeast. Plate 45A. General view of the Minoan Building and the EM IB cemetery from the south. Plate 45B. Tomb 26 in Room 1 of the Minoan Building, from the east. Plate 46A. Tomb 27 in Room 1 of the Minoan Building, from the north. Plate 46B. Tomb 28 in Room 3 of the Minoan Building, from the north. Plate 47.
Sherds P108–P120.
Plate 48.
Sherds P121 and P123–P128.
Plate 49.
Sherds P129–P145.
Plate 50.
Sherds P146–P160.
Plate 51.
Sherds P161–P181.
Plate 52.
Sherds P182–P194.
Plate 53.
Sherds P195–P208.
Plate 54A. Fabric Group MB1a, x25, low fired. Plate 54B. Fabric Group MB1a, x25. Plate 54C. Fabric Group MB1a, x25, used for basins. Plate 54D. Fabric Group MB1b, x25. Plate 54E. Fabric Group MB1c, x25. Plate 55A. Fabric Group MB1d, x25. Plate 55B. Fabric Group MB1e, x25. Plate 55C. Fabric Group MB2a, x25.
LIST OF PLATES
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Plate 55D. Fabric Group MB2a, x25. Plate 55E. Fabric Group MB2b, x25. Plate 56A. Fabric Group MB2c, x25. Plate 56B. Fabric Group MB2d, x25. Plate 56C. Fabric Group MB3, with fine clay pellets, x25. Plate 56D. Fabric Group MB4, fine with small quartz fragments, x25. Plate 56E. Fabric Group MB5, fine calcareous, x25. Plate 57A. Conical cups in Room 1 of the Minoan building, from the south. Plate 57B. Conical cups in Room 1 of the Minoan Building, from the north. Plate 57C. Conical cup in Room 1 of the Minoan building, from the north. Plate 57D. View of the Roman cistern north of Gournes, from the east. Plate 58A. Roman sherds: basins (a, b), hemispherical bowls (c, d), cooking pot (e), amphorae (f, g), jugs (h, i), pithos (j), and cup (k). Plate 58B. Dark dolomite from the Tripolitsa Unit used as construction material in the building at the first site. Plate 58C. Various lithologies of the construction materials of the first site: (1) gray limestone of the Tripolitsa Unit; (2) sandstone of the Pindos Unit; and (3) marly limestone from Neogene settlements. Plate 59A. Limestone breccias with dark limestone of the Tripolitsa Unit from the walls of the building at the first site at upper right. Plate 59B. White and marly limestone, dark limestone, and gray limestone from the construction material of the first site, all belonging to Neogene rocks. Plate 59C. Cherty limestone from the construction material of the first site, possibly from the Pindos Unit. Plate 59D. Cemented conglomerate with fossil remains from the nearby recent marine terraces used as construction material at the first site. Plate 59E. Sandy beach rocks with fossils. Plate 59F. Dolomitic boulder with holes of Lithodomus lithophaga.
Preface Calliope E. Galanaki
Early Minoan IB Cemetery From March to June 1999, a rescue excavation was carried out by the 23rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities (EPCA) at the site of the former United States (US) Herakleion Air Station at Gournes, Pediada, Crete, presently occupied by the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR; the former Institute of Marine Biology of Crete), which was responsible for commissioning and funding the excavation. The precise position of the excavation lies 415 m from the north coastline, 1,900 m from the location of Pyrgos in the modern village of Kokkini Chani, and 13.5 km from the city of Herakleion. The excavation revealed an Early Minoan (EM) IB cemetery that included a total of 37 rock-cut tombs and pits arranged in two clusters (Sectors 1 and 2), a three-room rectangular Minoan Building on the northwest side of the cemetery, and a Roman cistern to the northeast. Although the relationship of the EM IB cemetery with a contemporary settlement could not be established, the presence of several domestic or burial remains in the broader area testify to the extent and the character of the communities along the
north-central coast of Crete during the Early Bronze Age (EBA). The grounds of the existing HCMR installations, comprising an area of 14.085 acres (57,000 m2), were systematically investigated, initially by the removal of the loose surface soil, first using light mechanical means and then manually until the locations of the two sectors of the cemetery were established. Modern interventions and adaptations, undertaken as part of former uses of the area (e.g., metal fencing and the installation of irrigation pipes in Sector 2), were responsible for a partial destruction resulting in the fragmentary condition of both the EM IB tombs and the Minoan Building. In many cases, it was clear that relocation of the stones supporting the fence, alteration of the original shape of the tombs and the complete collapse of their vaults, shifting of the grave offerings, and disturbance of deposits inside and outside some tombs had occurred. Once the excavation was completed, the Regional Archaeological Council decided that the EM IB cemetery, with the exception of Tombs 26–28 inside the Minoan Building (which at present lies in the parking area west of the HCMR), should be covered.
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The aim of the current study is to present the EM IB cemetery at Gournes and compare it with other Early Minoan sites in and outside Crete in order to investigate links between the Prepalatial funerary practices and also to look into settlement sites that display similar characteristics in order to detect possible intercultural relations in the Aegean.
Minoan Building On the northwest side of the EM IB cemetery, the three-room rectangular Minoan Building was found on the western boundary of the plot. In the surrounding area, between the later building and the EM IB cemetery, many trial trenches were dug in which a large number of sherds from the Early Minoan, Middle Minoan (MM), and Late Minoan (LM) periods and also from historical times were found. No further structures were discovered, except for a Roman cistern located some distance away at the northeast side of the plot. Once the excavation had been completed, the Minoan Building (including the three EM IB tombs numbering 26–28 in its interior) was made accessible to the general public. The aim of the current study is to describe the Minoan Building and its role in the area where the EM IB cemetery, with which it is spatially connected, had been established earlier, by reconstructing the topography and history of the broader area from the Protopalatial to the Postpalatial period.
Organization of Volume Part I of the volume is centered on the EM IB cemetery. Chapter 1 presents an analysis of the spatial distribution of EM I–III domestic and burial sites in North-Central Crete. Their interconnections confirm the existence, since the EM I period, of a dense social network favored by the landscape of the island as well as its social exploitation. The architecture, pottery, and small finds reflect strong affinities with the Cyclades, thereby confirming the existence
of a vast social network and the emergence of contacts with distant areas of Crete. Chapter 2 deals specifically with the Early Minoan cemetery of Gournes, Pediada, which was excavated in 1999 and represents a site of key importance. The analysis of archeological remains supports the hypothesis that this site forms a link with other Prepalatial burial and domestic sites in North-Central and East Crete. Through its excavation and study, we gain a better understanding of the social networks behind both settlements and cemeteries in the EM I–III periods. In Chapter 3, a complete catalog of epigrammatic but methodical descriptions of every tomb in Sectors 1 and 2 of the cemetery is presented, along with a complete list of finds per tomb in alphanumeric order. The lists include all artifacts, whole or mended, associated with each tomb as well as the pottery sherds and seashells found in or outside the tombs. The EM IB pottery sherds from the cemetery are presented in Chapter 4, in a series of tables, according to findspot (i.e., in the tombs, in the area of the Minoan Building, and in the wider area of the cemetery). The tables include basic features of each sherd or group of sherds. The organization of the cemetery, the architectural features of the tombs (both built tombs and simple pits cut into bedrock) and their main characteristics (e.g., chambers, antechambers, entrances and ways of blocking them, modes of construction, shapes and dimensions, and burial practices and beliefs) are addressed in Chapter 5. Considering the layout of the Gournes cemetery, some main features that are discussed include the arrangement of tombs in two discrete clusters, the spacing and orientation of the individual tombs, and the possible marking of tombs on the surface. Comparable practices, features, similarities, and differences of other cemeteries in Crete, the Cyclades, and mainland Greece are discussed, and the adoption of specific tomb types and modes of cemetery organization at Gournes are set within a wider Aegean context. The discussion of burial practices at Gournes involves both the significance of several features of the funerary architecture and the consideration of the character and deposition of offerings in the tombs. The distribution of finds in the tombs of Sectors 1 and 2 is presented, and issues related to burial customs are discussed. Disposal of the body is briefly commented upon in relation to the question of the missing skeletal material and the presence of primary burials at Gournes. Finally,
PREFACE
social dimensions arising from the study of Gournes cemetery are commented upon, and insights into many different aspects, such as community size, demography, and social differences reflected in the burial sphere, are briefly mentioned. In Chapter 6, the paucity of skeletal remains from the site using available osteological evidence is discussed. The result of the X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis of soil samples from select tombs is also dealt with in relation to hypothetical bone mineral dissolution. The question of the missing bones is put into context by means of a systematic review of the relevant literature on Early Bronze Age mortuary contexts on Crete and the author’s own observations. Different modes of the disposal of the dead are discussed, in addition to post-depositional practices and manipulation of remains, with a view toward assessing the complexity and diversity of mortuary behavior and practices in Early Bronze Age Crete and shedding light on the absence of bones from such contexts in particular. The ceramic assemblage of the Prepalatial cemetery is presented in Chapter 7. The vast majority of vessels in the assemblage belong to a single ware, Dark Burnished ware (DBW), which is made of calcite-tempered clay and comprises vases of a rather limited repertoire, mostly chalices and various types of pyxides and bowls. The function and distribution of these vases suggest mortuary practices that involved the deposition of offerings inside closed vases, namely pyxides, which were placed inside the tomb next to the dead, and a small-scale private ceremony of drinking or libations with open vases, namely chalices or bowls, which were deposited inside the tomb or thrown in the antechamber. The entire ceramic assemblage belongs to a single phase, EM IB, and it has strong parallels with several sites in North Crete and the Cyclades. Despite strong Cycladic influence on the vast majority of the pottery in terms of shape, surface treatment, and clay preparation, the analytical and typological evidence suggests that the entire assemblage was most probably made on Crete rather than imported. This Prepalatial assemblage is further analyzed in Chapter 8, wherein thin-section petrography is used for the comparative study of the Cycladic-style Kampos Group pottery against the Minoan repertoire of shapes and wares. An array of fabrics is established, and their possible origins are discussed. In Chapter 9, a more in-depth technological study examines the
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chemical composition and firing temperature of the different wares through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In Chapter 10, the analysis of a series of objects made of precious metals dated between the Final Neolithic (FN) period and the end of the Early Minoan period and scattered across burial contexts in North-Central and East Crete is presented. Valuable information regarding the social dynamics of the period is presented, in particular a change in local traditions beginning in EM IB. Metal and steatite finds from the EM IB necropolis at Gournes are discussed in Chapter 11. The small finds of stone from the EM IB cemetery are presented in Chapter 12. This is a relatively restricted body of material, not quite reaching 50 component items and made even slightly less promising by the fact that the vast majority of the obsidian finds are from soils outside the tombs and even potentially connected with a nearby Middle Minoan– Late Minoan structure. The score or so pieces from within the tombs are nothing like the volume found at sites like Hagia Photia. Overall, the material tentatively suggests, at best, a mixed community, and at the least one exposed to Cycladic influences. A total of 125 almost whole seashells and a large number of fragments found in the area of the cemetery are presented in Chapter 13. The material in general was in a very poor state of preservation due to environmental and taphonomic reasons, but the presence of marine species in the tombs seems to derive from their consumption during funerary meals, a kind of symbolic rite of passage common to sacred and funerary areas in Bronze Age Crete. It is interesting to note that the predominant species of mollusks found in the Gournes cemetery are different from most similar, excavated Minoan sites. A final discussion of the evidence of the cemetery is presented in Chapter 14. The first section deals with the contextualization of the cemetery, with particular reference to the contemporary cemetery of Hagia Photia and the neighboring settlement of Poros-Katsambas. Then, the connection of the cemetery with the Cyclades addressed. After a discussion of theoretical issues such as the function of material culture as symbols of ethnic identity and origin, and the validity of mortuary practices as reflections of everyday life, special emphasis is given to the place and technology of production of the funerary offerings, tomb architecture, and burial rituals. The
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available evidence suggests that the Gournes cemetery served as a social arena to express and communicate the strong links of the people of Gournes with off-Cretan networks of interaction and exchange during EM IB. These networks were related to the acquisition and circulation of imported Cycladic raw materials and their transformation into desirable artifacts, which were then distributed to other neighboring sites and areas. Part II of the volume involves the Minoan Building. First, the distribution of Protopalatial/ Neopalatial domestic and burial sites is presented in Chapter 15. The growth of these sites in NorthCentral Crete is attested by considerable evidence of various remains close to the coast and also at hilly sites. Destructions that occurred at the end of the Bronze Age caused in some cases the total abandonment of settlements, whereas in other cases, inhabitants continued to populate nearby areas using related domestic or burial sites. The analysis of these sites allows the integration of Middle Bronze Age (MBA) Gournes into this general context. Data derived from the Minoan Building, which was simultaneously excavated alongside the EM IB cemetery, is presented in Chapter 16. The data suggests that tombs were visible during the construction of the building, thus raising questions about chronology and the relationship of the building with the cemetery. The architecture of the Minoan Building is presented in Chapter 17, where it is argued that the building most likely had one architectural phase. Although many areas of the building are unclear due to later destruction, the structure presents a simple plan comparable to many Minoan domestic or burial edifices at various sites scattered throughout North-Central and East Crete. The pottery of the Minoan Building is dealt with in Chapters 18 and 19. The corpus includes a total of 872 badly preserved, mixed Prepalatial, Protopalatial, and
Neopalatial sherds, mainly from undecorated bodies of indeterminate vessels. The catalog (Ch. 19) contains the most diagnostic sherds, which are comprised primarily of small- and medium-sized vessels. Their dating and classification is primarily based on macroscopic morphological and technological characteristics, and secondly confirmed by the petrographic analysis presented in Chapter 20. Characteristic shapes and decorative motifs also allow the dating of the pottery. The array of fabrics and their potential origins are discussed in Chapter 20 in association with the possible character and function of the building. A synthetic discussion of the stratigraphy, date, and use of the Minoan Building is presented in Chapter 21. Considering the specific location of the building, the duration of its use from EM III–LM IA, and its ritual character in association with funerary contexts, it is proposed that the Minoan Building was originally constructed as a house tomb and was subsequently cleared and reused as a support building for rituals after the abandonment of the EM IB cemetery. The region of Gournes is discussed in Part III of the volume. Chapter 22 presents the study of sherds from historical times found in the cemetery and provides another way of interpreting this seemingly insignificant aspect of the archaeological record. These so-called common pottery sherds were transported along with manuring material for fertilization. These sherds, in reality thrown away as garbage by ancient inhabitants, enrich data relevant to the chronology and extent of the cultivation of the land. The geological bedrock and construction material used at Gournes is discussed in Chapter 23, and final discussions are presented in Chapter 24 and the Epilogue. In the latter, the coastal landscape of North-Central Crete and its decisive role in the organization of the domestic, burial, and ritual use of the area through time are discussed.
Acknowledgments
The rescue excavation of the EM IB cemetery and Minoan Building at Gournes, at the site of the former US Herakleion Air Station, was conducted from March to June 1999 by the 23rd EPCA under the direction of its archaeologist Calliope Galanaki. The excavation was funded by the HCMR (formerly the Institute of Marine Biology of Crete). The research team consisted of archaeologist Joanna Triantafylidi, Nikolaos Koutoulakis and Emmanuel Roumbakis, permanent workers of the 23rd EPCA, and Konstantinos Androulakis, Eleutherios Kavousanakis, Agapios Rethemiotakis, and Philippos Tzouliadakis. The installations of the HCMR, comprising an area of 14.085 acres (57,000 m2), were systematically investigated by first removing the loose surface soil with light mechanical means, under the strict supervision of the skillful permanent Guard of Antiquities of the 23rd EPCA, Amanakis Stavros. The poor skeletal remains and the small finds (i.e., pottery, metal jewelry and implements, stone objects, and seashells) from the excavation of the EM IB cemetery and the Minoan Building were placed in the pottery and metal objects laboratories of the 23rd EPCA. The pottery conservation was undertaken by
its specialized conservators, Eirini Karousou, Anastasios Karousos, and Panagiotis Synadinakis, with the collaboration of younger staff members Yannis Rogdakis and Eirini Synadinaki, now of the Herakleion Museum, as well as Yannis Balis, Aggeliki Psaroudaki, and Alexandros Sapountzakis. The conservation of the metal objects was carried out by the very experienced conservators Demetrios Vasilakakis, Charalambos Kalogerakis, Georgia Pachaki, Georgios Fanourakis, and Antonios Fountoulakis. After the four-year field project, the preparation of the final publication began in 2000, and it was undertaken more systematically from 2003 onward, funded mainly by the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). Three main reports have been published: the first for the EM IB cemetery in Archaiologikon Deltion (Galanaki 1999, 853–856), the second in the proceedings of the Θʹ International Cretological Congress (Galanaki 2006), and the third in the proceedings of the Iʹ International Cretological Congress (Galanaki et al. 2011b). The pottery and the small finds were cataloged and classified by the expert archaeologists Christina Papadaki and Joanna Triantafylidi, initially as research
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assistants and now as contributing authors, with the participation of the following, to all of whom we are obviously indebted: Danae Kontopodi, Kostas Sbonias, Yiannis Papadatos, Eleni Nodarou, Ioannis Iliopoulos, Argyro Nauplioti, Chrysa Apostolaki, Vassilis Perdikatsis, Yannis Bassiakos, Sophia Sotiropoulou, Doniert Evely, Anastasios Eleftheriou, Lilian Karali, Evangelos Kyriakidis, Alexandros Kastanakis, and Charalambos Fassoulas. We also give thanks to the key partners of this volume, designers Konstantinos Kontogiannis, Danae Kontopodi, and Georgios Pantermarakis, for the steady development of the general excavation plans, sections, and topographical maps of the EM IB cemetery and Minoan Building area. Danae Kontopodi dealt also with the scanning of all the excavation photos in digital form. Thanks are due also to: photographer Yannis Papadakis-Ploumidis, for the excellent photographs of the area of the tombs and of the small finds; illustrator Penelope Stefanaki, for the profile drawings of the pottery and other objects, especially of the silver necklace (M5); cartographer Michalis Spyridakis, for the long-lasting pastime of preparing the maps in this volume; authors Anastasios Eleftheriou and Doniert Evely, who dealt in detail with the preliminary editing of the English text; and archaeologist Phlora Michelaki, for the translation of parts of the Greek texts into English. Thanks are also due to archaeologists Alexia Spilitopoulou and Vicki Argiti for their assistance. We extend our gratitude to designer Georgios Pantermarakis, for the layout of this volume, excepting the following: archaeologist and designer Danae Kontopodi, for the layout of the tomb catalog in Chapter 3 and the figures of the pottery from the Minoan Building in Chapter 19; archaeologist Maria Kokosali who helped with editing; Ifigeneia Karavia, Sissy Kostara, and Nicolas Borboudakis, for help in photo editing; and Stratigis Charalambos for the pottery statistics in Chapter 18.
The authors of Chapter 11 are grateful for the repeated support of INSTAP. Special thanks are addressed to Konstantinos Athanassas, Eleni Filippaki, and Georgios Mastrothodoros, all members of the Laboratory of Archaeometry/“Demokritos,” for conducting part of the required analyses. Yannis Bassiakos acknowledges generous funding from the Stavros Niarchos Foundation that made possible the acquisition and utilization of the pXRF analytical unit for cultural purposes. Funding for the Gournes Project (2003–2006) was principally supplied by INSTAP, to whom we are immensely grateful. On a personal level we are pleased to thank Philip Betancourt and Karen Vellucci, for always making themselves available to offer sound advice and encouragement. Important financial support was also provided by the 23rd EPCA and the Herakleion Archaeological Museum. The excavation, study, and analysis of the Gournes cemetery and its surroundings was possible because of the goodwill of several institutions and the hard work of many individuals. We take pleasure in having the opportunity to express our gratitude in public and permanent form here to Demokritos Laboratories, the Department of Mineral Resources Engineering of the Technical University of Crete, the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, and the Mediterranean Archeological Trust. The following individuals also assisted in many different ways: James Muhly; Thomas Brogan, Director of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete (INSTAP SCEC); Katerina Kopaka; Honorary Directors of Antiquities Georgios Rethemiotakis, Athanasia Kanta, Andonis Vasilakis, Alexandra Karetsou, and Photini Zapheiropoulou; and Kostis Christakis, Joanna Serpetsidaki, and Maria Roussaki, archaeologists of the 23rd EPCA.
List of Abbreviations
a angular AC antechamber BA Bronze Age bop bulb of percussion or pressure BS Balk Section(s) C chamber cat. catalog DBW Dark Burnished ware DGBW Dark Gray Burnished ware diam. diameter DoLPW Dark-on-Light Painted ware EB Early Bronze EBA Early Bronze Age EC Early Cycladic EDS energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry EH Early Helladic EM Early Minoan EN Early Neolithic EPCA Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities est. estimated exc. excavation ext. exterior
FN Final Neolithic FTIR Fourier transform infrared g gram(s) gr. greatest GS Grid Square(s) h. height ha. hectare(s) HCMR Hellenic Centre for Marine Research HM Herakleion Archaeological Museum HMΛ Herakleion Museum Λίθηνα ICP inductively coupled plasma IGME Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration INSTAP Institute for Aegean Prehistory INSTAP SCEC Institute for Aegean Prehistory Study Center for East Crete int. interior km kilometer(s) kV kilovolt(s) L. length
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LH Late Helladic LM Late Minoan LN Late Neolithic lt. liter(s) m meter(s) M metal object mA milliampere(s) m asl meters above sea level max. maximum MB Minoan Building MBA Middle Bronze Age MC Middle Cycladic mg milligram(s) min. minimum MH Middle Helladic mm millimeter(s) MM Middle Minoan mW milliwatt(s) mya million years ago NCSR National Center for Scientific Research Nd not determined nm nanometer(s) NM National Archaeological Museum of Athens no(s). number(s) OTEK Οργανισμός Τουριστικής Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης/ Organization for Tourism Education and Training P pottery PDF Powder Diffraction File PIKPA Πατριωτικό Ίδρυμα Κοινωνικής Πρόνοιας/ Patriotic Foundation for Social Welfare
PPL plane-polarized light pres. preserved pXRF portable X-ray fluorescence r rounded RSPW Red Slipped and Polished ware S sherd sa subangular SA surrounding area SA.S surrounding area seashell SA.St surrounding area stone objects SEM scanning electron microscopy SEM-EDS scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive spectrometry SEM-EDX scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy sr subrounded St stone object T Tomb TCFs textural concentration features th. thickness TOC total organic carbon T.S tomb seashell US United States w. width wt. weight XP cross-polarized light XRD X-ray powder diffraction XRF X-ray fluorescence Z atomic number μ micron(s) μm micrometer(s)
Part I Early Minoan IB Cemetery
1
Early Minoan I–III Domestic and Burial Sites in North-Central and East Crete
Calliope E. Galanaki and Joanna Triantafylidi
This chapter briefly presents the spatial distribution of the Early Minoan (EM) I–III domestic and burial sites of North-Central and East Crete (Fig. 1), as well as their widely known interconnections. The regional character of the population probably gradually formed during the Final Neolithic (FN)–EM I period through the mixing of indigenous settlers with newcomers (Betancourt 2003). In the successive EM II period, the settlement expansion continued but at a demonstrably slower pace. The end of the EM II period was marked by the abandonment and destruction of many sites, while during the EM III period the available evidence for occupation of large sites is extremely limited and many smaller sites were abandoned (Watrous 1994, 701, 707–721; 2001, 166–167, 179). Practical reasons (e.g., destruction due to successive building phases), however, can explain to a certain degree the reduction in the number of settlements that can be documented during the Prepalatial period (Panagiotakis 2006, 169). In North-Central Crete, a pattern of habitation involving settlements in the valleys along the north coast or inland in the hilly areas is more common compared to southern
Crete. This model probably follows the landscape of North Crete—that is, the existence of open valleys (Sbonias 2006, 189–191). In general, the Early Minoan period in North-Central Crete is not equally represented by burial and domestic sites, and consequently our knowledge remains mainly dependent on cemeteries (during EM I–II, the total number of settlements is relatively low). As far as burial assemblages are concerned, during the Prepalatial period, and specifically in EM I– IIA, Crete can be divided into several regions based on mortuary customs. These variations in mortuary behavior obviously echo differences in social structure that were reflected in the adaptation of offisland products in political and ideological customs, which resulted in certain grave goods and beliefs. Gradually this distinction became less clear, and many of the EM I–IIA cemeteries in North-Central Crete fell out of use at the beginning of EM IIB when a few new cemeteries are first documented in East Crete (Legarra Herrero 2009, 34, 45–46). The following discusses the spatial distribution of EM I– III domestic and burial sites, beginning in NorthCentral Crete and moving toward East Crete.
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CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
The pottery unearthed from the Prophetes Elias Cave in Arkalochori in North-Central Crete (Fig. 1), including Pyrgos Ware, may indicate its early burial function, while the metal objects deposited in a hoard there probably reflect its consequent ritual character (Hazzidakis 1912–1913; Marinatos 1935, 218; Platon 1970, 100; 1973, 253; Rethemiotakis 1999a, 105–107, 111; Tyree 2006, 333, 342). Its associated settlement has not been excavated. Northwest of Arkalochori, a rock shelter with burial use during the Prepalatial period was excavated at the socalled Kapella hill, situated between the villages of Kanli Kastelli (Prophetes Elias) and Kyparissi (Fig. 1; Serpetsidaki 1994; 2006, 243–255; Tyree 2006, 342). It yielded human skeletal remains, characteristic EM IIB–III/Middle Minoan (MM) IA pottery, figurines of Cycladic and Cretan types, and seals. Also in the area of Kanli Kastelli, between Kyparissi and Galeni (located south of Kyparissi) at the site of Korphi tou Vathia or Teichidia, a rich EM IB–IIA cave tomb had finds with Cycladic parallels, including vessels and obsidian blades (Fig. 1; Alexiou 1951). Finally, at the site called Vitsala near Kanli Kastelli, a great amount of EM II–III sherds was discovered, suggesting the existence of a settlement (Evans 1921–1935, II, 71–74). Northeast of Kanli Kastelli, the earliest objects from Archanes and its periphery derive mainly from the cave of Stravomyti, the cemetery at Phourni, Vathypetro, and the Prepalatial domestic installation in the center of the modern village of Archanes (Fig. 1; Evans 1921–1935, I, 68–71; Marinatos 1949, 109; Faure 1996, 67–69; Sakellarakis and SapounaSakellaraki 1997, 376–393). These finds range in date from Final Neolithic–EM III. Pottery from the cave at Stravomyti includes vessels in the styles of Hagios Nikolaos (Palaikastro), Hagios Onouphrios, and Pyrgos, and similar material comes from Partira, the Eileithyia Cave, Knossos, and Platyvola. From the cemetery at Phourni (Chamber Tomb E and Burial Buildings 18 and 19) comes EM IIA pottery, and similar material comes from the area of the church of Hagios Nikolaos in the modern village of Archanes, where an EM II–III settlement was excavated. The EM IIB pottery, some of it of the Koumasa and Vasiliki Ware classes, has been revealed in the Tourkogeitonia area under the Palatial Building and the above-mentioned domestic site at Hagios Nikolaos. Both EM III pottery and EM IIB Vasiliki Ware come from the same site at Hagios Nikolaos
and from the cemetery at Phourni (Chamber Tomb G, Burial Buildings 6, 8, 12, 18, and 19, and the socalled Area of the Rocks). Also, the peak sanctuary on the south slope of nearby Mt. Juktas began by the EM II period and lasted until Late Minoan (LM) III and later (Karetsou 1974; 1975; 1984; 1985). All the above reflect indirect affinities between Archanes and the Mesara Plain and more direct relations with sites in North-Central Crete, mainly Knossos. At Knossos, EM I pottery is present in a variety of deposits mainly found beneath the northern part of the palace (Fig. 1). Many of the deposits are mixed, but a fine closed deposit from EM I comes from a well, and a number of different wares and shapes are included; the EM I fill deposits from Knossos are smaller and more fragmentary. For the EM IIA period, pottery comes mainly from the West Court house group and from the fills found in various tests beneath the palace, including in the northern quarter. The EM IIB period is best represented in large fill deposits outside the south facade of the palace. Close affinities between the EM I pottery from Knossos and Poros-Katsambas (see below) have been observed, as well as between the EM IIA pottery from Knossos and the Early Cycladic (EC) II pottery from the central and western Cyclades (Evans 1972, 120; Wilson 1984; 1985, 286; 1994; 2007, 49–56; Wilson and Day 2000; Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004; Hood 2006). Also, the extensive field survey conducted in the wider district of Knossos yielded valuable new information for the evolution of the site over a considerable period of time (Bredaki, Vasilakis, and Whitelaw 2010). At Gazi, situated near the coast northwest of Knossos, Early Minoan and Middle Minoan sherds were recovered from a pit, but only a few Early Minoan pottery sherds have been collected southwest of the village (Fig. 1; Syriopoulos 1994, 552–553). Recent excavations carried out northwest of the village brought to light part of a poorly preserved Final Neolithic/EM I–IIA hamlet with rich finds such as pottery, obsidian blades, a stone axe, many other implements, and a fragment of a clay statuette (Pylarinou and Vasilakis 2010). Numerous Cycladic artifacts from rescue excavations at Poros-Katsambas on the coast to the east of Gazi and north of Knossos form a substantial part of its Early Bronze Age (EBA) deposits, where pottery dating to the Early Minoan Ι–ΙΙΑ
EARLY MINOAN I–III DOMESTIC AND BURIAL SITES IN NORTH-CENTRAL AND EAST CRETE
period is part of an assemblage of domestic-related cooking, serving, and storing vessels (Fig. 1; Dimopoulou 1997; Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004; 2014; Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004; 2008; Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki, Wilson, and Day 2007; Doonan, Day, and DimopoulouRethemiotaki 2007). This pottery can be linked to the relevant pottery of Agrilia at Ano Kouphonisi in the Cyclades and other burial sites in North-Central Crete. In the case of Poros, numerous Cycladic-style pottery sherds and a large number of obsidian blades form an impressive group, while evidence of metallurgical activity is documented from as early as Early Minoan I (Dimopoulou 1997; Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004; Serpetsidaki 2012, 164). At the top and east slope of a hill by the west side of Kairatos in the Katsambas district, a Neolithic settlement was uncovered (Fig. 1). Important components were the remains of a Neolithic house of the but-and-ben type with late Early Neolithic (EN) I and perhaps some EN II pottery (Alexiou 1953, 305–308; 1954; Platon 1956, 415; Galanidou and Manteli 2008). In the same area, two rock shelters that may be part of an extensive Neolithic cemetery have been uncovered (Alexiou 1953, 306–307; Serpetsidaki 2018). From Amnissos, situated on the hill of Palaeochora northeast of Knossos, more tangible evidence of Early Minoan habitation has been uncovered (Fig. 1; Hatzi-Vallianou 2006, 32). Specifically on the north side of the hill, an Early Minoan burial with two vessels of the Pyrgos type was discovered among domestic relics (Marinatos 1930, 93). At a small distance to the south of Amnissos lies the Eileithyia Cave (Fig. 1; Marinatos 1929a, 96–97, 99–100; 1930, 91–97; 1932, 78; Betancourt et al. 2000; Branigan 2000, 162; Tyree 2006, 332). The cave was used from the Final Neolithic to the Roman and Byzantine periods. Its earliest finds, from Neolithic–EM II in date, probably indicate its early use as a burial cave. During the Final Neolithic period, the pottery has parallels from Partira, Lebena, Phaistos, and Hagios Nikolaos (Palaikastro). The EM I–II pottery from the cave has parallels from Hagios Onouphrios and Pyrgos (Betancourt et al. 2000, 187–204). Opposite and south of the entrance of the Eileithyia Cave, an important small burial cave was discovered with a quite deep chasm in its inner part (Marinatos 1930, 98–99). Successive excavations suggested that this
5
cave was used as a burial place from the Early Minoan to LM IIIC periods (Kanta 1980, 39). Among the early finds are some Early Minoan vessels and silver jewelry similar to pieces from northern Crete, but there are also pieces resembling jewelry from the Pyrgos Cave and the Krasi tholos tomb, dated Final Neolithic–Early Minoan (Betancourt et al. 2000, 203–204). At the hill of Kastellos, situated ca. 1 km southwest of the Eileithyia Cave, Neolithic and Early Minoan surface sherds have been reported (Karetsou 1974, 240). In reconstructing the possible sea routes of the Early Bronze Age, the island of Dia (Fig. 1) to the north of Knossos has a key position because islands could play roles as so-called gateway communities to mainland Crete if they were involved in trade networks (Kossyva 2006, 126). An enceinte wall that possibly dates to the Early Minoan period isolates the west end of the island from the small cove where the church of Hagios Georgios is located (Evans 1921–1935, I, 298). It can be dated according to surface sherds, while Prepalatial building remains have also been reported (Alexiou 1979, 54). Surface sherds and stone tools dated Late Neolithic (LN)– Final Neolithic found on Dia Island constitute additional sparse evidence for its early occupation. The well-known cape of Hagioi Theodoroi (Figs. 1, 2), located northwest of Nirou Chani, was possibly used from antiquity as an anchorage because of its appropriate natural formation (Theodolou 2011, 44). The possibility of the use of this site from the EM I period can only be implied through the discovery of half of a large pebble-shaped figurine of the Pyrgos type made from schist (Xanthoudides 1918a, 20). In the same area, substantial Late Minoan architectural remains, probably associated with extensive foreshore installations, were discovered. The well-known cave tomb of Pyrgos (Figs. 1, 2), located about 13.5 km from Herakleion, lay on the north coast of Kokkini Chani in the area of the Themis Beach Hotel. It was discovered during the construction of the road from Herakleion to Chersonissos (Xanthoudides 1918b). The EM I–II tomb had been partly disturbed, and it contained a large amount of human skeletal remains, more than 20 larnakes (mostly fragmented and devoid of grave offerings), and 130 clay vessels together with stone figurines, obsidian blades, bronze daggers, awls, weapons, and a few pieces of gold jewelry. All these categories of find are of Minoan and Cycladic types.
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CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
At the rocky area of the hill of Chalepa, traces of an extended domestic installation were uncovered immediately north and east of the Pyrgos Cave (Figs. 1, 2; Χanthoudides 1918b, 168; Hatzi-Vallianou 2006, 32). Still visible but not yet excavated are some traces of the same installation to the west of the Themis Beach Hotel. Early Minoan sherds were widely dispersed in the entire area of the Pyrgos hill. Approximately 50 rock-cut cavities, mainly of elliptical shape and with depths of 0.2–0.4 m and widths of 0.2–0.3 m, have been found on the north slope of the hill. Their use during the Early Minoan period is still uncertain, although they are probably related to the domestic economy and involve water collection (Xanthoudides 1918b, 168–169). The discovery of a partially preserved gold band with striking similarities to relevant finds from Mochlos, the Mesara, and the cave of Pyrgos itself led to further excavation in the cave and its surrounding area. Fifty meters east of the Pyrgos Cave, more burials were uncovered in fissures in the rocks together with some contemporary sherds (Figs. 1, 2; Xanthoudides 1922–1924, 125–126). The bodies were placed in fetal positions with their heads toward the east and were covered with stones. In trial trenches excavated by 23rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities (EPCA) in the area of the buildings of the Organization for Tourism Education and Training (Οργανισμός Τουριστικής Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης [OTEK]), an elliptical pit cut into the yellowish soft bedrock (kouskouras) and covered by a mass of stones was uncovered in 1979 (Fig. 2; A. Vasilakis, pers. comm., 18 April 2005). Near the pit, a kind of dromos and another elliptical rock-cut pit situated at its end was revealed. From the first pit, only two small (EM I?) sherds and one fragment of an obsidian blade were collected, while a triangular gathering of stones was also discovered to its left. At a small distance from this pit, some medium-sized rough stones in alignment, likely part of a wall, were found with a few Early Minoan(?) sherds included. Also, in the area of the nearby camp of the Patriotic Foundation for Social Welfare (Πατριωτικό Ίδρυμα Κοινωνικής Πρόνοιας [PIKPA]), EM I surface sherds as well as a large number of obsidian blades were found (Fig. 2). The catalog of the Early Minoan burial sites has recently been enriched with the discovery of the EM IB cemetery at Gournes (Figs. 1, 2), presented in detail in this volume. It lies 13.5 km east of Herakleion in
the district of the former United States (US) Herakleion Air Station where the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) is situated presently. At the same plot, a Minoan building that was partly visible before excavation and a badly preserved cistern of the Roman period were revealed (Galanaki 1999; 2006; Blackman 2001, 129; Galanaki et al. 2011b). Many sherds of various chronological phases were initially found discarded within the 57 acre plot. Although it is not yet possible to identify the settlement related to the Gournes cemetery, a recent survey led to the hypothesis that one of the settlements located south of Gournes might have been relevant (Panagiotakis 2006, 169, figs. 3, 4). Near Anopolis, situated southwest of Gournes, a field survey has uncovered a number of Early Minoan sites (Panagiotakis 2003, 378, 393). Additionally, nearby Chirospilios is a Neolithic site on the southeast side of the hill of Prophetes Elias, while on the northeast side of the same hill lay the Neolithic–Early Minoan settlement of Kopsas (Figs. 1, 2). Another contemporary settlement is the site of Petrades, situated southeast of Gournes within the modern village of Koksari, where, apart from surface sherds, a Neolithic stone axe was found (Fig. 1; Platon and Davaras 1961– 1962, 289). Furthermore, north of the Gournes cemetery, the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities has investigated some possibly relevant domestic relics (T. Theodoulou, pers. comm., 10 May 2014). Finally, at a distance of 1.5 km to the south of the Gournes cemetery lies the Kephala hill (Figs. 1, 2: Gournes 2). On its north side (at Androulakis field), an EM IIΑ so-called sacred pit of roughly rectangular shape and an EM III–MM IA tripartite burial enclosure were discovered (Hazzidakis 1915, 1918). During the EM I period traces of burial use of the Skoteino Cave, situated south of Gournes (Fig. 1), have been identified (A. Kanta, pers. comm., 10 June 2010). Relics of Early Minoan habitation have also been found at the cape of Kastri at Chersonissos, situated on the north coast east of Gournes (Fig. 1; Hatzi-Vallianou 2006, 32). Similar remains of an extended Early Minoan installation were detected by the 23rd EPCA at the nearby site of Hagios Nikolaos (Palaikastro). Also, a few Early Minoan sherds and parts of two clay human figurines, possibly Neolithic, have been found at a Minoan site east of Chersonissos where the Nana Hotel was built (Α. and Μ. Karatzis plot; Rethemiotakis 1997, 992; 1999b, 265).
EARLY MINOAN I–III DOMESTIC AND BURIAL SITES IN NORTH-CENTRAL AND EAST CRETE
Farther east, the site of Malia also has evidence of early habitation. Unstratified Neolithic sherds and obsidian blades as well as Early Minoan burial and domestic relics are reported (Fig. 1; Chapoutier and Demargne 1942, 30; van Effenterre and van Effenterre 1969, 7–21; Tyree 2006, 342). A very important, probably defensive site of the Early Bronze Age has been revealed at a small distance from Malia in the area of the Sissi seashore on the Kephali hill (Bouphos); it was probably used as a natural anchorage. Domestic and burial remains have been found there dating from EM IIA to MM IA and later (Driessen 2012). An important tholos tomb used from EM I until the MM IA period was discovered at the site of Koprani, located at the west end of the village of Krasi, south of Malia (Fig. 1; Marinatos 1929b). Finds included a large quantity of Pyrgos-type vessels along with metal objects and obsidian blades. Other excavations at a site called Katalimata north of the village brought to light a round pit initially identified as an Early Minoan tholos tomb, while a destroyed Early Minoan tholos tomb that contained two bronze daggers was discovered during the construction of the road that runs northeast from Krasi to Kera (Platon 1959, 387; Alexiou and Davaras 1964, 440). The area of the Mirabello Bay farther east was densely settled during Final Neolithic–EM I (Betancourt 1999; 2003; Papadatos 2007a, 163). Along the periphery of the bay, traces of habitation dating from the Early Minoan to Middle Minoan periods have been found at Elounda (Fig. 1; Syriopoulos 1994, 577). From the same site come Early Minoan vessels, probably from a tomb, while plundered burials were found in rock cavities as well as at an Early Minoan cemetery on the nearby islet of Kolokythia. To the south, an important EM I habitation site is located at Kalo Chorio (Haggis 1996; Hayden 2003b; Day 2014). Substantial evidence for prehistoric craft activities and settlements of Late Neolithic and EM I–IIA date were also found at Priniatikos Pyrgos, situated north of Kalo Chorio. Also north of Kalo Chorio, at the site of Kato Arnikon, an Early Minoan burial cave was discovered (Syriopoulos 1994, 591). From Pacheia Ammos to the east of Kalo Chorio come burials dating from the Early Minoan to LM I periods (Fig. 1; Watrous and Davaras 1993; Tyree 2006, 342). At the beginning of the EM IIA period, a settlement was established on the Gournia ridge,
7
and two cemeteries (rock shelters and house tombs) of this large and prosperous community were added at its north end (North Cemetery) and on the nearby hillside of Sphoungaras situated a short distance from the coast (Fig. 1; Boyd Hawes et al. 1908; Hall 1912; Soles 1992, 1–39, fig. 1). North of the modern village of Kavousi in the area of the Hagios Antonios church, an EM II–III burial cave was found (Fig. 1; Syriopoulos 1994, 588; Haggis 2005). At Chrysokamino (Fig. 1), also situated near the modern village of Kavousi, an important site for Early Cretan metallurgy was discovered (Betancourt 2007; Betancourt et al. 1999). At Mochlos (Fig. 1), an important EM IIA/IIB– III domestic installation and a well-known rich, extensive Prepalalatial cemetery with EM II–III house tombs as well as a number of pithos burials, rock shelters, and simple pit graves to the northwest have been revealed (Soles 1992, 41–112; Soles and Davaras 1995; Davaras and Soles 1996, 178–180, figs. 1–3; Whitley 2004–2005, 102; Whitley et al. 2005– 2006, 103). Off of the east coast in the Mirabello Bay on Pseira island, a settlement dating from Final Neolithic/ EM I–IIB to the LM I period has been revealed (Fig. 1; Soles and Davaras 1993; Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2002; 2003; Kossyva 2006, 133). On the same island, a cemetery of the Final Neolithic–MM IIB period with various types of tombs and a cavity of EM IIB was found (Soles and Davaras 1993; Syriopoulos 1994, 582; Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003; Kossyva 2006, 133). Aphrodite’s Kephali is an important EM I defensive site that took advantage of the valley topography in the northern part of the Isthmus of Ierapetra in eastern Crete, engaging in the natural trade route between the Aegean and Libyan Sea (Fig. 1; Betancourt 2013). At nearby Maronia, an Early Minoan burial cave and another two containing Early Minoan vessels and other finds have been discovered (Fig. 1; Syriopoulos 1994, 586–587). On the top of the hill southwest of the village of Chamaizi, EM I–III remains were revealed where a Protopalatial elliptical house is located, while Early Minoan sherds from a cave by the coast north of the village have also been discovered (Fig. 1; Xanthoudides 1906; Davaras 1972b). Finally, at Linares on the nearby northern coast, an Early Minoan built, tworoomed ossuary was found (Fig. 1; Davaras 1972a, 650–651; Soles 1992, 159).
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CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
At Messorachi Skopi near Siteia on the north coast, and at Livari Skiadi, situated close to Goudouras, Ierapetra on the south coast, two early circular tholos tombs were located (Fig. 1; Papadatos and Sofianou 2012, 2013, 2015b). The first is dated to the EM IA period, with affinities to the nearby settlement of Kephala Petras reflecting its participation in local networks of interaction and its awareness of the cultural traditions and mortuary practices of distant Cretan areas. The second is dated from EM IB to EM III, with affinities not only to the Mesara–Asterousia zone but also to the North Cretan coast. On the northeast and southeast slope of the Kephala Petras hill, a Final Neolithic–EM I settlement of particular interest was excavated, revealing traces of early metallurgy (Fig. 1; Bosanquet 1901–1902b; Papadatos 2008; 2011; Tsipopoulou 2011; 2012b, 60– 65; Tsipopoulou, ed., 2012; 2017). On the Kephala hill, a cemetery of the EM I–MM IIA periods is under excavation. The cemetery consists of large and complex house tombs with primary and secondary burials and a rock shelter used as an ossuary. The cemetery contains large quantities of pottery and skeletal material and also clearly elite grave goods (e.g., stone vessels, metal tools, silver and gold jewelry, and seals made of bone and hard stones). On the other hill of Petras, parts of an extensive urban Minoan settlement of EM II–LM IIIB date have been revealed (Bosanquet 1901–1902b; Papadatos 2008, 2011; Tsipopoulou 2011; Tsipopoulou, ed., 2012). The Hagia Photia cemetery in Siteia, with close affinities to the Gournes cemetery burial architecture and practices, is totally different from the rest of Crete and related to the Cycladic assemblages at Ano Kouphonisi and to those at Manika, Euboea (Fig. 1; Davaras 1971; 1972a; Zapheiropoulou 1984; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1987; Sampson 1988; Day et al. 2000; Davaras and Betancourt 2004; 2012). The Hagia Photia cemetery, with almost 262 burials, is dated to the EM I–IIA period (Davaras 1971). Its
artifacts have great stylistic similarities with contemporary assemblages from the Cyclades. The location of an Early Minoan settlement on the nearby Kouphota hill of Hagia Photia (Fig. 1), possibly indicated by the presence of some Early Minoan sherds, reflects relatively extensive earlier occupation on the top of the hill, prior to the foundation of the rectangular building, which took place probably in EM III(?)–MM IA. According to the excavator, this early settlement was possibly associated with the cemetery of Hagia Photia (Papadatos 2007a; Tsipopoulou 2007, 135–137). Toward the sea, on the slope of the same hill, two caves were recovered, one containing a few Neolithic, Early Minoan, and Middle Minoan sherds, and the other Middle Minoan burials, pottery, and obsidian blades (Platon 1959, 390–391). Finally, at Palaikastro (Fig. 1) remains of an EM II–LM IIIC domestic installation were found. The earliest burials at Palaikastro are located in two different cemeteries dated to EM II and later (house tombs or ossuaries) on either side of the main settlement at Roussolakkos (Sackett et al. 1965, 269– 280; MacGillivray and Driessen 1990; Soles 1992, 179–188). The EM I burial site at Hagios Nikolaos (Palaikastro) is exceptional, with jars with cylindrical necks and a silver or lead bead (Bosanquet et al. 1902–1903, 336–343). From this combined evidence, an extensive network can be observed consisting of domestic and burial sites that took advantage of natural or modified anchorages, capes, and gulfs along the north-central and eastern parts of Crete. Similar cultural characteristics and significant Cycladic affinities are reflected in the architecture, pottery, and small finds. These domestic and burial centers, distributed throughout Central and East Crete, prove the hypothesis that already by the EM I period, vast networks of intensive interaction and contact were achieved between even the most distant areas of Crete.
2
Early Minoan IB Cemetery Calliope E. Galanaki
A rescue excavation carried out from March to June 1999 by the 23rd EPCA in the HCMR plot (formerly the US Herakleion Air Station) at Gournes, Pediada, revealed an EM IB cemetery (Galanaki 1999; 2006; Blackman 2001, 129). This site forms a link with other early Prepalatial burial and domestic sites in North-Central and East Crete, including Arkalochori, Kyparissi, Kanli Kastelli (Prophetes Elias), Gazi, Archanes, Knossos, Poros, Amnissos, Hagioi Theodoroi, the Eileithyia Cave, Pyrgos, Krasi, Gournia, Mochlos, and Kephala Petras and Hagia Photia in Siteia, Palaikastro (Figs. 1, 2, see this vol., Ch. 1). The correlation between the Gournes cemetery and its habitation site cannot be currently understood. Nevertheless, northeast of the necropolis some possible domestic remains were investigated by the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities. Additionally, the recent survey of the Pediada region may indicate a possible connection with the Early Minoan settlements of Kopsas, Chirospilios, and Petrades to the south (Figs. 1, 2; Panagiotakis 2006, 169, figs. 3, 4). The Gournes cemetery includes 37 rock-cut built tombs and pits (Tombs 1–37), which exist in two
sectors situated about 65 m apart (Sectors 1 and 2; Figs. 3–8; Pls. 1A, 1B). The burial architecture and practices reflect close affinities with the cemeteries of Hagia Photia in Siteia (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 2012), Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 1984, 2008), and Manika in Euboea (SapounaSakellaraki 1987; Sampson 1988). The grave offerings from the tombs and their surrounding areas can be associated primarily with the Kampos Group, an assemblage of artifacts known mainly from the Cyclades (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 4; Zapheiropoulou 2008). The Gournes cemetery yielded 108 intact or almost intact vases and a number of sherds. The shapes include pyxides of various types as well as open vessels (chalices, bowls, and cups) and closed vessels (collared jars, jars, alabastra, and bottles). The overwhelming majority belongs to the Dark Burnished class, with good parallels from several sites along the northern Cretan coastline and the Cyclades, while the Dark Gray Burnished class is the second most frequent pottery group (see this vol., Ch. 7). Finally, the Dark-on-Light class as well as the Red Slipped and Polished class are represented.
10
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI
Additionally, a group of 12 silver and bronze objects was present (Galanaki, Bassiakos, and Perdikatsis 2011): a necklace of 458 silver beads (456 discoid and two squat spherical) and almost 10 cylindrical beads of blue steatite; three silver, primarily squat spherical beads; three bronze implements (including an awl), one complete and two with the tip missing; a bronze crescent earring; a bronze curved shank; an irregular piece of corroded bronze; and two pieces of ferrous mass. An assemblage of 47 stone objects also was recovered: 37 of obsidian, mainly in the form of blades, flakes, and chunks; two or three of chert; three natural chunks that might be tools; and five jewelry components, including a single bead (steatite), two segmented beads or pendants (also steatite), and two more natural pieces of marble capable of being threaded. Finally, the total of 125 individual mollusks found at the site is dominated by two species of pectinids, Chlamys varia and C. flexuosa, and one
oyster of the genus Ostrea. This material was found to be in a very poor state of preservation, mostly broken up into small fragments with a small number of worn-out valves of the same species. Consequently, identification of this material beyond the genus level, as can be seen from the list of the finds (see this vol., Ch. 3), was in most cases either difficult or impossible. The Gournes cemetery contributes information for the comprehension of burial architecture and customs as well as early metallurgy within Crete and beyond. The distinctive location of Crete allowed a measure of geographical independence alongside its strong intercultural connections, which ensured dynamic participation in EBA Aegean culture. Consequently, the network of social groups that created the relevant EM I–III settlements and cemeteries now can be re-examined in terms of the constant movement of raw materials, commodities, artifacts, and ideas (Leroi-Gourhan 1993; Papadatos 2007b).
3
Catalog of the Early Minoan IB Tombs and Their Finds
Calliope E. Galanaki, Danae Z. Kontopodi, and Joanna Triantafylidi
The Gournes cemetery consists of 37 tombs in total, dispersed in an area of 57 acres. The tombs form two clusters lying 65 m apart, which are called Sectors 1 and 2. The catalog that follows consists of brief but methodical descriptions of each tomb along with a complete list of finds per tomb. The lists include all artifacts, whole or mended, associated with each tomb. In addition, there are references to the pottery sherds found in or outside the tomb, which are described more thoroughly in Chapter 4. The seashells mentioned in the catalog are listed in detail and analyzed in Chapter 12.
Sector 1 Sector 1 of the cemetery extends along the southeastern side of the plot and contains 10 built (rockcut) tombs of varying sizes (Tombs 1–10), each composed of a main burial chamber and a smaller antechamber in front, as well as six shallow pits oriented south or southeast (Tombs 11–16; Fig. 3).
Tomb 1 Tomb 1 was a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.62 m2 (Ills. 3.1–3.3). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, oriented to the northeast. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that blocked the entrance. Most of the supporting stonework of the entrance and its wedges are missing. The antechamber is circular with concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber is elliptical with a preserved depth of 0.15 m. Its floor is flat with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple irregular opening and takes up the entire northeast side of the burial chamber. It is blocked by a single flat, rectangular sandstone slab. Of the stonework that supported the entrance, only a couple of small rough, irregular stones remains. The offerings included four vessels. Three chalices (P1, P93, P95) were located in the antechamber, while a bowl was found southwest of the burial chamber (P12).
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
12
P1
P12
P93
P95
Illustration 3.1. Vases from Tomb 1 (P1, P12, P93, P95). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.2. Plan of Tomb 1. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
P1 (T1.1; HM 32253). Chalice. P12 (T1.4; HM 32289). Bowl. P93 (T1.2; HM 32254). Chalice. P95 (T1.3; HM 32255). Chalice. Pottery sherds: S1.1–S1.5.
Tomb 2 Tomb 2 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.86 m2 (Ills. 3.4–3.6). It is located in the southwest section of Sector 1, oriented north–northwest. The tomb has a rough figure-of-eight shape. Its preservation
Illustration 3.3. View of Tomb 1 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
is poor: the sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed and only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. The slabs that blocked the entrance and most of the supporting stonework of the entrance are missing. The antechamber is roughly rectangular in shape with slightly inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. Small irregular, aligned stones were discovered along two sides of the antechamber. The burial chamber is roughly rectangular with a preserved depth of 0.07 m. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
P13
13
P48
P23
(not to scale)
St2 P49
St3
St12
St22
P102
Illustration 3.4. Objects from Tomb 2 (P13, P23, P48, P49, P102, St2, St3, St12, St22). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.5. Plan of Tomb 2. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.6. View of Tomb 2 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
14
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
The entrance is not preserved but possibly took up the north side of the burial chamber. The offerings consisted of five vessels and four obsidian blades that were dispersed throughout the chamber and antechamber. A bottle (P23) and two obsidian blades (St2, St3) were found outside, east of the tomb. P13 (T2.5; HM 32257). Bowl. P23 (T2.1; HM 32259). Bottle. P48 (T2.2; HM 32260). Spherical pyxis. P49 (T2.3; HM 32256). Spherical pyxis. P102 (T2.4; HM 32258). Suspension pyxis lid. St2 (T2.6; HM 5623). Complete obsidian blade. St3 (T2.8; HM 5624). Complete obsidian blade. St12 (T2.9; HM 5625). Obsidian blade (distal end lost). St22 (T2.7; HM 5621). Complete obsidian blade.
Tomb 3 Tomb 3 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.26 m2 (Ills. 3.7–3.9). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery,
P9
oriented north-northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, as well as the slab that blocked the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance is missing. The antechamber is elliptical with vertical walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber is elliptical with a preserved depth of 0.28 m. It has concave walls and a flat, circular floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple elliptical opening and takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a single rectangular slab of soft limestone. A small stone wedge is preserved at the west side of the entrance. The offerings included four vessels, all located inside the burial chamber (P9, P20, P50, P105). P9 (T3.3; HM 32197). Bowl. P20 (T3.4; HM 32198). Spouted bowl. P50 (T3.1; HM 32195). Spherical pyxis with lid. P105 (T3.2; HM 32196). Tankard. Pottery sherds: S1.6.
P20
P105
P50
T.S2
Illustration 3.7. Selection of objects from Tomb 3 (P9, P20, P50, P105, T.S2). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Illustration 3.8. Plan of Tomb 3. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Seashells: T.S1 (group of many fragments of Chlamys sp. and one fragment of Patella sp.[?]); T.S2 (group of two valves and two fragments of Chlamys sp.)
Tomb 4 Tomb 4 is a rock-cut, built tomb that measures 0.90 m2 (Ills. 3.10–3.13). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the remains of the stone blocking the entrance. The antechamber is circular with concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular elliptical shape with a
15
Illustration 3.9. View of Tomb 3 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
preserved depth of 0.15 m. It has a flat floor with rounded edges. A shallow cavity at the east edge of the chamber contained a pile of 11 smashed vessels and two obsidian blades. Of the entrance, which is situated at the northwest side of the burial chamber, several rough, regular supporting stones are preserved dispersed along the west edge of the antechamber. The offerings included 11 vessels and two obsidian blades, all located inside the shallow cavity in the burial chamber mentioned above. P2 (T4.7; HM 32201). Chalice. P14 (T4.9; HM 32207). Bowl. P29 (T4.10; HM 32208). Jar with fenestrations. P30 (T4.11; HM 32206). Jar with fenestrations. P51 (T4.1; HM 32190). Spherical pyxis. P70 (T4.2; HM 32203). Spherical pyxis on stand. P71 (T4.4; HM 32202). Pyxis lid.
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
16
P2
P14
P29
P30
P51
P70
St4 St5
P71
P72
P85
P94
P96
T.S4
Illustration 3.10. Selection of objects from Tomb 4 (P2, P14, P29, P30, P51, P70–P72, P85, P94, P96, St4, St5, T.S4). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.11. Plan of Tomb 4. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.12. View of Tomb 4 from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
17
Illustration 3.13. Detail of the cavity in the burial chamber of Tomb 4. Photo Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
1 cm
P3
P25
P92
St13
Illustration 3.14. Selection of objects from Tomb 5 (P3, P25, P92, St13). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
P72 (T4.5; HM 32205). Pyxis lid. P85 (T4.3; HM 32204). Spool pyxis with lid. P94 (T4.6; HM 32200). Large chalice. P96 (T4.8; HM 32199). Chalice. St4 (T4.12a; HM 5633a). Complete obsidian blade. St5 (T4.12b; HM 5633b). Complete obdisian blade. Pottery sherds: S1.7–S1.32. Seashells: T.S3 (group of two fragments of Ostrea sp., one fragment of Patella sp., and one fragment (Helix?) of Gastropod sp.); T.S4 (group of eight fragments of Ostrea sp., two valves of Chlamys glabra, and many frag ments of Chlamys varia).
Tomb 5 Tomb 5 is a rock-cut, built tomb that measures 2.26 m2 (Ills. 3.14–3.16). It is located in Sector 1 and
is oriented to the northeast. The tomb has an irregular bi-trapezoidal shape with rounded edges. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that sealed the entrance. Most of the supporting stones of the entrance are missing. The antechamber is rectangular. It has vertical walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber is trapezoidal with a preserved depth of 0.38 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is an irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire northeast side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a single rough sandstone slab supported by small rough stones of which only two were preserved. The tomb included three vessels (P3, P25, P92) and one obsidian blade (St13), all found in the antechamber. P3 (T5.2; HM 32209). Chalice. P25 (T5.1; HM 32291). Cup.
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
18
Illustration 3.15. Plan of Tomb 5. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
P92 (T5.3; HM 32210). Semiclosed vase, possi bly jar. St13 (T5.4; HM 5634). Obsidian blade (proxi mal end lost). Pottery sherds: S1.33–S1.38.
Tomb 6 Tomb 6 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 2.30 m2 (Ills. 3.17–3.20). It lies in Sector 1 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular figure-ofeight shape. It is poorly preserved: the sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed, and only the lower part of the tomb remains, as well as the slab that sealed the entrance. Most of the supporting stones of the entrance are missing. The antechamber is not preserved. Its elliptical shape is barely visible. The burial chamber is rectangular with a preserved depth of 0.22 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple irregular opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber.
Illustration 3.16. View of Tomb 5 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
It was blocked by a single large, rough slab of soft limestone supported by a few small rough stones. Offerings included four vessels, one irregular piece of corroded cuprous metal (M1), and two pieces of ferrous mass (M2), located in the burial chamber. The lid of pyxis P52 was found north of the blocking entrance, inside the antechamber. M1 (T6.5a; HM 5800a). Irregular piece of cor roded copper. M2 (T6.5b; HM 5800b). Two pieces of ferrous mass. P33 (T6.3; HM 32212). Conical pyxis with lid. P34 (T6.4; HM 32213). Double conical pyxis with lid. P52 (T6.1; HM 32211). Spherical pyxis with lid. P53 (T6.2; HM 32214). Spherical pyxis with lid. Pottery sherds: S1.39–S1.47. Seashells: T.S5 (group of six fragments of Chla mys sp.); T.S6 (group of three fragments of Ostrea sp., one broken valve of Chlamys varia, and one fragment of Anomiidae[?]).
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
19
M1
(not to scale)
M2
(not to scale)
P33
P34
P52
P53
Illustration 3.17. Selection of objects from Tomb 6 (M1, M2, P33, P34, P52, P53). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.18. Plan of Tomb 6. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.20. Detail of Tomb 6 showing finds in situ. Photo Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.19. View of Tomb 6 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
20
Tomb 7 Tomb 7 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.38 m2 (Ills. 3.21–3.23). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular figureof-eight shape. It is poorly preserved: the sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed and only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that blocked the entrance. Most of the supporting stonework of the entrance is missing. The antechamber is not preserved. Its elliptical shape is barely visible. The burial chamber is also elliptical with a preserved depth of 0.24 m. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is an irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. The opening was blocked by a large rough slab of soft limestone. A small stone wedge and one
P10
small rough supporting stone are preserved at the west side of the entrance. Offerings included two vessels (P10, P54), both located inside the burial chamber. P10 (T7.2; HM 32216). Bowl. P54 (T7.1; HM 32215). Spherical pyxis. Pottery sherds: S1.48–S1.50. Seashells: T.S7 (eight fragments [one discol ored] of Chlamys sp.); T.S8 (one valve of Chlamys varia).
Tomb 8 Tomb 8 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.46 m2 (Ills. 3.24–3.27). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, oriented to the northeast. The tomb has an
P54
Illustration 3.21. Vases from Tomb 7 (P10, P54). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.22. View of Tomb 7 showing P54, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.23. Plan of Tomb 7. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Illustration 3.24. Plan of Tomb 8. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
P21
P97
21
Illustration 3.25. View of Tomb 8 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
St45
Illustration 3.26. Selection of objects from Tomb 8 (P21, P97, St45). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis. Illustration 3.27. Detail of the antechamber of Tomb 8 showing P21 and P97 in situ. Photo Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
22
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
P21 (T8.2; HM 32217). Spouted bowl. P97 (T8.1; HM 32218). Chalice. St45 (T8.3; HM 5665). Pebble pendant. Pottery sherds: S1.51, S1.52.
irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that blocked the entrance. Most of the supporting stonework of the entrance is missing. The antechamber has an irregular elliptical shape. It has vertical walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber is elliptical with a preserved depth of 0.11 m. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening on the northeast side of the burial chamber, which was blocked by a single rough sandstone slab. A stone wedge is preserved at the northwest side of the entrance. Offerings included two vessels and one pebble pendant (P21, P97, St45), all found in the antechamber.
P7
P74
Tomb 9 Tomb 9 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.60 m2 (Ills. 3.28–3.32). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, facing east. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. The stonework of the entrance is almost missing. The antechamber has an irregular elliptical shape. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber is elliptical with a
P55
St14
P73
T9.6
(not to scale)
Illustration 3.28. Selection of objects from Tomb 9 (P7, P55, P73, P74, St14, T9.6). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Illustration 3.29. Plan of Tomb 9. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
23
Illustration 3.30. View of Tomb 9 from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.31. Detail of the burial chamber of Tomb 9. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.32. Skeletal remains from Tomb 9. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
preserved depth of 0.15 m. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire east side of the burial chamber. One small rough stone wedge is preserved at the south side of the entrance. Offerings included four vessels and one obsidian blade (P7, P55, P73, P74, St14). Skeletal remains were found at the center of the burial chamber (T9.6). A spherical pyxis (P55) was found on the northeast edge of the burial chamber near the entrance. A narrow cavity, carved at the southeast
side of the antechamber, held a chalice (P7). The rest of the finds were also located in the antechamber. P7 (T9.4; HM 32223). Chalice. P55 (T9.1; HM 32222). Spherical pyxis. P73 (T9.2; HM 32221). Pyxis lid. P74 (T9.3; HM 32224). Pyxis lid. St14 (T9.5; HM 5636). Obsidian blade (tip of distal end lost). T9.6. Skeletal remains. Pottery sherds: S1.53–S1.56. Seashells: T.S9 (one fragment of Chlamys glabra and two fragments of Chlamys varia).
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CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Tomb 10 Tomb 10 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.40 m2 (Ills. 3.33–3.36). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular bi-trapezoidal shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that sealed the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance and its wedges are missing. The antechamber is barely visible. The antechamber seems to have had a trapezoidal shape. The burial chamber has a trapezoidal shape with a preserved depth of 0.30 m. Its walls are extremely concave, and the floor is flat with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire northeast side of
the burial chamber. It was sealed by one rough slab of soft limestone. The tomb held only one vessel (P35). It was located at the northwest edge of the burial chamber. P35 (T10.1; HM 32234). Conical pyxis with lid. Pottery sherds: S1.57–S1.63.
Tomb 11 Tomb 11 is a rock-cut pit measuring 0.37 m2 (Ills. 3.37–3.40). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery,
Illustration 3.33. Pyxis (P35) from Tomb 10. Scale 1:2. Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.34. Plan of Tomb 10. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.35. View of Tomb 10 showing P35 in situ, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.36. View of Tomb 10 showing P35 in situ, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
25
P36
P31
P37
P4
P75
P76
P87
St15
P86
Illustration 3.37. Selection of objects from Tomb 11 (P4, P31, P36, P37, P75, P76, P86, P87, St15). Photos Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.38. Plan of Tomb 11. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
26
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Illustration 3.39. View of Tomb 11 from the west. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
P18
P32
Illustration 3.40. View of Tomb 11 showing vessels in situ, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
P56
P77
P88
Illustration 3.41. Vases from Tomb 12 (P18, P32, P56, P77, P88). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
oriented southwest to northeast. Half of the pit is missing, and its sidewalls are worn in places. The tomb is a simple cavity of irregular elliptical shape with a preserved depth of 0.11 m. It has almost vertical walls, and the floor is flat with rounded edges. The grave goods included eight vessels and one obsidian blade (St15), located inside the pit. P4 (T11.7; HM 32268). Chalice. P31 (T11.8; HM 32269). Jar with fenestrations. P36 (T11.1; HM 32264). Double conical pyxis with lid. P37 (T11.2; HM 32263). Conical pyxis. P75 (T11.3; HM 32266). Pyxis lid. P76 (T11.4; HM 32270). Pyxis lid. P86 (T11.5; HM 32267). Spool pyxis lid. P87 (T11.6; HM 32265). Spool pyxis lid. St15 (T11.9; HM 5631). Obsidian blade (distal end lost). Pottery sherds: S1.64–S1.75.
Tomb 12 Tomb 12 is a small rock-cut pit measuring 0.23 m2 (Ills. 3.41–3.43). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, oriented southwest to northeast. The sidewalls of the pit were disturbed. The tomb is a simple cavity of irregular elliptical shape with a preserved depth of 0.10 m. It has vertical-inclining, rough walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges and a rough surface. The grave goods included five vessels, all located inside the pit. P18 (T12.4; HM 32274). Bowl. P32 (T12.5; HM 32272). Jar with fenestrations. P56 (T12.1; HM 32271). Spherical pyxis. P77 (T12.2; HM 32273). Pyxis lid. P88 (T12.3; HM 32275). Spool pyxis. Pottery sherds: S1.76–S1.85.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
P56
27
P77 P32
P18
P88
Illustration 3.42. Plan of Tomb 12. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.43. View of Tomb 12 showing vessels in situ, from the north. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.44. Plan of Tomb 13. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.45. View of Tomb 13 showing P38 and P57 in situ, from the south. Photo Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Tomb 13 Tomb 13 is a small rock-cut pit measuring 0.20 m2 (Ills. 3.44–3.46). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, oriented to the north. Its sidewalls are worn in places. The tomb is a simple, small cavity of irregular elliptical shape with a preserved depth of 0.10 m. It has vertical-inclining rough walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges and a rough surface. The offerings included two vessels (P38, P57), located inside the pit.
P38
P57
Illustration 3.46. Vases from Tomb 13 (P38, P57). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
28
P38 (T13.2; HM 32220). Conical pyxis with lid. P57 (T13.1; HM 32290). Spherical pyxis with lid. Pottery sherds: S1.86.
Tomb 14 Tomb 14 is a small rock-cut pit measuring 0.36 m2 (Ills. 3.47–3.49). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has disturbed sidewalls. The tomb is a simple, small cavity of irregular elliptical shape with a preserved depth of 0.10 m. It
P24
P58
has vertical-concave, rough walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges and a rough surface. The tomb held four vessels (P24, P58, P78, P99), three of which were located inside the pit and one at the northeast edge of the pit. P24 (T14.4; HM 32278). Bottle. P58 (T14.1; HM 32279). Spherical pyxis. P78 (T14.2; HM 32276). Pyxis lid. P99 (T14.3; HM 32277). Chalice. Pottery sherds: S1.87–S1.92 Seashells: T.S10 (two fragments of Chlamys sp.).
P78
T.S10 P99
Illustration 3.47. Selection of objects from Tomb 14 (P24, P58, P78, P99, T.S10). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.48. Plan of Tomb 14. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.49. View of Tomb 14 taken from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Tomb 15 Tomb 15 is a small rock-cut pit measuring 0.49 m2 (Ills. 3.50–3.52). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, oriented southwest to northeast. The tomb has disturbed sidewalls. The tomb is a simple, small cavity of irregular elliptical shape with a preserved depth of 0.12 m. It has vertical-inclining, rough walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges and a rough surface. The tomb contained three vessels and three obsidian pieces, all located inside the pit.
P59
P79
29
P59 (T15.1; HM 32280). Spherical pyxis. P79 (T15.2; HM 32281). Pyxis lid. P80 (T15.3; HM 32282). Pyxis lid. St23 (T15.5; HM 5641). Complete obsidian blade. St29 (T15.4a; HM 5640a). Medial fragment of obsidian blade. St36 (T15.4b; HM 5640b). Obsidian chunk. Seashells: T.S11 (two fragments of Chlamys sp.).
P80
St23 St29 St36
Illustration 3.50. Selection of objects from Tomb 15 (P59, P79, P80, St23, St29, St36). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.51. Plan of Tomb 15. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.52. View of Tomb 15 from the west. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
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CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Tomb 16 Tomb 16 is a small rock-cut pit measuring 0.47 m2 (Ills. 3.53–3.55). It is located in Sector 1 of the cemetery, oriented north. The tomb has worn sidewalls in places. The tomb is a simple, small cavity of nearly circular shape with a preserved depth of 0.15 m. It has vertical-concave, rough walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges and a rough surface. The offerings included three vessels (P5, P39, P60), one obsidian bladelet (St6) and one obsidian
P5
P39
chunk (St37). Most were located inside the pit. A conical pyxis (P39) and the obsidian chunk were found near the external south and north edges of the pit. P5 (T16.3; HM 32285, HM 32286). Chalice. P39 (T16.1; HM 32283). Conical pyxis. P60 (T16.2; HM 32284). Spherical pyxis with lid. St6 (T16.4; HM 5643). Complete obsidian bladelet. St37 (T16.5; HM 5649). Obsidian chunk. Pottery sherds: S1.93–S1.98.
P60
St6
St37
Illustration 3.53. Selection of objects from Tomb 16 (P5, P39, P60, St6, St37). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.54. Plan of Tomb 16. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.55. View of Tomb 16 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Sector 2 Sector 2 of the cemetery extends along the central, northwest side of the plot. It contains 21 similarly constructed (rock-cut) tombs (Tombs 17–37), oriented mainly to the north/northeast (east and west in two cases). No pits are present in Sector 2 (Figs. 4, 5; Galanaki 2006, 227, 236).
Tomb 17 Tomb 17 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 2.73 m2 (Ills. 3.56–3.58). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular bi-trapezoidal shape. The beginning of the sloping roof of the burial chamber is preserved, as well as the slabs that blocked the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance is missing. The antechamber seems to have had a trapezoidal shape. It has vertical walls and a flat floor with slightly rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular trapezoidal shape with a preserved depth of 0.580 m. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges.
P40
P63
P41
St16
31
The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire north side of the chamber. It was sealed by double sandstone slabs. Small stone wedges were placed at the lower edges of the blocking slabs. The offerings consisted of six vessels and four fragments of obsidian blades, all located inside the burial chamber. P17 (T17.6; HM 32187). Bowl. P40 (T17.3; HM 32219). Conical pyxis with lid. P41 (T17.4; (HM 32189). Conical pyxis with lid. P61 (T17.1; HM 32188). Spherical pyxis. P62 (T17.2; HM 32186). Spherical pyxis with lid. P63 (T17.5; HM 32185). Spherical pyxis with lid. St16 (T17.8; HM 5627). Obsidian blade (proxi mal end lost). St17 (T17.9a; HM 5628a). Obsidian blade (miss ing distal end; inside P17). St18 (T17.9b; HM 5628b). Obsidian blade (miss ing distal end; inside P17). St27 (T17.7; HM 5626). Obsidian blade (proxi mal end lost). Seashells: T.S12 (one fragment of Ostrea sp.).
P61
P62
P17, St17, St18
St27
Illustration 3.56. Selection of objects from Tomb 17 (P17, P40, P41, P61–P63, St16–St18, St27). Photos Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
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CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Illustration 3.57. Plan of Tomb 17. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.58. View of Tomb 17 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 18
Offerings consisted of three vessels (P42, P64, P101), a necklace with 458 silver beads and at least 10 minuscule beads of blue steatite (M5), a single silver bead (M6), and two bronze awls (M3, M4), all located inside the burial chamber. A bronze shank (M7) was found northeast of the antechamber. M3 (T18.4; HM 5798). Bronze awl. M4 (T18.5; HM 5799). Bronze awl. M5 (T18.6a; HM 1707a). Silver necklace. M6 (T18.6b; HM 1707b). Silver bead. M7 (T18.7; HM 5801). Bronze shank. P42 (T18.1; HM 32191). Conical pyxis with lid. P64 (T18.2; HM 32192). Spherical pyxis. P101 (T18.3; HM 32193). Collared jar. Seashells: T.S13 (group of one fragment of Ostrea sp., one valve of Chlamys varia, and five fragments of Chlamys sp.); T.S14 (group of one fragment of Chlamys glabra and many fragments of Chlamys sp.); T.S15 (one fragment of Chlamys sp.).
Tomb 18 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 3.10 m2 (Ills. 3.59–3.62). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slabs that blocked the entrance. Part of its supporting stonework and wedges are missing. The antechamber has an elliptical shape. It has vertical-inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.31 m. It has concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening and takes up the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by two slabs of soft limestone. The supporting stonework consisted of rough stones of various sizes with no binding material, placed in a double row in the antechamber.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
33
P64 P42
M3
P101
M4 mm
bead from M5
mm
M7
mm
M6
M5
Illustration 3.59. Selection of objects from Tomb 18 (M3–M7, P42, P64, P101). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.61. View of Tomb 18 showing vessels in situ, from the southwest. Photo Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.60. Plan of Tomb 18. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.62. View of Tomb 18 showing vessels in situ, from the east. Photo Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
34
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Tomb 19
Tomb 20
Tomb 19 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 2.16 m2 (Ills. 3.63–3.65). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular bi-trapezoidal shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. The blocking slab of the entrance is missing. The antechamber has an elliptical shape. Its outline cannot be traced. It has vertical-inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular trapezoidal shape and a preserved depth of 0.30 m. It has vertical-slightly concave walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. Rough stones of various sizes with no binding material were placed in a double row in the antechamber. The tomb held one vessel (P65), located inside the burial chamber. P65 (T19.1; HM 32194). Spherical pyxis.
Tomb 20 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.98 m2 (Ills. 3.66–68). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The outline of the tomb is only barely visible now, but it possibly had an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. Most of the stonework that sealed the entrance is missing. The antechamber had an elliptical shape, which is not preserved. The burial chamber possibly had a circular shape. The entrance, which possibly took up the entire north side of the burial chamber, is not preserved. Rough conglomerates of primarily small size that probably supported the entrance, however, were dispersed inside the tomb and to the north and northwest exterior area. The offerings consisted of two fragmented vessels (P81, T20.2) and two obsidian blades (St7, St19), all but one dispersed along the east edge of the antechamber. A bowl (P11) lay west of the tomb.
Illustration 3.63. Vase from Tomb 19 (P65). Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.64. View of Tomb 19 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.65. Plan of Tomb 19. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
P11
P81
(not to scale)
St7
Illustration 3.66. Selection of objects from Tomb 20 (P11, P81, St7, St19). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.67. Plan of Tomb 20. Plan Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.68. View of Tomb 20 from the north. For scale, see Figure 3.67. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
35
St19
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
36
P11 (Τ20.3; ΗΜ 32288). Bowl. P81 (T20.1; HM 32262). Pyxis lid. St7 (T20.4; HM 5629). Complete obsidian blade. St19 (T20.5; HM 5630). Obsidian blade (mid dle part lost). Seashells: T.S16 (group of two fragments (disco lored) of Ostrea sp. and many fragments [discolored] of Chlamys sp.); T.S17 (group of three fragments of Ostrea sp., many frag ments [including some valves] of Chlamys sp., and one valve fragment of Glossus humanus).
Tomb 21 Tomb 21 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.14 m2 (Ills. 3.69–3.71). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb and the stone blocking the entrance are preserved.
P6
The antechamber is elliptical with inclining walls and a concave floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has a roughly rectangular shape and a preserved depth of 0.21 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges, which was cut to a greater depth than the shallow antechamber. The elliptical entrance takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber and was blocked by a single sandstone slab. It was supported by rough conglomerates and limestones of various sizes with no binding material. They were placed in a triangular arrangement in the antechamber with a large stone in the middle. The offerings included four vessels (P6, P8, P82, P90), two found in the antechamber and two inside the burial chamber. P6 (T21.2; HM 32228). Chalice. P8 (T21.3; HM 32226). Chalice. P82 (T21.1; HM 32225). Pyxis lid. P90 (T21.4; HM 32227). Alabastron. Pottery sherds: S1.99, S1.100 Seashells: T.S18 (two fragments of Chlamys glabra).
P8
P90
P82
T.S18
Illustration 3.69. Selection of objects from Tomb 21 (P6, P8, P82, P90, T.S18). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Illustration 3.70. Plan of Tomb 21. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Tomb 22 Tomb 22 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.10 m2 (Ills. 3.72–3.74). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb and part of the stone blocking entrance are preserved. The antechamber is poorly preserved. It has a barely visible elliptical shape. The burial chamber has an irregular elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.24 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple irregular opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. It was sealed by a single, rough sandstone slab and was supported by rough conglomerates and limestones of various sizes placed in the antechamber.
37
Illustration 3.71. View of Tomb 21 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
The offerings included three vessels (P26, P43, P91), two obsidian blades (St8, St28), and one stone bead (St43). They were located inside the burial chamber, apart from a cup (P26), which was found in the surrounding area west of the entrance of the tomb. P26 (T22.2; HM 32231). Cup. P43 (T22.1; HM 32229). Conical pyxis with lid. P91 (T22.3; HM 32230). Alabastron. St8 (T22.4a; HM 5639a). Complete obsidian blade. St28 (T22.4b; HM 5639b). Complete obsidian blade. St43 (T22.5; HM 5660). Stone bead. Pottery sherds: S1.101–S1.103 Seashells: T.S19 (four fragments of Ostrea sp., one valve of Chlamys glabra, and nine frag ments of Chlamys sp.).
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
38
P26
P43 P91
St8
St28
St43
Illustration 3.72. Selection of objects from Tomb 22 (P26, P43, P91, St8, St28, St43). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.74. View of Tomb 22 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.73. Plan of Tomb 22. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Tomb 23 Tomb 23 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.90 m2 (Ills. 3.75–3.77). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the burial chamber and most of the stones blocking the entrance are preserved. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape, concave walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has a roughly rectangular shape with a preserved depth of 0.34 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges.
Illustration 3.75. Plan of Tomb 23. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
P27
39
The entrance is a simple irregular opening situated at the northwest side of the burial chamber. It was sealed by a single rough sandstone slab and was supported by one rough, marly conglomerate stone and two smaller rough stones with no binding material placed in a row in the antechamber. Offerings consisted of two vessels, both located inside the burial chamber (P27, P66). A bowl (P100) was found west of the burial chamber. P27 (T23.2; HM 32233). Cup. P66 (T23.1; HM 32232). Spherical pyxis with lid. P100 (T23.3; HM 32287). Bowl.
Illustration 3.76. View of Tomb 23 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
P66
Illustration 3.77. Vases from Tomb 23 (P27, P66, P100). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
P100
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
40
Tomb 24 Tomb 24 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.67 m2 (Ills. 3.78–3.80). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. The supporting stonework of the entrance was disturbed. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape, inclining sidewalls, and a flat floor. The burial chamber has an irregular semi-elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.34 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges.
The entrance is a simple irregular opening at the northwest side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a single sandstone slab, and it was supported by rough conglomerate stones of various sizes with no binding material and small stone wedges piled in the antechamber. Offerings included three vessels (P19, P44, P83), one bronze awl (M8), and one bronze earring (M9). Most of them were located inside the burial chamber, although a bowl (P19) was found in the antechamber and the bronze earring (M9) was found in the surrounding area south of the burial chamber.
M8
M9
P19
P44
P83
Illustration 3.78. Selection of objects from Tomb 24 (M8, M9, P19, P44, P83). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.79. Plan of Tomb 24. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.80. View of Tomb 24 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
M8 (T24.4; HM 5802). Bronze awl. M9 (T24.5; HM 5803). Bronze earring. P19 (T24.3; HM 32235). Bowl. P44 (T24.1; HM 32236, HM 32252 [lid]). Conical pyxis with lid. P83 (T24.2; HM 32237). Pyxis lid. Pottery sherds: S1.104 Seashells: T.S20 (three fragments of Chlamys sp.).
Tomb 25 Tomb 25 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.38 m2 (Ills. 3.81–3.83). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. Most of the supporting stonework of the entrance is missing.
41
The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape and inclining sidewalls. The burial chamber has a roughly rectangular shape and a preserved depth of 0.42 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening at the northwest side of the burial chamber. A single, rough slab of soft limestone sealed the entrance. One small stone wedge was preserved at the east edge of the slab. Two rough conglomerate stones of medium and large size, with no binding material, were placed in the antechamber. The tomb held one vessel located inside the burial chamber (P45). P45 (T25.1; HM 32238). Conical pyxis. Pottery sherds: S1.105–S1.110. Seashells: T.S21 (two fragments of Chlamys sp. and one fragment [discolored] of Glossus humanus).
Illustration 3.81. Pyxis (P45) from Tomb 25. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.83. View of Tomb 25 showing P45 in situ, from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis. Illustration 3.82. Plan of Tomb 25. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
42
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Tomb 26 Tomb 26 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.51 m2 (Ills. 3.84–3.86). It is located at the southwest edge of Sector 2, inside Room 1 of the Minoan Building, and it is oriented north. The tomb has an elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the blocking slab of the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance was disturbed by the construction of the superposed Minoan Building. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape, inclining sidewalls, and a concave floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular semielliptical shape with a preserved depth of 0.12 m. It has inclining walls, and the floor is concave with rounded edges.
Illustration 3.85. Plan of Tomb 26. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
(not to scale)
Illustration 3.84. Bowl (P15) from Tomb 26. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.86. View of Tomb 26 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. Rough stones of large and medium size with no binding material were piled in the antechamber. The tomb held one vessel (P15, located in the antechamber. P15 (T26.1; HM 32239). Bowl. Pottery sherds: S2.116–S2.123.
43
Tomb 27 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 1.30 m2 (Ills. 3.87, 3.88). It is located in Sector 2, inside Room 1 of the Minoan Building, and it is oriented northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the
tomb is preserved. Most of the supporting stonework, as well as the slab that blocked the entrance and its wedges, were possibly disturbed by the construction of the Minoan Building. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape. It has concave walls and a concave floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular semielliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.20 m. It has inclining walls and a concave floor with rounded edges. The entrance is an opening of irregular elliptical shape that takes up the entire southeast side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a single sandstone slab. Rough stones of large and medium size with no binding material, in addition to small stone wedges, were found displaced in the antechamber. Pottery sherds: S2.124–S2.128. Seashells: T.S22 (group of two fragments of Chla mys sp. and one fragment of Gastropod sp.).
Illustration 3.87. Plan of Tomb 27. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.88. View of Tomb 27 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 27
44
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Tomb 28
Tomb 29
Tomb 28 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.98 m2 (Ills. 3.89, 3.90). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, inside Room 3 of the Minoan Building, and it is oriented north. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. The blocking slab of the entrance is missing. Most of the supporting stonework of the entrance was disturbed by the construction of the Minoan Building. The antechamber has an elliptical shape, inclining sidewalls, and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.20 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. Rough conglomerate stones of various sizes with no binding material, in addition to small stone wedges, were piled in the antechamber.
Tomb 29 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.56 m2 (Ills. 3.91–3.93). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular semi-elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that blocked the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance is missing. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape, inclining sidewalls, and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular, semielliptical ground plan and a preserved depth of 0.46 m. It has inclining sidewalls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple irregular opening that takes up the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a single rough slab of soft limestone. Offerings consisted of two vessels (P28, P67) and two beads, one silver and one stone (M10, St46),
Illustration 3.89. Plan of Tomb 28. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.90. View of Tomb 28 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
45
St20
St46 (1:1)
M10 (2:1)
P28
P67
St33
T.S23
Illustration 3.91. Objects from Tomb 29 (M10, P28, P67, St20, St33, St46, T.S23). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.92. Plan of Tomb 29. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
all located inside the burial chamber. An obsidian bladelet (St20) and flakelet (St33) were found southeast of the burial chamber. M10 (T29.5; HM 1708). Silver bead. P28 (T29.2; HM 32241). Cup. P67 (T29.1; HM 32240). Spherical pyxis. St20 (T29.3a; HM 5645a). Obsidian bladelet. St33 (T29.3b; HM 5645b). Obsidian flakelet. St46 (T29.4; HM 5654). Stone bead. Seashells: T.S23 (one valve of Chlamys glabra).
Illustration 3.93. View of Tomb 29 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 30 Tomb 30 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.47 m2 (Ills. 3.94–3.96). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the burial chamber is preserved. The slab that blocked the entrance is missing, while most of its supporting stonework is preserved.
46
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Illustration 3.94. Obsidian (St21) from Tomb 30. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape; the outline is barely visible. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular semi-elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.46 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple irregular opening that takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. Three rough stones of medium and large size with no binding material and small stone wedges located between them were piled in the antechamber. An obsidian blade was found south of the burial chamber (St21). St21 (T30.1; HM 5646). Obsidian blade. Pottery sherds: S1.111. Seashells: T.S24 (two fragments [discolored] of Ostrea sp. and many small fragments of Chlamys sp.).
Tomb 31
Illustration 3.95. Plan of Tomb 30. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.96. View of Tomb 30 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 31 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.72 m2 (Ills. 3.97–3.99). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has a roughly circular shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the burial chamber and most of the stonework that sealed the entrance are preserved. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape with a flat/slightly concave floor and inclining sidewalls with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular semi-elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.66 m. It has inclining sidewalls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple irregular opening that takes up the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a roughly carved sandstone slab. Rough stones of various sizes with no binding material were piled in the antechamber. The tomb held one vessel located inside the burial chamber (P46). P46 (T31.1; HM 32242). Conical pyxis with lid. Pottery sherds: S1.112, S1.113. Seashells: T.S25 (group of one valve of Chlamys glabra, one valve of Chlamys varia, and nine fragments of Chlamys sp.); T.S26 (group of many fragments of Chlamys sp.).
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
47
T.S25 P46
Illustration 3.97. Selection of objects from Tomb 31 (P46, T.S25). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.98. Plan of Tomb 31. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.99. View of Tomb 31 from the southwest. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 32
edges. The burial chamber has an irregular rectangular shape and a preserved depth of 0.30 m. It has inclining sidewalls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that encompasses the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. A roughly carved slab of soft limestone sealed the entrance. It was supported by a row of rough conglomerate stones of various sizes with no binding material, and small stone wedges were placed in the antechamber.
Tomb 32 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.82 m2 (Ills. 3.100–3.102). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved along with the slab that blocked the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance was disturbed. The antechamber has an elliptical shape, slightly inclining sidewalls, and a flat floor with rounded
48
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
P89
P104
St47
Illustration 3.100. Objects from Tomb 32 (P89, P104, St47). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.101. Plan of Tomb 32. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.102. View of Tomb 32 from the southeast. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Offerings consisted of one pyxis with lid (P89) and one stone bead (St47) located inside the burial chamber, and one cylindrical pyxis with lid (P104) found at the northwest edge of the antechamber. P89 (T32.2; HM 32244). Cylindrical pyxis with lid. P104 (T32.1; HM 32243). Painted cylindrical pyxis with lid. St47 (T32.3; HM 5655). Stone bead.
of Sector 2, a little distant from the other tombs of the cemetery; it faces northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber and a large part of the antechamber are missing; only the lower part of the tomb along with the slab that sealed the entrance are preserved. The supporting stonework of the entrance was disturbed. The antechamber has an elliptical shape, slightly inclining sidewalls, and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.45 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire northwest side of
Tomb 33 Tomb 33 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.72 m2 (Ills. 3.103–3.105). It is located at the southern edge
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
49
the burial chamber. Rough conglomerate supporting stones of various sizes were found in alignment beside the single, roughly-carved slab of soft limestone that sealed the entrance. Offerings included one vessel found northeast of the burial chamber (P22). P22 (T33.1; HM 32245). Spouted bowl. Pottery sherds: S1.114, S1.115. Seashells: T.S27 (many small fragments of Chlamys sp.). Illustration 3.103. Spouted bowl (P22) from Tomb 33. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.104. Plan of Tomb 33. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.105. View of Tomb 33 from the southeast. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 34 Tomb 34 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.70 m2 (Ills. 3.106–3.108). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, oriented north to northwest. The tomb has an irregular figure-of-eight shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the tomb and the slab that sealed the entrance are preserved. The supporting stonework of the entrance was slightly disturbed. The antechamber has an elliptical shape, concave walls, and a flat floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.40 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. It was sealed by a roughly carved slab of soft limestone. Conglomerate stones of various sizes, in a double row, with no binding material, in addition to a small stone wedge at the northwest side of the blocking slab, were piled in the antechamber. Offerings included one vessel located on the internal west edge of the antechamber (P103). P103 (T34.1; HM 32246). Alabastron. Seashells: T.S28 (one valve of Chlamys varia, many small fragments of Chlamys varia, and one fragment of Glossus humanus).
50
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
Illustration 3.106. Alabastron (P103) from Tomb 34. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.107. Plan of Tomb 34. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Tomb 35
Illustration 3.108. View of Tomb 34 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 35 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.91 m2 (Ills. 3.109–3.111). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber is missing; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that sealed the entrance. The supporting stonework of the entrance is missing, apart from a small stone wedge. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape, inclining walls, and a concave floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular semielliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.56 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that encompasses the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. It was sealed by a roughly carved slab of soft limestone, propped up by a small stone wedge at its northeast edge.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
M11
mm
P16
P68
51
T.S29
Illustration 3.109. Objects from Tomb 35 (M11, P16, P68, T.S29). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.110. Plan of Tomb 35. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Offerings consisted of two vessels (P16, P68) and a silver bead (M11) located inside the burial chamber. M11 (T35.3; HM 1709). Silver bead. P16 (T35.2; HM 32248). Bowl. P68 (T35.1; HM 32247, HM 32249). Spherical pyxis with lid. Seashells: T.S29 (four fragments of Chlamys sp.).
Illustration 3.111. View of Tomb 35 from the south. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Tomb 36 Tomb 36 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.67 m2 (Ills. 3.112–3.114). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing northwest. The tomb has an irregular elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved, along with the slab that blocked
52
CALLIOPE E. GALANAKI, DANAE Z. KONTOPODI, AND JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI
P69
the entrance. Most of the supporting stonework of the entrance and its wedges are missing. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape, roughly vertical walls, and a slightly concave floor with rounded edges. The burial chamber has an irregular semi-elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.34 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance is a simple, irregular elliptical opening that takes up the entire northwest side of the burial chamber. It was blocked by a slab of roughly carved sandstone propped up at the northeast by a small stone wedge. Rough stones of various sizes were placed in one row in the antechamber with no binding material. Offerings consisted of two vessels (P69, P84), one located in the burial chamber and the other in the antechamber. P69 (T36.2; HM 32251). Spherical pyxis. P84 (T36.1; HM 32250). Pyxis lid.
P84
Illustration 3.112. Vases from Tomb 36 (P69, P84). Photos Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
Illustration 3.113. Plan of Tomb 36. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
Illustration 3.114. View of Tomb 36 from the southeast. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
CATALOG OF EARLY MINOAN IB TOMBS AND THEIR FINDS
Tomb 37 Tomb 37 is a rock-cut, built tomb measuring 0.36 m2 (Ills. 3.115, 3.116). It is located in Sector 2 of the cemetery, facing north. The tomb has an irregular elliptical shape. The sloping roof of the burial chamber has collapsed; only the lower part of the tomb is preserved. The stone slab that sealed the entrance is missing. The supporting stonework of the entrance was slightly disturbed. The antechamber has a semi-elliptical shape and roughly vertical walls. Its floor was fully covered by
Illustration 3.115. Plan of Tomb 37. Plan Y. PapadakisPloumidis.
53
the supporting stones of the entrance. The burial chamber has an irregular semi-elliptical shape and a preserved depth of 0.24 m. It has inclining walls and a flat floor with rounded edges. The entrance takes up the entire north side of the burial chamber. Rough supporting stones of various sizes, some of them probably used as wedges, were placed in a double row in the antechamber with no binding material.
Illustration 3.116. View of Tomb 37 from the east. Photo Y. Papadakis-Ploumidis.
4
Catalog of the Early Minoan IB Pottery Sherds Joanna Triantafylidi and Georgios Pantermarakis
The complete or almost complete vessels from the Gournes cemetery are presented in Chapter 7. Limited EM IB sherd material from the interior or upper levels of the tombs, from the surrounding area of the cemetery, as well as from the tombs excavated within the boundaries of the Minoan Building is also present, however, and the material is undoubtedly out of its original context. The fragmentary character and poor preservation of this pottery indicates that it constitutes intrusion into the tombs after the collapse of the roofs or the result of later disturbance in the area (e.g., the foundation of the nearby Minoan Building). Although not in situ and contextually unrelated to the cemetery, it is useful to present this material in a concise way so that the pottery from the site is published in its entirety. The present catalog comprises all the EM IB sherds that were not found in situ or were out of context, and for that reason they were not recorded or numbered in the Herakleion Archaeological Museum (HM). For every sherd (or group of sherds), the findspot, shape (if diagnostic), portion
of the vessel preserved, and degree of preservation are indicated, as well as the decoration (if preserved) and the clay. There are also a few sherds (S1.35–S1.38, S1.95, S1.96, S2.133) that proved to be nonjoining fragments of intact vessels from the tombs and thus were selected for pegrographic analysis. All sherds chosen for analysis are listed below alongside their corresponding sample number and are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. The catalog is divided into three separate tables according to findspot: Illustration 4.1 includes the sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas; Illustration 4.2 includes those sherds found in tombs and their surrounding areas in the extent of the later Minoan Building; and Illustration 4.3 includes the sherds found in the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). Sherds from Tombs 26 and 27, which were located inside Room 1 of the Minoan Building, are included in Table 4.2. The findspots of sherds listed in Illustrations 4.1–4.3 are shown in Figures 9–11, and photographs of the sherds themselves are found in Plates 2–10.
JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI AND GEORGIOS PANTERMARAKIS
56
Number
S1.1
Sector Tomb Findspot
1
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
27
Chalice
Rim, body
Decoration
Clay
Poor
Reddish-brown to blackishbrown slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color
Pinkish color
T1
In tomb (AC)
3
Chalice(?)
Rim, body
Poor
Brown, reddishbrown to brownish-black slip
S1.2
1
T1
In tomb (AC)
S1.3
1
T1
In tomb (AC)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Reddishbrown color, eroded surfaces
S1.4 (GOU03/59)
1
T1
In tomb (AC)
1
Chalice
Body
Poor
DBW
—
S1.5
1
T1
SA east
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Wash
Coarse ware
S1.6
1
T3
In tomb
4
Pyxis
Spherical body and lug
Poor
Wash (clay color)
Brown color, porous, coarse ware
S1.7
1
T4
In tomb (C)
11
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-black slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, fine grained, chipped exterior surface
S1.8
1
T4
In tomb (C)
11
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Reddish-brown to brownishblack slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, fine grained
S1.9
1
T4
In tomb (C)
1
Bowl
Straightsided rim
Poor
Reddish-brown slip
Brown color, fine grained
S1.10
1
T4
In tomb (C)
8 (2 joining)
Pyxis(?)
Rim and body
Poor
Orangish-brown slip
Brown color, fine grained
S1.11
1
T4
In tomb (C)
5
U/D
Rim
Poor
Reddish-brown slip, burnished surfaces
Light brown color, chipped exterior surface
S1.12
1
T4
In tomb (C)
6
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Brown to reddish-brown slip
Brown color, fine grained, eroded interior surface
S1.13
1
T4
In tomb (C)
3
Pyxis
Body and lug
Poor
Blackish-brown to dark brown slip
Brown color, relatively fine
S1.14
1
T4
In tomb (C)
1
Open vessel
Lower part (body and base)
Poor
Orangish-brown to light brown slip
Light brown color, fine grained
S1.15
1
T4
In tomb (C)
1
Cup(?)
Outcurving rim
Poor
Brown wash
Brown color, fine grained, eroded interior surface
1
Thin-walled vessel
Body
Poor
Brownish-red to brownish-black slip, burnished surfaces.
Brown color, fine grained
3
U/D
Rim, body, and base
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Brown color, burned, coarse ware, eroded interior surface
S1.16
1
T4
In tomb (C)
S1.17
1
T4
In tomb (C)
Illustration 4.1. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; DBW = Dark Burnished ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10.
CATALOG OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY SHERDS
Number
Sector Tomb Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
57
Decoration
Clay
S1.18 (GOU03/25)
1
T4
In tomb (AC)
1
Fenestrated jar
Body
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.19 (GOU03/27)
1
T4
In tomb (AC)
1
Cup/ chalice(?)
Body
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.20 (GOU03/32)
1
T4
SA east
1
Chalice
Body
Relatively good
DGBW
—
21 (3 joining)
Bowl
Rim, body, vertical handle, and base
Poor
Brownish-red to brownishblack, burnished surfaces
Brown color, fine grained
S1.21
1
T4
SA northwest
S1.22
1
T4
SA southwest
22 (4 joining)
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, fine grained, chipped exterior surface
S1.23
1
T4
SA west
8
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red to brownish-black slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, fine grained
S1.24
1
T4
SA west
11
Pyxis(?)
Rim(?) and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, fine grained
S1.25
1
T4
SA west
15 (2 joining)
Open vessel
Rim(?) and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, relatively fine
S1.26
1
T4
SA west
4
U/D
Body and lug
Poor
Brownishorange slip
Brown color, relatively fine, eroded surfaces
S1.27
1
T4
SA west
2
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, fine grained, relatively eroded surfaces
2 joining
U/D
Upper portion (rim and body) and base
Poor
Brownishorange slip
Brown color, fine grained, relatively eroded surfaces
S1.28
1
T4
SA southwest
S1.29
1
T4
SA west
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Orangish-red to orangish-brown slip
Brown color, relatively fine
S1.30
1
T4
SA southwest
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Blackish-brown slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color
Poor
Dark brown to brownish-black slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, fine grained, traces of burning on exterior, chipped exterior surface
S1.31
1
T4
SA west
4
U/D
Rim and body
S1.32
1
T4
SA south
7 (2 joining)
Lid of pyxis
Lid
Poor
Brown
Bad, fine grained, eroded and chipped surfaces
S1.33
1
T5
In tomb (AC)
4 (2 joining)
Pyxis
Body and beginning of handle
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, eroded surface
S1.34
1
T5
In tomb (AC)
10 (3 joining)
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color
Illustration 4.1, cont. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; DBW = Dark Burnished ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10.
JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI AND GEORGIOS PANTERMARAKIS
58
Number
Sector Tomb Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
Decoration
Clay
S1.35 (part of P47; GOU03/10)
1
T5
In tomb (AC)
1
Spherical pyxis
Body
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.36 (part of P6; GOU03/11)
1
T5
In tomb (AC)
1
Chalice
Rim
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.37 (part of P107; GOU03/12)
1
T5
In tomb (AC)
1
Tankard
Rim
Relatively good
RSPW
—
S1.38 (part of P98; GOU03/31)
1
T5
In tomb (AC)
1
Chalice
Foot
Relatively good
DGBW
—
S1.39
1
T6
In tomb (C)
10
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Burned core, britle, eroded surfaces
T6
In tomb, upper level (C)
15 (5 joining)
Chalice
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, soft, eroded exterior surface
28 (3 joining)
Pyxis
Upper part (rim and body)
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, soft, chipped exterior surface, eroded surfaces
Open vessel
Straight rim, body, and handle
Poor
—
Brown color, burned core, eroded surfaces
U/D
Rim, body, and beginning of base
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Soft, eroded surfaces
Poor
Brown to brownish-red slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, soft
S1.40
1
S1.41
1
T6
In tomb, upper level (AC)
S1.42
1
T6
In tomb, upper level (C)
10 (6 joining)
T6
In tomb, upper level (AC)
9 (2 joining)
37 (26 joining)
Bowl
Rim, hemispherical body, handle, and base
S1.43
1
S1.44
1
T6
In tomb, upper level (AC)
S1.45
1
T6
In tomb, upper level (AC)
9 (5 joining)
U/D
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, brittle, porous, coarse ware
S1.46
1
T6
In tomb, upper level (AC)
2
Bowl
Body and base
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color
S1.47
1
T6
In tomb, upper level (AC)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, porous, eroded surfaces
S1.48
1
T7
In tomb (C)
7
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Light brown slip
Pinkish color
S1.49
1
T7
In tomb (C)
3
U/D
Rim
Poor
Brown to brownish-red slip
Brown color
S1.50
1
T7
In tomb (C)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Dark brown to reddish-brown slip
Brown color
S1.51
1
T8
In tomb (C)
26 (2 joining)
Closed vessel
Ringshaped rim and body
Poor
Reddish-brown slip
Brown color, eroded surface
Illustration 4.1, cont. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; DBW = Dark Burnished ware; DGBW = Dark Gray Burnished Ware; RSPW = Red Slipped and Polished ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10.
CATALOG OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY SHERDS
Number
Sector Tomb Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
59
Decoration
Clay
S1.52
1
T8
In tomb (C)
6 (2 joining)
Unidentifiable
Base and beginning of body
Poor
Brown
Brown
S1.53
1
T9
In tomb (AC)
32
Pyxis
Body and part of lug
Poor
Reddish-brown slip
Brown color
S1.54
1
T9
In tomb (AC)
10
U/D
Rim and body
Poor
?
Brittle, burned core, eroded surface
S1.55
1
T9
In tomb (AC)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
—
S1.56
1
T9
In tomb (AC)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
—
S1.57
1
T10
In tomb (C)
21
Open vessel
Rim and body
Poor
Wash
Orangishbrown color, eroded surface
S1.58
1
T10
In tomb (C)
3
Bowl
Body
Poor
?
Brown color, eroded surface
S1.59
1
T10
In tomb (C)
2
Pyxis
Body
Poor
Orangish-brown
Brown color, relatively soft
S1.60
1
T10
In tomb (C)
21
U/D
RIm(?) and body
Poor
Brown wash
Brown color, eroded surfaces
S1.61
1
T10
In tomb (C)
3
U/D
Body
Poor
?
Eroded surfaces
S1.62
1
T10
In tomb (C)
2
Pyxis(?)
Body
Poor
Reddish-brown to orangishbrown slip
Brown color
S1.63
1
T10
In tomb (C)
12
U/D
Body
Poor
—
—
S1.64
1
T11
In pit
3 (2 joining)
U/D
Rim, body, and lug
Poor
Brown wash(?)
Brittle coarse ware, eroded surfaces
S1.65
1
T11
In pit
9 (2 joining)
U/D
Body and handle
Poor
Brown slip
Britle coarse ware, burned core
Body
Poor
—
Pinkish color, brittle coarse ware, eroded surfaces
S1.66
1
T11
In pit
12
Open vessel
S1.67
1
T11
SA west
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash
Porous, coarse ware, burned at core
S1.68
1
T11
SA north
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Brown color, coarse ware, brittle
Pyxis
Lug, (almost intact, earshaped, horizontally pierced)
Poor
Wash (color of clay), traces of brownish-red slip
Light orange color, small, few small particles, eroded, chipped surfaces
Washed surfaces
Brown to brownish-red color, relatively soft with thin, sparse, white and brown particles
S1.69
S1.70
1
1
T11
T11
SA north
SA north (surface cleaning)
1
1
Open vessel
Rim
Poor
Illustration 4.1, cont. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10.
JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI AND GEORGIOS PANTERMARAKIS
60
Number
Sector Tomb Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
1
Open vessel
Body
Decoration
Clay
Poor
Washed surfaces
Brown
S1.71
1
T11
SA northwest (surface cleaning)
S1.72
1
T11
SA north (surface cleaning)
1
Pyxis(?)
Lid(?)
Poor
Brownish-red slip on exterior
Orangishbrown color, relatively soft
S1.73
1
T11
SA north (surface cleaning)
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces
Brown color
S1.74
1
T11
SA northwest (surface cleaning)
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces
Brown color
S1.75
1
T11
SA northwest (surface cleaning)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
—
Bowl
Rim, body, and lug base
Poor
Brownish-red to brownish black burnished surfaces
Brown color, soft, eroded surfaces, chipped exterior surface
S1.76
1
T12
In pit
82 (28 joining)
S1.77
1
T12
In pit
32
Closed vessel
Rim and body with incised decoration
Poor
Brownish-red slip, burnished surfaces
Pinkish color
S1.78
1
T12
In pit
2
Chalice
Straight rim
Poor
Reddish-brown to orangeishbrown slip
Pinkish color
S1.79
1
T12
In pit
3
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Pinkish color, relatively soft
S1.80
1
T12
In pit
2
Bowl(?)
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Pinkish color
S1.81
1
T12
In pit
5
Bowl(?); open vessel
Rim and body
Poor
Reddish-brown slip
Brown color, burned core
S1.82 (GOU03/09)
1
T12
In pit
1
Bowl
Body and base
Poor
DGBW
—
S1.83 (GOU03/61)
1
T12
In pit
1
Bowl(?)
Body
Poor
DGBW
—
S1.84
1
T12
SA northwest
5
Pyxis(?)
Spherical body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
— Brownish-red color, relatively soft, sparse, small white and brown particles, gray core
S1.85
1
T12
SA northwest
5
Chalice(?)
Body with conical wall
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay), brownish-red to orangish-brown slip
S1.86
1
T13
SA west
2 (2 joining)
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, relatively soft
S1.87
1
T14
In pit
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Eroded surfaces
S1.88
1
T14
In pit
4
U/D
Body
Poor
Brown
Brown color
Poor
Brown to brownish-gray slip
Brown color, relatively soft
S1.89
1
T14
In pit
1
U/D
Rim
Illustration 4.1, cont. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; DGBW = Dark Gray Burnished ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10.
CATALOG OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY SHERDS
Number
Sector Tomb Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
61
Decoration
Clay
S1.90
1
T14
In pit
1
U/D
Rim
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, soft
S1.91
1
T14
In pit
33 (4 joining)
Pyxis(?)
Body (upper part)
Poor
Light brown
Pinkish color, eroded surface
S1.92
1
T14
In pit
7
U/D
Rim and body
Poor
Brown
Brown color, soft, chipped exterior surface
S1.93
1
T16
In pit
1
U/D
Rim
Poor
Wash (clay color)
Brown color, soft
S1.94
1
T16
In pit
2 (2 joining)
Lid of pyxis
Lid
Poor
Reddish-brown slip
Brown color
S1.95 (part of P5; GOU03/16)
1
T16
In pit
1
Chalice
Rim
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.96 (part of P60; GOU03/17)
1
T16
In pit
1
Spherical Pyxis
Tubular handle
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.97 (GOU03/15)
1
T16
In pit
1
Chalice
Body
Relatively good
DGBW
—
S1.98 (GOU03/60)
1
T16
In pit
1
Chalice
Body
Relatively good
DBW
—
S1.99
2
T21
In tomb (C)
8 (4 joining)
Open vesselr
Rim, body, and lug
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, coarse ware, porous
S1.100
2
T21
In tomb (C)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Light brown slip
Brown, eroded surfaces
S1.101
2
T22
In tomb (AC)
36 (10 joining)
Open vessel
Rim, body, straight side handle
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, relatively fine grained
T22
In tomb (AC)
Brown color, relatively fine grained, burned core
S1.102
2
2
U/D
Body
Poor
Reddish-brown slip
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Coarse ware, brownish-pink color, eroded surfaces
S1.103
2
T22
In tomb (AC)
1
Pyxis
Base and lower portion of conical body
S1.104
2
T24
In tomb (C)
5
Pyxis(?)
Spherical body
Poor
Traces of brown to reddishbrown slip
Brown color, burned core, eroded interior
S1.105
2
T25
In tomb (AC)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
—
S1.106
2
T25
In tomb (AC)
6
Bowl
Body
Poor
Brownish red
Brown color, coarse ware, porous
S1.107
2
T25
In tomb (C)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Orangish-brown slip
Light brown color
S1.108
2
T25
In tomb (C)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Orangish-brown slip
Light brown color
S1.109
2
T25
In tomb (C)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Orangish-brown slip
Pinkish color
Illustration 4.1, cont. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; DBW = Dark Burnished ware; DGBW = Dark Gray Burnished ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10.
JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI AND GEORGIOS PANTERMARAKIS
62
Number
Sector Tomb Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
Decoration
Clay
S1.110
2
T25
In tomb (C)
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Orangish-brown slip
Pinkish color
S1.111
2
South of T30
SA south
3 (3 joining)
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Brownish-red slip on exterior
Brown color, porous, brittle surfaces
17 (4 joining)
Pyxis(?)
Body
Poor
Wash
Brittle, pinkish color, burned core, eroded surface
S1.112
2
T31
SA southwest
S1.113
2
T31
SA northeast
3
U/D
Body and handle
Poor
Wash
Pinkish color, eroded surface
S1.114
2
T33
In tomb (AC)
14
Open vessel(?)
Rim and body
Poor
Wash
Brittle, burned core, eroded surface
S1.115
2
T33
In tomb (AC)
1
Jug (fine walled)
Outcurving rim
Poor
Wash
Pinkish color, relatively fine grained, eroded surface
Illustration 4.1, cont. Sherds from tombs and their surrounding areas. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9 and 10 Number
Sector
Location
Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
S2.116 (GOU03/62)
2
MB/ T26
In tomb (C)
—
Fenestrated jar
—
15 (2 joining)
Decoration
Clay
—
DBW
—
Pyxis(?)
Straightsided rim, rim, and body
Poor
Wash
Brown color, eroded surfaces
Open vessel
Body and one lug
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, eroded surfaces
Poor
Brownish-red to brownishblack slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, soft, eroded surfaces
S2.117
2
MB/ T26
In tomb (C)
S2.118
2
MB/ T26
In tomb (C)
87 (8 joining)
84 (6 joining)
Bowl
Outcurving rim and body
S2.119
2
MB/ T26
In tomb (C)
S2.120
2
MB/ T26
In
32 (11 joining)
U/D
Rim, neck, body, and vertical handle
Poor
Brownish-red slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, soft, eroded surfaces
S2.121
2
MB/ T26
SA northeast
2
U/D
Body
Good
—
Brownish color, coarse ware
S2.122
2
MB/ T26
SA east
2
Open vessel
Body
Relatively good
Washed brownish slip
Coarse ware
S2.123
2
MB/ T26
SA
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
—
S2.124
2
MB/T27
In tomb (AC)
9
Bowl
Rim and body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Brown color, eroded surfaces
S2.125
2
MB/T27
In tomb (C)
1
Pyxis(?)
Body
Poor
Red slip
Brownish color, fine ware
Illustration 4.2. Sherds from Tomb 26, Tomb 27, and the Minoan Building. AC = antechamber; C = chamber; MB = Minoan Building; DBW = Dark Burnished ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figure 11.
CATALOG OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY SHERDS
Number
Sector
Location
Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
S2.126
2
MB/T27
SA south
1
U/D
Body
S2.127
2
MB/T27
SA northeast
2
Pyxis(?)
S2.128 (GOU03/30)
2
MB/T27
In tomb (C)
1
S2.129
2
MB
GS A1, level 1, group 1
S2.130
2
MB
GS A1, level 3, group 3
63
Portion of Preservation Vessel
Decoration
Clay
Relatively good
—
Brownish color, coarse ware
Body
Good
Brownish slip (color of clay)
Fine ware
Bowl
Rim and body
Good
DBW
—
1
U/D
Body
Good
Orange to reddish slip
Coarse ware
2
U/D
Body
Relatively good
—
Orange color, coarse ware
S2.131
Vacat
S2.132
2
MB
GS B1, level 2, group 2
3
Open(?) vessel
Body
Relatively good
—
Brownish color, coarse ware
S2.133 (part of P106; GOU03/64)
2
MB
GS B1, level 2, group 2
1
Tankard
Body
Relatively good
DoLPW
—
S2.134
2
MB
GS C3, level 3, group 3
8 (5 joining)
U/D
Body
Relatively good
—
Brownish color, coarse ware
Illustration 4.2, cont. Sherds from Tomb 26, Tomb 27, and the Minoan Building. C = chamber; MB = Minoan Building; DBW = Dark Burnished ware; DoLPW = Dark-on-Light Painted ware; SA = surrounding area; T = Tomb ; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figure 11. Number Sector Location Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
Decoration
Clay Orange brown to blackish-gray color on exterior, gray core, brittle surfaces
S3.135
1
South of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces, black slip on exterior
S3.136
1
South of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
—
Orange brown, porous, brittle surfaces
S3.137
1
South of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces, brownish-red slip, brittle
Orangish-red color, soft
S3.138
1
South of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Closed vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces, brownish-red slip, brittle
Orangish-red color, soft, gray core
Poor
Washed surfaces, brownish-red slip
Orangish-red color
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Orangish-red color, coarse
S3.139
1
South of T14
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Outcurving rim in line with the straightsided wall
S3.140
1
Southwest strip
Surface cleaning
2
Open vessel
Straight rim, straightsided wall
Illustration 4.3. Sherds from the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9–11.
JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI AND GEORGIOS PANTERMARAKIS
64
Number Sector Location Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
Decoration
Clay
S3.141
1
North of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Closed vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces, brown slip outside
Brownishorange color, relatively soft, gray core
S3.142
1
Northwest of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Dark brown slip, burnished surfaces
Brownishorange color, relatively soft
S3.143
1
Northeast of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces, brownish-red slip
Brownishorange color, fine grained
S3.144
1
Northwest of T14
Surface cleaning
1
Closed vessel
Body
Poor
—
Brownishorange to light brown color, porous, gray core, fine grained
S3.145
1
Northeast of T11
Surface cleaning
1
Bowl (skyphos)
Body
Relatively good
Red slip
Fine grained
1
Northwest of T16
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body, conical wall, waisted base
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay), brownish-red slip
Brownish-red color, relatively soft, porous, with few small white and brown particles
S3.147
1
Northwest of T9
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel(?)
Body
Poor
Traces of brownish-red slip on one side
Brownishorange to brown color, relatively soft
S3.148
1
West of T9
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel(?)
Body
Poor
Washed surfaces
Brownish-gray color, relatively soft
Poor
Washed and burnished surface on exterior, traces of dense, brown slip
Brownishorange to brownish-gray color, relatively soft
Poor
—
Orange to reddish-orange color, relatively coarse
Poor
Washed surface on exterior
Brownish-red to brownish-gray color with white, grey and brown, fine particles
S3.146
1
West of T9
Surface cleaning
1
Northwest of T9
Surface cleaning
1
Northwest of T13
Surface cleaning
S3.152
1
Southwest of T15
Surface cleaning
1
Open vessel
Body
Relatively good
—
Brownish-black to orangishbrown color with fine white, gray, and brown, particles
S3.153
1
West of T15
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Washed surface on exterior
Brownish-red color with white and brown particles
S3.149
S3.150
S3.151
1
Domestic pottery
1
Open vessel(?)
1
Open vessel
Body
Body
Body
Illustration 4.3, cont. Sherds from the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9–11.
CATALOG OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY SHERDS
Number Sector Location Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
65
Decoration
Clay
S3.154
1
West of T9
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Washed surface on exterior
Brownish-red color with white and brown particles
S3.155
2
Northwest of T36
Surface cleaning
2
U/D
Body
Poor
Brown slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color
S3.156
2
Northwest of T36
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Base
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Brown color
S3.157
2
Southwest of MB
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, coarse
S3.158
2
South of MB
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, coarse
S3.159
2
South of MB
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, fine grained
S3.160
2
Southwest of T18
Surface cleaning
2 (2 joining)
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash
Brown color, burned core
S3.161
2
Southwest of T18
Surface cleaning
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Brown color, coarse
S3.162
2
South of T35
—
2
U/D
Body
Poor
Brown slip
Brown color
Bowl
Straight rim, curved and inverted, in line with the body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay), traces of brownish-red slip
Brown color, coarse, porous with medium quantity of white particles, partly brittle surfaces
2
North of T34–T35
S3.164
2
Northwest of T20
—
3 (3 joining)
Open vessel
Body
Poor
Brown
Pinkish color, relatively soft, eroded surface on interior, chipped surface on exterior
S3.165
2
Northwest of T20
—
2
U/D
Body
Poor
Slip(?)
Brown color, brittle, eroded surfaces
S3.166
2
Northwest of T20
—
2
U/D
Body
Poor
Brownish-black slip, burnished surfaces
Brown color, soft
S3.167
2
Northwest of T20
—
1
Bowl
Rim
Poor
Brown to orangish-brown slip
Brown color, relatively soft
S3.168
2
South of T25
—
3 (3 joining)
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash(?)
Brown color, coarse ware, eroded surfaces
S3.169
2
Southeast of T25
—
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Pinkish color, relatively coarse
S3.163
—
1
Illustration 4.3, cont. Sherds from the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). MB = Minoan Building; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9–11.
JOANNA TRIANTAFYLIDI AND GEORGIOS PANTERMARAKIS
66
Number Sector Location Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
Decoration
Clay
S3.170
2
Northeast of T25
—
5
U/D
Body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Pinkish color, relatively soft, eroded surfaces
S3.171
2
Southwest of T30
—
1
U/D
Outcurving rim and body
Relatively good
—
Brittle, coarse ware, burned core, eroded surfaces
S3.172
2
Southwest of T19
—
1
Spherical pyxis
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay), strong burnished surface on exterior with brownishred slip
Light brown color, coarse with medium to large quantity of small white and brown particles
S3.173
2
South of T24
—
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Brown color, fine grained
S3.174
2
South of T24
—
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, fine grained
S3.175
2
Southwest of T18
—
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, fine grained
S3.176
2
Southwest of T32
—
1
Open vessel
Body
Relatively good
Wash, burned
Light brown color, porous
S3.177
2
Southwest of T32
—
1
Open vessel
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, porous
S3.178
2
East of MB
—
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash, burned on exterior surfaces
Light brown color, orange brown
S3.179
2
East of MB
—
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Wash (color of clay)
Light brown color, orange brown
S3.180
2
East of MB
—
1
U/D
Rim
Relatively good
Traces of slip
Light brown to orangish–brown color
S3.181
2
Southeast of MB
—
1
U/D
Body
Relatively good
Traces of slip
Brown color
S3.182
2
East of MB
—
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Brownish-red slip
Light brown color
S3.183
2
Southeast of MB
—
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Brown slip
Brown color
Wash (color of clay), brown slip(?)
Brown color, coarse with a few sparse, small brown particles, brittle and partly chipped off surfaces
S3.184
2
Southwest of T18
Upper stratum
1
U/D
Straight rim in line with the wall
Relatively good
Illustration 4.3, cont. Sherds from the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). MB = Minoan Building; T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9–11.
CATALOG OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY SHERDS
Number Sector Location Findspot
Number of Sherds
Vessel Type
Portion of Preservation Vessel
67
Decoration
Clay
S3.185
2
Southwest of T18
Upper stratum
1
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Orangish-brown color, fine grained
S3.186
2
Southeast of T24
North part
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Eroded surfaces, porous
S3.187
2
South of T24
North part
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Eroded surfaces
S3.188
2
East of T24
North part
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Brittle, traces of fire, eroded surfaces
S3.189
2
Southeast of T24
North part
1
U/D
Body
Poor
—
Brittle, traces of fire, eroded surfaces, porous
S3.190
2
Southeast of T24
North part
1
U/D
Body with painted decoration
Relatively good
Light brown to brownish-red slip on exterior, decoration in white
Brownish color, coarse, with medium to large quantity of small white and brown particles
S3.191
2
North of T23–T25
—
2
U/D
Body
Poor
Wash (color of clay)
Brown color, brittle, eroded surface
Illustration 4.3, cont. Sherds from the wider area of the cemetery (Sectors 1 and 2). T = Tomb; U/D = unidentifiable. For findspots, see Figures 9–11.
5
Burial Architecture and Funerary Practices at the Early Minoan IB Cemetery Kostas Sbonias
Cemetery Organization Location and Layout of the Gournes Cemetery The Gournes cemetery, situated ca. 350 m south of the present coastline in the HCMR plot at Gournes, extends over a flat area 8–10 m asl, at the intersection of the sediments of the coastal area (beach sands and marine terraces) and the marls of the lower–middle Pliocene (IGME 1989). The tombs of the cemetery are cut into the bedrock, which is constituted of marls, ca. 50 m south of the point where the sedimentary deposits of the coastal area begin. Even if the present coastline changed through the centuries, the position of the cemetery inland on the lower–middle Pliocene marls indicates a rather stable landscape and thus a reliable picture of the topography of the cemetery area. The excavation revealed two discreet groups of tombs, which were excavated separately in two sectors (Sector 1 and 2). Sector 1 to the south covers an area of 18 x 15 m (ca. 0.027 ha), and it consists of 10
rock-cut tombs and six pits situated mainly in the western edge of the sector (Fig. 12). Sector 2, which forms the northern group of tombs, covers an area of 17 x 35 m (ca. 0.06 ha) and includes 21 rock-cut tombs (Fig. 13). If the somewhat isolated Tomb 17 is excluded, the compact area of Sector 2 is 17 x 24 m (ca. 0.04 ha). There is a difference in altitude between the Sectors 1 and 2 of ca. 2 m (8 and 10 m asl, respectively) and a distance between them of ca. 65 m (Galanaki 2006, 227). The area of the excavated plot is quite large, with space for further groups of tombs with 50 m of available space between them. Because the plot was excavated completely, it seems quite probable that the tombs discovered in Sectors 1 and 2 represent the entire buried population at this location. The clustering of tombs in two groups is facilitated by the differing geological formation of the soil in the area in between the two sectors. The tombs were built into soft limestone rock (kouskouras), while the area in between is characterized by sandstones (psammitic rocks) that are not suited for excavating cavities for underground tombs. This area was used to quarry the psammitic slabs that closed
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the entrances of the burial chambers. Τhe geology of this area does not permit, therefore, a continuous distribution of rock-cut tombs, and one should take into account the possibility that the formation of the two clusters might be related to geological factors. On the other hand, the arrangement of the tombs, and in some cases the wide spacing among them, indicates that the formation of clusters was intended from the beginning and is primarily related to social rather than geological factors. In that respect, the different geological formations facilitated the clustering of the burials into two groups, as also was the case in the Cyclades, where natural features such as rock outcrops were used to subdivide cemetery areas (Doumas 1977, 31–33). Organization of tombs in clusters is a custom observed in the wider Aegean region and is usually interpreted as reflecting kinship affiliations or other social factors (Doumas 1987, 16; Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 131). In the Cyclades, it characterized mainly the earlier EC I cemeteries with single burials, a habit that gradually declined with the introduction of multiple burials (Doumas 1977, 31; Barber 1987, 76). In the beginning of the 20th century at the Manika cemetery, the size of which is estimated at 5–6 ha, Georgios Papavasileiou excavated 50 Early Helladic (EH) rock-cut chamber tombs of similar type to those of Gournes, which were organized in five clusters with distances between them (Papavasileiou 1910, 1–19; Sampson 1988, 21). Adamantios Sampson argued that these small groups of tombs were created by the incomplete excavation, but he did not exclude the existence of gaps among groups of tombs spreading over an extensive area (Sampson 1985, 153–155). Later excavations at the site by Sampson indicated the existence of clusters of tombs that gradually filled the large area of the cemetery. In the eastern part of the cemetery, the high density of tombs at the same location within each cluster, which resulted in the destruction of older tombs by the opening of new ones, indicates, as Sampson suggested, the persistence of burying the dead in the same area due to kin-relation, descent, or other reasons (Sampson 1988, 37–41, 126). At Hagia Photia the tombs covered the entire northern slope of the hill, and they did not form any recognizable groups (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 231). An empty area near the center of the cemetery has been interpreted as a possible open
space for ceremonies. This circumstance might be the result of the large size of the cemetery (263 tombs were excavated, to which an estimate of 50 more destroyed examples could be added: Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 7) and the infilling of the empty space through time, as to a large extent also was the case at Manika. Also, the use of tombs for multiple inhumations might have provided another means of social clustering, as in the Cyclades where no clustering has been observed in cemeteries with multiple burials in the tombs (Doumas 1987, 16). At the Pseira cemetery, where the architecture of some of the tombs has parallels in the Cyclades, some of the built and cist tombs of the cemetery seem to have formed a group of four on a natural terrace at the north of the cemetery, but overall tombs are spread across the hillside without any strict clustering (Tombs 10–13: Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003, 83–102). At Gournes, the careful excavation of the entire plot again indicates that the two clusters probably represent the entire buried population. The clusters might be regarded as the burial place of two separate segments of a community exploiting this part of the plain and coast of Gournes. The existence of clusters with a small number of tombs and not the infilling of the entire area of the cemetery would point to a small community. The existence of further small cemeteries in the wider coastal area of Gournes cannot be excluded. The coastal zone with beach sands and marine terraces by the coast and Pliocene marls at the immediate interior extends along a coast line of ca. 13 km, from Kokkini Chani to the Chersonissos promontory, with settlement niches comparable to that occupied by the Gournes cemetery. The existence of the burial cave of Pyrgos, which is located 1.5 km to the west and associated, like Gournes, with a probably small-sized community, indicates a comparable pattern of small communities in the wider area (see this vol., Ch. 1).
Spacing and Orientation of Tombs Considering the arrangement of the individual tombs at Gournes, it is possible to demonstrate that there is not a strict arrangement within each cluster. In Sector 2, where 21 tombs came to light, one can observe an alignment of tombs in two rows
BURIAL ARCHITECTURE AND FUNERARY PRACTICES AT THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
running east–west and a further scatter of tombs to the south (Fig. 13). The three larger tombs of Sector 2, Tombs 17–19 were more or less in line with large distances between them (Tombs 18 and 19, 6 m apart; Tombs 17 and 19, 11 m apart). Tomb 17 seems isolated at the eastern edge of Sector 2, but it likely belongs to the cluster and forms, together with Tombs 18 and 19, a line of spatially distant larger tombs. To this upper line of tombs also can be added, from west to east, Tombs 35, 34, 24, and 36. A second line of tombs situated 2.5–3 m to the south, with similar distances of 2–3 m or less between them, is formed by Tombs 32, 31, 25, 23, 21, and 22 (west–east). These two rows create an elliptical arrangement of tombs in which Tomb 18, one of the largest and most rich of Sector 2 (it contained the silver necklace), seems to have had a central position. Additional tombs were more randomly scattered to the south and southwest (Tombs 20, 26–29, 33, 37). There are also a few tombs very close to each other, with distances among them of less than 1 m (e.g., Tombs 29 and 37 are 0.20 m apart). In Sector 2, there is therefore a certain sense of order in the placement of the individual tombs, but not a very strict one; there is a logic of rows that is not always followed. There is also the possibility of clustering around Tomb 18, which stands out in terms of its size, spacing, and finds. Attention should also be paid to the somewhat isolated Tomb 17 of Sector 2, which is situated 11 m east of Tomb 19. At Cycladic cemeteries, some large and well-constructed tombs with single burials were well spaced out within the cemetery area (Doumas 1987, 16). At the transitional EC I–II cemetery of Hagioi Anargyroi on Naxos, for example, it seems that the clustering of tombs was based on social status, with spatial differentiation among larger, carefully constructed, rich, and widely spaced tombs and smaller and more modest ones, which were crowded alongside a retaining wall at the southwest corner of the cemetery (Doumas 1977, 100–101; Barber 1987, 77). At Gournes, the three larger tombs of Sector 2, Tombs 17–19, are more or less in a line with large distances between them. One therefore should leave open the possibility that in these cases there may be differentiation in terms of the construction and spacing of the tombs. Sector 1 presents a more irregular picture (Fig. 12). There is an alignment of many tombs on a diagonal
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line with a northwest–southeast orientation (Tombs 10, 7, 3, 8, 5), which may have resulted from the positioning of the tombs to face toward the sea. Other tombs are irregularly spaced north (Tomb 1) or south of this line (Tombs 6, 9, and 4). Tomb 6 seems to have had a central position in this arrangement, with the other tombs and pits creating an elliptical cluster around it. This circumstance might be accidental: one should note that Tomb 6 is one of the largest of Sector 1, and it contained the only metal implements found in the sector (M1, M2). The spacing of the tombs in Sector 1 ranges from 1–5 m, but 1.5–2 m is the usual distance among them. The pits of Sector 1 are mainly located at the western edge of the cemetery, and they seem to have been randomly placed at the periphery of the core group of tombs, indicating a differentiation from the rock-cut/built tombs both in terms of construction and location within the cemetery. Positioning of tombs in rows is a custom that is also observed at Manika but is not always strictly followed. Sampson noticed in several cases the position of tombs in rows in which the tombs face northern directions (Sampson 1987, 20; 1988, 41). The same was observed in the tombs excavated in the third cluster at Manika by Papavasileiou, in which the tombs had the same arrangement and orientation (1910, 1–19). At Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi, the tombs were organized in two rows running east– west, where, at the west end, they change direction to run from south to north (Zapheiropoulou 1983, 81, fig. 1; 2008, 193; Rambach 2000a, 166, fig. 8). At Hagia Photia the tombs were spaced across the ground covering the entire northern slope of the hill (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 231). At Gournes, it seems that it was the clustering of tombs into groups that was of major importance. Within each sector the arrangement of the tombs seems to have been a result of the positioning and orientation of the tombs to face the sea, following also the slight inclination of the ground to the north. In Sector 1 the orientation of the tombs is north and northwest and occasionally northeast (Tombs 1, 5, 8) and east (Tomb 9). The pits of the sector also had northern or northeastern orientations. In Sector 2 the orientation of the tombs is generally homogenous and almost all the tombs face north or slightly northwest. A similar orientation was observed at Hagia Photia, where the orientation ranges from northeast to northwest and
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is dictated by the position of the entrances to face downhill (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 231).
Marking of Tombs It seems that the arrangement of the built tombs was facilitated by their marking on the surface. Certain alignments apparent in the location of the tombs as well as their more or less standard spacing across the ground indicate that the tombs were probably visible on the surface. The marking was achieved via the visible upper edge of the vertical slab that closed the entrance, and in some cases also by a heap of stones in the area of the anteroom that blocked the main vertical slab and filled the shaft of the antechamber up to the surface level. During excavation, the upper end of the vertical slab blocking the entrance extended higher than the surface of the kouskouras in which the tombs were cut, and it was the first to be revealed on the surface. Photos taken when the uppermost layer of soil had been removed show clearly that the upper edge of the main stone is visible and give an impression of how the cemetery and possible marking of tombs might have appeared in the period of cemetery use (Pl. 11A:Tombs 23, 31, 32). The portion of the slab that extended above the surface is not easy to judge, because an Early Bronze (EB) surface layer must have existed above the level of the rock in which the tombs were built. Today, the topsoil level above the kouskouras has a thickness of ca. 0.25–0.35 m and consists of sand, sand dunes, and marine terraces of Pleistocene–Holocene age (see this vol., Ch. 23). Yet this thin layer seems to be partly later than the Early Bronze Age, as it contained material of the Old Palace, Byzantine, and modern periods. In the area of Sector 1, a thin layer of red soil ca. 0.07–0.1 m thick was recorded above the kouskouras, and this layer might have constituted the original surface. In any case, measuring from the surface of the kouskouras in which the tombs were cut, the blocking stones of the entrance extended about 0.1–0.39 m above the surface (Sector 1: Tombs 1, 3, 5–8, 10; Sector 2: Tombs 17–19, 21–25, 29–32, 34–37). There are also a few examples in which the upper part of the entrance slab and of the blocking stones are almost at the same level or only a few centimeters above the surface of the kouskouras (Tombs 31, 34–36).
Usually it was the main upright slab of the entrance that would rise above the surface (e.g., Tombs 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 29, 31, 32, 35). In some cases, the blocking stones of the entrance also might have been visible: these formed part of the anteroom fill and were positioned in a linear or a triangular arrangement, thus together forming a substantially visible marker with the upper part of the main vertical slab that closed the entrance (Tombs 18, 19, 21, 22–25, 34; Pl. 11B). Hagia Photia has characteristics similar to Gournes, although the possible marking of tombs was not properly documented in the excavation. The use of some tombs for multiple burials, the large number of tombs, and especially the fact that later tombs did not encroach on earlier ones indicate that their position must have been marked on the surface, probably by a fill of stones blocking the entrance up to the level of the surface (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 231). It also has been suggested that small triangular slabs found during excavation might constitute the remains of upright funerary stelai (Davaras 1992, 167). Such practices to mark underground tombs on the surface are not common in Minoan cemeteries. Minoan tholos tombs and built tombs were constructed aboveground, and thus were visible and sometimes prominent monuments in the landscape (see Murphy 1998, 27–29; Vavouranakis 2006; 2007, 71–78). The practices at Gournes and Hagia Photia resemble more those of the Cyclades and mainland Greece, where attempts to mark individual tombs and make them visible for the living are also known. At the Agrilia cemetery on Ano Kouphonisi, which is the closest parallel to Gournes in terms of tomb type, a large upright slab blocking the entrance was sometimes protruding above the original ground surface (Zapheiropoulou 1983, 81–82, fig. 3; 2008, 183). In one case, a large stone 0.61 m high was interpreted as a burial marker (Zapheiropoulou 1983, 85–86, fig. 15). In the Cyclades, Christos Doumas observed that some kind of construction, a sort of platform, was arranged over the capstones of Early Cycladic cist tombs (1977, 38). Smaller slabs or stones were placed over the capstone, securing it in its place and serving probably as a marker of the tomb (Stephanos 1910, 271; Doumas 1977, 38, 63). These stones over the capstones of Cycladic tombs create a similar impression of the stones blocking the antechamber up to the surface level at Gournes and Hagia Photia (cf. Pl. 11B with Doumas 1977, 38, pl. IIIa, IIIe).
BURIAL ARCHITECTURE AND FUNERARY PRACTICES AT THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
A similar coverage of stones was recorded at Agrilia (Zapheiropoulou 1983, 82, fig. 3). At the EH I/II cemetery of Tsepi Marathon, apart from the proper demarcation of the tombs by enclosures formed by series of stones, the entrance of the tombs were also marked both by vertical slabs, which partially covered the sides of the entrances and rose above the ancient surface, and by piles of stones that filled the passages and protruded above ground level (Pantelidou Gofa 2005, 353–354). Also at Hagios Kosmas, small stones and soil were piled on top of the roof slabs (Mylonas 1959, 120). One should mention, though, that in the case of Tsepi Marathon the original premise that each tomb was covered with a small mound was not supported by the recent excavation (Pantelidou Gofa 2005, 354). At Manika, it seems that there were not any markers above the tombs, although in some cases a little wall around the dromos might have been visible on the surface (Sampson 1987, 20; SapounaSakellaraki 1987, 245). Thus, Gournes conforms to practices of marking the tomb that occur in the Cyclades and in cemeteries with Cycladic influences in mainland Greece. These similarities, which are different from Minoan practices, arose from constructional characteristics of the tombs (i.e., the entrance, the vertical slab closing it, the material filling the shaft of a grave or an anteroom up to the surface level).
Architectural Features of the Tombs Tombs at Gournes consist of two types: (1) rockcut, built tombs consisting of an inner underground funerary chamber (thalamos) and an outer, unroofed forecourt (prothalamos), both excavated into the poorly consolidated bedrock; and (2) simple pits cut into the bedrock (Fig. 14). Sector 1 contained 10 built tombs and six pits, while Sector 2 contained 21 built tombs only. One should note, though, that in Sector 2 there exist a number of disturbed tombs that consist of simple pits with stones probably derived from a doorway. In this case, an antechamber was not clearly visible during excavation, the main blocking stone of the entrance was missing, and it was the existence of stones that could have come
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from a doorway that indicated categorization as a built tomb. The overall picture between the two sectors is rather comparable, yet some differences can be observed (Figs. 15, 16). Sector 2 appears to have a larger number of tombs, which were also of more substantial construction in terms of the depths of the burial chambers. It contained the three largest tombs of the cemetery (Tombs 17–19), but also a large number of smaller tombs (diam. 0.6–0.8 m), counterbalanced in Sector 1 by the existence of pits with comparably small dimensions. On the other hand, the built tombs of Sector 1 were less numerous but larger than the majority of the built tombs of Sector 2. Some tombs in Sector 1 stand out in terms of size and depth of the burial chamber (Tombs 5, 6, 10), as was the case also in Sector 2.
Rock-Cut Built Tombs A number of largerly undisturbed examples both in Sector 1 (Tombs 3, 5–8, 10) and Sector 2 (Tombs 17, 18, 21–25, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36), which have preserved the main blocking slab of the entrance in position, show the main characteristics of the built tomb type (Pl. 11C). Tombs were excavated beneath the surface as two chambers with usually elliptical forms, namely an outer unroofed anteroom sunk into the ground and a main roofed underground burial chamber that was excavated from the base of the anteroom by digging to the side into the soft limestone rock. An entrance gave access to the main burial chamber. A main large, upright slab, supported often by additional stones on the outside, blocked the entrance and separated the two spaces. The entrance of the tombs was a simple opening, usually of an irregular elliptical shape (Tombs 3–5, 7–10, 18, 19, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32–36) or merely an irregular shape (Tombs 1, 6, 22–24, 29, 31), situated on the north, northwest, and ocassionaly northeast side of the chamber. The length of the entrance ranged from 0.45–1.27 m, according to the size of the tomb, and in most cases the opening was about 0.3–0.5 m narrower than the maximum length of the burial chamber (the difference ranged from 0.2–0.7 m). Thus the two parts of the tomb
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(chamber and antechamber) positioned on either side of the narrower entrance gave the whole tomb an overall figure-of-eight (Tombs 1, 3, 4, 6–9, 18, 20–23, 29, 32–34) or bi-trapezoidal plan (Tombs 5, 10, possibly 17, 19). In some cases the entrance covered the entire length of the tomb, as in tombs with a chamber of rectangular shape (Tomb 21) or in chambers with a semi-elliptical plan, which have the maximum length at the side of the entrance (Tombs 25, 31, 35). In the latter case the chamber and antechamber created an overall elliptical/ circular tomb shape (Tombs 24, 26, 30, 31, 35–37). The burial chambers were regular cavities with carefully constructed, smooth, inclining sides, reflecting the sloping roof that ended near the floor of the chamber. The floors were flat with convex/ round edges. The tombs were cut into the natural soft and poorly consolidated bedrock. As a result, the roofs had collapsed everywhere, and only Tomb 17 in Sector 2, one of the largest and deepest tombs of the cemetery, preserved the beginning of the sloping roof (Pl. 11C). It seems that for the construction of the burial chamber, the slight inclination of the ground had been used in order to create a deep burial chamber, excavated from the level of the antechamber, which was positioned lower downslope. The majority of the funerary chambers at Gournes had an elliptical or semi-elliptical shape. There are also chambers of rectangular shape with rounded corners and a few that are trapezoidal. Comparing Hagia Photia with Gournes, one notes that the two sites share the same form of burial chamber, yet there is a preponderance of elliptical shapes at Gournes and of rectangular and square ones at Hagia Photia (Fig. 17). To a large extent, this circumstance is due to the hardness of the rock, which is more compact at Hagia Photia, permitting the construction of deeper and more regular tombs, and softer at Gournes, resulting in the formation of elliptical and shallow chambers that are not very well preserved. The custom of covering the floor with small beach pebbles, observed in the Cyclades in late EC I tombs and also at the Hagia Photia cemetery, does not occur at Gournes (Barber 1987, 77; Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233). Attention had been paid, however, to the preparation of flat floors to accept the bodies. The chambers at Gournes were found almost empty of skeletal remains, with the exception of Tomb 9, but they contained offerings. Grave goods
were placed close to the entrance of the tombs in front of the main slabs closing the chambers (Tombs 3, 7, 10, 17, 22–24, 31) and at the sides of the burial chambers (Tombs 6, 9, 17, 21, 22, 24), or in other cases in the middle of the tomb, situated in the empty space left presumably by the body of the deceased (Tombs 17, 18, 21, 24, 29, 32, 35, 36). There are also tombs that did not contain any grave goods in the burial chamber (Tombs 1, 5, 8, 34, 37), apart from some vases in the area of the antechamber (Tombs 1, 5, 8, 34). In Tomb 4, a shallow cavity at the east edge of the chamber contained a pile of broken vases. The funerary chambers were generally small and shallow. The majority of them (86%) had a depth of up to 0.5 m and represented shallow tombs (Fig. 18). A considerable number (21%) were very shallow, with depths of 0.1–0.2 m, while the overwhelming majority (78%) had burial chambers with depths of up to 0.4 m; the maximum depth is 0.66 m (Tomb 31). In contrast, the majority (74%) of the Hagia Photia tombs had depths between 0.51–1.00 m, and only a small percentage (12%) represented shallow tombs with depths of up to 0.5 m (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 7–230 [percentages calculated by the author]). This is probably due to the harder rock at Hagia Photia, which permitted the construction of larger burial chambers, but probably also is due to the fact that at Hagia Photia tombs accommodated multiple burials in several cases. Tomb 2 of Hagia Photia, for example, with a length of 2.35 m, accommodated 10 individuals in two superimposed levels (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 232–233). The shallow character of the funerary chambers at Gournes resembles more the tombs of Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi, where the funerary chambers were 0.3–0.6 m deep (Zapheiropoulou 2008, 188). Shallow tombs are not an unusual characteristic in Cycladic cemeteries, and in general Early Cycladic cist tombs are characterized by their limited depth. In Tsountas’s tombs, the depth ranged between 0.13–0.75 m, with an average depth of less than 0.4 m (Tsountas 1898, 143). Klon Stephanos’s excavations presented a similar picture, with depths ranging between 0.3 and 0.6 m (1903, 54). In the cemeteries excavated by Doumas, very few tombs were shallower than 0.3 m; in the majority, depths ranged between 0.3 and 0.6 m (Doumas 1977, 39). These depths are comparable to those at the Agrilia cemetery where the funerary chambers were 0.3–0.6 m deep (Zapheiropoulou 2008, 188). The Gournes
BURIAL ARCHITECTURE AND FUNERARY PRACTICES AT THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
tombs are therefore comparable to these, although very shallow tombs like those at Gournes do not occur in other cemeteries. One should notice, though, that the abovementioned depths at Gournes were measured from the upper surface of the kouskouras in which the tombs were cut. At Hagia Photia, chambers of rock-cut tombs that were high enough to be above surface were roofed with stone slabs laid across the top (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233). At Gournes, one could suppose a similar practice for covering very shallow tombs or pits with additional soil and possibly stones; otherwise, coverage of the body seems impossible with tomb depths of only 0.1–0.2 m. The length of the burial chambers at Gournes ranges from 0.38–1.6 m. Only a small percentage represents tombs either less than 0.5 m or more than 1.3 m long (Fig. 19:a). The majority lies in between, with a large proportion, over half, being 0.7– 1 m long. The width of the burial chambers ranges between 0.3–1 m; 53% of the tombs are 0.3–0.5 m wide, and the rest (47%) 0.5–1 m (Fig. 19:b). It seems also that longer tombs tend to be wider. On the other hand, no correlation can be observed between maximum length and depth, since long tombs tend to be shallow tombs like the rest (Fig. 15). The length of the funerary chambers at Gournes is comparable to that of Cycladic tombs. The average length of the cist tombs, the most common type of tomb in the Cyclades, is 1 m, and the width ranges between 0.3–0.8 m (Tsountas 1898, 143; Doumas 1977, 37–39). At the Akrotiri and Plastiras cemeteries, tombs under 0.8 m long predominated, and the same occurs at Pyrgos in Paros. In the South Naxian cemeteries excavated by Doumas, the length varies between 0.85 and 1.2 m. The Hagioi Anargyroi cemetery is the only example where the majority of the tombs exceeded 1 m in length. As Doumas observes (1977, 41), larger tombs might have been constructed for more prosperous members of the community, and the cemetery of Hagioi Anargyroi might reflect this kind of social differentiation. Large by Cycladic standards are the rock-cut tombs at Agrilia, where the inner chambers measured 0.75/0.8–1.3 m in length (in a few cases 1.4/1.5) and 0.4–0.9 m in width (Zapheiropoulou 2008, 188). Comparable, even if somewhat more spacious, were the Hagia Photia tombs (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233–234). At Gournes, only a small percentage of the tombs exceeds in terms of size the usual
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Cycladic standards, and it is interesting that in these cases, as for example in Tombs 17–19 of Sector 2 and possibly Tomb 6 of Sector 1, the large size correlates with the wider spacing of the tombs. In these examples, indications of possible differentiation within the cemetery should be taken into account. The antechambers had an elliptical, a semielliptical, and less often a rectangular/trapezoidal shape, in many cases comparable to and mirroring the shape of the main burial chamber. Their dimensions were similar to the size of the burial chambers and ranged from 1.9 x 1 m (Tomb 5) to 0.85 x 0.9 m (Tomb 3). The antechambers had inclining or vertical walls and usually flat or slightly concave floors with round corners. In many cases, their outline was not very clear, and in general one has the impression that they were less carefully constructed than the burial chambers. Yet this circumstance might be a reflection of their poor preservation, as they were quite shallow and their plan in some cases was barely visible. In most cases, the antechambers were less deep than the burial chambers (Tomb 3, 17–19, 21–23, 25, 29–36), while a few examples had a shallow depth similar to that of the funerary chamber (Tombs 1, 5, 8, 9, 24[?], 26[?]). In general, they were very shallow, in contrast to the cemetery of Hagia Photia where some of the shafts were over 1 m deep, carefully prepared, and occasionally paved with stones (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233, 239, fig. 572). At Gournes, in the few clear examples, the depth of the antechambers ranged from 0.09 to 0.15 m, and in one case it was 0.38 m (Tomb 5), the same as the depth of the burial chamber. It seems that the main function of the antechambers was to facilitate the excavation of the main funerary chamber and provide a means for manouvering the body into the burial chamber through the entrance (see Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 232). It seems also that they provided space for the deposition of vessels and less often of other finds, and for performing burial rites. Special care was extended to the blocking of the entrance of the chamber and the infilling of the shaft up to the surface level. In Sector 1 the entrances of almost all tombs were closed by a single, flat rectangular slab of sandstone or soft limestone, which closed the entire entrance of the tomb (e.g., Tombs 1, 3, 5–8, 10; Pl. 12A). The usual dimensions of this slab were 0.6–0.95 m in length and 0.3–0.6 m in height (in Tombs 6 and 10, however, the height was
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only 0.18 m). As suggested, this upright slab protruded above the ground surface, creating a kind of marker for the tomb. This single flat stone was supported by small rough, irregular stones (Tombs 1, 4–6) or wedges (Tomb 7), which served mainly to support the main slab and keep it in position. In the case of large tombs with wide entrances, as is Tomb 17, which could not be closed by a single slab, the stonework consisted of two slabs of sandstone with a total length up to 1.17 m. With the addition of other stones and wedges at the sidewalls, the total length of the stonework closing the entrance could have reached 1.4 m. It was supported from the outside by rough stones of various sizes placed in a row, while smaller rocks were used as wedges at the side to support the structure. The other large tombs of Sector 2 (Tombs 18, 19) also had impressive stonework, which consisted of rough conglomerates of various sizes placed in double rows that covered the area of the antechambers (Pl. 12A:b). The entrances of tombs with smaller dimensions were blocked in a similar manner. Here, there was a tendency to support the main vertical slab sealing the entrance by rough medium- and large-sized stones placed in a row (Tomb 22, 23, 32, 33). In other tombs, a pile of stones was created that filled the area of the antechamber (Tomb 24, 26, 34). In Tomb 21, a triangular arrangement of stones can be observed, with a large stone in the middle keeping the main slab in place (Pl. 12A:c). In some tombs flat stones covered the floor of the anteroom and did not support the vertical slab in its entire height (Tombs 25, 30, 31; Pl. 12B). In these cases, it seems that the purpose was to create a paved anteroom, as was the case in many tombs at Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233, fig. 572). In many of the above examples, it seems that one large supporting stone or just some wedges were adequate to support the main slab. The other stones arranged around the main slab or in double rows seem to indicate less a practical consideration and more an attempt to block the entrance and fill in the antechamber with a mass of material. In many examples the stones seem to have been placed carefully in a deliberate way, and as the antechambers were very shallow the stone material covered the shaft practically up to the ground level, creating, as was suggested, a marker of the tomb. Comparable practices of closing the entrances to tombs tightly and infilling dromoi have been
suggested for the Manika, Agrilia, and Hagia Photia cemeteries (Sampson 1987, 22; Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 240; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 183–184). Also, at the rock shelter of Pyrgos, for which Stefanos Xanthoudides leaves open the possibility that it might have been partially dug in the rock, the entrance seems to have been closed by large, black limestone boulders (titanolithoi) that were different from the tufa geology of the cave (1918b, 136–137). In the cemetery of Tsepi Marathon in Attica, stones thrown in two or three courses in the area in front of the entrance sealed it up to the surface level, a custom that, according to Maria Pantelidou Gofa, apart from responding to practical needs might have had a ritual meaning (2005, 332). At Hagia Photia, the doorways of the tombs were blocked by large slabs sometimes propped up with smaller stones. As the shafts of the anterooms were quite deep, a two-stage process in the infilling was observed. Occasionally, the floor of the forecourt was paved with stones, creating an even and carefully prepared area in front of the tomb entrance, possibly related to the execution of burial rites. Then the antechamber was filled with stones up to the surface (Davaras 1971; 1972a; Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233, 239–240). At the Agrilia cemetery on Ano Kouphonisi, successive layers in the areas of the antechambers indicate clearly the different stages involved in their sealing. The floors of the forecourts, although not paved as at Hagia Photia, seems to have created areas for the deposition of funerary offerings. The lower layers of the antechambers contained broken clay vessels, stone and metal objects, obsidian tools, seashells, and snails. According to Fotini Zapheiropoulou, the anterooms seem to have contained the best offerings in comparison to the few objects found in the funerary chambers, mainly pyxis lids and obsidian blades and rarely a bronze needle or a marble vessel (2008, 193). Two subsequent layers of soil and stones covered the areas of the antechambers, which were visible on the surface in a similar way to Gournes (Zapheiropoulou 1983, 81–82, fig. 3; 2008, 184, fig. 19.5). Finally, in Cycladic cist tombs two courses of stone slabs or other ordinary stones over the capstones of the tombs seem to secure them and create a kind of marker on top of them (Doumas 1977, 38, pl. IIIa, IIIe). In the above cemeteries, sherds occur occasionally in the area of the antechambers and indicate that
BURIAL ARCHITECTURE AND FUNERARY PRACTICES AT THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
a few vases were smashed on top of the blocked anterooms as final offerings (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 239–240 [Hagia Photia]; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 193 [Agrilia]). At Gournes, too, the antechamber fills and especially the areas in front of the blocked entrances provided spaces for the deposition of material, which consisted of smashed (Tombs 1, 5, 10, 17, 21, 22, 26, 32, 36) as well as intact vases (Tombs 5, 8, 22, 34) and occasionally other offerings such as obsidian blades (Tomb 5) and, exceptionally, a pebble pendant (St45, Tomb 8)
Pits Pits comprise almost one third of the tombs in Sector 1 (six out of 16 tombs), but they do not occur in Sector 2. The pits were rock-cut and mainly had elliptical shapes. In general, they were less deep and smaller than the built tombs of Sector 1 (Pl. 12C), but of comparable dimensions with some of the smallest built tombs of Sector 2 (Figs. 15, 20). They had diameters of 0.6–1.1 m (most of them up to 0.7 m) and depths between 0.10 and 0.15 m (Fig. 20). The pits therefore were extremely shallow, and some of them could hardly have covered the body of the deceased unless they either were used for child burials or additional soil and stones were piled on top. The pits were simple cavities with rough, vertical to inclining walls and usually flat floors with round edges and a rough surface. They usually had a southwest–northeast (Tombs 11–13, 15) or south– north orientation (Tombs 14, 16), thus following the northern orientations of the built tombs of the cemetery. They also were dug on the slightly sloping ground, thus being deeper on the upper southern half while the lower northern part sometimes is not clearly delineated or preserved (pit Tombs 11, 13). In the upper part where the cavity was deeper, the offerings were deposited carefully by the walls of the pit (Pl. 12C). The offerings consisted mainly of ceramic vases, pyxides of various types (conical, spherical, spool), pyxis lids, chalices, fenestrated jars, and occasionally bowls and bottles as well as obsidian blades. It seems also that in some pits pottery was broken on the surface, probably involving smashing of vases above the pit, as was the case in the antechambers of the built tombs. In pit Tomb 12, for example, there was a concentration of broken sherds belonging to two to five vases on the
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surface (S1.76–S1.83) and beneath a second layer of better preserved vases, which were placed by the southeast wall of the pit (P18, P32, P56, P77, P88). In pit Tomb 14, a concentration of sherds from a round vase was on the surface, and nearby were deposited intact vases including a pyxis, a lid, a chalice, and a bottle (P24, P58, P78, P99). Considering the kinds of offerings found in the pits in comparison with those deposited in the built tombs (Fig. 21), one notes a correspondence of not only the type but also the amount of material. In the built tombs, vessels were deposited in the area of the chambers and a few intact or smashed vessels in the areas of the antechambers and on the surface. In the case of pits, vessels were found by the walls and occasionally smashed pottery was recorded on the top layers. This circumstance would point to a comparable burial function of pits and built tombs, with offerings of pottery and obsidian blades in the area of the pits and rituals involving smashed pottery on the exteriors. Examining the position of offerings in the tombs and pits a difference can be observed (Fig. 22). In the built tombs, offerings were deposited in the front (northern) parts of the tombs and close to the slabs closing the entrances (e.g., Tombs 3, 7, 10) and occasionally at the side or at the back of the burial chambers by the walls (Tomb 6). In the pits, offerings were placed sometimes in the southern areas (pit Tombs 11, 12, 14, possibly 15), leaving free space for the presumable burial at the front, northern areas. So, if one accepts the burial character of the pits, the placement of offerings occurred at one end and the body at the other. But do pits constitute burial places? The use of pits for burials is attested both at Hagia Photia as well as at Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi. Occasionally it is reported in other cemeteries of Prepalatial Crete and more often in the wider Aegean (Georgoulaki 1996, 51; Cavanagh and Mee 1998, figs. 3.1, 4.1). In the Cyclades, Doumas’s type C2 represents a rare kind of rectangular pit tomb with no stone wall lining (Doumas 1977, 46). At Hagia Photia, the presence of pits seems to be related to the hardness of the soil, as pits were cut when the soil was not hard enough to make a built tomb (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, xxv). Although at Hagia Photia pits were not necessarily the poorest tombs: they were generally small tombs with few objects, and they were associated possibly with only one burial (Davaras and Betancourt 2004,
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235). Preserved skulls or bones in some of them confirm their burial use (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 154–156, figs. 373, 376, 378). Accordingly, at Gournes pits might have been used for burials. Yet one should notice the very shallow depth of some of them, which hardly would have been adequate to cover the body of an adult— although at Gournes some of the built tombs of Sector 1 were also very shallow. Another characteristic is their appearance only in Sector 1 and their concentration in the western part of the sector, on its western and southern edge. The peripheral position of pits at the western edge compared to the main group of tombs in the eastern part of Sector 1 (Tombs 1, 3–8) indicates differentiation not only in terms of construction but also in location. If one accepts the burial use of the pits, they could assume a certain gradation in the amount of effort expended for their construction in comparison to the more carefully constructed built tombs, which might indicate differentiation in terms of social status, age, or sex. The use of pits has been associated in some cemeteries with individuals receiving less elaborate funerary rites, although this is not always the norm (for discussion, see Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 235; see also Dickinson 1983, 59). At Hagia Photia, most of the pits were small tombs usually associated with single inhumations. They contained very few objects and, although they were not the poorest tombs, rich pits were an exception (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 235). At Gournes, it seems that there was no differentiation regarding the types and quantities of grave goods placed in the pits (Fig. 21). On the other hand, their small size and shallow depth might indicate an age difference, namely a possible use for child burials, since their dimensions were smaller in comparison to the built tombs of Sector 1 (cf. dimensions in Fig. 15). Yet in this case one might expect an analogous presence of pits in Sector 2, where rock-cut tombs were the only type of tomb represented. Here, a larger number of small tombs could correspond to the use of pits in Sector 1. On the other hand, parallels from other cemeteries indicate that the use of pits just for the deposition of offerings cannot be excluded. Zapheiropoulou notices that at the two coastal cemeteries on Ano Kouphonisi: [T]he best gifts were placed in the forecourt or in pits outside the tomb. . . . The personal objects of
the dead were usually deposited in small and shallow external pits, i.e. a bronze dagger and a needle, or marble gifts, such as the two figurines covered by the bowl containing red pigment (2008, 193).
At Minoan cemeteries, rock crevices or pits dug into the soil were used occasionally in order to place the vessels used during the performance of the mortuary rite (Georgoulaki 1996, 90–91). At Hagios Kosmas in Attica, offerings were placed outside the graves, probably because of a lack of space in the tombs to accommodate multiple skeletons and their possessions (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 19). At Tsepi Marathon, shallow pits were recorded within the burial enclosures and were interpreted either as child burials or as offering places related to nearby tombs (Pantelidou Gofa 2005, 334). Another, larger deposit pit at Tsepi Marathon had been filled by a large number of broken vases, which belonged to a few types, the fruitstand being especially prominent, and represented, according to Pantelidou Gofa, offerings deliberately broken and deposited in the pit (2008, 288–289). At Gournes, some of the very shallow pits could represent areas for the deposition of pottery (e.g., pit Tomb 14; Pl. 13A), but as the pits were grouped at the western part of the sector, there is no clear one-to-one association of pits to rock-cut tombs, with the exception possibly of pit Tomb 16 situated close to Tomb 10. The use of some pits as offering receptacles for the deposition of material is strengthened by the presence of a pit within the burial chamber of Tomb 4, a cavity measuring 0.5 x 0.3 x 0.18 m located at the east edge of the chamber, which contained a pile of smashed vessels and two obsidian blades (Pl. 13B). Also, at Tomb 9, a narrow cavity at the southeast side of the chamber held the chalice P7. In the case of Tomb 4, the pit within the tomb constitutes one of the richest pottery assemblages found at the Gournes cemetery (11 vases). Some of the vessels, such as a spherical footed pyxis (P70), two jars with fenestrations (P29, P30), and a spool pyxis (P85), belong to some of the rarest types in the cemetery and indicate a special purpose or character for the assemblage deposited within this particular pit. These objects could either constitute offerings of a previous burial deposited within the cavity after the clearance of the chamber or remains of a funerary rite that were collected and placed in a pit within the tomb. This use of a cavity within the burial chamber for the reception of smashed pottery, however,
BURIAL ARCHITECTURE AND FUNERARY PRACTICES AT THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
was exceptional. Usually intact vases were deposited carefully in the pits of Sector 1, occupying one side of the pit and leaving empty space in the rest of the area, rather indicating a burial use. There is also a marked difference with the packed material that occupies the whole pit in the chamber of Tomb 4. Of special character might have been pit Tomb 11 (Pl. 13C), which was situated near an area covered by stones. This pit is differentiated from the others by its large diameter of 1.1 m as well as by its peripheral position at the southern edge of the sector. The upper and deeper southern part of the pit, which seems to have been cut in the sloping ground, was better preserved and contained several vases by the walls of the pit. This pit constituted the second richest pottery assemblage found at the Gournes cemetery (eight vases). As was the case with the rich pit of Tomb 4, it contained some of the rarest vases of the cemetery, including two spool pyxis lids (P86, P87) and a jar with fenestrations (P31). The spool pyxides belong to a rare type of pyxis with elaborate incised decoration of Cycladic type with linear and curvilinear motifs filled with a white substance. The shape, though, is not very frequent in the Cyclades (see this vol., Ch. 7). The characteristics of this pit, the rare pottery shapes, as well as its association with a lithic platform nearby (see below) might indicate a possible ritual character for the deposit. One should notice also that the same occurrence of rare vases is also found in pit Tomb 12, which yielded a spool pyxis (P88) and a jar with fenestrations (P32). Thus, all specimens of the rare types of vases at Gournes, and particularly the spool pyxides (four specimens) and jars with fenestrations (four specimens), are associated with pit Tombs 11 and 12 and the pit within the chamber of Tomb 4. This circumstance could possibly have some meaning in regard to the function of these pits and their association with possible funerary rites.
Paved Platforms Paved outdoor spaces are a characteristic that occurs in Prepalatial cemeteries (Branigan 1970, 132–135; 1993, 127–136; Soles 1992, 223–224; Georgoulaki 1996, 84–88). In the house tombs they are situated in front of the tomb entrance and thus are associated with individual tombs (e.g., Mochlos III). Paved and enclosed areas surrounding the tombs are also
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common in the Prepalatial tholos tombs of the Mesara (e.g., at Koumasa, Platanos, Moni Odigitria, Hagia Kyriaki, Apesokari, Hagios Kyrillos; see Branigan 1970, 132–136; 1993, 127–129). These paved outdoor spaces have been interpreted as sacred areas linked with funerary ceremonies and rituals of a communal character (Branigan 1970, 132–136; Soles 1992, 224; Murphy 1998). Jeffrey Soles also suggested that paved passages at Mochlos and other cemeteries served as processional areas with offerings and libations being offered in front of the tombs at the end of these processions (1992, 224). The above examples all constitute open areas in the immediate vicinity of the tombs and have no parallels at the Gournes cemetery. In the Cyclades, platforms paved with cobblestones were recorded by Doumas at Naxian cemeteries such as Hagioi Anargyroi, Lakkoudes, and Lakkoudes A, and it has been suggested that they may have played an important part in EC burial rites (Doumas 1977, 35–36; see also Sampson 1985, 187, fig. 53). Apart from the large platforms that formed an integral part of the cemetery, individual platforms were constructed over each tomb that might have had a function for the practice of specific rites (Doumas 1977, 36, 63–64; 1987, 16–17). Similar platforms were recorded at the cemetery of Tsepi Marathon (Pantelidou Gofa 2005, 354). The arrangement of stone slabs or stones above the capstones of Cycladic tombs is reminiscent of the stones infilling the antechambers at Gournes and Hagia Photia, which might have served a comparable function (Doumas 1977, 38, pl. IIIa, IIIe; Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 233, 239, fig. 572). Apart from these stone arrangements over each tomb, there is no evidence at Gournes of continuous paved platforms in the cemetery area. On the other hand, some lithic features in both sectors of the cemetery might have had a special function. In Sector 1, there was a concentration of mediumsized stones 0.5 m east of pit Tomb 11 that did not constitute a natural deposit (Pl. 13D). From the excavation photos, it seems that this concentration of stones created a kind of irregular platform that might have had a special function. Part of the arrangement of this area also might have been pit Tomb 11 itself, which contained several vases and, as suggested above, gives the impression of a deposit related to some ritual function (Ill. 3.38). One also should notice the rather peripheral position of both
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features at the southern upper edge of Sector 1 and at some distance from the group of tombs and pits that were all situated in the western edge of the Sector (Fig. 22). A similar association of an elliptical pit that contained EM I sherds with a platform, which was created by a compact stratum of stones and soil, was recorded in a trial trench by A. Vasilakis. in the area of the OTEK buildings east of Gournes, close to the EM I tomb of Pyrgos (Fig. 2; see this vol., Ch. 1). Another feature of Sector 2 at the Gournes cemetery that should be mentioned is a wall built of small- and medium-sized stones with a length of 2.2 m, which was recovered close to tomb Tomb 20 (Ill. 3.67; Pl. 14A). Walls in other cemeteries in the Aegean have been interpreted as enclosures, as at Tsepi Marathon, for example, and at one instance in the Tzavaris field on Ano Kouphonisi (Pantelidou Gofa 2008; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 191). In the Cyclades, a small retaining wall filled with soil was built on top of the capstone of several tombs and created a platform that was interpreted by Doumas as a tomb marker (Doumas 1987, 16). The wall at Gournes does not seem to be associated with nearby Tomb 20, as its position perpendicular to the axis of the tomb does not seem to create any particular association with it. Its regular construction, with a course of small- and medium-sized stones, rather might indicate a retaining wall. No offerings or particular finds were found associated with this feature.
Burial Architecture at Gournes in the Wider Aegean Context The Gournes cemetery, dated by its pottery to the EM IB phase, belongs to a cultural horizon known in North-Central and East Crete from several contexts that indicate similar characteristics in terms of material culture. The Pyrgos and Kyparissi burial caves in North-Central Crete (Xanthoudides 1918b; Alexiou 1951), the Eileithyia Cave and the smaller burial cave at Amnissos (Marinatos 1930; Zois 1998, vol. 4, 76–77; Vasilakis 2008, 75), the earliest material from the Krasi tomb (Marinatos 1929b; Zois 1998, vol. 3, 231), the Hagia Photia cemetery in East Crete, as well as the settlement levels at Poros-Katsambas (Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 1993, 450–451; Dimopoulou 1997; Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki, Wilson,
and Day 2007, 88; Wilson, Day, and DimopoulouRethemiotaki 2008) provide common pottery types, and among them also Cycladic-style pottery. Indications for the off-island links of this cultural horizon offer Cycladic typological parallels or imitations of Cycladic pottery as well as the use of Cycladic and Anatolian ore sources alongside the growth of skilled metalworking (for discussion, see Karantzali 1995; Day, Wilson, Kiriatzi 1998; Day et al. 2000; Doonan, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2007; Muhly 2008; Wilson, Day, and DimopoulouRethemiotaki 2008, 262, 268). As Antonis Zois has suggested, these sites constitute a common cultural Pyrgos-Kyparissi-Hagia Photia horizon in NorthCentral and East Crete (Zois 1998, vol. 3, 14, 19–20; vol. 4, 61, 67), to which now Gournes can be added. This material culture set in Crete and its links to the contemporary transitional Cycladic phase (EC I–II) or Kampos Group (Warren 1984; Karantzali 2008, 242–243) create a wider framework within which the burial architecture of the Gournes cemetery is embedded. Within this horizon, burial architecture does not seem to represent a homogenous characteristic. On the contrary, diversity and plurality is recorded in tomb design, which might reflect different cultural traditions, local developments, and off-island contacts. In northern Crete, the use of caves and rock shelters for burial represents a local tradition that is derived from the Cretan Neolithic (Xanthoudides 1918b; Pendlebury, Pendlebury, and Money-Coutts 1937–1938; Alexiou 1951). The appearance of the earliest EM II house tombs at Pseira and Mochlos also seems to be a local development, and according to Soles the type may have evolved from the cave or rock shelter, as is illustrated by Tombs VII and I at Mochlos, which combine the cave in the rear and the built house with doorway in the front (Soles 1992, 224–225; Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003). On the other hand, rock-cut tombs and cist graves similar to those in the Cyclades are adopted in certain areas of North and East Crete (see Pini 1968, 9; see also discussion in Legarra Herrero 2009, 37–38). The impressive similarities between the small rock-cut, built tombs at Gournes and Hagia Photia in Crete and Ano Kouphonisi in the Cyclades during the Kampos Phase, as well as the introduction of Cycladic-type cist tombs lined at the sides with drystone walling or with upright slabs at some cemetery sites on the northern coast
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of Crete from the FN–EM I period onward, particularly at Mochlos (see tombs XII, XVI and XXI: Seager 1912, 12, 66, 75) and Pseira (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003, 123–127), indicate strong Cycladic influences in the burial sphere or even transference of the mortuary behavior as part of these early contacts (Legarra Herrero 2009, 37–39). On the other hand, diversity was also dictated by the topography and geology of the cemetery areas. At the Pseira cemetery, for example, small built chambers and cists with upright slabs were constructed in areas with deep soil, rock shelters in areas with suitable rock formations, and larger stone house tombs aboveground in areas with shallow soil (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003, 124). The many similarities in the grave goods found in the above burial places indicate that tomb type was one, but not exclusive, characteristic in a line of small communities sharing similar material culture along the northern coast, with variations as to the degree of their Aegean connections. Up to now, Hagia Photia, in terms of tomb design, was somewhat of a unique phenomenon in Early Minoan Crete. The excavation of the Gournes cemetery provides an exact parallel for Hagia Photia both in terms of material culture and tomb design, and indicates that tomb type might not be an exception but part of the repertoire of these early contacts and influences between communities of North Crete and the Cyclades. In the EM I period, Poros stands out as the principal site for large-scale imports of Cycladic goods and possibly also a production center of high-quality obsidian blades and metals (Dimopoulou 1997, 434; Carter 1998, 71–74; Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki, Wilson, and Day 2007, 91; Doonan, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2007). Outside Crete, the closest similarities in terms of pottery types are with the central Cyclades (Wilson, Day and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262). The Agrilia cemetery on Ano Kouphonisi provides the closest parallel for both pottery and tomb type for the cemeteries at Gournes and Hagia Photia (Zapheiropoulou 1970b, 1971, 1983, 1984, 2008). Several other Cycladic cemeteries offer parallels for the Cretan cist tombs, although with dates later than the Cretan tombs (Betancourt and Davaras 2003, eds., 126). In mainland Greece and Euboea, coastal sites with strong Cycladic influences but also embedded in their local Helladic culture provide further indirect links. The Manika cemetery in Euboea
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offers the best example of the chamber tomb type in mainland Greece, and forms part of the Early Helladic sites of Attica and Euboea, such as Marathon, Tsepi, and Hagios Kosmas in Attica, with Cycladictype cist tombs and Cycladic imitations in their material culture, but only rarely with genuine Cycladic objects (see Mylonas 1959; Zapheiropoulou 1984, 37–40; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1987; Sampson 1988, 113–119, 126; Pantelidou Gofa 2005; Cultraro 2007, 84). Further pottery links are established with Poliochni on Lemnos and Troy (Warren 1984, 59–60; Doumas and Angelopoulou 1997, 548; Sotirakopoulou 1997, 523; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 193–194). The particular burial architecture at Gournes and Hagia Photia should be examined in the framework of such common elements and customs in the mixed cultures, with their fluid borders, visible through the Aegean in the Early Bronze Age, and not as an exceptional phenomenon of foreign elements within a homogenous Cretan cultural environment. The adoption of this specific tomb design and cemetery organization, however, expressed certain conditions that operated especially in the late EM I period. Cemeteries with rock-cut tombs like those at Gournes and Hagia Photia did not form a long-lasting burial tradition after the EM I/II transition, and therefore a possible interpretation of the particular tomb design and funerary customs within an “ethnic” context should not be excluded (Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1998; Betancourt 2003, 4). On the other hand, burial in caves and rock shelters, the use of communal tholos tombs, and from EM II onward burial in house tombs were funerary traditions embedded in a more long-lasting way in Minoan burial practices, and they continued to be used throughout the Prepalatial period.
Distribution of Rock-Cut Tombs Considering the type of the rock-cut tomb with antechamber, it seems that in its general characteristics it formed part of a wider distribution that appeared in the mainland, the Cyclades, and Crete, with isolated examples in the islands of the northeastern Aegean. Massimo Cultraro mentions three main areas of distribution of the type: (1) Euboea, Boeotia, and partially Attica, to which also the isolated tombs at Chios and Limnos might be included;
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(2) the northeastern Peloponnese and Attica; and (3) the Cyclades and Crete (2000, 483–483). In Euboea and Boeotia, the cemetery at Manika provides the best example of the chamber tomb type during the earlier part of the Early Bronze Age, but the distribution of rock-cut tombs comprises also other areas of Euboea (Theologos), Boeotia (e.g., Hylike), and Attica (Nea Makri), which provide similarities with the Manika tombs (for full list of sites, see Cultraro 2000, 474–476, 483, 496, fig. 1; see also Sampson 1985, 206–208). The second group of the chamber tomb type in mainland Greece, which appears especially in the northeastern Peloponnese (e.g., Corinth, Perachora, Zygouries), is of late EH II or EH III date and therefore represents later manifestations of the type compared to the first group of tombs (Cultraro 2000, 483–484). The Manika cemetery, used from the beginning of EH II to EH IIIA, is characterized by chamber tombs of trapezoidal and less often circular shape with average dimensions of 2 x 2 m and chamber heights from 1–1.5 m close to the entrance and 0.6–0.9 m at the back side (Sampson 1985, 200, 202–203; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1987, 245). The roof was very often horizontal and rarely sloping. Τhe antechambers were small, with sides 1 m long and usually a trapezoidal, rectangular, or square shape, and less often an irregular or elliptical shape. Their depth was about 1 m (reaching in some instances up to 1.85 m), and they were filled in with soil and stones (Sampson 1988, 34). The entrances, which had various dimensions and shapes, had heights of 0.5–0.6 m and widths of 0.55–0.6 m, and they were opened at depths of 0.4–0.5 m from the surface. The Manika tombs are characterized as monumental constructions, taking into account the hard rock out of which they have been quarried, and most are symmetrical and vertically cut (Sampson 1988, 124). The smaller ones are irregular and not properly constructed. It seems that the size and proportions of the different tombs are related to the geomorphology of the area and the availability of suitable compact rock to cut out the tombs (Cultraro 2000, 475), while the shape of the tombs might reveal chronological differences. Papavasileiou’s suggestion that the rounded shape is older than the trapezoidal one seems to be confirmed by the excavation of Efi Sapouna-Sakellaraki at the Beligianni plot (Papavasileiou 1910, 19–20; SapounaSakellaraki 1987, 245; Cultraro 2000, 475, 483).
When considering Manika and its similarities to Cretan cemeteries, we should take into account that it covers a longer chronological time span than the Gournes and Hagia Photia cemeteries, which are dated to the later part of EM I or the interface between EM I and EM IIA (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 232; Muhly 2008, 70). The earliest phase of Manika is the EH IIA period, which corresponds to the Keros-Syros Group phase. Nevertheless, there are indications that one or more tombs belong to the Manika 1 phase or the earlier part of EH IIA (Sampson 1985, 237), and according to SapounaSakellaraki, some of the circular tombs excavated by her produced finds of the early period, corresponding to the Cycladic Kampos Group period (SapounaSakellaraki 1987, 255–256). Sampson also mentions a vase with Cycladic influence that belongs to the Kampos Group from tomb 81 (Sampson 1988, 68, fig. 70, no. 81.5551). The beginning of the settlement of Manika seems also to be placed in EH I (Sampson 1988, 76). The beginning of the Manika cemetery and a small number of tombs therefore could be contemporary with the other known cemeteries of the Kampos Group period in the Cyclades and Crete. It is interesting that the small and irregularly shaped tomb Γ ΧΙΙ (Sampson 1985, 193–194, 237), which might be one of the earliest tombs in the cemetery, does not show the monumental and regular plan of the other typical tombs of the cemetery and might thus be closer to the original type of the tomb, as it is best exemplified at the cemeteries of Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi and Gournes and Hagia Photia in Crete. Comparing the cemeteries of Agrilia, Gournes, and Hagia Photia to the Manika cemetery, a main characteristic is the more modest dimensions of the burial chambers in comparison to Manika (Table 1), and the preponderance of elliptical shapes and of curvilinear profiles in the tombs. The antechambers also show differences (Table 1). At Manika, the antechambers were smaller than the main chamber, while at Agrilia, Gournes, and Hagia Photia they had dimensions and sizes comparable to those of the main chambers, and, mirroring them, created an overall figure-of-eight, elliptical/circular, or bi-trapezoidal shape. Cultraro groups those from Agrilia and Hagia Photia, to which those from Gournes can now be added, together in a common Cycladic insular group, underlining the close links between Ano Kouphonisi in the Cyclades and the
BURIAL ARCHITECTURE AND FUNERARY PRACTICES AT THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
Cretan cemeteries at Hagia Photia and recently excavated Gournes (2000, 485). The more elaborate chamber tombs with open dromoi in the cemeteries of Phylakopi and Phournakia at Melos do not start earlier than Early Cycladic III and therefore constitute later developments of the type (Edgar 1904, fig. 193; Papadopoulou 1965, 513, pls. 645a, 645b; Cultraro 2000, 480). At Agrilia, the rock-cut tombs do not belong to the most common Cycladic tomb type, the cist tomb (see, though, the similarities with Doumas’s type D: 1977, 46–47), but many of the pottery types and the other finds like the marble objects, metals, and lithics are typically Cycladic of the Kampos Group. According to Zapheiropoulou, the new tomb type was used “probably due to the nature of the ground and to some unknown beliefs” (2008, 194). On the other hand, the use of a specific type of vessel, the large pedestalled bowl or fruitstand, which was adopted for ritual and ceremonial use, is a type not found in the Cycladic islands, but it has many examples at Poliochni and on Crete (Doumas and Angelopoulou 1997, 548, 550, fig. 9; Sotirakopoulou 1997, 523; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 194, fig. 19.33). This circumstance differentiates Agrilia from its pure Cycladic environment and places it in a framework of wider contacts comprising Crete and the northeastern Aegean. Within this context, the presence of an oval, rock-cut chamber tomb at Emporio in the island of Chios measuring ca. 1.00 m in length with an interior height of 0.80 m might strengthen Anatolian connections (Hood 1981, 150–152, pls. 29b, 29c). In Crete, the rock-cut tomb with antechamber, which occurs at Gournes and Hagia Photia, is alien not only to the tradition of collective burial in house tombs constructed aboveground and tholos tombs (Xanthoudides 1924; Branigan 1970; Soles 1992), but also to the local tradition of burial in caves and rock shelters, which is derived from the Cretan Neolithic. Common to the cemeteries of Agrilia, Gournes, and Hagia Photia also is the presence of pits in the ground with no architectural additions, functioning either for burials or to hold burial offerings (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 235; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 193). Similar also is the orientation of the tombs from northeast to northwest, resulting from the positioning of the entrances to face downhill (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 231; Zapheiropoulou 2008, 188). Minor variations do exist,
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some of which may be related to the topography and the different sizes of the cemeteries. Hagia Photia, which was the largest cemetery, consisted of 263 tombs to which as many as 50 additional destroyed ones might be added (Betancourt 2008b, 237). The large number of tombs at Hagia Photia presumably reflects a large population, and it resulted in the continuous spacing of tombs across the ground covering the entire northern slope of the hill and in the multiple burials in some of the tombs as the need for space increased. This circumstance is something that also might have affected the constructional characteristics of the tombs, such as the larger size and depth of those at Hagia Photia. The Agrilia cemetery, with 72 unplundered tombs (19 found empty) and a further 20 damaged, was also a large cemetery by Cycladic standards. At Gournes, the two small clusters of tombs in Sector 1 (10 built tombs and six pits) and Sector 2 (21 built tombs) indicate a small cemetery, similar in size and spacing to EC I clusters of tombs with single inhumations (Doumas 1987, 16; Broodbank 2000, 152). At Gournes, indications for multiple burials are difficult to consider because the skeletal material is missing, but the presence of clusters of tombs and the small size of the chambers might suggest single burials, as was the case in the early Cycladic cemeteries. Although the larger size of certain tombs, especially in Sector 2, could accommodate more than one inhumation, the limited amount of fragmented material in the tombs does not support their repeated use. Other differences between the three cemeteries might be related to geological factors. At Hagia Photia, tombs were cut into semi-consolidated kouskouras that allowed the construction of squarer and deeper chambers that resemble in some cases the depth of the Manika tombs (Table 1). At Agrilia, the tombs were cut into the soft limestone bedrock (Zapheiropoulou 2008, 183) and at Gournes in the rather soft kouskouras: this probably determined the shallow depth of the tombs in both cemeteries. On the other hand, shallow tombs are not unusual in Cycladic cemeteries, and, in general, EC cist tombs are characterized by their limited depth, varying between 0.3–0.6 m (Doumas 1977, 39). The depths of tombs at Gournes therefore resembles more closely the Cycladic standards, while the greater depths of those at Hagia Photia might be a function of geology and also multiple burials.
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The chamber dimensions at Hagia Photia, Gournes, and Agrilia are comparable, in contrast to the Manika tombs, which were twice as big in size (Figs. 23, 24) The Agrilia tombs, with chamber dimensions of 0.75/0.8–1.3 m in length (and in a few cases 1.4/1.5 m) and 0.4–0.9 m in width, are considered large by Cycladic standards (Zapheiropoulou 2008, 188), but they are comparable to the tombs at Gournes and Hagia Photia. At Gournes, the length of the burial chambers ranged from 0.38–1.6 m, with only a small percentage being less than 0.6 m and more than 1.5 m long (Fig. 25:a). The majority lie in between, with the most (69%) between 0.6–1 m long, which is comparable to the average size of the Cycladic cist tombs (average length 1 m and width between 0.3–0.8 m; see Doumas 1977, 37–39). The Hagia Photia tombs are characterized as small (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 232–233), but being a large cemetery it demonstrates the entire spectrum of sizes, from very small burial chambers measuring 0.5–0.6 m in length and 0.4–0.5 m in width to larger ones reaching in some cases 2.35 m in length and 1.4 m in width (Fig. 25:b). This variability might be related to the need to accommodate multiple burials in some of the tombs. Where skulls are reported, it seems that burial chambers more than 1.5 m long had multiple burials (two–four skulls). In the case of Tomb 2, which was 2.35 m long and 1.2 m wide and was the largest tomb of the cemetery, the burial chamber contained at least 10 individuals in two superimposed burial levels (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 9, 233). The majority of the tombs (54%), however, had lengths of 1.1–1.5 m, which is 0.5 m longer than at Gournes, while 41% of the tombs had chambers 0.50 mm was collected (Pl. 16D). The smaller soil mass was also water sieved, and subsequently all 55 small-sized bone fragments collected from Tomb 9 were macroscopically examined (Ill. 3.32). All bone fragments were light brown in color and severely weathered. Other tombs in this cemetery contained no macroscopically identifiable skeletal remains at the time of the excavation. Sieving of the soil from the interior of the tombs for the collection of bone fragments was not applied.
Methods The skeletal material recovered from the Gournes cemetery was macroscopically examined. It was weighed to 0.1 g using an electronic pocket scale; measurements of bone fragments were taken to 0.1 mm by means of a digital caliper. In addition, taphonomic analysis was employed in order to investigate the chemical properties of the burial environment and help interpret the paucity of skeletal remains in the chamber tombs and pits of this cemetery. X-ray diffraction analysis, based on standard techniques (Carroll 1970), was applied to soil samples from the Gournes tombs to investigate their mineralogy. As the tombs were cut into marly soils that suggest an alkaline burial environment, bone mineral dissolution and formation of authigenic phosphate minerals would not be expected (see Child 1995; Berna, Matthews, and Weiner 2004; for the relationship between the pH of the burial environment and bone dissolution, see Hedges and Millard 1995). Nevertheless, despite the presence of marly soils, XRD analysis was employed on soil samples from the tombs to determine their mineralogical composition and thus to test for positive or negative evidence that bones were initially deposited in all the chamber tombs or pits of the cemetery and modified. Under the effect of diagenetic alteration, bone is susceptible to modifications of its physical and chemical properties with degrees of severity ranging up to complete dissolution; its rate depending on the acidity and hydrology of the soil and the early taphonomic conditions to which bones are subjected
(Hedges and Millard 1995; Pike, Nielsen-Marsh, and Hedges 2001; Nielsen-Marsh et al. 2007; Smith et al. 2007). Dissolution of bone and tooth hydroxyapatite destroys the physical properties of bone and teeth, and at the same time releases phosphorus in the burial context and promotes the formation of more stable authigenic phosphate minerals. The presence of the latter in any context where there are no bones thereby may indicate that past bones were present in the past but completely have been dissolved and therefore cannot be observed macroscopically (Karkanas et al. 1999; 2000; 2002; Karkanas and Weiner 2000, 41; Karkanas et al. 2002). Ideally, soil samples from around the tombs would have also been collected at the time of the excavation to establish their mineralogy for comparative analyses with samples from the interior of the Gournes tombs. Moreover, in order to further investigate the hypothesis that bones were once deposited in the Gournes tombs and that they had completely disintegrated by the time of excavation, bone mineral stability was assessed in relation to the stability of other minerals, such as calcite (CaCO3), in the soil samples tested. Calcite is less stable than bone hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], and when dissolved it will release calcium and carbonate and thus suppress the dissolution of bone hydroxyapatite and the release of phosphate ions (Berna, Matthews, and Weiner 2004). Because calcite is less stable than bone hydroxyapatite, the preservation of the former in a particular context suggests that the distribution of skeletal remains there is probably the original one (Weiner, Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef 1993; Berna, Matthews, and Weiner 2004); thus, if bones at present are absent from such a context, they were never there. It needs to be established, however, whether any calcite present in a given context is primary or secondary—that is, resulting from secondary precipitation, in which case the presence/absence of calcite in the context examined is not pertinent to the hypothesis examined in this chapter. Sampling for the purposes of XRD analysis was undertaken at the time of the excavation by the site director. Analysis was undertaken at the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME) using a Siemens D500 X-ray diffractometer with a copper target in an X-ray tube and a graphite monochrometer, and the diffraction data were interpreted with Bruker Diffrac Plus software. The author, not
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initially involved in the actual analysis of the soil samples, was later invited to discuss and interpret results in relation to the paucity of the skeletal material from the Gournes tombs.
Macroscopic Analysis The skeletal material from Tomb 9 (N=55 bone fragments) was quantified based on the size properties of the bone fragments, and two groups were formed (Table 2); these groups, according to the excavator, originally belonged to the same bone. Group A is comprised of 20 bone fragments of sizes no less than 10 x 5 mm. Group B comprises 35 fragments that are smaller than those of Group A. Group A and Group B fragments weighed 3.2 and 2 g, respectively (Ill. 3.32). Owing to poor preservation and incompleteness of the skeletal material from Tomb 9, identification of the skeletal element/s represented by the bone fragments examined or recording of pathological skeletal modifications were not possible. As mentioned above, the in-situ pattern of the four bone fragments that were visible prior to cleaning in the larger of the two soil masses from Tomb 9 suggested that they probably comprised a portion of a long bone diaphysis. Finally, a note should be made on the striking absence of even a single tooth in these tombs, although dental enamel is more resistant than bone to post-depositional physical and chemical modifications (Bentley 2006, 167).
X-ray Diffraction Analysis Soil samples from three chamber tombs and one pit in the Gournes cemetery (Tombs 9, 14, 18, 37) were analyzed using XRD in order to explore the mineralogy of the burial environment and interpret the striking paucity of skeletal remains. Although at the time of the excavation there were no visible skeletal remains in these tombs, with the exception of the poor skeletal material from Tomb 9, the principal hypothesis of this study is that bones were initially deposited in the tombs when they were opened for the use of the respective community, and that the bones have disintegrated in the intervening period.
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In order to confirm this hypothesis, apatite minerals should be abundant in the soil samples. Alternatively, the presence of phosphate minerals may indicate a more severe stage in the chemical weathering of skeletal material—that is, dissolution of the tooth and bone apatite and formation of more stable, diagenetic phosphate minerals (Karkanas et al. 2002; Schiegl et al. 1996, 771). Analysis of the samples from all four Gournes tombs detected high concentrations of calcite and quartz, and an abundance of clay minerals. The high concentration of calcite was not unexpected, because the tombs were excavated in marly soils. Although the samples were chemically treated to remove the calcite without interfering with other minerals, it was not possible to detect with certainty any apatite or phosphate minerals (Perdikatsis, pers. comm. 2009). As mentioned above, had soil samples from both inside and outside the tombs been comparatively examined in terms of their mineralogy, and principally the abundance of apatite and phosphate minerals, the results of XRD analysis would have been more illuminating with regard to the question addressed in this chapter.
What Happened to the Human Bones? Reviewing the Evidence from the Analysis of Soil Samples The abundance of calcite in the soil samples recovered from Gournes is in agreement with the local geology; the tombs were cut into marly soils that are rich in calcite. The presence of calcite in the burial contexts would be expected to promote physical deterioration of the bones of the individuals buried in the cemetery under certain conditions (i.e., filling up of the bone pores by calcite). Calcite may exert internal mechanical stress within the bone, owing to its higher crystallinity compared to the calcium hydroxyapatite of bones, and thus its presence may result in bone embrittlement and cracking (Child 1995, 21). The paucity of skeletal material from the Gournes cemetery thereby is consistent with the hypothesis involving the severe morphological modifications of the respective human skeletal material
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introduced by the chemical properties of the postdepositional burial environment (i.e., the presence of calcite). The presence of calcite, however, suggests an alkaline burial environment, which would inhibit modification of the bone chemical composition— that is, dissolution of bone calcium hydroxyapatite and formation of phosphate (diagenetic) minerals (Child 1995; Iliopoulos 2003; Berna, Matthews, and Weiner 2004). Although bone apatite dissolution would not be expected in the Gournes tombs, owing to the presence of calcite (Weiner, Goldberg, and Bar-Yosef 1993; Karkanas and Weiner 2000, 41; Berna, Matthews, and Weiner 2004), before rejecting the hypothesis that bones were once present in the Gournes tombs one needs to establish that the calcite is not secondary in the burial contexts examined. Because the marly soils are rich in calcite, and the tombs examined were cut in such soils, it may be inferred that calcite in the Gournes tomb samples is primary, and thus on these grounds, the hypothesis tested may be rejected. In addition, XRD analysis failed to confidently detect the presence of apatite or other phosphate minerals in soil samples from the Gournes tombs, which would constitute positive evidence for the hypothesis of bone mineral dissolution. Based on these results, the hypothesis that the paucity of skeletal remains in the Gournes cemetery is due to their disintegration cannot be confirmed. Due to the small number of soil samples analyzed, however, it cannot be definitively rejected either. A note should be made on the fact that analysis failed to detect any apatite or other phosphate minerals in the sample from Tomb 9, which yielded the only skeletal remains in the cemetery. This is surprising, because the dissolution of bone mineral in this tomb would have released apatite minerals or phosphorus that would have led to the formation of more stable phosphate minerals. Two alternative interpretations of the absence of apatite or other phosphate minerals from the soil sample from Tomb 9 are examined below. In order to interpret this result, one needs to envisage for Tomb 9 a hydrological regime of the flow dissolution type (for a modelling of bone dissolution, see Pike, Nielsen-Marsh, and Hedges 2001). In the flow dissolution model, under the effect of constant water flow through the bones, any dissolved hydroxyapatite would be removed from the bone
and the adjacent soil matrix. This type of regime is not common among known archaeological contexts, however, as limitations of the available water will prevent flow dissolution (the flow of water will normally be sporadic rather than constant), and, regarding the tombs of the Gournes cemetery in particular, there is no evidence for such a hydraulically active environment. A more plausible interpretation of the lack of apatite or other phosphate minerals in the soil sample from the floor of Tomb 9 may be related to the distribution and low abundance of skeletal remains in the tomb. Because the distribution of the skeletal remains in this tomb was rather localized, the area sampled did not contain any products of bone mineral dissolution.
Gournes Cemetery in Context This section will briefly review evidence from other Early Minoan cemeteries on Crete for the mortuary behavior of the communities that used them in order to develop a more complex understanding of the mortuary practices and particularly of the disposal of the dead in this context. This exercise endeavors to shed more light on the question of the paucity of bones in the cemetery at Gournes. There is great diversity in the mortuary behavior of the Early Minoan population of Crete, readily reflected in the funerary architecture. The principal types of funerary contexts in Early Minoan Crete are the following (see this vol., Ch. 5; see also Davaras and Betancourt 2004): (1) Tholos tombs consisting of a circular chamber of varying dimensions (internal diam. 3.1–10.3 m) and an antechamber; a system of rectangular rooms may be attached to the latter. This tomb type is popular particularly in the Mesara and Pediada Plains. Branigan reported a total number of 94 tholos tombs in Crete (1993, 143–148); in that list a few of the tombs are not certain examples of the tholos tomb type, and some are dated (down) to the Middle Minoan period. (2) Rock shelters or natural caves, examples of which are known from Pyrgos, located ca.
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1.5 km from the cemetery at Gournes (Xanthoudides 1918b), in addition to Gournia (Soles 1992) and Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951). (3) House tombs, which consist of rectangular single rooms or complex structures that comprise more than one compartment. These tombs may be either free-standing buildings or buildings set against the face of natural rock, and there is much variation in terms of their construction. Examples of this tomb type are known from Mochlos (Seager 1912; Soles 1992), Gournia (Soles 1992), Palaikastro (Dawkins, Hawes, and Bosanquet 1904– 1905), and Pseira (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 2003). (4) Chamber tombs, which consist of a single chamber of irregular shape and an antechamber, either entirely or partially excavated beneath the surface of the soil. In case of the latter, roofs were built with stone slabs. It has been described as a chamber tomb of primitive type (Davaras 1971; Galanaki 2006), probably to contrast it with the more regularly shaped and larger chamber tombs that were constructed later in the Early Bronze Age. Examples on Crete are known from the cemetery at Gournes and the cemetery at Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2004). (5) Pit graves with greatest diameters normally measuring ca. 1 m; smaller examples have also been found. Pits are present in both the Gournes and Hagia Photia cemeteries. In addition to the apparent structural differences mentioned above, the alternative burial types in Early Minoan Crete also vary in terms of the material culture associated with the dead. This clearlu has been demonstrated in earlier works (see, e.g., Xanthoudides 1918b; Alexiou 1951; Branigan 1970, 1993; Davaras and Betancourt 2004; see also Sbonias, this vol., Ch. 5). For that reason, this topic shall not be further dwelled upon here. Instead, those aspects of the mortuary behavior of the Early Minoan communities that concern the different modes of disposal and the post-depositional treatment of the dead are discussed in order to interpret the paucity of the skeletal remains in the cemetery at Gournes.
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Early Minoan burials can be differentiated, according to the number of the dead accommodated in a given funerary context, to burials of individuals or small groups (Hagia Photia and probably also the Gournes cemetery), and burials of larger groups (the Mesara and Pediada tholos tombs, the rock shelters, and the house tombs). Thus, it can be said that burials of the first type emphasize individual identity rather than collective identity and probably also lineage (reflected by burials of the second type) at death. Owing to the paucity of studies of the skeletal material from Early Minoan tombs from Crete, most estimates available for the number of individuals represented in such contexts are those given by the excavator on the site. Because these estimates are principally based on the relative abundance of skeletal material observed at the time of the excavation, they are arbitrary estimates and probably lower than reality, and they should be treated as such. Branigan reviewed the different approaches employed to estimate the number of burials inside the Mesara tholos tombs and the probable number and size of contributing families or groups (1993). Acknowledging the assumptions implicated, he argued from excavators’ observations on the number of burials from largely undisturbed tombs (ranging from 55–65 to 200 burials in the Vorou A tholos and the Lebena PI tholos, respectively) and the size of the Mesara tholos tombs, that the norm for the contributing population might be two to four (nuclear) families or groups of similar size (Branigan 1993, 95). To the assumptions stated by Branigan, such as that the tombs had been used continuously and at the same rate over the period that they span and that no skeletal material has been removed from the tombs, one should add the lack of sex- or age-related or other kinds of intra-population variation in terms of the mode of disposal of the dead and, not the least, the paucity of studies of the human skeletal material from such contexts. In addition, the Mesara tholos tombs often appear in groups of two or three used by the same community residing in proximity to the cemetery, such as in the cemeteries at Kamilari, Koumasa, Megaloi Skinoi, Moni Odigitria, and Platanos (see Branigan 1993, 94; 1998, 17).
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By contrast, the comparatively smaller chamber tombs or pit graves known in Crete from the Hagia Photia cemetery (and now also from Gournes) are thought to have accommodated a maximum of 13 individuals per tomb (according to the excavators’ estimates), and that normally each tomb/grave contained fewer interments (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 240). The Hagia Photia cemetery, however, was comprised of over 260 chamber tombs and pit graves. If the use of the Hagia Photia cemetery dated to EM I–II therefore is juxtaposed with that of the contemporary Krasi tholos tomb with approximately 50 burials (Marinatos 1929b) or the Pyrgos rock shelter with several hundreds of burials (Xanthoudides 1918b), the disparity between roughly contemporary Early Minoan communities in Crete in terms of the provisional number of individuals per tomb and the number and size of tombs in the cemeteries becomes striking. In addition, Davaras and Betancourt contrasted the Hagia Photia cemetery with contemporary cemeteries in Crete in terms of the lack of evidence for the manipulation of the dead following skeletonization of the corpse (2004, 241). Branigan, acknowledging the qualitatively and quantitatively poor skeletal evidence from the Mesara tholos tombs, argued for the manipulation of the skeletal remains by the respective community/ies (1987, 1993, 1998). Bones in the Mesara tombs were sorted and arranged within the burial chamber, or they were even removed from it (Branigan 1987, 1993). To date, however, there is no published specialist work on the skeletal material from these tombs that would have helped clarify suggestions made by archaeologists for the chopping of the bones or the practice of cannibalism by the respective Mesara communities (for these theories, see Blackman and Branigan 1982; Branigan 1987, 1998; Hamilakis 1998). The study of the human skeletal remains from the Hagia Photia cemetery is expected to help answer the question of the manipulation of the skeletal remains by the respective community. Were bones in this cemetery collected, sorted, rearranged, or removed from these tombs as in the Mesara tholoi? Or were the skeletons not disturbed or only minutely so (i.e., swept aside) to make room for later burials? From observations made principally on published plans of the Hagia Photia tombs (Davaras and Betancourt 2004), the present author tentatively argues that the distribution of the skeletal elements in
the majority of the tombs does not appear to reflect skeletal anatomy (i.e., skeletons are not in articulation), and this circumstance probably involved human agency. Although in most cases disturbance of the skeletal material in the Hagia Photia tombs probably reflects the practice of clearing up space for later burials in tombs already used, in some cases the distribution of the skulls, long bones, and artifacts appears to be more regular than others, as if they have been arranged/ordered in that manner (e.g., Tombs 3, 9, 145, 161, 163, and 185). This question, however, can only be addressed through thorough examination of the skeletal material—particularly the proportional representation of the various skeletal elements—recovered from these tombs, in conjunction with the contextual information available. Because the Hagia Photia cemetery offers the closest parallel for the Gournes cemetery, as has been clearly demonstrated thus far in the present volume, the study of the Hagia Photia skeletal material and the associated conclusions regarding disposal of the dead and manipulation of the skeletal remains may help to develop a more comprehensive reconstruction of the mortuary practices reflected in the cemetery at Gournes, and answer the question of the missing bones in particular. In terms of the funerary architecture and associated practices, the Hagia Photia cemetery and now also the cemetery at Gournes appear to be “alien” to the Cretan Early Bronze Age context where they belong geographically (Davaras 1971; Davaras and Betancourt 2004; Broodbank 2000, 302; Zapheiropoulou 2008). Instead, they have such close parallels from the Cyclades, and particularly the contemporary cemetery at Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008), that the cemetery at Hagia Photia has often been associated with a Cycladic colony established at that time on the northeastern coast of Crete (see Davaras 1971; Broodbank 2000, 302; Davaras and Betancourt 2004). Concerning the principal question examined in this chapter, the excavator of the Agrilia cemetery noted the absolute lack of skeletal remains and artifacts in 19 out of a total of 72 tombs that were found undisturbed (Zapheiropoulou 2008). She cited one such parallel from a tomb at the roughly contemporary cemetery at Manika on Euboea and a probable one from the Cyclades (Tsountas 1898, 150; Sampson 1985, 222). Regarding the latter, Christos Tsountas reported that 55 out of the 190 tombs he
HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS IN THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
excavated on Paros, Antiparos, and Despotiko yielded one clay pot only. Although it is not clear whether he refered to both artifacts and bones, or to the former only, the context suggests to the author that this statement probably does not refer to the preservation of the skeletal remains in those tombs. Zapheiropoulou argued that the empty tombs in the Agrilia cemetery were probably constructed in advance to be ready to accommodate a single burial when there would be such a need, but remained unoccupied when the respective community ceased to live there (2008). Although this might be the case for the Agrilia cemetery, it appears to be less plausible for the cemetery at Gournes where the tombs were found empty of bones on the one hand but on the other furnished with a variety of clay and stone artifacts, one silver necklace, and shells. Interestingly, several furnished tombs at the Hagia Photia cemetery were also found empty of bones; such examples are also known from the Early Bronze Age cemetery of Tsikniades on Naxos (Philaniotou 2008). Potentially relevant to the question of the missing bones from the Gournes cemetery is a theory refuted by Alexiou for the use of the Early Minoan rock shelters on Crete as secondary funerary contexts for the disposal of the remains of earlier burials made in so-called real tombs (1951, 280). In this hypothetical scenario, the Gournes cemetery at the time of the excavation may represent an episode of clearance of the tombs from earlier burials to make room for new ones that were never made; the remains of the first were probably moved to a rock shelter not far from this site. New burials were not made in the Gournes cemetery probably because the respective community moved elsewhere, as Zapheiropoulou argued for the community that used the Agrilia emetery (see above; 2008). This scenario, however, fails to explain why the artifacts associated with the dead were not removed to be deposited together with the respective skeletal remains in their new (secondary) funerary context, why the doorways of burial chambers were found carefully blocked if new burials were to be made in these tombs, or how the tombs were so thoroughly cleaned of skeletal remains. On present data, therefore, this hypothesis does not appear to be a plausible interpretation for the paucity of human bones from the cemetery at Gournes. An alternative scenario that is worth investigating concerns the use of the Gournes tombs for secondary burials, and possibly the practice of excarnation
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by exposure, which has been suggested for human communities of different times and places, such as the Neolithic Aegean (Halstead and Jones 1987), Anatolia (Macqueen 1978), Ireland (Dowd 2008), Scotland (Barber et al. 1989; Reilly 2003), and England (Carr and Knüsel 1997; Redfern 2008) in the Neolithic and Iron Age, as well as the Mandan, Sioux, and Cheyenne indigenous peoples of North America (Ubelaker and Willey 1978). In this scenario, the tombs at the Gournes cemetery may represent the final place in a multi-locational mortuary ritual that involved primary inhumation or excarnation of the dead in a different context. Caves or rock shelters are thought to have provided ideal settings for excarnation, as there corpses are allowed to decompose naturally, leaving a dry skeleton at the end. In addition, scavenging could be prevented by blocking the entrance of the cave or rock shelter (Dowd 2008, 309). In the Bronze Age Aegean context, Enrico Stefani, based on the commingled state of the majority of skeletal material in the Mesara tombs, was the first archaeologist to suggest that the dead were allowed to decompose outside these tombs, and that they were then interred in the form of disarticulated skeletal material. Consistent with this hypothesis would be finding exclusively or primarily skulls and long bones in the skeletal assemblages from such tombs representing the final resting place of the dead. Based on such finds, Robert Bosanquet argued that the MM I Tomb VII on the Gravel Ridge at Palaikastro held the remains of bodies that had been skeletonized by interment elsewhere (1901–1902a, 292). In this scenario, the Gournes cemetery, as it was found at the time of the excavation, may reflect the stage when the tombs were prepared (i.e., furnished with various artifacts) to accommodate the remains of the dead, whose corpses were left to skeletonize at a context yet unknown. This scenario, however, can be nothing more than a plausible hypothesis, as to date there is no skeletal evidence for the practice of multi-locational mortuary rituals of the type described above from sites in Early Bronze Age Crete that could be identified either as transitory or final places in these rituals. In this context, the arrangement of the skeletal remains, mainly skulls and long bones, inside most of the Hagia Photia tombs observed from plans of the tombs may suggest their use as secondary burial sites; the corpses could have been left to decompose at a different site, and then (some of) the most representative skeletal remains (i.e., the
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skull and long bones) were collected to be interred into the tombs where they were carefully arranged with the various artifacts. In the Aegean, the use of rock shelters/caves as primary funerary contexts in multi-locational mortuary rituals where corpses were either inhumed or laid out to disintegrate and subsequently removed to be buried elsewhere has been skeletally documented at the Neolithic cave of Kalythies on Rhodes (Halstead and Jones 1987). If, however, the paucity of skeletal material in the cemetery at Gournes is interpreted along the above lines, one needs to explain why the respective community never completed the multi-locational mortuary ritual outlined above by moving the disarticulated skeletal remains to their final resting place. Finally, relevant to the principal question examined in this chapter is the theory of the Gournes tombs functioning as cenotaphs. Cenotaphs are tombs empty of human remains that were normally built for a deceased individual whose body was not available for a proper interment and were furnished according to the burial rites of the respective community. These individuals probably died away from their residences, either at war, in the sea, or at another unknown place. In Crete, one such example is known from Archanes. An undisturbed Late Minoan chamber tomb there was interpreted by Yannis Sakellarakis as a cenotaph because of the complete lack of skeletal remains in the burial chamber, which at the time of the excavation was found sealed off; its doorway was built with a double row of small stones and the dromos filled up with soil (1965, 110). In the literature, several probable examples are also known from other Prehistoric cemeteries principally in the mainland, for example LH III Chamber Tomb 2 at the Dendra cemetery (Persson 1931, 80), Late Helladic Chamber Tomb 528 at Mycenae (Wace 1932, 98), and earlier Middle Helladic rock-cut Grave 54 at Asine (FrÖdin and Persson 1938, 122). Reviewing the evidence from the Gournes cemetery in relation to the theory of the cenotaphs, the tombs there were found undisturbed, and the burial chambers were furnished with various artifacts that also occur in the antechambers. The doorways of the burial chambers were blocked with one or two slabs, and the antechambers were filled with small stones. Likewise, artifacts were deposited in the pits. With the exception of Tomb 9, however, all chamber tombs and pits were found empty of skeletal remains. The finds from the tombs of the cemetery at
Gournes therefore are consistent with the hypothesis that these tombs were used as cenotaphs. This interpretation, however, leaves the following questions open: Why was the corpse not available in the burials examined? And if the theory that the communities that used the Gournes and Hagia Photia cemeteries were founded by people from the Cyclades is valid, could the earliest cenotaphs at Gournes be for people who died in the sea in their voyage toward their new settlement, or for their ancestors whose remains were left behind (in the Cyclades)? Most importantly, one needs to explain the apparent lack of tombs that the same community used for so-called normal interments, when corpses were available.
Conclusions Out of the 37 tombs and pits excavated in the cemetery at Gournes, only Tomb 9 yielded (very poor) skeletal material. It should be noted that although dental enamel is more resistant than bone to postdepositional physical and chemical modifications (Bentley 2006, 167), not even a single tooth was found in these tombs. This chapter presented the skeletal material from Tomb 9, and used the results of the XRD analysis of soil samples from four tombs to determine which of the two processes—natural or cultural—were responsible for the striking paucity of skeletal remains in the Gournes cemetery. Summarizing the results of the XRD analysis, based on the abundance of calcite in the soil samples examined and the lack of secure evidence for the presence of apatite or other phosphate minerals in the samples, the hypothesis that these tombs once contained bones that later disintegrated cannot be confirmed. Primarily due to the lack of extensive sampling of the entire cemetery site from the areas inside and outside the tombs, however, it cannot be definitively rejected either. This chapter further reviewed evidence from other roughly contemporary Early Bronze Age sites on Crete and in the central Cyclades for mortuary behavior and particularly the disposal and post-depositional treatment of the dead by respective communities, and it demonstrated that the Hagia Photia cemetery offers the closest parallel to Gournes. It discussed specific examples of tombs
HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS IN THE EARLY MINOAN IB CEMETERY
found empty of skeletal remains from contemporary cemeteries in the mainland (Manika), Cyclades (Ano Kouphonisi, Naxos, and probably Paros), and Crete (Hagia Photia), and tested the evidence from the Gournes cemetery against the most plausible theories for the lack of human bones in funerary contexts. Common to all these theories is the fact that they fail to adequately interpret all the data from Gournes. Although the results of the present
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study cannot offer a definitive answer to the paucity of human skeletal remains from this site, it is envisaged that a nuanced understanding of the mortuary practices of the community that used the Gournes cemetery may come through the study of the human skeletal material from existing and future excavations of contemporary Early Bronze Age sites in Crete and in the Cyclades.
7
Early Minoan IB Pottery Yiannis Papadatos
Pottery Assemblage The study of the pottery includes 107 intact or almost intact vases found inside or around the tombs (Table 3). The sherds from the broader area of the cemetery, probably deriving from destroyed tombs, were taken into consideration but not included in the following study, with a few interesting exceptions. The vases were classified into four different wares, mainly on the basis of surface treatment. The macroscopic fabric was recorded, and any major variations within the same ware were taken into account and sampled for petrographic analysis. We were not able proceed with a thorough classification of the pottery into fabrics, however, because most vases were either intact or had been fully restored. The methodology applied to the study of the pottery largely followed the systems of Keith Branigan and Tim Campbell-Green for the study of the Moni Odigitria ceramic assemblage (Vasilakis and Branigan 2010, 70) and Papadatos for the study of the Livari ceramic assemblage (Papadatos and Sofianou 2015a, 27–28). Pottery from each excavation unit was strewn and sorted according to ware. The search
for joining sherds produced a large number of restored vases. All intact and restored pots and all selected sherds were cataloged, recorded, and included in the publication. Macroscopic fabric observations were made and fabric variations within wares were recorded. The macroscopic study of fabrics was followed by extensive sampling for petrographic analysis (see this vol., Ch. 8). Finally, the selected and cataloged sherds were drawn and photographed. The pottery is presented here on the basis of wares. This type of study has a long tradition in the study of Prepalatial pottery, and it has been widely used, with some variations, by most scholars working with Prepalatial Cretan pottery (for further discussion, see Wilson and Day 1994, 2–4; Todaro 2005; Vasilakis and Branigan 2010, 71). Unlike other Prepalatial funerary ceramic assemblages, the Gournes pottery shows limited variation. Almost all the vases (103 out of 107—i.e., 96%) belong to only two ceramic traditions, Dark Burnished ware (DBW) and Dark Gray Burnished ware (DGBW), both distinct in terms of fabrics and shapes but with certain similarities concerning firing conditions and surface treatment. Three vases belong to
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Dark-on-Light Painted ware (DoLPW) and another to Red Slipped and Polished ware (RSPW).
Dark Burnished Ware This class is the commonest ceramic ware represented at Gournes, with 92 vases—that is, 86% of the total assemblage. All DBW vases are made of low calcareous clays with crushed calcite inclusions added deliberately to the clay paste as temper. Petrographic analysis showed that the calcite-tempered pottery can be divided into three fabric subgroups (see also this vol., Ch. 8). The first two subgroups, Fabric Groups 1a and 1b, are coarse and semifine versions of the same clay paste. The third subgroup, Fabric Group 1c, is distinctive since it contains grog, crushed pottery added deliberately as temper. It should be noted, however, that these subgroups cannot be identified by macroscopic examination alone. All vases are low fired in a reducing firing atmosphere that did not exceed 750oC. In most cases the uneven firing and the discolorations on the surface suggest firing in a simple pit. The surface is covered by a thin slip, which is always heavily burnished in order to produce a distinct shiny, lustrous effect. The color of the surface varies considerably, from red (2.5YR 4/6) to reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4) to dark red (10R 3/6), from dark reddish brown (5YR 3/4) to dark brown (7.5YR 3/2), and from dark gray (5YR 4/1) to black (5YR 2.5/1). The vases have no decoration of any kind, with a single exception, spherical pyxis P50, with incised decoration on the lid infilled with a white substance. The most common shape in this ware is the pyxis, represented by three different types, spherical, conical, and spool shaped. There are also open serving vases, namely chalices, bowls, and cups, and, in smaller numbers, closed vases such as jars, alabastra, and bottles. Parallels for each shape are presented below (for a general overview, see Betancourt 2008a, 72–78). Vases of DBW made in calcite-tempered fabric have been found mostly in sites of the North Cretan coast such as Hagia Photia (Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1998; Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 2012), Kephala Petras (Tsipopoulou 2010), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b), and Poros-Katsambas (Wilson, Day, and
Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004, 2008), but they also occur on the south coast at Livari (Papadatos and Sofianou 2012; 2015a, 38). It also is very common in the Cyclades in sites dated to the EC I–IIA periods, such as Markiani on Amorgos (Karantzali 2006), Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 1984, 2008), Hagioi Anargyroi (Doumas 1977) and Tsikniades on Naxos (Philaniotou 2008), and Kampos on Paros (Varoucha 1925–1926). Chalices The cemetery produced 15 chalices, eight of which are made in DBW. They can be divided into three different types (Types 1–3) on the basis of their typological characteristics. Type 1 Most of the chalices belong to this type (six specimens). The form consists of an open bowl set on a conical stand. All the preserved examples have a bulb between the bowl and the base and a horizontal tubular handle beneath the rim, both of which seem to be regular features of this type. The rim, when preserved, is either internally thickened or with slight inward inclination. In all examples the surface has a thin self-wash, which is heavily burnished and varies in color from red to reddish brown to dark brown. In one example the surface has a thicker slip of brownish color (P1). All specimens are made of calcite-tempered fabrics. Of the four analyzed by petrography, one is made of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P3; Fabric Group 1a), and three of calcite- and grog-tempered fabrics (P1, P5, P6; Fabric Group 1c). There are many parallels for this type of chalice both within and beyond Crete. On Crete similar chalices have been found at Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 22–23, fig. 6:310, pls. 18:309, 310, 19:314, 20:318, 321, 21:323, 326), Poros-Katsambas (Wilson, Day, and DimopoulouRethemiotaki 2008, fig. 26.2:c), and Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 5:3, 8:41, 10:74, 78, 80), all dated to EM I. In the Cyclades, the only site that produced similar chalices is Agrilia, the cemetery on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 1984, fig. 3:c; 2008, figs. 19.10, 19.33). These examples are dated to the Kampos Group, which is considered transitional between the EC I and EC II periods (Warren 1984). The shape seems to originate from
EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
the northeast Aegean, however, where chalices of this type are far more frequent and have a longer history of use (Sotirakopoulou 1999). The shape appears in Poliochni during the Black phase (Bernabò Brea 1964, pl. I:a–c), continues in the early Blue phase (Bernabò Brea 1964, pl. IX–XI), acquires the distinct bulb in the stem in the late Blue phase (Bernabò Brea 1964, pl. XXI:k–n), continues in the Green and Red phases (Bernabò Brea 1964, pls. CVIII, CXXXVI), and disappears in the Yellow phase (Doumas and Angelopoulou 1997, 548, figs. 1, 2). P1 (T1.1; HM 32253; Fig. 37; Pl. 17). Chalice. Spherical bulb between bowl and stand; one horizontally pierced tubular lug below rim; open conical bowl; internally thickened rim with light incision running through interior; conical stand. Ext. and int. reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 16.0; rim diam. 20.0; base diam. 14.4 cm. Capacity: 1.000 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/20: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P2 (T4.7; HM 32201; Fig. 37; Pl. 17). Chalice. Biconical bulb between bowl and stand; one horizontally pierced tubular lug below rim; open conical bowl; internally thickened rim with light incision running through int.; conical and flaring stand. Ext. and int. reddish brown to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 13.8; rim diam. 17.0; base diam. 12.3 cm. Capacity: 0.550 lt. P3 (T5.2, HM 32209; Fig. 37; Pl. 17). Chalice. Open conical bowl; one horizontally pierced tubular lug below rim; slightly incurving and internally thickened rim with light incision running through int. Ext. and int. reddish to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. Stem missing. H. 9.5; rim diam. 24.8 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/4: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite-tempered). P4 (T11.7; HM 32268; Fig. 38). Chalice. Conical and flaring stand. Ext. and int. dark brown burnished; uneven firing. Probably had spherical bulb between bowl and stand, now missing; bowl and lug missing. H. 4.8; base diam. 17.4 cm. P5 (T16.3; HM 32285, HM 32286; Fig. 38; Pl. 17). Chalice. Spherical bulb between bowl and stand; rim rounded with slight inward inclination; open conical bowl; conical stand. Ext. and int. reddish brown to dark brown burnished. Lug missing. H. 15.8; base diam. 16.1 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/16: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P6 (T21.2; HM 32228; Fig. 38). Chalice. Open conical bowl; one horizontally pierced tubular lug below rim; slightly incurving and internally thickened rim with light incision running through int. Ext. and int. dark red to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. Stem missing. H. 8.3; rim diam. 16.8 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/11: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered).
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Type 2 Type 2 includes only one specimen (P7). It has a tall flaring stem, a deep bowl, and a vertically pierced triangular lug. It was not possible to analyze it with thin section petrography, but macroscopic examination showed that it is made of calcite-tempered fabric. The surface treatment and the calcite-tempered fabric are traditionally regarded as typical features of Cycladic-type pottery on Crete (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262; Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 22–23). The vertically pierced triangular lug, however, is a typological feature not seen in chalices of the Cyclades. In contrast, it is very common in Crete and occurs in purely Cretan wares and shapes (including chalices; Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 8:42, 43, 9:58, 10:75, 77). P7 (T9.4; HM 32223; Fig. 39; Pl. 17). Chalice. Deep hemispherical bowl; tall, flaring, trumpet-shaped stem; broad waist; one vertically pierced triangular lug below rim; slightly outcurving rounded rim. Ext. and int. reddish brown to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 18.5; rim diam. 16.9; base diam. 12.5 cm. Capacity: 1.700 lt.
Type 3 Type 3 includes one example (P8). It is a squat type with low foot and vertical tubular handle. The surface is covered by a thick brown-burnished slip. According to macroscopic examination, it is made of calcite-tempered fabric. The type has parallels solely from Crete, particularly from Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 80–81, fig. 16:1459, pl. 59:1459, 1463, 1465). In contrast to the Gournes specimen, however, the Hagia Photia chalices belong to DGBW (often referred to as Pyrgos Ware), and are considered products of the Minoan tradition. P8 (T21.3; HM 32226; Fig. 39;Pl. 17). Chalice. Biconical profile with narrow waste and low stand; one vertical circular handle on bowl; open conical bowl; straight rounded rim; conical stand. Ext. and int. dark red to reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 6.9; rim diam. 11.0; base diam. 6.3 cm. Capacity: 0.190 lt.
Bowls The cemetery produced 12 bowls, 11 of which belong to DBW. They all have an open, conical or
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hemispherical body, and a straight or slightly convex profile, a flat narrow base, and a slightly incurving or straight rounded rim. They are divided into four different types on the basis of the shape of the handle. Type 1 The bowls of this type have a horizontal tubular handle below the rim. Of the two analyzed specimens, one is made of calcite- and grog-tempered fabric (P10; Fabric Group 1c) and the other of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P11; Fabric Group 1a). The unanalyzed specimen is also calcite-tempered according to macroscopic examination (P9). There are many parallels from Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 5–6, fig. 1:4, pl. 1:2–4, 6), but this type is also a very common shape in Cycladic domestic and funerary contexts, such as at Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008, fig. 19.16), Markiani (Karantzali 2006, fig. 7.7:3) and Kato Akrotiri on Amorgos (Renfrew 1972, pl. 4:2), Akrotiri on Thera (Sotirakopoulou 1986, fig. 1:4184), and Palati on Naxos and Phylakopi on Melos (Karantzali 1996, figs. 1:a–b, f, 52:f). P9 (T3.3; HM 32197; Fig. 39; Pl. 18). Bowl. Flat base; slightly incurving, rounded rim; hemispherical body; horizontal tubular handle below rim. Ext. and int. red to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 9.6; rim diam. 17.0; base diam. 7.8 cm. Capacity: 1.035 lt. P10 (T7.2; HM 32216; Fig. 39; Pl. 18). Bowl. Flat base with irregular groove around edge; straight, rounded rim; hemispherical body; horizontal tubular handle below rim. Ext. reddish brown burnished, int. red to orangish brown; uneven firing. H. 7.1; rim diam. 12.0; base diam. 3.9 cm. Capacity: 0.360 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/50: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P11 (T20.3; HM 32288; Fig. 39). Bowl. Straight rounded rim; hemispherical body; horizontal tubular handle(s) below rim. Ext. and int. brown burnished; uneven firing. Base missing. H. 9; rim diam. 15.9 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/57: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered).
Type 2 The bowls of this type are deeper and have two opposed vertical tubular handles below the rim. The other typological features are similar to Type 1, including the flat base and the slightly incurving or straight rounded rim. The body is hemispherical, with the exception of one specimen whose body is more open and conical (P15). Both petrographically
analyzed samples are made of coarse calcite fabric (P12, P15; Fabric Group 1a). There are many parallels from sites along the North Cretan coast: Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 20–21, fig. 5:290, pls. 15:279– 282, 285–287, 16:288–291); Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, fig. 12:102, 108); Poros-Katsambas (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, fig. 26.3:c). This type is also a very common shape at many Cycladic sites, for example, Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008, fig. 19.14), Markiani (Karantzali 2006, fig. 7.4:5, 6), and Kato Akrotiri (Rambach 2000b, fig. 74:6) on Amorgos. P12 (T1.4; HM 32289; Fig. 40). Bowl. Flat base; incurving rounded rim; hemispherical body; two vertical tubular handles below rim. Ext and int. dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 8.5; rim diam. 13.1 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/35: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P13 (T2.5; HM 32257; Fig. 40; Pl. 18). Bowl. Flat base; straight rounded rim; hemispherical body; two vertical tubular handles below rim. Ext. and int. reddish to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 9.5; rim diam. 11.5; base diam. 5.9 cm. Capacity: 0.500 lt. Possibly in Fabric Group 3 because of similarity with pyxis lid P102. P14 (T4.9; HM 32207; Fig. 40). Bowl. Flat base; straight rounded rim; hemispherical body; two vertical tubular handles below rim. Ext. and int. reddish to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 10.2; rim diam. 14.4; base diam. 5.5 cm. P15 (T26.1; HM 32239; Fig. 40). Bowl. Slightly incurving, rounded rim; hemispherical body; two vertical tubular handles below rim. Ext. and int. reddish to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. Base missing. H. 8.1; rim diam. 20.0 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/18: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P16 (T35.2; HM 32248; Fig. 40; Pl. 18). Bowl. Flat base; slightly incurving, rounded rim; hemispherical body; two vertical tubular handles below rim. Ext. and int. reddish to dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 6.4; rim diam. 9.2; base diam. 4.7 cm. Capacity: 0.370 lt.
Type 3 Only one specimen belongs to this type (P17). It is identical to Types 1 and 2, but it has a vertically pierced hemispherical lug instead of the more usual tubular one. The other typological features are similar to Types 1 and 2, including the flat base and the straight rounded rim. No petrographic analysis has been carried out, but macroscopic examination indicates that it is made of a calcite-tempered fabric.
EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
Although the generic shape has parallels from both Crete and the Cyclades, the vertically pierced lug of this type is very rare in the Cyclades and absent in other vases of Dark Burnished ware found in Crete. Fragments from two obsidian blades (St17, St18) were found attached on the interior walls of this vessel. P17 (T17.6; HM 32187; Fig. 40; Pl. 18). Bowl. Flat base; straight rounded rim; hemispherical body; one vertically pierced hemispherical lug below rim. Ext. and int. dark brown to gray burnished; uneven firing. H. 4.4; rim diam. 9.1; base diam. 3.2 cm. Capacity: 0.100 lt.
Type 4 The bowls of this type are identical to the others but handleless. The single petrographically analyzed specimen is made of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P19; Fabric Group 1a). No handleless bowls have been found in either Hagia Photia or Pyrgos, and the shape is also very rare in the Cyclades. Some conical bowls found at Markiani (Karantzali 2006, 113–114, fig. 7.4:7–11) might be regarded as parallels, but the bases are rather different, being more pronounced and occasionally with leaf impressions. P18 (T12.4; HM 32274; Fig. 40; Pl. 18). Handleless bowl. Slightly concave base; straight rounded rim; hemispherical body with convex profile. Ext. and int. reddish brown to black burnished; uneven firing. H. 9.7; rim diam. 14.0; base diam. 4.5 cm. Capacity: 0.790 lt. P19 (T24.3; HM 32235; Fig. 40). Handleless bowl. Slightly concave base; straight rounded rim; hemispherical body with convex profile. Ext. and int. orange to reddish brown burnished. Very fragmentary. Pres. H. 1.3; pres. w. 3.8; base diam. 3.0 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/37: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered).
Spouted Bowls The cemetery produced three examples of spouted bowls. They are the spouted version of Type 1 bowls, but they are presented separately because the addition of the spout may alter the function of the vase from mere consumption to pouring and serving. Otherwise, spouted bowls share similar typological features with the bowls of Type 1, such as the flat base, the hemispherical shape, the single horizontal tubular handle below the rim, and the straight rounded rim. The surface varies from reddish to dark brown in color, and all spouted bowls are produced with
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calcite-tempered fabrics. The only petrographically analyzed specimen is made of semifine calcitetempered fabric with the addition of organic material (P22; Fabric Group 1b). On Crete parallels for this shape are from Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 21–22, fig. 5:295, 300, pl. 16:295, 298), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 7:37, 12:95), and Livari (Papadatos and Sofianou 2015a, 40). The shape occurs also in the Cyclades, in Hagioi Anargyroi on Naxos (Doumas 1977, pl. 36:f) and Kato Akrotiri on Amorgos (Rambach 2000a, fig. 73:1, 2). P20 (T3.4; HM 32198; Fig. 41; Pl. 18). Spouted bowl. Fat base; straight rounded rim; raised spout at rim; hemispherical body; horizontal tubular handle below rim. Ext. and int. orange to reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 6.7; rim diam. 9.9; base diam. 3.8 cm. Capacity: 0.295 lt. P21 (T8.2; HM 32217; Fig. 41; Pl. 18). Spouted bowl. Flat base; straight rounded rim; raised spout at rim; hemispherical body; horizontal tubular handle below rim. Ext. and int. orange to reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 5.3; rim diam. 11.5; base diam. 3.9 cm. Capacity: 0.200 lt. P22 (T33.1; HM 32245; Fig. 41). Spouted bowl. Straight rounded rim; raised spout at rim; hemispherical body. Ext. and int. brown burnished; uneven firing. Base missing. L. 9.8 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/41: Fabric Group 1b (semicoarse calcite tempered, with organics).
Bottles The cemetery produced two examples of incised bottles. They are both very fragmentary, but they clearly belong to the common type with rounded body, high shoulder, and conical neck. Two opposite, vertically pierced tubular handles are placed on the shoulder. Like bottles from other sites, the Gournes specimens have incised decoration consisting of horizontal parallel incisions on the neck and vertical parallel incisions on the body. They lack the usual large concentric chevrons on the body, however, seen in many similar vases from other sites. The surface is very eroded, but they clearly belong to DBW. Both specimens were analyzed by thin section petrography. One is made of semifine calcite-tempered fabric (P23; Fabric Group 1b), and the other of calcite- and grog-tempered fabric
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with the addition of organic material (P24; Fabric Group 1c). In Crete, there are parallels from Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 67–73, fig. 12, pls. 50–54), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 8:49, 50, 9:67–69), and Kephala Petras (Tsipopoulou 2010). The shape is considered as a typical feature of the Kampos Group in the Cyclades (Karantzali 1996, 103–104; 2008, 248, fig. 25.12), however, occurring in many funerary contexts, including those at Kampos on Paros (Varoucha 1925–1926, fig. 7), Hagioi Anargyroi (Doumas 1977, pl. 36:d), Tsikniades (Philaniotou 2008, fig. 20.11), Melanes and Apeiranthos on Naxos (Karantzali 2008, fig. 25.12), and Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 1984, fig. 3:a). P23 (T2.1; HM 32259). Bottle. Vertically pierced lugs on shoulder. Reddish-brown clay, traces of burnishing on the surface. Vertical incisions on body; horizontal incisions on handle. Eroded and fragmentary. Pres. h. 4.7; pres. w. 2.8 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/22: Fabric Group 1b (semifine grog tempered). P24 (T14.4; HM 32278; Fig. 41; Pl. 18). Bottle. Rounded body; conical neck; vertically pierced lugs on shoulder. Ext. dark brown to black burnished; int. rough, reddish. Vertical incisions on body; horizontal incisions on handle and neck. Base and rim missing. Pres. h. 9.1; shoulder diam. 17.6 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/6: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered with the addition of organic material).
Cups All four cups found in the cemetery belong to DBW. They are hemispherical in shape with convex profiles. They have a rounded rim, straight or slightly incurving. The handle is vertical, of circular section, and starts from below the rim ending at the middle of the body; in one case the handle rises above the rim (P26). The bases are narrow and quite rough, and the cups cannot stand easily. All specimens are made of calcite-tempered fabrics, as suggested by the only petrographically analyzed example, which is made of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P26; Fabric Group 1a). The closest parallels are from Crete, particularly Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 18– 19, fig. 3:260, pl. 13:259, 260). It is interesting to note that cups with circular handles are not found in the Cyclades. P25 (T5.1; HM 32291; Fig. 41; Pl. 19). One-handled cup. Flat base; straight rounded rim; vertical handle of
circular section below rim; hemispherical body with convex profile. Ext. and int. dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 10.3; rim diam. 13.3; base diam. 4.7 cm. Capacity: 0.710 lt. P26 (T22.2; HM 32231; Fig. 41; Pl. 19). One-handled cup. Slightly concave base; straight rounded rim; vertical handle of circular section rising above rim; hemispherical body with convex profile. Ext. and int. dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 6.4; rim diam. 8.2; base diam. 2.5 cm. Capacity: 0.590 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/3: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P27 (T23.2; HM 32233; Fig. 41; Pl. 19). One-handled cup. Flat base; straight rounded rim; vertical handle of circular section below rim; hemispherical body with convex profile. Ext. and int. dark brown to black burnished; uneven firing. H. 6.4; rim diam. 8.2; base diam. 2.5 cm. Capacity: 0.100 lt. P28 (T29.2; HM 32241; Fig. 41; Pl. 19). One-handled cup. Flat base; straight rounded rim; vertical handle of circular section below rim; hemispherical body with convex profile. Ext. and int. dark brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 7.0; rim diam. 8.2; base diam. 4 cm. Capacity: 0.190 lt.
Jar with Fenestrations Four vases belong to this type. The general features include a rounded body on a foot, with or without a distinct collar neck, a single vertical handle rising above the rim, and fenestrations below the rim. No specimen, however, is identical to another. These vases are made of DBW, their surface is red to reddish brown in color, and they are all made of calcite-tempered fabrics. Of the three petrographically analyzed specimens, one is made of semifine calcite-tempered fabric (P32; Fabric Group 1b), one of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P31; Fabric Group 1a), and one of calcite-tempered fabric with grog (P29; Fabric Group 1c). In Crete, similar vases have been found in Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 75–76, fig. 15:1424, 1425, pl. 56:1424, 1425) and Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, fig. 6:14). Almost identical are examples that have been found in funerary contexts of the southeast Cyclades, particularly in Ano Kouphonisi (Karantzali 1996, fig. 23e:MN4892), Aplomata (Kontoleon 1969, pl. 193:c), and Kleidos on Naxos (Karantzali 1996, fig. 14:map 175). Similar though not identical examples also have been found elsewhere in the Aegean at sites such as Poliochni, Aegina, Lerna, and Samos (Doumas and Angelopoulou 1997, 549, fig. 12). These vases are traditionally regarded as incense burners (Karantzali 1996, 105; Marangou, ed., 1990,
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108). It should be noted, however, that no clear traces of burning have been identified on the exterior or the interior of any of the four examples, something attested also at Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 76). In the Cyclades, however, traces of burning do exist on this type of vessel, though not always (Karantzali 1996, 105). P29 (T4.10; HM 32208; Fig. 42; Pl. 19). Jar with fenestrations. Tall flaring stem; rounded body; conical collar neck with triangular fenestrations; slightly pronounced, outturned rim; square-shaped projection above rim; one vertical handle of circular section above rim. Ext., inner side of collar neck, and inside stand orange to reddish brown burnished; int. unmodified surface; uneven firing. No traces of burning. Max. h. 20.2; rim diam. 9.0; base diam. 11.0 cm. Capacity: 0.620 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/67: Fabric Group 1c (calcite tempered with grog). P30 (T4.11; HM 32206; Fig. 42; Pl. 19). Jar with fenestrations. Low flaring stem; rounded body; cylindrical collar neck with triangular fenestrations; slightly pronounced, outturned rim; square-shaped projection above rim; one vertical handle of circular section above rim. Ext. and inner side of collar neck orange to reddish brown burnished; int. unmodified surface; uneven firing. No traces of burning. Max. h. 17.9; rim diam. 8.3; base diam. 8.8 cm. Capacity: 0.290 lt. P31 (T11.8; HM 32269; Fig. 42; Pl. 20). Jar with fenestrations. Rounded body with no distinct neck; triangular fenestrations below rim; outturned rim; square-shaped projection above rim with two horns on top; one vertical handle of elliptical section above rim. Ext. and int. orange to reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. Lower part of body and base missing; no traces of burning. H. 8.5 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/66: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P32 (T12.5; HM 32272; Fig. 42; Pl. 20). Jar with fenestrations. Tall flaring stem; hemispherical body without neck; elliptical fenestrations below rim; slightly pronounced, straight rounded rim; square-shaped projection above rim; one vertical handle of circular section above rim. Ext. and int. reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. No traces of burning. Max. h. 12.3; rim diam. 9.0; base diam. 7.6 cm. Capacity: 0.230 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/28: Fabric Group 1b (semifine calcite tempered).
Conical Pyxis With 14 specimens, this class is the second most frequent shape at Gournes after the spherical pyxis. The body is conical or cylindrical, with vertical or inclining walls and two vertical tubular lugs below the rim. The base is flat and slightly convex or concave, and the rim is straight and rounded. The lid
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is dome shaped and has two lugs that line up with those of the pyxis. A low relief line below the rim corresponds to the point where the lid is attached. There are also two examples of double vases consisting of two identical pyxides attached to each other and covered by two adjoined lids (P34, P36). There is always a perfect match between a pyxis and its lid. Considering an increased variation in size (no pyxis is similar to the others), it seems that the two parts were made together. In all examples, however, there is a difference in the color of the surface: the pyxides are usually orange to reddish brown, while the lids are always darker, dark brown to black in color. This chromatic difference can be also seen in the spherical pyxides, and it was achieved by deliberate firing in different conditions. The result was an interesting visual effect on an otherwise undecorated vessel. Of the four specimens analyzed with thin-section petrography, one is made of semifine calcitetempered fabric (P34; Fabric Group 1b), two of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P41, P44; Fabric Group 1a), and one of calcite- and grog-tempered fabric (P39; Fabric Group 1c). Despite their overall typological similarity, the pyxides show great variation in terms of size and quality of manufacture. There are perfectly executed examples with a thick slip, heavily burnished to give a lustrous effect (P40, P41), vases of medium quality with a thinner, not so well-burnished slip (P33, P34, P36, P42, P44, P45), and vases of less careful production with rather rough surfaces covered by a very thin, lightly burnished slip (P46). This variation may suggest the lack of any organized or controlled production by one or a few centers of production. The identical pyxides P40 and P41, however, were made by the same hand, probably at the same time. Many parallels exist in Crete. The form is a very common shape at Hagia Photia, where it is found not only in large numbers but also in different varieties, such as with a foot, with incised decoration, or with internal compartments; double, triple, and quadruple vases of this type are also preserved (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 24–32, fig. 7:336, 416, pls. 22–26). Similar pyxides have also been found at Kephala Petras (Tsipopoulou 2010), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 7:30–32, 8:53, 9:73), and Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951, pl. 1:12). It should
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be noted, however, that the cylindrical pyxis with vertical tubular lugs has a long history of use in the Cyclades from EC I in the Grotta-Pelos Group (Doumas 1977, 15–16, fig. 3:c, d), and it becomes particularly common in funerary contexts of the Kampos Group phase (Karantzali 2008, 248, fig. 25.9), including at Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008, fig. 19.18), Tsikniades (Philaniotou 2008, fig. 20.10), Lakkoudes (Doumas 1977, pl. XXV:e), and Akrotiri on Naxos (Doumas 1977, pl. XXX:b, c, e, f). P33 (T6.3; HM 32212; Fig. 43; Pl. 20). Conical pyxis. Slightly concave base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 5.3; rim diam. 6.0; base diam. 10.0 cm. Capacity: 0.150 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown to black burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.7; diam. 7.3 cm. P34 (T6.4; HM 32213; Fig. 43; Pl. 20). Double conical pyxis. Slightly concave base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid; one hole on body. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 6.8; L. 18.8; rim diam. 7.0; base diam. 9.6 cm. Capacity: 0.160 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/29: Fabric Group 1b (semifine calcite tempered). Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. rough. H. 3.0; L. 17.5; diam. 8.3 cm. P35 (T10.1; HM 32234; Fig. 43; Pl. 20). Conical pyxis. Slightly concave base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 6.1; rim diam. 10.0; base diam. 13.9 cm. Capacity: 0.440 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. brown burnished; int. smoothed unburnished. H. 3.2; diam. 12.5 cm. P36 (T11.1; HM 32264; Fig. 43; Pl. 20). Double conical pyxis. Slightly convex base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.9; L. 12.0; rim diam. 3.7; base diam. 5.9 cm. Capacity: 0.028 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. rough. H. 1.7; L. 11.5; diam. 4.8 cm. P37 (T11.2; HM 32263; Fig. 43; Pl. 20). Conical pyxis. Slightly convex base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below
rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 3.9; rim diam. 4.6; base diam. 6.8 cm. Capacity: 0.050 lt. P38 (T13.2; HM 32220; Fig. 43; Pl. 20). Conical pyxis. Slightly convex base; cylindrical body with slightly inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 5.3; rim diam. 6.6; base diam. 9.5 cm. Capacity: 0.190 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.5; diam. 8.6 cm. P39 (T16.1; HM 32283; Fig. 43). Conical pyxis. Slightly convex base with small hole; conical body with inclining walls. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. Rim and upper part missing. Pres. h. 1.4; base diam. 8.0; hole diam. 0.2 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/46: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P40 (T17.3; HM 32219; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Flat base; cylindrical body with slightly inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown to brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 5.8; rim diam. 8.1; base diam. 9.3 cm. Capacity: 0.190 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 3.4; diam. 8.3 cm. Comments: vessel is identical to P41, but larger. P41 (T17.4; HM 32189; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Slightly concave base; cylindrical body with slightly inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 4.6; rim diam. 5.0; base diam. 6.3 cm. Capacity: 0.060 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/65: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown to black burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.6; diam. 6.5 cm. Comments: vessel is identical to P40, but smaller. P42 (T18.1; HM 32191; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Slightly concave base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 5.1; rim diam. 8.8; base diam. 11.8 cm. Capacity: 0.260 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown to black burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.6; diam. 11.2 cm. P43 (T22.1; HM 32229; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Slightly convex base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below
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rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 4.5; rim diam. 7.6; base diam. 10.7 cm. Capacity: 0.200 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.7; diam. 8.4 cm. P44 (T24.1; HM 32236, HM 32252 [lid]; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Slightly convex base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 3.5; rim diam. 4.4; base diam. 6.6 cm. Capacity: 0.450 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.4; diam. 5.8 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/36: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite-tempered fabric). P45 (T25.1; HM 32238; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Slightly convex base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 6.6; rim diam. 8.0; base diam. 10.1 cm. Capacity: 0.270 lt. P46 (T31.1; HM 32242; Fig. 44; Pl. 21). Conical pyxis. Flat base; conical body with inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 3.8; rim diam. 6.1; base diam. 8.9 cm. Capacity: 0.100 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.8; diam. 7.3 cm.
Spherical Pyxis With 23 cataloged examples, this pyxis is the most frequent type of vase in the cemetery. The body is spherical, occasionally biconical with a slight carination in the middle. The base is flat or slightly concave, except for that of one specimen that has a raised base (P68). In the literature, the shape is often called “biconical” (e.g., Karantzali 2008, 248, fig. 25.10), but almost all of the Gournes examples have spherical instead of biconical bodies. All specimens have two vertically pierced tubular lugs on the shoulder, just below the rim. The rim is straight and rounded, and there is always a low relief line below the rim corresponding to the point where the lid is attached. The lid is dome shaped, and it has two lugs that line up with those of the pyxis. The lids are identical to those of conical pyxides,
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and thus if a lid was not found in association with its pyxis it is impossible to identify whether it was for a spherical or a conical example. As in the case of the conical pyxides, there is always a perfect match between the spherical pyxis and its lid, suggesting that they were made together. Similarly, the spherical pyxides have lighter surfaces (usually orange to reddish brown in color) than their corresponding lids, which are dark brown to black in color. As suggested for the conical pyxides, this chromatic effect was not accidental, and it was created by firing the two parts separately in different conditions. The only exception is P50, in which both the pyxis and the lid are of the same color (reddish brown). This circumstance may be related to the fact that the lid of P50 is the only example that has incised decoration infilled with a white substance. All specimens are made of calcite-tempered fabrics, something reinforced by petrographic analysis. Of the nine analyzed examples, four are made of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P53, P60, P65, P69; Fabric Group 1a), and five of calcite- and grogtempered fabric (P47, P51, P56, P58, P59; Fabric Group 1c). No apparent differences exist between the vases of the two fabric groups: for example, P56 of Fabric Group 1c and P65 of Fabric Group 1a are almost identical in terms of visual appearance and surface treatment. As in the case of the conical pyxides, despite their stylistic similarity, great variation exists in terms of size and quality of manufacture. Vases of the highest quality have a heavily burnished thick slip, providing a lustrous visual effect on the surface (P50, P51, P61, P63, P68); vases of medium quality have a thinner slip, not so well burnished (P48, P52, P54, P55, P57, P67, P66); and vases of less careful production have rather rough surfaces covered by a lightly burnished thin slip (P49, P53, P56, P58, P59, P60, P62, P64). The closest parallels are from sites on the North Cretan coast. Hagia Photia provides the most numerous parallels, of all types and sizes, including miniature, footed, and double vases, and rarely vases with internal compartments (e.g., Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 34–53, figs. 8, 9, pls. 29–44). Gournes, however, apart from a footed example (P70, presented below as a separate category), lacks any miniature or double specimens as well as pyxides with internal compartments. Also, unlike some of the
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Hagia Photia specimens, the lids from Gournes never have a knob on top (e.g., Davaras and Betancourt 2012, pl. 42:882). Other sites with similar spherical pyxides include the Kephala Petras cemetery (Tsipopoulou 2010), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 5:9, 7:33, 35), Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951, pl. 14:fig. 1.9), Amnissos (Betancourt et al. 2000, fig. 13:48, 49), and Livari (Papadatos and Sofianou 2015a, 41). On the other hand, the shape seems to have a longer history in the Cyclades. It appears as early as the EC I period (Grotta-Pelos culture), often with incised decoration, as seen in specimens from Akrotiri on Naxos (Doumas 1977, pls. 31:b, 33:a, d), but it continues and takes a more standardized shape somewhat later in the EC I–II transition (Kampos Group phase) at sites including Louros (Papathanasopoulos 1961–1962, pl. 67:a) and Tsikniades on Naxos (Philaniotou 2008, figs. 20.8, 20.9), Kato Akrotiri on Amorgos (Rambach 2000a, fig. 74:3), and Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008, figs. 19.8, 19.9). Beyond the Cyclades, a few examples have been found in sites with Cycladic connections, such as Manika (Calligas 1984, 91; Sapouna-Sakellaraki 1987, pl. 40:a) and Tsepi (Pantelidou-Gofa 2005, pls. 1, 23:1). P47 (S1.35; GOU03/10; Fig. 45). Spherical pyxis. Spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. Missing base. Pres. h. 7.2 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/10: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P48 (T2.2; HM 32260; Fig. 45; Pl. 21). Spherical pyxis. Concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 7.9; rim diam. 6.5; base diam. 2.7 cm. Capacity: 0.300 lt. P49 (T2.3; HM 32256; Fig. 45; Pl. 21). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 7.1; rim diam. 7.1; base diam. 5.4 cm. Capacity: 0.230 lt. P50 (T3.1; HM 32195; Fig. 45; Pl. 21). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 9.8; rim diam. 8.4; base diam. 4.6 cm. Capacity: 0.545 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two
vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Incised curved lines on top, infilled with white substance. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 3.5; diam. 10.5 cm. P51 (T4.1; HM 32190; Fig. 45; Pl. 21). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; Int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 9.0; rim diam. 8.1; base diam. 4.0 cm. Capacity: 1.100 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/38: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P52 (T6.1; HM 32211; Fig. 45; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 6.9; rim diam. 4.9; base diam. 3.3 cm. Capacity: 0.170 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 2.7; diam. 6.2 cm. P53 (T6.2; HM 32214; Fig. 45; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 5.7; rim diam. 6.0; base diam. 3.9 cm. Capacity: 0.140 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/49: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. worn. H. 2.4; diam. 7.3. Comments: two repair holes above base of vessel. P54 (T7.1; HM 32215; Fig. 45; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar smoothed, unburnished collar; int. worn. H. 9.3; rim diam. 7.2; base diam. 3.8 cm. Capacity: 0.360 lt. P55 (T9.1; HM 32222; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 10.3; rim diam. 12.0; base diam. 6.8 cm. Capacity: 1.300 lt. P56 (T12.1; HM 32271; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; biconical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; no relief line or distinctive collar. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 6.0; rim diam. 5.5; base diam. 3.4 cm. Capacity: 0.120 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/5: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P57 (T13.1; HM 32290; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim
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corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 6.4; rim diam. 5.2; base diam. 3.9 cm. Capacity: 0.200 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.7; diam. 7.2 cm. P58 (T14.1; HM 32279; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Concave base; biconical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. rough. H. 7.6; rim diam. 7.6; base diam. 4.6 cm. Capacity: 0.310 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/8: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P59 (T15.1; HM 32280; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. rough. H. 10.2; rim diam. 9.6; base diam. 4.1 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/13: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered). P60 (T16.2; HM 32284; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 6.4; rim diam. 5.2; base diam. 3.9 cm. Capacity: 0.200 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. rough. H. 2.4; diam. 6.2 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/17: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P61 (T17.1; HM 32188; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 7.1; rim diam. 7.0; base diam. 3.9 cm. Capacity: 0.025 lt. P62 (T17.2; HM 32186; Fig. 46; Pl. 22). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 4.4; rim diam. 3.1; base diam. 2.6 cm. Capacity: 0.400 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. rough. H. 1.7; diam. 4.5 cm. P63 (T17.5; HM 32185; Fig. 47; Pl. 23). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 13.3; rim diam. 9.8; base diam. 5.7 cm. Capacity: 1.320 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. dark
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brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished interior. H. 3.3; diam. 11.7 cm. P64 (T18.2; HM 32192; Fig. 47; Pl. 23). Spherical pyxis. Flat base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orangish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 4.6; rim diam. 3.5; base diam. 2.8 cm. Capacity: 0.050 lt. P65 (T19.1; HM 32194). Spherical pyxis. Slightly concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar smoothed, unburnished; int. rough. Fragmentary. Pres. h. 3.1; pres. w. 6.1 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/23: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P66 (T23.1; HM 32232; Fig. 47; Pl. 23). Spherical pyxis. Concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. and collar red burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 7.3; rim diam. 6.7; base diam. 3.4 cm. Capacity: 0.200 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.8; diam. 7.1 cm. P67 (T29.1; HM 32240; Fig. 47; Pl. 23). Spherical pyxis. Concave base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. and collar red burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 7.3; rim diam. 6.7; base diam. 3.4 cm. Capacity: 0.200 lt. P68 (T35.1; HM 32247, HM 32249; Fig. 47; Pl. 23). Spherical pyxis. Raised base; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar smoothed, unburnished; int. worn. H. 8.1; rim diam. 6.9; base diam. 3.7 cm. Capacity: 0.280 lt. Lid: dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Two holes of unknown function, probably not for repair. Ext. brown burnished; int. rough. H. 3.2; diam. 8.1 cm. P69 (T36.2; HM 32251). Spherical pyxis. Spherical body; straight rounded rim; one preserved vertical tubular lug below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. orange to reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. Fragmentary; base missing. Pres. h. 8.4 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/42: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered).
Spherical Pyxis on Stand This is a very rare version of the more simple spherical pyxis. There is only one specimen (P70), which shares the same characteristics with the spherical pyxides but deviates in two ways. First, it is equipped with a relatively high stand. Second, the stand has
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pattern-burnished decoration, which is better described as a combination of pattern burnishing and the application of paint. The entire body has been covered by a light brown wash, which is smoothed. A thick reddish-brown slip covers the entire body and creates wide vertical bands on the stand. This slip has been burnished heavily to produce a lustrous effect, which on the upper body covers the entire surface, while on the stand it creates the lustrous reddishbrown bands on the light brown background. The vase is very carefully executed, resembling the spherical pyxides of the highest quality. Petrographic analysis showed that it is made of calciteand grog-tempered fabric (Fabric Group 1c). Similar footed spherical pyxides have been found at Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 52–53, fig. 9:945, 947, 953, pls. 45, 46) and Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008, fig. 19.8), but no example bears pattern-burnished decoration. This feature could be regarded as a Minoan element on what seems to be a Cycladic-influenced vase. The use of calcite- and grog-tempered fabric may reinforce this idea, as will be discussed further below. P70 (T4.2; HM 32203; Fig. 47; Pl. 23). Spherical pyxis. High flaring stand; spherical body; straight rounded rim; two vertical tubular lugs below rim; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. reddish brown burnished; collar and int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 14.1; rim diam. 7.6; base diam. 8.9 cm. Capacity: 0.565 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/40: Fabric Group 1c (calcite and grog tempered).
Lid from Conical or Spherical Pyxis The lids for conical and spherical pyxides are identical, and it is impossible to distinguish them when they are not found in close association with their corresponding vessel. The following lids therefore are discussed separately because it was not possible to match them to their pyxis. They are dome shaped and have two opposed, upraised, vertically pierced lugs at the periphery. Of the two analyzed specimens, one is made of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P81; Fabric Group 1a) and one of semifine calcitetempered fabric (P74; Fabric Group 1b). P71 (T4.4; HM 32202; Fig. 48; Pl. 23). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 2.2; diam. 7.5 cm. P72 (T4.5; HM 32205). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int.
smoothed, unburnished. Very fragmentary. Max. h. 3.5; max. L. 4.7 cm. P73 (T9.2; HM 32221; Fig. 48; Pl. 23). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. reddish brown to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 2.7; diam. 13.1 cm. P74 (T9.3; HM 32224). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. Max. L. 7.3 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/01: Fabric Group 1b (semifine calcite tempered). P75 (T11.3; HM 32266; Fig. 48; Pl. 23). Lid. Dome shaped. Two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. brown to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. Pres. h. 1.0; diam. 5.0 cm. P76 (T11.4; HM 32270; Fig. 48; Pl. 23). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 2.7; diam. 7.8 cm. P77 (T12.2; HM 32273; Fig. 48; Pl. 24). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 2.0; diam. 6.6 cm. P78 (T14.2; HM 32276; Fig. 48; Pl. 24). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 2.6; diam. 10.1 cm. P79 (T15.2; HM 32281; Fig. 48; Pl. 24). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. H. 1.5; diam. 8.9 cm. P80 (T15.3; HM 32282). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. Pres. h. 3.1; pres. w. 3.5 cm. P81 (T20.1; HM 32262). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 4.0; diam. 11.8 cm. Pottery sample GOU03/24: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P82 (T21.1; HM 32225; Fig. 48; Pl. 24)). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. brown to dark brown burnished; int. rough; uneven firing. H. 3.3; diam. 12.0 cm. P83 (T24.2; HM 32237; Fig. 48. Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. dark brown to black burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 2.4; diam. 7.9 cm. P84 (T36.1; HM 32250; Fig. 48). Lid. Dome shaped; two vertically pierced lugs. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 4.0; diam. 11.8 cm.
Spool Pyxis This vase is the rarest type of pyxis, with only four specimens. Unlike the other types, however, this variant has elaborate incised decoration, with linear and
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curvilinear motifs on almost every side of the vase except the interior. The two parts (pyxis and lid) are identical in shape. The pyxis has almost vertical walls and a flat base projecting at the bottom. Similarly, the lid has almost vertical walls and a flat disk projecting on top. When placed together, the walls of the lid cover the walls of the body and the lid rim rests on the projecting base of the pyxis. In two cases it was possible to match the pyxides with their corresponding lids (P85, P87). The incised decoration is on the walls, the base of the pyxis, and the top of the lid. The decorative motifs vary considerably, even between the pyxis and its corresponding lid, including zigzags, spirals, wavy bands, circles, simple lines, crosses, and chevrons. The incisions are infilled with a white substance. No petrographic analysis was carried out in any of the Gournes specimens, but macroscopic examination shows clearly that they are all made of calcitetempered fabrics. The closest parallels can be found at sites on the North Cretan coast. Spool pyxides are quite common at Hagia Photia (e.g., Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 64–66, fig. 12:1265, 1266, pls. 48, 49), but they also occur in smaller numbers at Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, fig. 9:64–66), Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951, pl. 14:fig. 2.13) and the Kephala Petras cemetery (Tsipopoulou 2010). In the Cyclades, the shape is not very frequent. Most examples are of the EC II period—that is, later than the Kampos Group phase—and there exist specimens both in clay (Karantzali 1996, 95) and marble (Getz-Gentle 1996, 142–153). The only example dated to the EC I/ II transitional phase (Kampos Group phase) is from Tsikniades on Naxos (Philaniotou 2008, fig. 20.15). It is also worth noting that the shape is absent from Ano Kouphonisi, a cemetery that otherwise has provided numerous parallels for most of the shapes of the Gournes assemblage. On the other hand, the incised decoration infilled with white substance does not constitute a common characteristic of Cretan pottery at that time, in contrast to that of the Cyclades. The same applies to the motifs (e.g., chevrons, cross-hatching), which are very common and have a long history in the Cyclades beginning at the start of the Early Bronze Age. P85 (T4.3; HM 32204; Fig. 49; Pl. 24). Spool pyxis. Flat projecting base; vertical walls; straight rounded rim; two opposed pairs of holes on projection of base. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. Incised decoration: on bottom,
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two hatched straight lines define three zones, middle with diamonds, other two with zigzags; on side, two zigzag bands and short vertical straight lines in between; on projection, zigzag. H. 5.5; base diam. 11.0 cm. Lid: flat projecting top; vertical walls; straight rounded rim; two opposed pairs of holes on projection of top, corresponding to the pyxis holes, for attachment with string. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. Incised decoration: on top, two hatched straight lines define three zones, middle with diamonds, other two with zigzags, identical to pyxis base; on side, vertical bands with chevrons, diamonds, and zigzags; on projection, zigzag. H. 5.5; diam. 11.1 cm. P86 (T11.5; HM 32267; Fig. 48; Pl. 24). Lid of spool pyxis. Flat projecting top; slightly inclining walls; straight rounded rim. Ext. dark to grayish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. Incised decoration: on top, spiral in center from which five hatched lines radiate to periphery, dividing surface into five zones, two with spiral and psi-shaped motif, three with spiral and wavy line; on upper part of wall, wavy line. H. 4.4; base diam. 9.5 cm. P87 (T11.6; HM 32265; Fig. 48; Pl. 24). Lid of spool pyxis. Flat projecting top; vertical walls; straight rounded rim. Ext. dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. Incised decoration: on top, one straight line divides surface into two halves, each with row of dots, two circles, and one cross between them; on projection, short radiating lines. H. 2.5; base diam. 5.2 cm. P88 (T12.3; HM 32275; Fig. 48; Pl. 24). Lid of spool pyxis. Flat projecting top, not preserved; slightly inclining walls; straight rounded rim. Ext. reddish to dark brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished; uneven firing. Incised decoration: on projection, short radiating lines; on upper part of wall, line of dots, one straight line, and two crosses underneath. H. 5.0; base diam. 8.0 cm.
Cylindrical Pyxis There is only one specimen of this type (P89). The body is cylindrical with vertical walls. It has two vertically pierced lugs, instead of the tubular lugs of the conical pyxides, and the lid is flat, not domed. As with all the vases of DBW, it is made of calcitetempered fabric. P89 (T32.2; HM 32244; Fig. 49; Pl. 24). Cylindrical pyxis. Flat base; cylindrical body with slightly inclining walls; straight rounded rim; two vertical lugs in middle of body; low relief line below rim corresponding to attachment point of lid. Ext. and int. reddish brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 4.6; rim diam. 5.0; base diam. 7.9 cm. Capacity: 0.100 lt. Lid: flat top; two vertically pierced lugs, rising above top of lid, which line up with pyxis lugs. Ext. reddish brown burnished; int. smoothed, unburnished. H. 1.5; diam. 6.8 cm.
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Alabastron This vessel is a rare type of small bottle-like jar, with an ovoid body and an everted rim, and almost without a neck. The best preserved specimen has vertically pierced tubular lugs (P91). The only petrographically analyzed specimen is made of coarse calcite-tempered fabric (P90; Fabric Group 1a). The non-analyzed specimen is also made of calcitetempered fabric (P91). The shape has close parallels from Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 76, fig. 15:1428, pl. 56:1428). P90 (T21.4; HM 32227; Fig. 49). Alabastron. Ovoid body; everted rim. Ext. reddish brown to brown burnished; int. brown, smoothed, non-burnished. Base missing. Pres. h. 7.5; rim diam. 10.0 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/2: Fabric Group 1a (coarse calcite tempered). P91 (T22.3; HM 32230; Fig. 49; Pl. 24). Alabastron. Ovoid body; everted rim; slightly concave base; two vertically pierced tubular lugs on shoulders. Ext. grayish brown burnished; uneven firing. H. 11.0; rim diam. 4.8; base diam. 4.0 cm.
Jar One sherd belongs to a closed or semiclosed vase, most probably a medium-sized jar (P92). Petrographic analysis showed that it is made of calciteand grog-tempered fabric (Fabric Group 1c). P92 (T5.3; HM 32210; Fig. 49). Closed or semiclosed vase, most probably jar. Spherical body; one hole on body. Ext. traces of red burnished slip; int. smoothed, unburnished self-wash. Pres. h. 6.8; pres. w. 5.9 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/7: Fabric Group 1c (calcite- and grog tempered).
Dark Gray Burnished Ware This class constitutes the second most common ware of the Gournes ceramic assemblage, with 11 vases (10% of the total). As in the case of DBW, all DGBW vases are made of low calcareous fabrics. There are sharp differences concerning the fabric, however. With a single exception (P103), the specimens that were analyzed with thin-section petrography are made of two different fabrics: (1) a red fabric with quartz inclusions; and (2) a red fabric with quartz and micrite inclusions. Neither calcite nor grog was used as tempering for the production of the DGBW pottery. Similar to DBW, all vessels were low fired in a reducing firing atmosphere that
did not exceed 750oC in temperature. The uneven firing and the discolorations on the surface suggest firing in a pit. It should also be noted that all vases have a gray biscuit, suggesting reducing conditions throughout the firing procedure. There is a single exception of a chalice with red biscuit (P98), which suggests that the oxidizing atmosphere turned to reducing at the last stages of cooling (Kilikoglou 1994, 72). The surface is covered by a thin self-wash, which is always heavily burnished in order to produce a distinct shiny, lustrous effect. In contrast to the surfaces of the DBW pottery, which are mostly reddish to dark brown in color, the surfaces of the DGBW pottery vary from gray (10YR 6/1–5/1) to dark gray (10YR 4/1–3/1) to black (10YR 2/1). The vases have no decoration, with a single exception, collared jar P101, which has pattern-burnished decoration. The most common shape by far is the chalice, represented by seven examples. The collared jar (P101), the bowl (P100), the suspension pyxis (P102), and the alabastron (P103) are extremely rare, represented by only one specimen each. Dark Gray Burnished is one of the commonest wares at most sites across the island during the EM I–IIA period. When it has pattern-burnished decoration it is often called Pyrgos Ware (Blackman and Branigan 1982, 27; Betancourt 1985, 26; Todaro 2003, 74; Betancourt 2008a, 56–63). Detailed descriptions are available for ceramic material from Knossos (Wilson 1985, 295, 360; 2007, 51–54; Wilson and Day 2000, 27), Hagia Kyriaki (Blackman and Branigan 1982, 27), Kalo Chorio (Haggis 1996, 664), Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 123), and Hagia Triada (Todaro 2001; 2003, 74). Chalices The cemetery produced 16 chalices, seven of which are made in DGBW. They can be divided into three different types on the basis of their typological features. Type 1 Two chalices belong to this type. From a stylistic point of view they are identical to the DBW Type 1 chalices. The shape consists of an open bowl standing on a conical stand, with a bulb between the bowl and the base. A horizontal tubular handle is beneath the rim, and the rim has a slight inward inclination.
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Despite their stylistic similarity with the DBW chalices, however, they are very different in the technological aspects of their manufacture. Their surfaces are dark gray to black in color, instead of reddish to dark brown, suggesting different firing conditions. Also, unlike their DBW counterparts, they are not made of calcite-tempered fabrics. The only petrographically analyzed specimen is made of red fabric with quartz (P94; Fabric Group 2), and the same is most probably the case for the other non-analyzed chalice (P93). Strictly on the basis of typology and style, these chalices have many parallels within Crete, for example at Hagia Photia, Poros-Katsambas, and Pyrgos, and also beyond, for example at Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 2008, figs. 19.10, 19.33). All these examples are made of calcitetempered fabrics and occur only in DBW. P93 (T1.2; HM 32254; Fig. 50; Pl. 25). Chalice. Biconical bulb between bowl and stand; one horizontally pierced tubular lug below rim; open conical bowl; slightly incurving and internally thickened rim with light incision running through int.; conical stand. Ext. and int. dark gray to black burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 15.0; rim diam. 16.0; base diam. 12.7 cm. Capacity: 0.600 lt. P94 (T4.6; HM 32200; Fig. 50; Pl. 25). Chalice. Biconical bulb between bowl and stand; one horizontally pierced tubular lug below rim; open conical bowl; internally thickened rim with light incision running through int.; conical and flaring stand. Ext. and int. gray to dark gray burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 20.0; rim diam. 20.0; base diam. 17.5 cm. Capacity: 1.500 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/26: Fabric Group 2 (red with quartz).
Type 2 The three specimens that belong to this type are characterized by their biconical profile and squat shape, with a low height-to-diameter ratio (P95, P96, P97). They are almost identical to each other, and they have parallel grooves on the stem and the bowl. The rim is always straight and rounded. All examples also have a vertical tubular handle. The surface varies in color from grayish brown to dark gray. The only petrographically analyzed specimen is made of red fabric with quartz (P96; Fabric Group 2). The other two specimens are identical in terms of appearance and fabric, and therefore they were probably made of the same fabric. It was not possible to find exact parallels, but the grooving and the vertical tubular handle are regular
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features of the Minoan-type chalices at Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 79–80, fig. 16:1453, pl. 58:1453) and Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, fig. 10:75–77). P95 (T1.3; HM 32255; Fig. 51; Pl. 25). Chalice. Biconical profile with narrow waist; one vertical circular handle on open conical bowl; straight rounded rim; conical stand. Ext. and int. dark brown to black burnished; uneven firing. Series of horizontal parallel grooves in middle of bowl and upper part of stand. Complete. H. 16.4; rim diam. 20.0; base diam. 14.8 cm. Capacity: 1.200 lt. P96 (T4.8; HM 32199; Fig. 51; Pl. 25). Chalice. Biconical profile with narrow waist; one vertical circular handle on open conical bowl; straight rounded rim; conical stand. Ext. and int. dark brown to black burnished; uneven firing. Series of horizontal parallel grooves in middle of bowl and upper part of stand. Complete. H. 14.0; rim diam. 19.0; base diam. 14.0 cm. Capacity: 1.700 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/39: Fabric Group 2 (red with quartz). P97 (T8.1; HM 32218; Fig. 51; Pl. 25). Chalice. Biconical profile with narrow waist; one vertical circular handle on bowl; open conical bowl; straight rounded rim; conical stand. Series of horizontal parallel grooves on upper part of stand. Ext. and int. dark gray to black burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 13.5; rim diam. 17.0; base diam. 11.3 cm. Capacity: 0.830 lt.
Type 3 Two specimens belong to this type, which is characterized by a narrow waist with bulb, a deep bowl, and a tall trumpet-shaped stand. Both examples have a bulb between the bowl and the stand. Unfortunately, only one specimen is preserved enough to discern its primary characteristics (P99); it also bears a series of horizontal parallel grooves, a vertically pierced triangular lug beneath the rim, and a straight rounded rim. The surface varies in color from dark brown to gray. Both cataloged specimens were analyzed, and they are made of red fabric with quartz (Fabric Group 2). The type has parallels solely from Crete. Chalices in DGBW with narrow waste and bulb, and occasionally with grooved decoration, have been found at Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951, fig. 1:5), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, figs. 8:45, 9:58, 10:75–77), Hagia Triada (Todaro 2001, fig. 7), Hagia Kyriaki (Blackman and Branigan 1982, fig. 7:E18–E20), Knossos (Wilson 1985, fig. 13:83), Kalo Chorio (Haggis 1996, figs. 23:KT21, 29:KT80–KT82), Krasi (Marinatos 1929b, pl. 4:12, 18), and Ellenes Amariou (Karantzali 1996, fig. 86:MC651). The deep bowl, the tall stand,
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the grooves, the pierced triangular lug, and the surface treatment are all typical of Cretan chalices. P98 (S1.38; GOU03/31; Fig. 52). Chalice. Biconical profile with narrow waist; bulb between bowl and stem. Dark gray burnished exterior and interior; uneven firing. Rim, lug, and stem missing. Pres. h. 6.4; bulb diam. 3.4 cm. Capacity: 0.400 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/31: Fabric Group 2 (red with quartz). P99 (T14.3; HM 32277; Fig. 52; Pl. 26). Chalice. Biconical profile with narrow waist; bulb between bowl and stem; one vertically pierced triangular lug below rim; deep conical bowl; straight rounded rim; tall, trumpetshaped, flaring stand. Series of horizontal parallel grooves in upper part of stand. Ext. and int. dark gray to black burnished; uneven firing. Complete. H. 18.3; rim diam. 13.4; base diam. 9.8 cm. Capacity: 0.400 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/53: Fabric Group 2 (red with quartz).
Bowl The only bowl in DGBW is very fragmentary (P100). Petrographic analysis showed that it is made of red fabric with quartz (Fabric Group 3). P100 (T23.3; HM 32287; Fig. 52). Bowl. Straight rounded rim; hemispherical body. Ext. and int. dark to gray brown burnished. Fragmentary; base missing. Pres. h. 5.8; rim diam. 10.3 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/47: Fabric Group 3 (red with quartz and micrite).
Collared Jar The collared jar is a rare shape, represented by only one specimen (P101). It has a spherical body, two double vertically pierced lugs, and a vertical collar neck. It is the only vase in the cemetery with pattern-burnished decoration, often called Pyrgos Ware in the scholarship. The shape is absent from other sites of the North Cretan coast, including Hagia Photia, Pyrgos, and Kanli Kastelli. Identical or broadly similar examples have been found in Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, figs. 27:344, 28:356, 32:F, H) and Hagia Eirini (Karantzali 1996, fig. 128:c). The flat base and the double vertically pierced lugs differentiate the Gournes specimen from FN–EM IA collared jars found in Partira and Gonies (Mortzos 1972; Kanta 2012a), reinforcing the dating of P101 to the EM IB phase. Unfortunately, it was not possible to analyze this vase with thin-section petrography, so it remains in question whether it was produced locally or was imported from the Mesara or elsewhere.
P101 (T18.3; HM 32193; Fig. 52; Pl. 26). Collared jar. Spherical body; two double vertically pierced lugs on belly; vertical wide collar neck; straight rounded rim. Ext. dark gray burnished; int. dark gray, smoothed, unburnished. Pattern-burnished decoration on exterior: cross hatching on the belly inside rectangular panel. H. 15.0; rim diam. 8.3 cm. Capacity 1.000 lt.
Lid from Suspension Pyxis This type of lid is typical for small biconical or lentoid suspension pyxides with tall collar necks. There is only one specimen from Gournes, with vertical walls, a curved top, and two oblique lugs just beneath the top (P102). It lacks the careful burnishing of typical DGBW vessels since it has a dark brown, roughly burnished surface. Petrographic analysis showed that it is made of a red fabric with quartz and micrite inclusions (Fabric Group 3). There are no parallels from the north coast sites of Hagia Photia, Pyrgos, or Kanli Kastelli. In contrast, it has been found in large numbers at many sites all over Crete, including Hagia Kyriaki (Blackman and Branigan 1982, fig. 7:A5), Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, figs. 22:150, 23:172, 25:170, 171, 249), Partira (Mortzos 1972, pl. 40:9207, 9209, 9210), Amnissos (Betancourt et al., 2000, fig. 12:46, 47), Hagios Nikolaos (Palaikastro) (Bosanquet et al. 1902–1903, fig. 2:a–c), and Petras Kephala (Papadatos 2008, fig. 15.5:c). P102 (T2.4; HM 32258; Fig. 52). Pyxis lid. Straight walls; curved top; two oblique pierced lugs rising above top. Ext. reddish to grayish brown burnished; int. dark gray, smoothed, unburnished. Pres. h. 4.0; upper diam. 8.2 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/21: Fabric Group 3 (red with quartz and micrite).
Alabastron One specimen of an alabastron in DGBW has a spherical body, a low wide neck, and a horn-shaped projection (P103). It has the typical characteristics of the ware. According to petrographic analysis, however, its fabric cannot be classified under either Fabric Group 2 or 3 (like all vases of this ware), and it is a loner. Good parallels can be found from Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, fig. 25:263–275), Krasi (Marinatos 1929b, pl. 4:1), and Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951, pl. 14:fig. 1.4), though not with horn-like projections. Since the fabric is a loner, the vase was probably imported from elsewhere in Crete.
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P103 (T34.1; HM 32246; Fig. 52; Pl. 26). Alabastron. Spherical body; low neck; everted rim; flat base; hornshaped projection on belly. Ext. grayish to dark brown burnished. H. 7.9; rim diam. 4.9; base diam. 2.6 cm. Capacity 0.150 lt. Petrographic sample GOU03/63: fabric with micrite, quartz, quartzite-schist, and grog (loner).
Dark on Light Painted Ware This class is very rare, represented by only three vases, two intact and one fragmentary (P106, P105, P104). As in the case of the two burnished wares (DBW and DGBW), all the vases are made of low calcareous fabrics. Macroscopic examination suggested, however, that all three vases were not made in the usual fabrics used for the manufacture of the other two wares. This is reinforced by the single petrographically analyzed specimen (P106), which is a petrographic loner. Also, the vases of this ware were fired at higher temperatures, most probably in an oxidizing-reducingoxidizing cycle (Kilikoglou 1994, 73). In all three cases the painted decoration was not applied directly onto the orangish-red body, but rather onto a pale yellow intermediate slip (2.5Y 8/4) that created a light background. The color of the paint is red to reddish brown (2.5YR 4/6–4/8), characteristic of the EM I phase, as opposed to black, which characterizes the EM IIA phase. The decoration consists of simple linear motifs. Only two shapes are represented, the cylindrical pyxis and the tankard. Dark on Light Painted ware is fairly common in many sites across the island during the EM I–IIA period and is referred to also as Hagios Onouphrios Ware (Betancourt 2008a, 47–53). Detailed descriptions have been made of ceramic material from Knossos (Wilson 1985, 319, 361; 2007, 54; Wilson and Day 2000, 33), Hagia Kyriaki (Blackman and Branigan 1982, 29), Kalo Chorio (Haggis 1996, 668), Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 123), and Hagia Triada (Todaro 2001; 2003, 75). Cylindrical Pyxis A single example of a cylindrical pyxis has painted decoration (P104). It has a flat base and low vertical walls. The lid is slightly curved, with one handle on top and a grooved rim for better attachment to the body. The clay is orangish brown in color, and the surface is covered by a very thin buff slip, onto which motifs have been painted with reddish-brown paint.
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The vase is of high quality, made of fine fabric, and very well executed in terms of surface treatment and decoration. It belongs to an entirely different pottery tradition from the rest of the Gournes assemblage, resembling only the fine painted tankards, discussed below. Although no petrographic analysis has been carried out, it seems probable that the vase was imported to Gournes, as in the case of the tankards, most probably from South-Central Crete. P104 (T32.1; HM 32243; Fig. 53; Pl. 26). Cylindrical pyxis. Flat base; low cylindrical body with vertical walls; straight rounded rim. Orange clay; reddish-brown painted motifs on thin buff slip: horizontal bands at base and rim, vertical bands creating panels inside which thin diagonal lines cross at top. H. 6.4; rim diam. 11.5; base diam. 11.5 cm. Capacity: 0.500 lt. Lid: curved top; one vertical handle of circular section at top center; grooved rim with better attachment on body. Surface treatment identical to body; painted decoration consisting of hatched lines on top. H. 2.2; diam. 12.1 cm.
Tankard The tankard is a rare shape, with only three specimens from Gournes, two of which belong to DoLPW. The shape has a spherical body, two vertical handles of circular section, and a vertical collar neck. The painted decoration consists of red paint on the buff-slipped surface of the vase. There are a few parallels from North Crete, particularly from Hagia Photia (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 84, fig. 18:1490, pl. 62:1490), Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b, fig. 6:18), and Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951, pl. 14:fig. 2.2). The shape is far more common in the Mesara and the Asterousia, however, where it has been found in large numbers at many sites including Lebena (e.g., Alexiou and Warren 2004, fig. 30:437, 450, 500), Hagia Kyriaki (Blackman and Branigan 1982, fig. 11:93, 94), Stou Skaniari to Lakko (Vasilakis 1989–1990, fig. 17:b), and Phaistos (Levi 1976, pl. 13:c). The single petrographically analyzed specimen is a loner, suggesting that it was imported to Gournes (P106). P105 (T3.2; HM 32196; Fig. 53; Pl. 26). Tankard. Spherical body; vertical collar neck; straight rounded rim; two vertical handles of circular section on shoulders; convex base. Red painted decoration on buff slip: ext. multiple line zigzag on collar, three horizontal bands on base of collar, vertical lines on body, three bands on handles; int. thick band on collar. H. 13.3; rim diam. 8.5 cm.
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P106 (S2.133; GOU03/64; Fig. 53). Tankard. Vertical handle of circular section. Red painted decoration on buff slip: horizontal bars. Section diam. 0.9 cm. Petrographic sample GOU03/64: loner.
Red Slipped and Polished Ware Only one fragmentary tankard belongs to this ware (P107). It is made of low calcareous fabric, a petrographic loner. The surface is covered by a thick red slip. The vase was fired in low temperatures, similar to the DBW and DGBW vessels, but in oxidizing firing conditions for the production of the red color (2.5YR 4/6). Red Slipped and Polished ware is a relatively rare ware, with most examples coming from the Mesara. In several publications it is called Salame Ware, and in the few cases with buff painted decoration, it is called Lebena Ware (Betancourt 2008a, 53–55). The ware is generally dated to the EM I–IIA period. Detailed descriptions have been made of ceramic material from Hagia Kyriaki (Blackman and Branigan 1982, 29) and Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 123 [called red burnished ware]). Tankard One of the three tankards found in the cemetery belongs to RSPW (P107). Only the vertical collar neck is preserved. Although tankards can be found at many sites across the island, tankards of RSPW can be found only in South-Central Crete, particularly at Lebena (e.g., Alexiou and Warren 2004, figs. 30:440, 31:500). Analysis showed that it is a petrographic loner, suggesting that the vase was imported to Gournes from elsewhere. P107 (S1.37; GOU03/12; Fig. 53). Tankard. Tall collar neck with curved walls; straight rounded rim. Orange clay; thick red, polished slip on the surface. Petrographic sample GOU03/12: loner.
Discussion: Relative Chronology The Gournes pottery shows many parallels both within and beyond Crete, allowing firm chronological correlations with other Cretan and off-island
sites. The vases of DBW, which constitute the majority of the assemblage (86%), have good parallels from many sites along the North Cretan coast. The cemetery of Hagia Photia in particular has provided examples for most every DBW shape, including chalices, bowls and pyxides of all types, cups, bottles, jars with fenestrations, and alabastra. Undoubtedly, this circumstance is due to the large number of excavated tombs and the wealth of the ceramic material (more than 1,000 vases from 263 tombs; Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 2012). On the other hand, there are some differences, because Gournes lacks a few of the Hagia Photia shapes, particularly the frying pan and the bowl with tab handles. Many parallels for the DBW vases can also be found in the burial rock shelter of Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b), particularly chalices, bowls, bottles, jars with fenestrations, and pyxides. Other sites with parallels include the burial rock shelters of Kanli Kastelli (Alexiou 1951) and Kephala Petras (Tsipopoulou 2010), and the settlement of Poros-Katsambas (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2004, 2008). The material of this type belongs to the Kampos Group, which in Crete is dated to the EM I period (Warren 1984; Warren and Hankey 1989, 14; Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1998, 136–137; Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262), and more specifically to the later part, the EM IB phase (Davaras and Betancourt 2004, 231–232; Papadatos 2008, 268–269). Of the Cretan sites with similar material, the rock shelters were used for collective burials over long periods of time, and thus they contain unstratified material covering the entire Prepalatial period. The Hagia Photia tombs, on the other hand, contain material that can be dated almost exclusively to this phase. Finally, at Poros-Katsambas, pottery of this type has been found in EM I deposits, stratified beneath deposits of the EM IIA phase. The off-island parallels of the DBW pottery are mainly with sites in the Cyclades. The site with the most and closest parallels is the extensive cemetery of Agrilia on Ano Kouphonisi (Zapheiropoulou 1984, 2008), which has many vases similar or even identical to the Gournes shapes, including chalices, bowls, bottles, jars with fenestrations, and pyxides. Other cemeteries with comparable material are Kampos on Paros (Varoucha 1925–1926), Hagioi Anargyroi (Doumas 1977, 100), Louros (Papathanasopoulos 1961–1962), and Tsikniades (Philaniotou 2008) on Naxos, and Kato Akrotiri on Amorgos
EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
(Rambach 2000a, fig. 74:3). Similar pottery has also been found in a few excavated settlements, particularly Markiani on Amorgos (Karantzali 2006), Akrotiri on Thera (Sotirakopoulou 1986), Palati on Naxos, and Phylakopi on Melos (Karantzali 2008). In the Cyclades, the material of the Kampos Group is placed toward the end of the EC I period or is considered transitional between EC I and EC II (Doumas 1977, 18–20; Karantzali 2008; Manning 1995, 45–46; Rambach 2000b, 186–247; Warren and Hankey 1989, 22–23; Zapheiropoulou 1984). The minor wares (DGBW, DoLPW, RSPW), on the other hand, help to place the Gournes assemblage more firmly in the Cretan system of relative chronology. All three wares are dated to the EM I–IIA period, but the shapes allow more refined chronological placement. The DoLPW tankards and cylindrical pyxis and the RSPW tankard can be dated to the EM I period on the basis of their shape and decoration. All the shapes of DGBW, including the biconical chalices with horizontal grooves, the bowls, the suspension pyxides, and the collared jar, can be placed in the same period. Of these shapes, the biconical chalice with grooved decoration is the most chronologically indicative. Sinclair Hood has suggested that the grooved biconical chalice is from EM IB, because it is absent from the Knossos palace well assemblage, which he dated to EM IA (Hood 1971, 38; 1989; 1990). Other scholars have challenged this idea, suggesting that the palace well cannot be dated more precisely than EM I (Wilson 2007, 56; Wilson and Day 2000, 54–56). Moreover, it was suggested that, at least in North-Central Crete, it is not possible to identify different phases within the EM I period. Recent studies of assemblages from South-Central and East Crete, however, specifically those from Lebena (Alexiou and Warren 2004, 118), Phaistos (Todaro 2005, 34–35, 44), and Kephala Petras (Papadatos 2008, 268–269), have shown that the division of EM I into EM IA and EM IB is possible both on stylistic and stratigraphical grounds. A good illustration of Hood’s point concerning the development of the chalice are the cases of Kephala Petras and Hagia Photia. The biconical chalice with grooved decoration, which is very common in Hagia Photia, is totally absent from Kephala Petras. It has been suggested that this difference between two sites separated by only a couple of kilometers indicates chronological differences, with Kephala Petras dated to EM IA and
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Hagia Photia to EM IB (Papadatos 2008, 268–269). Additional evidence comes from the large collared jar P101, which is different from the FN IV–EM IA examples found in Partira and Gonies (Mortzos 1972; Kanta 2012a), reinforcing the dating of this vase to the later EM I phase. To conclude, on the basis of parallels the entire Gournes assemblage can be dated to a single phase, the later part of the EM I period, or EM IB.
Technological Traditions The Gournes pottery displays a high degree of standardization. Of the 107 cataloged vases, 92 belong to DBW (86%), 11 to DGBW (10%), 3 to DoLPW (3%), and 1 to RSPW (1%). Each ware represents a different pottery tradition, with very distinctive characteristics concerning technology of manufacture and visual appearance. It is possible to identify differences within the same ware (particularly the DBW), however, as well as similarities between wares. In terms of fabric, all wares were produced with low calcareous clays of alluvial origin. They differ substantially however in the preparation of the paste. For the production of DBW vessels, tempering material was added, mostly crushed calcite often together with fragments of crushed pottery (grog). The large quantity of added temper, particularly in the coarse calcite-tempered fabrics, does not have any effect on the properties of the raw material. Instead, it reduces the thermal resistivity of the fabric: the vases cannot be fired in temperatures above 600o–750oC because the burning of calcium creates carbon dioxide that in some cases may cause breakage during firing (Maniatis and Tite 1978, 486). The vases produced in calcite-tempered fabrics therefore were used mainly for food/drink consumption (chalices and bowls). Moreover, the increased quantity of calcite produced heavier vases with thicker and more robust walls, which were more difficult to handle. Finally, the tempering was not visible by those who used the vases because of the thick slip that covered the entire surface. Tempering with calcite therefore is not related to function or appearance but may be seen as a cultural feature of the DBW ceramic tradition. This feature looks even more pronounced if one considers that the other
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three wares (DGBW, DoLPW, RSPW) represent entirely different traditions, without tempering. All wares were fired at low temperatures. The vases of DGBW were fired in a reducing atmosphere, those of RSPW in an oxidizing atmosphere, and those of DoLPW in an oxidizing-reducingoxidizing cycle (Kilikoglou 1994). On the other hand, the vases of the DBW were fired in either reducing or oxidizing atmospheres, depending on the surface color. Often there is some discoloration, but in general the potters achieved the desired color on the surface. The DBW pyxides constitute the most characteristic example: in almost all cases the pyxis and the lid were fired separately under different firing conditions in order to produce a desirable bicolor effect, red for the pyxis and black for the lid. Surface treatments and visual appearances are also different among the four wares. Some of the darkest examples of DBW look very similar to the vases of DGBW, however, and they can be distinguished only by wall thickness, shape, and stylistic details. Finally, there is also a high degree of specialization in terms of shapes, with specific types present only in specific wares. The two rarest wares, DoLPW and RSPW, were used almost exclusively for high quality tankards, shapes that do not occur in the other two wares. Shapes that occur only in DBW are the jar with fenestrations and the bottle. The rest of the shapes occur both in DBW and DGBW, but with significant stylistic differences. Both wares include pyxides, alabastra, jars, and bowls, but they are very different in shape and type. The only prominent exceptions are the chalices, which seem to represent a somewhat different case. Types 2 and 3 chalices of DGBW are very different from Types 2 and 3 of DBW. Chalices of Type 1 in both wares are identical to each other in terms of overall shape and stylistic details. It is possible, however, to distinguish the two traditions by traits other than shape and style. The DBW chalices, for example, are heavier and coarser, with thicker walls, and the surface colors of DBW chalices are reddish to dark brown, while in DGBW they are dark gray to black.
Provenance and Production Centers The fact that the calcite-tempered pottery of DBW makes up 86% of the ceramic assemblage would be a strong argument for local production. The pottery of
this type found in Crete, however, is always referred to as Cycladic (Warren 1984, 58–59; Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1998, 133–135; Davaras and Betancourt 2004; 2012; Wilson, Day, and DimopoulouRethemiotaki 2004; 2008). Indeed, pottery made of calcite-tempered fabrics is very common in the Cyclades (Vaughan 1990, 2006; Hilditch 2007; Vaughan and Williams 2007), very often comprising the vast majority of the ceramic assemblages in the islands. Moreover, as shown above, the vases of this ceramic tradition show strong stylistic affinities with pottery of the so-called Kampos Group from many Cycladic sites (e.g., Ano Kouphonisi, Kampos, Hagioi Anargyroi, Tsikniades, Markiani). Unfortunately, petrographic analysis is inconclusive in terms of origin, because the raw material (red alluvial clays) and the tempering material (calcite) can be found almost anywhere. Stylistic and technological links with the islands, however, do not necessarily mean that these vases were imported from the Cyclades. Instead, there are good reasons to suggest that the calcitetempered pottery of DBW was produced in Crete. First, the ceramic tradition of calcite tempering is not unknown in Crete. It has a long history from the Neolithic until the EM I–II periods. Calcitetempered pottery has been found in the LN I assemblage from Magasas, in FN IV–EM II sites along the east coast (e.g., Palaikastro, Malia, Mochlos, and Kephala Petras), in surface material from the Vrokastro and Kavousi surveys, as well as throughout the Neolithic levels at Knossos (Hayden 2003a, 405; Tomkins, Day, and Kilikoglou 2004; Day et al. 2005, 180; Haggis et al. 2007, 679–701; Nodarou 2012; Papadatos and Tomkins 2013). It therefore should not necessarily be seen as a Cycladic influence appearing for the first time in the EM I period. Second, a significant percentage of the calcitetempered vases that were analyzed with thinsection petrography (14 out of 34, 41%), belong to the subgroup Fabric Group 1c, with calcite and grog added as temper. This subgroup includes almost all the shapes of DBW. Grog tempering was very common across Crete from the Neolithic down to the Early Minoan period. Grog-tempered pottery exists and often predominates in many Neolithic and Early Minoan sites in the areas of Vrokastro and Kavousi (Hayden 2003b, 406 n. 189, fabric 3B2; Day et al. 2005, 180; Haggis et al. 2007, 677) and in Kephala Petras (Nodarou 2012; Papadatos and Tomkins 2013). Beyond Crete, grog-tempering was
EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
a widespread tradition in the south Greek mainland and adjacent islands from the later Neolithic onward (Broodbank and Kiriatzi 2007, 250), but it is totally absent from the Cyclades (Papadatos and Nodarou 2018, 292). As in the case of calcite tempering, the addition of grog does not have any effect on the clay properties. It therefore could be seen as a feature related to the ceramic tradition of the potters rather than the function or the appearance of the vases. In that sense, tempering with both calcite and grog shows clearly that these vases were not imported from the Cyclades, and that their production was neither related to nor influenced by the Cycladic ceramic tradition. Local production on Crete has been also suggested for the similar ceramic assemblage of Poros-Katsambas, an important gateway community located a few kilometers west of Gournes (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262), and also for the identical cemetery of Hagia Photia (Day et al. 2012). Dark Gray Burnished ware, which represents 10% of the total assemblage, was certainly produced in Crete. It is not possible, however, to know whether these vases were made locally at Gournes or were imported from other Cretan areas. Petrographic analysis of DGBW vessels proved to be inconclusive concerning the place of manufacture, and the parallels are from all over the island. The use of two different fabric groups (Fabric Groups 2 and 3) for the production of DGBW vases does not necessarily mean two different centers of production, because both groups could share a common origin. We believe that the DGBW pottery found in the cemetery was either local or produced in the broader area of Gournes, although it is not possible to prove by either analysis or stylistic study. The extreme rarity of DoLPW and RSPW vessels, representing only 4% of the total assemblage, suggests that these wares were not produced locally at Gournes. The fact that they are high quality vases with elaborate surface treatment and decoration indicates that they were imported as luxury wares. Indeed, petrography showed that the analyzed specimens are petrographic loners (P106, P107), very different from the rest of the Gournes fabrics. Unfortunately, the rock and mineral suite of the fabrics is not diagnostic of any particular place of origin within Crete. The parallels may suggest South- or North-Central Crete—that is, the Mesara or the wider Pediada area including Knossos.
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To conclude, with the exception of the rarest wares (DoLPW and RSPW), which were probably imported to Gournes, the rest of the pottery probably was made either locally or in potting center(s) in the broader area of Gournes. This seems to be the case not only for DGBW, which has many parallels from all over Crete, but also for DBW, which is often referred to as Cycladic. It is important to note that the two major ceramic traditions, DBW and DGBW, share similar shapes, namely chalices, bowls, pyxides, and alabastra. There are many stylistic differences between vases of the same shape, however, suggesting that they are products of at least two different ceramic workshops. The only exceptions are the chalices of Type 1, which are identical in shape and style. These chalices, although few in number, may imply that the potters of the two traditions had knowledge of each other’s work.
Consumption, Function, and Use The identification of the function of each shape is not an easy task. First, it is important to acknowledge that vases found in a cemetery could have been used in various ways: (1) as offerings to the dead, (2) as containers of offerings to the dead, (3) as vases used for libations, feasting, drinking or other funerary ceremonies, or (4) as vases used in rituals of general character. It would be overly simplistic, however, to suggest a one-to-one relationship between particular shapes and ways of use. Apart from the shape, therefore, an important parameter to be considered is the particular context in which the vessels were found. The shapes could be divided into four basic categories in terms of function. The category with most examples—that is, the pyxides of all types (spherical, conical, spool shaped, cylindrical)—constitutes almost half of the total assemblage (without the lids: 45 specimens, 42%; including the lids: 59 specimens, 55%). The exact use of the pyxides remains unknown. No organic residue analysis has been carried out so far. In Tomb 18, the pyxis P42 contained an intact copper borer. Because the pyxis was found in situ with the lid attached on top, it seems that the borer was originally placed inside. The pyxides therefore could have contained not only organic
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materials (e.g., small quantities of food, grains, and so forth) but also small objects and implements or pieces of jewelry. It should be noted, however, that this is a unique case. Moreover, the silver necklace from the same tomb was found lying directly on the floor, not inside any of the adjacent pyxides. An important parameter for a better understanding of the function and importance of the pyxides is their frequency. With only five exceptions (Tombs 5, 8, 30, 33, 34), all the tombs contained at least one pyxis. Many tombs contained more than one pyxis, very often of two or three different types (Tombs 4, 6, 11, 17). Moreover, there are tombs in which the only find was a single pyxis (Tombs 10, 19, 25). This circumstance shows that the vessels constituted a regular burial object used in almost all funerals. Concerning the context, almost all of the pyxides were found inside the chamber, with only four exceptions (P69, P73, P74, P104) found in the antechamber and another one (P52) among the stones that were blocking the entrance of the tomb. The above suggests that the pyxides, whether offerings per se or containers of offerings, were closely associated with the dead and the funerary ceremony, constituting an essential part of the burial package that was deposited with the dead inside the tomb. The second category includes open vases that could be used for food and drink consumption, namely chalices, bowls, spouted bowls, and cups. These vases constitute almost one third of the total assemblage (34 specimens, i.e., 32%). As in the case of the pyxides, no organic residue analysis has been carried out so far, so their original content remains unknown. The shape would suggest food or drink consumption, but in one case (bowl P9 from Tomb 17), two obsidian blades were found inside, attached on the internal walls of the vase. Although this is a unique case, it may suggest their use also as containers of small objects or implements. The vases of this category are relatively frequent, though not as frequent as the pyxides. Out of 33 tombs, 21 contained at least one chalice, cup, or bowl. Many tombs contained more than one such vase, whereas in others they constituted the only find. It seems, therefore, that vases for food and/or liquid consumption were a regular burial offering used in most funerals. Concerning their context, it is possible to discern a pattern different from that of the pyxides. Although many of these vases were found inside the tomb chambers, an equally large
percentage comes from the antechambers. Seven out of 15 chalices (47%) were found in antechambers. Two out of four cups (50%), two out of three spouted bowls (66%), and three out of ten bowls (30%) were also found in antechambers. To conclude, 15 out of 33 such vases (45%) were found in the antechamber. Furthermore, the chalices, bowls, and cups constitute 68% (13 out of 19) of the vases that were found in the antechambers. The above suggest that almost half of these vases were not associated with the dead and not used as burial offerings, but rather as ritual implements in a libation or drinking ceremony that took place after the blocking of the entrance and before the filling of the antechamber with soil and stones. The third category includes closed or semiclosed vases that could be used as containers of liquids, including alabastra, bottles, jars, and tankards. They constitute a very small portion of the total assemblage (10 specimens, i.e., 9%), so they were not used very often. Most come from the tomb chambers, but a few were found in the antechambers and entrances. The fourth category consists of a single shape, the jar with fenestrations. It is a rare vase, with only 4 specimens (4% of the total assemblage; P29–P32). These vases are traditionally regarded as incense burners, but none of them bear traces of burning. All specimens were found inside the tomb chambers, so they were associated with the burial ceremony and the dead. Their use remains unknown, but their low frequency indicates that they were not essential for the funerary ceremony or as burial offerings. To conclude, the two main functional categories of the Gournes ceramic assemblage, the pyxides and the open vases (chalices, bowls, and cups), seem to have been used differently in the funerary context. Pyxides were used inside the tomb chamber, in close association with the dead, placed either as offerings or as containers of offerings. On the other hand, open vases for serving food or liquids were used both (1) inside the tomb as offerings or containers of offerings, and (2) outside the tomb in the antechamber, as ritual implements in libations, drinking, and/or feasting ceremonies that took place after the placement of the dead and the blocking of the entrance. The latter would suggest a two-stage ceremony occurring at two different phases of the funeral, the first at the time of interment, and the second during or immediately after the blocking of the door and before the filling of the antechamber with soil. This
EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
does not seem to be the case, however, since only one tomb (Tomb 21) contained open vases in both the chamber and the antechamber, one chalice in each space. In six tombs the open vases were found only in the antechamber (Tombs 1, 5, 8, 9, 22, 33), in two tombs the open vases were found only among the stones of the door blocking (Tombs 24, 26), and in 12 tombs only inside the chamber (Tombs 2–4, 7, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 23, 29, 35). The above shows that the funeral was accompanied by a single ceremony. For unknown reasons the vases, after their use, were placed either inside the tomb or in the antechamber, or at the entrance. The number and the type of the vases used in this ceremony vary considerably, and there is no fixed set of vases. There are tombs that contained just one chalice (Tombs 9, 11, 16), bowl (Tombs 2, 7, 12, 24, 26, 33, 35), or cup (Tombs 22, 23, 29), tombs with two chalices (Tomb 21), tombs with one to three chalices and a bowl (Tombs 1, 4, 5, 8, 12, 17), and a tomb with two bowls (Tomb 3). It is difficult to identify the number of individuals involved in this ceremony. The chalices are large vases of high capacity, and they could have been used by several people in a ceremony of collective drinking. On the other hand, individual bowls and cups are found in groups that do not include more than two or three specimens. It seems probable, therefore, that the ceremony involved a limited number of people. Another point to be made concerns the shapes that are absent from the assemblage. Perhaps the most interesting is the absence of pouring vases. No jugs were found in the cemetery, and the only pouring vases are three spouted bowls, comprising only 3% of the total assemblage. This is of particular importance because it indicates that the funerary ceremony involved drinking or offering liquids but not the conspicuous serving of liquids. From this point of view, Gournes differs significantly from most Cretan funerary assemblages in which jugs and pouring vases are not only found in large numbers but also have pronounced spouts and elaborate painted decoration, suggesting that pouring of liquids was an important part of the funerary ceremony (Branigan 1993, 77–79; Alexiou and Warren 2004, 72). Finally, interesting observations can be made when comparing the Gournes funerary assemblage to the domestic assemblage from the EM I– IIA settlement of Poros-Katsambas, located only 12 km to the west. The overlapping is limited to open
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shapes for food and drink, namely chalices (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262, fig. 26.2:a–g) and bowls (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262, fig. 26.3:c) as well as a single example of a bottle (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262). Pyxides, which predominate in the Gournes assemblage, and jars with fenestrations are absent from PorosKatsambas. On the other hand, jars and baking pans that predominate the Poros-Katsambas assemblage (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008, 262, fig. 26.3:d–g) are absent from Gournes. It seems clear that most of the shapes found in the cemetery were made exclusively for funerary use. The overlapping in chalices and bowls may suggest that consumption of food and drink was the only activity common in both settlements and cemeteries. To conclude, the evidence for the consumption and use of pottery provides useful evidence about burial practices and funerary ceremonies. In almost all cases the dead were placed in the tomb accompanied by at least one pyxis, often more. The contents of the pyxides remain unknown; it is possible that they were placed inside the tomb as a burial gift per se, but it is also possible that they functioned as containers of various objects, small implements, or small quantities of food. Other vases were also used, including bottles, alabastra, jars, and jars with fenestrations, but they are very rare and do not seem to constitute regular burial gifts. The comparison with Poros-Katsambas shows that these vases were made exclusively for funerary use. Interment at Gournes was accompanied by a small-scale, almost private ceremony that involved drinking from or performing libations with open vases of large (chalices) or small capacities (bowls, cups). After the ceremony, the vases were placed inside the tomb with the dead or were thrown in the entrance or the antechamber. This practice differs considerably from the practices seen in other Cretan cemeteries. The funerary ceremonies in most Cretan cemeteries of the EM I–IIA period seem to have had a more collective character, involving the use of large numbers of vases by numerous participants, often in large paved open areas (Branigan 1998). Moreover, an important element of these ceremonies was the serving and pouring of liquids, as evidenced by the use of numerous jugs and pouring vases. These vases are not only found in large numbers, but also they often have pronounced spouts, anthropomorphic or
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zoomorphic features, and elaborate painted or relief decoration (Branigan 1970, 83–84; 1993, 67–68). The above clearly suggests sharp differences between Gournes and other contemporary Cretan cemeteries, not only in the scale and the number of participants but also in the character and perhaps the symbolic connotations of the funerary ceremony.
Mortuary Differentiation and Social Organization Recent advances in the field of the “Archaeology of Death” have clearly shown that mortuary evidence does not passively reflect social organization. Archaeological criticism, based on ethnographic parallels and sophisticated methods of analysis and study, has clearly shown that societies may be organized differently in everyday life and in the mortuary arena (Parker Pearson 1982, 1993; Shanks and Tilley 1982, 1987; Hodder 1984; Morris 1987, 1992; Barrett 1988). On the other hand, the author would agree with those scholars who accept that the identification of mortuary differentiation is a useful way of approaching social organization (Wason 1994, 20; Carr 1995, 178–182; Keswani 2004, 10–11), though not without certain limitations in mind. To identify mortuary variability in the cemetery of Gournes, it is important to go beyond pottery and include in our analysis all categories of material culture, as well as other parameters such as the location and the architecture of the tombs. Osteological material would also be of paramount importance, but no skeletal remains were found inside the tombs. Nevertheless, because pottery is by far the commonest find in the tombs, it constitutes a good indicator of mortuary differentiation in the cemetery of Gournes. From a strictly quantitative point of view, the differences between the tombs are not very sharp. The
vast majority of the tombs (31 out of 37 tombs, i.e., 84%) contained between zero and four vases. Another four tombs (11%) contained five to six vases. The richest tombs are one with eight and another with 11 vases (Tombs 4 and 11). Moreover, these relatively rich tombs do not stand out from the rest in terms of size, location, and shape, and they did not contain any other objects apart from a few obsidian blades and shells. The only difference is that these two tombs contained some of the rarest vases of the cemetery. Tomb 4 contained the only spherical footed pyxis, and both tombs contained three out of four spool-type pyxides and three out of four jars with fenestrations. This is not a general rule, however, since other rare types of vases, such as the bottles, the alabastra, and the painted tankards, have been found in poorer tombs. The same picture emerges when considering other categories of finds. Obsidian blades have been found in 11 tombs (30%), but their quantity is rather limited (one to four per tomb) and no tomb stands out. Furthermore, special rare finds, such as pieces of jewelry and copper implements, have been found in relatively poor tombs that did not contain more than two to four pottery vases. The only tomb that may be distinguished from the others is Tomb 18, which contained two copper borers and a necklace with silver beads. In terms of pottery the tomb is rather poor, however, containing only three vases: two very common DBW pyxides and the only DGBW collared jar of the cemetery. No special pattern emerges from the distribution of the three minor wares (DGBW, DoLPW, RSPW) either. In almost all cases vases of DGBW ware were found together with those of DBW. The same is valid for the luxurious vases of the DoLPW and RSPW classes, which, according to petrography and typology, were imported to Gournes. The above suggests that the use of pottery in the cemetery could not be related to high or special social status.
8
Petrographic Analysis of the Early Minoan IB Pottery Eleni Nodarou
The archaeological study of the pottery assemblage from the Gournes Cemetery showed the presence of a limited shape repertoire confined predominantly to DBW, representing the majority of the assemblage (86%). The second most frequent class is DGBW, representing 10% of the assemblage, whereas all other wares are encountered in very small percentages (DoLPW, RSPW). For the shapes represented there is a fairly consistent pattern, with DBW including all sorts of vessels, namely chalices, pyxides, cups, and bowls, DGBW almost exclusively having chalices, and DoLPW having mainly tankards. This shape repertoire at similar percentages is also encountered at the Hagia Photia Cemetery (Davaras and Betancourt 2012, 97). Both assemblages represent a specialized set of vessels intended for burial use, fairly different from those encountered in domestic contexts. Moreover, as will be discussed below, the similarities with Hagia Photia are not confined solely to shapes and surface treatment
but also extend to the technological characteristics and the predominance of the calcite-tempered fabric used for the production of the pottery. An analytical program involving thin-section petrography and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was undertaken in order to investigate whether this consistency in shapes and wares is corroborated by the fabrics and the recipes used for the manufacture of the pottery at Gournes. Also considering that the majority of the vessel shapes encountered at the site belongs in the category of so-called Cycladicstyle vessels, it was of interest to examine whether they were manufactured with local raw materials imitating Cycladic shapes or were imported from the Cyclades. For this reason, comparative samples were taken from the Early Minoan assemblages of Pyrgos in Central Crete and Ano Kouphonisi in the Cyclades, the latter being the site from which most parallels of the Cycladic-style pottery found in Crete are drawn.
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Petrographic Analysis The analysis by thin-section petrography involved 67 pottery samples covering the entire range of shapes and wares present in the assemblage (Table 4), and the results confirmed the macroscopic observations: three main fabric groups with common characteristics were identified, and the loners were very few. The raw material used for the three main recipes is a noncalcareous base clay containing a limited range of nonplastic inclusions. The tempering agents and the secondary components differ, but as demonstrated by SEM analysis (see this vol., Ch. 9) the technology of manufacture and firing are fairly similar amongst the various fabrics. A cautionary note should be made for DoLPW and RSPW, which are very rare (one to three specimens for each ware) and consist almost exclusively of whole vessels: it has been feasible to sample only one example of each, but they both proved to be petrographic loners (GOU03/12 [P107] and GOU03/64 [P106]), indicating the special character of these wares and justifying their nonlocal origin.
Fabric Group 1: Calcite Tempered This is a fairly homogeneous group, with its mineralogical composition being characterized by the presence of coarse calcite fragments added as temper in the clay mix. The amount, size, and angularity of the calcite leave no doubt as to its intentional use by the potters as temper. The difference in the grain size of the calcite and the presence of other aplastic components, however, led in the subdivision of this group into three subgroups. Fabric Group 1a This subgroup is a coarse calcite-tempered fabric (Pl. 27A). It is characterized by large angular fragments of monocrystalline calcite, evenly distributed in the fine-grained, noncalcareous base clay. The other nonplastic components consist of very little quartz and in some cases micrite fragments and fossils. The lack of nonplastic inclusions in the fine fraction indicates that the raw material was well sieved and/or levigated prior to use. In most samples there is also strong evidence for tempering with vegetal matter, as indicated by the long characteristic voids occasionally
bearing remnants of the burned organics (Pl. 27B). The matrix has a brown color (all references to color concerns observation under cross-polarized light [XP]), occasionally with a darker core, and ranges from optically active to inactive, indicating a low firing temperature below 750°C. The shapes represented include pyxides and a pyxis lid, four bowls, a chalice, a cup, an alabastron, and a jar with fenestrations, all belonging to DBW. Fabric Group 1b This subgroup is the semicoarse variant (Pl. 27C). The size of the coarse fraction is smaller, ranging between 1.2–0.1 mm long dimension. The main nonplastic component is quartz with only a few calcite grains. The other nonplastic inclusions consist of very little micrite and a few metamorphic rock fragments (quartzite-schist). Finally, some samples display evidence of tempering with organic matter (GOU03/01 [P74], GOU03/28 [P32], GOU03/41 [P22], GOU03/56). The color of the micromass, its optical activity, and the general texture are very similar to Fabric Group 1a. From the above, it becomes obvious that this must be a recipe intended for smaller and finer vessels. The shapes represented are two pyxides, a pyxis lid, a bottle, and a spouted bowl, all in DBW. Fabric Group 1c This subgroup is also characterized by a reddishbrown firing matrix (Pl. 27D). It is semifine and resembles Fabric Group 1b in mineralogy and texture, the only difference being the presence of angular argillaceous inclusions that have been identified as grog (crushed ceramics). The size of the coarse fraction ranges from 1.2–0.1 mm long, but the average grain size is smaller than in Fabric Group 1b. The main nonplastic inclusion is monocrystalline quartz, but there are also fragments of calcite, quartzite-schist, and textural concentration features (TCFs), and there is very little evidence for tempering with organic material. Samples GOU03/10 (P47) and GOU03/30 contain fossils. The grain size and the quantity of the calcite inclusions link this fabric with Fabric Group 1b, whereas the presence of micrite links it with Fabric Group 1a. This circumstance indicates that the three subgroups constitute variants of the same clay recipe. The vessels represented in this subgroup are mainly
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
pyxides and chalices as well as bowls, an incised bottle, and a jar with fenestrations, all in DBW. Comments on Fabric Group 1 Calcite-tempered fabrics for the production of Cycladic-style pottery of the so-called Kampos Group are encountered in many Early Minoan sites across the north coast of Crete, particularly at Hagia Photia (Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1998; 2012, 120–121) and Kephala Petras (Nodarou 2012; Papadatos 2012; Tsipopoulou 2012a; Papadatos and Tomkins 2013) in East Crete, at Poros-Katsambas (Wilson, Day, and Dimopoulou-Rethemiotaki 2008) and Pyrgos (Xanthoudides 1918b) in Central Crete, and at Chania and Nopigeia in West Crete (Nodarou 2011). In all these cases the base clay as well as the tempering agent(s) do not allow any secure provenance ascription, and emphasis should be put on other petrographic characteristics (compositional or textural) in order to understand (1) whether calcitetempered fabrics represent one or many production centers, and (2) whether the center or centers of production were located in Crete or the Cyclades. Comparison of the calcite-tempered fabrics from Gournes with similar fabrics from other Cretan assemblages demonstrated a significant degree of dissimilarity. At the nearby burial cave of Pyrgos, situated only 2 km west of Gournes, the calcitetempered fabrics contain dolomite (along with calcite), more quartz, as well as very rare volcanic rock fragments, indicating a different source for the raw material. The calcite-tempered fabrics at the coastal settlement of Poros-Katsambas, located about 10 km west of Gournes, contain mainly chert, quartzite, and large, rounded polycrystalline quartz (Day et al. 2012, 129), differing also from those at Gournes. Differences exist also between Gournes and sites farther afield. The calcite-tempered fabrics at Kephala Petras contain dolomite and more quartz, and they lack the micrite and fossils seen at Gournes (Nodarou 2012). Finally, at Hagia Photia the calcite-tempered fabrics contain porphyritic igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, and phyllite (Day et al. 2012, 120–121), which are absent at Gournes. The above indicate that, despite the similarity in the use of calcite as a tempering agent, there are sharp differences in the secondary components of the raw clay even between neighboring sites (e.g., Gournes, Pyrgos, and Poros).
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The second issue investigated concerned the production centers of the calcite-tempered pottery found at Gournes and other North Cretan sites, and whether they were located in the Cyclades or Crete. For this reason, the material from Gournes was compared to two off-island assemblages: a small collection of thin sections of EC I material from Markiani in Amorgos (Vaughan 2006), available in the collection of the Wiener Laboratory of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and a number of samples from the cemetery at Ano Kouphonisi. The latter derive from the excavation of three private plots (Simigdalas, Tzavaris, Skopelitis), and they were kindly made available to us by Zapheiropoulou (see also Zapheiropoulou 2008). The petrographic examination showed that the Markiani calcite-tempered fabrics are higher fired and contain metamorphic components (mica schist and quartzite) that are not present in the Gournes material or in any other North Cretan calcite-tempered assemblage. As to the Ano Kouphonisi calcitetempered pottery, it contains significant quantities of rounded micritic limestone and fossils that also are not seen in Gournes or in any other North Cretan calcite-tempered assemblage. A similar picture was observed when the calcite-tempered Cycladicstyle pottery of Hagia Photia was compared to pottery from the cemetery and the settlement of Ano Kouphonisi (Day et al. 2012, 129). Apart from differences in the secondary nonplastics of the clay paste, another difference between the Cretan (including those from Gournes) and the Cycladic calcite-tempered fabrics concerns the tempering agent. In all Cretan assemblages, there are a number of samples in which grog and calcite have been used as tempering agents. At Gournes, 18 out of 42 samples are tempered with both calcite and grog, but this circumstance is also the case at Pyrgos (Nodarou work in progress), Hagia Photia, and Poros-Katsambas (Day et al. 2012). In contrast, no grog has been used either at Ano Kouphonisi or Markiani (Vaughan 2006; Day et al. 2012, 129), or in any other Cycladic assemblage analyzed (Vaughan 1990, 2006; Vaughan and Williams 2007; Hilditch 2007). Grog-tempering is a technological choice with a long history in Crete, starting as early as the end of the Neolithic period and the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (Hayden 2003a, 406, fabric 3B2; Day et al. 2005, 180; Haggis et al. 2007,
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677; Nodarou 2012; Papadatos 2012; Papadatos and Tomkins 2013), and it therefore should be considered a Cretan tradition, totally foreign to the potters of the Cyclades. To conclude, the base clay as well as the tempering agent of the calcite-tempered Fabric Group 1 do not allow any inference on provenance. The raw material used is a noncalcareous red clay associated with an alluvial deposit. Such deposits and limestone outcrops occur along the north coast of Crete, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to define provenance solely on mineralogical grounds. Nevertheless, there is nothing to suggest that this category of pottery was imported from the Cyclades. In contrast, the technological choice of tempering the base clay with grog (alongside calcite) is encountered only within the Cretan ceramic tradition. A possible Cycladic origin, therefore, cannot be suggested for any of the analyzed samples. Moreover, the comparison of the Gournes calcite-tempered fabrics with similar fabrics elsewhere in North Crete show several differences in the secondary nonplastic components, suggesting different locations of production (for detailed discussion, see Papadatos and Nodarou 2018, 290–292). The above evidence may be interpreted as the result of either the operation of different production centers located across the North Cretan coastline, or the existence of itinerant potters moving across the island and producing technologically similar pottery.
Fabric Group 2: Red with Small Quartz Fragments Fabric Group 2 is a semicoarse, red firing fabric (Pl. 27E). It is characterized by small, densely packed quartz fragments evenly distributed in the clay micromass. The color of the matrix is grayish brown and the micromass ranges from moderately optically active to inactive. This circumstance seems to indicate a slightly higher firing temperature than that of Fabric Group 1. A similar fabric is present at Pyrgos, characterized also by small quartz fragments and rare grains of epidote; the texture is similar and also seems low fired. It is likely that the samples from Gournes and Pyrgos derive from the same production center. The vessels represented are all chalices in DGBW.
Fabric Group 3: Red with Quartz and Micrite Fragments Fabric Froup 3 is characterized by small quartz and rounded micrite fragments and microfossils in the same red-firing clay micromass as found in Fabric Groups 1 and 2 (Pl. 28A). The optical activity of the groundmass indicates relatively low firing, and there is evidence for tempering with organic material. Samples GOU03/34 and GOU03/47 (P100) differ slightly from the rest of the group, because they contain large grains of micrite and no microfossils (Pl. 28B). The samples belong to bowls, open vessels, one pyxis lid, and one chalice, all in DGBW.
Loners The samples that were not included in the three main fabric groups above are rather few, and they seem to represent imports to Gournes. GOU03/12 (P107) This sample is a red-firing semicoarse fabric (Pl. 28C). The color of the matrix is dark orangish brown, and the micromass is optically active. The nonplastic inclusions differentiate this fabric from the rest of the Gournes pottery. They consist of metamorphic rock fragments, mainly fine-grained, dark brown phyllite, quartz, and quartzite. There are also rare fragments of micrite and muscovite mica laths. The TCFs (clay pellets) are rather prominent. They are reddish brown to dark brown in color, have a compact appearance, and do not contain any inclusions. This fabric is connected with a metamorphic environment, most likely an alluvial clay containing phyllitic material. The shape represented is a tankard in a red slipped and painted ware. An interesting feature is the red slip on the exterior and interior of the vessel. Although the optical activity and the analysis with SEM indicate a rather low firing temperature, the application of the slip is quite firm, and it is clearly seen as a thick layer at the margins of the vessel. Although the mineralogical composition is not indicative of origin, the rarity of the RSPW (represented in the assemblage by only one cataloged vase, P107) and of this specific fabric in the assemblage indicates an import.
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
GOU03/63 (P103) This sample is characterized by a fine base clay containing very few coarse inclusions (Pl. 28D). The color of the matrix is grayish brown and the micromass is moderately active, which is indicative of a low firing temperature. The nonplastic inclusions consist of large fragments of micrite, small fragments of mono- and poly-crystalline quartz, and rare quartzite-schist. There are also dark brown, angular argillaceous fragments. The vessel represented is an alabastron in DGBW (P103). A similar fabric also connected with DGBW vessels has been encountered in the assemblages of the rock shelter at Kephala Petras (Nodarou 2012, 85) and the cemetery at Livari (Nodarou 2015b). An East Cretan origin is suggested, with a degree of caution. GOU03/64 (P106) This sample, although compositionally close to GOU03/12 (P107), has a different fabric and exhibits a different technology of manufacture than the rest of the vessels analyzed (Pl. 28E). The color of the matrix is dark reddish brown and the micromass is very compact and optically inactive, which indicates a higher firing temperature than all the other samples examined. The nonplastic inclusions consist of metamorphic rock fragments, mainly biotite-mica schist and white mica schist, along with smaller amounts of quartzite and quartziteschist. Rare are fragments of epidote, phyllite, and dark grayish-brown siltstone, and the mica laths. There are also frequent small- and medium-sized fragments of quartz evenly distributed in the micromass. Finally, there are dark reddish-brown TCFs that are almost concordant with the micromass (clay pellets). The vessel represented is a tankard in DoLPW. As with sample GOU03/12 (P107), considering the scarcity of the ware and the fabric in the Gournes assemblage, this vessel is considered to be an import.
Discussion The petrographic analysis of the Early Minoan pottery from Gournes resulted in the establishment of
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three main fabric groups. Although it has not been feasible to determine their origin, it seems that they are Cretan, produced in the broader area of Gournes, possibly in the Pediada hinterland. The analysis complemented the archaeological study dealing in great part with the vessels of the Kampos Group. It was demonstrated that the Cycladic-style assemblage that constitutes the majority (86%) of the total forms a consistent and distinctive group with regard to the selection of the raw material, the tempering agents, the surface treatment, and the firing. These features, particularly the use of calcite as the main tempering material, differentiate this group from the rest of the Gournes pottery, belonging to an entirely different technological tradition. The calcite-tempered fabric (Fabric Group 1) has been further subdivided into three subgroups, the first two, Fabric Groups 1a and 1b, representing a coarse and a semicoarse version of the same recipe, respectively. Although the mineralogy is inconclusive of origin, the regular presence of certain nonplastic components (e.g., epidote) indicates similar raw materials and technology of manufacture for all three subgroups. Red clays and calcite are fairly common in Crete, and there is no reason to suggest that any of the analyzed vases were imported from the Cyclades. Instead, it seems highly plausible that they were produced in production center(s) in the broader area of Gournes. The manufacture of this type of pottery in Crete is corroborated by the use of grog, alongside calcite, as a tempering agent for a large number of vases (Fabric Group 1c). As discussed above, grog-tempering is a long-established Cretan technological tradition, entirely absent from the Cyclades. It should be stressed, however, that Gournes and its immediate vicinity have no alluvial deposits that could provide the red clays used for the production of the calcite-tempered Cycladicstyle pottery. Such alluvial deposits exist at Karteros, located ca. 10 km west of Gournes, at Smari, ca. 9 km to the south, and at Chersonissos, ca. 10 km to the east. This type of pottery therefore may indeed be broadly local to Gournes, but it was not produced in ceramic workshops located within or in close proximity to the settlement.
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ELENI NODAROU
Comparison with contemporary Hagia Photia shows that in both cemeteries the assemblage is dominated by Cycladic-style calcite-tempered pottery, which is presumed local (Day et al. 2012, 135– 138). At Hagia Photia, however, there is at least one possible Cycladic import identified through analysis (Day et al. 2012, 122, fabric group 3), whereas at Gournes there are no secure imports. Although the possibility that some Cycladic-style vases were imported to Gournes from the Cyclades cannot be excluded, it seems that the majority (if not the entirety) of the Cycladic-style pottery was made in Crete. It is also worth noting the differences of the calcitetempered fabrics among the sites of the North Cretan coast, even neighboring ones such as Gournes, Pyrgos, and Poros-Katsambas. This circumstance clearly comes in contrast with previous suggestions about one or a few centers of production (Day, Wilson, and Kiriatzi 1998, 138) or a common origin for this type of pottery (Wilson, Day, and DimopoulouRethemiotaki 2008, 262). Recent studies have shown that similar calcite-tempered Cycladic-style pottery found at Hagia Photia and Poros-Katsambas was produced at different locations (Day et al. 2012), but this is also the case for such pottery found in the neighboring sites of Gournes, Pyrgos, and PorosKatsambas. It remains unknown, however, whether the array of clay recipes reflects different centers of production or the work of itinerant potters. The second most frequent ware, representing ca. 10% of the assemblage, is DGBW, and it also forms a consistent and distinctive group represented by a red quartz-rich fabric. Fabric Group 2 represents a recipe used exclusively for chalices. Although the mineralogy is not indicative of origin, resemblance with similar vessels in the assemblage from Pyrgos points toward (North-) Central Cretan production. Fabric Group 3 is also confined to the same ware and is related to Fabric Group 2 as a more calcareous version (perhaps a different alluvium), but its limited occurrence in the assemblage does not allow for further hypotheses on provenance. As suggested in the case of the calcite-tempered pottery, however, the immediate vicinity of Gournes does not have any alluvial deposits of red clay, and therefore Gournes could not have been the production center of this type of pottery. The loners, although very few, are significantly different from the rest of the assemblage in terms of fabric and firing technology. Two out of three are characterized by nonplastic inclusions of
metamorphic origin, represent drinking vessels, and might be imported from the Mesara. The third loner is in a calcareous fabric known from Prepalatial assemblages in East Crete, where it is encountered in DGBW vessels. Thus, whatever their origin, these vases were definitely imported to Gournes from other Cretan areas. Overall, the cemetery at Gournes seems to represent one more link in the network of the sites on the north coast of Crete, with assemblages combining Cycladic and Cretan typological and technological characteristics. The fact that the imports are not as numerous and diverse as in other assemblages needs to be examined in conjunction with the settlement that might have existed in the broader area, and with cultural and economic dynamics not only with the off-island areas but also with sites such as Poros-Katsambas that occupy an important niche in the economy on the north coast and farther afield.
Petrographic Descriptions The petrographic analysis was carried out at the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete (INSTAP SCEC) using a Leica DMLP polarizing microscope. The descriptions follow the system introduced by Ian Whitbread (1995).
Fabric Group 1 Fabric Group 1a Samples: Coarse Calcite Tempered GOU03/02 (P90), GOU03/03 (P26), GOU03/04 (P3), GOU03/17 (P60), GOU03/18 (P15), GOU03/23 (P65), GOU03/24 (P81), GOU03/35 (P12), GOU03/36 (P44), GOU03/37 (P19), GOU03/42 (P69), GOU03/44, GOU03/48, GOU03/49 (P53), GOU03/52, GOU03/57 (P11), GOU03/62, GOU03/65 (P41), GOU03/66 (P31)
Fabric Group 1b Samples: Semicoarse Calcite Tempered GOU03/01 (P74), GOU03/19, GOU03/22 (P23), GOU03/28 (P32), GOU03/29 (P34), GOU03/41 (P22), GOU03/43, GOU03/51, GOU03/55, GOU03/56, GOU03/58, GOU03/60
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE EARLY MINOAN IB POTTERY
Fabric Group 1c Samples: Semifine Calcite and Grog Tempered GOU03/05 (P56), GOU03/06 (P24), GOU03/07 (P92), GOU03/08 (P58), GOU03/10 (P47), GOU03/11 (P6), GOU03/13 (P59), GOU03/16 (P5), GOU03/20 (P1), GOU03/25, GOU03/27, GOU03/30, GOU03/33, GOU03/38 (P51), GOU03/40 (P70), GOU03/46 (P39), GOU03/50 (P10), GOU03/54, GOU03/67 (P29)
Microstructure Very few to few meso and macro vughs, rare meso and rare mega planar voids, double to open spaced. Voids and nonplastics are generally randomly oriented, but in some cases planar voids display preferred orientation parallel to vessel margins. There is strong evidence for tempering with organic matter. Groundmass In most cases homogeneous throughout the section. The color of the groundmass varies from brown to grayish brown in plane-polarized light (PPL; x50), and from reddish brown to brown and grayish brown in XP. In some samples there is differentiation between the core and the margins, the core being very dark brown in color. The micromass ranges from optically active to inactive. Inclusions c:f:v10μm = 50:45:5 to 35:60:5 Coarse fraction: 3.6–0.2 mm long dimension Fine fraction: