Global Politics for the IB Diploma Course Companion 9780198308836

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O X

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GLOB A L

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and

others.

Reective

limitations

and

understand

They

in

ideas,

balance

They

experience.

unfamiliar

and

situations

have

strategies.

the

and

uncertainty

independence

They

are

brave

of

and

spirit

to

articulate

in

beliefs.

They

and

approach

forethought,

roles,

their

Balanced

iv

They

courage

give

are

order

to

thoughtful

able

to

the

importance

achieve

to

of

and

their

intellectual,

well-being

consideration

assess

support

personal

to

their

understand

learning

and

for

own

their

physical,

themselves

learning

strengths

personal

and

and

development.

What constitutes misconduct?

A note on academic honesty

It

is

of

vital

importance

appropriately

when

After

have

that

all,

credit

to

the

information

owners

property

of

is

used

ideas

rights.

acknowledge

owners

To

of

in

your

(intellectual

have

an

Misconduct

and

result

information

in

Misconduct

work,

it

must

be

based

on

your

original

ideas

with

the

work

of

others

oral,

Therefore,

completed

for

all

or

used

language

or

and

referred

assignments,

assessment

quotation

or

expression.

to,

whether

must

paraphrase,

Where

in

such

more

in,

an

assessment

plagiarism

and

or

may

unfair

component.

collusion.

dened

as

the

representation

of

the

are

the

sources

another

of

of

person

the

ways

as

to

your

own.

avoid

The

plagiarism:

Words

and

ideas

of

another

person

used

to

your

sources

form

of

some

written

use

must

one’s

arguments

must

be

acknowledged.

are

direct

●

Passages

that

are

quoted

verbatim

must

be be

appropriately

is

work

support own

or

results

gaining

fully

●

or

one

that

student

individual

following

acknowledged.

any

piece

ideas

and

behaviour

or

includes

Plagiarism

of

is

you

advantage

work.

property)

authentic

in,

enclosed

within

quotation

marks

and

acknowledged. acknowledged.

●

CD-ROMs,

Internet,

How do I acknowledge the work of others?

treated The

the

way

that

ideas

of

footnotes

you

acknowledge

other

and

people

is

that

through

you

the

have

use

email

and

in

any

the

at

the

●

The

sources

of

illustrations,

bottom

of

a

page)

to

be

from

(placed

provided

another

information

not

is

need

part

of

to

a

at

the

when

end

you

document,

provided

provide

‘body

of

in

a

of

a

quote

or

document)

or

another

footnote

for

knowledge’.

is,

●

the

You

information

That

Works

of

theatre

do

all

not

need

to

be

footnoted

as

they

are

that

and

resources

based

should

should

that

you

include

magazines,

resources,

that

part

of

include

a

formal

list

you

used

all

in

CDs

your

resources,

newspaper

and

should

forms

of

information

your

work.

graphs,

must

they

are

be

not

your

own

work.

whether

or

be

of

visual

music,

lm,

dance,

a

part

arts,

of

a

and

where

work

takes

the

place,

is

dened

student.

as

This

supporting

misconduct

by

includes:

articles,

works

use

one

of

of

●

Internet-

art.

the

presentation.

You

work

as

can

to

how

nd

the

a

reader

same

bibliography

is

compulsory

in

work

by

to

be

copied

another

or

submitted

student

duplicating

work

components

for

and/or

different

diploma

assessment

requirements.

‘Formal’ forms

of

misconduct

include

any

action

several

must

or

your

assessment

The

including

gives

you

an

unfair

advantage

or

affects

the

provide of

another

student.

Examples

include,

viewer unauthorized

material

into

an

examination

information. room,

A

art,

arts,

allowing

taking

of

data,

material

of

results

full

maps,

the

that

accepted

if

acknowledged.

Other

means

similar

must

for

books,

be

denitions

●

listing

must

journals.

knowledge.

Bibliographies

the

media

and

programs,

use

another assumed

photographs,

creative

Collusion do

books

the

are

summarize

document.

as

on

or

paraphrase

closely

sites

electronic

way

computer

acknowledged endnotes

web

used

of

bibliographies.

(placed

other

same

audio-visual, Footnotes

messages,

the

extended

misconduct

during

an

examination,

and

essay. falsifying

a

CAS

record.

v

Contents

Introduction

The

nature

of

Introduction

Global

to

the

Politics

2

Human rights

2.1

The

1

course

development

and

group

perspectives

Globalization

are

brief

human

history

to

the

Course

Companion

issues:

When

levels

we

think

of

politics

People,

and

levels

of

analysis

of

power

colonial

community

and

politics

period

(circa

13

1800

to

and

further

of

Greece

46

society

and

human

rights

and

Rome

47

49

societies

1950+)

reading

Declaration

2.2

The

United

Human

50

and

its

initial

51

Nations’

Universal

Declaration

Rights

52

15

Universal

Declaration

of

15 Human

2.3

1

rights

considerations

12

The References

human

8

of The

46

7

The

concept

of

evolution

Capitalist

The

rights?

5 Ancient

Geographic

46

3 The

Political

rights

2 A

Introduction

human

2 What

Individual

of

Power, sovereignty and international

The

three

human

Rights

52

“generations”

of

rights

56

relations Universal

1.1

Power

Human

The

nature

Power

in

of

power

context

and

The

18

statehood

contemporary

Other

types

Violence

1.2

The

Social

1.3

and

nation

social

world

power

structural

state,

order,

violence

power

and

modes

cultural

relativism

ideology

and

power

and

and

Nations

treaties,

the

law

human

Nations

rights

system

61

20

The

practice

20

The

politicization

21

of

of

human

2.4

Conclusion

2.5

Exam-style

2.6

References

3

Development

3.1

The

of

rights

human

rights

questions

71

and

further

reading

26

role

of

“development”

in

politics

to

afliation

80

and

agency

civil

society

1.6

References

with

reading

81

and

key

concepts

84

brief

history

of

development

87

42

Levels

3.2

vi

politics:

units

36

A

further

global

other

33

questions

and

in

32

Development

Exam-style

80

30

Links

1.5

77

24

Development

(new)

68

70

Introduction

The

66

28

community

Communities

59

25

Communities

From

57

22

actors

United

law

rights

United

global 1.4

and

the

control

Non-state

The

of

in

rights

human

18

legal States

rights

18

of

analyses

91

Contested

meanings

of

development

92

Contested

meanings

of

development

92

Human

development

Sustainable

97

development

4.4

Evolution

of

conict

Manifestations

98

of

177

conict,

including

non-violence Measuring

development

Third-party 3.3

Factors

impacting

development

involvement

factors

Social

factors

111

factors

Conict

112

Environmental

factors

3.5

pathways

Models

118

development

for

developing

the

economy

Conclusion

citizenship

skills

Links

education

health

roles

of

and

3.7

References

4

Peace and conict

4.1

The

Key

4.2

of

and

peace

and

reading

Just

and

conict

links

denitions

and

Causes

and

Causes

of

Parties

to

New

194

directions

4.7

Exam-style

4.8

References

Index

questions

and

further

196

reading

202

205

in

of

with

other

peace,

units

142

conict

of

peace,

violence

143

conict

War

194

138

143

of

Conclusion

142

meanings

Justications

4.3

further

Introduction

Types

191

132

143

conict

reconciliation

institutions

129

violence

Different

justice

130

questions

concepts

including

of

130

politics

Contested

and

GDP

women

Exam-style

role

healthcare

and

3.6

global

work

188

126

between

Changing

post-conict

and

engagement

Improving

121

126

for

and

towards

118

Concern

186

116

development

Approaches

resolution

Peacebuilding,

4.6 Contemporary

of

conict,

intervention

transformation

and

3.4

humanitarian

108 4.5

Economic

in

108 including

Political

177

100

of

158

violence,

including

Theory

parties

conict

conict

164

to

conict

171

171

175

vii

About the authors

Max

and

Kirsch

four

books

Queer

Theory

working

our

on

and

The

For

Social

would

rapid

in

to

the

of

where

course

with

the

numerous

briefs

Foundation

Japan

Chiel

Global

(BA)

Global

Politics

the

TOK

to

the

and

the

one

of

features,

papers

for

Unit

4,

Jenny

of

an

is

S.

Public

effects

is

an

and

currently

a

her

assignment

She

has

Trends

recipient

of

by

authored

and

Japan

and

the

a

Prospects’

journals,

the

Fellowship

Leaders

Delhi,

from

peer-reviewed

a

Fellow

New

relations

(India).

Okita

University,

post-graduate

Associate

in

based

Rajaratnam

for

to

invited

former

to

Japan

Politics

having

that

face-to-face

Gillett,

Relations

Organisations

experienced

and

Mooij.

Groningen,

Maastricht,

IBO

(Chiel)

International

of

rst

both

during

taught

laid

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and

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(MA)

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Conict

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International

foundations

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afliated

in

the

Peace

examiner,

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teaches

introduced

workshops

organisations.

for

Global



IBO.

International

Baccalaureate

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International

Baccalaureate

Guide

2017

Prior

Drivers,

Michael

Global

The

May

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subjects

An

the

of

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currently

global

Technological

Analyses

in

Opinion

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Politics.

Politics

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2004.

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and

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current

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Control ,

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instructor

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commentaries.

Program

of

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author

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Studies

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Everglades.

Institute.

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doctorate

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Utrecht

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also

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following:

Studies,

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independent

Fellowship,

under

Defense

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Singapore,

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monograph

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Institute

policy

she

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Disney:

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and

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Singapore.

India.Arpita

viii

like

one

Way

and

University.

Rethinking

Exclusion

The

Dr.

at

For

entitled

concerning

Singapore,

For

and

contributions

School

articles,

monographs,

lives

Arpita

Atlantic

Change ,

substantial

in

Anthropology

journal

colonialization

author

of

Florida

Inclusion

two

ethnography

at

many

and

daily

internal

Professor

Rights

and

Dimensions,

on

is

Cultural

the

DP

to

Program

Global

Developers

Politics,

Final

for

Assessment,

Syllabus content

Unit 1

This

and

are

Power, sovereignty and international relations

unit

focuses

legitimised

examined,

success

Key

in

on

at

their

achieving

concepts:

the

levels.

interactions

their

power,

Learning outcome

dynamics

various

aims

of

The

in

and

power

roles

global

and

of

politics

objectives

sovereignty,

how

state

are

are

is

manifested

non-state

discussed

actors

and

their

evaluated.

legitimacy,

Prescribed content

it

and

interdependence

Possible examples (intended as a star ting point only: for many

topics, local and current examples will be more appropriate

than the ones listed, and many more examples are listed than

are expected to be covered during the course)

Nature of power

Denitions and theories of

•

power

Types of power

Denitions and theories of power, e.g. Nye, Mearsheimer,

Gramsci, Lukes, Wolf

•

Types of power, e.g. hard vs. soft; economic, military, social,

cultural; individual vs. collective; unilateral vs. multilateral

Operation of state

States and statehood

•

States and statehood, e.g.

power in global State, nation, nation-state, stateless nation, types of state

politics (e.g. unitary states, federal states, confederations)

Democratic states

Militarised states

Fragile / failed states

Rising states

The evolving nature of state

sovereignty and legitimacy

•

The evolving nature of state sovereignty and legitimacy of

state power, e.g.

of state power The Westphalian conception of state sovereignty and

present-day challenges to this (e.g. globalization, supra-

nationality, humanitarian intervention, indigenous rights)

Domestic and international sources of legitimacy

for state

power (e.g. possession and use of force, international law

and norms, recognition by other states due to economic and

balance of power considerations, consent of the governed

through political par ticipation – or not)

ix

Function and

The United Nations (UN)

•

impact of

The UN, e.g. UN Char ter, General Assembly, Security Council,

other organs and agencies

international Intergovernmental

•

IGOs, e.g. World Trade Organisation (WTO),

International

organizations and organizations (IGOs)

Monetary Fund (IMF), European Union, African Union, Arab

non-state actors in League, ASEAN

global politics

Non-governmental

•

organisations (NGOs),

NGOs, e.g. Red Cross/ Red Crescent, Amnesty International,

Human Rights Watch, Greenpeace, BRAC

multinational corporations •

MNCs, e.g. Unilever, Philips, IKEA , Lenovo, Tata

•

Trade unions, e.g. International Trade Union Confederation

•

Social movements, e.g. Occupy, Avaaz.org, Billion Voices

(MNCs) and trade unions

Social movements,

resistance movements and •

Resistance movements, e.g. Arab Spring, Orange Revolution in

violent protest movements Ukraine, Zapatista Rebellion

•

Violent protest movements, e.g. FARC, Hezbollah, Naxalites, Al

Qaeda

Political par ties

•

Political par ties, e.g. the Republican and Democratic par ties

in the US, CDU and SPD in Germany, the Communist Par ty in

China

Informal forums

•

Informal forums , e.g. G20, G8, G2, World Economic Forum,

World Social Forum

Nature and extent

Global governance

•

Global governance, e.g. UN Security Council resolutions,

of interactions in

climate change agenda, Basel accords on nancial regulation,

global politics

WTO trade agreements, regional decision-making

Cooperation: treaties,

•

collective security, strategic

Treaties, e.g. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Montreal

Protocol

alliances, economic •

Collective security, e.g. NATO, Organization of American States

cooperation, informal

•

Strategic alliances, e.g. China’s alliances in Latin America and

cooperation

Africa, US-Taiwan, US-Israel, India-Afghanistan

•

Economic cooperation, e.g. bi- and multilateral trade

agreements, regional economic integration, facilitation and

regulation of international production

•

Informal cooperation, e.g. extraordinary rendition, technology

harmonization, cultural exchange

Conict: interstate

•

Interstate war, e.g. Iraq, Afghanistan, Sudan and South Sudan

•

Intrastate war, e.g. Syria, Ukraine

•

Terrorist attacks, e.g. 9/11, Mumbai bombings

•

Strikes and demonstrations: local examples

war, intrastate war,

terrorist attacks, strikes,

demonstrations

x

Unit 2: Human Rights

This

unit

focuses

surrounding

Key

on

human

concepts:

the

nature

rights

human

are

and

practice

of

human

rights.

Debates

examined.

rights,

justice,

Learning outcome

Prescribed content

Nature and

Denitions of human

evolution of human

rights

liberty,

equality

Possible examples

•

Denitions of human rights, e.g. through notions such as

inalienability, universality, indivisibility, equality, justice, liber ty

rights •

Developments in human rights over time and space, e.g.

The UN Universal

Human rights milestones, e.g. civil and political rights,

Declaration of Human

economic, social and cultural rights, gender rights, children’s

Rights (1948)

rights, indigenous people’s rights, refugee rights

Internationalization of human rights, e.g. universal

jurisdiction, international humanitarian law Developments in human

rights over time and space

Codication,

Human rights laws and

protection and

treaties

•

Human rights laws and treaties, e.g. role of custom, human

rights in constitutions (e.g. South Africa, Brazil), International

monitoring of

Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social

human rights

and Cultural Rights, Convention on the Protection of

the Rights

of Migrant Workers, Rome Statute

Protection and

•

Protection and enforcement of human rights at dierent levels,

enforcement of human

e.g. national cour ts and police, International Cour t of Justice,

rights at dierent levels

International Criminal Cour t, Inter-American Commission on

Human Rights, Cambodia Tribunal

Monitoring human rights

•

agreements

Monitoring human rights agreements, e.g. ombudsmen, Human

Rights Watch, Amnesty International, Red Cross/ Red Crescent,

monitoring elections

Practice of human

Claims on human rights

•

rights

Claims on human rights, e.g. labour rights,

indigenous land

claims, movements for gender equality, debates about same

sex marriage

Violations of human rights

•

Violations in human rights, e.g. forced labour, human tracking,

forced relocation, denial of prisoners of war rights, child soldiers,

violations of freedom of speech, violations in the name of

prevention of terrorism, gender discrimination

Debates

Individual vs. collective

surrounding human

rights

•

Individual vs. collective rights, e.g. Western, Asian and African

conceptions, indigenous conceptions

rights: diering Universal rights vs. cultural

•

Universal rights vs. cultural relativism, e.g. Sharia law, honour

interpretations of relativism

killings, hate crime laws, consumer rights

justice, liber ty and

Politicization of human

•

Politicization of human rights, e.g. use of human rights for

equality

rights

political gain, humanitarian arguments, responsibility to protect,

use of sanctions

xi

Unit 3: Development

This

unit

may

off

in

Key

focuses

help

a

or

on

stand

what

in

the

comprehensive

concepts:

development

way

sense.

of

Debates

development,

means,

people,

it

can

be

communities

how

and

countries

surrounding

globalization,

pursued

development

inequality,

are

and

what

becoming

better

examined.

sustainability

Learning outcome

Prescribed content

Possible examples

Contested

Dierent denitions

meanings of

of development,

meeting basic needs, improved capabilities, achievement of political

development

including sustainable

and social freedoms, well-functioning institutions, lifestyles that

development and

respect the ecological constraints of the environment

•

Economic growth, a fairer income distribution, reduction in pover ty,

well-being

Measuring

•

development

Gross National Product, Gini Index, Human Development Index, Human

Pover ty Index, Gender-related Development Index, Genuine Progress

Indicator, Inclusive Wealth Index, Happy Planet Index, corruption

indices, trust indices

Factors that may

Political factors

•

Ideologies, history of and persistence of conict, stability,

promote or inhibit

accountability, transparency, legal frameworks, political consequences

development

of dierent development paths, decisions about the allocation of aid,

political culture, culture of bureaucracy, vested interests

Economic factors

•

Access to resources, increasing resource constraints, infrastructure,

debt, access to capital and credit, aid, trade, foreign direct investment

(FDI), income distribution, informal economy, vested interests

Social factors

•

Values, cultures, traditions, gender relations, migration

Institutional factors

•

UN, IMF, World Bank , WTO, par tnerships between developing countries

Environmental

•

Pathways towards

Models of

development

development

Geography, resource endowment, consequences of climate change on

people and communities’ lives

factors

•

Modernization and post-modernization theories (e.g. Rostow,

Inglehar t), dependency theories (e.g. Cardoso, Wallerstein),

neoliberalism (e.g. Washington consensus), state capitalism (e.g.

China, Russia), capability theories (e.g. Sen, Nussbaum)

Approaches for

•

Trade liberalization, expor t orientation, commodity-led growth,

developing the

tourism, entrepreneurship, knowledge economy, circular economy,

economy

complementary currencies

Approaches for

•

developing society

Concern for citizenship skills and engagement, improving education

and healthcare, changing roles of women, more ecological living,

indigenous revitalization movements

Debates

Globalization: wins

surrounding

and losses

•

Facts about development of standard of living and assessment of

realization of human rights, well-being and oppor tunity for dierent

development:

groups of people within and between societies, environmental impacts

challenges of

of globalization

globalization, Inequality: how

•

Oppor tunities for and limits of state, IGO and NGO action, (e.g. global

inequality and impor tant a factor in

regulation of MNCs and cross-border nancial ows, role of local

development?

regulation of conditions of work , power of lobbies)

sustainability

Sustainable

xii

•

Oppor tunities for and limits of state, IGO and NGO action (e.g. progress

development: which

in global climate change negotiations, role of regional, national and

way forward?

local policies for sustainable development)

Unit 4: Peace and Conict

This

unit

emerge

Key

focuses

and

on

what

develop,

concepts:

and

peace,

Learning

peace,

what

conict

can

conict,

be

and

done

violence

to

violence,

build

a

mean,

how

lasting

peace.

conicts

non-violence

Prescribed content

Possible examples

Contested

Dierent denitions of

•

meanings of

peace, conict and violence,

peace, conict

including positive peace and

outcome

Dierent denitions of

Peace: e.g. negative peace, balance of power, peace in

dierent political traditions and religions, feminist peace

and violence

structural violence

Conict: e.g. through scale of conict from e.g.

disenfranchisement through to interstate war

Violence: e.g. direct violence, cultural violence

Types of conict

•

Types of conict, e.g.

Territorial conict (e.g. Western Sahara, Russian claims,

disputes in the South China Sea)

Interest-based conict (e.g. weapon sales, positive

discrimination on the factory oor)

Ideological conict (e.g. political ideologies, free market

versus state-led economy)

Identity conict (e.g. indigenous populations, more

heterogeneous populations in previously homogeneous

states)

Justications of violence,

•

including just war theory

Causes and

Causes of conict

Justications of violence, e.g. humanitarian intervention, self-

defence, religiously or culturally condoned violence

•

par ties to conict

Causes of conict, e.g. greed vs. grievance (e.g. Colombia, Sierra

Leone), territorial control, material interest, resource scarcity,

ideology, threatened identity, perception

Par ties to conict

•

Par ties to conict, e.g. states, intrastate groups, protest groups,

individuals

Evolution of

Manifestations of conict,

conict

including non-violence

•

Manifestations of conict, e.g. demonstrations, civil

disobedience, violent protests, guerrilla warfare, terrorism,

genocide, civil war, interstate war

Conict dynamics

•

Conict dynamics, e.g. Galtung’s conict triangle, positions-

interests-needs, conict cycles

Third-par ty involvement

•

in conict, including

Third-par ty involvement, e.g. weapon embargoes, NATO

involvement, election observers

humanitarian intervention

Conict resolution

Peacemaking, including

and post-conict

negotiations and treaties

•

Peacemaking, e.g. UN peace enforcement, imposed settlement,

ceaseres, truces, arbitration, mediation, peace treaties,

transformation

peacekeeping, peace enforcement, military victory

Peacebuilding, including

•

Peacebuilding, e.g. truth and reconciliation commissions (e.g.

reconciliation and work of

Sierra Leone), cour ts (e.g. Cambodia, International Criminal

justice institutions

Cour t), forgiveness

xiii

Key concepts

The

following

below)

should

weave

be

extension

which

The

core

to

is

in

course

any

with

of

where

both

to

and

below

where

key

concepts

conceptual

order

access

units,

that

a

explored

concepts

indicates

sixteen

them

they

when

equip

are

listed

working

in

concepts

concepts

can

add

and

(with

a

the

order

attached

most

the

be

to

explanations

the

the

course.

core

in

issues

to

they

unit.

This

surface,

addressed

at

and

the

framework

HL

with

examined.

which

each

likely

provided

They

units

conceptual

political

are

to

with

with

the

should

value

brief

throughout

students

understand

four

the

thread

any

appear

unit

but

the

afliation

the

point

in

of

intention

the

discussion.

Concept

Explanation

Power

Power is a central concept in the study of global politics and a key focus of the course.

Power can be seen as ability to eect change in the world and, rather than being viewed

as a unitary or independent force, is as an aspect of relations among people functioning

within various social organizations. Contested relationships between people and groups

of people dominate politics, par ticularly in this era of increased globalization, and so

understanding the dynamics of power plays a prominent role in understanding global

politics.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty characterises a state’s independence, its control over territory and its ability

to govern itself. How states use their sovereign power is at the hear t of many impor tant

issues in global politics. Some theorists argue that sovereign power is increasingly being

eroded by aspects of globalization such as global communication and trade, which states

cannot always fully control. Others argue that sovereign states exercise a great deal of

power when acting in their national interest and that this is unlikely to change.

Legitimacy

Legitimacy refers to an actor or an action being commonly considered acceptable and

provides the fundamental basis or rationale for all forms of governance and other ways

of exercising power over others. The most accepted contemporary source of legitimacy

in a state is some form of democracy or constitutionalism whereby the governed have a

dened and periodical oppor tunity to choose who they wish to exercise power over them.

However, even within an overall framework of legitimacy, individual actions by a state can

be considered more or less legitimate. Other actors of global politics and their behaviours

can also be assessed from the perspective of legitimacy.

Interdependence

For global politics, the concept of interdependence most often refers to the mutual reliance

between and among groups, organizations, areas and states for access to resources that

sustain living arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but

can also have a security dimension (such as defence arrangements) and, increasingly, a

sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties). Globalization has increased

interdependence, while often changing the relationships of power among the various

actors engaged in global politics.

Human rights

Human rights are basic rights and entitlements which many argue one should be able

to claim simply by vir tue of being a human being. Many contemporary thinkers argue

that they are essential for living a life of dignity, are inalienable, and are universal.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations in 1948 is

recognized as the beginning of the formal discussion of human rights around the world.

xiv

Justice

There are a number of dierent interpretations of the term justice. It is often closely

associated with the idea of fairness and with each getting what he or she deserves,

although what is meant by deser t is also itself contested. The term justice is also closely

associated with rights and what individuals can legitimately demand of one another or

their government.

Liber ty

The term liber ty refers to having freedom and autonomy. It is often divided into positive

and negative liber ty, with negative liber ty often dened as freedom from external coercion

and positive liber ty dened as a person having the freedom to carry out their own will.

Some scholars reject this distinction and argue that in practice one cannot exist without

the other.

Equality

Egalitarian theories are based on a concept of equality where all people, or groups of

people, are seen to have the same intrinsic value. Equality is therefore closely linked to

justice and fairness, as egalitarians argue that justice can only exist if there is equality.

Increasingly, with growing polarization within societies, equality is also linked to liber ty, as

dierent people have dierent oppor tunities to carry out their own will.

Development

Development is a broad based and sustained increase in the standard of living and

well-being of a level of social organization. Many consider it to involve increased income,

better access to basic goods and services, improvements in education, healthcare and

public health, well-functioning institutions, decreased inequality, reduced pover ty and

unemployment and more sustainable production and consumption patterns. Although

the focus of development debates in global politics is on issues faced by developing

countries, all societies and communities face questions about how to best promote well-

being and reduce ill-being. Development is typically measured through indicators such

as longevity and literacy as well as income per head, but other measures, such as carbon

footprint and subjective well-being, are being included in many metrics.

Globalization

Globalization is a process by which local, regional and national economies, societies

and cultures are becoming increasingly integrated and connected. The term refers to

the reduction of barriers and borders, as goods, services and ideas ow more freely

between dierent par ts of the world and people. Globalization is a process which has been

taking place for centuries but the pace has quickened in recent decades, facilitated by

developments in global governance and technology and powered by cheap energy. By

now, it is widely acknowledged that globalization has both benets and drawbacks and

that its proceeds are not evenly distributed.

Inequality

Inequality refers to the unequal access to resources that are needed to sustain life and

communities.

It is closely connected to discussions of power in a globalized world and

who holds the rights to these resources and their proceeds. Inequality can be examined

both as a phenomenon within and between societies.

Sustainability

Denitions of sustainability begin with the idea that development should meet the needs

of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

needs. Sustainability today has three elds of debate – environmental, sociopolitical and

economic. In global politics, mechanisms and incentives required for political institutions,

economic actors and individuals to take a longer term and more inclusive well-being

perspective in their decision-making are par ticularly impor tant.

Peace

Peace is often dened as a state of both non-conict and harmonious relations.

Many also

refer to peace as a state of non-conict among personal relations, par ticularly with oneself

and one’s relationship with others. Peace is the ultimate goal of many organizations that

monitor and regulate the relationships among states.

xv

Conict

Conict is the dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals,

groups or countries. This could be opposition over positions, interests or values. Most

theorists would distinguish between non-violent and violent conict. In this distinction,

non-violent conict can be a useful mechanism for social change and transformation,

while violent conict is harmful and asks for conict resolution.

Violence

Violence is often dened as physical or psychological force aicted upon another being.

In the context of global politics it could be seen as anything manmade that prevents

someone from reaching their full potential (e.g. structural violence). This broader denition

would encompass unequal distribution of power and discriminatory practices that exclude

entire groups of people from accessing cer tain resources.

Non-violence

Non-violence is the practice of advocating one’s rights without physically harming the

opponent. It often involves actively opposing the system that is deemed to be unjust,

through for example boycotts, demonstrations and civil disobedience. It is argued by

theorists that non-violence can often draw international attention to a conict situation

and that it could provide a fer tile basis for post-conict transformation.

xvi

Introduction

Glob bal

The nature e of Glob bal pol liti ics

oli iti ics and international-m mindedness s

Develo De lo opi p ng g The

twenty-rst tw

centur ry

is

characteriz iz e iz

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chan a an g

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International

Baccalaureate

Global

politics

Organization,

guide,

2015

1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the course

The

global

changes

The

of

politics

that

course

rapid

is

power

issues

and

of

human

The

the

a

in

the

framework

world;

the

that

in

course

a

can

the

as

and

range

and

a

it

on

four

the

and

that

are

subtitle

areas

times.

that

now

of

“people,

are

major

relations;

conict.

that

can

These

denitions

studies

for

signicant

exploration

international

studies

of

has

of

contemporary

issues

students.

case

guide

how

the

and

case

and

in

explanatory

peace

and

wide

serve

functions

covering

and

examples

politics

multidisciplinary

focuses

teachers

for

and

sovereignty

concepts

of

examination

world

With

development;

interests

now

unique

also

stage.

power,

presents

material

world

a

while

world

time:

rights;

is

place

interdisciplinary

politics”,

our

course

broad

taken

change,

the

specic

current

an

social

dominating

course

have

and

ground

exploring

evolved

and

be

adapted

concepts

ideas

the

how

to

present

about

our

investigations

politics

changed

in

over

the

time.

Individual and group perspectives

Throughout

concepts

and

of

group

multiple

points

of

unique

it

we

also

view,

on

the

a

can

and

life

part

approach

help

you

deepen

of

inuence

political

an

individual

appreciation

understanding

the

how

group

key

various

develop

and

perspectives

and

to

in

the

through

your

experiences

individual

at

to

issues

encountered

important

issue

useful

political

This

issues

are

of

additional

depending

is

personalities,

examples

religion;

of

many

environments

Three

course

contemporary

perspectives.

complexity

our

the

and

study

the

we

are

of

social

act

in

gender,

of

the

global

and

politics:

cultural

global

politics.

ethnicity

perspectives

will

be

and

relevant

stake.

What is a concept?

Gender Always used as a noun, a concept is an Gender

is

an

important

form

of

identity,

and

can

be

socially

constructed

abstract idea that includes categories of as

well

as

biologically

determined.

Gender

values

can

also

change

experiences or phenomena that are of the dramatically

over

time.

In

the

last

century,

feminist

movements

same set of thoughts, impressions and successfully

drew

attention

to

women’s

inequality

in

education,

beliefs. For example, a concept album employment,

the

home

and

in

politics,

and

these

issues

remain

could be an album made with similar pertinent

in

all

human

societies.

Today,

gender

relations

in

global

songs that express similar thoughts or politics

refers

to

contested

and

changing

power

relations

between

men

styles of music. A concept car is dened and

women

in

which

men

often

dominate.

Many

key

aspects

of

global

by the design of the car, often of an politics

such

as

human

rights,

development

and

conict

remain

highly

experimental variety, creating a new set gendered,

and

issues

such

as

literacy,

migration,

sexual

violence

and

of presumptions and expectations of how disease

continue

to

impact

on

men,

women

and

children

differently.

the car will perform and be designed.

Increasingly

gender

theorists

argue

that

dominant

understandings

of

In global politics, concepts are bundles masculinity

may

be

the

key

to

making

sense

of

how

gender

relations

of ideas that refer to phenomena or in

global

politics

affect

us

all.

International

organizations

such

as

experiences. Each unit has key concepts the

United

Nations

continue

to

promote

both

gender

awareness

and

that represent what is emphasized in combat

discrimination

towards

women

through

the

policy

of

gender

that section. The experiences, thoughts mainstreaming.

However,

it

is

important

to

remember

that

many

and phenomena they refer to are always countries

and

communities

still

have

different

ideas

about

the

rights

and

connected to the other concepts and units roles

of

men

and

women

in the course, and should always be seen be

as par t of the whole of global politics.

2

a

political

act

in

itself.

and

that

learning

about

gender

can

be

seen

to

G L O B A L

P O L I T I C S

C O U R S E

C O M P A N I O N

Ethnicity

Ethnicity

group.

for

is

a

form

example,

and

history.

makes

an

their

national

identity

within

cultural

of

rights.

in

terms

ethnic

societal

there

identity

a

an

and

Although

ethnic

descendants

and

of

Individuals

may

be

different,

ethnic

Categories

based

and

racial

membership

share

similarities

particular

identities

of

group

no

group

on

such

formal

many

as

to

may

ethnic

characteristics,

language,

describe

wish

ethnicity

an

agreement

people

and

of

common

beliefs

about

what

themselves

preserve

overlap

this

with

as

status

both

identication.

Religion

Religion

usually

refers

has

religions

world

in

so

own

narratives,

being

of

a

assert

answers

lives.

certain

of

the

from

of

and

are

rituals

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identities

set

to

the

belief

a

questions

a

way

other

and,

for

to

divine

and

life,

people

to

social

of

both

serves

communities

in

an

the

combined

sources

of

religion

and

a

these

code;

aspect

and

fact

the

meaning

share

moral

personal

the

of

generate

strengthen

global

hand,

origins

important

with

to

or

a

identity

one

death,

norms

is

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nd

members

community

devotees

Religious

dimension.

about

hand,

often,

religious

systems.

social

powerfulness

religion

authority

religious

and

On

of

religions.

dimensions

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personal

forth,

member

most

a

a

provide

and

their

to

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social

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the

religions

inuence

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politics.

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“Global”,

or

specialized

a

natural

that

“globalization”,

and

more

process

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those

powerful

global

system

that

to

the

is

not

missions

Trade

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has

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as

integrated

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of

is,

and

been

a

the

power

has

and

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posts

of

with

the

the

the

Silk

is

to

both

often

winners

through

The

are

THE

as

losers

controlled

globe.

Road

seen

and

remember

centuries

over

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regions

important

for

within

concept.

world,

existed

from

trading

considered

simple

however,

peoples

the

often

circles

centres

new,

of

Spice

has

countries.

exploratory

the

public

by

that

trade

the

and

existence

common

SILK

ROAD

Silk

Road

route

L T

300

B.C.

–

A.D.

100

Other

trade

route

Trade

route

by

A

Tanais

Y

Olbia

sea

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center

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H

T

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T

G

Chach

(Toshkent)

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Aksu

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(Samaraqand)

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(Kashi)

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Q

Miran Qorghan

(Shache)

(Taxkorgan)

u Niya

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n Alexandria

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d

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s

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n

i

l

i

r

i

d

r

a n

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h N

L

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a

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u

H

Palmyra

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n

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Mediterranean

h

(Minfeng)

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S

h

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(Hatay)

U

H

S

N

A

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Sea

Tyre

Areion

(Herat)

Luoyang

Nancheng

(Kabul)

(Hanzhong)

(Soûr) Susa

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(Esfahan)

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Plateau

(Farah)

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a i

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t e G

D

r

s e

a

t r e

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n

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n

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of

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o

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Island)

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a

Bay

China

Bengal

The Silk Road was an ancient trade network that stretched from China to the Mediterranean. Trade along this route greatly enhanced the

development of Europe, the Indian subcontinent, Persia and China.

3

Sea

INTRODUCTION

examples

other

The

of

how

cultures

city

states

examples

of

people

and

of

have

long

traveled

great

distances

to

interact

with

communities.

the

peoples

Inca

Empire

spread

over

or

the

Kingdoms

thousands

away

of

places

social

of

miles,

to

Egypt

are

traveling

trade

and

other

to

far-

interact

for

purposes.

Globalization and social change

What

has

distance

take

changed

at

which

is

the

these

place

and

at

functions.

The

world

more

of

in

the

human

no

longer

in

military

to

the

one

1700,

the

at

well

of

it:

as

has

global

than

which

age,

one

bomb

changes,

changes.

globe

can

human

We

communicate

the

all

advanced

every

big

in

environment

that

which

smaller

instantly

point

than

more

our

now

changed

pre-industrial

vaporize

As

also

now

before

grown

and

politics

has

years

resembles

point

earth.

50

technology

instantly

are

has

since

existed

which

history

population

tenfold

past

speed

transactions

to

on

there

can

from

the

other,

The ruins of Machu Picchu, sacred

wars

and

disasters

are

seen

by

populations

in

real

time

rather

than

days

city of the Inca Empire

or

weeks

later

and

contact

with

Groups

ranging

to

adapt

to

occurring

all

other

the

indigenous

from

from

they

have

with

capital

course

have

outside

have

At

humans

communities

worldwide

their

the

and

same

time,

the

to

often

countries

undermined

earth

who

have

governments

production,

boundaries.

but

on

not

been

in

cultures.

reacted

earth,

reacted.

government

in

no

and

small

changes

on

are

groups

peoples

populations

This

there

as

rebelled

Climate

have

change

authority

in

of

in

has

the

and

changes

affected

way

investment

poorer

had

areas

against

differed

changes

have

local

by

that

those

governments

and

policy.

recognizes

that

politics

is

now

a

complex

social

process

TOK and

that

it

is

almost

Global politics falls within the

organization.

area of knowledge known

affects

as the human sciences.

in

geographic

How are the methods used

in

the

to gain knowledge in global

reorganizing

all

From

facets

daily

of

always

the

integrated

local,

society

organization.

social

life

of

to

and

all

communities,

regional,

plays

Global

of

on

the

a

various

to

part

politics

world’s

regions

and

levels

national

in

the

has

and

cycles

become

citizens

as

of

it

geographic

global,

and

a

is

politics

changes

major

player

constantly

nations.

politics similar or dierent to This

course

will

observe

and

analyse

these

changes

through

the

actions

the methods used in other of

people,

power

and

politics.

Together,

these

add

up

to

an

integrated

disciplines in the social whole

that

is

not

a

monolith

but

a

starting

point

for

the

discussion

sciences, such as economics and

analysis

of

the

way

the

world

has

changed

and

where

it

is

moving

or psychology? How are they towards.

The

course

has

been

designed

with

options

for

teachers

and

similar or dierent to the students

to

explore

their

own

interests

as

they

develop

and

change;

methods used in the natural as

you

explore

the

course,

we

hope

that

it

will

help

sciences? many

4

complex

facets

of

the

world

as

it

is

today.

bring

together

the

G L O B A L

P O L I T I C S

C O U R S E

C O M P A N I O N

Introduction to the Course Companion

This

book

is

Course

in

politics

and

we

now

the

designed

global

its

encounter

always

integrating

routes

interaction,

been

to

the

Victorian

(Edo).

India

used

(long

Europe

media

on

by

for

that

century,

it

since

with

travel

of

goods

Change

mobile

imagine

having

to

a

concepts

The

with

result

the

IB

meanings

and

primary

contemporary.

always

Diploma

of

those

there

content

near

has

global

issues

However,

the

the

East

was

to

to

the

and

their

that

of

humans

and

been

far,

a

all

radio,

West

the

and

It

then

East),

and

printing

growth

and

constant

press

not

“globalization”

levels.

living

Can

television

to

or

as

on

you

that

fostered

Silk

in

Tokyo

Road,

Africa

and

expansion

growth

have

until

Athens

thrived

the

the

cultural

and

the

accompanied

was

humans

that

onward,

the

and

Rome

theatre

Kabuki

Americas,

encounter

all

London

to

social

Ancient

century

the

cultures.

on

in

Japanese

exporting

changed

occur

encouraged

theatre

fourteenth

trade,

phone,

to

all

by

the

a

of

of

the

been

spurred

growing

twentieth

we

know

it

today,

earth.

now

imagine

headphones?

Can

life L TA

a

key

encouraged

and

India

we

and

continues

without

who

among

that

touched

you

basis.

As

of

printing

and

on

interacting

have

the

of

supplement

cultures

West

Cape

is

cultures.

from

the

however,

has

course,

Marlowe,

started

focusing

beginnings

trade

the

specialization

and

the

before

human

the

and

and

introduce

day-to-day

merchants

and

from

a

human

Particularly

mostly

will

commerce

from

Shakespeare

It

travellers,

of

and

on

like

peoples

transformation

Trade

accompany

components,

Companion,

have

to

politics.

you

Thinking and

communication skills

call?

the

What

1970s,

if

to

did

for

nd

not

a

telephone

work

example,

(as

most

when

on

a

did

people

street

not

had

in

corner

New

to

make

York

physical

City,

ghts

a

phone

USA,

over

their

in

use)?

With

the

since The

lives

oor

of

pieces

way

the

a

of

live

of

that

of

from

our

by

or

how

Tokyo

our

or

a

inhabitants

–

home

shack

look

communities

change

simple

found

the

whether

in

its

to

the

groups

–

settled

continue

Kenya,

gathering

now

tower

gathered

most

tribes

different

we

residential

tin

that

Maasai

and

that

in

world’s

their

of

the

of

lived

the

protected

very

have

parts

peoples

on

lived

few

the

in

only

by

you

has

discuss

how

changed

were

born.

such

as

the

from

previously.

the

remaining

world,

the

partner,

seventy-eighth

different

settlements,

lifestyles

remote

is

a

world

are

the

Even

nomadic

hunting

very

past.

Maasai warriors look out over the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya

5

INTRODUCTION

The

hit

Massai

by

Guinea

that

in

journey

high-speed

use

may

the

tools

come

The

course

and

that

it

a

all

changes

has

The

as

a

it

is

current

is

complex

to

problems

Many

of

of

around

us

the

in

The

in

are

necessities

avoid

learn

effort

to

the

are

own

us

to

to

in

takes

life

often

New

clothing

some

will

see

places

has

and

in

and

all

will

required

At

rapid

and

other

food),

what

and

and

as

global

we

to

is

observe.

Most

to

look

the

business

peoples

changes

make

for

to

world.

conduct

time,

a

and

recognize

contemporary

extreme

nations.

made

solutions

travel,

politics

world’s

celebrated.

same

and

Global

the

regions

nd

areas

to

of

politics

cycles

assumptions

be

to

the

global,

Globalization

behind

to

organization

geographic

the

often

diversity

us

of

difcult,

the

should

social

place.

of

more

ever-changing

and

part

them .

helps

economy.

water

a

beyond

to

are

you

levels

national

peoples

and

migrate

as

complex

social

terms

world

as

to

meanings

be

wear

in

communities,

global

to

of

plays

appreciate

an

and

multiple

around

politics

cattle

highland

diversity

change

look

dangerous

a

as

whole

living,

subsistence,

to

or

to

conicts.

all

of

understand

describe,

contemporary

as

world’s

experiencing

(such

and

daily

world

us

human

facing

to

the

global

forced

dangerous

challenge

an

in

the

possible

not

today’s

globe

communities

nd

are

on

regional,

space

their

the

the

studying

participate

of

centres

result

reorganizing

on

taught

being

to

in

requiring

has

differences

importantly,

and

peoples

instead

a

of

others.

integrated

organization

player

transforming

examine

is

their

Globalization,

more

in

and

peoples

urban

life

politics

constantly

subject,

in

creates

daily

local,

integration

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that

the

SUVs

anywhere.

geographic

major

understanding

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of

in

with

remotest

made

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become

citizens

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the

both

that

almost

facets

in

are

pages,

assumes

is

roads

almost

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organization.

affects

that

from

following

encourages

along

vehicles;

us

in

the

understand

issues

such

as

our

world

beliefs

and

and

is

interpret

poverty,

setting

practices

aside

of

meaning

racism,

and

our

others.

as

we

own

We

beliefs

must

approach

environmental

disasters.

Recent

the

contributions

scope

changed

of

the

production

countries

our

way

of

to

we

goods

the

industrialization

the

the

of

to

in

different

visions

cultures

of

for

in

that

of

study

global

daily

goods;

consumption

early

has

states.

colonial

At

for

shifted

the

states

social

has

unnoticed

same

countries

exposed

during

from

in

–

a

the

the

lot

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has

of

as

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look

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face

of

of

early

example

States

populations

in

the

Eurocentric

United

rule.

became

a

the

bringing

colonial

peoples

broadened

time

mimics

organization,

colonialized

have

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example,

industrialization

globalization

of

politics

communities.

capital-intensive

in

went

of

human

colonial

forms

formerly

of

former

the

women

phenomenon

West

and

role

the

produce

former

re-industrialization

is

to

studies

of

–

the

experiences

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voices

subject

for

and

students

of

TOK globalization,

Are there times when we are

of

the

providing

dominant

corrections

to

assumptions

about

peoples

outside

West.

morally obliged to act on what As

another

example,

the

reaction

of

indigenous

peoples

that

are

now

we know? threatened

6

by

the

power

and

authority

of

outside

forces

are

now

G L O B A L

frequently

Mexico

taking

to

the

endangered

ghting

to

by

of

researcher

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it

of

all

ethics,

or

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research

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ethics

carry

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to

out

“do

danger

of

work

harm”.

(IRB),

the

or

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more

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have

who

a

code

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research

which

whether

research

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even

means

conducting

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by

our

no

Board

the

it

C O M P A N I O N

are

are

study

organizations

institutions

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role

of

C O U R S E

Southern

hundreds

that

the

academic

that

these

in

which

organizations

we

which

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go

and

academic

harms.

Zapitistas

New

may

(1994)

into

the

and

globalization,

Institutional

to

From

complex

tenant

universities

of

life

more

be

primary

to

is

of

professional

required

human,

June

must

have

stage.

Indonesia

ways

potentially

the

colleges,

in

become

thought

benets

world

economics

years.

concern.

much

the

maintain

thousands

of

the

cultures

P O L I T I C S

animal

or

are

reviews

after

or

An EZLN banner draped across a

the

gate in Mexico City; the tex t reads

concluded.

“Everything for everyone!” The

Ejército Zapatista de Liberación

The

sections

in

this

Companion

follow

the

primary

units

of

the

course

and Nacional (Zapatista Army of

their

key

concepts

and

themes.

They

may

or

may

not

be

followed

in

order National Liberation, commonly

according

to

the

teacher’s

arrangement

of

topics.

Learning

ways

to

place known as the Zapatistas)

yourself

within

the

context

of

global

politics

is

one

of

the

major

objectives are a revolutionary militant

of

this

book.

group based in Chiapas, the

southernmost state of Mexico.

1

Political issues: When we think of politics

Politics,

the

as

most

formation

Traditional

without

do

of

not

as

stable

internal

the

given

level

the

level.

of

The

World

their

developed)

globalization

“political

Given

taken

come

the

politics

the

the

or

of

politics

play

and

state

rest

events

no

(band)

groups

the

role

exclusionof

is

elaborated,

and

any

are

in

entity.

to

produce,

hegemony,

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Baccalaureate

2015

7

INTRODUCTION

increase

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through

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these

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terms

9

INTRODUCTION

will

the

be

employed

sphere

among

of

many

as

global

that

descriptive

politics.

could

be

mechanisms

The

used

illustrations

for

these

and

key

concepts

provided

are

within

only

examples

terms.

Global

In the context of global politics, the term global describes events and trends that

have far-reaching and long-term impact across the globe, cutting geographic

areas. Examples include economic globalization, climate change, appeals to

human rights, water depletion, global governance (the United Nations), and the

organization of corporations.

The United Nations Climate Change Conference, 2016

National

National refers to the geographic boundaries of a par ticular state. Topics that

could be studied under this level include (but are not limited to) economic

crisis or economic change, political and legal reforms, changes in governance,

questions of cultural practice (education, languages) and geographic borders.

International

For our purposes, the term international represents events and trends that

have a narrower impact than global events and trends. Nonetheless, they have

implications for several geographic areas, for example, a par ticular region (see

below), but not only limited to that region. Examples include various international

organizations, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multi-national

corporations (MNCs), international law, and international trade, diasporas and

migratory movements.

10

G L O B A L

P O L I T I C S

C O U R S E

C O M P A N I O N

Regional

Regional for our discussion refers to

units of analysis that cover specic

geographic areas, such as the Middle

East, Central Asia, Western and

Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa,

South Asia, Asia-Pacic, Latin America,

among others. Topics that could be

studied under this level could

include (but are not limited to) the

European Union, Nor th American Free

Trade Agreement, the Arab League, the The logo of the African Union

African Union, and movements that

cross geographic boundaries (such as

indigenous claims to land, or the re-

emergence of languages) and ecological

dimensions.

Local

Local in the context of global politics is the geographic area where social

organization is created and where culture is transmitted from one generation

to the next. It is always in relation to larger geographic spheres, and it is the

place where cultural practices are defended against outside intrusion. This level

can represent a geographic space as small as a gated community or as large

as a city or region. “Local” is dened by its inhabitants and the practices of its

residents. The incorporation of globalization and its consequences on time,

access to resources and control over labour and social reproduction have altered

the way that social scientists think about the local. In the attempt to integrate

shifts in political inuence resulting from global processes, globalization studies

have tended to marginalize the local and its role in determining the course of

globalization and global politics.

Aid is handed out following a typhoon in the Philippines

11

INTRODUCTION

Place

In the context of global politics and its analysis, place is the geographic location

where action occurs. It can be the position of bounded communities, states and

countries where peoples live and reproduce over generations or it may be the

locale of conict grounded in ethnic rivalry or economic competition. It is a site

of aliation and by denition, either positive or negative, of common interests.

Its par ticular usefulness as a concept for the study of global politics is in the

discussion of boundaries, settled populations, migration and immigration. Place

is often the unit of analysis for peoples ghting for their autonomy against the

demands and power of external forces, and the politics of place is integral to

the discussion of space and the destruction of political, economic and cultural

boundaries.

Space

Space as a unit of analysis in global politics has increasingly become a term of

debate in the analysis of the autonomy of peoples, regions and nations around

the globe. As with “local” and “place”, space is a social construct. Many now

claim that “place” is an outdated term as the concept of space argues against

geography as a unit of analysis in the study of political power and capital

accumulation. The increasing movement of peoples around the globe has also

questioned the impor tance of place as a key concept in the analysis of global

politics, but it is often forgotten that while global strategies are frequently aimed

at controlling geographic spaces, they may also reinforce the resistance of local

struggles based on the politics of place. What is impor tant to consider, however, is

that both place and space are social constructs and may be integrated according

to the actions and social organization of populations. While unions and multi-

national corporations, as examples, exist over space, their membership and

management is deeply grounded in the politics of place.

The concept of community

The

idea

of

sciences.

relatively

interests,

stable

on

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these

have

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led

we

further,

interest

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talk

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life

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territory

or,

communication

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globalization

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identity

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similar

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to

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methods

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12

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13

INTRODUCTION

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and

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traveling

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ethnohistory.

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the

from

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organization

transactions

relations

records

detailed

in

exchange

life

now

refer

Leacock

about

life

counter-balance

and

and

and

before

to

accepted

lore.

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consistent

twentieth

trade

scale.

and

scholarly

century,

the

Karl

study

international

Polanyi’s

The

Europe

is

David

the

division

from

use,

was

to

the

Karl

14

an

tasks

change,

goods

then

local

be

so

in

for

for

or

that

objects

saw

reorganization

evolution

of

is

for

and

others

this

for

the

for

as

(1991).

and

and

most

transition

people

communities’

production

produced

this

not

would

as

that

found

distinction

production

life

as

(1974)

assign

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goods

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well

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could

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radical

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view,

Polanyi

that

a

Eric

World

this

late

Postmodernity

exchange”,

with

and

meaning

own

on

communities

Polanyi’s

for

traded

of

in

the

War,

(1981),

economic

how

use”,

community.

who

works

required

their

community

(1944)

History

Modern

of

in

World

changed

Condition

labour,

labour

Marx,

major

¸ S avaklar nomadic tribe in Kes ¸is ¸ Mountain, Er zincan, Turkey

of

The

history

“production

the

labour

without

The

began

Second

seminal

the

organized

would

how

as

“production

produced

of

Wallerstein’s

Harvey’s

signicant

the

Transformation

People

traces

complete

in

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recognized

Polanyi

globalization

after

division

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and

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are

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particularly

in

from

necessitate

well

as

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signify

G L O B A L

P O L I T I C S

C O U R S E

C O M P A N I O N

The colonial period (circa 180 0 to

1950+)

While

the

course

circumstances,

historical

to

contemporary

will

these

politics

world

the

to

colonizers

the

colonizers

The

were

the

of

over

to

It

is

based

these

period

the

the

way

that

while

and

Pacic.

looking

in

globe.

America

South

world

is

which

European,

Latin

and

today.

However,

colonial

all

and

some

course

changed

from

Caribbean

travelled

the

politics.

evolving

ranged

events

have

events

that

signicantly

were

colonized

Africa

the

to

background

emerged.

history

of

to

the

current

helps

global

provide

civilizations

Most

about

remember

notes

the

is

often

background

important

on

it

for

The

free The colonized and their French colonizers

labour

and

outright,

resources;

genocide.

paternalistic

rule,

not.

the

Most

shipped

labour

some

of

back

in

the

to

What’s

although

more

producing

Colonization

movement

it

was

and

ruling

it

was

brutal

and

experienced

clear

goods

power,

powerful

who

left

while

economies

was

the

a

in

close

more

power

colonized

slavery

such

the

if

not

nuanced

and

and

was

who

country

accounted

as

to,

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for

and

were

much

States

free

and

countries.

to

remember

societies

the

places

civilizations

resources

important

functioning

many

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the

European

in

with

goods

put

from

an

that

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their

kept

own

them

immediate

simple

to

stop

more

is

that

the

cultures,

alive

to

and

colonized

rules

self-rule

complex

and

trading

and

were

ways

with

began

of

others.

the

societies.

References and fur ther reading

Goody,

Jack

Inclusion

Harvey,

Kirsch,

2006,

and

David.

Max

“Globalization

Exclusion

1991.

2006.

in

the

The

and

Global

Condition

Inclusion

and

the

Arena,”

of

Domestic

pp.

Group,”

31-41,

in

London:

M.

Kirsch,

Routledge.

Postmodernity.

Exclusion

in

the

Global

Arena,

New

York:

Routledge

Leacock,

Eleanor

Cambridge:

Leacock,

and

Lee,

Cambridge

Eleanor.

Richard.

University

1982.

Myths

of

1982.

Politics

and

History

in

Band

Societies,

Press.

Male

Dominance,

New

York:

Monthly

Review

Press

Nash,

New

June

York:

Polanyi,

1984

SUNY

Karl.

Wallerstein,

Wolf,

Eric.

Women,

1944.

The

Immanual.

1981.

Men

and

the

International

Division

of

Labor,

Albany

Press

Europe

Great

1974.

and

Transformation.

The

the

Modern

People

World

without

System.

History.

15

P O W E R ,

S O V E R E I G N T Y

A N D

I N T E R N AT I O N A L

1

R E L AT I O N S

Key concepts

➔

Power

➔

Sovereignty

➔

Legitimacy

➔

Interdependence

Learning outcomes

➔

Nature of power

➔

Operation of state power in global politics

➔

Function and impact of international organizations and non-state actors in

global politics

➔

16

Nature and extent of interactions in global politics

Unit i

1

foc o uses es s

on

the th

sove v re eig ignty y,

and d

wo orl r d

Power ow w

stag ge.

leve v ve ls s,

is

re

of

articular

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on

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onal al

state a

thei th heir

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our r

worl rld rl

in

key

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foundati fo ti t ion n

su ubsta

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of f

se ense

the

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o

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ization

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functio

i

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and

worl rl ld. d

one e

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p

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that th

ret e u ur ned

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that

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b

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t

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un nde d rpins

as a s

power

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th her ref for re e, ,

leg e itimac im ma ac cy

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rel e ations” ”

loba ba b al

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cannot t

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ctives

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sha hare re e

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g

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thr hree

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rna n tion onal on al

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succ c cc ess es s

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dyna dy na amics

how

our

inte t g gr atio io n io

(as as

discuss s ed

aspe ect t

inte t ra

community,

of f

o ou r

tion

co

ntry y

Key questions

1

How is power expressed in global politics?

2

On what geographic levels does global politics operate?

17

1.1

Power

The nature of power

Power

is

viewed

a

as

among

to

subject

be

Eric

it

matter

Wolf,

In

the

is

force

also

but

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a

context

inquiry.

Power

in

to

and

most

order

prominent

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it

is

on

study,

and

works

Wolf’s

are

theories

differing

situational.

as

an

aspect

actions

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discover

or

has

cannot

be

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a

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of

cannot

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relations

country’s

increasingly

assumed,

patterns

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of

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types

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and

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and

that

power

types

of

discussed

relevant

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needs

bases

on

also

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hard

throughout

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useful

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as

in

in

course.

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in

study.

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this

into

such

of

5).

that

t

and

concept

relations,

most

units

politics

that

to

the

types

(1999:

the

and

and

power

of

four

interpersonal

concepts

of

study

societies”

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power

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in

power

key

people,

power

kinds

of

structural

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in

outlined

differently

level

other

of

scholars

analysis,

between

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will

social

the

includes

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cultural,

to

“power

relationships

power

present

under

direct

within

application

politics,

include

social

studied

arenas

politics.

These

to

social

words,

the

Structural

all

of

its

his

global

studying

global

ability

of

Power

independent

situated

and

one

and

institutional

For

relationships.

or

operates.

power

power.

The

always

explored

which

of

is

of

unitary

people.

economy

the

matter

a

which

example

Companion.

A collection of international ags in Munich,

Germany

Power in contex t

The

past

wars

in

century

almost

conicts

have

the

in

over

today

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in

the

less

past

are

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we

of

the

years,

the

–

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globe.

and

life.

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colour,

claims

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and

many

than

day,

that

is

half

and

one

some

of

child

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the

many

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all

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resources

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in

world’s

world’s

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between

are

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ve)

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population

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in

conicts

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communities

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million

died

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over

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adversarial

extinction

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ethnicity

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US$2.00

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part

dramatically.

than

seconds

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ability

danger

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been

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basic

has

dies

has

now

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2000

and

lives

three

2006.

happen?

observe

based

on

physical

based

on

race,

the

world

today,

geography,

but

we

notice

quickly

rst

the

revealed

are

many

also

divisions

divisions

TOK

18

Can we have beliefs

and

or knowledge that are

living.

independent of our culture?

power,

Does global politics seek to

by

discover truths about human

quests

nature, or is it based on

of

assumptions about human

all

nature?

are

ethnicity,

communities

These

contexts

politics

radio

in

for

crises

and

even

peace,

and

the

of

longer

are

to

battles

in

of

of

and

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peoples,

many

and

with

–

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we

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regions

day

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and

which

the

stories

of

a

of

countries,

–

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nations,

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conicts

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and

reconciliation,

who

before.

and

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on

news

globe

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based

attempts

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villages

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themselves

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claims

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interconnected

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religion

reproduce

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region’s

1 . 1 :

wars

and

over

basic

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of

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be

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oil

resources.

and

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are

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for

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pollution

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water

unusable

for

number

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have

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often

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as

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droughts

and

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food

issues

predict

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livable

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questions

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energy

example,

the

become

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food

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away

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over

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industrialization

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used

future

initiated

crises

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takes

by

availability

are

authority.

dwarfed

famines

The

P O W E R

affect

miles

of

the

the

away,

Earth’s

production.

may

immediately

be

raised:

●

How

do

local

distribution

decisions

of

affecting

the

●

How

is

determined?

●

Who

resources

global

get

and

made? Desertication necessitates permanent crop

or

authority

decides

worse,

who

allow

has

the

the

protection in many parts of the world

right

genocide

to

of

build

an

dams

area’s

or

burn

forests,

population?

TOK

●

What

is

a

government,

and

who

decides

what

it

does?

Can a person or group of people

Anthropology

and

of

ways

of

human

history,

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human

tells

older

are

do

and

task

people

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how

did

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live

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by

a

older

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on

that

thread

The

there

and

recent

government

know what is best for other

people?

context

development.

men

but

an

women.

of

the

earliest

sex,

is

in

throughout

between

and

types

that

and

forms

even

of

of

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inequality

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most

women,

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biologically

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different

and

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chapter

societies

characteristics

more

power,

complex

introduction

are

ever

hierarchy,

difference

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societies

today,

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characterized

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history,

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of

daily

us

life

those

who A Somali National Government soldier walks past burning debris

lived

hundreds

or

thousands

of

years

ago.

We following a suspected suicide bombing

are

unique,

indeed.

19

1

POWER,

S O V E R E IGN T Y

AND

I N T E R N AT I O N A L

R E L AT I O N S

States and statehood in the contemporary world

In

contemporary

social

“the

are

control

will

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world

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over

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from

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emerge

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dynamics.

Libya

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democracy.

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mechanisms

promote

internal

include

approaching

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to

contemporary

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functioning

has

best-known

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have

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as

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recent

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Tunisia

2011

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of

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become

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violence

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region

reason.

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agreements

nature

of

people

around

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traditionally

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kinds

successful.

–

are

integration.

people”,

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states

social

varied

populations.

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and

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large

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stability

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corporations.

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9 March 2011: Rebel soldiers ghting against Colonel Muammar Gadda re a Katyusha

rocket near Ras Lanuf, Libya

Other types of power

Beyond

have

and

those

come

its

sources.

Changing

“soft”

power

bring

or

within

making

20

as

about

to

play

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of

above,

Nye,

descriptors

the

other

analysts

American

desired

geographic

the

of

as

Joseph

Nature

to

refers

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into

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try

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change,

level.

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of

force

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charge;

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in

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the

book,

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names

of

power

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power

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and

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to

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Power

of

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decision-

realm

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matrix,

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2004).

21

1.2

The nation state, power and modes of social control

The

nation

state,

relationships,

that

there

is

language,

the

area

in

developed

which

nations

States

formal

are

entity.

by

while

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the

During the French Revolution less than

50 per cent of the population spoke

French, and even fewer spoke it well.

Here is an example where the state

clearly did come before the nation.

The French Revolution solidied the

role of the state as a generator of

common identity, creating policies

and mandates that united the “French

People” under a dominant language,

culture, and territory.

22

agree

the

both

as

of

with

wishes

the

a

or

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of

rules,

have

to

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holders

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T H E

goals

N A T I O N

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people

P O W E R

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approximately

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23

1

POWER,

S O V E R E IGN T Y

AND

I N T E R N AT I O N A L

R E L AT I O N S

Social order, ideology and power

In

order

for

convincing

good,

or

by

resistance

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term

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are

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Antonio Gramsci, 1891–1937 , wrote widely

on philosophy, politics and linguistics;

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resistance

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1975)

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at

“abstract

dened

This

the

addressing

cultures“,

separate

of

arguments

power,

often

Much

following

environment,

concepts

that

that

units

are

but

the

unit.

35

1.5 Exam-style questions

1

Discuss

use

of

the

force

claim

and

that

power

in

global

politics

is

mostly

exercised

through

the

threats.

Examiner hints

Arguments against the claim may include:

●

Responses are likely to include a denition of the concept

aspects of soft power such as political ideals, cultural

norms and social policies may be equally if not more

of power; such as the ability to make someone do

inuential than force

something – often, but not always, by the use of force or

threats – or face consequences; or the ability to achieve ●

the mere possession of resources doesn’t always

a desired outcome through the use of other means, which result in a country having the power to achieve

could involve the use of both coercive (force and threats) desired outcomes: sometimes non-material factors

and co-optive mechanisms. such as changes in strategy and/or leadership can

aect outcomes

Responses may make reference to ideas such as

distinctions drawn between hard and soft power. ●

diplomacy and economic assistance are useful in

Candidates may also refer to the concept of smar t power fur thering goals and interests which in eect combines elements of both hard (coercion

●

and payment) and soft power (persuasion and attraction),

persuasion can be eectively used to achieve goals

and preferred outcomes through the use of means

sometimes making it dicult to distinguish where

such as education and propaganda, for example,

coercion star ts and ends. Candidates could also highlight

through the use of social media

the fact that the concept of power is central, yet remains

elusive in nature. Better answers may be able to weave ●

the acquisition and maintenance of instruments of

relevant theories on power into the arguments. coercive power – military power, arms procurement,

nuclear weapons is increasingly expensive

Arguments for the claim may include:

●

the centrality of military and economic power is

●

incentives such as incorporation into free trade

still accepted by realist thinkers who argue that the

agreements in an era of economic interdependence

possession of superior capabilities is more likely to

work more eectively than coercion

result in successful outcomes for states ●

●

non-coercive means can produce a voluntary

states aspiring to be more powerful still seek to

response from a given state and lead to a more

expand their military capabilities; wealth and

eective and long-lasting result

economic prosperity – seen as key pre-requisites for ●

many transnational issues such as climate change,

building status pandemics, cybercrime, drug tracking and and power terrorism cannot be mitigated through forceful

●

the states that exer t the most inuence globally (for

means.

example, agenda setting in UN) also have strong Responses should contain references to specic military capabilities and economic resources examples. These may be taken, for instance, from the

●

the continued existence of intrastate and

continued emphasis on weapons and arms acquisitions

transnational wars involving non-state actors

by states like China, where rapid military modernization

requires states to resor t to use of force, suggesting

is closely linked to its ambition to become a formidable

that coercion is both eective

political and economic power, like the US or Russia.

and essential

Examples of the increasing use of soft power could be

drawn from Japan’s pacist strategic culture and China’s ●

propaganda, censorship and disinformation continue so-called charm oensive. Any other valid and relevant to be used as a means of coercion by state and nonexamples should be evaluated positively. state actors, for example, ISIS using social media to

attract ghters.

36

1 . 5 :

2

Examine

politics

the

have

claim

that

increased

fundamentally

interactions

changed

the

and

nature

Examiner hints

of

E X A M - S T Y L E

interconnectedness

state

●

Q U E S T I O N S

in

global

sovereignty.

statehood is still highly desired and most

secessionist groups seek to be states and seek full Responses should include an understanding of the membership of the UN concept of sovereignty; for example, they may make

reference to features such as territorial control and the

●

no other actors are as powerful as states, as

principle of non-interference in another state’s aairs.

evidenced by the diculties experienced by non-

The denition may dierentiate between internal and

state actors such as the United Nations in exer ting

external sovereignty. Responses may make reference

power to inuence

to ideas such as the equality of states in international

global issues

law, or may include a brief discussion of Westphalian ●

states still rely on and deploy enormous amounts

sovereignty. Responses may discuss interactions of military power and control and the world is still and interconnectedness in global politics by drawing organized around state-centric security concerns on key concepts not mentioned in the question, such

●

as interdependence, globalization, development or

states are not necessarily threatened

by globalization and may respond to

sustainability.

interconnectedness by adapting and competing Arguments for the claim may include: in other ways for inuence (for example, through

●

globalization, the rise of non-state actors and the

trade, “cultural imperialism”, or the power of agenda

increasing interconnectedness of

setting)

the world are challenges to state power and ●

increased cross- border interactions and

sovereignty, as individual states have interconnectedness have not necessarily changed less control the nature of state sovereignty: there are other

●

states are losing inuence through the pooling of

some aspects of their sovereignty, such as in the

impor tant, often domestically rooted, factors, such as

the growth in inuence of civil society.

case of the EU Responses should make reference to specic examples.

●

global issues which are cross-border in nature such

as pollution, disease, war or terrorism increasingly

require cooperation and action across state

boundaries, which may then place limitations on

state activity and sovereignty

For instance, candidates could discuss the role of media

in war repor ting (“the CNN eect”) or the phenomenon

of the spread of communications technology and the

attempted control of social media by states, as in the

case of China. They could refer to specic problems that

do not respect state boundaries, such as greenhouse ●

increased specialization in the economic

gases or refugees, for example, from Syria entering organization of the world means that states are

neighbouring countries. Conversely, they could refer to no longer self-sucient in many areas but are

states such as China and Brazil, whose inuence has dependent on each other for vital supplies and

increased in recent years or to the persistence of interservices

state conicts where violation of sovereignty is still the

●

responses to human rights abuses have given rise most signicant aspect at play, such as in the case of

to the concept of “conditional” sovereignty and to Russia’s recent disputed behaviour in Crimea.

humanitarian intervention. Responses should include the candidate’s

Arguments against the claim may include:

●

the centrality of state sovereignty in the international

system has endured despite globalization,

examination of the claim that increased interaction and

interconnectedness in global politics have fundamentally

changed the nature of state sovereignty.

as illustrated by the number of states in the

international community;

37

1

POWER,

S O V E R E IGN T Y

3

AND

I N T E R N AT I O N A L

Power

is

often

resources.

R E L AT I O N S

assumed

Discuss

the

to

be

linked

validity

Examiner hints

●

of

this

to

the

possession

of,

or

access

to,

view.

there are states with abundant natural resources

that have a relative lack of power on the world stage, Responses should include an understanding of the as abundant natural resources may go hand in concept of power. hand with commodity-led, lower value growth (for

A spectrum of power may be indicated – from inuence

example, DRC)

and capacity through to coercion and force. Candidates ●

even states which have copious resources still face

may discuss power in the sense of international relations, numerous other challenges that undermine their and/or in the sense of internal control. Responses may ability to exercise power or control (for example, the make reference to dierent types of resources (for restrictions placed on them by international law, the example, military, economic, or natural resources), or structure of international institutions, such as the UN may, equally validly, focus on one par ticular type of Security Council, or the inuence of civil society). resource such as economic resources.

Responses should make reference to specic examples. Arguments in favour of the view that power is linked to the

Which examples are included is likely to depend on the possession of resources may include:

selected interpretation of the concept of power and the ●

states that have the most resources do often have types of resources discussed. the most power on the world stage (for example, the

Responses could distinguish between states that have US, China)

hard power arising from the possession of military,

●

history shows us that those with power often come in economic, and/or natural resources (for example, the US,

and take away resources from resource-rich but less China, Brazil), and states that have soft power that is not

powerful states based to such a degree on tangible resources and that

●

within states, those who possess resources tend to

be the powerful actors in the society (for example,

the US, Russia).

can be informational, diplomatic, or cultural, and involve

agenda setting (for example, UK , Norway).

Candidates could discuss the relationship between power

and natural resources in specic countries, for example: Arguments against the view that power is linked to the

possession of resources may include:

●

power can be dicult to measure (for instance, soft

High natural

Low natural

resources

resources

power, social power, cultural power) and perceptions Much power

USA , China

Japan

Little power

DRC

Haiti

of power may matter just as much as having tangible

resources

●

resources alone are not power; intention and

capability (for example, eective leadership and

administration) transform resources into power;

38

Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of

whether power is linked to the possession of resources.

1 . 5 :

4

Evaluate

justice

the

for

claim

that

individuals

state

and

sovereignty

creates

obstacles

E X A M - S T Y L E

for

the

Q U E S T I O N S

realization

of

communities.

organizations such as the UN, the EU, the WTO and

Examiner hints

international NGOs has entailed the setting-up of Responses are likely to include an explanation of the agreed rules, laws and practices, including some concept of sovereignty – which implies that the state enforcement mechanisms or government has supreme, unqualied authority.

This is reected in the claim by states to be the sole

●

membership of most of the states in the UN and its

author of laws within their own territory (internal

institutions involves par ticipating states accepting

sovereignty). Internal sovereignty is the location of

and allowing other members to intervene in its

supreme power within the state. External sovereignty

domestic aairs if it fails in its fundamental duty to

refers to the capacity of the state to act independently

protect citizens and communities within its sovereign

and autonomously on the world stage. Candidates should

territory

also briey discuss their understanding of the concept of ●

the international community has been able to

justice. intervene successfully in cases where injustice

Arguments in favour of the claim may include:

has been meted out to individuals and groups.

Such humanitarian intervention is now increasingly ●

in matters relating to human rights violations and

accepted, and is achieved through coalition eor ts as atrocities, states and leaders continue to invoke the

well as through international organizations such as concept of sovereignty. They agree to monitoring and

the UN. judgments by human rights cour ts and commissions

only to the extent that they choose to. Sovereignty

has, in that sense resisted human rights agreements

Reponses should include reference to specic examples

to suppor t their evaluation of the claim in the question.

Examples that might be used to suppor t the claim ●

many human rights agreements have been ratied

that state sovereignty hinders realization of justice by states, but with reservations, for example, the UN

to individuals and communities could include the Convention on Women. For instance, India, Germany

continuation of human rights abuses in Nor th Korea and Hungary choose not to be bound by cer tain

(including enslavement, murder and mass starvation), sections of the CEDAW

Somalia, and Sudan, and the fallout of these on the lives

●

sovereign states resent the monitoring of perceived of people. They could also cite examples of human rights

injustices to both individuals and communities by agreements that have been ratied, but with cer tain

NGOs and the media reservations by some states; for example, India, Germany

●

sovereignty continues to curb issues related to

justice for communities and groups such as women,

minorities and gay rights: states set their own limits

on the rights given to such communities, and argue

that this is within their domestic jurisdiction and is

also closely related to cultural and societal practices

specic to their jurisdiction

and Hungary chose not to be bound by sections of the

CEDAW.

Examples that could be used to illustrate the

counterclaim that state sovereignty can no longer

obstruct the realization of justice for individuals and

groups could cite examples of successful humanitarian

interventions such as those in Liberia, East Timor

and Sierra Leone. They could also note cases where ●

sovereignty becomes an issue in cases where an

organizations such as the EC ensure the application of individual or group seeks political asylum on the plea

EU treaties and legislation through formal infringement that their human rights are being violated in another

proceedings, or even by referring the member state to country. In such situations, the sovereignty of the

the European Cour t of Justice. These rules dilute state country in question clashes with issues

sovereignty. of justice.

Responses should include a conclusion on whether or not Arguments against the claim may include:

state sovereignty obstructs the realization of justice for

●

the emergence of signicant international individuals and communities.

39

1

POWER,

S O V E R E IGN T Y

AND

I N T E R N AT I O N A L

5

Examine

the

diminishing

R E L AT I O N S

claim

in

that

the

signicance

contemporary

global

of

military

power

is

politics.

Examiner hints

Better answers will demonstrate an excellent grasp of the concept of military

power, and are likely to contrast this with other types of power such as

economic power.

They could include discussion of the various components of

power, for example, military, economic (tangible) and leadership (intangible),

or of how power has been viewed dierently by dierent schools of thought.

Arguments in favour of the claim that the signicance of military power has

diminished could include:

●

the increasing weight of variables such as economic interdependence,

transnational actors and international organizations

●

increased globalization leading to less emphasis on individual states and

their individual military

●

power; economic power being equally, if not more, impor tant than military

power, as economic power is required to bolster military power

●

the idea that some issues do not lend themselves to military solutions,

for example, states may avoid using military action if it could negatively

impact future trade agreements etc.

Arguments against the claim that the signicance of military power has

diminished may include:

●

military force remains critical, as shown by the fact that the production of

arms continues to increase

●

the sale of military weapons has become a major factor in the arming of

various contestants for control of resources

●

military power is also still impor tant as a deterrent, etc.

Answers should include reference to specic examples.

These could include

examples such as the anti-military culture in places such as Japan; anti-war

movements, such as the protests against the war in Iraq; or the impor tance of

military power in the conict in Syria.

The responses are likely to end with a conclusion stating to what ex tent

the candidate agrees or disagrees that the signicance of military power is

diminishing in contemporary global politics.

40

1 . 5 :

6

Discuss

on

state

the

impact

of

NGOs,

MNCs,

and

international

E X A M - S T Y L E

Q U E S T I O N S

organizations

sovereignty.

Examiner hints

Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept

of sovereignty, including reference to sovereignty as characterizing a

state’s independence, its control over territory and its ability to govern itself.

Candidates may talk about the role and functions of the state, and then proceed

to explore how and what kind of an impact each of the aforementioned – NGOs,

MNCs and international organizations like the United Nations – has had on state

sovereignty.

Arguments that these actors have no real impact may include:

●

states may control the agenda of many of these organizations

●

the strengthening of national security and national interest due to the

threat of terrorism and to economic interests

●

states sometimes have a choice over whether to align with

recommendations/policies etc from these organizations, rather than these

being compulsory, etc.

Arguments that these actors have a big impact may include:

●

trade agreements

●

corporate demands on state laws, for example, environmental or labour

laws

●

capital ight

●

threats to relocate

●

the ability of these actors to have signicant impact, even bringing down

governments or bringing about severe economic consequences for states,

etc.

The responses should make reference to specic examples, such as (have

no real impact): the EU, the World Bank , and the IMF control the interests of

states; states can ban NGO protests such as in Singapore; the US refused to sign

the Kyoto agreement; (have a big impact): can bring down governments, for

example, Guatemala.

The responses may end with a conclusion/judgment on the impact of NGOs,

MNCs and international organizations on state sovereignty.

41

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culture

Lawrence

of

Erlbaum

Associates. Nye,

Joseph.

American

Polanyi,

Beacon

1990.

Power.

Karl.

Bound

New

2011

to

York:

[1944]

Lead:

Basic

The

The

Changing

Nature

of

Books.

Great

Williams,

Oxford

Wolf,

Eric.

and

New

William.

Brunswick,

1989.

NJ:

Anthropologies

Rutgers

Andrew.1999.

The

University

celebration

and

Wolf,

chronicles.

New

and Helen.

1981.

the

“Runaway

search

for

shops

cheap

and

York:

1974.

Eric.

New

1998.

Globalization

and

its

Anthropology.

1981.

Europe

University

Eric.

Crisis.

1999.

of

New

and

the

York:

People

California

Envisioning

University

Signs

7(2):

Wright,

Eric

Olin.

emancipation.”

Saskia.

The

New

W .W .

Norton

without

History,

Press.

of

Power:

California

Ideologies

of

Dominance

Press.

female

labor.”

418–433.

Sassen,

literature.

York:

Wolf,

employment:

and

histories.

Press.

Ballantine.

Safa,

Marxism

Company.

Berkeley: Ross,

1977.

Publishers.

Transformation,

Press.

Roseberry,

Raymond.

York:

discontents.

1993.

New

Left

“Class

analysis,

Review,

history

and

2.

New

Press

43

2

H U M A N

R I G H T S

Key concepts

➔

Justice

➔

Liber ty

➔

Equality

Learning outcomes

➔

Nature and evolution of human rights

➔

Codication, protection and monitoring of human rights

➔

Practice of human rights

➔

Debates surrounding human rights: diering interpretations of justice,

liber ty and equality

44

The

concept

into

our

politics

what

of

daily

human

lives

during

this

change.

the

means

We

will

United

Nations’

well

the

The

as

key

to

the

for

are

the

on

our

for

this

and

century.

This

evolution

claims

topic

on

of

are

various

from

debates

they

growing

the

about

of

of

Declaration

and

found

how

a

understanding

the

Universal

global,

to

and

taken

discuss

concepts

relativity

rights

twentieth

assertions

components

local

has

its

have

unit

power,

justice,

incorporated

arguments

global

politics

and

social

before

Rights

in

the

1948,

as

denitions.

liberty

geographic

in

investigate

rights

Human

various

whether

will

human

of

been

importance

and

equality.

levels,

from

surrounding

human

rights

These

the

cultural

should

be

universal.

Human

rights

individual

use

of

human

further

power

that

in

some

will

also

as

discuss

well

(such

“generations”

by

the

the

a

we

of

understood

collective;

concept

will

well

as

is

look

the

human

what

Karel

types,

at

in

of

the

complex.

past

aspects

rights

terms

however,

more

We

change

will

rights

In

culture

fail

to

of

the

description

order

examinations

of

may

which

for

continually

and

of

to

and

go

people,

society

include

will

of

they

in

explore

rights

later

that

are

in

some

questions

and

its

always

change,

to

into

this

often

the

three

unit)

initiated

organizations

about

uses,

is

used.

complexity

non-governmental

concept

rights

are

undergoing

human

conventions

with

human

adding

division

other

the

for

purposes

debates

we

and

conclude

struggle

is

and

Vasak’s

and

means

the

political

rights

covenants

Nations

ongoing

and

whether

for

human

as

(NGOs).

politics

the

discussions

or

updated

United

as

of

academic

meaning

to

as

denitions

denition

from

as

analysis

politics,

often

of

usage.

positive,

The

most

rights

rights

our

and

general

We

are

and

what

this

particularly

for

power.

Key questions

1

Are there more signicant concepts that may be used to describe our current

state of global politics and the interaction of people and power on various

levels and for par ticular purposes?

2

Does the generality of the concept of human rights suce to oer goals

for humanity and a reasonable agenda in this era of rapid globalization and

social change?

3

Who would be in charge of that agenda and what problems may it cause?

4

What are some alternatives?

45

2.1 The development of human rights

What are human rights?

The

most

they

are

These

common

rights

rights

nationality,

Human

of

are

can

are

and

rights

local

global,

survive,

such

as

be

do

not

claimed

those

may

refer

and

denition

individuals

then

we

Positive

and

by

universal,

and

rights

humans,

contemporary

held

have

these

rights

education,

that

are

in

two

of

are

sex,

is

that

human.

gender

or

groups.

are

part

of

the

existence

categories:

services

from

rights

they

protected

and

protection

or

that

into

goods

human

boundaries

entitlements

include

of

because

individually

divide

to

simply

by

authority,

that

harm,

allow

places

both

people

to

live

to

and

care.

Negative

outside

rights

agency.

community

within

Many

have

positive

means

act passed in France on 26 August 1 789

negative

with 1 7 ar ticles that dene the rights of

noted

is

that

in

of

that

the

in

and

do

the

not

require

right

community

the

practice

the

to

live,

and

intervention

the

the

absence

individuals

distinction

circumstantial

social

Los

must

in

that

include

largely

East

food

right

rights

by

of

torture,

who

live

self-determination.

political

right

the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, an

and

rights

economic,

A painting depicting the Declaration of

control

them

negative

are

These

rights.

Angeles,

be

elds

For

USA,

provided

wheat

–

by

of

based

between

on

example,

where

outside

Kansas,

a

access

the

lack

forces,

USA,

positive

to

right

of

to

local

but

it

where

and

resources

is

food

is

a

resources

more

the

and

of

a

abundant

1

resources

can

only

be

taken

away

through

external

intervention

citizens and the nation

This

distinction

between

Enlightenment

writers

negative

and

of

the

and

positive

French

rights

is

Revolution,

a

product

where

the

of

concepts

TOK of

Do the human sciences help

us to understand the human

species as a whole, or just give

insight into par ticular cultural

groups?

liberty,

As

the

fraternity

times

realities,

these

indigenous

Universal

they

and

changed

came

people.

to

been

of

debated

were

economic

include,

Today,

Declaration

have

equality

and

for

most

to

Rights

amended

the

of

and

in

apply

became

example,

denitions

Human

and

taken

control

all

part

rights

human

the

the

to

a

of

start

of

beings.

contemporary

workers

rights

evolution

years

human

of

and

with

these

of

the

rights

as

since.

A brief history of human rights

The

term

society

the

is

“human

Second

World

Declaration

rarely

rights

we

used

as

now

claims

War

there

many

it

is

applied

coming

and

as

Rights

were

organizing

about

a

no

result

social

rights

peoples

around

into

for

the

to

the

their

globe

these

movements

people

many

forms

ancestral

for

use

United

Before

Many

in

contemporary

common

of

(UDHR).

principle.

human

indigenous

by

as

recent,

Human

and

their

demands

46

of

hear

by

rights”

relatively

livable

in

events,

for

lands

that

term

housing

because

the

language,

and

was

human

example,

and

after

Universal

the

invoked

assume

and

1940s,

Nations’

that

–

politics

the

the

working

2 . 1 :

conditions,

the

documented

populations

in

every

lack

part

of

of

medical

the

world

services

and

the

D E V E L O P M E N T

and

place

drinkable

of

human

O F

H U M A N

R I G H T S

water

rights

L TA

for

T H E

Thinking and

communication skills in

is

trade

one

agreements,

that

between

the

is

part

of

countries.

struggle

for

to

a

name

long

a

history

However,

rights

is

few

an

like

–

that

this

involving

concept

the

globalization

integral

part

of

of

human

relationships

(as

human

discussed

rights

within

in

Unit

and

1),

existence.

With

the

a

partner

concept

rights

and

the

purposes

of

this

course,

our

central

focus

will

be

on

what

into

are

and

who

decides

which

are

enforceable

and

which

are

Cassin,

one

of

the

drafters

of

the

Universal

Declaration

of

in

1948,

used

the

declaration

of

the

French

Revolution

as

a

Again,

however,

the

French

declaration

does

not

account

attempts

at

delegating

human

rights

to

specic

legislative

processes

needed

to

enforce

them.

populations,

Hence

our

other

were

term

Can

on

what

level

(geographic

and

political)

are

it

it

different

ideas

of

rights

discussed

came

into

before

you

general

provide

any

important

examples question:

Is

and

use? the

from?

for

this specic

general

did

starting

that point.

Where

Human

from Rights

was

not.

come René

it

our

human

vocabulary. rights

discuss

human

when

introduced For

of

human

for

the

class

to

rights

discuss? enforced

and

realized

within

societies,

communities

and

ruling

bodies?

Demonstrators protest against Brazilian President Dilma Rousse and the ruling Workers

Par ty at Paulista Avenue in Sao Paulo, Brazil

The evolution of society and human rights

Statements

They

are

birthright.

have

easy

The

a

of

intrinsic

to

be

on

time

complex

multipart

access

to

question

rights

the

However,

dependent

product

of

held

the

and

of

practice

place.

society;

division

resources

when

can

be

found

entitlements

of

and

we

of

The

that

labour

can

in

human

that

identify

a

of

the

beings

rights

is

concept

societies

who

all

human

current

is,

those

of

that

part

religions.

of

contextual,

of

are

human

our

or

rights

multilayered

incorporates

do

world’s

as

both

those

is

a

and

who

have

not.

beginning

for

the

history

of

human

2

rights

notes

is

that

answer.

Rome

while

one

that

this

Many

offer

is

has

a

produced

politically

accept

early

the

charged

commonly

examples

acknowledging

controversy.

that,

of

the

for

Micheline

question,

held

ethical

example,

view

and

that

one

that

ancient

presentation

the

Ishay

concepts

of

of

(2004:

is

6)

difcult

Greece

human

to

and

rights,

punishment

and

47

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

justice

The

were

latter

recognized

advocated

human

essential

education

as

a

to

our

all,

2004:

consideration

of

evidence

of

a

to

7).

are

that

rights,

within

moral

on

Earth.

The

as

West

we

there

structures

superiority.

Eric

was

Confucianism

promoted

developments

has

seen

written

does

to

demonstrated

within

signicant

of

beliefs.

which

Islam

have

are

existence

social

and

important

the

but

Buddhist

ecosystem,

Christianity

These

globe.

and

survive

exists

of

Hindu

natural

themselves,

the

rights

the

both

still

members

of

ability

and

belief

around

Babylon,

defence

incorporation

societies

provide

a

(Ishay

committee

among

ancient

for

common

advanced

UDHR

the

as

in

included

solidarity

include,

most

present

also

Wolf

explains

often

mistake

differences

evidence

not

the

the

of

automatically

in

his

classic

3

Europe

and

the

conditions

societies

argue

that

as

evolved

we

only

developed

the

Wolf

in

an

at

different

to

similar

imposition

have

been

entity

the

of

see

that

for

we

all

societies.

speeds

and

signicant

natural

massive

outside

Many

of

even

rights

begat

Given

the

Western

with

to

in

varying

over

that

conditions.

and

came

indigenous

social

human

among

conditions,

changes

current

However,

similarities

(ecological)

global

powers

Greece

the

of

and

it

human

is

in

the

the

to

this

Rome

to

of

Some

societies

later,

with

social

other

West

begat

it,

more

colonialism

organizations.

a

as

there

a

and

the

industrial

United

according

Europe,

revolution.

States,

and

civilizations.

Enlightenment,

the

exists

society

genealogy,

Christian

the

that

West

societies

has

and

of

of

this

yielded

pursuit

is

outside

think

Renaissance

human

fair

rights

that

Rome,

turn

and

can

opposition

democracy

in

written

philosophy,

of

and

one

believing

begat

political

classroom

that

Renaissance,

liberty,

nature

the

and

of

up

democracy,

life,

conception

inside

West,

grew

ancient

Enlightenment

crossed

the

independent

us

which

Europe

taught,

called

civilization

TOK

universal

begin

during

History

says,

We

to

Without

historically

have

that

signicantly,

and

People

Christian

the

Industry,

embodying

the

happiness.

rights

conclude

European

and

that

in

its

development

the

most

origin.

We

through

popular

have

seen

how

To what extent are our different

approaches

and

views

have

given

Europe,

and

later

the

United

perspectives determined by States,

a

denitional

advantage

in

the

creation

of

belief

systems

around

our membership of a par ticular human

rights,

and

our

general

perceptions

worldwide

have

been

culture? Is it possible to strongly

inuenced

by

current

ideas

in

the

most

industrialized

nations.

objectively evaluate the impact The

assertions

of

cultural

rights,

on

the

other

hand,

is

a

more

complex

of culture on our knowledge and topic

which

concerns

the

differences

in

systems

on

and

within

different

beliefs? continents,

the

and

Western

assumption

rights

Just

has

as

and

of

gender

over

designation

The

the

Human

and

as

safely

a

rights

make

War

UN’s

for

and

the

that

events

the

so

labour

have

these

of

generalized

the

and

and

ideal.

social

the

been

human

movements.

were

Nations’

movements,

driving

the

the

Universal

ethnic

movements

particularly

accepting

One

of

Holocaust

United

religious

resources

groups

to

of

the

against

development

indigenous

struggles,

those

arguments

horrors

commission

Rights,

to

to

as

is

and

and

forces

for

wars

the

“generations”

of

below.

and

for

material

connected

access

rights

the

human

World

the

Romans

having

philosophers

“virtue”

48

of

Greeks

Greek

been

for

discussed

recognized

of

can

movements,

resources

rights

we

Second

trigger

Declaration

provided

version

that

always

the

primary

has

central

are

the

considered

Plato

and

two

the

Aristotle

characteristic

of

early

“rights

are

civilizations

of

man”,

often

human

life

cited

and

for

(Ishay

most

the

Ancient

referencing

2007:

63).

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

and

the

Peace

of

Westphalia,

which

was

instituted

in

1648,

labour

The Magna Carta, or the “Great Charter ” was could

be

provided

to

advance

a

declining

feudalism

and

a

growing

signed by King John of England on 15 June industrialization.

Social

changes

were

taking

place

all

over

Europe,

1215, in order to soothe the complaints of and

were

evidenced

by

the

Magna

Carta

(1215),

the

Charter

of

the

40 Barons in the English countryside who Forest

(1217),

the

Petition

of

Right

(1648)

and

the

English

Bill

of

Rights

felt that they were not getting a fair share (1689).

All

of

these

documents

recognized

the

rights

of

the

individual,

of their rights and property from a greedy culminating

in

the

French

Revolution

that

witnessed

the

nal

demise

king. It stated (in part) that “to no one will of

feudal

in

social

systems.

These

rights

became

more

prominent

and

embedded

we sell, to no one will we deny or delay laws

during

the

eighteenth

and

nineteenth

centuries

and

were

right or justice”. presented

Just 10 weeks after its agreement, Pope

Innocent III destroyed the agreement, and

orders

the

of

in

documents

Europe,

catchphrase

and

solidied

of

charters

by

“Liberty,

the

that

French

Equality

and

revolutionized

Revolution

the

and

social

the

spread

of

Fraternity”.

England fell into Civil War. King John had These

social

changes

and

the

reorganization

of

rights

and

duties

which

hoped that the institution of the Magna they

represented

resulted

in

a

more

complex

labour

system

and

a

core

Carta would calm the Barons and then fall reorganization

of

the

division

of

labour.

No

longer

did

individuals

and

into obscurity, but the Pope saw it as an families

have

land

designated

by

feudal

lords

on

which

they

could

grow

attempt to weaken royal rights over the their

own

foodstuffs;

instead,

mercantile

organizations

ruled

over

the

people and, as such, illegal and unjust. The production

and

distribution

of

goods,

for

which

they

needed

labour

to

rule over the lives and work of people was keep

running.

Those

without

land

were

forced

to

sell

their

labour

in

important to a feudal system in which the order

to

buy

those

foodstuffs

that

could

feed

their

families.

With

this

aristocracy owned the land and allowed reorganization

came

a

reconsideration

of

rights

of

labour

and

a

naming

of

rights

people to work on it for a price. based

on

labour

The Char ter of the Forest written in

this

that

solidied

1217 was sealed by Henry III, and was a

reworking of the Magna Car ta, assigning

the ownership of the forests to the

it

the

and

goods.

capitalism

the

The

French

the

This

in

of

presented.

after

production

those

evolution

is

often

we

social

to

was

accumulate

recognized

now

and

stratication

Revolution

ability

which

division

as

that

based

goods

the

on

the

became

the

and

control

more

ownership

the

beginnings

over

means

of

the

to

of

trade

era

of

part

of

live.

aristocracy. It was put into law in 1225.

What was impor tant about the Char ter of

the Forest was that it stipulated that any

Capitalist societies

land unfairly taken by the king would be Capitalist

societies

have

status

differences

and

hierarchies

as

given back to the Barons, and that free their

core

organization,

and

are

therefore

built

on

the

differences

among

men would have limited use of the land groups

to

access

the

resources

needed

to

live.

In

contrast,

egalitarian

for special purposes. This was again an societies

had

no

need

for

“human

rights”

as

such,

as

all

community

attempt to solidify feudal law, through members

were

by

denition

equal.

Community

labour

was

for

the

which the aristocracy had control over the production

of

goods

that

were

used

in

the

community

and/or

traded

English forests and land. Much later the with

other

communities

that

had

items

not

available

locally.

Status

in

Petition of Right (1648) and the English hunting-and-gathering

societies

was

often

a

temporary

designation

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task-oriented

(such

as

building

a

canoe

or

organizing

a

trading

individuals, weakening the feudal system. expedition),

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principles

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organization.

individual

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for

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phenomenon

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to

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use

market.

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to or

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controls

the

exchange

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product

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power

French through

their

life.

production

control

over

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materials

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needed

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maintain

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purpose

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produced

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process

exchange

changes

rather

than

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community

when

products

consumption.

Revolution? Anthropologists

nineteenth

50

the

human

the

labour

individual the

or

and

have

noted

twentieth

that

this

centuries

change

as

a

often

result

of

happened

colonialism,

in

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when

are

2 . 1 :

the

autonomous

destroyed

colonial

social

of

for

forces

sectors

and

with

colonial

human

them

were

brutally

lands

were

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in

the

their

the

major

the

eighteenth

the

evolution

earmarks

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kin

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denition,

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off

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colonial

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tribal

this

that

nineteenth

the

into

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groups

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indigenous

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their

changes

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forces.

names

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and

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was

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leaders

violated.

communities,

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was

in

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production;

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by

outpowered

given

both

societies

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administrators.

today

trauma

of

and

land

rights,

foreign

the

benet

easily

were

managers

to

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of

replaced

and

organization

people

for

evolution

rapidly

expansion

societies

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and

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labour,

and

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rights

by

were

workers

own

advocated,

and

“haves”

and

violent,

for

labour,

came

the

the

the

and

families

“have-nots”

rights

to

like

won

by

Rights

in

Ishay

the

rights

that

initiated

need

workers

of

their

and

that

unions,

over

9).

to

the

that

social

the

both

among

protection

these

were

the

of

and

child

rights

to

movements

the

precursors

movements,

Universal

the

peaceful

hours,

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rights

other

led

growing

workday

2004:

for

were

movements,

trade

control

(see

of

for

realities

organize

suffrage,

the

recognition

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signicantly

political

recognition

entitlements

the

The

universal

education

for

their

protection.

most

and

of

examples

Declaration

of

1948.

The Declaration and its initial considerations

While

what

they

the

we

are

ideals

now

the

Declaration

to

its

agreed

light

asking

for

the

the

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in

not

a

of

on

for

on

is

that

of

it

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its

its

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sent

to

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Herskovits,

done

that

many

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the

apartment,

Nations.

then

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Village

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differences

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to

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wrote

orientation

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Greenwich

by

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claims.

Africa,

that

important

adopted

as

to

accompanied

committee

Roosevelt’s

serve

important

of

views

his

the

its

main

focused

on

individual.

Western

main

at

beliefs

the

and

time,

audience.

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surprising

it

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eldwork

disciplines

the

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example,

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rights,

debates

some

Declaration

viewpoints

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Declaration’s

result

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Eleanor

particularly

of

focus

many

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Rights.

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and

rights

human

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anthropological

points,

in

disagree

the

his

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European

as

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development,

of

to

started

to

after

Director

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precursors

of

Declaration,

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of

refer

World

behaviour

with

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and

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that

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was

commented

disagreement

the

Declaration

horrors

of

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on

with

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the

direct

Holocaust,

this

is

outcome.

51

2.2 The United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The

on

United

10

and

all

sets

there

during

to

a

be

The

had

the

is

the

been

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of

translated

the

barbarous

and

that

Nations

Human

Rights,

document

achievement

developed

and

War,

United

for

was

horrible

World

Declaration

most

standard”

Declaration

Second

repeated.

Universal

1948,

“common

nations.

that

Nations’

December

largely

acts

these

for

all

with

carried

acts

on

commissioned

a

out

and

recognition

by

not

group

planet,

peoples

the

could

adopted

the

nations

be

of

allowed

scholars

The logo of a year-long campaign in

and

activists

from

around

the

world

to

produce

this

document,

and

2008, marking the 60th anniversary

the

Declaration

was

initiated

in

the

New

York

apartment

of

Eleanor

of the Universal Declaration of Human

Roosevelt,

wife

of

the

then

US

president.

However,

despite

the

best

Rights

of

intentions,

and

Western

Eleanor

TOK

the

leaders

societies

Roosevelt

differences

came

these

that

and

was

would

following

and

activists

cultures

forced

just

to

have

document,

–

–

were

concede

to

be

which

representing

often

that

in

accepted.

Eastern

disagreement,

there

outlined

both

would

Out

basic

of

this

rights

and

always

be

collaboration

for

all

citizens

The United Nations’ Declaration of

Earth.

This

document,

however,

was

not

the

end

of

the

differences

on

of Human Rights claims to be the

meaning

of

human

rights,

particularly

between

East

and

West.

“universal”. Is there anything

that is true for all cultures?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The

preamble

human

to

the

Declaration

sets

the

scope

of

contemporary

rights:

Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights

of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and

peace in the world,

Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts

which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which

human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and

want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last

resor t, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be

protected by the rule of law,

Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between

nations,

Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Char ter rearmed their

faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and wor th of the human person

and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social

progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation

with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of

human rights and fundamental freedoms,

Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest

impor tance for the full realization of this pledge,

Now, therefore, the General Assembly proclaims…

52

2 . 2 :

T H E

U N I T E D

N A T I O N S ’

U N I V E R S A L

D E C L A R A T I O N

O F

H U M A N

R I G H T S

Eleanor Roosevelt holding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1949

Ar ticle 1

Ar ticle 6

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a

rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and

person before the law.

should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Ar ticle 7

Ar ticle 2

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set for th

discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled

in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such

to equal protection against any discrimination in violation

as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other

of this Declaration and against any incitement to such

opinion, national or social origin, proper ty, bir th or other

discrimination.

status. Fur thermore, no distinction shall be made on the

Ar ticle 8 basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of

Everyone has the right to an eective remedy by the the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether

competent national tribunals for acts violating the it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any

fundamental rights granted him by the constitution other limitation of sovereignty.

or by law.

Ar ticle 3 Ar ticle 9 Everyone has the right to life, liber ty and security of person.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention

Ar ticle 4

or exile.

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the

Ar ticle 10 slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public

Ar ticle 5

hearing by an independent and impar tial tribunal, in the

No one shall be subjected to tor ture or to cruel, inhuman or

determination of his rights and obligations and of any

degrading treatment or punishment.

criminal charge against him.

53

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

Ar ticle 11

Ar ticle 18

1

Everyone charged with a penal oence has the right

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience

to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according

and religion; this right includes freedom to change

to law in a public trial at which he has had all the

his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in

guarantees necessary for his defense.

community with others and in public or private, to

manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, 2

No one shall be held guilty of any penal oence on

worship and observance. account of any act or omission.

Ar ticle 19 Ar ticle 12

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his

expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks

without interference and to seek , receive and impar t upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right

information and ideas through any media and regardless to the protection of the law against such interference or

of frontiers. attacks.

Ar ticle 20 Ar ticle 13

1 1

Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful

Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and

assembly and association. residence within the borders of each State.

2 2

No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Everyone has the right to leave any country, including

his own, and to return to his country.

Ar ticle 14

Ar ticle 2 1

1

Everyone has the right to take par t in the government

of his country, directly or through freely chosen 1

Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other

representatives. countries asylum from persecution.

2 2

Everyone has the right to equal access to public

This right may not be invoked in the case of

service in his country. prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political

crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and

3

The will of the people shall be the basis of the

authority of government; this will shall be expressed

principles of the United Nations.

in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by

Ar ticle 15 universal and equal surage and shall be held by

1

Everyone has the right to a nationality.

2

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality

secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Ar ticle 22 nor denied the right to change his nationality.

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social

Ar ticle 16

1

Men and women of full age, without any limitation due

to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry

and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights

as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.

2

Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and

security and is entitled to realization, through national

eor t and international cooperation and in accordance

with the organization and resources of each State, of the

economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his

dignity and the free development of his personality.

Ar ticle 23

full consent of the intending spouses. 1

3

Everyone has the right to work , to free choice of

The family is the natural and fundamental group unit

employment, to just and favourable conditions of

of society and is entitled to protection by society and

work and to protection against unemployment.

the State. 2

equal pay for equal work .

Ar ticle 1 7

1

Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as

in association with others.

Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to

3

Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable

remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an

existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, 2

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his proper ty. if necessary, by other means of social protection.

54

2 . 2 :

4

T H E

U N I T E D

N A T I O N S ’

U N I V E R S A L

Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions

D E C L A R A T I O N

O F

H U M A N

R I G H T S

Ar ticle 27

for the protection of his interests. 1

Everyone has the right freely to par ticipate in the

cultural life of the community, to enjoy the ar ts and to

Ar ticle 24

share in scientic advancement and its benets. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including

2

reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic

Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral

and material interests resulting from any scientic,

holidays with pay.

literary or ar tistic production of which he is

Ar ticle 25 the author.

1

Everyone has the right to a standard of living

Ar ticle 28 adequate for the health and wellbeing of himself and

Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in

of his family, including food, clothing, housing and

which the rights and freedoms set for th in this Declaration

medical care and necessary social services, and

can be fully realized.

the right to security in the event of unemployment,

sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack

Ar ticle 29 of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.

1 2

Everyone has duties to the community in which alone

Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care the free and full development of his personality is and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of possible. wedlock , shall enjoy the same social protection.

2

Ar ticle 26

1

In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone

shall be subject only to such limitations as are

determined by law solely for the purpose of

Everyone has the right to education. Education shall

securing due recognition and respect for the rights

be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental

and freedoms of others and of meeting the just

stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.

requirements of morality, public order and the general

Technical and professional education shall be made

welfare in a democratic society.

generally available and higher education shall be

equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. 3

2

These rights and freedoms may in no case be

exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of

Education shall be directed to the full development

the United Nations.

of the human personality and to the strengthening

of respect for human rights and fundamental

Ar ticle 30 freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance

Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying and friendship among all nations, racial or religious

for any State, group or person any right to engage in any groups, and shall fur ther the activities of the United

activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of Nations for the maintenance of peace.

any of the rights and freedoms set for th herein. 3

Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of

education that shall be given to their children.

L TA

Research and thinking skills

1

What

events

2

What

rights

by

member

3

Which

4

How

led

does

the

the

establishment

UDHR

propose

of

the

and

Universal

how

were

Declaration?

they

accepted

nations?

nations

have

to

did

human

not

agree

rights

with

evolved

these

since

rights

the

and

initial

why?

declaration?

TOK

Ar ticle 19 states that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expressions,

including the right to hold opinions without interference. What would count as

interference in this sense?

55

2.3 The three “generations” of human rights

Our

contemporary

concepts

of

the

of

UDHR

various

that

those

the

The

of

and

participating

Czech

three

activist

rights

peoples

gender

rights:

or

access

to

First

they

resources

Generation

French

individual

and,

emblem of the Republic

also

has

to

include

once

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right

to

They

become

most

work,

access

their

Generation

rights,

corresponding

right

to

economic

in

Rights

a

most

especially

development

on

all

of

by

rather

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who

rights

include

deem

the

women

in

pushed

all

a

religion,

to

for

the

are

common

would

be

all

location,

tenet

of

differentiated

rights,

in

the

correspond

freedom

engage

in

by

violation

parts

the

world.

of

and

social

equality,

over

one’s

“security-oriented

and

to

to

the

and

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of

rights

head

of

religion

interference.

the

work

of

indivisible.

to

for

liberty

set

include

slavery,

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the

fundamental

without

roof

live,

division

with

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cannot

economic

a

the

fraternity,

that

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and

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which

that

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and

rights”

as

reproduce

all

are

the

of

as

of

as

the

food.

they

their

well

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include

rights

rights,

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cultural

These

political

generations

political

to

fraternity.

collective

of

the

and

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individual

and

of

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levels.

more

often

widely

resistance

socialist

idea

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environment,

includes

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them

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geographic

generations

those

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formation

and

around

to

clearly

the

The

activists,

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politically,

in

as

to

reasonable

development.

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rights,

live

with

social

campaign

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grounded

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to

to

non-

communities.

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the

act

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by

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healthcare,

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freedom

again

correspond

56

have

or

liberty,

for

individual,

and

United

peoples.

universally,

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bought

of

of

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concept

importantly,

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human

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its

world.

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origin

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58

2 . 3 :

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59

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

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61

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

UN human rights mechanisms

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of

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child pornography (CRC-OPSC)

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Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women

63

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

Rights of older persons

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Justice System ●

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United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of

Rights of persons with disabilities

Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines) ●

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

●

Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of

●

Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of

Crime and Abuse of Power Persons with Disabilities

●

Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons

●

Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons

●

Principles for the protection of persons with mental

illness and the improvement of mental health care

●

Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary

●

Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers

●

Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors

●

Principles on the Eective Prevention and Investigation

of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions ●

Standard Rules on the Equalization of Oppor tunities

for Persons with Disabilities

●

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from

Enforced Disappearance Human rights in the administration of justice: protection

of persons subjected to detention or imprisonment

●

●

Remedy and Reparation

United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the

Treatment of Prisoners (The Nelson Mandela Rules)

●

Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners

●

Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons

Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a

●

International Convention for the Protection of All

Persons from Enforced Disappearance

●

United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women

Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women

under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment

Oenders (the Bangkok Rules) ●

United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles

Deprived of their Liber ty

●

Updated set of principles for the protection and

promotion of human rights through action to ●

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being combat impunity Subjected to Tor ture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or

●

Degrading Treatment or Punishment

Social welfare, progress and developments

Convention against Tor ture and Other Cruel, Inhuman

●

Declaration on Social Progress and Development

●

Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger

or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT)

●

Optional Protocol to the Convention against Tor ture

and Malnutrition

and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or ●

Declaration on the Use of Scientic and Technological

Punishment (OPCAT) Progress in the Interests of Peace and for the Benet

●

Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health

of Mankind

Personnel, particularly Physicians, in the Protection of ●

Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace

●

Declaration on the Right to Development

●

Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and

Prisoners and Detainees against Torture and Other Cruel,

Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

●

Principles on the Eective Investigation and

Human Rights

Documentation of Tor ture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or

Degrading Treatment or Punishment

●

Safeguards guaranteeing protection of the rights of

●

Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity

Promotion and protection of human rights

those facing the death penalty ●

●

Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Ocials

●

Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by

Principles relating to the status of national institutions

(The Paris Principles)

●

Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of

Law Enforcement Ocials Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote

●

and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and

United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-

Fundamental Freedoms

custodial Measures (The Tokyo Rules)

●

United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the

Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules)

64

●

United Nations Declaration on Human Rights

Education and Training

2 . 3 :

T H E

T H R E E

“ G E N E R A T I O N S ”

O F

H U M A N

R I G H T S

Marriage

Nationality, statelessness, asylum and refugees

●

●

Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness

●

Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons

●

Convention relating to the Status of Refugees

●

Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees

●

Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals who

Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for

Marriage and Registration of Marriages

●

Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum

Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages

Right to health

●

Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS are not nationals of the country in which they live

Right to work and to fair conditions of employment War crimes and crimes against humanity, including

●

Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (No. 122)

genocide

●

Freedom of association

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide ●

Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to

●

Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)

Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory

Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against ●

Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining

Humanity Convention, 1949 (No. 98)

●

Principles of international co-operation in the

Slavery, slavery-like practices and forced labour

detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of

●

Slavery Convention

●

Protocol amending the Slavery Convention signed at

persons guilty of war crimes and crimes against

humanity

Geneva on 25 September 1926 ●

●

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery,

Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former

Yugoslavia

the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar ●

Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda

●

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Cour t

to Slavery

●

Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29)

●

Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105)

●

Convention for the Suppression of the Trac in Persons

Humanitarian law

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Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of

Prisoners of War

and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others

●

●

Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian

Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Tracking Persons in Time of War

in Persons, Especially Women and Children,

●

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions

supplementing the United Nations Convention against

of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection Transnational Organized Crime

of Victims of International Armed Conicts

Rights of migrants (Protocol I)

●

International Convention on the Protection of the ●

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of

Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection

Families (ICPMW) of Victims of Non-International Armed Conicts

10 ●

Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land,

(Protocol II)

Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations

Convention against Transnational Organized Crime

Class discussion

Do any of these instruments seem more impor tant than others? Which seem

most applicable to contemporary global politics? Why?

L TA

Research and thinking skills

Which

groups

inclusion

of

or

organizations

these

human

have

rights

been

most

involved

in

the

instruments?

65

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

The practice of human rights

Since

the

mean

has

original

many

become

Essay

on

waves

The

even

“The

of

Declaration,

things

various

more

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activism

rst

to

was

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since

the

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the

meaning

peoples,

and

of

and

of

complex.

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human

the

practice

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rights

of

Kenneth

Rights”,

he

has

human

Cmiel’s

identies

come

to

rights

Review

three

1940s.

Roosevelt

and

the

initial

drafting

of

the

11

Declaration.

who

were

those

working

rights

drafted

the

discussion

promoted

Habib

as

of

of

to

a

the

be

the

until

“an

of

however,

humans

Holocaust,

on

during

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Diplomat,

Declaration.

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were

meaning

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fought

decade.

Human

a

there

the

as

and

next

on

was

and

such

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the

crimes

wave

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to

heart

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of

binding

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for

it...

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force

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Churchill

and

review

many

of

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for

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prominent

was

the

international

that

set

of

international

General

against

came

what

human

Charles

in

the

(2004:

129)

Assembly

similarly

next

major

law,

and

principles

law.

the

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day

supposed

to

new

supposed

Genocide

before

matter.

international

the

was

it

adopted

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the

tribunal

world

charging

humanity

in

Cmiel

of

rights.

represented

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the

into

1990s

explosion”

was

designed

at

Declaration,

with

in

(founded

by

growth

International

in

1961)

establishment

the

turned

exponential

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also

was

adopted

with

second

1970s

interest

of

was

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someone

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drafting,

rights

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active

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quickly

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calls

result

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rights

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of

in

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New

the

York,

Plaza Women of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina

de

Mayo

in

Buenos

Aires, protesting against missing children during the

and

Helsinki

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groups 1970s military dictatorship

in

the

Soviet

Eastern

of

Union

Europe.

activism

NGOs

centre

of

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acts

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Nations

against

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focus

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and

relationships

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interactions

international

distribution

notes

steadily

international

with

technologies

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movements.

66

This

corresponded

communication

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and

the

human

the

with

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more

peoples

these

NGOs

promotion

rights

2 . 3 :

The

third

and

1990s,

rights,

wave,

health

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major

London,

human

Human

combating

of

establishment

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wide

yet

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of

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rights

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emphasized

take

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back

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of

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resources

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ability

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globe.

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status,

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major

in

abuses.

of

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labour

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and

power

origin

consolidation

difference

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claimed

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on

chapter

human

1960s

and

rights

globalization.

well

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with

signies

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as

without

concerned

movements

told,

abuses

of

of

rights.

to

Yugoslavia

very

number

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outside

that

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women’s

around

as

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NGOs

college

publicizing

made

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growth

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1970s

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as

draw

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resources

growth

a

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undoubtedly

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has

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of

nd

economy

rights

past

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interest,

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in

rights

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late

H U M A N

International

themselves

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of

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International

the

political

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in

include

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promote.

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and

for

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political

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multinational

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civil

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campaigns.

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130)

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done

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abuses

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rights

rights

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law

reports

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was

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human

rights,

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as

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of

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rights

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UN

begins

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failed

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with

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nations

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discussions

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in

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signicant

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for

future

populations.

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desertication

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How do the meanings of key terms and concepts within disciplines change over

time? What might constitute progress in an area of knowledge? How could we

know if progress, rather than simply change, has been achieved?

67

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

The politicization of human rights

The

in

meaning

recent

●

The

of

human

times,

largely

involvement

industrialized

●

The

activist

●

the

The

●

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of

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in

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been

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highly

politicized

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identied

and

nationalized

around

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enactment

have

has

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the

rights.

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deployment

of

between

social

labour

growth.

versus

relative

rights

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regard

to

differences.

rights

powerful

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its

of

industrialization

importantly,

the

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towards

disputes

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result

movements

effort

cultural

of

a

countries

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in

rights

as

of

effect

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growth

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of

peoples

globalization

and

of

labour

communities

as

practices

they

confront

forces.

of

NGOs

and

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lessening

of

the

role

of

the

UN

L TA

Research and thinking in

human

rights

discussions

revolve

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internal

workings

of

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Do all NGOs have a positive

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for

centuries.

oppression,

where

were

Often

the

positioned.

abuses

are

in

abuse

practices

free.

are

places,

Calls

one

as

human

experts

rights

that

at

rights

at

home

the

their

are

evils

and

assumed.

in

collective

the

beginning

own

denitional

abuses

occupied

are

protections

as

than

consciousness

NGOs

that

rather

has

class

expounding

serve

assumes

rights

rights

claiming

globe

abuses

interest,

human

human

the

individual

around

while

for

human

rights,

on

collective

Further,

around

while

human

about

bodies

far-off

governments

of

discourse

discussions

governmental

focusing

poorly

of

space

and

to

power

show,

human

rights

governments

corrections

acts

of

There

their

is

a

by

own

geography

developed

economies

14/15

while

ignoring

or

recasting

abuse

in

the

highly

capitalized

states.

69

2.4 Conclusion

Our

discussion

various

and

debates

enquiry

and

to

the

human

all

into

that

for

to

the

the

that

and

adoption

many

have

then,

is

of

through

the

treaties

been

adaptation.

here,

in

grounded

resources

the

and

their

question

to

rights

agreements

implementation,

promises

covenants

of

lead

their

rights

Declaration

result

human

claims,

access

protections

and

of

contexts,

a

The

critical

human

rights

whom?

Since

the

social

movements

tenets

of

around

rights

1940s,

there

human

the

for

have

built

been

around

rights,

and

NGOs

implementation

various

many

the

of

stakeholders

built

human

globally.

A human rights placard held by a participant in the annual Pride London parade, UK

This

human

rights

approaches

to

successfully

whom

are

gaining

using

human

enacting

rights

debates

between

no

to

whom

they

can

are

be

analysis

of

human

of

around

local,

question

human

a

rights

political

regional,

then

rights

gain

in

basic

have

East

as

a

to

the

to

resources

claim

that

stratagems

differences

challenging

among

and

and

those

those

for

exploitation

far

national,

where

the

the

this

public

has

are

human

the

place

of

and

of

of,

put

and

arguments

further

awareness

long

consist

rights

status

global

ongoing

as

either

class,

and

and

continue

rights

they

international

whether

will

human

how

outdistanced

and

movements

West

what

and

period

economy

furthered

author’s

changing

social

and

what

in

of

one

level.

the

are

to

with

access

terms

monitoring,

and

becomes

or

to

reached

We

crisis”,

led

emphasizing

little

of

directed

thwarted.

The

on

concepts

or

in

and

rights

means

practice

place

“mid-life

identication,

agreement

politics

a

access

change

Human

in

human

rights

social

as

now

has

into

the

and

and

geographies.

confused

the

violations

idea

and

inequality.

Time

will

only

tell

if

human

rights

remain

the

signicant

and

broad

TOK

Is it possible for scientists

to maintain a detached

relationship with the subject

matter they are investigating?

concept

that

political

economy,

may

challenge

those

and

subject

“people,

rapidly

areas

for

the

to

will

and

that

of

it

the

may

and

is

reproduction.

and

can

turn

at

the

make

the

The

a

in

a

combined

new

United

centre

of

changes

seeing

Once

structural

movement

fundamental

that

stage.

dominate

power

thinking

involvement

world

politics”

world,

social

the

example,

structural

require

ways

over

elites

power

organize

alternate

rights

taken

globalizing

inclusion

70

has

violence.

this

peoples

in

the

lessons

provide

difference

As

that

favour

can

be

Kirsch

in

a

to

geographic

learned

for

of

violence

exclusion

that

context

(cf.

in

dialogue

from

way

that

a

direction

Nations

of

with

a

from

human

2006:

25).

2.5 Exam-style questions

1

Discuss

the

concepts

of

extent

to

human

which

cultural

relativism

can

be

used

to

justify

different

rights.

Examiner hints

Arguments that cultural relativism cannot be used as

justication may include: Responses should include an understanding of cultural

●

relativism and of individual and collective rights, and an

the notion of cultural relativism has been used to

justify controversial cultural practices that infringe

indication of how these have been used in discussions on

par ticularly on individuals’ rights, such as honour

human rights. Responses may also refer to the creation

killing and female

of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and

genital mutilation

the controversies that have surrounded it. Responses

may also distinguish between cultural relativism and ●

cultural relativism does not allow for cultural

universal rights. comparisons and may therefore lead to a

misinterpretation of practices within cultures

Arguments that cultural relativism can be used as

justication may include: ●

●

cultural relativism assumes that the practices of

individual cultures represent autonomous rights that

should not be compared to those of other cultures

and the idea can thus be applied to defend many

universal approaches, in their emphasis on the

similarity of all human beings, may be more

successful in defending individual human rights, due

to their emphasis on the commonality of experience

of all human beings.

dierent practices and concepts of rights Responses should make reference to specic examples.

●

a cultural relativist approach is more successful

than universal approaches, for example, responses

may note that individual rights – on which a great

emphasis is placed in the UDHR – have been

criticized as Western conceptions that have been

forced on non-Western cultures through colonialism

and other forms of coercion

They could discuss Asian, African or indigenous

conceptions of rights that tend to view human rights in

more collective terms. Responses could also mention

more recent developments in universal rights, such as

covenants and treaties against gender discrimination,

for the protection of migrant workers or in favour of hate

crime laws, and so on.

that have often been detrimental to the maintaining Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation of

of more collective rights around the extent to which cultural relativism can been used as

the world an argument to defend alternative concepts of individual

●

cultural relativism may be more successful than

and collective human rights.

universal approaches in defending collective human

rights, given its emphasis on people’s shared

experience within

a culture.

71

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

2

“Human

rights

industrializing

covenants

and

economies.”

To

treaties

what

limit

extent

development

do

you

agree

in

newly

with

this

claim?

Examiner hints

Arguments that human rights covenants and treaties

do not limit the development of newly industrializing Responses should include an understanding of the economies may include: concept of development and of the nature and intention

●

of human rights covenants and treaties. Responses

human rights covenants and treaties are often not

enforced, or are not enforceable, and therefore they

should also show an understanding of what is meant by

do not limit development

newly industrializing economies.

●

Arguments that human rights covenants and treaties do

it is possible to have development without violating

human rights or environmental standards or treaties;

limit the development of newly industrializing economies

for example, in recent years there have been eor ts

may include:

to promote rights-based approaches to development ●

greater monitoring of labour conditions for human and sustainability rights reasons has reduced exibility to organize

●

labour in the process of industrialization

these sor ts of covenants and treaties do not “limit”

the process of development, but instead “improve” ●

trade agreements, agreements between buyers and the process suppliers, and self-monitoring by multi-national

●

corporations often specify the ways in which

commodities can be produced and distributed, and

this places limits on how resources, including labour,

can be implemented

●

it could be argued that many countries became

modern states through a process of industrialization,

and that emerging economies should be allowed to

follow the same path. The process of industrialization

by which many presently developed countries

became prosperous was based on practices, such as

child labour during the Industrial Revolution, which

would nowadays be considered to be violations of

human rights,

and would be condemned and/or forbidden

although human rights covenants and treaties may

place limits on some aspects of development, they

also facilitate other aspects, such as education,

technology transfer or international cooperation.

Responses should make some reference to specic

examples. For instance, candidates could discuss the

process of industrialization in a cer tain country, such as

in China or India. They could refer to aspects of specic

covenants and treaties, such as to the International

Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966),

the Convention on the Protection of Rights of Migrant

Workers (1990), the Rome Statute (2002) or the Kyoto

Protocol (2005), and evaluate how these aspects have or

have not limited development.

by environmental standards and international Responses should include the candidate’s evaluation

organizations, such as the World Trade Organization of whether human rights treaties and covenants limit

and the International Labour Organization. development in newly industrializing economies.

72

2 . 5 :

3

“The

Universal

relevant

for

century.”

To

Declaration

dealing

what

with

extent

of

Human

human

do

you

Rights

rights

agree

(1948)

issues

with

in

this

the

is

no

E X A M - S T Y L E

Q U E S T I O N S

longer

twenty-rst

claim?

Examiner hints

Arguments that the 1948 UDHR is still relevant may include:

●

human rights abuses still persist, so it is needed as much as ever: additional

covenants and treaties have updated the basic tenets expressed in the

UDHR

●

it is formulated in non-prescriptive terms so can be adapted to deal with

dierent sor ts of rights

●

it is the basis for fur ther “generations” of rights including ones that address

current concerns such as education and gender equality

●

the majority of states are signatories so it is a morally aspirational goal for a

great

many nations.

Arguments that the 1948 UDHR is no longer relevant may include:

●

the UDHR is a historic document limited to the vision of the Western states

that created it

●

human rights abuses still persist, so has it proved to be ineectual

●

it does not include contemporary issues like same-sex marriage and gender

rights

●

it does not cater to the diering concepts of rights held in dierent cultures

●

its tenets are not legally enforceable and this has been shown to limit

their eectiveness.

Responses should include a conclusion on the extent to which you agree with

the claim.

73

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

4

Examine

the

protection

of

effectiveness

human

of

non-state

actors

in

advancing

the

rights.

Examiner hints

Arguments that non-state actors are eective may include:

●

NGOs like Amnesty International are powerful advocates of human rights

in that they can raise awareness of par ticular cases of abuse through

investigations, the organization of social movements, and through the use

of social media internationally

●

NGOs, because of their independent nature, can address the eects of

neglect and other human rights abuses in states

●

the structures of NGOs have more exibility than state structures, which

enables them to be quicker in responding to human rights issues

●

some IGOs like the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

and the International Criminal Cour t (ICC) can bypass state sovereignty in

order to uphold and promote human rights.

Arguments that non-state actors are not eective may include:

●

the majority of NGOs are not well suppor ted nancially, so this limits

their eectiveness

●

nancial/personal gain motivations of some members of NGOs can be an

issue

●

large NGOs working with government agencies may be limited in their ability

to act independently and to represent local populations

●

some international campaigns by non-state actors cannot be eective in all

countries because of diering cultural concepts of human rights

●

issues of state sovereignty and power prevent IGOs from bringing

perpetrators of human rights abuses to international institutions of justice

(for example, the United States

and China)

●

some non-state actors have no interest in promoting human rights, or they

may even directly challenge the tenets of the UDHR, and have an agenda

that either neglects or doesn’t recognize par ticular rights (for example,

the Taliban’s renunciation of education for women) – some politically

conservative NGOs actively campaign against others’ perceptions of

human rights (for example, rights to same-sex marriage, or to the use

of contraception to protect against unwanted pregnancy and sexually

transmitted diseases)

●

MNCs – for example, Apple, GE, and organizations like FIFA – make use

of lax labour rights in countries as a way of obtaining cheap labour, often

perpetuating and/or creating dangerous working environments

●

some MNCs are also complicit in the denial of rights such as the land rights

of indigenous groups

●

well-intentioned campaigns, for example, on social media, may be

inaccurate or misleading, for example, #Kony2012, and may sometimes be

based on faulty or limited information.

74

2 . 5 :

5

Compare

and

and

contrast

enforcement

Courts)

human

with

of

an

institutional

human

rights

non-institutional

rights

NGOs,

such

as

(for

approach

to

example,

through

approaches

Amnesty

(for

the

E X A M - S T Y L E

Q U E S T I O N S

ratication

example,

the

Hague

through

International).

Examiner hints

It is not necessary for the response to be equally balanced between similarities

and dierences to achieve the highest marks.

Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept of

human rights; for example they may include references to human rights as often

being regarded as universal, inalienable, equal, and indivisible rights which

people are entitled to purely by being human.

Answers should explore the similarities and dierences between an institutional

and non-institutional approach to the ratication and enforcement of human

rights.

Similarities may include:

●

both try to actively enforce human rights ideals

●

both have controversial aspects

●

both have become increasingly media centred

●

both interact with government bodies and seats of power at various

geographic levels.

Dierences may include:

●

non-institutional organizations such as Human Rights Watch or Amnesty

International are often seen to have sucient inuence to have an eect

on human rights policies, whereas institutions tend to have more prestige,

resources or power;

●

institutional approaches tend to be more state centred, whereas non-

institutional approaches tend to be more informal or more local

●

institutional approaches have to work within systemic frameworks

●

there are possible dierences in how they are nanced.

Candidates may name institutional forums and organizations that consider

human rights beyond those mentioned in the question itself.

Examples may

include the Zapatista rebellion, the International Cour t of Justice, groups such

as Occupy, etc.

They may also discuss specic examples of failures of the

par ticular approaches, for example the fact that none of the major powers have

been brought to the Hague Cour ts.

The response may sum up with a conclusion on the similarities and dierences

between institutional and non-institutional approaches to human rights

ratication and enforcement.

75

2

HUMAN

R I G H TS

6

To

in

what

global

extent

do

politics

the

make

complex

the

realities

concept

of

and

relationships

human

rights

an

of

power

unachievable

ideal?

Examiner hints

Better answers will demonstrate an excellent understanding of the concept of

human rights and the concept of power.

They may then discuss whether the

realities of power make the goals utopian rather than realistic.

Arguments that they are unachievable may include:

●

inherent dierences in resources and oppor tunities

●

they are too idealistic

●

they are unrealistic or impractical

●

reference to the complex links between political and economic power

●

the diculties posed by entrenched belief systems.

Arguments that human rights are achievable may include:

●

there has been progress in gaining recognition of human rights, even in

dicult circumstances

●

power can be seen to be moving away from the state to grassroots, which

links to the impor tance of the individual rather than the state in human

rights.

Answers should make reference to specic examples, such as, for instance,

to the fact that 147 countries ratied the Convention against Tor ture and Other

Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; or they could refer to the

success of polio vaccination programmes, or to MNC demands, for example, for

free trade zones, etc.

Answers may include a conclusion reecting on how power and human

rights are interlinked, and on the extent to which the complex realities and

relationships of power in global politics make the concept of human rights an

unachievable ideal.

They may, for example, conclude that human rights are

aspirational goals, so it does not matter whether they are achievable or not.

76

2.6 References and fur ther reading

1

Donnelly,

(Second

J.

2003.

Edition).

Universal

New

Human

York.

Rights

Cornell

in

Theory

University

and

Practice.

Press.

2

Ishay,

MR.

2004.

The

History

Ishay,

MR.

2007.

The

Human

of

Human

Rights

Rights.

Reader.

University

(Second

of

California

Edition).

Press.

London.

Routledge.

3

Wolf,

E.

1982.

Europe

and

the

People

without

History.

University

of

California

Press.

4/5

From

the

Encyclopedia

Britannica,

p.

8

of

26.

6

Ignatieff,

Vol

46,

M.

1999.

number

9,

“Human

p.

rights,

the

midlife

crisis”.

New

York

Review

of

Books.

5.

7

In

Ishay,

MR.

2007.

The

Human

Rights

Reader.

London.

Routledge.

Pp

390–391.

8

Nash,

J.

Review

1981.

of

“Ethnographic

Anthropology.

Vol.

aspects

10,

pp.

of

the

world

capitalist

system”.

Annual

393–423.

9

United

Rights

States

Watch,

Ratication

New

of

Human

Rights

Treaties,

24

July

2009,

Human

York.

10

From

the

International

Justice

Resource

Center,

New

York.

11

Cmiel,

K.

Review.

2004.

“The

February,

pp.

recent

history

of

human

rights”.

The

American

Historical

117–135.

12

Moyn,

S.

2015.

Education,

the

“Do

human

Chronicle

rights

Review.

26

increase

May,

pp.s

inequality?”

The

Chronicle

of

Higher

1–23.

13/14

Hughes,

M.

NS.

Inclusion

2006.

and

“Dangerous

Exclusion

in

the

and

endangered

Global

Arena.

youth”

London.

in

Kirsch,

Routledge.

15

From

Kirsch,

Arena.

M.

London.

2006.

“Introduction”

in

Inclusion

and

Exclusion

in

the

Global

Routledge.

77

3

D EV E L O P M E N T

Key concepts

➔

Development

➔

Globalization

➔

Inequality

➔

Sustainability

Learning outcomes

➔

Contested meanings of development

➔

Factors that may promote or inhibit development

➔

Pathways towards development

➔

Debates surrounding development: challenges of globalization, inequality

and sustainability

78

There

are

imparted

dening

such

the

as

many

by

it.

In

the

of

beliefs

goals

an

and

advanced

United

mainstream

generally

denitions

the

States

denitions

reect

the

way,

of

court

Europe,

in

which

and

those

include

capitalist

the

and

power

development

If

you

are

a

mother

living

in

concerned

about

the

our

and

culture

that

your

arguing

ancestors

an

have

can

fate

of

community

based

have

a

their

very

If

a

country

is

newly

includes

of

the

lives

on,

different

China

become

with

and

like

and

strong

India,

and

the

main

of

the

capitalist

economies,

embedded

in

the

government

then

policies

and

goal

the

that

they

represent.

The

the

of

development

groups,

disagreements

communities.

internal

largest

by

strife

in

the

literally

villages

centuries.

cannot

yet

good

are

the

world,

are

the

goals

At

as

and

The

have

to

but

of

will

in

the

been

on

power

the

able

to

broader,

This

is

power

in

line

and

with

politics”

a

becoming

more

broader

popular,

human

in

and

environmental

measuring

Planet

Index

(HPI)

indexes

and

such

Genuine

(GPI).

be

a

a

very

basic

level,

continuous

and

well-being

level,

rise

of

the

is

a

development

in

the

social

living

be

organization.

universality

shown

can

by

of

the

dened

standards

the

fact

At

quest

that

the

for

all

societies,

and

communities

some

of

the

for

the

are

indigenous

the

rivers

the

of

of

created

meantime

for

villagers

government,

mount

a

The

means

aim

to

to

best

pursue

promote

this

goal

their

includes

from

the

provision

of

elimination

healthcare,

of

This

examines

education

poverty

and

to

the

food.

and

causes

water

of

of

halls

the

development,

and

countries

the

been

provide

depended

with

of

have

of

by

conicts

India,

thousands

political

compare

they

dams

using

social

generated

within

which

industry

have

and

be

differing

present

example

policy

submerging

that

often

among

A

government

agricultural

and

will

denition

“people,

seen

Indicator

everything interest

is

the

as

Happy

well-being. denitions

of

York.

is

states systems

New

countries

industries,

reect

the

that

development development

and

for

different.

of

we

course.

includes

global

Denitions

Paris

to

centres

of

industrializing,

advanced

capitalist

actions,

politics

the

the

then

set

Progress to

Delhi,

in

and

as example,

position

an

government

the

dimensions, goals.

the

their

mounted

indigenous

and development

threaten

have

taking

New

purposes,

perspective your

in

that

They

their

encompassing

focus land

defence,

located

which community

powers

survive.

economies more

grew.

the

to

social For

conditions,

to

ability

international

society,

Western

of

very

those

capitalist

or

resistance

development,

signicant

unit

how

the

it

can

way

people,

of

be

the

those

own

and

the

global

from

and

for

in

individuals,

interests

may

will

means,

stand

well-being

be

Each

The

and

may

just

as

of

debates

each

what

have

communities,

and

in

examined,

denitions

represent.

geographies,

differing

what

countries.

development

differences

differences

goals

development

and

comprehensive

communities

surrounding

noting

what

analysed

may

their

states

come

biases.

Key questions

1

What do we mean by "development"?

2

Who denes "development"?

3

How do we dene "development" for contemporary global politics?

79

3.1 The role of “development ” in global politics

Introduction

Capitalism

Because

is

of

functioning

of

the

this

and

the

social/economic

and

the

development

development

obtained

dominant

position

in

common

power

to

power

provide

use.

promote

The

system

that

the

it

most

vision

the

world

of

and

denitions

capitalism

ideas

today.

capitalism’s

inuential

advocates

their

in

generates,

for

have

the

denition

of

development.

From

classrooms

World

the

Fund (IMF)

capital,

and

is

Unlike

other

requires

its

its

States

in

is

the

on

Fund

dened

theories

this

the

that

development

health

growth

the

(IMF)

as

policy-making

International

and

–

many

based

we

now

other

around

growth

and

nd

(that

is,

the

in

(USAID),

agencies

the

–

world),

accumulation

textbooks

of

about

of

to

most

that

peoples

survive,

or

may

the

emphasize

stability

regardless

nations

and

contradictions:

of

the

whole

while,

capitalist-intensive

of

the

well-being

cultures,

effects

or

populations.

for

example,

countries

in

the

of

capitalism

the

results

This

the

United

world,

th

ranked

the

Development

goal.

confusing

of

public

for

non-government

the

of

of

Agency

communities,

some

one

of

ideas

own

needs

results

and

reect

communities,

institutes

US

primarily

many

development

the

the

Monetary

government

development

of

to

(WB),

International

both

The logo of the International Monetary

Bank

it

is

th

37

in

the

provision

of

healthcare

for

its

citizens

and

28

in

the

th

number

the

37

and

4

year

countries

olds

that

Development

without

US

of

is

higher

only

followed

by

countries

Iceland

while

29

early

form

cent,

Japan,

whose

the

(OECD).

education

per

spends

in

The

among

Canada

most

Luxembourg,

percentage

the

and

on

education

Organization

experience

populations

the

childhood

lowest

the

have

who

Switzerland,

of

of

Russian

per

OECD

of

college

Federation

among

Co-operation

countries;

tertiary

and

14

children

attend

gross

Germany

and

Economic

the

will

attained

education

for

–

are

parents

in

the

education,

national

the

the

Korea,

top

as

product

Netherlands

of

2010.

(GNP),

top

the

1

charts

for

nations

for

expenditures

on

earth,

Education,

has

on

been

Science

and

teachers’

ranked

salaries.

by

Culture

the

Cuba,

United

(UNESCO)

one

of

Nations

as

rst

on

the

poorest

Organization

international

2

mathematics

These

and

rankings

development

prominent

in

mean

goals,

the

and

This

mean

does

not

directed

only

stakeholders

their

own

example,

and

goals

many

well-being

of

tests.

that

such

there

as

are

profound

education,

denitions

governments

are

80

reading

of

and

global

these

development

differences

differences

that

are

in

are

employed

by

policy-makers.

at

that

the

all

spheres

for

development

growth

of

within

development

capital.

any

people

in

their

in

There

complex

within

non-governmental

goals

the

of

many

society,

context

organizations

denitions

capitalist

are

and

of

societies

different

they

may

capitalism.

(NGOs)

development.

have

For

promote

the

3 . 1 :

The

Millennium

Millennium

from

of

the

in

2000,

eradication

of

extreme

social

Bank,

among

the

the

for

IMF

all

of

established

poverty

of

were

a

the

which

and

criticized

African

are

eight

global

development,

and

O F

“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”

by

the

hunger,

to

partnership

for

and

not

they

the

taking

with

goals

P O L I T I C S

Nations

combating

development.

into

account

depended

Bank

G L O B A L

objectives,

for

heavily

Development

organizations

United

worldwide

I N

Group

derived

on

the

(AfDB),

from

development.

most

cited

growth

expansion

of

of

denitions

capitalist

capital.

and

of

development

societies,

Without

economist

economists

agree,

the

and

these

tells

the

as

and

capitalist

therefore

goals

goals,

us,

are

of

development

David

many

system

focused

Harvey,

of

the

would

a

most

on

are

the

prominent L TA

anthropologist

known

however,

R O L E

emphasized

establishing

goals

the

others,

capitalist

The

to

objectives,

inclusive

World

Goals,

Summit

HIV/AIDS,

These

Development

T H E

well-

collapse.

Thinking and social skills

Because View

of

the

requirements

of

its

economic

system,

capitalist

economic

the

where

require

a

growth

rate

of

at

least

3

per

cent

per

year

for

it

to

lm

Drowned

Out,

systems villagers

in

India

function have

vowed

their

village

to

drown

with

3

without

Also,

generating

populations

remain

healthy.

capitalism

when

the

issues,

of

US

and

Institutes

in

than

health

was

(NIH)

and

nd

workforces,

on

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capital

is

be

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more

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is

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Soviet

education

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we

are

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provision

viewed

of

by

nd

in

era

provide

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an

today,

policy-makers

on

of

public

an

dollars

part

to

class

train

education

of

a

the

are

name

unnecessary

of

expenditure.

by

the

in

its

major

there

here?

communities

of

the

development

Is

wrong

being

their

spaces.

discussion

of

characters.

dams

over

differences

portrayed

and

the

living

denitions

when

than

a

the

as

water

and

Have

National

however,

for

as

of

important

overseas

drops

land

Sputnik,

billions

is

redirect

to

science-related

plentiful).

labour

and

after

on

industry

money

one

period

witnessing

to

reproduce,

Union

was

pharmaceutical

cheaper

to

important

example

with

As

it

to

be

for

in

the

development.

need

good

available

Health

healthcare,

burden

(a

competing

enterprises

domestic

and

Education

another

research,

capitalist

capitalist

necessarily

money

of

crises.

a

right

What

that

submerged

in

development

industries

beneting

from

redirection

of

that

the

and

are

the

water?

Development in global politics: Links with other units

Each

of

the

four

uni ts

individuals

and

large.

affect

They

cultural

in

a

the

issues

of

A

of

eld

closer

look

of

makes

two

at

2

Our

as

itse l f,

an

on

it

th e

tog ethe r

is

i m pa c t

st a t e s

c on n e s

W h i le

on e

and

wa y

of

or

e co nom i c

gr owt h ,

in

a

us

as

pol it i c s

ec o n om i c

state

to

of

g l oba l

each

of

b or de rs

t h es e

n ot e

th a t

at

an d

and

un it s

a

is

t hr e a d

a not h er.

h um a n is t ic

de ve lop m e n t )

a ll

so cia l,

i nt e r e st i n g

in

on

a nd

pol i t ic a l ,

wor ld.

co mpr e he ns iv e

a

universal

meanings

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in

the m

states

its

un de rs t a nd in g

a lon g

wi t h

g lo bal iz e d

human

wor ld

and

for

and

the

basic

world.

different

aim

for

individuals,

Although

people,

all

the

have

a

term

may

common

hold

interest

advancement.

of

security,

equality.

a l so

comp le x

withi n

s us ta i na bl e

is

denition

such

both

ha s

e v i d e nt:

communities,

promoting

–

a nd

that

(e nco m pa ss i ng

and

Development

in

wa y

s tud y

the

facts

different

cours e

i nte r connecte d

link s

development

development

1

the

evo l v e

connectivity

this

communi ti e s,

increasingl y

complete

in

development

peace,

overlap

is

is

conict,

evident

related

human

in

the

to

many

rights

words

other

and

of

even

Helen

key

concepts,

gender

Clark

(former

81

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

Prime

Minister

Nations

[A]

(UN)

more

peaceful

prosperous

people...

–

peace,

focus

shifted]

world

Ever

since

from

and

making

equality

a

Zealand

and

rights,

the

and

the

narrow

and

UN

and

be

has

Administrator

possible

without

respect

linked

for

the

That

the

concept

to

has

one

stable

United

helped

of

to

is

of

its

what

the

of

more

all

mandate

broaden

broad,

environmental

to

rights

development

Conferences...

integral

societies,

pillars

which

UN

resolution,

peace-building

the

human

three

understanding

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conict

of

(UNDP)):

development.

common

economic

rights,

peace

not

universal

multidisciplinary.

human

and

Program

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1945,

development...

centred,

in

New

communities,

human

on

of

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the

[has

people-

were

successful

stability,

UNDP

gender

considers

4

today

Clark

to

be

sustainable

rightly

imperative

respect

for

notes

to

that

have

human

a

human

in

order

stable

rights,

development.

and

to

have

peace

prosperous

based

on

the

and

security,

society

tenets

of

and

it

is

universal

sustainable

human

Helen Clark ser ved three terms as

development.

Peace,

human

rights

and

sustainable

human

development

the Prime Minister of New Zealand,

are

interlinked

and

have

an

impact

on

one

another.

For

instance,

respect

from December 1999 to November

for

gender

equality

can

help

foster

development.

An

interesting

example

2008

of

this

is

Gender

of

Index.

Japanese

and

is

Japan

Japan’s

also

rising

–

It

a

has

women

often

into

economic

likely

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have

inequality,

canprove

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to

be

country,

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the

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impact

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perfect

mentioned

workforce

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an

with

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the

another.

other

breeding

low

would

contrast,

on

a

issues

grounds

the

help

boost

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to

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inclusion

productivity

one

example,

related

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increased

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for

ranking

variable

poverty,

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conict,

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have

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war

really

to

wi th

as

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of

capaci ty

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fo r

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has

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p os s e ss io n

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82

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independently

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sovereignty.

be

tackled

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in

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Development and human rights

Another

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between

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rights.

human

rights.

83

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

The

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human

equality

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development

human

improve

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will

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a

of

well-being

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universally

and

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on

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Development and key concepts

Before

of

we

begin

development

each

of

the

our

and

major

discussion

its

many

concepts

of

the

forms,

set

out

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it

to

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form

a

base

and

to

fascinating

rst

for

eld

understand

this

unit

and

their

TOK

relationship

with

the

subject

of

development.

These

key

concepts

are:

To what extent do the concepts globalization,

inequality

and

sustainability.

that we use shape the

The

term

development

was

conventionally

used

in

the

context

of

conclusions that we reach?

economic

growth

multidimensional

political

For

and

society,

same

into

it

that

and

to

an

bringing

time,

ensure

technological

cultural

development

translates

or

changes,

occur,

it

improved

in

also

the

dynamic

a

has

to

be

of

well

of

as

sustainable

the

the

future

for

to

–

it

social,

remodelling

that

life

dimension

Today,

involving

important

quality

human

needs

concept

as

is

advancement.

economic

people

its

that

in

is

a

of

society.

growth

every

is,

planned

are

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well

taken

also

area

understanding.

generations

more

economic,

of

the

enough

care

of

as

to

well.

Globalization

Globalization

“by

which

can

the

best

be

peoples

described

of

the

as

world

the

are

interconnectedness

incorporated

into

a

and

single

process

world

9

society”.

In

simpler

interdependence

integration

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“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”

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benet

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3 . 1 :

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R O L E

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“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”

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G L O B A L

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imitate

development.

improvement

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and

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1950s

time

technology

could

can

Soviet

that

developed

countries

the

the

former

modernization

growth

contemporary

beginnings

beginning

science

development

basis

of

theory.

a

the

The

the

and

human

conditions

was

completely.

over

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dependency

addressed

an

debates

time.

development

status

transition

involving

could

and

developing

gradually

largely

of

economic

and

angle

and

Western

industrialization

and

in

World

camps

concept

to

far

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equivalent

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colonization

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two

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in

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theories

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becoming

prominent

a

1950s

–

of

and

how

an

developed

American

1960s

modernization

were

theory

conducted

and

underdeveloped

and

economic

modern

historian

country

society

Walt

W .

was

Rostow.

Rostow ’s stages of growth

Rostow

growth

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●

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published

economic

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primarily

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“traditional”

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society,

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society

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level

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characterized

of

technology

by

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and

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rigid

and

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hierarchical

●

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second

required

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the

social

stage

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external

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positive

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The Rostow model of development

87

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

It

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been

2015.

the

is

a

by

of

now

education,

response

set

the

of

time

to

set

out

build

health

a

Most

huge

carried

another

further

on

lack

conditions.

of

section

the

food

of

United

Development

the

strategies

been

on

of

living

and

quandary,

Millennium

development

and

improve

plague

this

2015.

have

to

poor

to

to

eight

year

reviews

development

policies

continued

In

national

number

It

of

security

population.

in

MDGs.

has

lack

achieved

Research

from

development

announced

Sustainable

differ

how

Poverty,

water

a

of

MDGs

of

out

path

on

their

towards

achievements

the

world’s

Nations

Goals

found

member

and

a

to

be

place

states

and

a

effectiveness.

the

thus

goal

far.

of

3 . 1 :

T H E

R O L E

O F

“ D E V E L O P M E N T ”

I N

G L O B A L

P O L I T I C S

Levels of analyses

Development

in

encompassing

sustainable

its

broadest

economic,

aspects

–

has

sense

human

a

–

and

bearing

on

all

levels

Individual of

society,

ranging

from

the

individual

to

the

and

global.

For

example,

matters

related

to

poverty

Community

and

at

inequalities

an

individual

leads

to

power,

have

and

problems

and

the

direct

such

malnutrition,

shelter,

a

impact

community

as

lack

lack

very

of

on

level:

of

purchasing

education

survival

of

people

poverty

and

communities.

Development:

These

problems

also

have

repercussions:

a

Economic,

Global

malnourished

cannot

prove

contribute

On

the

mean

be

a

an

people

This

uneducated

nation

contrary,

goods

skills.

to

to

that

more

and

or

in

good

increase

acquire

invest

turn

human

building

in

and

in

the

resource

income

power

mean

a

National

and

Sustainable

or

development.

education

would

Human

population

would

to

and

purchase

acquiring

skilled,

healthy

International workforce

that

is

an

asset

to

any

country’s

development.

Similarly,

environmental

sustainable

cannot

be

ensured

involvement

of

individuals

and

global

and

Levels of development

level

combined

supported

and

and

the

without

and

Individuals

development

at

efforts.

communities

by

efforts

communities

environmental

at

could

At

is

the

grassroots

important,

regional

help

protection

the

ensure

through

level

and

and

has

to

be

international

Thinking and

communication skills

sustainable

making

L TA

supplemented

level.

protection

development

simple Divide

alterations

and

additions

to

their

daily

lives

–

such

as

using

solar

or

wind

energy,

rainwater

harvesting

and

energy-efcient

electrical

four

the

same

support

and

as

a

global

efforts.

such

runners

leader

Singapore

buildings

for

any

countries

sustainable

countries

front

time,

in

as

in

development

According

as

this

eld.

reducing

energy

management,

its

set

To

is

one

of

by

Environmental

an

and

footprint.

such

2030.

The

with

2009

subsidies.

to

to

international

have

has

Index,

emerged

80

as

does

In

harvest

urban

group

an

how

three

water

and

of

them

to

to

at

–

more

individual,

national,

international

–

and

these

contribute

storm

for

level

global

each

themes/

studies

development

impact

one

regional,

of

provide

of

another

has

case

community,

cent

not

terms

into

Within

assign

for

than

emerged

per

group

subjects

discuss

Sustainable

certifying

government

countries

laws

Protection

Singapore

The

as

and

Australia

example,

consumption

few

policies

synchronization

targets

or

the

formulate

in

the

carbon

efcient

to

Singapore

cite

forth

production

it

to

Switzerland,

Blueprint

energy

have

class

groups.

ttings. your

At

the

and

to

in

how

turn

the

can

process

of

18

water

for

boosting

supplemented

Southeast

Nations

2007

by

Asian

the

supply.

countries

(ASEAN)

and

water

regional-level

under

Declaration

MDGs

at

a

on

global

All

these

efforts

the

such

could

as

Association

Environmental

level.

also

those

of

be

development.

effectively

made

by

Southeast

ndings

the

try

Asian

Sustainability

signed

in

to

that

to

Present

the

identify

comprise

class

the

of

and

factors

your

understanding

your

initial

the

term

“development”.

91

3.2 Contested meanings of development

Contested meanings of development

Some

economists

synonymous

“development”

perceptible

In

other

national

GDP ,

overall

the

simply

economic

This

the

GDP

(an

by

As

in

growth

of

of

goods

living

of

size

of

the

of

of

simply

the

a

a

growth

described

force

as

in

in

a

growth

in

the

the

GDP

per

derived

reduction

in

of

country’s

industrial

measurement

person

or

advancement.

increase

labour

and

per

to

considered

economic

be

an

increase

leads

be

conventionally

technological

services

An

can

seen,

mean

income

population)

GNP

context

and

ratio,

and

in

have

could

people.

approximation

the

rise

we

ordinarily

investment–income

standard

person

mere

economic

would

availability

per

a

used

quantiable

product.

the

that

development.

was

and

words,

GNP ,

sector,

believe

with

by

of

the

capita

or

dividing

poverty

and

a

19

consequent

improvement

in

the

lives

of

people.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total market value of goods and services

produced within a country in one year. This includes income, wages, prots and

consumption. Skyline of Business Bay in Dubai, United Arab

Emirates

Gross National Product (GNP) is the total economic output including earnings

from foreign investments as well as nal goods produced by a country’s rms

within and outside the country.

The connection between GDP and income

A country produces and sells $1 million wor th of goods in a year. When goods are

sold, rms that produced goods and services earn $1 million. This is income for all

contributors – workers, owners, suppliers and so for th. Thus, production becomes

sale and nally income.

Some determinants of

development

A worker produces $100 wor th of goods daily, which when sold brings in revenue, par t

of which is used to pay wages to the worker. More production will lead to more income ●

Value of goods and services and increase in wage – rise in GDP or output per person means more income per person.

produced

Source: Secondi, Giorgio. 2008. The Development Economics Reader. London. ●

Savings and investments

●

Natural resources

●

Good quality of human

Routledge, pp. 2–3.

However,

this

understanding

is

rather

limited

and

does

not

do

justice

to

the

resource much

●

Good governance

●

Good infrastructure

●

Favourable political and

wider

today.

is

the

Central

fact

economic

is

an

connotation

that

to

it

of

the

concept

understanding

is

no

indicators

increasingly

longer

(at

the

the

it

current

measured

individual,

multidimensional

as

is

understood

debate

purely

in

national

and

discussed

“development”

terms

or

dynamic

on

and

of

changes

international

concept

in

level).

involving

It

social,

economic climate fostering

economic,

political

and

cultural

changes,

and

remodelling

of

society.

For

growth, such as democracy

development

to

occur,

it

is

important

that

economic

growth

also

translates

and free market

into ●

an

improved

quality

of

life

for

people

in

every

area

in

a

human

dimension

to

its

understanding.

At

the

same

industrialization be

92

of

society,

bringing

Modernization and

sustainable

–

that

is,

endure

for

future

generations.

time,

it

also

has

to

3 . 2 :

The

very

challenge

belief

that

it

is

of

a

dening

the

contested,

concept

ambiguous

of

M E A N I N G S

development

and

complex

O F

D E V E L O P M E N T

reasserts

term,

L TA

the

C O N T E S T E D

tied

Thinking and

communication skills to

the

interest

of

[development]

those

dening

depend[s]

on

it.

As

values

noted

and

on

by

Ravi

Kanbur,

alternative

“Since

conceptions

on

the

1

Note

down

a

set

of

8–10

20

good

life,

there

meanings

and

and

no

for

governments

or

country

society

necessarily

of

being

It

unique

else

and

has

the

has

answer.”

stakeholders,

While

basics

to

The

term

has

ranging

from

international

non-governmental

different

studied.

includes

what

or

different

individuals.

society

signicance

uniform

forms

organizations,

families

is

be

organizations

benchmarks

unique

development

of

food,

considered

diverse

for

clothing

varies

all

and

to

words

to

shelter,

with

of

a

term

the

ideas

for

Divide

three

with

the

most

obvious

and

commonly

understood

the

literature

on

economic

growth

and

poverty

known

and

fact

that

fundamental

the

causes

wealth

and

to

and

are

the

as

part

halve

of

between

a

twin

of

blueprint

years

below

just

problems

of

development

distribution

of

poverty

prerequisites

the

proportion

the

and

poverty

development-related

problem,

signicant

envisaged

table

the

all

essential

most

the

equitable

indicators

magnitude

of

also

an

MDGs

for

of

and

the

summarizes

future.

with

2015,

number

the

coupled

any

out

2013

by

–

of

income

rst

In

target

of

ensuring

review

of

of

in

the

of

are

year

groups

four

sets

a

and

of

discuss

developing

from

country

each

for

for

other.

mean

state

It

for

levels

level,

–

Share

1.

with

your

the

at

individual,

national/

regional,

international,

The

what

stakeholders

community,

day

prepare

on

“development”

different

various

MGD

groups,

term

would

one

all.

your

presentation

the

to

per

hunger.

made

of

2000

was

In

a

enormity

US$1

from

3

both

formed

MDGs

than

progress

to

the

employment

suffering

into

well-

distribution

the

the

a

inequality

poverty

less

is

solution

view

leaders

income

people

a

It

equitable

extreme

world

while

of

with

people.

eradication

wealth.

and

progress.

The

an

and

policies,

reduction

set

people

1990

halving

the

to

of

the

different

developed

apart of

Discuss

subtexts

and in

you

word

how

different

or

what begin

the

partner

invokes

that

considerably. 2

will

with

“development”.

Pover ty reduction and equitable distribution of wealth

We

phrases

associate

the

sections

or

global.

ndings

rest

of

the

class.

Millennium Development Goals: 2013 Progress Char t

MDG GOAL 1: ERADIC ATE E X TREME POVERTY AND HUNGER

GOALS AND

AFRICA

TARGETS

Sub-

ASIA

Eastern

South

Saharan

Southern

OCEANIA

Western

Eastern

L ATIN

CAUCASUS

AMERICA

AND

AND

CENTRAL

CARIBBEAN

ASIA

Reduce

Low

Very high

Moderate

Moderate

Very high

Low

Very high

Low

Low

extreme

Pover ty

poverty

pover ty

pover ty

pover ty

pover ty

pover ty

pover ty

pover ty

Productive

Large

Very high

Large

Large

Very large

Large

Very large

Moderate

Moderate

and decent

decit in

decit in

decit in

decit in

decit in

decit in

decit in

decit in

decit in

employment

decent

decent

decent

decent

decent

decent

decent

decent

decent

work

work

work

work

work

work

work

work

work

Reduce

Low

Very high

Moderate

Moderate

High

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

hunger by ½

hunger

hunger

hunger

hunger

hunger

hunger

hunger

hunger

hunger

*

pover ty by ½

Target already met or expected to be met by 2015

Progress insucient to meet the target if prevailing trends persist

No progress or deterioration

Note: The progress char t operates at two levels. The words in the box indicate the present degree of compliance with

the target. The shades of colour show progress towards the target according to the legend above. *Pover ty progress for

eastern Asia is assessed based on China’s progress only.

Source: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/repor t-2013/2013_progress_english.pdf

93

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

Dening pover ty

Before

taking

simple

sounding

measured?

been

to

from

a

answer

as

human

further,

purely

discussion

question

dened

basic

probing

the

The

simply

meet

the

it

Development

any

both

the

is

of

development

1997

of

food,

of

the

a

“denial

of

to

can

the

it

resources

and

This

shelter.

encapsulated

choices

and

Poverty

has

necessary

However,

stretches

outlook

rather

be

challenging.

reality

is

back

how

and

income.

perspective

as

go

minimum

clothing

that

low

us

and

complicated

clear

aspect

let

poverty

absence

needs

Report

further,

what

becomes

economic

human

is

–

beyond

on

in

poverty

the

Human

opportunities

21

for

ill

a

tolerable

health,

exclusion

A

report

broad

For

a

or

by

of

as

clothes.

For

–

the

vary

of

a

Bank

report

lack

poor

“humiliation,

found

needs.

of

developed

people

social,

what

that

Similarly,

basic

person

the

in

entitled

on

sense

human

of

in

poverty

men

a

Latvia,

being

based

of

in

poor

–

countries

on

and

differences

and

the

include

and

social

Poor

Ghana

is

dependent...

for

different

Kenya

variables.

feeling

and

of

the

people.

poverty

as

described

conditions,

the

age,

encapsulates

perceived

from

housing

of

psychological

means

man

poverty

could

decision-making

countries.

cultural

Voices

necessities

in

deprivations

underdeveloped

other

perspectives

the

the

or

of

involvement

among

and

World

material

poverty

of

unemployment

poverty

instance,

kinds

lack

developing

nationality

range

lack

in

and

about

gender

These

malnutrition,

homelessness

Views

life”.

of

utensils

and

dependency

being

forced

to

22

accept

A crowded favela sits nex t to modern

apar tment buildings in Sao Paulo, Brazil

a

rudeness,

Brazilian,

having

is

“the

medicines,

denitions

needs,

it

insults,

could

economic

cost

food

be

and

of

and

indifference

living,

low

clothes”.

grouped

into

circumstances

the

and

when

salaries

Many

of

and

seek

lack

these

following

social

we

help”.

of

jobs...

perceptions

subheadings:

For

not

and

material

circumstances.

Indicators of poverty

Material needs ●

Lack of resources to meet

Specic needs – when people lack cer tain things essential to them, they are basic needs of life

deprived, for example, lack of food or housing. ●

Health issues

●

Lack of education and

Pattern of deprivation – not just lacking something, but general conditions in

which people are in need over an extended period of time, for example, not just literacy living in bad housing, but not being able to get out of it.

●

Poor living conditions

●

Perilous and unfullling

Low standard of living – low income and consumption over a period of time.

Managing with less than others.

jobs

●

Lack of respect

●

Alienation from community

Source: The World Bank

Economic circumstances

Lack of resources – inability for people to obtain their wants (a lack of resources

is a denition of pover ty, need is a result).

Economic distance – people with less resources cannot aord things that

others can. In competition for scarce resources, such as land and housing, they

cannot aord them even if their income is higher than other people’s elsewhere.

Economic distance means people cannot aord to live where they are.

Economic class – “class” in economic terms is determined by people’s relationship

with the system of production. The economic position of elderly or disabled people, for

instance, means that they are not able to command resources in many societies and

are thus poor.

94

3 . 2 :

C O N T E S T E D

M E A N I N G S

O F

D E V E L O P M E N T

Social relationships

Social class – social position depends on economic position, education, and social

status. Pover ty, for many, is a position of lowest class in which people lack the

power, status, and oppor tunities that others possess.

Dependency – on social assistance or “welfare” – a link between benets and pover ty

is assumed. No distinction made in press between receiving gifts and being poor.

Social exclusion – a term used in the EU to refer to people excluded from society

due to pover ty, vulnerable people (asylum seekers, disabled) or socially rejected

people (AIDS suerers, disabled people).

Lack of entitlement – Amar tya Sen argues that pover ty is not a lack of goods but a

lack of entitlement or legal, social, and political arrangements.

Source: Spicker, Paul. The Idea of Pover ty. Pp. 4–5.

Poverty

can

of

be

caused

by

colonization,

a

number

of

factors.

overpopulation,

These

unequal

range

from

distribution

of

a

wealth,

L TA

history

Research and

communication skills war

and

ethnic

problems

such

governance.

it

is

conicts,

as

In

imperative

natural

order

to

for

cut

effective

Eradication

poverty

of

distribution

development”.

exists

in

certain

within

a

not

or

just

gender

country,

for

the

has

of

of

disasters,

roots

strategies

Unequal

society

ethnic

lack

employment

lack

development

off

implementing

equitable

and

to

be

of

to

these

tackle

–

often

distribution

the

groups,

example,

education

occur

as

of

villages,

and

improper

sustained

by

combined

wealth

rich

a

to

level,

devising

and

them.

termed

well

at

problems

effectively

wealth

among

of

to

opportunities

and

as

as

or

a

poor,

wide

but

between

towns

with

ensuring

“sharing

and

the

gap

also

in

an

fruits

of

incomes

among

geographical

regions

cities.

Divide

of

four.

one Increased

poverty

and

inequality

can

cause

harm

and

the

class

Each

into

group

developed

and

in

a

great

number

of

ways.

They

can

lead

to

among

the

poor

and

eventually

to

disorder

in

through

reactions

such

as

strikes,

conicts

or

data

civil

existing

situations

also

impact

peace

in

society

and

cause

Moreover,

inequalities

increase

the

unrest.

possibility

of

in

the

outow

of

skilled

and

educated

people.

The

impact

countries

proves

to

be

more

negative

due

to

the

impact

government

institutions

are

often

not

efcient

or

able

fact

the

poor

these

been

poverty

on

these

that

enough

Discuss

whether

to economic

assist

of

inequality

countries? the

of

has

on and

developing

each

What

migration the

and

level

and

political countries.

disruption.

the

poverty

inequality Such

on

economic of

activities

country.

festering Research

discontent

chooses

one

obstruct underdeveloped

development

groups

growth

has

had

effectively. a

positive

sections

each

impact

of

on

society

or

all

not

in

case.

95

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

L TA

TOK

Self-management and research skills

Is having more data available

Prepare

always helpful in the

growth,

production of knowledge?

issues.

study

into

a

case

but

study

Compile

could

the

be

Inclusive

built

of

contemporary

incomplete

would

been

such

raised

as

the

economic

in

other

of

Index

This

as

sufce

lters

such

(IWI)

questions

to

take

down

the

and

that

problems

institutions

is

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23

continue

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to

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Health

Peopleledge

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aapital)

Employmeopportunities   E f              h u m a     p i t a l

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Human

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Economic growth and human development

96

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3 . 2 :

C O N T E S T E D

M E A N I N G S

O F

D E V E L O P M E N T

Human development

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create

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people.

economists

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the

ability

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to

be

gainfully

freedom,

guaranteed

24

human

rights

premise

is

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that

process

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of

self-respect.

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widening

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and

health

make

being

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active

in

25

political,

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the

social

proponents

signicance

economic

of

of

growth

or

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this

affairs.

concept

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wealth

or

development

commodities,

necessarily

mean

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do

but

not

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improvement

discount

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that

in

on accepting a duty to seek

people’s

harmony with other people

26

standard

of

improve

school

and

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human

of

political

be

a

to

in

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rules are that people must

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development.

standard

increase

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governance,

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in

social,

GNP

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distributed,

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income

level

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to

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for the Ear th. Humanity must

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living.

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absence

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it can replenish. This in turn

may

to

means adopting life-styles and

their

development paths that respect

government

corruption

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take no more from nature than

A

the

with

fruits

of

GNP .

this

sense,

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the many benets that modern

technology has brought,

provided that technology also

27

In

and work within nature’s limits.

human

development,

as

noted

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analyst,

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works within those limits.

●

of

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people

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A Strategy for Sustainable Living,

●

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quality

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position

to

–

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human

–

meaning

inuence

the

fact

that

economic

growth

has

to

fuel

IUCN, UNEP ,

WWF, 1991

lives

this

that

people

process

of

themselves

should

be

in

a

development.

97

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

Human

development,

requires

of

a

a

lot

country.

progressive

of

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tax

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process

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education

sure

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of

and

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making

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these

systems

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skills,

skills

forth.

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and

or

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include

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easy

healthcare

capabilities

employment

so

good

development

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honed

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for

levels

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credit

two

a

political

facilities

at

through

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poor,

all.

–

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good

building

nutrition,

follow-up,

capital

in

and

systems

are

making

used

political

to

decision-

underprivileged

sections

of

28

society

are

provided

with

adequate

“social

safety

nets”.

Long

Directly

and

healthy

life

enhancing

Knowledge human

abilities

Decent Dimensions

of

standard

of

living

human

development

Participation

Creating

human

conditions

in

political

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for

security

Gender

has

Human

been

Development

reviewed

by

the

community

life

development

Human

The

and

sustainability

Index

is

UNDP

used

every

to

quantify

year

since

and

rights

equality

development

and

1990.

Sustainable development

“Sustainable

discussed

denitions,

have

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been

of

development”

term

most

denitions

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term

placed

it

matter

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of

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subject

international

on

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development

was

also

promoted

that

meets

the

needs

of

without

compromising

the

future

generations

to

the

MDGs

concept.

of

in

1987.

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global

report

(or

the

highlighted

as

Thereafter,

UN

at

Rio

a

the

Sustainable

it

a

has

number

of

Conference

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adopted

at

and

agenda

discussion

adopted

the

Future”

development”

The

and

and

held

in

“Agenda

21:

Development”.

meet

their

Summit

where

environmental

the

2000

sustainability

and

UN

reduction

poverty

were

envisaged

as

one

of

the

major

areas

of

focus.

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aim

ability set

of

of

the

the of

present

one

for

of

interpretations

is Millennium

“development

as

of

the

unanimously

Blueprint

widely

sustainable

concern.

fora.

Environment

1992

A

on

urgent

up

found

“sustainable

rmly

the

be

of

entitled

“Our

a

and

sum

can

the

Sustainable

to

is

number

well-articulated

development

Brundtland

The United Nations Sustainability Summit at the United Nations General Assembly

A

explanations

offered

the

circulated

today.

out

was

to

reduce

environmental

damage

and

loss

of

biodiversity

own and

halve

and

sanitation,

the

number

of

people

without

access

to

clean

drinking

water

needs”.

Our

Common

Commission

Future

on

by

The

World

Environment

Development

in

2002

poverty.

took

yet

The

World

another

Summit

signicant

on

Sustainable

step

in

this

regard.

what

does

sustainable

development

mean?

In

simple

terms,

the

balance

the

1990 concept

98

held

reduce

and But

Development,

and

of

sustainable

development

stresses

the

need

to

three

3 . 2 :

interlinked

foster

protection

nite

the

areas

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and

need

natural

and

for

to

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concept

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following

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in

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and

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as

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consumption

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ensuring

care.

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contextualizes

sustainable

on

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caution

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process

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and

development

sustainable

table

for

Commission

economic

generations.

eliminate

resources

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future

have

to

–

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C O N T E S T E D

like

medical

TNEMPOLEVED

ursuit

of

a

care,

the

envisioned

higher



standard

romotes

food

of

and

living

equality,

idea

is

D E V E L O P M E N T

to

resources

also

and

are

stresses

protect

development.

three

objectives

Development

housing,

that

patterns

and

by

pillars

below.

necessary

the

World

(WCED).

SOCIAL

eeds

The

O F

environmental

concept

social

on

M E A N I N G S

DEVELOPMENT

sanitation

should

not

education

and

ECONOMIC

must

be

met

harm/eloit

equally

for

all.

others.

articiation

in

local

communities

to

address

these

needs.

DEVELOPMENT

ELBANIATSUS





ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION









Source: Adapted from United Nations Environment Programme, What is Sustainable

Development?

Critical objectives and necessary conditions for sustainable development

identied by the World Commission on Environment and Development

Critical objectives

Revival of growth

Necessary conditions

Political system – secures eective citizen

par ticipation in decision-making

Changing quality of growth

Economic system – provides for solution of

tensions arising from disharmonious development

Meeting impor tant needs

Production system – respects obligation to

for jobs, food, energy, water

preserve ecological base for development

and sanitation

Ensuring sustainable level

Technological system – fosters sustainable patterns

of population

of trade and nance

Conserving and enhancing

International system – fosters sustainable patterns

resource base

of trade and nance

Reorienting technology and

Administrative system – exible and capacity for

managing risk

self-correction

Merging environment and

economics in decision-

making

Source: UN Documents, Our Common Future, 1987

99

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

L TA

Thinking and social skills

Note

down

country

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sources

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government

documents,

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21

century.

UN UN

data

agenda

Secretary

General

Ban

Ki-moon,

Davos,

2011

answers

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speech

quoted

above,

UN

Secretary

General

Ban

Ki-moon

has

and also suppor t arguments as

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interest,

goods

investment,

and

M E A N I N G S

of

be

all

nal

rents

services,

government

by

–

that

D E V E L O P M E N T

goods

calculated

prots,

O F

or

is,

purchases

30

and

net

imports

(exports

minus

imports).

Human Development Index

The

Human

Development

Development

Sen

and

would

Reports

Meghnad

draw

Desai

attention

Index

since

along

to

has

1990.

with

issues

been

The

of

a

HDI

Haq,

feature

was

who

primary

of

the

developed

saw

it

concern

as

to

a

Human

by

Amartya

measure

people;

one

which

“that

31

is

not

blind

addresses

in

the

gure

a

child

country.

social

three

schooling

of

to

dimensions

below

of

–

people

along

The

aspects

that

25

with

is,

lives,

human

life

and

per

clearly

above,

capita

is

as

the

GNP

development,

expectancy

old

GNI

aim

human

of

years

PPP

ultimate

of

the

to

at

which

birth,

calculate

The

are

average

expected

well-being

is”.

years

the

of

years

of

HDI

the

index

shown

of

schooling

for

each

people.

$

Life

Average

Standard of

Expectancy

Education

Living

at Bir th

Levels

(GNI/capita

+

PPP)

Adult Literacy

Rates

32

According

●

to

National

Haq,

priorities

combining

also

reect

Potential

boost

has

its

on

growth

basis

–

sector

or

if

will

a

have

between

of

gender,

of

which

progress

growth

economic

Disparities

the

on

Development

terms

investment

people

equitable

●

in

which

built

GNP

been

that

Human

economic

successfully

●

the

is

–

with

country

by

in

has

education

to

reveals

are

the

effectively

development.

health

or

following:

The

income

–

rankings

has

been

behind.

choosing

access

countries

social

education,

lagging

Index

built

good

and

market

up

human

economic

health,

it

is

capital,

policies.

very

opportunities,

it

If

can

there

likely

resulting

in

growth.

people

–

income,

the

report

has

geographical

breakdowns

region

and

of

data

on

ethnicity.

101

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

There

High,

are

four

levels

Medium,

and

of

human

development

in

the

HDI

–

Very

high,

Low.

2014 Human Development Index

Very

high

human High

human

development

Medium

human

development

Low

human

development

development

1.

Norway

50.

Uruguay

103.

Maldives

2.

Australia

51.

Bahamas

103.

Mongolia

3.

Switzerland

52.

Montenegro

103.

Turkmenistan

4.

Netherlands

53.

Belarus

106.

Samoa

5.

United

54.

Romania

107.

Palestine,

States

6.

Germany

55.

Libya

7.

New

56.

Oman

Zealand

8.

Canada

9.

Singapore

57.

Russian

58.

Bulgaria

Barbados

10.

Denmark

59.

11.

Ireland

60.

Palau

12.

Sweden

61.

Antigua

13.

Iceland

14.

United

15.

Hong

Indonesia

109.

Botswana

110.

Federation

111.

and

62.

Malaysia

63.

Mauritius

64.

Trinidad

65.

Lebanon

65.

Panama

67.

Venezuela

68.

Costa

Barbuda

China

and

Tobago

Nepal

146.

Pakistan

147.

Kenya

148.

Swaziland

149.

Angola

of

Egypt

150.

Myanmar

151.

Rwanda

152.

Cameroon

152.

Nigeria

Paraguay

112.

Gabon

113.

Bolivia

(Plurinational

114.

Moldova

115.

El

116.

Kingdom

Kong.

108.

State

145.

(Republic

State

154.

Yemen

155.

Madagascar

of)

of)

156.

Zimbabwe

157.

Papua

157.

Solomon

159.

Comoros

Salvador New

Guinea

Uzbekistan

117.

Philippines

118.

South

118.

Syrian

Islands

(SAR)

16.

Korea

(Republic

17.

Japan

18.

Liechtenstein

19.

Africa

159.

Tanzania

161.

Mauritania

(United

Republic

of)

of)

(Bolivarian

Republic

of)

Rica

Arab

120.

Iraq

121.

Guyana

Republic

162.

Lesotho

163.

Senegal

Israel

1

Choose one country from the table above.

2

Collect data on all variables related to the HDI. Compare the HDI with the GNP of that country. If there are dierences, what

reasons would you attribute them to?

3

Choose any two countries with similar GNP and see how you would compare them with their HDI scores. Do you nd countries

with low GNP having a high HDI score?

Genuine Progress Indicator

The

“Genuine

Progress

Development”

of

GDP

in

is

yet

Indicator

another

measuring

(GPI):

attempt

development.

A

at

As

Tool

for

moving

Sustainable

beyond

mentioned

the

earlier,

connes

the

GDP

The

GPI

is

33

“a

gross

been

tally

of

of

what

and

are

some

or

variables

of

the

Firstly,

(such

are

the

or

pitfalls

is

as

level

an

of

the

does

for

on

a

role

take

the

the

welfare

of

education,

not

sold”.

to

using

of

GDP

as

country

the

GDP

as

a

measure

play

that

This

facilities,

the

account

any

progressing

society.

in

as

is

intangible

health

such

a

assumption

other

into

development

with

has

country.

the

that

number

important

GDP

critical

a

of

using

based

means

to

are

of

and

associated

well-being

GDP

adding

have

bought

weaknesses

the

There

Secondly,

which

services

transaction

true.

which

development.

activities

progress

thereby

necessarily

distribution)

and

overcome

nancial

developing,

not

tangible

102

to

welfare,

development?

monetary

is

products

formulated

measure

But

of

and

income

process

of

non-economic

volunteer

work,

3 . 2 :

childcare

and

and

progress

GDP .

This

Robert

when

F .

he

parenting.

of

society,

point

of

in

was

a

activities

are

are

completely

expressed

speech

to

the

critical

to

ignored

very

aptly

University

the

M E A N I N G S

of

D E V E L O P M E N T

well-being

when

by

O F

computing

American

Kansas

in

politician

1868,

said,

Our

Gross

and

the

National

jails

for

and

the

national

product

education

courage,

Product

the

redwood

their

view

Kennedy

Such

but

C O N T E S T E D

loss

of

does

or

neither

people

the

our

our

not

joy

(or

GDP)…

who

break

natural

allow

of

for

their

wisdom

wonder

the

our

It

It

special

counts

in

health

play…

nor

counts

them.

chaotic

of

our

it

for

our

doors

destruction

sprawl…

children,

measures

learning…,

locks

the

neither

Yet

the

our

measures

of

the

the

gross

quality

wit

nor

of

our

everything,

in

34

short,

In

of

except

order

26

are

GPI

in

of

used

factors

parenting,

costs

ll

indicators

which

the

to

that

which

these

gaps,

including

to

in

all

the

and

life

the

the

worthwhile.

Genuine

social,

measure

volunteer

social

makes

quality

intangible

work

and

Progress

environmental

and

higher

environmental

of

life.

Indicator

and

Beginning

unaccounted

education

setbacks

such

with

then

a

set

factors

the

positives

and

as

uses

economic

GDP ,

such

lessens

deforestation,

as

the

crime

35

noise

pollution.

Some

of

these

indicators

–

+

e

V o lu n te er

–

Personal

w o rk

e nd U

Genuine

m re

plo

ym

Net

capital

E C O N

C

investment

Indicator

W

a

te

r

p

o

u

ti

o

n

n

r

t

i

l o

io

n

o l

o

o s

l

u t

f

s

i

o

w

n

–

t l a n d s

f

e

o

ll u t

e p

lm

r

a

f

l sso

s

s s

t eta

fo

hc

d

oc

e

na

lp mi lC

rof tse

e

eg

it

–

teN

o

+ –

p o

o

l

n

m o D

n

c i t s e

ir

N

e

b a l

N

o

e o n i o t z e O l p e e l d b a e w c r e u n o e s r e r n o N

–

m a

a

y il

N e

A

n

o d

d

e

k a

w

rev

–

ll

e

F

O

Progress

pollution

abatement

r b

M I

t en

+

n

t im

–

o f e e t s

i o

e

–

uA ot om ib el

a cc di ne st

C o m m u it n g

e s

a y s

& s r

c n I

t

u s n o c d e t s u j d A

v i c

S e r

h i g

t il a u q

h

n o i l t a p n m o s r e p

y

o

a t

r s e e c m i u v s r e n s o s C e l r e b m a u r s s t u n s o d o C c s le b a r u d

m

c

e

u

e n i

eP

d

le is u r

osr

e

s t

lan

–

e r

e

h

epx

i g

+

tidn

+

L A I C O S

H

eru

+

Crim

seen

+

–

o

be

below.

–

L

can

–

gure

and

+

the

water

w

in

air,

–

and

–

–

–

ENVIRONMENTAL

Source: http://www.donellameadows.org/genuine-talk-progress-and-the-gpi/

103

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

Inclusive Wealth Index

Social

value

Manufactured

The

that

of

Social

capital

Inclusive

seeks

to

Wealth

offset

environmental

in

the

in

ecosystem

and

a

a

of

state

Social

of

is

a

another

resources

and

so

wealth

and

despite

collapse

long-term

positive

to

change

the

These

higher

human

crucial

using

of

for

three

the

of

economic

include

riches,

beings

their

currencies

existence.

–

of

the

The

very

index

progress,

denes

well-being

and

imbalances

destroying

parameters

It

wealth

development

social,

sustainability.

in

Inclusive

capital

measure

related

development.

environment

being

value

Natural

problems

of

country’s

as

of

capital

Index

the

aspects

distribution

remaining

measures

value

Human

well-

sustainability

people

and

Capital types

inclusive

Manufactured

Natural capital

wealth

as

a

sum

of

the

social

natural,

human

and

produced

capital

capital

all

–

from

assets

which

36

human

Fossil fuels

Minerals

welfare

could

Population by

the

components

age/gender

are

used

of

Depreciation rate

of

Human capital –

Investment

value

these

in

of

be

each

calculating

capitals,

the

ensured.

of

the

this

The

three

index.

index

By

gathers

table

kinds

below

of

examining

how

shows

capital

much

that

the

stock

wealth

a

Mor tality country

can

possibly

create

not

just

in

the

present

but

in

probability by the

future

as

well.

age/gender

By

Lifetime of

Forest resources

using

the

aforementioned

plugging

the

loopholes

indicators,

the

index

aims

at

Discount rate found

in

using

the

GDP

or

the

HDI

assets as

Output growth

Agricultural land

Employment

Population

Fisheries

Educational

a

not

measure

cover

of

the

sustainability

to

indicate

development

level

of

the

a

of

country.

value

–

human

of

considering

welfare

For

or

example,

natural

that

the

the

resources

they

do

environmental

index

being

is

lost

able

in

the

attainment

process

Productivity

of

economic

growth.

At

the

same

time,

the

results

are

Employment also

able

to

indicate

The

Inclusive

whether

the

growth

is

sustainable

or

not.

compensation

study

Labour force by

that

age/gender

of

report

a

GDP

fall

recommended

should

Index,

turn

and

towards

include

Wealth

accounted

from

in

1990

their

that

to

countries

index

for

natural

renewable

the

Report

(IWR)

released

in

2012

carried

countries

together

global

saw

20

in

almost

2008.

of

to

raise

planning

in

quarter

these,

Among

depleting

resources

their

Out

capital.

with

three

as

other

natural

their

order

of

the

many

19

the

resources

Inclusive

to

as

things,

work

Wealth

towards

37

sustainable

development.

Inclusive

Country's

wealth:

Progress,

wealth

well-being

Inclusive In

inclusive

is

a

positive

human

dollar

social

price)

inclusive

positive, capital

assets

–

wealth

is

of well-being

human,

change

across

generations

and

well-being

positive produced

Source: http://inclusivewealthindex.org/#our-approach

104

sustainability

If (not

natural in

is

long-term

defined all

as

wealth

and

wealth value

sustainability

approach

is

a

3 . 2 :

C O N T E S T E D

M E A N I N G S

O F

D E V E L O P M E N T

Happy Planet Index

HAPPY

The

Happy

(a

British

to

provide

Planet

think

a

inhabitants.

happy,

In

Life

●

Experienced

expectancy

Life”

in

representing

per

measure

consumption

produced

The

HPI

results,

being.

ve

the

are

for

Only

are

ranked

suggests

of

their

use

the

of

Americans

not

the

of

very

we

are

not

did

2008,

of

a

of

citizens

uses

are

able

and

three

indicators:

Report)

question

lives

on

a

called

scale

“Ladder

of

0

to

of

10

life)

consumption

of

positive

land

how

or

able

are

of

resources

needed

many

to

–

sustain

a

the

attain

to

and

on

a

For

would

so,

Belize

happy

ranked

in

of

and

Botswana.

long

terms

El

In

lives

are

It

the

if

four

also

the

the

to

well-

top

and

report

reveals

index

everyone

planets

its

high

Salvador,

sum,

low

on

of

or

which

planet.

example,

need

and

sustainable

doing

Colombia,

countries

happy

output.

encouraging

to

close

Chad

living

we

their

index

their

possible

basis

environment.

in

using

rank

Foundation

countries

country)

being

Qatar,

high-income

the

can

the

environmental

Vietnam,

are

for

Development

amount

a

life

which

UN

best

the

Economics

to

HPI,

(computed

to

countries

Rica,

three

that

most

on

unit

country

nine

Costa

bottom

is

no

from

of

New

the

(measure

of

patterns

every

2012

with

worst

the

extent

sustainable

respondents

the

by

the

compute

(drawn

footprint

capita

Countries

to

and

well-being

which

Ecological

initiated

measures

long

order

●

●

Index

tank)

due

lived

that

to

like

maintain

the

our

38

consumption.

HAPPY HAPPY

HAPPY

HE ALTH

ECO

ECO HAPPY

ECO

HE ALTH

HAPPY

HAPPY

HE ALTH

ECO

ECO HE ALTH

HAPPY

ECO

HE ALTH

Central America, Mexico and Carribean

HPI

59

South East Asia

58.5

57 .1

China

Western Europe

Nor th America

East Africa

45.8

31.6

26.9

105

3

D E V E LO P M E N T

Countries

in

Life

Exp

Exp

well-being

Footprint HPI

rank

2050

target

Rica

HPI

87.0

8.0

1.7

89.0

1

Costa

79.3

7.3

2.5

64.0

2

Vietnam

75.2

5.8

1.4

60.4

3

Colombia

73.7

6.4

1.8

59.8

4

Belize

76.1

6.5

2.1

59.3

5

El

72.2

6.7

2.0

58.9

6

Jamaica

73.1

6.2

1.7

58.5

7

Panama

76.1

7.3

3.0

57.8

8

Nicaragua

74.0

5.7

1.6

57.1

9

Venezuela

74.4

7.5

3.0

56.9

10

Guatemala

71.2

6.3

1.8

56.9

11

Bangladesh

68.9

5.0

0.7

56.3

12

Cuba

79.1

5.4

1.9

56.2

Salvador

Colour keys:

Life

expectancy

>75

years

60–75

6.2

4.8–6.2

7.12