Global Perspectives on Higher Education: From Crisis to Opportunity (Knowledge Studies in Higher Education, 11) 3031316452, 9783031316456

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Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11

Jacqueline S. Stephen Georgios Kormpas Christine Coombe   Editors

Global Perspectives on Higher Education From Crisis to Opportunity

Knowledge Studies in Higher Education Volume 11

Series Editors Jung Cheol Shin, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of) Hugo Horta, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China Editorial Board Members Ulrich Teichler, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany Loet Leydesdorff, Amsterdam School of Communications Research, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Simon Marginson, UCL Institute of Education, London, UK Keun Lee , Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of) Gary Rhoades, University of Arizona, Arizona, USA

Scope of the Series Even though knowledge is the main content of teaching and universities are key knowledge producers, scholars have only recently begun to actively explore research on knowledge studies in higher education. As this field of study has grown, it has increasingly overlapped with the research focus of other fields, namely research and science policy, and information studies. However, these three fields have developed independently with little interaction between them, causing our understanding of knowledge to be limited, compartmented, and lacking a multidimensional perspective. This book series is designed to improve knowledge studies in higher education by stimulating interactions between these different approaches. Coverage in this series includes: • • • • • • • •

University and knowledge production R & D funding systems Education reforms Innovation systems for emerging regions School curriculum and knowledge Social utility of knowledge production University research and in-house research Research collaborations.

With its comprehensive overview and multidisciplinary perspective, this series provides scholars and policymakers with the theory and data they need to make more informed decisions regarding knowledge research in higher education.

Jacqueline S. Stephen  •  Georgios Kormpas Christine Coombe Editors

Global Perspectives on Higher Education From Crisis to Opportunity

Editors Jacqueline S. Stephen Department of Leadership Studies College of Professional Advancement Mercer University Atlanta, GA, USA

Georgios Kormpas Al Yamamah University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Christine Coombe General Education HCT - Dubai Men’s College Dubai, United Arab Emirates

ISSN 2566-7106     ISSN 2566-8315 (electronic) Knowledge Studies in Higher Education ISBN 978-3-031-31645-6    ISBN 978-3-031-31646-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Acknowledgments

Jacqueline S. Stephen  Despite the negative impact of the global COVID-19 pandemic, I cannot help but to reflect on how this crisis also presented an opportunity for me to spend time with loved ones, and to value the little things in life a lot more. Thus, I am grateful for the valuable time spent with friends and family, near and far. I dedicate this work to Lori, Kendal, Alexa, and Kellan for keeping me occupied and entertained with cooking, baking, game nights, long walks, and TV series! I also dedicate this work to my fellow rooftop-infinity-pool-loving friend, Christine Coombe, for her mentorship and guidance in leading my first edited volume. I am thankful to my co-editors, Georgios and Christine, for their collaboration on this volume, and extend my gratitude to all of the authors who contributed to this work. Georgios Kormpas  I would like to dedicate this book to all my students and colleagues at Al Yamamah University, in Saudi Arabia who gave me the opportunity to explore many new ideas with technology over the years. I also want to thank my mentor, friend, and co-editor in this book, Christine Coombe for her tireless encouragement and support over the years. Jacqueline for her hard work and professionalism. They have both helped me grow and be inspired in the research arena. Thank you both for taking that simple idea and making it into a fantastic collection of much-needed chapters by inspiring authors around the world. Lastly, thank you to my family and especially to my mother who has been my inspiration and my supporter from the beginning of my life to now, thank you mom! Christine Coombe  I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my co-editors, Jacqueline S Stephen and Georgios Kormpas for their hard work, dedication, and support throughout this project. I am honored to have been part of the team to bring the vision of this volume to fruition at a very challenging time for educators. I am also grateful to our chapter authors who have provided much-needed insight into the challenges and successes they have experienced as a result of the COVID-19 pan-

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demic and its impact on education from their respective contexts around the world. My sole regret surrounding this project is that my parents, Carl Coombe, Marion Mathewson and Howard Mathewson, are no longer alive to see this book in ­published form so I dedicate it to them and my sister, Cindy, who continues to inspire and motivate me to greater achievements.

Contents

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Volume Introduction – Global Perspectives on Higher Education: From Crisis to Opportunity������������������������������������������������    1 Jacqueline S. Stephen and Christine Coombe

Part I Teaching, Learning, and Assessment 2

 Online and Face-to-Face Courses Can Mirror One Another��������������   13 Connie Mitchell

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Prospective EFL Teachers’ Self-Perceived Competence and Attitudes Toward Teaching English to Young Learners����������������   27 Mehmet Karaca and Meryem Akçayoğlu

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Innovative High-Impact Practices (HIPs) in 8-Week Online Graduate Research Methodology and Capstone Courses During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study����������������������������������   43 Awatef Ahmed Ben Ramadan

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Enhancing Learning Through Formative Assessment: Evidence-Based Strategies for Implementing Learner Reflection in Higher Education��������������������������������������������������������������   59 Li-Shih Huang, Raj Khatri, and Amjad Alhemaid

Part II Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning 6

Successful Teaching with Technology in EAP Courses: A Practical Guide for Higher Education Teachers ������������������������������   77 Doaa Hamam

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The Theory and Practice of Oral Presentations in Face-to-Face and Online Courses������������������������������������������������������   89 Pushpa Sadhwani and Jon Fiteni

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Doctoral Students at a Distance: Voicing Their Challenges and Needs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 Amira El-Soussi

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A Technology-Enhanced Context: The Case of Higher Education in Lebanon�����������������������������������������������������������������������������  117 Caroline Akhras

10 B  lended Academic Communication On Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning in Digital and International Virtual Academic Cooperation (DIVA)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  129 Anselm Böhmer, Götz Schwab, and Illie Isso Part III Factors that Impact Student and Teacher Success 11 Diversity,  Equity, and Inclusion in Course Design and Instructional Material Development����������������������������������������������  147 Jacqueline S. Stephen, Nadia Glover Barnett, and Awatef Ahmed Ben Ramadan 12 Responding  to the New Normal: Strengthening Student Identity Development����������������������������������������������������������������  163 Jo-Ann Netto-Shek 13 An  Empirical Analysis of Motivational Factors that Enhance Student and Teacher Achievements: The Mediating Role of Evidence-Based Learning����������������������������������������������������������  183 Sameera Iqbal 14 Strategies  Adopted for Building Students’ Rapport in an Online Classroom ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  199 Gomathy Krishnan, Wahida Dastakeer, and Neha Gupta 15 Leveraging  the Art of Medical Illustration to Enhance Anatomy Instruction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  213 Valerie Weiss and Krista Casazza 16 The  Future of Higher Education: Students’ Perspectives in the United Arab Emirates ������������������������������������������������������������������  237 Lana Hiasat and Leilani Radaideh 17 The  Impact of Emergency Remote Learning on Student Motivation and Opportunities to Shape a More Successful and Productive Educational Future ������������������������������������������������������  255 Megan Kohler, Sherri Restauri, and Tracy Balduzzi

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Part IV Curriculum, Course, and Instructional Design 18 Strategies  for Instructors: Establishing and Maintaining Presence in an Online Course ����������������������������������������������������������������  273 Jacqueline S. Stephen 19 RECIPE,  an Innovative Model for Instructional Technology Task Design Via Interactive Media��������������������������������������������������������  287 Sam Yousefifard 20 Novel  Times Call for Novel Ways: Effective Teaching and Learning in Digital Learning Environments����������������������������������  305 Alexius Chia and Shanti Divaharan 21 Cultivating  Student Employability Skills: Classroom to Career Preparedness and Readiness��������������������������������������������������  321 Jacqueline S. Stephen and Ashley Fru 22 Distance  Learning Considerations for Initial and Continuing Teacher Education in Brazil��������������������������������������������������������������������  335 Camila Höfling, Patricia de Oliveira Lucas, and Luciana C. de Oliveira 23 Sustaining  Presence: Partnering with Technology During the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown������������������������������������������������������  349 Christine Sabieh Part V Future of Professional Development 24 Moving  Beyond Web Conferencing Tools: ESL Professional Development Workshops in Virtual Reality Platforms������������������������  367 Amany Alkhayat 25 T  ransforming Teacher Professional Identity Through Social Emotional Learning: Two Narrative Case Studies��������������������  381 Fajer M. Bin Rashed and Eman Y. Mahmoud 26 A  Professional Development Model for English Teachers in Indonesia: A Pathway to the Industrial Revolution 4.0 Era������������  395 Dwi Poedjiastutie, Hilda Suat, and Nisrina Balqis Huwaida 27 Professional  Development Support Systems in Public Universities in Kosovo������������������������������������������������������������������������������  409 Drita Kadriu and Trenia Walker Part VI Academic and Administrative Support Systems 28 Instructional  Designers’ Roles in the Post-­COVID-­19 Pandemic Era ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  423 Elif N. Gokbel and Nicole P. Lipscomb-King

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29 Graduate  Students’ Work Readiness in the Context of COVID-19: Challenges and Recommendations��������������������������������  435 Heyam F. Dalky, Yousef M. Aljawarneh, Adam M. Khraisat, and Lubna M. Rajab 30 Pedagogical  Transformations in Support Services: The New Normal��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  455 Nafees Sultana 31 Well-being  as an Ecological Practice: Supporting Students Facing Housing Insecurity in Higher Education����������������������������������  471 Christel Young and Luis Javier Pentón Herrera 32 Digital  Education, Academic Performance, and Mental Health: How Can Chinese Students’ Development Be Facilitated While Engaging in E-Learning ��������������������������������������������������������������  485 Jason Hung 33 Replacing  Commercial Textbooks with Free Online Educational Resources: A Qualitative Case Study for Twenty-First-­Century Inclusive Education����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  495 Syed Ali Nasir Zaidi

About the Editors

Jacqueline S. Stephen  is an Assistant Professor, Director of The Office of Distance Learning, and Instructional Designer, in the College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. Her research has examined factors associated with persistence of undergraduate online students, with much of her research focusing on self-regulated learning, self-directed learning, online learning self-efficacy, and high-impact practices for online teaching. Georgios Kormpas has taught in the USA, UK, Greece, and Saudi Arabia in tertiary institutions. He is currently the Director of the Teaching, Learning, and Development Center at Al Yamamah University in Saudi Arabia, and teaches social sciences at the Humanities Department. Georgios has published several articles and book chapters on teacher education and teaching associations. He is passionate about Professional Development and Teaching associations, and he is doing his PhD at Lancaster University. He is the first President of TESOL Gulf, a member of TESOL International’s Nominating Committee, and the Vice President of the International Association for Blended Learning. Georgios enjoys traveling and collects banknotes from around the world.  

Christine  Coombe has a PhD in Foreign/Second Language Education from The Ohio State University. Dr. Coombe is currently Associate Professor at the Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai Men’s College in the UAE.  She has previously taught in the USA, France, and Oman. Christine has published over 50 books in topics such as assessment, research methods, TBLT, leadership and management in ELT, teacher effectiveness, and professional development through teaching associations and innovation. Dr. Coombe served as President of the TESOL International Association (2011–2012). In her spare time, she enjoys traveling, scuba diving, and watching TV series.  

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Chapter 1

Volume Introduction – Global Perspectives on Higher Education: From Crisis to Opportunity Jacqueline S. Stephen

and Christine Coombe

Abstract  Recent events worldwide have necessitated rapid transformation within the areas of teaching, learning, assessment, administration, and academic support systems in today’s higher educational institutions globally. The 33 chapters in this volume provide evidence of these transformations and discuss the innovative ways in which university educators and emerging teachers have addressed the challenges brought on by a crisis. A crisis, in this context, refers to a predicament or a turning point that necessitates a response in the form of adaptation or innovation. The chapters in this volume capture the personal experiences of educators, educational support professionals, and emerging teachers who encountered crises in the form of disruptions (i.e., COVID-19 pandemic), advancements (i.e., technology), and transformations (i.e., practices, procedures). In addition, the contributing authors provide a glimpse into the professional challenges they faced and discuss how they embraced the challenges brought on by a crisis as an opportunity to enhance existing practices or introduce innovative approaches.

Introduction Recent global events have necessitated rapid transformation within the areas of teaching, learning, assessment, administration, and academic support systems in today’s educational institutions worldwide. The chapters in this volume provide evidence of these transformations and discuss the innovative ways in which educators

J. S. Stephen (*) Department of Leadership Studies, College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] C. Coombe Dubai Men’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_1

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addressed the challenges brought on by a disruption, advancement, and/or transformation. The COVID-19 pandemic is just one example of a disruption, and one with a global impact. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, educators worldwide were separated by physical geographic borders. Technology and technology-enhanced instructional delivery methods served as the thread that held educators together, albeit a tenuous thread. Suddenly, in March 2020, educators around the globe found themselves thrust into a completely different work environment that necessitated working together, learning from one another, and coping with the many uncertainties that accompanied how education responded to the pandemic. Although education has long been deemed essential, the COVID-19 pandemic further illuminated the critical role of education, which resulted in many countries designating educators and education professionals as frontline essential workers. Educators relied on virtual assistance and resources provided by internal and external colleagues and support systems at their colleges and universities and beyond. Due to time limitations, educators did not have the luxury to adapt their teaching and instructional delivery at their own pace. At the same time, educators were dealing with their own and their families’ physical and mental health and work-life balance. While the COVID-19 pandemic was a catalyst for many of the changes observed in the education sector today, other factors spurred advancements and transformation. Online learning and the use of technology to enhance face-to-face classroom learning were already well established at many colleges and universities. Hence, research surrounding the use of technology for teaching and learning was already in progress before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and its ongoing impact shaped much of the research. Furthermore, introducing new technology since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic led to challenges in accessibility and prompted the need for updated practices and procedures. This volume features descriptive, research, and evidence-based accounts of where various aspects of education are headed in the future based on the current realities of the new norm. The chapters in this book contribute relevant and timely knowledge about how practitioners and researchers worldwide have dealt with education during the current reality and how they will continue to evolve by making informed decisions for the future from shared experiences. This volume serves as a one-stop-shop resource for educational stakeholders worldwide to obtain a global cross-section of best practices in teaching and learning methods, technology-enhanced instruction, student and teacher success factors, assessment and evaluation, professional development, and academic and administrative support systems. The contributing authors provide a glimpse into the professional challenges they have faced and discuss how they addressed specific challenges to transform some elements of a crisis into an opportunity to alter and improve their practices. Additional challenges also emerged as a result of the shift to online learning. As such, some of the authors revealed the inequities that transpired among students and discussed ways in which they aimed to meet such challenges to support students as they attempted to engage in the continuation of learning. Most importantly, the chapters selected for inclusion in this volume emphasize optimizing the student learning experience. This involves the effective use of

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technology, the design and development of instruction and assessments to meet the varied needs of students, and the engagement of administrative and academic support systems in the learning experience. Furthermore, there is an emphasis on continuous professional development for educators and programs that support student preparedness for the anticipated ongoing adaptations of traditional learning environments.

Volume Structure and Themes The call for chapter proposals was disseminated to an international audience, and it was not surprising to learn of the common themes that emerged from the submitted chapters. Despite the geographically dispersed contributing authors, disruptions, advancements, and transformations impacted many educators and students similarly. Several common themes emerged from more than 35 authors discussing practices and research at colleges and universities in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Israel, Australia, Brazil, Germany, Poland, Holland, Hong Kong, Kosovo, Turkey, Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Jordan, India, China, Singapore, and Indonesia. Hence, the chapters in this volume are categorized under six thematic parts.

Part I: Teaching, Learning, and Assessment The first part of this volume includes four evidence-based chapters on various aspects of teaching, learning, and assessment. In Chap. 2, Mitchell provides a general description of the state of online teaching over the last decade and brings us forward to present day where teachers have been provided the opportunity to change their teaching and learning environment to continue to support students’ opportunities for learning. This chapter discusses the paradigm shift currently taking place in higher education and takes a reflective look at the transition to the new normal from several forms of online teaching/learning, namely online, traditional, and hybrid forms of technology-enhanced instruction. The author then discusses the recommended methods and pedagogies for each of the three environments. The focus of Chap. 3 is on a study conducted on teachers of English to young learners (TEYL). Chapter authors Karaca and Akçayoğlu describe a two-phase mixed methods study exploring English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ perceptions of their competence and attitudes toward their teaching of these learners. Using a newly developed scale and semi-structured interviews to collect data, the findings indicate that prospective teachers hold mildly favorable attitudes toward TEYL and that affective aspects were the main anxiety-provoking factor for the study participants. The results of this research are presented, and pedagogical implications are offered.

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The teaching of research methodology and capstone courses are the topic of concentration in Chap. 4, which emphasizes the importance of introducing innovative high-impact practices at Mercer University’s Master of Science in Health Informatics program. The research, conducted during the first COVID-19 closure in the Spring 2020 semester, required students to develop and conduct complete health informatics projects involving experiential and service-learning practices to solve clinical and/or public health informatics problems. In this chapter, Ben Ramadan shares how she advanced her traditional teaching high-impact practices, scaffolded the courses’ final projects, and differentiated her instruction on an individual student level. The challenges and successes of this project are discussed and shared. The final chapter in this part, Chap. 5, explores the key concept of reflection in educational theory across disciplines and its importance in transformative learning. The ability of learners to infuse reflection into their own lives and learning as a mechanism for them to construct knowledge and for teachers to adapt their classroom practices to facilitate transformative learning has been recognized as essential in higher education. In this chapter, Huang and her colleagues aim to connect insights from theory, research, and direct experience to practices teachers can use to inform their own teaching by addressing contentious issues pertaining to implementing and assessing reflection.

Part II: Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning The five chapters in Part II focus on the innovative and practical uses of technology to design, develop, and deliver instruction through blended and online instructional environments. In Chap. 6, Hamam writes about digital platforms and applications that were found to enhance teaching and learning and discusses their pedagogical uses for increasing student engagement and interaction in an online learning environment. Sadhwani and Fiteni, in Chap. 7, provide evidence-based best practices that can be employed to help students engage in online oral presentations. The shift to an online course format necessitated changes in how students are prepared for oral presentations in virtual academic settings. Doctoral students also experience challenges unique to online learning. In Chap. 8, El-Soussi shares her findings from a research study involving doctoral students enrolled in online programs and recommends strategies for helping online students feel more connected and supported. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, many colleges and universities offered online and blended programs. In Chap. 9, Akhras describes her research involving higher education students enrolled in online business courses at universities in Lebanon. Her research examined student perceptions of online learning effectiveness and preferences. Finally, in Chap. 10, Bohmer et al. provide insight into an innovative project that involves cross-cultural virtual collaboration through blended mobility and learning. Their research involved universities from Israel, Australia, and Germany, and their findings provide evidence-based recommendations for optimal asynchronous and synchronous online instructional environments.

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Part III: Factors That Impact Student and Teacher Success Part III of this volume comprises seven chapters that focus on the factors that impact student and teacher success. Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) continue to receive significant attention in higher education institutions, especially across the United States. In Chap. 11, Stephen, Barnett, and Ben Ramadan define DEI as establishing a shared, fundamental understanding of each term, identifying how they are interrelated, and making meaning of each term’s applicability to teaching and learning. They also include guidance on the design of a student-centered course syllabus as foundational to integrating DEI into an instructional setting. Their premise is that DEI is critical to student engagement, motivation, community building, and a sense of belongingness, especially in these times of change. The next chapter (Chap. 12) concentrates on student identity as a crucial aspect of development for both the learner and for learning. Netto Shek presents findings from a study on the development of reader and global identities in university students and collects data through both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Her findings reveal that student identities are developed through engagement in literacy activities like collaborative online discussions, social media, and digital book talks. The findings of this study also reveal that by strengthening student identities in courses, we may be moving forward toward responding to the new normal. The success factors of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-direction are discussed in Chap. 13. The author, Iqbal, stresses the importance of evidence-based strategies that undergird these success factors in measuring how they affect students’ learning in academia. The findings of this mixed methods research study which employed questionnaires and focus group interviews, are an attempt to guide teachers and policymakers on how to improve evidence-based practices that can impact learning for teachers to use to support effective instruction. Rapport is the major focus of Chap. 14, defined by the chapter authors Krishnan, Dastakeer, and Gupta as the ability to have a harmonious relationship with people (in the case of this study – students) based on mutual understanding, affinity, and respect. The importance of rapport building with students’ right at the beginning of instruction is well established and documented by teachers and/or educational stakeholders as it helps create a healthy environment and builds trust and respect in university classroom settings. In this action research study, the authors share strategies that they have found to successfully build rapport with their students in online classes. Medical illustration uniquely links art and science, serving as a conceptual crossroads between the creative and the scientific context of health science education. Chapter 15 describes the course development of an evidence-based teaching method aimed at directly improving content knowledge and indirectly decreasing psychosocial barriers that limit comprehension of course material, of particular importance during the unprecedented uncertainty of the COVID-19 pandemic. Chapter authors Weiss and Casazza employed a pedagogical method of reviewing anatomy and

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physiology through case studies and then used illustration techniques to display student knowledge through drawing. This unique approach to learning allowed students to study anatomy in a low-stress creative learning environment. Hiasat and Radaideh, in Chap. 16, share key findings of their research conducted with university students in the UAE as they have expanded their imagination, rethought the future of higher education, and connected these elements to the focal issue of happiness. In a practical workshop and through focus group interviews, participants in the UAE from various disciplines engaged in thinking about the future of higher education. Their collective intelligence was leveraged to invent new frameworks for resilient futures that included the basics of well-being and happiness. The approach to the focus group discussions was based on the strategic tools from future foresight. Finally, the authors offer six specific recommendations for higher education leaders and institutions to consider and key concerns of possible and preferred futures in higher education. During the COVID-19 pandemic, institutions have experienced a major shift in strategies for providing educational materials for students. As a result, administrators, instructional support specialists, and digital learning professionals with expertise in online teaching and learning were called upon to offer guidance and support on how to transition to emergency remote learning. In Chap. 17, Kohler, Restauri, and Balduzzi discuss and explore the impact that emergency remote learning has had on student motivation and opportunities to shape a more successful and productive educational future.

Part IV: Curriculum, Course, and Instructional Design This part encompasses six chapters that emphasize factors associated with curriculum, course, and instructional design. In Chap. 18, Stephen describes strategies online instructors could use at the course level to demonstrate and maintain their social, cognitive, and teaching presence. Instructor presence is critical in any learning environment, and it can be accomplished in an online environment with deliberate forethought and planning. Designing instruction for online environments necessitates additional elements. Yousefifard, in Chap. 19, proposes a new instructional design model for the design and development of engaging and interactive online and blended learning environments that further support instructor and student presence. The model provides a framework that instructors and instructional designers can use to design, develop, and deliver a blended or online course. Many educators will relate to the personal experiences shared by Chia and Divaharan in Chap. 20. The COVID-19 pandemic remains a threat, and educators continue to face ongoing challenges. This chapter offers guiding principles based on the authors’ experiences teaching in technology-mediated learning environments and virtual classroom environments. These principles can be employed by other educators who continue to teach through virtual environments. By teaching online, educators gain many new skills. Students also gained new skills. There is an increased interest in

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remote work in the United States, making it possible for new graduates or nontraditional students to seek virtual employment. However, these new work environments also command a specific skill set. In Chap. 21, Stephen and Fru provide course-level strategies for instructors to promote student skill development and discuss high-­ impact practices for incorporating activities that support student career readiness and preparedness, emphasizing employability skills for remote work. Many skills a student needs to succeed in an online course are similar to those a prospective employee needs to succeed in a remote work setting. The COVID-19 pandemic also revealed a need for educators to possess additional skills for future careers. Hofling et al., in Chap. 22, discuss high-impact teaching practices that educators need to meet the needs of today’s students and continue to meet the future needs of students. The authors describe how the context of emergency remote teaching can contribute to developing more well-grounded teaching plans, considering the preservice teachers’ profiles, aiming at their careers as EFL teachers in a future postpandemic world. Finally, in Chap. 23, Sabieh emphasizes the need for educators and learners to sustain their teaching and learning presence. The author reflects on her own challenges as she attempted to meet university requirements and student expectations during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. Sabieh identifies some of the successful elements while also addressing some of the challenges educators and learners face during the transition to online learning.

Part V: Future of Professional Development This part of the volume focuses on various aspects of and the future of professional development in the university COVID-19 context. Chapter 24 moves us beyond web conferencing tools to the world of virtual reality (VR). Alkhayat recounts the rapid shift of many professional TESOL associations to online professional development to assist teachers in developing skills to move from face-to-face to online teaching effectively. As such, video-conferencing tools were first incorporated to ensure that learning objectives were met. At the same time, disruptive technologies such as VR saw an increase in use during the pandemic. This chapter describes VR platforms used in professional development webinars and discusses their potential for facilitating interaction, autonomous learning, and fostering complex cognitive skills. The topic of interest in Chap. 25 is the implementation of social-emotional learning (SEL) in today’s ever-changing classrooms. More specifically, empathy, self-­ awareness, awareness of others, self-regulation, and motivation are different but equally important concepts for maintaining culturally responsive pedagogy. Through narrative, chapter authors explore ways educators can implement SEL in academic settings. The chapter concludes with recommendations for sharing classroom narratives through teacher introspection and briefly explores the significance of sharing these narratives in light of the current COVID-19 pandemic. In Chap. 26, Poedjiastutie and her colleagues stress the importance of schools in general and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms, in particular, to equip

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students with methods and procedures geared toward acquiring and developing creativity, critical thinking, cooperation, self-direction, cross-cultural skills, and other qualities necessary for success in this unprecedented era. With a focus on the current state of play in Indonesia, the authors share their thoughts on planning Teacher Professional Development to achieve this mandate. They conclude their chapter by describing alternative solutions they believe would succeed in the Indonesian context. The final chapter of this part centers around the professional development support systems in the public universities of Kosovo. In Chap. 27, Kadriu and Walker describe the key objectives of the Kosovo Education Strategic Plan (KESP) 2017–2021, focusing on quality professional development. Research on this topic reveals that for professional development to be successful, faculty must have input in the choice of professional development they engage in.

Part VI: Academic and Administrative Support Systems The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for more robust academic and administrative support systems. Many educators were thrust into unfamiliar roles, and students faced nonacademic issues that greatly impacted their academic roles. In Chap. 28, Gokbel and Lipscomb-King discuss the significance of the role of an instructional designer and how the COVID-19 pandemic has shifted the many responsibilities often associated with this role. While some colleges and universities employ instructional designers, others rely on educators as instructional designers. However, if colleges and universities plan to continue offering courses online, they need to consider hiring trained instructional designers to support educators. Similarly, colleges and universities need to be prepared to meet the diverse needs of students beyond just the classroom setting. Dalky et al., in Chap. 29, discuss the need for students to be better prepared for the workforce and equipped with the skills tomorrow’s employers will seek in new graduates. The authors provide examples of additional services students need to help them acquire career-related skills. In Chap. 30, Sultana highlights other needs students have that are associated with their well-being and mental health. The author discusses the evolving role of student services in a higher education setting and offers strategies to support students in adjusting to the ongoing changes in teaching and learning. Young and Herrera also write about student well-being in Chap. 31. The authors’ work is centered on housing insecurity and the issues many residential students faced when college and university campuses closed during the COVID-19 pandemic. They argue that students need support beyond academics, and student well-being is fundamental because it directly impacts student attrition and graduation rates. In Chap. 32, Hung explores literature that assesses the nuanced relationship between digital learning, academic performance, and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. The author

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discusses the use of best practices to optimize students’ academic and psychological development. Although with a focus on students from preschool through secondary school education, the work has implications that extend to the university-level context. Finally, in Chap. 33, Zaidi writes about a study examining educators’ perspectives and pedagogical experiences on their use of free open educational resources. While open educational resources can be a cost-saving measure for students, educators have mixed feelings about their use. The study findings were mixed. While educators supported the resources, they also questioned the quality of the content.

Conclusion A major purpose of this edited volume is to serve as a resource for education stakeholders worldwide to obtain a global cross-section of best practices in teaching and learning methods, technology-enhanced instruction, student and teacher success factors, assessment and evaluation, professional development, and academic and administrative support systems. Contributing authors from 20 countries worldwide have provided a glimpse into the many professional challenges they faced during a disruption, an advancement, or a transformation and discussed how they addressed these challenges to transform elements of what was a crisis into an opportunity to change and improve their practices. It is hoped that through these contributions, educational stakeholders worldwide will be more able to cope with what is or probably will be the new normal in our profession. Jacqueline S. Stephen is an Assistant Professor, Director of The Office of Distance Learning, and Instructional Designer, in the College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. Her research has examined factors associated with persistence of undergraduate online students, with much of her research focusing on self-regulated learning, self-directed learning, online learning self-efficacy, and high-impact practices for online teaching.  

Christine Coombe has a PhD in Foreign/Second Language Education from The Ohio State University. Dr. Coombe is currently Associate Professor at the Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai Men’s College in the UAE.  She has previously taught in the USA, France, and Oman. Christine has published over 50 books in topics such as assessment, research methods, TBLT, leadership and management in ELT, teacher effectiveness, and professional development through teaching associations and innovation. Dr. Coombe served as President of the TESOL International Association (2011–2012). In her spare time, she enjoys traveling, scuba diving, and watching TV series.  

Part I

Teaching, Learning, and Assessment

Chapter 2

Online and Face-to-Face Courses Can Mirror One Another Connie Mitchell

Abstract  During the last decade, online degrees and courses have become a popular alternative for many nontraditional students, including those who want to continue working full-time or raising families. Most online degree programs and courses are offered via an online learning platform (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard, or others). However, some are delivered using alternative technologies like partnering with Coursera, Future Learn, or EdX. The COVID-19 pandemic has taken its toll on all of us, and higher education institutions have had to create innovative strategies to mirror what happens in the classroom in an online environment. It has not been easy for any of us. In education and, in particular higher education, we were allowed to change our teaching and learning environment to online so that we could continue to support our students’ opportunities for learning. This has caused a paradigm shift of sorts to education as a whole. This chapter discusses the paradigm shift in higher education at the moment. It reflects on the transition to the new normal from the following perspectives: online, traditional, and hybrid, and discusses the recommended methods and pedagogies for each environment. Lastly, it mentions higher educational institutions’ mirroring of extracurricular activities that support both mental health and well-being practices in shifting to benefit and assist their learners and faculty. Keywords  Instructional methods · Face-to-face teaching · Online teaching · Higher education · Hybrid

C. Mitchell (*) Prince Sultan University, College of Humanities and Sciences, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_2

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Introduction During the global COVID-19 pandemic, it is phenomenal that education has not stopped. For the most part, higher education institutions (HEIs) have adapted the tools they were already using or switched to online platforms, whether it was Google Meet, Blackboard, Zoom, and various other tools used to support the continuation of education. This transition has forced higher education across the globe to rethink its current system and beliefs about online education. This time for reflection has caused a paradigm shift to HEIs as a whole. The overriding question is, what will be the new normal in higher education? Three overriding environments are now quite common: online, face-to-face, and hybrid. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a clear dichotomy between all three; however, the teaching and learning approach has become blended. This chapter discusses the paradigm shift in higher education at the moment. It reflects on the transition to the new normal from the following perspectives: online, traditional, and hybrid, and discusses the recommended methods and pedagogies for each environment. Lastly, it mentions higher educational institutions’ mental health and well-being practices in shifting to benefit and support their learners and faculty.

 ransition to the “New Normal” of Learning T in Unpredictable Times During the last 10–20  years, online degrees and courses have become a popular alternative for several nontraditional students, including those who want to continue working full-time or raising families. Most online degree programs and courses are offered via an online learning platform (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard, other platforms, or entities like universities). However, some are delivered using alternative technologies, like partnering with Coursera, FutureLearn, or EdX. The COVID-19 pandemic has taken its toll on all of us, and higher education institutions have had to create innovative strategies to mirror what happens in the classroom in an online environment. Although there are subtle differences, the most significant difference between online and face-to-face learning is that the use of online education frees the student from the usual accompaniments of on-campus degree programs. The freedom online can include the drive back and forth to campus, time management, scheduling issues around the face-to-face courses, and being physically available for each class. If this sounds drastic, it really is not. The truth is the educational methods and materials provided online are often the same as those provided in a face-to-face environment. The Director of the Online Hybrid MBA at Carnegie Mellon University’s Tepper School of Business has stated that the best online education programs actually mirror their on-campus equivalent (Online Education Interview, 2015). In other words, the quality of education should not be compromised based on

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the environment used. But, yes, we did have to learn and experience new ways of student engagement that will foster active learning in an online environment. In reference to students in higher education, as a whole, they appear to be doing well. We have been helping students overcome their perceptions of learning to perform better in their courses. They, too, need to be trained on how to learn effectively online. It can be done, but it does require a lot of learning autonomy; even with the scheduled virtual synchronous classes, it is easy to be distracted.

The New Normal – Teaching Online Online education is a type of instruction delivered via the Internet to students using their personal devices. There are two types of online education, virtual synchronous and virtual asynchronous. Synchronous is the interaction that takes place in real-­ time while conducting classes online. In contrast, asynchronous interaction takes place over time by uploading a video, online activities, or other materials with activities available through learning management systems (LMS) or other virtual platforms (Karchmer-Klein, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has opened educational institutions to the reality of teaching and learning online. The movement to online education during the COVID-19 pandemic has forced educators to develop their skills and understanding of how to use technological tools to support student learning and develop curricula. Pedagogies in higher education have already been exploring and developing strategies for using technology in the classroom for blended learning. As we know, face-to-face communication in light of the COVID-19 pandemic has moved HEIs online. Based on the literature and previous research, effective online pedagogy emphasizes student-centered learning and uses active learning activities. Three principles of effective online pedagogy have been shared by Bill Pelz (2010): • Principle 1: Let the students do (most of) the work. The more time students spend engaged with the content, the more they will learn; • Principle 2: Interactivity is the heart and soul of effective asynchronous learning; • Principle 3: Strive for presence: social, cognitive, and teaching presence (p. 3). Furthermore, Karchmer-Klein’s (2020) book on improving online teacher education focuses on designing online courses by framing online instruction and developing evidence-based online instruction. Five key principles for online course design are recommended by Karchmer-Klein (2020): 1 . Design instruction for online environments; 2. Assign grade values to important course activities; 3. Differentiate instruction; 4. Respect diversity in the online classroom; 5. Continue professional development (p. 96).

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In order to create a thriving online course/environment, it needs to be noted that one should not replicate the activities from the face-to-face environment to the online learning environment. Educating oneself about the best online pedagogies and methodologies is imperative in order to effectively mirror what happens in a face-­ to-­face environment. When the “new normal” topic comes up in higher education circles, it becomes a sea of debate about what technology should or should not be used in online learning environments. Instead of combatting this issue, the focus should be shifted to the primary skills needed and how to select the best technology tools to support students’ needs. Based on the literature and research, educators need to develop three relevant skill sets for online or face-to-face classes (Rottman & Rabidoux, 2017; Mitchell, 2020). They are technological, interpersonal, and social (Mitchell, 2020). The technological skills recommended for teachers are centered around the following: • Knowledge of which technology tools are going to fit students’ needs. • Education about the tech tools available via training or professional development opportunities that arise. • Ability to use video conferencing platforms (i.e., Zoom, GoogleMeet, Microsoft Teams, etc.). • Ability to integrate applications that support student learning (i.e., Google Classrooms, Quizlet, Kahoot, Jamboard, etc.). • Knowledgeable in creating and managing online group activities. • Ability to use an LMS to design, develop, and deliver instruction. The critical interpersonal skills recommended for teachers are centered around the following: • Flexibility (i.e., being more understanding of our students’ and colleagues’ circumstances). • Motivation (i.e., staying motivated about teaching and supporting students). • Patience (i.e., being patient with others and sympathetic to personal issues). • Leadership (i.e., knowing when to take the lead and guide others). • Teamwork (i.e., it goes without saying being a good team player). These interpersonal skills are essential for getting through a pandemic and maintaining our well-being. The social skills needed for an educator are evolving as the “normal” classroom is changing. The essential set of skills include • Being able to deal with loss (whether it is the loss of face-to-face contact, the bonding experience inside the classroom, or the loss of loved ones). • Collegiality (i.e., finding ways to deal with stress and remain collegial). • Awkward moments (i.e., cameras being turned on or off, moments of sadness or frustration). • Online fatigue (i.e., too many hours online between classes, meetings, advising sessions, or simply professional development sessions).

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• Celebrate successes (i.e., this one is extremely important – letting students and colleagues alike know that we did it – we succeeded in teaching and learning online, we learned how to incorporate a new tool or app that supported student engagement). Strategies that can easily transfer from the face-to-face environment to an online one are discussion/forum, self-directed learning, small-group work, projects, collaborative learning, case studies, or video demonstrations. Researchers have provided descriptions for these strategies (Su, 2019; Yang, 2017), as explained below: • Discussion Forum: This instructional method encourages engagement and facilitates contribution. The discussion strategy allows the learner to explore and apply their life experiences to a new situation. • Self-directed Learning: Autonomous learning that supports the self-directed learner in pursuing individualized, self-paced learning activities. The online environment provides ample examples for this to occur. • Small-Group Work: The small group can discuss content, share ideas, solve problems, and provide peer feedback for assignments. The students can still be divided into smaller, more manageable groups and assigned different peer-review activities online. • Projects: Projects can be tailored for each environment to allow students to develop their skills within their specific areas or fields of interest. In the online environment, learning can be supported by projects, which can be done individually or in groups. • Collaborative Learning is when two or more students learn or attempt to learn something together. A word of caution is warranted as this method requires the activity to be designed carefully to get positive results. • Case Studies: Incorporating case studies as points of discussion or as projects. • Video Demonstrations: The use of videos to support the course content, guide the discussion, or illustrate how to calculate a problem. The videos are specific to the area of study, from mathematics to language learning.

The New Normal – Face-to-Face Classes Returning to the face-to-face environment after the COVID-19 pandemic has caused the dynamics to be modified as the students and teachers remain wearing masks inside the classroom. It has forced higher education institutions to rethink their concepts of education. The paradigm is shifting; however, the face-to-face component will vary depending on the institution. The technology will remain as well as a tool that is used to support student learning. The teachers have learned and mastered many different apps during the COVID-19 pandemic, and it is natural to continue to use them. The online courses can mirror the face-to-face courses in that they can apply the same concepts and topics, encourage student engagement, and support student

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achievement of the course learning outcomes and vice versa. The methodologies and pedagogies might differ due to the environmental conditions; however, it is important to note that both environments can foster the best practices that support student learning. Gone are the days of standing in front of the classroom and just lecturing. This practice is no longer the mainstay of learning and teaching. HEIs should examine what happens in both face-to-face and online practices and look for the best practices that will support the student’s journey of learning and showcase the faculty as facilitators of learning (North, 2020). Current expectations foster the need to be flexible in developing the materials and activities for what occurs inside the classroom. More and more faculty are requesting the students to have their own personal devices (i.e., laptops, iPads, or mobile devices) with them as the activities for class have remained online via the LMS or an application like Kahoot, Nearpod, or Quizlet. This lends itself to new forms of assessment being used. In addition, faculty compete for computer labs to use for their assessments as they have seen the value of using technology to support student learning.

 he New Normal – Online and Face-to-Face Combined T “Hybrid” Approach The hybrid environment combines both online and face-to-face environments. This is the most complex for the teacher as they have to juggle both groups simultaneously. It addresses the needs of those present and those who are online simultaneously. The hybrid approach is truly a combination of both approaches (face-to-face and online) at the same time. It requires excellent organizational skills in order to be able to manage both groups of students and achieve the course objectives by the end of the semester. This approach requires thinking outside of the box, and instead of using paper documents during class time, consider using online documents to be completed by all students during the class.

 uture Learning Environments: Pedagogical F and Technological Perspectives The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a paradigm shift of sorts to education as a whole. HEIs have been focusing on helping students overcome their perceptions of learning so that they perform better in their courses. They, too, need to be trained on how to learn effectively online. It can be done, but it does require a lot of learning autonomy; even with the virtual synchronous classes happening, it is easy to be distracted.

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Creating a Community of Learning Communication is the key to reaching out to the students by being transparent and accessible. A successful course considers this, whether it is face-to-face or online. In the online world, the teacher’s presence needs to be felt. The students must have access to the appropriate channels of communication. Teachers who succeed in this will bring the “human” element into the learning environment. Whether online or in a classroom environment, maintaining lines of communication help the students to feel that they are not alone. Furthermore, it establishes a deeper connection with them, allowing for a positive learning experience. Arias et al. (2018) conducted a study about both modes of study and found that the results were mixed. Their findings suggest that other factors like the course objectives and “the mechanism researchers use to compare the performance of online students to traditional face-to-­ face students may be an important driver of their results. Furthermore, there is reason to doubt that the two pedagogical approaches are interchangeable” (Arias et al., 2018, p. 3). Higher education learned from the experience during the COVID-19 pandemic by creating an effective emergency remote learning environment for students during the COVID-19 pandemic that also led to the development of virtual labs. Most importantly, it has been a chance to rethink education, evaluate our current practices, and try to find ways that will help us support our learners as they move forward to their future. Therefore, HEIs need to think of the COVID-19 pandemic as an opportunity to reshape the concept of education. In order to achieve this, they need to include the positive aspects of online and face-to-face education to evolve to what is needed and what will be needed in the future, like micro-­ credentialing, badges, or certificates for areas of specialization. One of the leading frameworks supporting teaching in any of the three environments is the Community of Inquiry. The Community of Inquiry (COI) is modeled on how the journey of learning takes place for a group of learners’ educational experience that occurs at the juncture of social, cognitive, and teaching presence (Garrison et al., 2000). This is not a new educational model; it has existed for over two decades. The elements of the framework fit together as they connect the multifaceted aspects of how students are connected inside the classroom. Whether it is the teacher-student, student-student, or student-content interactions, they all play in role in helping the students develop their learning experience. Further research has been done by Padwan et al. (2016) about the concept of teacher presence, which is making yourself visible and accessible to the learners in the course. Their research emphasized the need to be invested in our teaching, which means we need a connection to ourselves. Incorporating time for reflection is a great way to do this. Additionally, we need to be invested in our students. This means building a connection with our students. Lastly, we need to connect with the content and help our students develop a connection with the content. Teacher presence enhances active learning and connects with learners no matter which environment is used. It also shows students that their teachers are right by their sides each step of the way, during active learning assignments.

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The development of the cognitive presence is the degree to which learners can construct and confirm meaning through continuous reflection and discourse (Garrison et al., 2000). Finally, the development of social presence is an important component of the COI. It focuses on both the teachers’ and the learners’ abilities to project their individual personalities to identify and communicate with the community and develop their interpersonal relationships (Garrison et al., 2000). The development of the three types of presence leads to the overall educational experience for learners.

The Impact on Assessment Brown and Sambell (2020) proclaimed that “we must not ever go back to the old ways of doing things” (p. 1). Their argument is for writing better assignments and that educators must focus more on task design. The future learning environments need to consider both the methods and modes of assessment that will be utilized and place emphasis on strategies that support students being fully engaged. By doing this, based on their article, it will allow for a more diverse pool of evidence of achievement of student learning.

Blended Learning Blended learning was in place in higher education before the pandemic; however, the pandemic has allowed institutions to develop and expand their use of it. Blending learning is when there is a mix of face-to-face and online learning to expand and enhance student learning opportunities (Feng, 2019).

Institutional Support Higher education institutions recognized that their approach to supporting students must be flexible and diverse, as everyone would be motivated and feel supported in different ways. HEIs have had initiatives running across their campuses. For example, some senior management members have taken the time to post videos to students and staff outlining what is happening and encourage administrative staff and faculty to use creative and value-led approaches for student support. Another example is from the student council and their role in HEIs to support the student body via various social media avenues like Twitter and Snapchat to convey supportive messages, share information about the various activities being conducted or conduct surveys to get feedback about their experiences with online learning. More specifically, videos were created by different entities within the institutions, from the

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Presidents to the Teaching and Learning Centers, to welcome the students and faculty back to the new academic year. The COVID-19 pandemic has provided various avenues for HEIs to communicate with students and faculty.

Training and Professional Development HEIs, on the whole, had to act swiftly during the COVID-19 pandemic and provide ample opportunities for training and professional development for both faculty and students. Training faculty members has been essential as well in order to help them be able to support their students’ needs during the global COVID-19 pandemic. A plethora of training and professional development events were available to support educators and learners as they were forced to go online. Teaching and learning support centers and a variety of professional associations offered sessions about how to work remotely, move online, and maintain resilience through it all, like the TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) Gulf Association that was born during the COVID-19 pandemic and has offered sessions regularly since its inception online. In addition, TESOL International moved its annual conference online, which allowed more people to attend. The aim of this was to provide support to educators in order to adapt to the shift to online education. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the student council’s role was also important in academia. They strove to help support their fellow students during this time with different events/programs. For example, at Prince Sultan University (PSU), the student council created sessions with alumni by asking them to speak to the current student body via Zoom. In addition, they were involved in online student competitions and created an online orientation session for the new students entering the university.

Technological Resources Higher education institutions have had to invest in resources that can support all three educational environments. It has required investment in order to supply quality education regardless of the environment used. Maintaining the use of technology tools is essential as they have invested in developing an infrastructure that will support online education even after returning to a face-to-face one. Increasing the capacity of the network on campus as well as investing in new technologies like creating virtual labs, providing access to different tech tools like Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams, Jamboards, Smartboards, screens for hybrid classrooms, and any tool that could possibly help support the teaching and learning within the different courses offered.

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 he New Norm Transition Mirroring T of Extracurricular Activities Whether online or face-to-face teaching and learning is occurring, the mental health and well-being of students is a concern in order to promote a healthy environment to learn in. It is worth mentioning how both the academic and administrative support systems had to adapt to meet the needs of students to create a successful environment for both online and blended courses. Providing ample opportunities for social interaction via extracurricular activities is an important aspect of life on campus. However, the virtual conference platforms afforded these activities to be mirrored online. Creating opportunities that promote extracurricular activities, whether online, face-to-face, or via virtual means to help the students feel involved with their courses and peers is critical. HEIs have tried adapting to the new norm for students and faculty. An example of one of these institutions is Prince Sultan University (PSU). They are concerned about the well-being of their students. Therefore, they have held several online competitions, and the student council reached out to the alumni to give back to the current student body via webinars. The student council also arranged sessions with the new students joining PSU to help them feel connected. Furthermore, the psychology club at Prince Sultan University was very active in holding sessions to understand the effects of COVID-19 on our lives, and Meet and Greets, all held online. The creation of hotlines by the Deanship of Student Affairs was created. The Jubilation office started to do online sessions addressing students’ well-being. The Academic Advising Center (AAC) emphasized online meeting sessions with students. Although this is academic support, it also discusses how this particular university did not overlook or cancel any initial approaches to ensure excellence. They also established other forms of support by automating some student processes in the registration office. The faculty have been trained to incorporate coping strategies into their classes, like icebreakers into the classroom that address others’ well-­ being – like a show – n-tell. A personal example that has been used is showing the students a piece of artwork that is kept on the person’s desk at home from a trip to one of the Greek Islands, and the teacher then explained to them that it is a reminder of a positive and happy time in her life to keep her positive. Then the teacher asked them to share. It is important to take 5 min every now and then in the classroom to provide an avenue for them to talk about their lives during the pandemic and what is currently happening. It allows them to discuss the new norm and find coping mechanisms. Universities need to remain flexible; the lines of communication need to be open and transparent, and find the ways or means that work best for your institution that foster and support student growth, learning, and well-being for the benefit of society. Professional Development is a great way to raise awareness of student mental health and well-being for the students, faculty, and admin staff. Sessions about

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coping have resonated throughout HEIs with titles like Uninstall COVID-19, Reboot Mental Health, and Mental Health and Productivity during COVID-19. Despite all the resources available, students do not necessarily verbalize their mental health struggles – and many do not know exactly how to help peers who appear to be lonely, sad, or distant (Mitchell & Ortega, 2019; Elfman, 2022). How do we start the conversation? In many higher education institutions, the following actions have been taken: • Chatbots have been created to provide answers to certain questions. • Counselors are available. • Webinars have been given to train faculty and students on using technology, whether online, hybrid, or a blended learning classroom. • Extracurricular activities have moved to the online platform and are slowly coming back to the face-to-face environment. • Social media avenues are being used to connect with the students and faculty. • Surveys have been administered to get feedback from the students and faculty. • Training faculty members has been essential as well in order to help them be able to support their students’ needs during this time. The examples above help to illustrate how incorporating extracurricular activities in higher education can be utilized to support the overall well-being of students, which supports their overall performance. According to the Timely MD survey, as cited in Elfman (2022), 88% of the respondents recognized that there is a mental health issue on their campus. When asked if COVID-19 was a factor, 70% stated yes, and 51% felt they were experiencing more stress than last year. These results indicate that as we move forward and the pedagogies used are modified, the connection to the student needs to be considered.

Conclusion Adapting to the new norm is upon us, and the dichotomy that used to exist between the three different environments in HEIs has been blurred. HEIs are now trying to find their niche and explore and develop it to stay strong competitors in this ever-­ changing digital world. Furthermore, during the pandemic, learners of all age groups had their in-person school connection cut off, losing physical access to their peers. This has had an impact on their lives. Universities need to remain flexible; the lines of communication need to be open and transparent, and find the ways or means that work best for the institution that foster and support student growth, learning, and well-being for the benefit of society. The pandemic should be viewed as an opportunity and not as a problem. HEIs should look for the positives and learn how to grow. This includes training on the best practices for remote work and the educational field. As the world advances into the digital era, our perception of education and how it should occur will continue to shift. The recognition that it is about the student’s experience regardless of the

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learning environment is becoming more prevalent. As such, a student can receive a quality education, regardless of delivery modality. However, colleges and universities must intentionally prepare instructors and students to engage in teaching and learning through various modalities. HEIs need to prepare for digital transformation and be ready for their future.

Future Considerations Higher education institutions need to consider the impact the pandemic has had on the method of instruction used in their institutions. It is time for reflection and examination of the tech tools that fit best into their context and how they can continue to use them regardless of the environment. They need to consider where they want to go with the use of technology and the significance of the decisions made. A few questions that can be used are mentioned below: 1. What tech tools have you found to be the most useful and plan to continue using whether you are teaching online or face-to-face? 2. What is the future of higher education practices as we slowly move out of the pandemic? 3. Some institutions have elected to use a hybrid situation; others have remained entirely online, while others have gone fully back to face-to-face. Which environment do you prefer to teach in? 4. What kind of institutional support is provided for training, professional development, and resources? 5. Have you thought about what environment you prefer to teach in? What do you still need (e.g., training and resources) to be the best that you can be? 6. With demands for mental health support typically exceeding resources, how are colleges and universities addressing student well-being inside and outside the classroom? 7. Do faculty/students feel more stress while using an online environment for higher education?

References Arias, J. J., Swinton, J., & Anderson, K. (2018). Online vs. face-to-face: A comparison of student outcomes with random assignment. Journal of Business Education & Scholarship of Teaching, 12(2), 1–23. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1193426.pdf Brown, S. & Sambell, K. (2020). Writing better assignments in the post-Covid19 era: Approaches to good task design. 1–10. https://sally-­brown.net/ Elfman, L. (2022). Survey shows pandemic continues to impact student mental health. Diverse Issues in Higher Education. https://www.diverseeducation.com/students/article/15287291/ survey-­shows-­pandemic-­continues-­to-­impact-­student-­mental-­health

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Feng, S. (2019). In M. A. Peters & R. Heraud (Eds.), Blended learning pedagogy in higher education (pp.  1–6). Encyclopedia of Educational Innovation. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­ 13-­2262-­4_19-­1 Garrison, D.  R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education model. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105. Karchmer-Klein, R. (2020). Improving online education: Digital tools and evidence-based practices. Teachers College Press. Mitchell, C. (2020). Tips for online education for both teachers and students. PowerPoint slides/ Video. Prince Sultan University Professional Development sessions. Mitchell, T., & Ortega, S. (2019). Mental health challenges require urgent response. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2019/10/29/ students-­mental-­health-­shouldnt-­be-­responsibility-­campus-­counseling-­centers-­alone North, C. (2020). A new pedagogy is emerging… and online learning is a key contributing factor. Published on Contact North, Ontario’s Distance Education and Training Network. Retrieved from https://contactnorth.ca/ Online Education. (2015). Online education email interview with Monroe, R. https://www.online-­ education.net/articles/general/what-­is-­online-­education.html Padwan, F., Wiechart, K.  A., Warren, A.N., & Park, J. (2016). Pedagogy & practice for online english language teacher education. TESOL Press. Pelz, B. (2010). (My) three principles of effective online pedagogy. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 14(1), 103–116. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ909855 Rottman, A., & Rabidoux, S. (2017). 4 expert strategies for designing an online course. Published on Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com Su, F. (2019). In M. A. Peters & R. Heraud (Eds.), Blended learning pedagogy in higher education (pp. 1–6). Encyclopedia of Educational Innovation. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­13-­2 262-­4_19-­1 Yang, D. (2017). Instructional strategies and course design for teaching statistics online: Perspectives from online students. IJ STEM Ed, 4(34). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-­017-­0096-­x Connie Mitchell  has 24 years of teaching experience and won Education First’s Teaching Excellence Award 2020 for Saudi Arabia, a Higher Education Academy Principal Fellow, and a TESOL-CAEP and NCAAA accreditation reviewer. At Prince Sultan University, she is the Vice Dean of the College of Humanities and Sciences and Director of the Teaching and Learning Center. Her research interest lies in professional development, QA in higher education, TESOL/TEFL, and assessment.

Chapter 3

Prospective EFL Teachers’ Self-Perceived Competence and Attitudes Toward Teaching English to Young Learners Mehmet Karaca and Meryem Akçayoğlu

Abstract  This two-phase study explored prospective EFL teachers’ (juniors and seniors) perceptions of their competence and attitudes toward teaching English to young learners (TEYL), recruiting 333 participants. In the quantitative phase, prospective teachers’ level of attitudes toward TEYL was determined by a newly developed scale. The descriptive analysis revealed that future teachers held mildly favorable attitudes toward the TEYL. The data of the qualitative phase was collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through Bryman’s (Social research methods. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016) content analysis method. The findings of the qualitative phase indicated that affective aspects were the main anxiety-­provoking factor for the participants. In addition, juniors felt most competent in developing and adapting materials while perceiving themselves as least competent regarding assessment issues. On the other hand, seniors felt most competent in material development and adaptation, whereas they considered themselves least competent regarding linguistic and pedagogical competence. The results are discussed, and pedagogical implications are offered. Keywords  Affective factors in teaching · Teacher attitudes · Self-perceived competence · TEYL · Prospective EFL teachers

M. Karaca (*) Research in Teacher Education and Material Development (R-TEAM) Group, Ankara, Turkey M. Akçayoğlu Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_3

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Introduction Many countries (e.g., Germany, Poland, Finland, and Turkey) have recently introduced English at the primary school level to meet the growing need to improve learners’ communicative abilities in English (Copland et al., 2014; Emery, 2013). Considering the psychological, linguistic, and cultural benefits (Brewster et  al., 2004), all the stakeholders, including teachers, teacher trainers, researchers, policymakers, as well as parents, have become more concerned about providing learners with the most effective language learning opportunities at earlier ages. Similarly, researchers have focused heavily on several studies investigating the methods and approaches, teaching skills in TEYL, and teachers’ classroom practices. However, scant attention has been paid to the affective aspects of young learners’ teachers, such as their attitudes and self-perceived competence. Teachers hold a prominent role in the success of language teaching and learning (Richards, 2001). In EFL contexts like Turkey, the part of teachers in TEYL is even more critical since teachers are the significant sources of language exposure and function as role models in language classrooms. Moreover, teachers are central in forming young learners’ attitudes toward and willingness to learn English. Concerning adequate dimensions of teaching, teachers’ positive attitudes and high perceived competence play a central role in the early formative years of schooling (Enever, 2014). It has been emphasized that “in the early years of preprimary and primary schooling, the role of the teacher in the young child’s socialization and the development of their attitudes to learning is crucial to the child’s ability in making progress across all areas of the school curriculum” (Enever, 2014, p. 231). Teachers’ adequate psychological readiness, such as positive attitudes and high self-perceived competence, can promote their willingness and engagement in critical and demanding classroom practices. Therefore, exploring prospective teachers’ attitudes and perceived competence toward TEYL is as essential as the early introduction of English to understand their instructional practices, focusing on improving their classroom practices. However, although a plethora of research has been carried out on TEYL from different perspectives (e.g., Butler, 2004; Çamlıbel-Acar, 2017), research on the affective aspects of TEYL teachers is scarce. Considering this almost uncharted area and critical gap, the present study explores prospective EFL teachers’ perceived competence and attitudes toward TEYL so that necessary steps can be taken during the preservice teacher education programs.

Review of Literature Teaching English to Young Learners The widespread early introduction of English worldwide has been considered “possibly the world’s biggest policy development in education” (Johnstone, 2009, p. 33). However, even though substantial attention has been paid to the early introduction

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of English in many European countries, most of these countries, along with Turkey, still lack well-prepared EFL teachers (Enever, 2014; Kırkgöz, 2009). To deal with this problem, some countries trained primary school teachers to teach English (Garton & Copland, 2015), while others trained English language teachers who were educated to teach adult learners through short-term in-service teacher education and training (INSET) programs (Haznedar & Uysal, 2013). Relatedly, several reforms have been implemented in Turkey to equip prospective teachers with the required knowledge and skills regarding TEYL. However, there is still a shortage of well-trained EFL teachers in Turkey and other countries (Copland & Garton, 2014; Enever, 2014; Kırkgöz, 2009; Nunan, 2003). In Turkey, all EFL teachers, whether for elementary, secondary, or high school, are trained through the same teacher education programs that the Higher Education Council determines in Turkey. These prospective teachers are expected to gain the required knowledge and skills regarding young learners by attending just one or two TEYL courses. It is more likely to involve just a single TEYL course; teacher education programs fall short of catering to the demand for high-quality education (Haznedar, 2003). Regrettably, these prospective teachers have no opportunity to experience and even observe young learners’ classrooms until their practicum courses in the last year of their education (if not guaranteed). Concerning their practicum courses, prospective teachers may conduct their teaching practice in high schools because of convenience concerns. Since TEYL is a distinct field of inquiry and requires extra specific techniques, these prospective EFL teachers probably may not be equipped with all the required knowledge and skills to deliver developmentally appropriate instruction to young learners. At best, they try to adapt their existing learning and pedagogies to suit young learners.

Teachers’ Attitudes in TEYL In social psychology, the notion of attitude has been closely focused on explaining human behaviors (Morgan et al., 1993). Allport (1935) defined the concept of attitude as “a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related” (p. 810). Having synthesized different definitions (e.g., Allport, 1935; Anderson, 1981), the researchers of the current study defined the notion of attitudes as psychological, adaptive, and evaluative dispositions or judgments developed mainly through direct personal experience, which are expressed through feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions or actions toward an attitude object. It can be claimed that teachers’ enthusiasm and positive attitudes toward TEYL can play a crucial role in generating young learners’ favorable attitudes. Teachers with favorable attitudes toward TEYL can be more willing to teach young learners. This, in turn, can lead them to devote more time and effort to creating more meaningful learning environments.

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Because attitudes cannot be observed directly, they should be inferred from cognitive (i.e., beliefs), affective (i.e., feelings), and behavioral responses (i.e., actions) of individuals. About TEYL, the mental component refers to the thoughts, values, and beliefs about the young learners and teaching young learners. In contrast, the affective component concerns the feelings toward the young learners and teaching English to young learners. Finally, the behavioral component refers to the behavioral intention, actions, or practices (learning approaches and methods, professional development practices, etc.) toward the young learners and teaching English to them. More specifically, teachers with positive attitudes are the ones who enjoy teaching young learners (affective component); the ones who believe that teaching at earlier ages can provide young learners with more and more prolonged exposure to English (the cognitive part), and the ones who develop themselves by joining conferences or seminars or by reading articles on teaching young learners (the behavioral component).

Teachers’ Self-Perceived Competence in TEYL The notion of a teacher’s perceived competence involves the beliefs and perceptions of teachers about their ability to equip the learners with the necessary knowledge, skills, strategies, and competencies in the right way (Richards, 2001). Social cognitive theory suggests that individuals’ self-perceived competence positively affects continual professional development and feeling of mastery in a specific area (Bandura, 1997). In other words, individuals’ self-perceptions or beliefs regarding their competence or capabilities can impact their cognitive processes, persistence in a task, motivation, willingness, and other affective states and, therefore, determine their performance. Concerning TEYL, teachers’ self-perceived competence constitutes the evaluations or judgments of their capabilities to achieve the desired learning outcomes by conducting an effective TEYL. Teachers’ perceived competence can function as a filter determining their actual classroom performance. In other words, teachers’ perceived competence is a significant predictor of their effort, enthusiasm, commitment, intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and burnout and, in turn, influences students’ learning outcomes (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011; Guo et al., 2012). In the same vein, Hatlevik (2017) found that prospective teachers’ perceived competence has a considerable effect on subsequent perceptions as practicing school teachers. The notion of perceived competence has been investigated mainly from the perspective of learners and teachers based on different skills or components of language such as speaking, writing, pronunciation, and so on. MacIntyre et al. (1997) explored the correlation among language anxiety, perceived competence, and actual competence of 37 French learners regarding their speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills in French. The researchers (1997) concluded that “actual competence, perceived competence, and language anxiety are all interrelated” (p. 274). More relatedly, Malihi (2015) examined the perceptions of 114 EFL elementary school teachers regarding their readiness to teach

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young learners at Saudi schools. The results indicated that even though teachers had favorable attitudes toward TEYL, more than half of the participating teachers were not equipped with adequate teaching knowledge and skills regarding teaching young learners. The following research questions guided this study; 1. What is the level of prospective EFL teachers’ attitudes toward teaching English to young learners? 2. What are the main anxiety-provoking issues regarding teaching English to young learners for prospective EFL teachers? 3. To what extent do the prospective EFL teachers perceive themselves competent in teaching English to young learners?

Method Research Design The current study adopted a descriptive survey research design with a mixed-method methodology. This type of design “provides a quantitative or numeric description of a population’s trends, attitudes, or opinions by studying a population sample” (Creswell, 2014, p. 155). Likewise, the researchers in this study attempted to investigate prospective EFL teachers’ self-perceived competence and attitudes toward TEYL. In the quantitative phase, the data were collected by administering an attitude scale developed for this study. The data for the qualitative phase were gathered through semi-structured interviews. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics were used.

Participants To explore prospective EFL teachers’ self-perceived competence and attitudes toward TEYL, the researchers recruited 333 participants from three state universities in Turkey. The institutions were from three different regions of Turkey. The participants were junior (third grade) and senior (fourth grade) students. The reason behind choosing these grades is that junior and senior students have specific experiences concerning TEYL. In their third year in the university, prospective teachers take TEYL I and II courses; in their fourth year, they take practicum I and II courses. It should be noted that most prospective teachers attend their practicum courses in high schools in Turkey because of convenience issues. Therefore, TEYL courses can be more effective determinants than practicum courses regarding their self-­ perceived competence and attitudes toward TEYL. Having adopted convenience

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Table 3.1  The distribution of participants in the quantitative phase by institution, gender, and grade

Gazi U. Çukurova U. Dicle U. Total

Juniors Male 23 25 11 59

Female 60 55 20 135

Seniors Male 15 14 7 36

Female 30 30 10 70

Total 128 124 48 300

Table 3.2  The distribution of participants in the qualitative phase by institution, gender, and grade

Gazi U. Çukurova U. Dicle U. Total

Juniors Male 1 2 3 6

Female 6 3 4 13

Seniors Male 1 2 – 3

Female 6 3 2 11

Total 14 10 9 33

sampling, the researchers recruited the participants based on their availability and willingness for the present study. A total of 300 prospective teachers from three different state universities in Turkey participated in the quantitative phase, which aimed to explore their attitudes toward TEYL. Table 3.1 displays the specific demographic information of the participants in the quantitative phase, including their institution, gender, and grade. In addition, 33 prospective teachers from three different state universities in Turkey participated in the qualitative phase, which aimed to explore their practices, needs, and, more specifically, self-perceived competence regarding TEYL. Table 3.2 shows the participants’ specific demographic information, including their institution, gender, and grade.

Data Collection The researchers developed a survey questionnaire, students’ attitudes toward teaching English to young learners (i.e., SATEYL), for the quantitative phase of the study. The construction process of the SATEYL is essentially based on the specific guidelines DeVellis remarked on (2016, pp. 107–147). A 5-point Likert-scale format was selected for the measurement format since this is widely used in instruments measuring opinions, beliefs, and attitudes (Dörnyei, 2003). In addition, a pilot study is vital in enhancing the quality of a scale, which can provide important information such as the appropriateness of the items, necessary revisions of double-­ barreled items, and the addition of extra items (Gillham, 2008). For piloting, The SATEYL scale was administered to a total of 45 prospective teachers (30 juniors and 15 seniors), who shared the same context with the participants of the formal

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study, from three different institutions to check the comprehensibility of the items and the psychometric property (i.e., reliability) of the scale. Likewise, the semi-­ structured interview questions were also piloted with five prospective teachers to ensure the comprehensibility of the questions. Finally, the researchers administered the SATEYL scale in pen-paper format by meeting the participants face-to-face to obtain more sincere responses and reach as many participants as possible.

Data Analysis The quantitative phase data were analyzed through the IBM SPSS 22 for Windows. The Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was adopted to develop the SATEYL scale and ensure construct validation. Descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, standard deviation, and mean) were used to interpret the quantitative data. To ensure the appropriateness of the data for the analysis, data screening procedures such as missing data and outliers were carried out before conducting the EFA. In addition, the researchers determined the factor(s) of the scale based on the scree plot and Kaiser criterion. As a result, Bryman’s qualitative analysis stages were heeded (Bryman, 2016). The internal consistency of the scale was determined by the Cronbach’s alpha method. The researchers ensured face, content, and construct validity by receiving expert opinions, piloting, and executing factorial analysis. As a kind of investigator triangulation, member-checking was employed to ensure the trustworthiness of the present study. The fact that the researchers have a good knowledge of the context in which the study was conducted contributes to the credibility of the findings. In addition, researchers used direct quotations from the participants to promote the credibility of the survey (Mackey & Gass, 2016).

Findings and Implications The factor analysis procedures resulted in a one-factor solution and 12 items for the SATEYL scale with a 0.88 reliability index. The reliability analysis indicated a high internal consistency among the 12 items of the SATEYL scale (Cohen et al., 2018). Regarding the cutoff points to determine the negative, neutral, and positive attitudes of the prospective EFL teachers, a TwoStep Cluster analysis was employed. Based on this procedure, the result of the descriptive analysis showed that future teachers hold mildly favorable attitudes toward the TEYL (Fig. 3.1). Since the attitude scores of juniors (45.58) and seniors (49.91) are very close, the researchers interpreted their attitude scores as a whole. Incongruent with the present study’s findings, several studies revealed that teachers had positive attitudes toward teaching English to young learners (e.g., Çamlıbel-Acar, 2017; Emery, 2013; Malihi, 2015; Tatlı, 2014).

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Fig. 3.1  The level of prospective EFL teachers’ attitudes toward TEYL

Teacher attitudes can significantly influence our motivation and willingness to teach and learners’ motivation and enthusiasm in language classrooms. Relatedly, Alptekin and Alptekin (1984) accentuated that it is more likely for teachers with favorable attitudes toward a language and its culture and speakers than those with negative attitudes to be more successful in their teaching process. Likewise, it is safe to claim that teachers’ willingness and enthusiasm for the TEYL can play a crucial role in generating young learners’ favorable attitudes. As Oxford (2001) concluded, there is a strong connection between teachers’ actions and attitudes and learners’ motivation and performance. Teachers with positive attitudes toward TEYL can have a higher willingness to teach young learners, and this, in turn, leads him/her to devote more time and effort to creating more meaningful learning environments. Descriptive analysis was employed to interpret the qualitative data. First, the participants were asked about their opinions about the most anxiety-provoking activities or practices regarding TEYL.  Table  3.3 displays the results of the first interview question. The findings indicated that affective aspects were the main anxiety-provoking issues for both juniors (58%) and seniors (50%). TEYL is an affectively-demanding endeavor in which motivation, attitudes, and self-perceived competence, among others, can determine the success of language teaching and learning. Within this context, EFL teachers should be effectively ready to teach young learners to fully benefit from the early introduction of English to young learners. Similarly, the literature on teaching young learners emphasizes the curriculum’s affective objectives, such as motivating students to learn a language (Brewster et  al., 2004). However, it has been lamented that teacher preparation programs are ineffective in developing prospective teachers’ practical competencies (Öztürk & Aydın, 2019). Therefore, future EFL teachers may have some concerns about the affective aspects of teaching young learners. In alignment with the current study’s findings, the teachers in Garton and Copland’s (2015) and Brining’s (2015) studies considered motivating young learners as one of the biggest problems in TEYL.  In light of these findings, preservice teacher education programs should center on developing prospective teachers’ affective competence (Freeman, 1990) along with their linguistic

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Table 3.3  What makes you anxious most with regard to TEYL?

Affective aspects Classroom management Teaching methods/approaches Instructional materials Interaction with learners Preparing activities Assessment issues Self-confidence to teach Learners’ making the same mistakes

Juniors (n = 19) fa 11 3 4 2 1 1 1 – –

Seniors (n = 14)

Total

7 6 1 1 1 – – 1 1

18 9 5 3 2 1 1 1 1

Since the participants have expressed more than one opinion, the total number of frequencies has exceeded the total number of participants a

and cognitive competencies. Relatedly, one of the participants in this study expressed that; Because students at this age group are so dynamic and active that it is challenging to grab their attention and to keep their motivation high throughout the class (4-10).

Classroom management was the second most anxiety-provoking issue for juniors (16%) and seniors (43%). Classroom management skills are among the main assets of teacher competencies since “effective teaching and learning cannot occur in a poorly managed classroom” (Marzano, 2003, p.  1). Similarly, most teachers in Garton et al.’ (2013) study reported large class sizes as problematic in TEYL. The most challenging aspect of TEYL was managing behavior and discipline (71%) in Brining’s study (2015). Traditionally, prospective teacher education programs are notorious for their one-sided approach. They focus mainly on theoretical knowledge, neglecting to equip future teachers with the practical skills and knowledge to manage the young learners’ classrooms. Given that teacher education programs fall short of providing high-quality education regarding TEYL (Haznedar, 2003), it is plausible to express that those prospective teachers perceive themselves as insufficient to manage young learners’ classrooms. Interestingly, working in young learners’ classrooms was more anxiety-provoking for seniors than juniors. One of the possible reasons behind this may be that since seniors can have opportunities to experience young learners’ classrooms through practicum courses, they can better recognize the difficulty of managing young learners’ classrooms. Another possible reason may be that seniors may have the chance to experience the notorious theory-­ practice discrepancy in language education. Therefore, prospective EFL teachers should have more opportunities to gain adequate professional competence to generate practical and experiential knowledge (Table 3.4). The results indicated that 16 juniors (84%) and 12 seniors (86%) did not perceive themselves as fully competent to teach young learners. Regardless of their grade, most prospective EFL teachers did not have adequate competence concerning

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Table 3.4  What is your perception of your competence on TEYL?

Fully competent Competent to some extent Not competent enough

Juniors (n = 19) F 3 13 3

Seniors (n = 14) 2 7 5

TEYL.  One of the present study participants emphasized the lack of practical knowledge. She expressed that; I don’t perceive myself ready to teach young learners. I have some theoretical knowledge, but practical knowledge (3-3).

Prospective EFL teachers must gain professional competence in future teacher education if asked to become reflective teachers (Johnston, 1994). Yet, it is evident that professional competence development is a neglected area in these programs because they lack two essential requirements for promoting the perceived competence of teachers; practice and experience. The incompetence of prospective EFL teachers in TEYL can also be attributed to their lack of appropriate training in preservice teacher education (Nunan, 2003). TEYL requires various knowledge and skills such as child-appropriate pedagogy, child psychology, material development and adaptation, skills in hands-on activities, social, musical, and reflective skills, and knowledge of primary education (Cameron, 2003). Likewise, one of the study participants accentuated that teaching young learners is a complex phenomenon requiring different knowledge and skills. The participant underlined this issue as follows; I feel confident in understanding child psychology. I think I can get along well with young learners. However, these are not enough for effective teaching because language involves various processes, and one needs to possess various skills and knowledge (4-7).

It is more plausible for juniors not to be fully competent because they have not attended practicum courses and yet experienced young learners’ classrooms. Interestingly, although seniors may have more experiential knowledge than juniors in teaching young learners, an overwhelming percentage of seniors (86%) did not feel fully competent in TEYL. This may result from the fact that prospective teachers may have conducted their teaching practice in high schools because of convenience concerns. This kind of experience may not have contributed to future teachers’ developing appropriate practical knowledge about TEYL. On this issue, one of the participants of this study lamented that; I have conducted my practicum courses in high schools. I didn’t have any chance to experience or observe young learners’ classrooms. We should practice in primary or secondary schools for at least one semester. In this way, we could have developed various techniques and strategies for young learners (4-2).

It can be discussed that the school practice course or practicum involved in the last two terms is not enough to provide prospective teachers with experiential knowledge. Besides, there is a debate on the effectiveness of this practicum because of the

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Table 3.5  How do you perceive your competence concerning the following domains in TEYL? (please grade it between 1 and 10)

Teaching language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) Teaching language components (vocabulary and grammar) Methods and teaching approaches Technology integration Classroom management Assessment issues Material development and adaptation Linguistic and pedagogical competence, Lesson planning Educational psychology of young learners

Juniors (mean) 7.31

Seniors (mean) 5.85

7.05 5.89 6.57 6.57 5.78 7.36 6.21 6.94 6.00

6.07 6.07 5.85 5.64 5.92 7.64 5.57 6.14 6.78

conflicts between the mentor teachers and the academicians (Öztürk & Aydın, 2019) (Table 3.5). Copland and Garton (2014) suggest that “teachers need a strong understanding of children’s social and cognitive development as well as a good understanding of theories of second language acquisition to teach effectively” (p.  225). Teachers should adopt methods and teaching strategies that suit young learners. Shin (2007) highlighted that teachers should implement various activities such as pair-work, group-work, whole class, teacher-pupil, and pupil-pupil according to the level of young learners. In other words, teachers should be able to employ activities and strategies that appeal to young learners (Emery, 2013) because they are not keen on learning through traditional teaching methods and activities. However, through generic language teacher education programs, prospective EFL teachers are unlikely to be equipped with all the required knowledge, skills, and strategies for effective teaching to young learners. Managing classrooms is one of the essential dimensions of teacher competencies in TEYL. Interestingly, seniors felt less competent in classroom management (5.64) in the present study rather than juniors. This issue was also displayed in Table 3.3 that 43% of the seniors found classroom management anxiety-provoking. As mentioned above, because of insufficient training, heavy focus on theoretical knowledge, and the negligence of practical skills and knowledge, prospective teachers may perceive themselves as least competent in managing young learners’ classrooms. Seniors may have better recognized a massive gap between theoretical and practical knowledge. This gap was also emphasized in their responses to the last interview question that almost all prospective EFL teachers needed extra practice-­ based courses. EFL teachers require more skills and knowledge on material development and adaptation in young learners’ classrooms because TEYL necessitates teachers to use materials addressing multiple senses (Shin, 2014). Equally important, teachers should employ different sources and course books since young learners have

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shorter attention spans than adult learners. Therefore, teachers should adopt various activities during the lesson, such as games, songs, and rhymes, to keep young learners’ interest and engagement high in language classrooms. Relatedly, Zorba and Tosun (2011) found that additional instruction materials improved young learners’ attention span and motivated and engaged them in language learning actively. On the other hand, Malihi’s (2015) teachers needed more training in choosing and designing materials and activities appropriate for young learners’ development stages. Young learners’ teachers should have sufficient knowledge of learners’ social and emotional, cognitive, and physical development to choose and implement the most appropriate assessment tasks and provide constructive feedback (McKay, 2006). However, several studies indicated that language teachers lack sufficient knowledge and skills about assessment issues (Tsagari & Vogt, 2017). Likewise, prospective teacher education programs in Turkey are ineffective in equipping future EFL teachers with language assessment literacy (Öztürk & Aydın, 2019). There exists only one course centering specifically on language assessment in the ELT curriculum in Turkey. It can be discussed that this course can only provide theoretical knowledge about assessment issues, neglecting the practical side of assessment. In alignment with the current study’s findings, the teachers in Tatlı’s (2014) study were not competent to employ performancebased assessment strategies in young learners’ classrooms. In light of these conditions, it is plausible to think that both juniors and seniors in the present study perceive themselves as least competent in assessment issues. It can be suggested that preservice teacher education programs provide separate courses explicitly designed for assessing young learners and integrating technology into young learners’ classrooms. It was found that seniors perceived their linguistic and pedagogic competence as insufficient and felt somewhat incompetent in teaching language skills. It is unlikely that prospective ELT teachers perceive themselves as fully competent in TEYL in contexts where they are inexperienced and lack practical knowledge. It has been universally recognized that language teachers have low L2 proficiency levels and lack self-confidence in their English ability (Baker, 2008). Similarly, in Turkey, a plethora of research has emphasized that these programs are still inadequate to prepare prospective teachers for real classroom situations (Gürsoy & Damar, 2011; İpek & Daloğlu, 2017; Öztürk & Aydın, 2019; Uzun, 2016). Garton’s (2014) study revealed that one of the main challenges in TEYL was the inadequate L2 proficiency level of the primary English teachers. The researcher (2014) suggested that the L2 proficiency and teaching skills of TEYL teachers be improved. Echoing this finding, seniors in the present study considered themselves somewhat incompetent in teaching language skills. This can possibly stem from the lack of specific qualifications or training to teach young learners on the part of prospective teachers because they are trained as EFL teachers rather than primary school EFL teachers.

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Conclusion Teaching does not take place in a vacuum in that it is a multidimensional social and psychological process influenced by various affective factors. Among others, teacher attitudes can significantly impact their motivation and efforts to teach and learners’ motivation and enthusiasm in young learners’ classrooms. Thus, it is essential to examine teacher attitudes better to benefit young learners’ learning potential. The SATEYL scale can be used in preservice teacher education programs to determine the attitude levels of the prospective language teachers regarding TEYL so that the required steps can be taken to modify their attitudes and misconceptions (if any). Aside from teacher attitudes, teachers’ self-perceived competence is one of the significant predictors of learners’ motivation and performance (Guo et  al., 2012). However, teachers can have low self-confidence and low L2 proficiency in their teaching competence in TEYL (Garton, 2014) because it has been lamented that they lack sufficient training on TEYL. Overall, the fact TEYL is a distinct field of inquiry and that prospective EFL teachers are not equipped with all the required knowledge and skills to deliver developmentally appropriate instruction to young learners through generic language teacher education programs, TEYL teachers should be trained through a specific program designed specifically for TEYL.

References Allport, G.  W. (1935). Attitudes. In C.  Murchison (Ed.), A handbook of social psychology (pp. 798–844). Clark University Press. Alptekin, C., & Alptekin, M. (1984). The question of culture: EFL teaching in non-English speaking countries. ELT Journal, 38(1), 14–20. Anderson, L. W. (1981). Assessing affective characteristics in the schools. Allyn and Bacon. Baker, W. (2008). A critical examination of ELT in Thailand: The role of cultural awareness. RELC Journal, 39, 131–146. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. H.W. Freeman. Brewster, J., Ellis, G., & Girard, D. (2004). The primary English teacher’s guide. (New Edition). Pearson Education Limited. Brining, D. J. (2015). The challenges faced by teachers of English as a foreign language to young learners in international contexts and their training and development needs and opportunities. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of York. Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. Butler, Y.  G. (2004). What level of English proficiency do elementary school teachers need to attain to teach EFL? Case studies from Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. TESOL Quarterly, 38(2), 245–278. Cameron, L. (2003). Challenges for ELT from the expansion in teaching children. ELT Journal, 57(2), 105–112. Çamlıbel-Acar, Z. (2017). Pre-service teachers’ perceived readiness and willingness to teach English to young learners. Studia Anglica, 226(7), 21–30. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge.

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Copland, F., & Garton, S. (2014). Key themes and future directions in teaching English to young learners: Introduction to the special issue. ELT Journal, 68(3), 223–230. Copland, F., Garton, S., & Burns, A. (2014). Challenges in teaching English to young learners: Global perspectives and local realities. TESOL Quarterly, 48(4), 738–762. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. DeVellis, R. F. (2016). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage. Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research. Routledge. Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Limited. Emery, H. (2013). A global study of primary English teachers’ qualifications, training and career development. In S. Sheehan (Ed.), British Council ELT research papers (Vol. 1, pp. 68–103). British Council. Enever, J. (2014). Primary English teacher education in Europe. ELT Journal, 68(3), 231–242. Freeman, D. (1990). Intervening in practice teaching. In J. C. Richards & D. Nunan (Eds.), Second language teacher education (pp. 103–117). Cambridge University Press. Garton, S. (2014). Unresolved issues and new challenges in teaching English to young learners: The case of South Korea. Current issues in language planning, 15(2), 201–219. Garton, S., & Copland, F. (2015). Teaching English to young learners in Europe: teachers’ attitudes and perspectives. In A. Linn, N. Bermel, & G. Ferguson (Eds.), Attitudes towards English in Europe (Vol. 1, pp. 321–344). (Language and Social Life). Walter De Gruyter. Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2013). Investigating global practices in teaching English to young learners. In S. Sheehan (Ed.), British Council ELT research papers (Vol. 1, pp. 35–56). British Council. Gillham, B. (2008). Developing a questionnaire (2nd ed.). Continuum. Guo, Y., Connor, C. M., Yang, Y., Roehrig, A. D., & Morrison, F. J. (2012). The effects of teacher qualification, teacher self-efficacy, and classroom practices on fifth graders’ literacy outcomes. The Elementary School Journal, 113(1), 3–24. Gürsoy, E., & Damar, A. E. (2011). Cooperating teachers’ awareness about their role during the teaching practice course: The Turkish context. Education Sciences, 6(1), 54–65. Hatlevik, I. K. R. (2017). The impact of prospective teachers’ perceived competence on subsequent perceptions as schoolteachers. Teachers and Teaching, 23(7), 810–828. Haznedar, B. (2003, January 7–10). Primary language teaching and teacher education (paper presentation). Hawaii International Conference on Education Haznedar, B., & Uysal, H. H. (2013). Introduction: Embracing theory and practice in teaching languages to young learners. In B. Haznedar & H. H. Uysal (Eds.), Handbook for teaching foreign language to young learners in primary schools (pp. 1–20). Ani Yayincilik. İpek, Ö. F., & Daloğlu, A. (2017). The effectiveness of special teaching methods I course in preparing students to special teaching methods II course: A case study. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(1), 231–249. Johnston, S. (1994). Experience is the best teacher; or is it? An analysis of the role of experience in learning to teach. Journal of Teacher Education, 45, 199–208. Johnstone, R. (2009). An early start: What are the key conditions for generalized success? In J. Enever, J. Moon, & U. Raman (Eds.), Young learner English language policy and implementation: International perspectives (pp. 31–41). Garnet Education. Kırkgöz, Y. (2009). English language teaching in Turkish primary education. In J.  Enever, J. Moon, & U. Raman (Eds.), Young learner English language policy and implementation: International perspectives (pp. 189–195). Garnet Education. MacIntyre, P. D., Noels, K. A., & Clément, R. (1997). Biases in self-ratings of second language proficiency: The role of language anxiety. Language Learning, 47(2), 265–287. Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2016). Second language research: Methodology and design (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Malihi, J. F. (2015). Saudi EFL teachers’ readiness and perceptions of young learners teaching at elementary schools. English Language Teaching, 8(2), 86–100. Marzano, R. J. (2003). Classroom management that works. ASCD. McKay, P. (2006). Assessing young language learners. Cambridge University Press. Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R., & Schopler, J. (1993). Principles of learning. Introduction to psychology (7th ed.). Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589–613. Oxford, R. L. (2001). ‘The bleached bones of a story’: Learners’ constructions of language teachers. In M. P. Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning (pp. 86–111). Longman. Öztürk, G., & Aydın, B. (2019). English language teacher education in Turkey: Why do we fail and what policy reforms are needed? Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 9(1), 181–213. Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Shin, J.  K. (2007). Ten helpful ideas for teaching English to young learners. English teaching Forum, 44(2), 2–13. Shin, J. K. (2014). Teaching young learners in English as a second/foreign language settings. In M.  Celce-Murcia, D.  M. Brington, & M.  A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (4th ed., pp. 550–567). National Geographic Learning/Cengage Learning. Tatlı, L. (2014). EFL teachers’ attitudes towards teaching English to young learners. Unpublished MA thesis, Çağ University. Tsagari, D., & Vogt, K. (2017). Assessment literacy of foreign language teachers around Europe: Research, challenges and future prospects. Papers in Language Testing and Assessment, 6(1), 41–63. Uzun, L. (2016). Evaluation of the latest English language teacher training programme in Turkey: Teacher trainees’ perspective. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1147115. Zorba, M.  G., & Tosun, S. (2011). Enriching kindergarten learners’ English by using language portfolio and additional instructional materials. Contemporary Online Language Education Journal, 1(2), 35–43. Mehmet Karaca  holds a PhD in ELT at Gazi University, Turkey. He has extensive experience in TEYL. Currently, he is working as a researcher in the Research in Teacher Education and Material Development group. He worked in different institutions as a research assistant, writing tutor, lecturer, and English language teacher. His research interests include L2 writing beliefs, L2 writing assessment, digital L2 writing, TEYL, and literacy studies in L2 writing. Meryem Akçayoğlu  has a PhD in EFL from Cukurova University. She is currently Lecturer in the ELT Department at Cukurova University, Turkey. She has broad experience in teaching English to students at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels and is interested in research on Applied Linguistics, teacher education, critical thinking, culture, and multiculturalism. She served as Vice President of the International Office and Erasmus+ Departmental Coordinator at Cukurova University.

Chapter 4

Innovative High-Impact Practices (HIPs) in 8-Week Online Graduate Research Methodology and Capstone Courses During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Case Study Awatef Ahmed Ben Ramadan Abstract  This chapter demonstrates and emphasizes the importance of introducing innovative high-impact practices (HIPs) to the 8-week research methodology and capstone classes of Mercer University’s Master of Science in Health Informatics (MSHI) program during the first COVID-19 pandemic closure in the Spring 2020 semester. In their last semester of the degree, the students must develop and conduct complete health informatics real-time projects involving experiential and service-­ learning practices to solve clinical or public health informatics problems. Given the pandemic and only 16 weeks, the total duration of the two required courses, I realized that it was challenging to build new research skills and capabilities to conduct successful real-time research projects. The significant challenges were social isolation and inaccessibility to the research participants and sponsors during the pandemic. In this chapter, I will share how I advanced my traditional teaching HIPs, scaffolded the courses’ final projects, and intensively worked on an individual level (per student) to search for suitable alternative projects. As a result, the students showed resilience, coping, flexibility, and extreme responsibility to handle the hard work that accompanied the change and produced unexpected high-quality research projects. As a result, three students presented at a local research conference, and one student published an original article out of his capstone work. Keywords  High-impact practices (HIPs) · 8-week online graduate courses · Capstone · COVID-19

A. A. Ben Ramadan (*) Department of Informatics and Mathematics, College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_4

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Introduction to HIPs and the Chapter’s Purpose High-impact practices (HIPs) have been identified as intensive and interactive pedagogical activities. These activities include intensive writing assignments, community partnerships, capstone projects, undergraduate research, study abroad, service-learning, and real-time projects, and internships. These activities ensure the students’ engagement in different active and interactive learning processes that enhance their performance and assist in attaining the desired learning outcomes of the programs and courses (Kuh, 2008; National Survey of Student Engagement [NSSE], 2007). When applied successfully, HIPs will motivate the students to be creative, and actively involved in the learning environment, bring, and handle their real-world queries, think of the best solutions, and be effective community members. The current literature shows the strong positive impact of different HIPs on various programs’ outcomes and achieving the desired learning outcomes for various courses and degrees (Association of American Colleges & Universities [AAC&U], 2012; Brownell & Swaner, 2009). The following is a list of the most critical HIPs identified by Kuh (2008) for use in higher education: • First-Year Seminars and Experiences: Students will learn through the regular meeting of small groups of students with faculty and supervisors. In these academic meetings, the students will learn critical thinking, practice intensive writing, and presentation skills, experience collaborative learning, and exposure to new knowledge and evidence. • Common Intellectual Experiences: Programs will involve two themes or more (e.g., Artificial Intelligence and Data Science degree, Information Systems, and Cybersecurity degree). These programs’ curricula should be diverse and offer various curricular alternatives for the learners. • Learning Communities: Students will enroll in two or more connected classes as a group or a community. Each group’s members will work together with the instructors to attain the courses’ learning objectives. Most of these communities will explore and continually study similar topic/s. • Writing-Intensive Courses: Learners will be encouraged to produce and revise various writing assignments repeatedly. This HIP will enhance students’ critical reasoning, communication skills, knowledge, and presentation skills. • Collaborative Assignments and Projects: The approaches will vary from study groups, team-based in-class activities, group presentations, and collaborative research. • Undergraduate Research: Undergraduate students will be involved in research projects, especially in STEM majors. This HIP encourages the students’ early and active engagement in organized research work. • Diversity/Global Learning: Courses and degrees will help learners investigate cultures and explore different global views and experiences. This HIP ensures experiential learning of other cultures through various activities like studying abroad.

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• Service Learning, Community-Based Learning, and Field-Based Activities: Courses will provide students with hands-on experience with the subjects they are studying and motivate them to think of solutions to related community problems. This HIP helps raise social responsibility among students and prepares them for life and career. • Internships will give students direct experience in the work setting, connect students with future career experts, and offer opportunities to work under close supervision and training by professionals in their majors. • Capstone Courses and Projects: Capstone projects, offered most often for senior students of different majors, will allow students to create projects that apply and integrate all the skills and knowledge the students learned through the degree. The projects are mostly research work or artwork, like developing mobile health applications or websites. • ePortfolios: ePortfolios are a collection of work and evidence produced by each student, demonstrating the student’s learning achievements through the degree in an electronic format. Students will use their ePortfolios to target a specific audience, search for jobs, or apply for different educational degrees. ePortfolios include evidence in file format (text, images, audio-video records, etc.), artwork related to courses taken (development of websites, applications, etc.), writing samples (capstone projects, research papers, conference posters or papers, etc.), and extra-curricular or co-curricular activities (Ciesielkiewicz, 2019; Eynon & Gambino, 2017). The above 11 strategies have been used as cornerstone practices to raise student retention and as a variable to study student progress and engagement (Eynon & Gambino, 2017; Kuh, 2008; Sweat et al., 2013). HIPs have explored specific students’ needs, assessing their success and retention (Tukibayeva & Gonyea, 2014). HIPs can significantly affect students’ individual growth and academic achievements. Embedding various HIPs strategies in the learning process is a critical indicator of the educational institution’s seriousness in assessing and enhancing their students’ success (Kilgo et al., 2015). Successful HIPs should endorse and emphasize civic and service-learning importance. Involving these concepts in the curricula will motivate students from underserved communities, powerfully reflecting on these communities’ challenges and struggles, and ensure educational equity and attaining social justice goals (AAC&U, 2012; Sweat et al., 2013). Civic-learning activities are mostly applied in real-time capstone projects and research courses. The literature indicates that HIPs are related to better graduation rates and achievements among disadvantaged racial-ethnic groups (AAC&U, 2012; Sweat et al., 2013). HIPs are associated with better final GPA and time-to-graduation for students from different ethnicities and social backgrounds (Huber, 2010). Practicing civic and service-learning HIPs activities in the curricula of our underserved and nontraditional students at Mercer University, where our students are primarily African-American and full-time working females, has always been challenging. These challenges have escalated since the current pandemic started. The positive impact of online research and capstone courses on

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nontraditional students’ learning skills and knowledge has been proven by research work. The current body of knowledge indicates that online capstone can help students develop proficient skills for their future careers. Adding different civic and service-learning HIPs to the capstone projects will promote student inclusion and equity (Thompson, 2018). This chapter demonstrates and emphasizes the importance of introducing innovative HIPs to the 8-week online research methodology and capstone courses of the MSHI program in the Spring semester of 2020. Each student in these two online 8-week courses must develop and conduct a real-time health informatics project involving experiential and service-learning practices to solve clinical or public health informatics problems. Given the pandemic and only a total online 16 weeks of education to complete real-time research work, I realized it was challenging for the students to build new research skills and capabilities to conduct successful real-­ time capstone projects. The significant challenges were social isolation and inaccessibility to the research participants during the pandemic. In this chapter, I share how I advanced my traditional teaching practices, practiced new HIPs, scaffolded the courses’ final projects, and worked intensively with each student to search for suitable alternative capstone projects. In addition, I demonstrate the effect of these HIPs on the students’ anxiety, work quality, and success in these two cornerstone courses.

I nnovative HIPs in 8-Week Online Graduate Research Methodology and Capstone Courses During COVID-19 Pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic has presented an unexpected universal need for online learning, teaching strategies, and practices across the educational spectrum and within all majors and levels. More than one billion international learners have been affected by the pandemic shutdowns and the pandemic’s subsequent academic alterations (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2021). Because of the sudden and complete transition to online learning due to the pandemic, all educational institutions have encountered critical teaching and learning challenges (Dhawan, 2020). Evidence-based scientific research and interventions should involve all education levels and majors to mitigate the pandemic’s impact on the teaching and learning processes. Most of these studies and interventions should target specifically vulnerable and disadvantaged students who already have had other challenges beyond their academic responsibilities, such as job, health issues, and family and life responsibilities (Saw et  al., 2020a, b; Vielma & Brey, 2021). Educational institutions need to ensure that the new online educational content and methodologies meet their majors and degrees (Asgari et al., 2021). Moreover, the current literature needs to be enriched with creative quantitative and qualitative studies investigating and resolving the pandemic’s educational challenges and factors (Asgari et al., 2021).

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An observational study published in April 2021 discovered various factors that negatively affected online education during the COVID-19 pandemic. These challenges included technical, foundational, learning, teaching, accessibility, lack of hands-on experience, and security issues. The comprehensive study revealed that the students lacked engagement and experienced zoom fatigue after attending exclusive online sessions. The same research suggested different teaching and learning strategies to overcome these challenges and keep the students engaged in online classes (Asgari et al., 2021). Research and capstone courses are usually the culminating experiences for students in almost all professional majors such as health informatics major. These courses teach students the most refined skills and knowledge they need for their future profession, provide hands-on field practice before graduation, and open chances to collaborate with their communities and network efficiently with professionals in their fields. Mostly, senior students from professional majors are eligible to enroll in research and capstone courses for undergraduate and graduate degrees. They must conduct real-time projects to apply most of the skills they learned from their degrees’ curricula and activities (American Physiological Society [APS], 2020). During the Spring of 2020s pandemic shutdown, many students were concerned about applying for and completing their research and capstone projects. A study found that the students had more time to complete their training and internships during the pandemic (APS, 2020). Despite their universities’ input and support, the same study revealed faculty concerns about difficulties in completing research and capstone projects the students (APS, 2020). Several academic and research resources suggested various strategies to push and move research and capstone courses during the current pandemic (Elmer & Durocher, 2020; Lewis, 2020). Listed below are suggested strategies for students and advisors to achieve successful research and capstone projects: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Systematic review and meta-analysis Focused literature review Innovative methodology or technical note Analysis of previously collected data Mathematical modeling and computer simulation Data mining Limited contact/remote human subject research Grant proposal Teaching-focused research Outreach and public engagement Aligning scholarly activity with the COVID-19 pandemic Historical perspective

The resources mentioned above recommend that students and faculty collaboratively recognize the best alternatives to facilitate relevant and robust research and capstone projects during the pandemic (Elmer & Durocher, 2020; Lewis, 2020). Elmer (2020) suggested that it is essential to consider other outside research and capstone mentoring expertise in guiding and supporting the students as needed.

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Because each degree or major is unique in its capstone and research requirements, any adjustment to the requested conditions should be discussed carefully and thoughtfully, involving students, faculty advisors, and research committees. The program coordinators and department chairs should approve these modifications before these adjustments can be applied (Elmer & Durocher, 2020).

Program Description and Background Health informatics is a fast-growing field that enables students to understand and explore the marriage between advanced computerized technology and clinical care practice and delivery. It is a specialty that uses technology effectively and efficiently to deliver high-quality, sustainable clinical and public health services. Mercer University offers a Master of Science in Health Informatics (MSHI), a degree created by the Department of Mathematics, Science, and Informatics of the College of Professional Advancement. In the program, we are designing our capstone project as a critical bridge connecting the academic and real worlds. Our master’s research and capstone courses are writing-intensive courses. The writing-to-learn concept is central in these courses. The students must develop, apply, and scientifically write their real-time capstone projects. The students learn the scientific writing process, how to write differently for a different audience, and how to become good writers and communicators in their field of study. Even though our master of science degree is an online degree, as indicated in the university catalog, our students must attend two hours of virtual meetings each week per course. These virtual meetings have enhanced faculty and students’ interaction and have motivated student-to-student cooperation and collaboration in several experiential and civic-learning activities and practices. These meetings have helped engage our students in different learning activities, taught peer-review skills, and built strong presentation skills. During the final semester of our master’s degree, the students must enroll in the research methodology class in the first session of the semester and enroll in the capstone course in the second session. Both courses support each other and are connected in content, learning objectives, and expected academic outcomes. The students use both courses to complete their real-time capstone projects. Both courses include virtual meetings every week, similar to all other degree courses. During the research methodology class, the students must complete the capstone project’s first essential parts and get trained in research ethics. During the research methodology class, students must finish their capstone projects’ research questions, hypotheses, models, assumptions, aims, objectives, and research design. During the second and capstone class sessions, the students resume work on the research methodology course’s project. They completed the Institutional Review Board (IRB) forms, collected and analyzed data, and presented and defended their results. I used to incorporate several HIPs while teaching both courses before the pandemic started. After the pandemic hit, teaching both courses was challenging. The challenges

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pushed me to introduce and innovate more HIPs to meet both courses’ learning outcomes. I taught these two courses in the Spring of 2020; the first COVID-19 pandemic shutdown started in the middle of that semester. That sudden closure in the middle of their final semester led to anxiety among students from not finishing their projects and disrupted the learning process.

HIPs Usage Prior to the COVID-19 Pandemic Prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States in March 2020, the course incorporated the following HIPS: • Assess students’ needs and preferences: Per course, I develop a subdiscussion forum to ask my students about their up-to-date educational and employment background, assess their learning preferences, and recognize what they expect from the course. The students’ answers to this unique query have helped me shape my teaching tools to leverage and improve their weaknesses and power their education capabilities. This HIP has allowed me to illuminate and award my excellent students by adding challenging sections to the course assignments. The strategy has helped me encourage the students to share their professional and personal course-related experiences and empower a discussion environment to help other less experienced classmates benefit and learn from each other. • Mid-class check: During the third week of my courses, I ask my students to share their thoughts about my teaching strategy and if they have more recommendations to improve the learning process. Based on suggestions from students, I have tweaked my teaching strategy to be more effective and efficient. In my Capstone classes, I have followed this strategy to check on the student’s progress, considering the class length and the necessity of finishing their projects on time and with high quality. • Syllabus quizzes: I add a small quiz on the most critical policies and requirements in the course’s syllabus. They have multiple attempts to go back and ensure that they answered the questions correctly and adequately understood the syllabus. The quizzes have helped the students learn and become familiar with all of my expectations and policies. Answering the quizzes has reduced the students’ inquiries about the guidelines I listed in the syllabus and improved their timeliness and quality. • Discussion-based and peer-review group projects: This activity augments student interaction and facilitates discussions and collaboration. Each group of students has a different topic to search for and present. The students are asked to search the current literature and present their findings in class. Each student group uses a professional Peer-Review rubric tool to review other groups’ presentations. • Team-based activities: In the research methodology and capstone courses I taught before the pandemic, I have experienced the delay and procrastination of

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some students in submitting their weekly assignments, responding to my rubric, and following my in-class and email instructions. Therefore, I decided to involve them in team-based activities to make them interact and to motivate them to be actively engaged in-class discussions and conduct part of their weekly assignments during class time. I opened discussion forums during virtual class time to enhance the students’ interaction, and broke them into Zoom’s break-out rooms to practice peer-review skills. For example, I asked the students to write down their research aims and objectives. I asked the students to peer-review and critique each other’s work, and at the end, I gave all of them my own opinion and commented about their discussion and thoughts. This strategy helped the students to write the capstone projects’ sections successfully with concise and critical thinking language.

 IPS Used During Spring Semester 2020 as Direct Result H of the Pandemic Lockdown During the Spring 2020 semester, the most apparent teaching and learning challenges were students’ anxiety and inaccessibility to the research participants and sponsors due to social isolation. The semester was at the halfway mark when the shutdown started. At Mercer University, we had a 1-week window to help other on-­ campus and hybrid programs change into an exclusively online learning environment mode. Our master’s program is already an online program with mandatory virtual meetings every week, so I did not need to prepare my course materials for the online setting. Instead, I used that week to communicate with my students through group and individual group Zoom meetings to assure them and discuss the possibility of changing their already established capstone projects if they were inaccessible to their research participants. As a result, some students changed their already designed projects and started new projects that suited the unprecedented situation. As I mentioned earlier in this chapter, several academic and research resources suggested several HIPs assist and support the research and capstone learners during the pandemic. These HIPs include systematic review and meta-analysis, focused literature review, innovative methodology or technical note, analysis of previously collected data, data mining, limited contact/remote human subject research, grant proposal, teaching-focused research, outreach, and public engagement, aligning scholarly activity with the COVID-19 pandemic, and historical perspective strategies (Elmer & Durocher, 2020; Lewis, 2020). Before these HIPs were published and before I knew the presence of these recommendations in the current literature, I used my instructor’s “guts” and experience to develop similar HIPs to move forward with the students’ research work and guide them to complete their final semester safely. The subsequent paragraphs will explain the HIPs strategies I introduced to the Spring 2020 research and capstone courses. In our program, the capstone

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projects need to be real-time projects. Therefore, each student must develop and apply real research work: • Define a clinical or a public health informatics problem. • Build a testable research hypothesis. • Search the current literature to present the current knowledge about the problem and justify the student’s research aim. • Develop a robust methodology to test the hypothesis. • Collect the data. • Present and defend the capstone results. By the time of the shutdown in mid-March 2020, we were just finishing the research methodology course, and all the students had decided on their research questions, reviewed the literature about their questions, and built their capstone study designs and already designed tools to collect the data with (descriptive, observational, correlational, and usability tools). Most of these real-time capstone projects’ methodologies required the students to recruit and interact with participants. Unfortunately, due to the accompanied anxiety in the community and the social isolation measures of the pandemic, most potential participants and sponsors lost their interest in participating and contribute to the students’ projects. I had only 8 weeks to make all the students able to produce and present successful research studies and smoothly graduate in that unprecedented situation. I worked very hard on an individual level (per student) to search for suitable alternative projects. I used different library resources, arranged individual and group Zoom meetings for out of class, and exchanged many emails with the students to enable them to develop and complete new projects within the 8-week course. I offered different alternatives for the students to produce capstone projects that suited the current situation and met the program’s requirements. I did not want to start from zero and did not ask the students to change their projects completely. Instead, I concentrated on guiding the students to tweak their projects’ methodologies. The first alternative strategy I suggested was systematic reviews or meta-­ analysis studies. Instead of collecting data from actual participants, I asked the students to conduct systematic reviews or meta-analysis studies to build robust searching strategies targeting specific health-related databases (PubMed, Public Health, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature [CINAHL], PsycInfo, Cochrane, etc.). They built workflow charts that showed how they screened and filtered their search results from the databases, analyzed the filtered literature in-depth, and provided health-informatics-related evidence from their reviews. I supplemented my students with enough teaching material and resources, had librarians as guest speakers and added a library-based module in Canvas showing Mercer library’s resources, and connected them with the online writing lab to assist them through their capstone writing process. Besides systematic reviews and meta-analysis strategies, some students gave up their primary-data-based methodologies and chose to analyze secondary data. Some students accessed public and private online databases, presented new patterns from the big data they investigated, and predicted new outcomes and correlations for their

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studied variables. For example, a student mined the electronic health records of cardiovascular patients to measure clinical and prognostic outcomes before and after moving from a paper-based to a new Electronic Health Record (EHR) system in a clinic. Some of the students had limited contacts and only a limited number of participants. So, I approved having between five to ten participants per study for observational or usability testing studies. I also approved that they could have between one to three participants for in-depth case study capstone projects. Some students chose to change their participants to participants that were more accessible. For example, instead of accessing healthcare workers to ask about the effects of using patients-portals on their clients’ health, some students designed usability studies to assess the usability of these portals and assess family members’ and friends’ satisfaction with using that technology in accessing and communicating with their clinical providers. Despite the pandemic and its connected barriers, some students conducted participant-based clinical and public health informatics projects using surveys and questionnaires. They completed their projects using their initial study designs with high participation rates.

Conclusion During that challenging time, the students showed resilience, coping strategies, flexibility, and extreme responsibility to handle the hard work that accompanied the change and made us so impressed and proud. Out of the 25 students enrolled in both courses, 21 got an A, 3 got a B, and only 1 was awarded a C in their capstone projects. I have attached a copy of the Spring 2020 capstone project’s requirements and rubrics to Appendix I. In the Spring semester of 2020, the chapter’s study time, I helped three capstone students submit research abstracts out of their capstone projects to a peer-reviewed Atlanta Research Conference at the Atlanta Campus of Mercer University. All the abstracts were accepted. The participating students presented, as first authors, three research posters at the same conference for the year 2020 (Mercer University, 2020). The conference entitled “Virtual Atlanta Research Conference, Mercer University, 2020.” Those students successfully contributed to our local research conference despite the pandemic and the challenges they faced during the crisis. These posters were entitled “Pharmacovigilance Analysis of Drug-­ Drug Interactions in the FDA Adverse Event Report System;” “Patient Satisfaction and Wellness Before, During and After Invisalign Treatment and its Technology;” “Barriers to Access of Electronic Health Record Data by Public Health Organizations” (Mercer University, 2020). I also collaborated with one of my capstone students to build on his project, produced a manuscript, and published an original research article in the Public Health and Healthcare Journal. The journal is a peer-reviewed periodical, and the published paper is entitled “Health Professionals’ Electronic Health Records (EHR) Postimplementation Incompetency in St. Joseph’s University Medical Center, Paterson NJ in Spring of 2020” (Emeagwai & Ramadan, 2020). The students added strong evidence to their ePortfolios by presenting at a peerreviewed research conference and publishing in a peer-reviewed journal. The

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students can use the electronic links and content of their published posters and articles to fill their Curriculum Vitae documents and websites (e.g., LinkedIn account) (Ciesielkiewicz, 2019; O’Keeffe & Donnelly, 2013; Reese & Levy, 2009). Such showcases will be a great bonus when applying for professional career positions or other graduate degrees and certificates. Please see Appendix II, where I attach the abstract of the published article of a student’s capstone project, Spring 2020. In conclusion, developing new HIPs and innovating the existing ones in the research and capstone courses during a life crisis could halt the teaching and learning challenges, help attain the target student learning objectives, and help the students formulate their career goals and ePortfolios.

Appendices Appendix I Spring 2020 Capstone Project’s Rubrics and Requirements  The final paper sections: –– Title page (an informative title formed of the study keywords, the course number and name, your name, Instructor name, Semester 2020/Session II) –– Table of contents page –– An abstract including not more than 350 words: Background Study Aim Study Methodology and Design Results Conclusion –– Introduction, which includes: A literature review of your research question’s related literature. Answer why you consider your chosen research problem and how your results contribute to the corresponding knowledge body. Your refined study aim and a well-formulated hypothesis, and mention your research assumptions. –– Methodology –– For the Human Subjects Studies: What is your research design? What is/are the study tool/s that you are going to use to collect the study data? Describe your participants. How will you recruit them (sampling technique)? How will you interact with them to collect research data? Add the informed consent draft you are going to use.

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How are you going to analyze your data? How are you going to present the results? Who will be your audience, and why? –– For the Systematic Reviews Studies: Study design and search strategy Inclusion criteria Exclusion Criteria The Flow Chart description (if it is possible, at the due date of this assignment) –– Results Submit your study’s results, using font-size 11, Times New Roman or Arial, double-spaced text. Attach your graphs and tables, enumerate, and add informative titles that describe your results’ illustrations. –– Discussion and Conclusion Please submit your final project’s discussion and conclusion sections, using font-size 11, Times New Roman or Arial, double-spaced text. Defend, discuss, and compare your results using peer-reviewed literature. Write a concise conclusion and show your research limitations, strengths, and recommendations. –– Citation Cite the text of all the above sections in APA style. References Section: Please Write all the References you Used for your Study in APA Format at the End of your Paper –– Appendix After the references section, add copies of the Informed consent, Citi-­ training certificate, and study tools (e.g., surveys, scales, interviews, etc.). • The final paper text should be: double-spaced 11 font-size New Times Roman or Arial fonts. • All the citations are in APA format (in-text and in the references section). • Running head of “Semester 2020 INFM700-Project”. • Plagiarism should be eight slides, and you will present in 6–10 minutes. • A specific PPT rubric form will be used to grade your presentation.

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Appendix II The Abstract of the Published Article of a Student’s Capstone Project, Spring 2020 Health Professionals’ Electronic Health Records (EHR) Postimplementation Incompetency in St. Joseph’s University Medical Center, Paterson NJ in Spring of 2020 (A Published Journal Article) Purpose: To assess and explore the healthcare providers’ adoption and acceptance of the newly implemented Cerner Electronic Health Record (EHR) by the healthcare staff at St. Joseph’s University Medical Center, and to make recommendations that can improve employee satisfaction. Methods: Study Design: A descriptive cross-sectional research design. Participants: The participants of the study included healthcare staff employed in practices that have the Cerner EHR system, including physicians, nurses, and information technology (IT) professionals, using a stratified sampling technique. Data Collection: Data collection was performed by using a Google survey, and the survey link was emailed to the study participants. Statistical analysis: descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the postimplementation survey data. All the analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS version 26. Results: Of the ten (n = 10) healthcare staff members that completed the survey, eight (80%) had at least one year of experience with the Cerner EHR system. All the participants had advanced or expert computer proficiency skills. The participants were generally satisfied with the EHR system, including the ease and functionality of the system, the quality of information given, and the services provided for the system. Areas necessitating improvement included improving the postimplementation support services and reducing the time required to sign in and use the system. Conclusion: There is a need for postimplementation training and support to enhance the satisfaction and experiences of healthcare staff with EHR systems. Continued evaluation of these systems and end-user feedback should guide future implementation, redesign, and improvements. Keywords: EHR, healthcare providers, clinicians, satisfaction, EHR Implementation, Cerner

References American Physiological Society (APS). (2020, July 20). The effects of coronavirus on physiology. Retrieved from https://www.physiology.org/career/policy-­advocacy/ the-­effects-­of-­the-­coronavirus-­on-­physiology?SSO=Y Asgari, S., Trajkovic, J., Rahmani, M., Zhang, W., Lo, R. C., & Sciortino, A. (2021). An observational study of engineering online education during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One, 16(4), e0250041. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250041 Association of American Colleges & Universities (AAC&U). (2012). High-impact practices: Promoting participation for all students.

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Brownell, J. E., & Swaner, L. E. (2009). High-impact practices: Applying the learning outcomes literature to the development of successful campus programs. Peer Review, 11(2), 26–30. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/docview/216602278?pq-­origsite=gscholar&fromo penview=true Ciesielkiewicz, M. (2019). The use of e-portfolios in higher education: From the students’ perspective. Issues in Educational Research, 29(3), 649–667. Retrieved from http://www.iier.org. au/iier29/ciesielkiewicz.pdf Dhawan, S. (2020). Online learning: A panacea in the time of COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018 Elmer, S.  J., & Durocher, J.  J. (2020). Moving student research forward during the COVID-19 pandemic. Advances in Physiology Education, 44(4), 741–743. https://doi.org/10.1152/ advan.00153.2020 Emeagwai, C., & Ramadan, A. A. B. (2020). Health professionals’ electronic health records (EHR) post implementation incompetency in St. Joseph’s University Medical Center, Paterson NJ in spring of 2020. Public Health and Healthcare Journal, 2(2) Retrieved from https://sciaeon. org/articles/Health-­Professionals-­Electronic-­Health-­Records-­EHR-­Post-­Implementation-­ Incompetency-­in-­St-­Josephs-­University-­Medical-­Center-­Paterson-­NJ-­in-­spring-­of-­2020.pdf Eynon, B., & Gambino, L.  M. (2017). High-impact ePortfolio practice: A catalyst for student, faculty, and institutional learning. Stylus. Huber, B. J. (2010). Does participation in multiple high impact practices affect student success at Cal State Northridge? Some preliminary insights. California State University Northridge, Office of Institutional Research. Retrieved from https://www.csun.edu/sites/default/files/ MultHIPOverviewFinal.pdf Kilgo, C. A., Ezell Sheets, J. K., & Pascarella, E. T. (2015). The link between high-impact practices and student learning: Some longitudinal evidence. Higher Education, 69(4), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-­014-­9788-­z Kuh, G. D. (2008). High-impact educational practices: What they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Association of American Colleges and Universities, 14(3), 1–48. Lewis, D. (2020). Choosing the right final year research, honours, or capstone project for you. University of Leeds. Retrieved from https://drive.google.com/ file/d/1Cl9syLlP-­ivJumk6PuK_Tyk4-­CKtOThZ/view Mercer University. (2020, March 10). 10th annual: Faculty and students research conference. Retrieved from https://ursa.mercer.edu/bitstream/handle/10898/12376/2020-­Atlanta-­ Research-­Conference-­Digital-­Program.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE). (2007). Experiences that matter: Enhancing student learning and success. Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED512620.pdf O’Keeffe, M., & Donnelly, R. (2013). Exploration of ePortfolios for adding value and deepening student learning in contemporary higher education. International Journal of ePortfolio, 3(1), 1–11. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1107812.pdf Reese, M., & Levy, R. (2009). Assessing the future: E-portfolio trends, uses, and options in higher education. Educause, Center for Applied Research. Retrieved from https://jscholarship.library. jhu.edu/bitstream/handle/1774.2/33329/ECAR-­RB_Eportfolios.pdf Saw, G. K., Chang, C. N., & Lomelí, U. (2020a). Fall enrollment and delayed graduation among STEM students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Network for Research and Evaluation in Education (NREED) Data Brief, 1. Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10221725 Saw, G.  K., Chang, C.  N., Lomelí, U., & Zhi, M. (2020b). Gender disparities in remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national survey of STEM faculty and students. The Network for Research and Evaluation in Education (NREED) Data Brief, 2. Retrieved from https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10221710 Sweat, J., Jones, G., Han, S., & Wolfgram, S. M. (2013). How does high impact practice predict student engagement? A comparison of white and minority students. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2013.070217

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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2021). COVID-19 impact on education: Follow the evolution of school closures and learning loss across the world since the outbreak of the pandemic. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/ covid19/educationresponse Thompson, K. (2018). High-impact practices in online education: Research and best practices. Stylus Publishing. Retrieved from https://ecampus.oregonstate.edu/research/wp-­content/ uploads/High-­Impact-­Practices-­in-­Online-­Education_Intro..pdf Tukibayeva, M., & Gonyea, R. M. (2014). High-impact practices and the first-year student. New Directions for Institutional Research, 160, 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.20059 Vielma, K., & Brey, E. M. (2021). Using evaluative data to assess virtual learning experiences for students during COVID-19. Biomedical Engineering Education, 1(1), 139–144. https://doi. org/10.1007/s43683-­020-­00027-­8 Awatef Ahmed Ben Ramadan Assistant Professor in the Department of Informatics and Mathematics, College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University, USA. Awatef worked as a physician in Tripoli, Libya, a researcher and lecturer in the Family and Community Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Tripoli, Libya, and a graduate research assistant at the Missouri Cancer Registry and Research Center, USA.  

Chapter 5

Enhancing Learning Through Formative Assessment: Evidence-Based Strategies for Implementing Learner Reflection in Higher Education Li-Shih Huang, Raj Khatri, and Amjad Alhemaid Abstract  Reflection is irrefutably one of the key concepts of education theory, and its importance and benefits have been widely explored and recognized across disciplines. The ability of learners to reflect critically through control over their own learning and construct knowledge and of instructors to modify practices that promote transformative learning (Mezirow, Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass, 1991) and support self-regulated, autonomous learners have been recognized as essential in higher education. However, a review of the literature from the past few decades shows that the learner-, situation-, and context-dependent nature of reflection remains obscure to most educators in both implementing reflective learning and assessing reflective thinking. The key challenge in using learner reflection for assessment for learning lies in measuring transformative learning, owing to a lack of “explicit and direct attention to the process of evaluating [it]” (Cranton & Hoggan, Handbook of transformative learning: Theory, research, and practice. Jossey-Bass, 2012, p. 531). Within the context of two institutions that prioritize integrating experiential learning (Kolb, Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall, 1984), where critical analysis and synthesis of observations and reflections derived from concrete learning experiences are central and fundamental, this chapter aims to connect insights from theory, research, and direct experience to practices instructors can use to inform their own teaching by addressing thorny issues pertaining to implementing and assessing reflection. These insights transcend any single task, course, or program in higher education.

L.-S. Huang (*) Department of Linguistics, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada e-mail: [email protected] R. Khatri · A. Alhemaid University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_5

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Keywords  Formative assessment · Reflective learning · Assessment for reflective learning

Introduction The rapid response to the COVID-19 pandemic that was required to support student learning in higher education has revealed and highlighted the importance of variables beyond what has traditionally been the primary focus of learning and assessment, namely, a student’s knowledge of content. Learner reflection as a form of assessment represents both a process and a tool educators can use that transcends all substantive areas. It also conveys a holistic view of education that aspires to connect knowledge, experiences, emotions, and learning. Learner reflection, especially in written form, is one of educators’ most commonly used pedagogical tools. Yet how best to implement and assess reflection remains challenging for most instructors (Huang, 2021). Although the process of reflection, with its potential for tapping into the cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective dimensions of learning, has been examined by scholars across disciplines (e.g., Boud et al., 1985; Mezirow, 1991; Nguyen et al., 2014; Panadero, 2017; Peltier et al., 2005; Poldner et al., 2012), that potential has nonetheless been underrecognized in higher education. This chapter addresses ways to enhance learning through reflection as a form of formative assessment in order to inform teaching and learning, drawing examples from the authors’ own research and experience working within the Canadian college and university context. Grounded in theory and evidence supported by research, this chapter offers the what, why, and how of using reflection as a formative assessment method for instruction and evaluation that educators can adopt or adapt to suit their instructional contexts. Practical strategies and examples are provided to illustrate the connection across theory, research, and practice or assessment.

Context One of the main objectives of higher education is to develop students’ ability to apply knowledge and solve problems in context within their chosen areas of specialization or profession. Higher education has responded to today’s ever-changing world’s demands by modifying the core teaching and learning process (Villarroel et al., 2020). Experiential learning is one process embraced by the authors’ institutions, as well as higher education across Canada, because it enables students to learn through doing (concrete experience), through observing their experiences from different perspectives (reflective observation), through integrating observations and reflection with their prior experiences and gaining knowledge from the reflection (abstract conceptualization), and through using theories generated from the critical analysis of experience to make decisions and solve problems (active

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experimentation) (Kolb, 1984; Kolb & Kolb, 2017). The educational contexts this chapter is based on are a polytechnic college and a comprehensive university. Both the first and the second authors have worked extensively with English-as-anadditional-language students at the undergraduate and graduate levels, specifically aiming to develop the academic communication and research skills required in academic settings. The college’s newly developed institutional strategic framework prioritizes experiential learning while emphasizing “a career focused learner experience” that entails “an ongoing process of career development and reflection from application to graduation” (Imagining Possibilities, Vision, George Brown College, 2030, emphasis added). Further, by 2024, all graduating undergraduates from the university must have completed “at least one significant experiential learning opportunity,” defined as learning “through doing, trial and error … ‘hands-on’ activities; … [and] ongoing reflection on their learning, using the learning experience to continuously develop their knowledge and ability” (Strategic Framework, 2018–2023, University of Victoria, emphasis added). These strategic priorities for both institutions make it essential to explicate the types of reflection derived from experience and, by extension, assessment methods able to measure the different types.

The What and Why of Using Reflection as Formative Assessment Formative Assessment Few would argue about the pervasive and negative perceptions or impacts of the growing influence of testing and assessment in education and the real-world consequences and ripple effects that extend beyond the completion of a test, course, or program. Undeniably, assessment-related knowledge, skills, and practices vary (e.g., Berry et al., 2019; Huang, 2018), and they continue to drive the instructional process (involving both teaching and learning) in reality. In higher education, assessment can involve both summative and formative assessment. For various practical and accountability reasons, summative assessment, refers to “the processes and instruments [such as final exams] that provide a general and final assessment of student’s learning within a given course or learning unit” (Coombe, 2018, p. 39) remains more generally used within higher education. Formative assessment, which was first used by Mittler (1973) and for which researchers have put forward various definitions (e.g., Black & Wiliam, 1998; Cowie & Bell, 1999; Looney, 2005; Shepard et al., 2005), can be defined, in contrast to summative assessment, as “frequent, interactive assessments of students’ progress and understanding to identify learning needs and adjust teaching appropriately” (Looney, 2005, p. 21; OECD). The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2021) defines “formative” as “capable of alteration by growth and development”—that is, a type of assessment that can

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inform and shape teaching and learning. As Wiliam (2017) pointed out, teachers “can use the same assessment both formatively and summatively” (p. 41). Formative assessment is also referred to as assessment for learning, as a description of the function that the assessment data (in this case, reflective entries) perform. Assessment for learning is “a type of formative assessment that creates and uses feedback to improve students’ learning and performance” (Coombe, 2018, p. 10). At the crux of assessment for learning is the process of learning. In this chapter, we specifically define formative assessment by building on Wiliam’s (2017) work. Within the context of our practice, it is an assessment that “functions formatively to the extent that evidence about student achievement is elicited, interpreted, and used by teachers [and] learners to make decisions about the next steps in [the learning process] that are likely to be better, or better founded, than the decisions they would have made in the absence of that evidence” (p. 48).

Reflective Learning Despite the fact that reflection is one of the most commonly implemented pedagogical tools by instructors across a wide variety of disciplines in academic settings, and that its value is well-recognized, its learner-, task-, and context-dependent nature makes it elusive, and its implementation and assessment remain a challenge. The use of the word “reflection,” derived from the Latin verb reflectere (“to bend back”), was first recorded in the fourteenth century, and its meaning as “a remark made after turning back one’s thought on some subject” can be traced to the 1600s (see Huang, 2021). Over the past decades, studies in the areas of reflection, reflective teaching, and reflective learning have been robust and rich, with many great thinkers and researchers (e.g., Dewey, Schön, Kolb, Mezirow, Flemming, Farrell, and Moon, to list just a few) across disciplines whose work has enriched the reflection-related field in education. First pointed out by Dewey was the insight that “experience alone does not constitute learning; instead, a conscious realization must occur for an experience to turn into learning” (Huang, 2021, p. 129). His oft-cited definition of reflection is “active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends” (p.  9). Research has supported the value of reflection in various configurations—types (e.g., content and/or process), formats (e.g., individual, pair, group, and guided or nonguided), or modalities (spoken, written, and technology-­ mediated), and in various dimensions of learning—cognitive, social, affective, and metacognitive (see Huang, 2021). Considering the value that reflective practice brings to learners in higher education classrooms, Colley et al. (2012) stressed that educators at institutions of higher learning should prioritize having their learners engage in reflective practices, which can support their growth in the learning process. Learning, as they put it, “begins with metacognition, knowing one’s own thoughts and reflection, which allows the individual to identify the factors that influence one’s own thinking” (Colley et al., 2012, p. 1).

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Formative Assessment Vis-à-Vis Reflective Learning As laid out in the analyses conducted by OECD/CERI (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation), the implementation of formative assessment is aligned with “promot[ing] the goals of lifelong learning, including higher levels of student achievement, greater equity of student outcomes, and improved learning to learn skills” (n.d., p. 1). These goals are possible through reflective learning in that learners’ reflective entries in whatever modality (written, spoken, technology-mediated, etc.) provide a window into individual students’ learning that enables instructors to meet their needs, which, in turn, can contribute to diversity (in meeting diverse learner needs and the myriad forms of meaning-making), equity (in bridging the gaps in equity of learning outcomes through reflective learning practice and ways to demonstrate and improve learning), and inclusion (by encouraging and respecting different paths to achieving the same collective course goals) in education. Ample research has demonstrated the connection of formative assessment to enhanced student achievement and performance (see Black & Wiliam, 1998; OECD, n.d.) and the connection of reflective learning to metacognition (i.e., “monitoring and control of cognition”) and self-regulated learning (i.e., “monitoring and control of behavior guided by one’s goal(s),” Efklides & Misailidi, 2010, p.  14) (see Huang, 2021). Central to and mirroring the process of learning to reflect is self-regulated learning, or learning how to learn, which dovetails with the one of the key goals of formative assessment by • involving students in the process of teaching and learning where the process is the focus; • developing students’ self-assessment skills; • facilitating students’ understanding of their own learning processes and products, and; • developing students’ use of strategies for “learning to learn” (OECD, n.d., p. 2). In line with the “alternative conceptualization of assessment” in order to more fully utilize the benefits of formative assessment, reflective learning promotes “a focus on active involvement of learners and promotes a cycle of [self-]assessment, where results … are used to inform specific knowledge goals for learners and teachers” (Kulasegaram & Rangachari, 2018, p. 6).

Options and Examples: The How of Using Reflection as Formative Assessment Reflective learning as a means for formative assessment and the multidimensional learning opportunities it can offer are well-recognized. Issues related to implementing both reflective learning and formative assessment have also been extensively discussed. For reflective learning, the challenges identified in the literature include

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issues such as learner resistance, engagement, and depth of reflection (see Huang, 2021). The inductive nature of reflection further means that the benefits of reflection in learning outcomes are often not immediately apparent to learners. In assessment, instructors must wrestle with the tension between summative and formative assessment—for instance, assessment of learning for accountability and assessment for learning for instructional purposes (Huang, 2018). In instructional contexts where summative assessment dominates educational discourse, the barriers to experimenting with formative assessment, regardless of its evidence-based benefits, can conflict with meeting the demands of certain externally stipulated standards or goals. In view of the institutional strategic frameworks pointing to the priority of integrating learner reflection derived from experience (established above in the “Context” section), developing and implementing assessment methods that can measure reflection for both accountability and instructional purposes are paramount. After more than 40 years of combined experience in researching and implementing learner reflection in various contexts (e.g., Alhemaid, forthcoming; Huang, 2010, 2012, 2017, 2021; Khatri, 2018), we provide the following examples to illustrate how learner reflection can be implemented as formative assessment within postsecondary EAP (English for Academic Purposes) programs. While the variable of social desirability may play a role in learner reflection, in our collective EAP teaching experience, we have observed that reflection can provide opportunities for learners to engage in “authentic” writing as a route to sharing their unique learning and life experiences and showing their care for the subject matter they are engaged in (Kreber et al., 2007). Further, reflection opens a channel for instructors to connect with student learning that might not be accessible through other summative or formative assessment methods. These opportunities for growth nonetheless recognize that authenticity, honesty, and truthfulness are naturally subjective in reflection, and that all learners and instructors will, at some point, need to grapple with the challenge of multiple perspectives and realities that naturally exist in recalling and interpreting any learning episode. While learning and assessment are inextricably connected in reality, the perceived incongruence between assessing reflective skills and encouraging learners’ risk-taking in authentically expressing emotions and challenges and finding their own voices is evident. Using any type of scale to assess levels of reflection naturally propels learners to reflect to meet the expectations of some external standard. Therefore, strategies for navigating such barriers merit careful consideration in implementing learner reflection as a formative assessment. Various schemes or frameworks have been proposed for assessing levels of reflective thinking in different research or education contexts (e.g., Anderson et al., 2013; Ellis & Davidi, 2005; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Kember et al., 2008; Lau, 2016; Parkes & Kajder, 2010; Wiun & du Plessis, 2016). Drawing on the ways that reflective learning can be assessed, we have assessed learner reflection with respect to both reflective ability and content. Reflective ability involves, for instance, nonreflection, understanding, reflection, and critical reflection (using Kember et  al.’s, 2008 scheme), or description, personal opinion, linking, and critical bridging in relation to subject matter content, educational content, and personal content (using Fund et  al.’s framework). Meanwhile, content concerns, for instance, the

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what—namely, content learned in the lesson or course—or, in the writing domain, organization, coherence and cohesion, lexical resources, and grammar. An assessment may also be done holistically (Fig. 5.1) or analytically (Fig. 5.2). To clarify briefly the highest level of reflection—namely, critical reflection—it is helpful to draw on Kember et al.’s (2008) empirically validated scheme for measuring reflective thinking, based on four levels: habitual action/nonreflection (i.e., automatic operations without thinking either about their effectiveness or from different perspectives), understanding (i.e., understanding one’s learning without linking to personal experiences or practical applications), reflection (i.e., developing an understanding of a learning event or experience in relation to personal experiences and practical applications), and critical reflection (i.e., forming or transforming perspectives that occur by reflecting on an event or experience through examining one’s beliefs, values, and assumptions), which is the highest level of reflective thinking. Using Fund et al.’s (2002) framework, the assessment dimensions attend to both content and level, where the subject matter content refers to the what, that is, the content of the lesson or course, and the educational content refers to the how, that is, learning strategies and methods. Personal content involves engaging with one’s personal experiences, potentially touching on multiple dimensions (cognitive, behavioral, social, and affective), or else occurs as a result of the lesson or course. Teaching has conventionally focused prominently on the what, followed by the how,

Fig. 5.1  A holistic four-level reflection assessment Note. The levels can be mapped onto the grading system used by universities where, depending on the quality of description (e.g., the amount of detail and depth), level 4 is in the A range (grade point value: 7–9), level 3 is in the B range (grade point value: 4–6), level 2 is in the C range (grade point value: 2–3), and level 1 is in the D–F range (grade point value: 0–1)

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Fig. 5.2  An analytical four-level reflection assessment

but often neglects the why and the who in relation to deeper personal meanings and relevance. As Pavlovich et al. (2009) said, “In examining the ‘who,’ the focus turns to a practice of inner reflection on our individual actions to make sense of and to learn from them” (p. 38). For the modified levels of reflection, Fund et al.’s (2002) description level is a simple description of the what, or of Kember et al.’s, nonreflective level. Similar to the latter’s level of understanding, Fund et al.’s (2002) personal opinion level involves understanding the learning described in the description level and focuses on learners’ perspectives within the content foci. Their linking level, similar to Kember et al.’s reflection level, extends beyond the personal opinion level to link to previous knowledge and experiences. In contrast, the critical bridging level takes the linking level further to discuss and evaluate possible perspectives, interpretations, and solutions toward future actions. We provide the following two modified assessment tools derived from research and practice as examples to concretize how reflective thinking can be assessed to inform teaching and learning. These tools can be modified to promote reflection engagement and integrate specific performance or learning domains to suit specific teaching or learning contexts. A third possible option (Fig.  5.3, adapted from Huang, 2021) is derived from Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) and Anderson et  al.’s (2013) work, which

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Fig. 5.3  Reflective iceberg

integrated the revised Bloom’s taxonomy to guide learners to explore beyond the surface of any learning event. The modification of major cognitive process categories (Bloom’s original “knowledge,” “comprehension,” “application,” “analysis,” “synthesis,” and “evaluating” to Anderson et al.’s “remembering,” “understanding,” “applying,” “analyzing,” “evaluating,” and “creating”) signal thinking as active engagement. Further, the progression of the levels of thinking aligns with the scheme or framework illustrated in the first two examples, where the levels reflect the complexity of thinking. For example, Anderson et al.’s first three levels (“remembering,” “understanding,” and “applying”) correspond with Kember et al.’s (2008) nonreflection actions (i.e., habitual action and understanding), the next level (“analyzing”) parallels reflection, and the final two levels (“evaluating” and “creating”) match the level of critical reflection. For all assessment frameworks, the highest/ deepest level of reflective learning derives from some level of critical thinking that involves applying, analyzing, and evaluating in order to generate new ideas. In higher education and adult-training contexts, Bloom’s revised taxonomy has been broadly promoted and used to align curriculum planning, instructional delivery, and assessment in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. A quick Google search easily shows the coverage of the extensive use of the revised taxonomy for teaching, learning, and assessment in higher education.

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 esearch- and Practice-Informed Strategies in Using R Reflection as Formative Assessment The following points are suggestions to consider, as drawn from theory, research, and practice, when planning to implement reflection as a formative assessment. (a) Determine the parameters for reflection. Use the following table to determine the key parameters of reflection. Your decision will then feed into how you can modify the scheme to assess reflective thinking (Table 5d.1). (b) Adapt the scheme suitable for your own teaching context. If reflection is part of the assessment component, take some time to modify the three examples provided here to suit both your own teaching and your students’ learning needs. For more examples, refer to Huang (2021). Above all, make sure that the stated purposes of the task clearly match the assessment criteria. (c) Clarify expectations. Such clarification pertains to expectations about what reflection entails, assumptions about engaging in reflection, perceptions associated with the process and product of reflection, and the scheme used for grading. It is common to discover that many of your students will find the reflective process challenging. Demystifying their uncertainty, resistance, and concerns will help alleviate confusion and trepidation about the evaluated reflective component.

Table 5.1  Parameters of reflection to consider before implementation

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(d) Create room for learners to self-select the means of mediation. In addition to the different levels at which individual learners may engage in reflection, their preferences or comfort levels with reflection as mediated by written, spoken, discussion, or technology methods can also vary. Each modality affords distinct metacognitive opportunities but also has its own limitations. Provide learners the freedom to experiment with different modalities of reflection that facilitate self-expression and the building of knowledge and experience. (e) Encourage uncensored self-expression. From the beginning, it is important to establish trust and a safe learning environment and to show sensitivity to and empathy with learners’ expressions of thought. Continue to encourage learners to engage in reflection as is, uncensored. Remind them to stay honest and be open to thoughts and emotions emerging from the reflective process (Huang, 2021). It is important to tell learners explicitly that expressing socially desirable content is irrelevant to the process and to take risks in the process. The meaningfulness of the process and how much learners benefit from it can be linked to how much the process is their own and not done with the goal of meeting someone else’s expectations but instead of themselves. As Pavlovich et  al. (2009) stated, “‘Who’ we are changing what we write about and how we write, and our role as educators is to assist students to engage in insights and perceptions that take them to a new level of self-awareness and appreciation” (p. 38). (f) Check-in periodically to maintain motivation and engagement. Reflecting on one’s cognitive, affective, and social status is never easy, even for learners for whom reflection comes naturally. For some, the fact that the reflective entries are graded is a sufficient motivator in and of itself. As a conduit to intrinsic motivation, withholding judgment, practicing reflection in one’s teaching, and acknowledging learner insights from reflection can inject some aspiration into the process. Sharing common challenges revealed in reflective entries (so that learners know that they are not alone in dealing with those challenges) and offering comments to channel learners’ thinking and reflection can go a long way in promoting motivation and engagement, when setbacks or bumps along the way are most certainly expected. (g) Consider the language(s) for facilitating reflection. Language ability is a relevant variable in engaging in reflection because of its inseparable nature from reflection. While other individual and cultural variables also come into play in the reflection process, research across disciplines has pointed to the benefits of giving learners the option to use the language that “comes most naturally to them during reflection in order to provide more direct access to their thought processes and emotions and to minimize interference or censorship when [expressing] their thought processes” (Huang, 2021, p. 140). If the instructor and learners do not share the same first language, offer strategies of translanguaging (defined as “the act performed by bilinguals of accessing different linguistic features or various modes of what are described as autonomous languages, in order to maximize communicative potential,” García, 2009, p. 140), permitting learners to use their own languages or to switch between

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languages to develop their thoughts before translating them to the target language when needed (e.g., Galante, 2021). For procedures and strategies specific to reflection involving particular modalities, refer to Huang (2021).

Conclusion As Kind et al. (2005) stated: Education is longing for a deeper, more connected, more inclusive, and more aware way of knowing. One that connects heart and hand and head and does not split knowledge into dualities of thought and being, mind and body, emotion and intellect, but resonates with a wholeness and fullness that engages every part of one’s being. (p. 33)

Although Kind et al. wrote within the professional development context, the quotation also applies to our own deep aspirations wherein the holistic view of education expressed here becomes possible through learner reflection. The pandemic has accentuated educators’ awareness of the variables in assessing students’ learning processes and outcomes. Dovetailed with the emphasis on experiential learning by our institutions, this occasion has brought about an opportune time for us to reflect on how we assess learning and the potential of an approach that encapsulates the holistic view of education. Assessing reflective entries, regardless of modality, is challenging because the personal and subjective nature of thought contradicts the perceived objectivity of standardized criteria. As noted, when grades are assigned, they become the focus that drives the completion of the task. This drive may limit the expression of perceived socially undesirable ideas and self-expression and the risk-taking necessary to push the boundaries of thinking. On the other hand, well-­ established parameters, as we have described, remove uncertainty and clarify what is expected. This approach may be preferred by learners with a lower tolerance for ambiguity. Further, clarity about the levels helps learners move beyond surface-­ level learning typified in descriptive accounts of events or experiences. Ongoing recursive work and the iterative nature of reflection in doing, thinking about, and analyzing what one has experienced – as well as theorizing, making changes, and doing again as scaffolded through formative assessment – is an ongoing challenge in meeting learners where their needs are (i.e., a learner-centered teaching approach), which is the essence of learning how to learn. As Looney et al. (2017) expressed, “What and how student learning is assessed identify what is valued or important for students to learn” (p. 1). Through formative assessment, the values of reflective learning, with theoretical and empirical support, can be elevated to meet the strategic priorities set forth by the institutions of both authors. The integration of reflective learning in enhancing a sense of self-­awareness, facilitating different ways of thinking, analyzing the challenges learners face or the successes they experience, and fostering self-regulated learning encompass and transcend all substantive areas. Further, formative assessment carried out through

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multimodal learner reflection enables instructors to meet learners where they are; offers learners extensive opportunities to engage in, develop, and demonstrate their learning; develops learners’ ability to appraise their progress, develop adaptive learning, and direct their own learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2017); and, in so doing, contributes to diversity, equity, and inclusion in education.

References Alhemaid, A. (forthcoming). Developing speaking strategies among adult English-as-an-­ additional-language learners in performing the IELTS speaking tasks, mediated by audio tape-­ recorded and video-stimulated individual verbal reflection. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria]. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman. Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., et  al. (2013). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. (Abridged edition). Pearson Education. Berry, V., Sheehan, S., & Munro, S. (2019). What does language assessment literacy mean to teachers? ELT Journal, 73(2), 113–123. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 3(1), 7–74. Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Reflection: Turning experience into learning. Routledge Falmer. Colley, B. M., Bilics, A. R., & Lerch, C. M. (2012). Reflection: A key component to thinking critically. The Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 3(1), 1–19. Coombe, C. (2018). An A to Z of second language assessment: How language teachers understand assessment concepts. The British Council. Cowie, B., & Bell, B. (1999). A model of formative assessment in science education. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 6(1), 32–42. Cranton, P., & Hoggan, C. (2012). Evaluating transformative learning. In E. Taylor & P. Cranton (Eds.), Handbook of transformative learning: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 520–535). Jossey-Bass. Efklides, A., & Misailidi, P. (2010). Trends and prospects in metacognition research. Springer. Ellis, S., & Davidi, I. (2005). After-event reviews: Drawing lessons from successful and failed experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 857–871. Fund, Z., Court, D., & Kramarski, B. (2002). Construction and application of an evaluative tool to assess reflection in teacher-training courses. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 27(26), 485–499. Galante, A. (2021). Translation as a pedagogical tool in multilingual classes: Engaging the learners’ plurilingual repertoire. In Á. Carreres, M.  Noriega-Sánchez, & L.  P. Gutiérrez (Eds.), Translation and plurilingual approaches to language teaching and learning: Challenges and possibilities (pp. 106–123). John Benjamins Publishing. García, O. (2009). Education, multilingualism and translanguaging in the 21st century. In A. K. Mohanty, M. Panda, R. Phillipson, & T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), Multilingual education for social justice: Globalising the local (pp. 128–145). Orient Black Swan. George Brown College. (2019). Imagining possibilities: Vision 2030. Strategy 2022. https://www. georgebrown.ca/media/3281/view Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33–49.

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Huang, L.-S. (2010). Do different modalities of reflection matter? An exploration of adult second-­ language learners’ reported strategy use and oral language production. System: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics, 38(2), 245–261. Huang, L.-S. (2012). Use of oral reflection in failitating graduate EAL students’ oral-language production and strategy use: An empirial action research study. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 6(2), Article 27. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/ij-­sotl/vol6/iss2/27/ Huang, L.-S. (2017). Three ideas for implementing learner reflection. Faculty Focus. https://www. facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-­and-­learning/three-­ideas-­implementing-­learner-­reflection/ Huang, L.-S. (2018). A call for critical dialogue: EAP assessment from the practitioner’s perspective in Canada. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 35, 70–84. Huang, L.-S. (2021). Improving learner reflection for TESOL: Pedagogical strategies to support reflective learning. Routledge. Kember, D., McKay, J., Sinclair, K., & Wong, F. K. Y. (2008). A four-category scheme for coding and assessing the level of reflection in written work. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(4), 369–379. Khatri, R. (2018). The efficacy of academic reading strategy instruction among adult English as an additional language students: A professional development opportunity through action research. TESL Canada Journal, 35(2), 78–103. Kind, S., Irwin, R., Grauer, K., & De Cosson, A. (2005). Medicine wheel imag(in)ings: Exploring holistic curriculum perspectives. Art Education, 58(5), 33–38. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2017). Experiential learning theory as a guide for experiential educators in higher education. Experiential Learning & Teaching in Higher Education, 1(1), 1–38. Kreber, C., Klampfleitner, M., McCune, V., Bayne, S., & Knottenbelt, M. (2007). What do you mean by “authentic”? A comparative review of the literature on conceptions of authenticity in teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 58(1), 22–43. Kulasegaram, K., & Rangachari, P. K. (2018). Beyond “formative”: Assessments to enrich student learning. Advances in Physiology Education, 42(5), 5–14. Lau, K. (2016). Assessing reflection in English enhancement courses: Teachers’ views and development of a holistic framework. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(6), 854–868. Loone, A., Joy Cumming, van Der Kleij, F., & Harris, K. (2017). Reconceptualising the role of teachers as assessors: Teacher assessment identity. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2016.1268090 Looney, J. (Ed.). (2005). Formative assessment: Improving learning in secondary classrooms. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass. Mittler, P. (1973). Assessment for learning in the mentally handicapped. Churchill Livingstone. Nguyen, Q. D., Fernanandez, N., Karsenti, T., & Charlin, B. (2014). What is reflection? A conceptual analysis of major definitions and a proposal of a five-component model. Medical Education, 48, 1176–1189. OECD/CERI. (n.d.). Assessment for learning: Formative assessment. OECD/CERI International Conference, “Learning in the 21st Century: Research, Innovation and Policy.” https://www. oecd.org/site/educeri21st/40600533.pdf Panadero, E. (2017). A review of self-regulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00422/full Parkes, K. A., & Kajder, S. (2010). Eliciting and assessing reflective practice: A case study in web 2.0 technologies. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 22(2), 218–228. Pavlovich, K., Collins, E., & Jones, G. (2009). Developing students’ skills in reflective practice: Design and assessment. Journal of Management Education, 33(1), 37–58.

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Peltier, J.  W., Hay, A., & Drago, W. (2005). The reflective learning continuum: Reflection on reflection. Journal of Marketing Education, 27, 250–263. Poldner, E., Simons, P. R. J., Wijingaards, G., & van der Schaaf, M. F. (2012). Quantitative content analysis procedures to analyse students’ reflective essays: A methodological review of psychometric and edumetric aspects. Education Research Review, 7(1), 19–37. Shepard, L. A., Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., Rust, F., Snowden, J. B., Gordon, E., Gutierrez, C., & Pacheco, A. (2005). Assessment. In L.  Darling-Hammond & J.  Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 275–326). Jossey-Bass. University of Victoria. (2018). A strategic framework for the University of Victoria: 2018–2023. https://www.uvic.ca/strategicframework/assets/docs/strategic-­framework-­2018.pdf Villarroel, V., Benavente, M., Chuecas, M. J., & Bruna, D. (2020). Experiential learning in higher education: A student-centered teaching method that improves perceived learning. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 17(5), Article 8. https://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/ vol17/iss5/8 Wiliam, D. (2017). Embedded formative assessment (2nd ed.). Solution Tree. Wium, A.-M., & du Plessis, S. (2016). The usefulness of a tool to assess reflection in a service-­ learning experience. AJHPE, 8(2), 178–183. Li-Shih  Huang is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Victoria, Canada. Her interests in research and scholarly dissemination have included areas such as needs and outcomes assessment, reflective learning, and strategic behaviors in language-learning/testing contexts. Web: www.lishihhuang.com  

Raj Khatri, is ESL-SoTL Professor at the School of ESL, George Brown College, Canada. His areas of interest include second language reading, academic reading strategies, and universal design for learning.  

Amjad Alhemaid  is a doctoral candidate at the University of Victoria and Lecturer at IMSIU (Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University), Saudi Arabia. Her areas of interest include language-learning strategies, speaking strategies, self-regulated learning, and reflection.

Part II

Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning

Chapter 6

Successful Teaching with Technology in EAP Courses: A Practical Guide for Higher Education Teachers Doaa Hamam

Abstract  Thousands of digital platforms and applications are introduced every day to assist teachers in their teaching and learning, whether their classes are face to face, online, hybrid, blended or in other formats. However, successfully utilising these platforms and applications is another issue. Before using such digital platforms or applications, teachers should first know the pedagogy behind them and the rationale for using them, so the teaching and learning process can succeed and achieve its aims. On the other hand, teachers should use several techniques in the classroom to provide better teaching and learning experiences for their students regardless of the delivery method, whether synchronous or asynchronous. As for specific classes, such as EAP (English for Academic Purposes) classes, teaching with technology can be very helpful. According to Wang and Vasquez (ALICO J 29(3), 412–430, 2012), technology can provide more exposure to authentic interaction for students in EAP classes. This chapter will shed light on the unique nature of EAP classes, the helpful digital platforms and applications that can enhance teaching and learning, and the pedagogy behind them. The chapter will also shed light on some of the techniques that worked in the classroom to increase engagement and interaction and to provide a better experience when teaching with technology. Keywords  EAP · Teaching with Technology · Teaching and Learning · Higher Education

D. Hamam (*) Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_6

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Introduction No one can deny the benefits of using teaching with technology (TWT) in almost all disciplines. TWT provides various opportunities for teachers and students to enhance the teaching and learning process. In fact, TWT is a broad term that refers to the use of media tools integrated within learning management systems and/or those who run more independently over the Internet. In fact, TWT is transforming the process of learning and teaching to a large extent (Lockyer, 2004). According to Lawrence et al. (2020), there should be more effective technology, not more technology use in the classroom. Previous studies have emphasised the efficiency of using technology in the language learning process in several educational contexts like schools and higher education: Ahmadi and Reza (2018, p. 115) mentioned that “Technology enables teachers to adapt classroom activities, thus enhancing the language learning process.” Moreover, Anggraeni (2018) stressed the need of using education 4.0, which is dependent on maximising the use of the Internet and technology in language learning. On the other hand, previous research which focused specifically on teaching EAP with technology proved its efficiency and suitability (Aksel, 2021; Dashtestani, 2019; Syakur, 2020). A study by Aborisade (2013) emphasised the success of online learning in EAP courses. Constantinou (2018) also stated that the experience of using the G suite in EAP courses proved to be very positive according to the students in terms of efficiency in the teaching and learning process and the ease of use of the platform itself. Alshalan (2019) on the other hand suggested that Twitter can be a good language learning tool. Through studying female EFL Saudi students’ level of improvement in vocabulary acquisition, the researcher also examined the students’ attitudes and their motivation towards writing tweets and reading the tweets of others and reported significant improvements in both aspects. Moreover, according to Love (2020) and Saidi and Afshari, (2021), instructors also had a positive and good experience in teaching with technology in EAP courses; however, they also faced some challenges. Chang and Windeatt (2018) suggested a framework to maximise the benefits of using technology in EAP classrooms through matching the technology used to the language tasks that needed to be achieved. The researchers also stressed the importance of knowing more about the users’ views to be able to meet their specific needs. Furthermore, teaching with technology also helps with increasing the learners’ autonomy, according to Prathoomthin (2020). Therefore, it is safe to say that using technology in EAP courses has been successful so far according to the existing body of literature. However, there might be some challenges faced, and they are most probably related to knowing how to use the technology itself.

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The Special Nature of EAP Classes English for Academic Purposes (EAP) classes have a special nature and students join them for different reasons. Using technology in these classes helps a lot in the process of teaching and learning. Before discussing the use of TWT in EAP courses, I am going to offer a definition of EAP. EAP is defined by Hyland (2006) as cited in Atai and Dashtestani (2013) as “a branch of the field of English language teaching (ELT) which aims at helping learners to study or research in English through linking language instruction to the cognitive, social, and linguistic requirements of specific academic fields.” Hyland’s definition suggests that EAP courses are essential for university-level students. It is a well-known fact that students have different types of motivations for joining EAP courses (Ouyang, 2020). To excel in these courses and make them attractive for students, teaching with technology can be a significant addition. For example, although the use of the Internet has many benefits, it also leads to a lot of plagiarism, and without plagiarism detectors, teachers would not be able to know if their students are writing authentic texts or not. Other sources like electronic databases and multimedia courseware lead to creating a totally different educational experience (Lockyer, 2004). Simulators, applications and platforms and other resources facilitate access to the curriculum. The study of Dashtestani (2019) stated that the use of technology facilitated some of the needs of EAP students. An example of that would be finding and joining the international academic communities of practice that they need to join for the purpose of their studies. Students have also learned to use and gain access to several technological tools to help them in their studies, such as writing and genre awareness tools. Also, the study found that EAP students had access to authentic material that could potentially help them in their courses. However, according to Dashtestani (2019), one of the significant barriers to this type of instruction is the teachers’ lack of knowledge of specific EAP courses’ technological platforms.

Authentic Texts In EAP courses, students need to have access to authentic texts. Authentic texts are defined as texts written in any context but not for the purpose of teaching and learning. EAP students must access authentic texts situated in their natural context to learn and engage with language skills like reading and listening, which will feed into writing and speaking. This can be efficiently achieved through teaching with technology. Another major contribution of technology to students in EAP courses is the ability to use technology later to have access to other material and activities that are directly related to their major (Dashtestani, 2019). However, another aspect that should be discussed in this respect is the EAP teachers’ use and acceptance of such methods. Some teachers who endorse the old methods can become resistant to the use of technology in the classroom. However, other teachers can have positive

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attitudes towards TWT. Dashtestani (2019) stated that EAP instructors had positive attitudes towards using technology in EAP courses. However, according to the teachers, a focal point to consider was their need to access training and software resources.

Academic Vocabulary EAP courses focus on academic vocabulary which is defined as “the words used more frequently in academic writing and speech across disciplines than in non-­ academic discourse” (Nation, 2013 as cited in Skoufaki & Petrić, 2021, p.  71). Academic vocabulary is one of the targeted elements in EAP courses as students need to know the terms used in academic writing to keep their writing formal and scientific. Academic vocabulary is known to be critical in reading comprehension and academic achievement as well (Stahl & Nagy, 2006) as students need to differentiate between technical and semi-technical terms. Usually, this is not an easy task for students as they find it challenging most of the time and they always need help and support to improve their academic writing. Several strategies are frequently used in EAP classes to enable students to understand, learn and use academic vocabulary in their writing, listening, reading and speaking. In the past, teachers used more traditional ways to teach academic vocabulary like logging new vocabulary in vocabulary logs or journals and reading and/or listening to authentic texts (e.g. paper books), but nowadays with the advances of technology in the field of education, there is much more to be done beyond these traditional techniques. For example, students can benefit from the free resources available on the Internet to check word meanings, use electronic logs, read and/or listen to authentic texts, etc.

EAP-Specific TWT Tools  lectronic Vocabulary Graphic Organisers E and Electronic Dictionaries One of the major components of EAP courses is academic vocabulary development. In order to facilitate and maintain the list of academic vocabulary that students learn and acquire during the course, teachers could encourage them to use vocabulary organisers and online dictionaries. The use of such organisers and online dictionaries was proven successful by several studies such as those by Reed, et al. (2019), Alamri and Hakami (2022) and Eltahir, Altayeb and Bashrie (2019). There are a plethora of free applications, websites and platforms on the web that students can use to store their vocabulary lists in an electronic format. Therefore, students get organised and have easy access to their material.

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Note-Taking Tools Part of the learning process in the EAP classroom for students is to learn how to take notes. Taking notes is facilitated by several electronic platforms. If taking notes is done digitally, this might lead to more motivation and more organisation. Students are very skilled in using computers and typing quickly; most millennial students prefer digital note-taking, according to Murtafi’ah (2020). Digital note-taking could lead them to avoid the common pitfalls of handwritten notes such as not being able to understand what they  have  written due to sloppy handwriting and disorganised notes.

Referencing Tools Citation and referencing are considered another important component of EAP courses. However, many students regard this as a difficult task. There are several electronic tools and platforms that offer help in creating a reference entry, and some can even create the reference for students when they input the data. Others provide a complete and ready to use reference by clicking a button. Students can compare the different referencing types and tools with just a click, and they can find hundreds of resources to guide them on how to write their references correctly and accurately. Habbash (2018) stated that using electronic referencing tools is considered an essential learning skill both inside and outside the classroom, and it helps in speeding up the learning process.

General E-Learning Tools In this section, I will share what I believe are good platforms that helped me in TWT based on my personal experience. However, I am sure that these are not the only platforms that could do the same functions as there are many other good and valuable platforms that can be used in TWT. To start with, I use Nearpod all the time in my online and face-to-face classes. Nearpod is a comprehensive platform that has many functions. I find Nearpod to be an excellent platform, especially in online teaching. Instead of listening passively to the teacher, students are asked for their input from time to time, so they become engaged in the lesson. Also, students enjoy the overall experience of Nearpod. One of the most important integrations for EAP courses, from my point of view, is the integration of Flocabulary. Students can work on reading comprehension and practice with the new vocabulary through this platform. Finally, there are different ways to present the content, and there is always a lot of space to practise and save the notes of each lesson. Students enjoy the live classes, and they can access them

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through the LMS, and they also enjoy the student-paced lessons as they can study in their own time and at their own convenience and pace. Morrison as cited in Mushtaq (2017) mentioned that she found Nearpod to be a great tool for assessment and for the adaptation of new material; she also mentioned that Nearpod was especially helpful in peer feedback in EAP classes. At the same time, Kalsum (2021) emphasised that Nearpod helped students to have positive attitudes towards online learning and led to their increased motivation. Kahoot! is another helpful platform with all its attractive colours and features. It is basically “a game-based student response system in which the teacher takes on the role of a game show host with the students as contenders” (Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021, p. 769). Through Kahoot!, teachers can introduce new vocabulary, work with texts and puzzles and even integrate videos. Kahoot! offers a huge library of ready-­ made games in all disciplines where teachers can choose what they need and even edit the games and tailor them to their needs. Recently, Kahoot! introduced the integration of their application with Zoom, which is a huge addition and another feature that will add a lot to the overall enjoyable Kahoot! experience (Liashchenko et al. (2021). The platform is very flexible and easy to use, and it can be very helpful in engaging EAP students, according to Walsh (2017), who stated that “Kahoot! can be used as a classroom tool through a practical, interactive demonstration” (p. 126). Teachers also like Kahoot!, according to Dhillon and Murray (2021), who found that teachers had very positive views towards using e-learning technology tools such as Kahoot! in the classroom. Teachers reported that using Kahoot! and other tools increased the students’ engagement as well as their motivation and that it also led to the increase of learners’ autonomy in EAP classrooms. Charalambous et al. (2021) reported that Kahoot! was very popular among students in a SEN (Special Educational Needs) EAP classroom not only because it is a game but also because students enjoyed the sense of competition. The authors mentioned that Kahoot! helped students “practise at their own pace, and be self-corrected, and practise again and again as many times they want in order to achieve their goal, which is learning their vocabulary; memorisation was also empowered” (p. 77). Yet another useful tool is Flipgrid, a video discussion platform that helps students interact with their peers and with their teachers online through self-recorded videos. It is used for presentations, but it is possible to benefit from it in many other ways. Flipgrid is unique as it helps students see and interact with each other instead of passively communicating online. Lawrence et  al. (2020), Mehta and Mehta (2019) have stated that Flipgrid was found to be especially useful in presentations and speaking practice in EAP classes. Flipgrid can be used as an instruction tool, and teachers can record short videos of themselves to explain certain problematic aspects of their course content, or the requirements of certain assessed or non-­ assessed tasks, students ask questions, and the teacher replies (sometimes peers reply as well), and in this way the discussion starts. This could be a beneficial technique to explain challenging parts of lessons or use before each task as students ask their questions and receive their answers before starting the task itself.

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Helpful Techniques and Strategies for Using TWT Obtain Specific PD Training In order to help others, teachers need to help themselves first. While technological tools and platforms for EAP courses are available, teachers need to find them and familiarise themselves with them first before starting their classroom instruction. To achieve this, teachers must create a needs analysis for their professional development, plan with specific and realistic targets, and create their own individualised professional development programme. These PD programmes should include but are not limited to the needs analysis of EAP students and the source of their motivations, the EAP theories and their link to the use of technology, and the development of teaching material with a specific focus on integrating technology.

Establish Specific Goals for Using Technology in Class Before using any technological tool in the classroom, higher education teachers must make sure they understand the pedagogy behind using the tool, and students should also be aware of its purpose and what is expected to be gained at the end of the task or the lesson. By making sure that objectives are explained and understood, students will perform better and they will not be bored. For example, in EAP courses, there is a focus on developing critical thinking; therefore, the technology tools used in class should be helpful in developing these skills. A good tool to achieve this target can be the WebQuest, which is an inquiry-oriented lesson format. Students get all the information they need from the Internet and use them to work on their research papers or projects.

Conduct a Needs Analysis Before starting EAP course, higher education teachers need to conduct a needs analysis to know their students’ level, targets, needs, etc. Based on the needs analysis, teachers can decide on the technological tools that they should use in their classes. This needs analysis is very crucial to the success of any course, especially EAP courses, because they have a very special nature and the motivations to join them vary from one student to another. Several survey platforms can be used to achieve this purpose, but these surveys need to be designed carefully to collect accurate data about the students’ language level and their needs.

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Make a Plan In their regular daily lesson plan, higher education teachers need to integrate technology in a meaningful and helpful way. Therefore, technology should not be used randomly in the classroom. Teachers need to plan their lessons beforehand, and they should not integrate technology just for the sake of using technology. In fact, technology should be used in the service of pedagogy, not vice versa. Otherwise, the use of technology, in this case, might not be useful and can even hinder the teaching and learning process. For example, since referencing is a crucial part of EAP courses, referencing tools and websites can be used to generate the reference list automatically.

Infuse Interesting and Relevant Topics into Your Courses If teachers’ instruction is based on topics that might not interest students, they can easily become distracted or bored. Therefore, teachers need to make sure the tasks are based on their students’ personal interests and are relevant to their lives. Therefore, based on the age group or the cultural background, teachers need to do their own research to know the students’ interests. Another useful technique is to ask students about their interests through a small survey at the beginning of the class. This way, students feel that their voice is heard and that they have contributed to the course design. In my classes, I often like to talk about the severity of plagiarism through choosing real-life examples of plagiarism from history. This way students become interested and engaged with the topic.

Mention the Do’s and the Do Not’s Students need to know the class rules in terms of using technology. Higher education teachers should spend some time in an orientation session and/or at the beginning of the semester to create classroom rules and guidelines. It is also a good idea to involve students in this process which could serve to further engage them in the class. For example, students need to know that they are not allowed to watch YouTube videos or engage in online shopping during class time. Students should be aware that each minute in the classroom counts and that it should not be wasted because there are objectives that need to be achieved.

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Social Media Can Be Challenging The use of social media can be integrated into the teaching and learning process, and it has been proven to be efficient. However, students can be easily distracted when they navigate their own pages or discuss personal interests on their social media accounts. Therefore, students need to be guided to remain on the task they are given by reminding them from time to time about the goal of using this particular social media platform in the teaching and learning process. Small study groups for discussing EAP topics or finding EAP vocabulary can be formed through the students’ preferred social media platform.

Decrease Anxiety Higher education teachers should make sure that their students have access and know how to handle the technological platforms/applications/websites, etc. that are being used in class. This knowledge will lead to decreased anxiety. Teachers can even offer a brief training session if the platform/application is complex or not that easy to use. Higher education teachers should not allocate a lot of weight to one assessment if they plan to use technology to do that assessment. For assessments using technology, teachers need to make sure that their students are familiar with the platform used (e.g. LMS), and do a non-graded trial before the actual assessment. This helps avoid technical issues during the actual assessment itself. So if there are websites that are specialised in writing, references or study skills, students need to know how to use them, because not knowing the technology or being unable to deal with the tool can hinder the learning process.

Plagiarism Issues One of the most important issues in EAP courses is plagiarism. Students need to see practical examples of how teachers detect plagiarism, so they can avoid copying and pasting from sources without citing the source. For this purpose, teachers can use the free plagiarism tools available on the web to show the students the process of assessing their work, show good and bad examples of academic essays or texts written by other anonymous students and give practical examples and anecdotes on the consequences of plagiarism.

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Troubleshooting Technical Issues Higher education teachers should guide students to where they can find help to troubleshoot their technical problems. They need to have access to quick and efficient IT services, so they can work with their teachers in class and do their assessments on time. As previously mentioned, teachers can also provide brief training before using each new platform or application; this helps and saves time in the long run. For more challenging issues, students should contact their IT department. It could also help if teachers announce the technological tools that are going to be used before each class, so students take their time and prepare themselves, or register on the new site, etc.

Conclusion Integrating technology in EAP courses could lead to many benefits. Students get more exposure to authentic texts through the Internet and use a lot of free electronic resources that can highly benefit their learning. EAP teachers can also use the many available resources through the Internet and the applications to enhance their teaching practice and diversify their teaching resources. Teaching with technology has proven to offer high potential in other disciplines and has been very promising. It has also been proven to help the process of teaching and learning in EAP courses, especially in higher education institutions. Both teachers and students should receive training on how to use technology in their EAP classes. Higher education teachers need to know the pedagogy behind each tool they use and define their targets before each class. At the same time, students need to be well-versed in the applications and the technological tools they use in their studies to get the utmost benefit from using technology in their EAP classes.

References Aborisade, P. A. (2013). Blended learning in English for academic purposes courses: A Nigerian case study. In Blended learning in English language teaching: Course design and implementa­ tion (pp. 35–41). British Council. Ahmadi, D., & Reza, M. (2018). The use of technology in English language learning: A literature review. International Journal of Research in English Education, 3(2), 115–125. Aksel, A. (2021). A study on the effectiveness of a blended learning model in English language learning in higher education: Student attitudes and opinions. Doctoral dissertation, Bursa Uludag University (Turkey). Alamri, H., & Hakami, H. M. (2022). Exploring perspectives of EFL students on using electronic dictionaries to improve vocabulary learning: A comparative study: Perspectives of EFL students on using electronic dictionaries. International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 14(2), 1578–1599.

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Alshalan, K. (2019). Investigating EFL Saudi students’ vocabulary improvement in micro-­ blogging on twitter at Imam University. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation, 2(2), 290245. Anggraeni, C. W. (2018). Promoting Education 4.0 in English for Survival Class: What are the Challenges? Metathesis: journal of English language, literature, and teaching, 2(1), 12–24. Atai, M. R., & Dashtestani, R. (2013). Iranian English for academic purposes (EAP) stakeholders’ attitudes toward using the Internet in EAP courses for civil engineering students: promises and challenges. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 26(1), 21–38. Chang, H., & Windeatt, S. (2018). A teacher’s framework for online English for academic pur­ poses courses: Online and hybrid classroom education (pp. 49–58). TESOL Press. Charalambous, T., Papadima-Sophocleous, S., & Giannikas, C.  N. (2021). 4 The integration of assistive technologies in the SEN EAP classroom: Raising awareness. In Tertiary education language learning: A collection of research (p. 65). Constantinou, E. K. (2018). Teaching in clouds: using the G suite for education for the delivery of two English for academic purposes courses. Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 305–317. Dashtestani, S. R. (2019). English for academic purposes instructors’ use and acceptance of technology in EAP courses. CALL-EJ, 20(1), 115–134. Dhillon, S., & Murray, N. (2021). An investigation of EAP teachers’ views and experiences of e-learning technology. Education Sciences, 11(2), 54. Eltahir, A.  A., Altayeb, A., & Bashrie, N.  T. (2019). How Graphic Organisers Using Affect on Students’ Writing. Journal of Linguistic and Literary Studies, 20(4), 70–85. Habbash, M. R. N. M. (2018). Electronic Reference Tools in EFL Classes. International Journal of English Linguistics, 8(2), 101–114. Kalsum, I. (2021). Nearpod and Students’ motivation in Online English Learning. International Academic Research Journal of Business and Technology., 7(1), 1–7. Kohnke, L., & Moorhouse, B. L. (2021). Using Kahoot! to gamify learning in the language classroom. RELC Journal, 52(3), 769–775. Lawrence, G., Ahmed, F., Cole, C., & Johnston, K. P. (2020). Not more technology but more effective technology: Examining the state of technology integration in EAP Programmes. RELC Journal, 51(1), 101–116. Liashchenko, O., Pylypchuk, T., & Vereshchahina, T. (2021). Biology students’ perceptions of internet resources in learning English for Academic Purposes. Наукові записки Національного університету «Острозька академія»: Серія «Філологія», 11(79), 206–209. Lockyer, L. (2004). Learning and Teaching with Technology: Principles and Practices. Distance Education, 25(1), 146. Love, M. (2020). How EFL teacher trainees in a TESOL graduate program integrate tools and platforms into teaching EAP. Teaching English with Technology, 20(5), 38–64. Mehta, N. K., & Mehta, D. (2019). Using English in presentation skills for personal and professional endeavors in the multicultural setting. ERL Journal, 2(2), 124–130. Murtafi’ah, M. (2020). Is Technology based note-taking more preferable for millennial students? Exploration of English students’ note-taking habit. Doctoral dissertation, UINSA. Mushtaq, A. (2017). From ESL Student to Canadian Citizen: The Academic Route. Ouyang, X. (2020). Student motivation for studying English for academic purposes courses in an offshore program in China. Doctoral dissertation. Prathoomthin, A. (2020). Teacher’s perceptions towards authenticity and the development of learner autonomy: Cases of Thai as a foreign language. Mangrai Saan Journal, 8(1), 87–104. Reed, D. K., Jemison, E., Sidler-Folsom, J., & Weber, A. (2019). Electronic graphic organisers for learning science vocabulary and concepts: The effects of online synchronous discussion. The Journal of Experimental Education, 87(4), 552–574. Saidi, M., & Afshari, M. (2021). Computer-assisted language learning in English for Academic Purposes courses: Eliciting the instructors’ perspectives within the COVID-19 Pandemic period. Future of Medical Education Journal, 11(1), 13–17.

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Skoufaki, S., & Petrić, B. (2021). Academic vocabulary in an EAP course: Opportunities for incidental learning from printed teaching materials developed in-house. English for Specific Purposes, 63, 71–85. Stahl, S., & Nagy, W. (2006). Teaching word meanings. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Syakur, A. (2020). The Effectiveness of English Learning Media through Google Classroom in Higher Education. Britain International of Linguistics Arts and Education (BIoLAE) Journal, 2(1), 475–483. Walsh, R. (2017, August). Turning the smartphone into an EAP classroom learning device through Kahoot!. In EUROCALL 2017. Wang, S., & Vásquez, C. (2012). Web 2.0 and second language learning: What does the research tell us? CALICO Journal, 29(3), 412–430. Doaa Hamam is Lecturer at the Higher Colleges of Technology, UAE. She has also achieved the status of Senior Fellow from the Higher Education Academy in the UK. Doaa has several publications in the field of academic writing, teaching with technology, and teacher education. Her main research interests are teaching and learning, teaching with technology, academic writing, linguistics, and teacher education  

Chapter 7

The Theory and Practice of Oral Presentations in Face-to-Face and Online Courses Pushpa Sadhwani and Jon Fiteni

Abstract  Oral Presentations (OP) are a challenging requirement for under-­graduate Non-native English Speakers (NNES) due to the range of demands placed on presenters. Pandemic-related social distancing measures have necessitated students to perform online OP as the face-to-face medium has not been feasible. In addition to the linguistic demands of presenting online, the new medium requires students to make use of video-conferencing technology and to interact with peers and faculty synchronously online. There is therefore a need for practitioners to develop their understanding of this novel array of skills and to adapt and enhance practice accordingly. Moreover, with increasing digitalization of society and changing working practices, it appears that the ability to communicate ideas synchronously online in English now sits alongside other key academic skills. Keywords  Oral presentation · face-to-face · synchronous · communication

Introduction During the COVID-19 pandemic, education shifted online, and in this shift was a key Higher Education (HE) skill: the oral presentation (OP). Students and instructors adapted to delivering presentations online during this period, and the contexts and experiences undoubtedly varied. A realization from experience is that the online OP skill set is not identical to face-to-face. As education now returns to the face-to-­ face format and given our growing awareness of the skills required for effective online presentation of ideas, the question emerges of how educators can help learners develop OP skills both for education and work, where synchronous online presentations of ideas are likely to increase. This section focuses on the challenges of P. Sadhwani (*) · J. Fiteni Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_7

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the face-to-face OP and aims to identify the challenges that the online OP adds to the OP model. Later, practical ideas are shared to address these challenges in the classroom.

Learner Development and Oral Presentation Oral presentations can take many shapes and forms: asynchronous, webinar presentations, or a pre-prepared, possibly pre-recorded presentation shared online for asynchronous access. Both modes have challenges for Native English Speakers (NES) and Non-native English Speakers (NNES) alike in the HE context, where concepts and language become more complex. At the heart of the issue is to what extent the face-to-face OP skillset can be transferred to and utilized in the online medium. And where existing skills fall short, what new skills are needed. Presenting ideas to an audience in an academic context is an essential and valued learning outcome for HE (McDougall & Holden, 2017) and supports the development of a constellation of skills. OPs are an element in ‘academic socialization’ whereby learners become aware of the academic discourse and learn to communicate and impart their ideas appropriately in an academic context (Barrett & Liu, 2016, p.1237). OP skills have significance beyond the academy and can play a part in securing employment (Stapa et al., 2014), with graduates transferring these ‘core communicative competencies’ to the workplace and broader societal participation (van Ginkel et al., 2015, p.64). McDougall and Holden (2017) state the relevance of OP skills for lifelong learning, reflecting the fundamental importance of these skills for societal participation and fulfilment of the individual. Not solely a communicative means to an end (Brooks & Wilson, 2014), the OP is recognized as a vehicle itself for the development of language and skills. OPs themselves can drive language learning as students acquire and develop linguistic resources through the learning processes. Moreover, OP provides an opportunity for students to integrate language and interpersonal skills, which are required in an increasingly globalized society (Al Issa & Qubtan, 2010) in which English is a lingua franca used by NNES (Levrai & Bolster, 2015). Critical skills can also be developed through OPs (Thor et al., 2017). Online OPs, too, are a vehicle for learners to engage with and utilize communications technology, and such virtual interaction is claimed to promote digital competence development (Casañ-Pitarch & Candel-­ Mora, 2021). Therefore, the OP requires a range of competencies to be used simultaneously. Challenges include the deployment of the linguistic and paralinguistic/non-verbal resources fluently and understandably; delivery norms relating to pronunciation, pace, stress; and discourse features, such as organization and rhetorical features appropriate to the academic context. In an interactive presentation, resources associated with audience interaction and rapport building will also be engaged (Barrett & Liu, 2016). As with standard spoken interaction, the presenter will require the relevant linguistic resources to deal with spoken interaction, such as engaging in

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question-­and-answer sessions, communication breakdowns, negotiations of meaning, turn-taking, and other communicative functions that can occur in OPs (Bygate, 1995). In short, an effective OP places significant demands on the presenter.

 hallenges of Presentations for Non-Native English C Speakers (NNES) Before coming to online OP research specifically, we will consider presenter anxiety, a ubiquitous feature of online and face-to-face presentations experienced by NES and NNES presenters. Horwitz et al. (1986) offer three sources of anxiety in the NNES context. The first, communication apprehension, refers to the anxiety stemming from communicating with others in a foreign language. The second fear of negative evaluation relates to performance evaluations in the OP, both by educators and non-educators. The third test, anxiety, refers to the fear of receiving a low grade on a task. Alnahidh and Altalhab (2020) offer a helpful categorization when analysing pressure by separating causes associated with the instructor, the student, and sources related to the methodology, reflecting the range of origins of student anxiety. Audience composition is another aspect of anxiety. Studies also show that interacting with a native speaker can cause anxiety (Bozavli & Gulmez, 2012), not to say that only a NES would prompt presenter anxiety. Learners are likely to feel more anxious when presenting to their peers instead of just the instructor or in tiny groups (Young, 1991). The implied comparing with peers is a source of Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety (FLSA). A passive audience that makes little or no interactive demands from the presenter would probably generate less stress than an interrogative one (Al-Nouh et al., 2015). In this light, including a question and answer in the OP can cause stress, particularly for lower proficiency learners, due to the relative lack of control of audience language and conceptual requirements. Peer-related anxiety presents a dilemma as giving in front of peers is believed to hold pedagogical value in facilitating a deeper engagement in the content (Braun, 2017). Moreover, researchers support peer evaluation as a beneficial and critical skill (Al-Issa, & Al-Qubtan, 2010. Braun, 2017). The oral presentation constitutes a complex collection of skills, procedures, and management. It can quickly fail with learners experiencing cognitive overload, mainly when the display is in a different language. King (2002) states how students can be overwhelmed with the range of skills needed to perform the OP competently. Oral presentations can exhaust and overload presenters, as the necessary parallel processing of an array of resources requires effective use of metacognitive skills. Metacognition relates to the ability to regulate learning processes, with research suggesting that possession of these skills accounts for significant differences in learning (Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010). Metacognition is thought to support

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the development of skills relating to learner autonomy, reflection, critical awareness, organizing, and evaluation, all of which can contribute to performance in OP. With so many resources required for an effective OP, regardless of learner level and specific specifications, poor instructor guidance, inadequate preparation, and setup can lead to poor performance and a poor presenter experience, which adds to the negative perceptions of oral presentations that students may have (Brooks & Wilson, 2014). It is apparent from above that there are numerous potential areas of difficulty, but these areas can be mastered (Barrett et  al., 2020). Instructional sequences that cater to learner needs and levels are required, while considering more conceptually novel, technical, or ‘high-stakes’ content will create more challenges.

Online Oral Presentation Research In researching online OP, Braun (2017), comparing NES online and face-to-face OP, found no significant difference in student attitude or anxiety levels between the two methods. When asked about performing an additional future presentation, students preferred an online option, with the more confident students opting for online. In a survey by Campbell (2015), students showed a preference for an online class rather than a face-to-face presentation option, with students associating higher anxiety levels with the face-to-face mode. Woodcock (2012) found that students experienced lower anxiety levels than face-to-face for a pre-planned digital presentation task. The same students were comfortable utilizing the technology to create the pre-prepared presentation. It is tempting to speculate on the relationship between student perceptions of their digital literacy and attitudes to OP. In one study in Turkey, Öncül (2020) found that poorer performers tended to overestimate their digital literacy skills. Interestingly, parents, teachers, and policymakers may also overestimate young people’s digital skills, perhaps assuming that competence in the ‘lifestyle skills’ (ICDL Europe, 2021) as associated with social media implies competence in other areas required for their academic work lives. Indeed, the younger generations may appear to possess an unprecedented level of digital literacy, calling to mind Prensky’s label of digital natives (Bates, 2016); however, such assumptions have been critiqued as a digital fallacy (ICDL Europe, 2021). About OP precisely, exposure to technology generally does not necessarily translate into the skills required in an OP (Öncül, 2020). Many expected and novel issues emerged in an exploratory qualitative study investigating NNES learner perceptions of online OP during the COVID-19 pandemic at a higher education institution in the UAE (Fiteni, 2021). In this online context, where the presentation audience typically kept their cameras off, two distinct areas of preference emerged. The first area of choice relates to presenter anxiety. Communication apprehension (Horwitz et  al., 1986), underpinned by stress associated with foreign language, appeared to shape some presenters’ preference

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for the online OP, which they regarded as a relative haven that generated less anxiety than the face-to-face format, similar to the kind described above by Young (1991). Campbell’s (2015) research associated more anxiety with the face-to-face mode, and the participants in Fiteni’s research overwhelmingly gave this impression. The sheer terror and the freezing experienced appear to be a relatively common response for some learners, hence the novice presenter’s online preference. Interestingly, Braun’s (2017) research suggested that the more confident students would choose an online option, but such a finding is not reflected in Fiteni’s (2021) study. The second area of preference that emerged from Fiteni’s research reflected how some presenters sought and embraced having an audience in their presentations due to the feedback it provided their presentations. This need was valid for both online and face-to-face presentations. The face-to-face format was perceived to provide a more significant amount of helpful information to the presenter. Presenters described how audience members’ linguistic and paralinguistic responses provided them with comprehensible feedback on audience reception. A marked feature of this research context was that audience members invariably kept their cameras off during presentations, thus making them invisible to the presenter. In such conditions, the range of paralinguistic cues or ‘ambient feedback’ sought from the audience by the presenter is withheld (Terada, 2021). Moreover, audience cameras being off arguably does not support building trust and rapport amongst students, which is particularly important for NNES communication. The reasons why students may keep their cameras off during online interaction are embedded in the learner and the context. Institutes of learning would do well to have an explicit policy of on-camera use and investigate the reasons for not having cameras on. Terada’s research reports the individual’s physical appearance as a significant reason (Terada, 2021), reminding us of the many anxieties associated with OP. It seems safe to suggest that students need to be supported as they adapt and reconfigure their skills to perform effectively online. Part of this reconfiguring of skills relates to how participants manage themselves online, which differs from face-to-face. Caines (2021) speculates on the impact of a different level of self-­ consciousness as one observes and is observed on the screen. Caines’ (2021) intriguing notion of the ‘Zoom gaze’ and the management of the self poses questions about how educators can research and support learners in developing online OP skills. Other areas for instructional support identified by Barrett and Liu (2016) in a face-to-face OP in the EAP context include support for the learning process and attitudes to learning, whereby learners develop the ways to learn in an academic context. Specific guidelines and training are needed for students, which can guide and help reduce the amount of anxiety that students will experience. Precise information on the final product, including genre features of expected outcomes, should be shared with learners. In their more recent article, Barrett et al. (2020) stress the need for learners to be taught presentation-specific language, highlighting the linguistic needs of the genre that undergraduate students invariably have. And indeed, such support could ease the cognitive burden that NNES presenters most acutely experience.

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More research is needed to gauge and comment on student need for IT training for online oral presentations. Still, Barrett et  al.’s research (2020) suggests that instructors require IT training with the relevant technology. Such a claim reminds us that becoming an online teacher may require broadening IT skills and a commensurate pedagogy. For learners, too, technical issues can present challenges, and dealing with such issues in a synchronous setting can add to the already pervasive anxiety. In the event of such a tech-related issue, students would require a range of repair strategies and language related to online interaction and those more general strategies relating to face-to-face interaction. Technical issues vary, from a complete loss of connection with the audience to a lag to a momentary loss of contact, which may happen to one or many audience members and presenters. For such circumstances, teaching formulaic phrases to manage and repair communicative and technological breakdowns would be helpful for presenters. Language relating to using resources, such as presentation notes, visual aids, and related processes, such as screen-sharing and document sharing, also represent teaching objectives. To summarize this section, how students adapt to face-to-face and online OP is likely to show variation due to context and learner profile, as the above research suggests. As instructors refer to and form their models of the online OP, a range of presenter’ needs emerge, including content-related language, tech-related language, communication breakdown repair language, and audience management, amongst others. A tailored instructional model and approach incorporating these and other needs would undoubtedly greatly support learners.

The COVID-19 Pandemic Timeline When the COVID-19 pandemic hit the world, like other educational institutions, we moved most of our classes to operate entirely online for three semesters. As COVID-19 restrictions became lax, a hybrid approach was adopted, enabling us to leverage the best of both online and face-to-face learning. Progressing through this period, it was realized that the application of practical skills was not fully absorbed through remote learning. Hence, language classes were resumed to run in-person, while the theoretical part was delivered through assignments required to be completed independently online using the flipped learning approach. With the COVID-19 pandemic now seemingly under control globally and education shifting back to in-­ person mode, OP is now in the flesh again, with students and instructors alike valuing the physical presence of face-to-face communication and delivery. Once again, the need to re-live and re-connect with the dynamic language and the presenter’s body language and non-verbal communication of the message is given precedence. This is not to say that we now undervalue the benefits we have discovered and reaped through synchronous presentations and delivered online. As a matter of fact, this brief evolution will better help learners prepare for the future ahead. While transitioning through the COVID-19 pandemic, we have learned that the future we are heading towards appears to be more mobile, with the option of remote

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work, flexible hours, and a borderless workforce. With that, the skills required within an evolving era would mean learning to be more agile to assimilate better into a landscape that will be more dependent on technology and online interactions. With the reality of new trends emerging by the day, we can expect the workplace to shift gears to incorporate more intelligent systems and solutions to create a more sustainable future. Higher education institutions need to be aligned with such advancements to meet the workforce’s ever-changing needs and inculcate teaching and learning practices to adopt twenty-first-century skills that advocate digital literacy and collaboration, among other skills and competencies.

Getting Ready for the Real World In today’s day and age, quite often, the so-called OPs we practice in real life are, in effect, meetings held online via Zoom or Microsoft Teams rather than a presentation in front of a large audience which would be more prevalent in the context of a keynote speaker at a conference or workshop. Therefore, students should be prepared to simulate the kind of OP contexts that mimic the actual workplace environment. Hence, when it comes to presentations or meetings of any sort, students need to go beyond the valid message of delivery and make it a habit to turn their cameras on, use professional work-related language, display netiquette in  acceptable online social behaviour, and be conscious of their paralinguistic communication. If educational institutions can create the replication of realistic scenarios for their students, we will have them better prepared as communicators and presenters that are natural and confident. This would involve higher education institutions first revisiting their curriculum and adapting them to incorporate a range of authentic oral communication contexts directly related to the future of work rather than traditional practices of the past. These could include job interview skills and scenarios based on group discussions, meetings, and forums. Research into these areas is limited, so it seems that generally accepted best teaching practices will take time to establish. Interestingly, the COVID-19 pandemic prompted much experiential learning on the instructor’s part as they attempted to develop new techniques. And in this spirit, we share our reflections below.

Using Technology to Improve Confidence and Reduce Anxiety As outlined in this chapter, social anxiety induced during an OP is pervasive amongst students and it requires addressing. According to Raja (2017), despite being competent in their field of work, some professionals struggle to exhibit good public speaking skills, which negatively impacts their job performance. Therefore, to depict one’s actual ability, students need to overcome their speaking anxieties during their academic life as they transition to their careers. One way to foster confidence

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amongst students and reduce anxiety levels of a live OP is perhaps first to have them present it asynchronously via a video recording. By recording themselves audio-­ visually, students can be their first and own critics, and can revise and repeat the presentation until they feel it is the best they can deliver. Before going live, such a task can be a project for the students to attempt. Self-reflection of presentations through video recording not only promotes active learning and awareness of one’s capabilities but allows students to observe themselves in a non-judgmental environment and be able to monitor their performance, make errors and simultaneous corrections for an improved task in the next round while encouraging them to develop the autonomy of their learning. This may enable skills development in a safe space and without the inhibiting presence of an audience, which is an anxiety-inducing factor. Additionally, constructive feedback from the instructor can further develop the students’ performance and progress, which is facilitated by the ease of recording with technology. A study by Kırkgöz (2011) shows that integrating a video camera as a technological tool positively impacted students’ viewing and critically evaluating their speaking tasks and suggests that the device represents a language learning resource worthy of further study. It would be interesting to conduct a longitudinal study on students who self-regulate their journal recordings to understand how their oral deliveries transform over time.

Adopting Various Learning Models for Different Levels The theory of learning through example or observation-based learning has evinced extensive merit and viability in education. Van Gog and Rummel (2010) discuss how researchers such as Van Merriënboer and Sweller (2005) and Bandura (1986) have all emphasized the evolutionary importance of learning by observing and/or imitating what other people do, say, or write. They further suggest it is efficient to borrow knowledge from others and reorganize it to fit in with one’s existing knowledge and use it for purposes (the ‘borrowing and reorganizing’ principle; Sweller & Sweller, 2006). A practical approach is to get students to watch exemplary pre-­ recorded OPs by students from previous cohorts and excerpts compiled by the instructor to exhibit presentations that missed essential aspects required for a good performance. According to Braaksma et  al. (2002), weak learners learned more from focusing on soft models, whereas better learners learned more from concentrating on suitable models. Barrett et al. (2020) also highlighted the need for such resources. This confirms that as an instructor, it is imperative to supply and demonstrate a broad range of examples that reflect both strengths and weaknesses of different presenters. Weaker students can identify and pick up on the fundamental errors for improvement. In contrast, the more advanced students can be selective and extract the mastery of the more refined presentations to boost their learning and application. As an extension or enrichment activity, it is worth introducing model examples of displays through TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) talks for more able learners to explore. Asking students to watch presentations and write

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notes on suitable TED talk topics of their choice and language level can enable them to listen and pay attention to the content at their own pace, pick up formulaic speech and sentence frames of the verbal communication, as well as focus on the nuances of non-lexical elements including gestures, facial expressions, and other paralinguistic features that add meaning and show how they can impact the message being delivered.

Coping with Online Presentations Features of new Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as Collaborate Ultra offer much potential for developing OP skills. They facilitate novel learning methods, but they are also the medium that learners are being trained to use in future employment. For institutions that can use an LMS or other similar web conferencing platforms in their online and hybrid courses, wherein OP is delivered synchronously, we recommend establishing small breakout groups of four students on the Blackboard LMS.  The instructor can either allow students to choose the group members they feel comfortable with, or the instructor could divide the students into mixed ability groups. Having small groups that consistently work together over the presentation timeline allows students to build trust and have their cameras turned on while practicing for their presentations. This will hopefully cultivate a sense of confidence and a level of comfort amongst the group members, which will, in turn, assist each student to not only gain support and peer feedback but eventually develop confidence in their final presentation. This is in line with Vygotsky’s theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (1978), in which collaborative work with capable peers can support scaffolding and learning rather than when students work independently. Another suggestion that could overcome the pressing issue of anxiety is to have the group members present their final OP to the same group that they have worked with instead of to the larger class audience. Students in the group will be mindful that if they provide attention and support to their peers, the same will likely be reciprocated to them during the final presentation. Hence, such a setting will inculcate attentive listeners as well as a familiar audience for the students presenting. In line with this, providing reassurance to each other can be proven worthy to alleviate different forms of speaking anxieties. Such scenarios further mimic a task-based learning approach through which students co-construct learning, improve conversational skills, and, as a result, build self-confidence. The enhancement of cooperative learning and collaboration and offering peer feedback will support the development of their presentation skills and help cultivate the soft skills students require as they metamorphosize into the ‘real world’.

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Conclusion None of us saw the pandemic coming nor how the delivery of classes would morph as dramatically as they have. With the shift to digital in almost all industries, the world of education duly learned to acclimatize with the new normal, and perhaps in this shift, the online OP has become a more needed skill set. Initially, classes were fully online, but with the dire need for learners to seek in-person support and direction, we have seen ourselves trying to revert to more traditional approaches by adopting a hybrid learning model, combining both online (synchronous/asynchronous) with face-to-face learning. This trend has gained a lot of traction and seems to be a practical solution moving forward. Although some courses can be run asynchronously or 100% student-paced, language learning requires more human engagement and interactions in authentic settings. Further, students’ preference for face-to-face highlights their desire for the type of interaction they are accustomed to. Even though studying online may be a matter of choice or convenience for some, the idea of an ‘experience’ and learning through collaboration with others plays a huge role in learning and retention when it comes to OP. Nonetheless, if we consider trends in education and work, effective online communication is a core need, regardless of the pandemic-induced shifting educational platforms.

References Al-Issa, A. S., & Al-Qubtan, R. (2010). Taking the floor: Oral presentations in EFL classrooms. TESOL Journal, 1(2), 227–246. https://doi.org/10.5054/tj.2010.220425 Al-Nouh, N. A., Abdul-Kareem, M. M., & Taqi, H. A. (2015). EFL college students’ perceptions of the difficulties in oral presentation as a form of assessment. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(1), 136–150. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v4n1p136 Alnahidh, F., & Altalhab, S. (2020). The level and sources of foreign language speaking anxiety among Saudi EFL university students. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 11(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.11n.1p.55 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall. Barrett, N.  E., & Liu, G.-Z. (2016). Global trends and research aims for English academic oral presentations. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 1227–1271. https://doi. org/10.3102/0034654316628296 Barrett, N.  E., Liu, G.-Z., & Wang, H.-C. (2020). Seamless learning for oral presentations: Designing for performance needs. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33, 1–26. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1720254 Bates, A. W. (2016). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning for a digital age. https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/ Bozavli, E., & Gulmez, R. (2012). Turkish students’ perspectives on speaking anxiety in native and non-native English speaker classes. US-China Education Review B, 12, 1034–1043. Braaksma, M. A. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & Van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the effects of model-observer similarity. Journal of Education & Psychology, 94, 405–415.

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Braun, M. (2017). Comparative evaluation of online and in-class student team presentations. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 14(3), 3. Retrieved from https://files. eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1170210.pdf Brooks, G., & Wilson, J. (2014). Using oral presentations to improve students’ English language skills. Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities Review, 19(1), 199–212. Bygate, M. (1995). Speaking. Oxford University Press. Campbell, S. (2015). Presentation anxiety analysis: Comparing face-to-face presentations and webinars. Journal of Case Studies in Education, 7, 1–13. Caines, A. (2021, April 16). Zoom gaze – edu news – observatory: Institute for the future of education. Observatory. Retrieved February 15, 2022, from https://observatory.tec.mx/edu-­news/tag/ Zoom+gaze Casañ-Pitarch, R., & Candel-Mora, M. (2021). Developing language, content, and digital competence through international telecollaborative project work. Teaching English with Technology, 21(1), 29–47. Fiteni, J. (2021). From Face to Face to Online: An exploratory study of how university students adapt to performing online oral presentations (Unpublished master’s thesis). Linkoping University, Sweden. Horwitz, E.  K., Horwitz, M.  B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-­4781.1986. tb05256.x ICDL Europe. (2021, July 30). The fallacy of the ‘digital native’. ICDL Europe. Retrieved February 7, 2022, from https://icdl.org/policy-­and-­publications/the-­fallacy-­of-­the-­digital-­native/ King. (2002). Preparing EFL learners for oral presentations. The Internet TESL Journal, 8(3). Kirkgoz, Y. (2011). A blended learning study on implementing video recorded speaking tasks in task-based classroom instruction. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10, 1–13. Levrai, L., & Bolster, A. (2015). Developing a closer understanding of academic oral presentations. Folio, 16(2), 65–72. McDougall, J., & Holden, H. (2017). The silence about oral presentation skills in distance and online education: new perspectives from an Australian university preparatory programme. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 32(2), 163–176. https://doi. org/10.1080/02680513.2017.1316187 Öncül, G. (2020). Defining the Need: Digital literacy skills for first-year university students. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, Ahead-of-print (Ahead-of-print). https:// doi.org/10.1108/jarhe-­06-­2020-­0179 Raja, F. (2017). Anxiety level in students of public speaking: Causes and remedies. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 4(1), 94–110. Stapa, M., Murad, N. A., & Ahmad, N. (2014). Engineering technical oral presentation: Voices of the stakeholder. Procedia  – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 118, 463–467. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.063 Sweller, J., & Sweller, S. (2006). Natural information processing systems. Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 434–458. Terada, Y. (2021, February 5). The camera-on/camera-off dilemma. Edutopia. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://www.edutopia.org/article/camera-­oncamera-­dilemma Thor, D., Xiao, N., Zheng, M., Ma, R., & Yu, X.  X. (2017). An interactive online approach to small-group student presentations and discussions. Advances in Physiology Education, 41(4), 498–504. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00019.2017 Vandergrift, L., & Tafaghodtari, M.  H. (2010). Teaching L2 learners how to listen does make a difference: An empirical study. Language Learning, 60(2), 470–497. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-­9922.2009.00559.x Van Ginkel, S., Gulikers, J., Biemans, H., & Mulder, M. (2015). Towards a set of design principles for developing oral presentation competence: A synthesis of research in higher education. Educational Research Review, 14, 62–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.02.002

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Van Gog, T., & Rummel, N. (2010). Example-based learning: Integrating cognitive and social-­ cognitive research perspectives. Educational Psychology Review, 22(2), 155–174. Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 147–177. Vygotsky, L.  S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Woodcock, P. (2012). Bravery, technological literacy and political philosophy: replacing oral presentations with student-created video presentations. Enhancing Learning in the Social Sciences, 4(2), 1–9. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? The Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 426–439. Pushpa Sadhwani is Senior Lecturer in the General Studies Department at the Higher Colleges of Technology in the UAE where she has been a faculty for 15 years. Previously she has taught in Thailand and Qatar. Her MA dissertation was on “Orthographic Knowledge of Emirati Speakers.” Pushpa currently teaches Academic Reading and Writing as well as Life and Future Skills at Dubai Women’s College.  

Jon Fiteni is an instructor in the General Academic Requirements Division of HCT. He previously worked as an instructor and teacher-trainer in the English language preparation program of Bilkent University, Turkey. His interests are in the areas of managing learner feedback, teaching spoken English, and exploring Ed-tech tools. His recent MA dissertation focused on how undergraduate students in the UAE were adapting to performing online oral presentations during the pandemic.  

Chapter 8

Doctoral Students at a Distance: Voicing Their Challenges and Needs Amira El-Soussi

Abstract  Studies on distance doctoral education investigating students’ concerns and needs are scarce in the literature. To fill this critical gap, this study aims to examine, from a critical perspective, what these students struggle with by allowing them to voice their concerns and propose some actions instrumental in enhancing their experiences, especially post-pandemic. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect qualitative data from five doctoral students residing in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and pursuing their degrees at four well-established universities in the United Kingdom (UK). Findings show that most students experience much frustration, a sense of isolation, and low motivation levels due to issues related to their connectedness with their peers, supervisors, and university and the legitimacy of their degrees. Results stress the need for educators to respond to the demands of distance doctoral students by establishing web-based communities with frequent contact with faculty and peers to support them as they deal with the complexity of research obligations. Keywords  Distance education · Doctoral programs · Distance learning · Student needs

Introduction Many postgraduate students join distance learning programs due to the demands of their work and family commitments which restrict their relocation close to university or enrolment in regular courses in residential programs. Distance learning programs are becoming more technically feasible for universities, providing higher education and more professional development opportunities to a broader range of A. El-Soussi (*) University of Exeter, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_8

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students. However, while some claim that distance learning programs provide opportunities for students to have maximum control of the time, pace, and location of their education (Pozdnyakova & Pozdnyakov, 2017), other research illustrates that such programs also result in inequality, marginalization, and pain that can affect students’ educational experience and the attrition rates among postgraduate distance students. Some studies have been conducted on challenges postgraduate students face; nonetheless, most focused on residential students, and very few investigated the challenges distance doctoral students experience (Silinda & Brubacher, 2016). In addition, distance doctoral students’ views seem scant in the literature even though distance doctoral programs’ educational significance “hinges as much on student needs and preferences as it does on the fundamental pedagogical questions guiding the creation of such programs” (Nordyke et al., 2011, p. 278). Understanding students’ concerns, struggles, and needs can help inform distance learning pedagogy. Thus, universities, program developers, supervisors, and faculty should strive to offer educational environments that more effectively satisfy distance doctoral students’ needs, provide more equity and inclusion, and reduce vulnerabilities and frustrations. To this end, this study examines what some distance doctoral students, residing in the UAE, experience, allowing them to voice their challenges and propose some actions that would enhance their doctoral experience. This opportunity, according to Pennycook (2001), is “the opening up of a space for the marginalized to speak, write or read ... so that the voicing of their lives may transform both their lives and the social system that excludes them” (p. 101).

Literature Review Doctoral Education at a Distance With a significant number of older and more experienced students seeking advanced degrees that enhance job opportunities as well as provide the flexibility needed to balance academic, personal, and professional life, higher education institutions have  embarked on developing rigorous marketable distance doctoral programs (Nordyke et al., 2011), which can transcend all borders to offer disparate students based in different geographical contexts the flexibility needed to pursue a degree. In the past two decades, much research has highlighted the pivotal role distance education is probably playing in transforming training and education. The availability of innovative telecommunication technologies has resulted in making distance education mainstream and more widespread (Simonson et al., 2019). Despite its popularity and expansion, several individuals may still doubt its rigor and legitimacy due to online “diploma mills” that provide illegitimate academic degrees. Others express their concern regarding the validity of distance delivery modes as it might compromise the long-established apprenticeship existing in conventional doctoral programs, namely the extensive collaborative work of postgraduate students under the

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keen mentorship of faculty members (Nordyke et al., 2011). However, as Wikeley and Muschamp (2004) argue, the apprenticeship paradigm, primarily applicable in the natural sciences field, may not be relevant to different doctoral programs. They assure that the distance approach and the apprenticeship style ought not to be considered contradicting but should be viewed as other slightly conflicting models but similarly accepted. Additionally, educators admit that distance learning will persist and be considered equivalent to conventional education, as its importance is catapulted with the outbreak of COVID-19 and the need for students to pursue their education online.

Doctoral Students’ Challenges Studies have continuously addressed the issue of high attrition rates in doctoral programs. When some research reveals that doctoral attrition rates vary between 40% and 70% in residential programs (Cassuto, 2013; Spaulding & Rockinson-­ Szapkiw, 2012), other studies declare that attrition rates are 10–20% higher in distance education programs (Bawa, 2016). Similarly, educators have shown concern regarding the worldwide lockdown due to COVID-19 as it might hinder students’ progress due to the students’ health issues and less supervision and mentoring, leading to increased dropouts (Mullen, 2021). The dropout rates in distance education are still growing, necessitating understanding of distance students’ challenges. Whatever the mode of education is, the instructors are at the core, and fostering a reciprocal kind of interaction between students and instructors, a downside of many distance learning programs, has been a significant concern for distance educators and researchers in their quest to regard distance students as their conventional counterparts (Xiao, 2017). In a mixed-method study of distance doctoral students at the thesis stage at a South African university, Silinda and Brubacher’s (2016) data uncovered the strongest sources of stress to be ineffective assistance from supervisors. Building a trustful relationship with the student lies at the heart of doctoral supervision; however, the complexity of this interaction is exacerbated in a distance context (Roumell & Bolliger, 2017) and results in the sense of isolation and abandonment (Ali & Kohun, 2006). Additionally, scholars have highlighted the importance of students’ integration into a community throughout the doctoral journey (Terrell et al., 2009). Nevertheless, students’ integration seems to lessen as they move from the coursework to the thesis stage. As their community diminishes among students and the faculty engaged in the thesis, many drop out due to feeling isolated, disengaged, and detached (Terrell et  al., 2009). In the same vein,  when examining doctoral supervision practices, Roumell and Bolliger (2017) noticed that some supervisors in distance programs do not give enough attention to integrating postgraduate students into the academic community, claiming it is difficult to guide students on educational events through computer-generated environments. Still, some other studies contend  that some online students prefer working individually, requesting assistance only when

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necessary (Pienaar, 2016). Conversely, much research cautions against blindly believing in the students’ abilities to construct their knowledge without the effective intervention of the instructor (Xiao, 2017). Central to doctoral education is transforming postgraduate students from information consumers to independent researchers contributing to the body of knowledge in their areas. This step is challenging and overwhelming to many neophyte researchers who feel unqualified for the hardships of academia. Compared to doctoral students in a conventional program, distance students find it hard to build a solid academic view and seem less satisfied with their learning experience and research skills (Wikeley & Muschamp, 2004). In a research on the online mentoring process of doctoral students in the United States (US), Kumar et al.’s (2013) participants admitted having insufficient research expertise to operate autonomously at a distance and felt overwhelmed by challenges handling excessive feedback, implementing and formatting their work, seeking institutional research board approvals, and setting up their thesis following specific guidelines. Some research also investigates the stigma linked to distance education and the doubts around its legitimacy and quality, especially from employers and accreditation bodies. Studies done to investigate graduates’ acceptability in applying for jobs in business settings, university faculty positions, and health professions confirmed the prejudice of gatekeepers against degrees earned through distance learning programs and their preference for conventional program degrees (Adams & DeFleur, 2005; Adams et  al., 2007; Flowers & Baltzer, 2006). However, some employers were less prejudiced and considered the rigor of the institutions’ online programs, accredited degrees, and academic honesty in their hiring process. Still, many gatekeepers did not think highly of graduates with distance learning degrees considering the insufficient interactions among students and their peers, professors, and mentors as shortcomings of distance education (Adams, 2008).

Effective Intervention Despite some students’ challenges in distance programs, many doctoral students see distance learning as a significant and valuable academic endeavor (Lim et al., 2008). Their contentment varies depending on their experiences, inclinations, expectations, and, most importantly, their interaction with supervisors and peers. Wenger (1998) defines a community of practice as a “shared history of learning” (p. 86, as cited in Kumar & Dawson, 2012) where cohorts of doctoral students constantly discuss their work through communication. For instance, due to the significant role communities of practice play in the journey of postgraduate students into becoming scholars, accomplishing common aims, sharing educational events, and solving research issues together, monthly synchronous and asynchronous online non-course meetings were added to the first year of a doctoral program at the University of Florida (Kumar & Dawson, 2012). Several short on-campus stays were recommended in some distance programs as they contribute to building a sense of

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community and solidarity and abate any sense of isolation among students (Ali & Kohun, 2006; Kumar & Dawson, 2012). Research on distance doctoral programs indicates the significance of synchronous and asynchronous communication, video conferencing, and virtual settings in assisting students with a doctoral experience equivalent to the residential one (Mullen, 2021), as it strengthens the social network between students, their peers, and faculty, and eventually enhances their persistence in the program (Berry, 2017; Orellana et al., 2016). Ames et al.’s (2018) surveys revealed the effectiveness of two technology-based advancements, the Doctoral Community Network, and online private doctoral workspaces, in providing postgraduate students with communication and feedback from the universal research community associated with their university and the thesis committee members. Silinda and Brubacher (2016) also called for a better supervisor–supervisee relationship, strengthened with regular online meetings, timely feedback, and clear communication to ensure students receive proper guidance throughout their doctoral journey. In her research, Mullen (2021) explored the effectiveness of an online mentoring intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. The doctoral students reported fulfilling progress being supported by “10 effective strategies: mentor feedback, individualized sessions, scheduled appointments, mentor availability, mentor attention, progressively challenging, and technology efficiency” and indicated the Zoom discussions being very effective and purposeful (Mullen, 2021, p.  149). Productive engagement, personalized attention, availability, and useful tools were strategic to the doctoral students’ success at a distance. The literature review shows that a modest number of studies examine students’ challenges and frustrations in distance postgraduate degree programs (Nasiri & Mafakheri, 2014). A gap compounds this scarcity in research in this field to address specific challenges. This study draws on the above literature and categorizes the various challenges doctoral students face at a distance, especially in the UAE context, and presents solutions suggested by the doctoral students themselves to help promote a better educational experience, especially with the technological infrastructure established due to COVID-19. My research questions are as follows: 1. What challenges do distance doctoral students face throughout their educational experience? 2. What actions would improve their educational experience?

Methodology I used a qualitative exploratory research approach to investigate doctoral students’ challenges doing their doctorate with UK universities while residing in the UAE. I aimed to delve into their experiences and better understand their struggle to help raise awareness about what impacts their educational experience seeking to cause a change.

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Participants and Context Five UAE-based doctoral students enrolled in UK-based distance learning programs agreed to participate in the study. Pursuing doctorates in Linguistics and Engineering, my participants Kate, Sara, Adam, Marwa, and Rana come from different countries – Pakistan, Jordan, Egypt, and the United States, are married, hold full-time job positions in the UAE, and have varied years of professional experience. They are studying part-time in the distance doctoral programs at four well-known universities in the UK.

Instrument and Ethical Considerations Online, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with all five participants. Though time-consuming and not generalizable, these interviews offered rich information and the freedom to ask follow-up questions. To ensure the validity of my instrument, the interview questions were developed carefully to answer the two research questions in this study. To achieve greater validity, I piloted the interview with one distance doctoral student not included in my study, and I made some amendments to the interview questions where needed. Zoom and Microsoft Teams were used to conduct and record the interviews. The interviews were conducted in English as the doctoral programs were based in the UK. The study was approved, informed consents were obtained, and pseudonyms were assigned to participants.

Data Analysis Before coding and analyzing, I transcribed the audio-recorded data from interviews and interpreted the raw data in the transcripts. Afterward, I started the process of inductive and deductive coding, which entailed coding and categorizing data to answer the research questions. Some themes emerged from the data as the related interview questions were open-ended. However, to enhance understanding of meaning-­making, I deductively established some themes  related to participants’ connection with their university, tutors, and peers. While reading the data, I generated general themes, which I refined later as related themes were grouped into a combined category, and this process of thematic analysis was facilitated by the help of NVIVO.

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Findings The results presented in two different sections reflect the two research questions. These sections explain the challenges distance doctoral students face and the actions needed to overcome these challenges.

Challenges Faced at a Distance It was apparent throughout the interviews that the distance doctoral students in my study encountered similar challenges with varying degrees. They considered their doctoral experience as “hectic, tough, unclear and difficult,” “quite a lonely process,” “painful and crazy,” but still viewed it as “the pleasure with the pain” as they acknowledged its significance in their personal and professional development. Connectedness with the institution, supervisors/tutors/mentors, peers, and legitimacy and employability were the primary sources of suffering in their journey. Connectedness with the institution The temporal and geographical distance posed many challenges to my participants’ connecting and communicating with their graduate schools. Most participants lacked a sense of belonging to the university; as Kate complained, “I wish I would be more of a part of it because I get a lot of emails from the doctoral research society that they have different support groups, but it’s not the same when you’re far away.” Marwa regretfully said, “I do not have any sense of belonging because we don’t share any of the events… We are excluded. With the COVID-19 outbreak, we started getting some Zoom links, which I am afraid will be absent when all goes back to normal.” These students described their struggle receiving responses to their emails; as Adam said, “I always have to follow up. I receive a reply after two or three reminders from my side. Sometimes I need to call them.” Kate also fretted about how long it takes to get approvals and responses in the thesis stage, saying, “I think it might happen to all students, but the distance puts you at a particular disadvantage because you could be forgotten.” Marwa and Sara additionally complained about the countless hours they spend navigating the university website for information regarding their program, as they do not seem to get proper orientation. Sara exclaimed, “When you are on campus, you have the support… you can have your administrative work done, but if you are not, you’re done and dusted all the way.” What was surprising was the minimal effort put by the graduate schools to involve the distance doctoral students in communities of practice. Students complained about the inefficient forums or dashboards they were part of on the university’s digital platforms. To Adam, these communities do not add value as they are inactive most of the time. After searching for hours on the university website, Sara

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found out about research centers affiliated with her institution and tried to contact them, but they were not responsive. Kate also said she was part of “only the ones that you are automatically involved in where they register you for certain newsletters and student union… no official sort of online community.” When discussing seminars and workshops, my participants protested that most of their emails about upcoming events and workshops do not apply to them. Kate only had access to the recorded training on Moodle and sarcastically said, “Maybe now I am getting a bit more involved as they’re doing them remotely because of COVID-19… they shouldn’t have waited for this time to come, and God knows if they will continue this way after COVID-19.” Connectedness with Supervisors/Tutors/Mentors The significance of connecting with supervisors was strongly sensed in the participants’ reported feelings toward the feedback they receive and the support they desire. Almost all feedback from the supervisors on students’ work was communicated via email. Marwa expressed her worries regarding understanding her tutors’ feedback and the difficulty approaching them at a distance. She also added, “I feel neglected, sometimes three months pass without any reaction from my tutors, and the only time we connect is when I submit an assignment.” Adam conveyed his frustration with his supervisors’ feedback as he believes due to the lack of face-to-­ face meetings, his supervisor is just “reviewing the document of research from an academic point of view regardless of the student’s (my) experience, technical knowledge, and standing… she’s evaluating documents of someone behind a screen.” Kate and Adam complained about being left alone for three months. Rana also envied her on-campus counterparts’ easy access to their supervisors, saying, “For me, it is more formal; we need to schedule an appointment and wait for the reply… which would take weeks.” Rana was frustrated as her progress was affected by her supervisor’s late replies and complained that “These are times of total abandonment… sitting there and waiting doesn’t help because the moment you stop working on it, you forget it, and going back to it is like learning about it all over again.” Sara and Rana also complained about their supervisors’ incompetence with technology and their resistance to meeting through communication technology apps or recording meetings. Additionally, most of my participants felt the supervision process lacked interpersonal relationships as the supervisors and their students were distracted from each other and seemed to disregard the common expectations in their relations. When discussing the support of mentors in their programs, my participants talked about their different experiences, showing that the role of mentors is mainly ignored. Rana was the only one who was lucky to have a local mentor, required by the university, without whom “I don’t know what would have happened,” she noted. Adam also found his local mentor helpful until the confusion started and the lack of coordination between the mentor and the supervisor was apparent. Sara and Marwa

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were disappointed as they had no local mentors that they were promised and had a pastoral tutor who had never communicated with them. Connectedness with Peers Most of my participants considered connecting with peers in cohorts of paramount importance and highlighted the emotional and academic support needed to meet the challenges of the lonely journey and persist in such distance learning programs. However, my participants expressed the difficulties they face trying to connect with peers as their institutions do not provide enough formal or informal ways of peer interaction. Other than the very few occasions during coursework when Marwa meets her cohort face-to-face, they rarely keep in touch. Kate further expressed how she and her cohort members, except for one, are geographically disconnected and superficially acquainted, saying, “occasionally on social media, I would get a message, and it is difficult to communicate if you do not see each other regularly. Suppose you didn’t become friends in the coursework. In that case, I’m not sure how you would form a connection.” Describing her experience, Rana  also said, “The ones I connect to are on the full-time on-site program, so they have different challenges,” and she envied them for the rapport they build with the supervisors. Sara described her unsuccessful relentless attempts to connect with other on-­ campus doctoral students seeking opportunities for future research collaboration. She appreciated her strong connection with her distance learning cohort through social media but complained about the inactive discussion forums offered by the university. She articulated their difficulties for two years trying to find an official platform to socialize and collaborate. However, she added, “now, since online learning has started with COVID-19, the university has given us access to Microsoft Teams, and now we are planning to have a meeting more often. I wish the university organized meetings for us.” Legitimacy and Employability A significant source of frustration, sense of inequality, and pain originate from how official bodies and employers perceive distance doctoral degrees. Hearing stories and seeing graduates from the same programs denied the acknowledgment and equivalency of their degrees augmented the feeling of stress and anxiety these students experienced. Marwa said, “We struggle a lot because it’s not trusted much here.” Adam described the contrasting perceptions of two of his professors, as one “considers the students doing a distance Doctor of Philosophy not good to go for faculty positions.” At the same time, the other thinks, with the easy access to technology today, “people should change their minds as the students doing distance-­ learning face more challenges and are dedicated and technology verse more than those doing traditional learning.” However, Adam explained that when distance learning degrees are not equated in the ministry of education, this affects the

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Ph.D. holder’s employability in the public sector in the UAE and other countries. Kate expressed her frustration with the overall perception that it is a lesser degree, especially when it is part-time. Sara discontentedly said, “Although most institutions changed to online teaching due to COVID-19 as a requirement from the ministry of education, we are still facing issues with equalizing our degree. Some institutions specify an on-campus Ph.D. as a job requirement.”

Actions Needed The participants expressed how challenging it was to stay motivated doing their doctorates at a distance without adequate connection with their peers, supervisors, and university. They mostly suggested their suffering can be alleviated by establishing a more robust network that fosters better communication and support from the supervisors and the university. Marwa asserted her need for “a channel of communication that is always present! I want to feel and see that I belong to an institution where I am required to do certain things other than assignments, especially with the presence of communication apps.” Additionally, most participants requested that the universities find ways to ensure the legitimacy and equivalency of their degrees at a distance. Adam emphasized the importance of frequent supervision meetings from day one as clear and close communication will solve issues and help students progress since “some students struggle for more than two years in the outline area and the proposal.” The participants suggested different communication Apps like Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Blackboard Collaborate, Yammer, and Skype, which can be easily employed. Sara asserted, “The internet is a powerful tool in the global community. We are just a click away from each other, so that distance should not matter.” Sara reflected on her online experience with her students and how available she was during office hours and calls for the same from her supervisors. Having a local mentor positively impacts distance doctoral students. An example of this is the crucial support the local mentor offered Rana. Marwa and Adam requested the presence of a local mentor who is easily approachable and can connect them to the university to convey clear messages. Additionally, most participants requested more acknowledgment and support from the institution side. Sara and Marwa demanded better orientation and more precise information regarding distance doctoral students’ rights and what they are eligible for. Kate requested acknowledgment by “sharing the work of distance part-time students more than just highlighting on Ph.D. researchers on campus, especially with the easy participation promoted through online conferences.” Moreover,  Sara insisted that even after COVID-19, the university should be more inclusive of distance students by initiating doctoral community networks that support them and allow them to be active participants in workshops, research, and seminars and not only offer recorded webinars and resources.

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Discussion In this study, distance doctoral students voiced various concerns about their educational experiences. Many postgraduate students confirmed having low motivation levels due to the lack of face-to-face interactions and support from faculty and friends. In line with previous studies, my participants presumed distance constrained their exploration of new research methods employed by faculty members (Kumar et al., 2013), gave rise to difficulties finding a commonly convenient and valuable time for students and supervisors to connect (Andrew, 2012), and led the supervisory discussions to be formal and harder to establish rapport (Nasiri & Mafakheri, 2014). In many cases, the distance between the supervisor and supervisee translated into a drop in the regularity and extent of feedback “as with fewer interactions, both parties have to deal with more misinterpretations and varied expectations” (Nasiri & Mafakheri, 2014, p. 1965). In line with Andrew’s (2012) findings, most doctoral participants voiced their concerns regarding losing track of work and missing out on opportunities for productive discussion as they were left out of the academic community. Some expressed their worries regarding the immediacy of administrative support and supervisors’ feedback and follow-up. Most added that their supervisors’ insufficient emotional support and encouragement compounded by a lack of access to the academic community intensified their feelings of isolation and abandonment. Findings also support Rockinson-Szapkiw et  al.’s (2019) observation that doctoral students taking part in cohorts sensed greater program integration than others who interacted with only one or two peers. Students’ enthusiasm and motivation strengthen when they are in regular communication with their peers; however, data highlighted the difficulty most participants faced trying to connect with their peers at a distance, hoping access to applications like Teams, would continue after COVID-19. My results also substantiate findings that many recruiters and official bodies still perceive distance education to have a lower value than conventional courses, which affects their hiring decisions (Allen & Seaman, 2011; Peat & Helland, 2004). As in Adams (2008), a few acknowledged distance students as applicants who are more disciplined and experienced with technology, which is an asset for specific jobs. My study did not only help doctoral students voice their concerns but also elicited their needs and requests. Findings highlight the need for institutions to acknowledge the great value of the connection between students and teachers in student success (Haley & Booker, 2012; Lim et al., 2019). Instructors at a distance have to reconsider their delivery modes and cultivate more efficient online teaching techniques (Bourdeaux & Schoenack, 2016). It is also crucial for supervisors in distance learning programs to promote collaboration in research projects among peers and with faculty members, as well as help their distant students connect with other professionals through asynchronous or synchronous learning networks (Byrnes et al., 2019; Lim et al., 2019), even after teaching shifts back to the traditional model post COVID-19. The  participants also suggest that the thesis phase necessitates additional support from supervisors as students face unexpected

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setbacks (Berman et al., 2012). It is also of paramount importance for distance students to have a strong relationship with their supervisors, whom they expect to be easily approachable and strongly present in their lives (Kumar et al., 2013; Roumell & Bolliger, 2017), to combat their sense of isolation and disconnectedness (Byrnes et al., 2019). Emulating the on-campus office hours and considering the time-zone difference, the supervisors can schedule virtual office hours where they are available for communication (Nasiri & Mafakheri, 2014). In line with the distance education literature, not only did my findings underscore the vital role interaction with faculty members plays in promoting students’ integration into learning communities online (Provident et  al., 2015; Rademaker et al., 2016), but they also highlighted the importance of cohorts in maintaining a sense of community. Participants acknowledged that cohorts play a significant role in supporting doctoral students by promoting interaction, unity, and opportunities for collaborative research (Rockinson-Szapkiw, Holmes, & Stephen, 2019), suggesting distance learning programs include more online opportunities for non-­ course meetings, structured peer discussions, collaborative work, inquiry groups, and tutor-facilitated virtual community of practice (Kumar & Dawson, 2012). In line with Mullen (2020), findings suggest COVID-19 brought distance doctoral students better opportunities and proved online communications can be as successful as face-to-face ones with thoughtful planning and implementation of more synchronous, interactive, and technologically equipped settings.

Conclusion and Limitations Distance education, which has long been positioned at the periphery, has moved to central positions within university administrations (Forsyth et al., 2010; Simonson et al., 2019). This became more evident with the outbreak of COVID-19. Distance education is here to stay, and conventional educational environments are losing their dominance (Nguyen, 2015). Much research has substantiated the equivalence in effectiveness between traditional and distance education and found that both modes of learning had similar challenges (Kumar et al., 2013). However, in line with earlier literature, my study confirms that most distance doctoral students vary from traditional students in their missing a sense of community and struggling with issues of degree legitimacy and sense of isolation. These students voiced their feeling of marginalization and exclusion, which necessitates some actions from institutions to offer them an experience equal to those in traditional degree programs, especially with the availability of the new technological infrastructure prompted by COVID-19. This study requests program designers to equip online doctoral students with more rigorous and effective techniques to successfully reach benchmarks and contribute to their field. The pandemic that started in 2020 has offered opportunities for distance doctoral students to experience more access and inclusion in collaborative and professional development experiences as education had to move online for all students. However,

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the present form of distance education is mainly viewed as an emergency remote education, so there is a fear that distance doctoral students might lose the access they have gained once students and educators revert to their conventional education, which started being evident as most workshops and conferences moved back to face-to-face delivery only. The literature on distance learning, especially at postgraduate levels, is limited, so further studies should be conducted on a larger scale to investigate more challenges students experience in different contexts. This study has several limitations associated with its scope and time. Firstly, interviewing more participants from different universities would have provided more data. Additionally, the researcher focused on the students’ opinions and how these opinions can inform program designers’ and faculty members’ actions without considering the faculty’s views.

References Adams, J. (2008). Understanding the factors limiting the acceptability of online courses and degrees. International Journal on E-Learning, 7, 573–587. Adams, J., & DeFleur, M. H. (2005). The acceptability of a doctoral degree earned online as a credential for obtaining a faculty position. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(2), 71–95. Adams, J., Defleur, M. H., & Heald, G. R. (2007). The acceptability of credentials earned online for obtaining employment in the health care professions. Communication Education, 56(3), 292–307. Ali, A., & Kohun, F. (2006). Dealing with isolation feelings in IS doctoral programs. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 1, 21–33. Allen, I.  E., & Seaman, J. (2011). Going the distance: Online education in the United States. Report of the Babson Survey Research Group. http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/ going_distance_2011 Ames, C., Berman, R., & Casteel, A. (2018). A preliminary examination of doctoral student retention factors in private online workspaces. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 13, 79–107. Andrew, M. (2012). Supervising doctorates at a distance: Three trans-Tasman stories. Quality Assurance in Education, 20(1), 42–53. Bawa, P. (2016). Retention in online courses: Exploring issues and solutions—A literature review. SageOpen, 1–11. Berman, R., Grant, G., & Markette, N. J. (2012). Doctoral community network: A case study of the perceptions of doctoral learners regarding a private, scholarly learning community. Journal of Educational Technology, 10(3), 1–11. Berry, S. (2017). Student support networks in online doctoral programs: Exploring nested communities. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 12, 33–48. Bourdeaux, R., & Schoenack, L. (2016). Adult Student Expectations and Experiences in an Online Learning Environment. Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 64, 152–161. Byrnes, D., Uribe-Flórez, L.  J., Trespalacios, J., & Chilson, J. (2019). Doctoral E-mentoring: Current practices and effective strategies. Online Learning Journal, 23(1), 236–248. Cassuto, L. (2013). Ph.D. attrition: How much is too much? The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/PhD-­Attrition-­How-­Much-­Is/140045/ Flowers, J. C., & Baltzer, H. (2006). Hiring technical education faculty: Vacancies, criteria, and attitudes toward online doctoral degrees. Journal of STEM Teacher Education, 43(3), 29–44.

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Forsyth, H., Pizzica, J., Laxton, R., & Mahony, M.  J. (2010). Distance education in an era of eLearning: challenges and opportunities for a campus-focused institution. Higher Education Research & Development, 29(1), 15–28. Haley, G. R., & Booker, J. E. (2012). Empowering non-traditional students to succeed in online programs. Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 8(1), 71–79. Kumar, S., & Dawson, K. (2012). Theory to practice: Implementation and initial impact of an online doctoral program. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 15(1). Kumar, S., Johnson, M., & Hardemon, T. (2013). Dissertations at a distance: Students’ perceptions of online mentoring in a doctoral program. Journal of Distance Education, 27(1). Lim, J. H., Dannels, S. A., & Watkins, R. (2008). Qualitative investigation of doctoral students’ learning experiences in online research methods courses. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(3), 223–236. Lim, J., Covrig, D., Freed, S., De Oliveira, B., Ongo, M., & Newman, I. (2019). Strategies to assist distance doctoral students in completing their dissertations. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 20(5), 192–210. Mullen, C. A. (2020). Does modality matter? a comparison of aspiring leaders’ learning online and face-to-face. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 44(5), 670–688. Mullen, C. A. (2021). Online doctoral mentoring in a pandemic: help or hindrance to academic progress on dissertations? International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 10(2), 139–157. Nasiri, F., & Mafakheri, F. (2014). Postgraduate research supervision at a distance: A review of challenges and strategies. Studies in Higher Education, 40(10), 1962–1969. Nguyen, T. (2015). The effectiveness of online learning: beyond no significant difference and future horizons. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 309–319. Nordyke, S., Palmer, D., Anderson, W., Braunstein, R., & Fairholm, M. (2011). A nontraditional Ph.D. program in a traditional world: A story of blended strategies and students. Journal of Political Science Education, 7, 275–294. Orellana, M. L., Darder, A., Pérez, A., & Salinas, J. (2016). Improving doctoral success by matching Ph.D. students with supervisors. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 11, 87–103. Peat, J., & Helland, K. (2004). The competitive advantage of online versus traditional education. Unpublished manuscript. University of Tennessee. pp. 938–945. Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics: A critical introduction. Lawrence Erlbaum. Pienaar, J. (2016). Caught in the spotlight: Engaging distance students. Journal of Academic Perspectives, 1–14. Pozdnyakova, O., & Pozdnyakov, A. (2017). Adult students’ problems in the distance learning. Procedia Engineering, 178, 243–248. Provident, I. M., Salls, J., Dolhi, C., Jodi, S., Mattila, A., & Eckel, E. (2015). Design of an online curriculum promoting transformative learning in post professional doctoral students. Online Learning Journal, 19(3), 1–16. Rademaker, L., Duffy, J. O., Wetzler, E., & Zaikina-Montgomery, H. (2016). Chair perceptions of trust between mentor and mentee in online doctoral dissertation mentoring. Online Learning Journal, 20(1), 1–13. Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., Holmes, J., & Stephen, J. S. (2019). Identifying significant personal and program factors that predict online EdD Students’ program integration. Online Learning Journal, 23(4). Roumell, E. A. L., & Bolliger, D. U. (2017). Experience of faculty with doctoral student supervision in programs delivered via distance. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 65(2), 82–93. Silinda, F. T., & Brubacher, M. R. (2016). Distance learning postgraduate student stress while writing a dissertation or thesis résumé. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 32(1), 1–21. Simonson, M., Zvacek, S.  M., & Smaldino, S. (2019). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (7th ed.). Information Age Publishing.

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Spaulding, L. S., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2012). Hearing their voices: Factors doctoral candidates attribute to their persistence. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 16(7). Terrell, S. R., Snyder, M. M., & Dringus, L. P. (2009). The development, validation, and application of the doctoral student connectedness scale. Internet and Higher Education, 112–116. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge University Press. Wikeley, F., & Muschamp, Y. (2004). Pedagogical implications of working with doctoral students at a distance. Distance Education, 25(1), 125–142. Xiao, J. (2017). Learner-content interaction in distance education: The weakest link in interaction research. Distance Education, 38(1), 123–135. Amira El-Soussi is an EdD candidate at the University of Exeter in the UK. Throughout the past 16 years, she has been an English lecturer at higher education institutions in the UAE, namely the American University in Dubai and the American University of Sharjah. Her main research interests focus on writing motivation and pedagogy, project-based learning, teacher identity, and online/ distance learning.  

Chapter 9

A Technology-Enhanced Context: The Case of Higher Education in Lebanon Caroline Akhras

Abstract  Crises are seen as an inflection point for rapid innovation. This chapter describes the impact of a technology-enhanced Teaching/Learning (T&L) context on undergraduate business students amidst the challenging COVID-19 pandemic in Lebanon. With the intent to share international feedback on the way forward in education, the chapter explores the author’s research on higher education students’ technology integration focusing on three factors—perception of innovation, development of the T&L context, and learning-based performance culture. The chapter opens with an assessment of the impact of COVID-19 that unraveled years of brick-­ and-­ mortar-based educational instruction and jumpstarted technology-enhanced T&L. Bright, alert, community-centered, and progressive tech-centric learners, the generational cohort born in the late 1990s, Generation Z, reacted visibly that they were not prepared for a new learning structure. The chapter then discusses Generation Z’s brash resilient challenge to their new academic platform, an immersion in technology, to discuss their performance-based technology-enhanced context. The chapter concludes with recommendations for more comprehensive research in this area. The call is to understand better these learners where technology-­ enhanced T&L context is still novel yet imploding classrooms, virtual, hybrid, and face-to-face across the Middle East and North Africa. Keywords  Performance-based learning · Technology-enhanced teaching · Lebanon · Generation Z · COVID-19

C. Akhras (*) Faculty of Business Administration and Economics, Notre Dame University, Zouk Mosbeh, Lebanon © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_9

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An Overview Resilient and, at times arrogant, higher education learners, like Generations Z, tended to confront challenges head-on, invigorated by openness to new experiences (Akhras, 2019; McLaren & Jandric, 2020). In emerging countries such as those in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), many higher education learners were very much aware that even before the COVID-19 pandemic, there was already high growth adoption in education technology around the world with global educational technology investments reached US$ 76.4 billion in 2019 (Escueta & Holloway, 2016; Raimondo, 2022; U.S.  Department of Education, 2021; World Economic Forum, 2020). In classrooms around the world during the COVID-19 pandemic, these brash Generation Z openly challenged the new educational paradigm. The youth were outspoken. They knew their rights. They voiced their concerns. They demanded fair and equitable technology-enhanced integration across the board. In what follows, the chapter unfolds the author’s reflection on the localized national Lebanese ministerial pedagogy, the generational cohorts, and e-pedagogy. This is followed by her ongoing research on higher education learners’ perceptions of e-pedagogy, e-T&L contexts, and e-culture. The chapter concludes with a recommendation for further research on Lebanon’s performance-based technology-­ enhanced T&L context.

Pedagogy and a New Genre of Learners In Lebanon, local ministerial pedagogy framed the educational sector from nursery up to the doctoral level, governing with rigidity yet a new genre of learners, change catalysts who embraced a unique perspective on pedagogy and e-pedagogy. Studies posited that universities’ sudden and unprecedented lock-down in the COVID-19 pandemic forced many higher education learners to leave classrooms indefinitely and immediately transition into e-T&L contexts (Kadi, 2020; Sabieh, 2020). Youth across Lebanon were challenged by this educational emergency (Bensalah et  al., 2000). In effect, what impacted Lebanese learners was “…a crisis created by conflicts or disasters that have destabilized, disorganized or destroyed the education system, and require an integrated process of crisis and post-crisis response” (Rouadi & Anouti, 2020, p. 14458). Learners were pulled out of an established national higher education system that was last revamped in 2011. The Ministry of Education and Higher Education affirmed that Lebanon was prepared for a radical overhaul of its educational framework, claiming that high school learners in K-12 were fortified with information communication technology (Diab, 2011). The Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MEHE) and the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD) had pooled their joint efforts in Lebanon’s Education Reform Strategy and Action Plan (LERSAP) to reinforce education with technology as the backbone

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with which to strengthen learners with knowledge, character, skills, competencies, and proficiency to face the challenges of the digital world skillfully. However, these institutions did not recognize e-learning as a formal autonomous way to teach. LERSAP 2011 targeted enhancing learners’ creativity, citizenship, and cognitive development through a system that ensured the integration of information technologies within the general education system across the levels of education. The intention was that the national curriculum reform would eventually be mainstream through technology infrastructure digital age content-based curriculum with instructions and assessment guidelines (Awada & Diab, 2016). However, these intentions were not realized (Chang, 2015; Skaf & Habib, 2008), and the learners, the Generation Z cohort born in the late 1990s, had to deal with its consequences in the COVID-19 pandemic. Across higher education classrooms, studies show that most Generation Z thought and performed differently than the generational cohorts who preceded them, the Millennials. In general, Generation Z born in the tech era tended to openly interact in classroom learning, connecting, networking, bridging bonds, whereas Millennials, the generational cohort born in the late 70s to early 90s, tended to remain silent in their classrooms, preferring to work on their own (Fisher et  al., 2020). Millennials tended to be narcissists, not community-centered, and expected institutional solid recognition that had a resounding impact because they craved public broadcasted recognition. Not only did Millennials crave the trophy, but they expected their name to be inscribed and placed on the center stage in the university lobby (Iorgulescu, 2016; Ko & Rossen, 2017). On the other hand, while studies showed that when the Millennial students were in the ‘look at me culture,’ focusing attention on themselves, most Generation Z students were learning, thinking, and performing collectively, creating e-tools and e-projects for the well-being of their community (Akhras & Alam, 2020; Lemov, 2020; McLaren 2016). In 2020 and 2021, e-pedagogy was globally introduced as the new learning modality, an up-close-and-personal modality refashioned and recrafted across the coronavirus pandemic. Higher education administrators have ushered in e-­pedagogy and web-based learning (Kukulska–Hulme et al., 2021). Moreover, in many academic institutions across the board, academic practitioners and researchers understood the nature of the localized educational challenges that needed to be managed to meet learners’ fundamental human rights. The MEHE, CERD, many non-profit organizations, philanthropists, volunteers, educational institutions, lobbyists, unions, teachers, and volunteers stepped up and engaged in keeping educational institutions open, vertically upgrading the hierarchy: Learners were now overloaded with e-pedagogy (Pigozzi, 1999; Sabieh 2021). E-pedagogy embraced a T&L context that diverged from the established brick-­ and-­mortar learning environment in which higher education learners were socialized. In theory, e-pedagogy as a learning design incorporated educational value, quality, and effectiveness of teaching, learning, and assessment actively supported by technology. As such, e-pedagogy was a value education as it reached out online to every learner across a nation irrespective of any barrier; furthermore, e-pedagogy was quality education. It included all good, valuable, and integral activities as

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employed directly and indirectly within the educational context to teach learners. Moreover, e-pedagogy was effective education when learners, educators, staff, and administrators were willing, prepared, and capable online, incorporating a flow of new e-technologies and e-applications into e-classrooms. Generation Z’s face-to-face learning was transformed. Across the nation, across geographic districts, from the city to suburbs, to towns and villages, brick and mortar were rapidly replaced as education went online: Webinars, I-pads, e-books, YouTube, WhatsApp, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Skype-for-Business, Blackboard, Moodle, and Google Classrooms became the online teaching/learning spaces for students of higher education across seven continents—24 h of e-classrooms; as a result, Generation Z were now overloaded with e-tools and e-technology. Practitioners and researchers held that these e-tools and e-technology conditions created the context in which innovation and creativity might flourish online (Ambrose & Wankil, 2020; Fullan, 2013; Wink, 2011), where elements of critical thinking materialize, examples of which are noted below: • To gain self-awareness: the ability to identify perspectives and thinking patterns. • To engage in self-reflection: inquire about the roles played and how one contributed to the situation. • To become an effective communicator, learn how to listen, read, and share meaning. • To efficiently use time/space required for the critical reflection process. • To support one another as leaders/peers and educators/peers by providing modeling, time, and space for engaging in reflection, discussions, and prompting. • To work with different collaborators: to learn how to interact with educators, communities, non-profit organizations, peers/friends, and family.

Localized Reflections The following section explores the author’s research and reflection on personal experiences in e-classrooms across five higher education undergraduate schools across Lebanon, a MENA nation challenged by an educational crisis. One hundred Generation Z went online and shared their stories in a Google Survey about how e-tools and e-technology were incrementally transforming the Lebanese T&L classroom into a performance-based technology-enhanced context. These reflections are evidence from which conclusions and recommendations are drawn.

Innovation The survey results showed that when asked how innovative the new e-pedagogy was, 75.5% of the participants perceived e-pedagogy as innovative. The results also showed that 3.5% stated that the new e-pedagogy was very creative.

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Young, connected, and networking 24/7, the Generation Z firmly believed that they were innovative; their educational framework was modern because it was precisely that of their peers in the United Kingdom or the United States of America—in the post-industrial world: it was electronic classrooms, e-pedagogy in higher education; they learned and studied virtually like their friends and family in the West. Their perception was reflected in how they spoke about innovative e-pedagogy as daily interaction with finance, accounting, and business management professors. For many Generation Z, at face value, the very fact that they had adopted a new online learning modality like it was in the developed world meant that it was innovative e-pedagogy. The results showed that Generation Z understood the role of e-pedagogy theoretically as a learning design incorporating educational value, quality, and effectiveness supported by technology in learning, teaching, and assessment. The data shows that only 21% of them perceived these three factors as part of Lebanon’s e-­pedagogy. For these, e-pedagogy incorporated educational value because it connected every student socially and emotionally, irrespective of barriers. Participants held e-­pedagogy as valuable because it united them; for example, everyone was learning Fundamentals of Management, a sophomore-level course, online from the cities of Sidon to Tripoli; students and teachers were connected and networked across the country 24/7. Furthermore, a few noted that their university e-pedagogy incorporated quality and innovation because their professors made courses online fun: in class, they engaged in discovery learning and intellectual development learning strategies accessing limitless information; for example, they wrote a self-reflective journal online. Another participant added that at her university, they had the best teachers and the best quality applications; for example, on Microsoft teams, participants regularly used breakout rooms (working collaboratively in virtual groups) to improve learning and to reach their goal(s). In short, it seems that participants espoused views on e-pedagogy as an inflection point for them as higher education learners. It helped them re-design a new e-world from the old-established teaching/ learning context.

Teaching/Learning Context Moreover, when asked whether the e-pedagogy sustained, improved, or worsened the T&L context, the raw data drawn from the research study showed that only 37.3% of participants affirmed that e-pedagogy, as practiced, improved the T&L context. In comparison, 34.3% of the participants stated that the e-pedagogy worsened the T&L context, and 28.4% indicated that e-pedagogy sustained the T&L context. A few of the participants stated the following: • “The T&L is pretty much the same; same old, same old T&L but online.” • “It is worse; online learning with no electricity and no internet….”

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On Microsoft Teams, the degree of scaffolding played a decisive role in determining the perception of how bad or how good the new modality was. Generation Z now had new micro-management requirements related to their T&L in e-tasks, e-processes, e-resources, e-teaching tools/applications, e-textbook, and expected input, transformation, and output. Only 37.3% experienced a reasonably seamless transition; 62.7% did not. These reacted to the rapidly integrated but highly inequitable modality. Participants believed that the HEME and the CERD had shortchanged them. Most had attended local K-12 schools that had not aligned core technology with updated international technical standards and had not hired, oriented, trained, and developed teachers capable of integrating technology into the curriculum. Therefore, most participants had neither been formally introduced to e-pedagogy nor been sufficiently trained to effectively integrate the new e-pedagogy they were now forced to apply online. Many were outraged when the COVID-19 pandemic e-pedagogy call was broadcast nationally. Apart from not being formally prepared for e-­pedagogy, most could no longer afford to be educated, whether in public or private schools, no less buy the technological equipment and access the Internet. In this e-pedagogy context, learners had been impacted by multiple environmental moderators in their external milieu: National infrastructure, the standardization of classroom practices, and instructor e-preparedness influenced them. In terms of the national infrastructure, learners had to overcome real-world challenges to integrate the T&L context, given their weak purchasing power parity in an unstable political economy. Even though the infrastructure existed and provided access to the Internet (97%), electricity (93%), Lebanese Higher Education Ministry of Education support (7%), higher education institutional support (72%), and a relatively stable economy (62%), the national infrastructure framework was costly and extremely fragile. Furthermore, most Lebanese participants had to pay in foreign US currency to access the Internet and electricity. Participants shared the following on the national infrastructure: • “We had to make a big decision at home: My parents had to minimize household expenses to put me in university.” • “I cannot afford the e-textbook we are required to have in this course. I have to use the earlier edition of the textbook. My cousin has it.” Moreover, others also had to handle the standardization of classroom practices inside e-pedagogy. Tackling updated rules and procedures (70%), standards and strategies (67%), and classroom teaching approaches (66%) was ongoing. In line with standardizing T&L classroom practices, a few participants said the following: • “Difficult to follow procedures that keep changing.” • “…I called my teacher…he did not answer on campus; I called the Chair…she did not respond either...I sent them both an email. Dr. What do I do? I need to solve my problem.” In the e-T&L context, participants were forced to learn online without any of the tangible structural pedagogical artifacts they had been socialized in; the new

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modality removed a university campus, classrooms, whiteboard, books, copybooks, pens/pencils, and face-to-face contact with administrators, teachers, and classmates. Moreover, participants had complex real-world problems to solve or work toward solving in a new modality. Many of them openly asked for support and reached out. Others self-taught readiness and met the challenges. The third e-pedagogical factor the participants weighed in on was their perception of the e-preparedness of instructors. Participants actively reflected on the role of the instructor as relaying content (71%), effectively teaching (63%), and rigorously assessing (32%). Most of the perceptions focused on the interpersonal role played by the instructor—of the knowledge, engagement, assessment, and motivational factor. In line with instructor e-preparedness, participants shared the following perception: • “Some instructors motivate us much more in e-T&L using simulations…we acted out different scenes online in breakout rooms.…” • “Teachers also use had everyone pitch in pair work, teamwork…fun and synergistic….” These examples clarify that most of the participants perceived that many instructors were e-prepared to efficiently disseminate the appropriate information on Microsoft Teams, manage online teaching, and, thus, effectively reach targeted objectives. In short, it can be said that evidence-based data illustrated harsh constraints dealt with by Microsoft Teams—the new modality itself, national infrastructure, standardization of classroom practice, and e-preparedness of instructors.

Culture The raw data showed that participants believed electronic tools played a significant role in e-pedagogy. Eighty-two percent held that electronic means adopted in the e-pedagogy created a more innovative course performance culture. The descriptive analysis of the data drawn from the participants in response to the survey question “Did electronic tools adopted in the e-pedagogy create a more innovative course performance culture” is reflected in Fig.  9.1. It showed that recorded audio/visual tools helped them better understand the course material. Electronic tools made the lecture richer. A recorded lecture could be revisited as many times as was needed to assimilate complex or straightforward content. Graphs, charts, tables, and videos integrated into the lecture were accessible 24/7 and understood at each learner’s pace. Tech-innate Generation Z aligned e-tools and e-pedagogy. Hyper-informed savvy participants grew up in a technology-infused home and school. Adopting electronic tools in university meant that e-pedagogy had a higher likelihood of creating a more innovative course performance culture. These participants provided a diversified rationale as to why e-pedagogy was innovative in lieu of electronic applications and electronic tools and how their teachers innovatively integrated

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Fig. 9.1  Perception of electronic tools creating innovation in e-pedagogy. (Note: The percentages reflect respondents’ perception of novelty)

electronic applications and electronic tools, adding that e-tools facilitated collaborative research reports and creative assignments or critical analysis to create authentic experiences. Some were encouraged through inquiry-based learning to build on past experiences and knowledge, use intuition imagination, creatively search for information, and correlate ideas, to search for new facts and truths. Another participant held that brainstorming, conflict negotiation, and resolution were collaborative problem-solving tools they applied in their Organizational Behavior course online. As participants simulated in the breakout rooms on Microsoft Teams, many generated alternatives in class, analyzed options, selected procedures, and implemented pathways. The simulation was a new, highly prized learning tool. Moreover, and most importantly, some clarified how e-tools created a culture that was based on routine e-tool/e-application course performance: They asserted that what was most important in this time of change was a human element in the T&L context, knowing that there was someone out there on the teaching/learning cloud, be it for example in the Skype-for-Business virtual session, in the Microsoft Teams classroom, or in Google classrooms. They wanted to be with their classmates and/or instructor on videoconferencing because face-to-face interaction was integral. Thus, the participants created the course culture, not the higher education institution; participants networked it online. As noted earlier, 21.6% stated that the institution was not “authentically innovative.” The participants were innovative. In the challenging COVID-19 pandemic, the participants, as first movers, were trending a new modality in the post-industrial e-classrooms as they created their e-modality. Though 21.6% said that e-pedagogy was not creative at all, they were reaching out to lend a helping hand to those in need. Generation Z was trailblazing, and concerned about fair, equitable treatment. They openly invested in others by pitching in and/or critically challenging others face-to-face or in online communities. Some networked productive collaborative e-learning spaces were course performance cultures. These participants integrated diversified e-tools and applications

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and gained intellectual and emotional support. Within their communities, they grew and developed because they received the social-cultural support they needed. Moreover, inside these e-communities, a few said they received the required constructive feedback and positive encouragement to perform successfully in undergraduate courses, even those requiring critical analysis. In short, drawn from my research study, this chapter shared perceptions of a technology-enhanced teaching context across the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter illustrated that the Generation Z cohort perceived innovation in e-pedagogy and held that e-pedagogy might improve the T&L context if it were appropriately supported. Equally important is that the participants built the culture and the course performance culture to help each other when challenged. The course performance culture was based on human need, collaboration, and support. Their culture was patterned behavior related to their use of e-tools/applications within their community.

Conclusion and Recommendations To conclude, the chapter illustrated a harsh reality with positive, proactive resilience. The education system in Lebanon was still centered on traditional academic skills and rote learning rather than on critical thinking and adaptability, which were the bedrock of millennial knowledge and the modern workplace. Furthermore, e-pedagogy integrated during the COVID-19 pandemic revamped an education system that was also poorly equipped to manage change. In addition, the e-pedagogy in Lebanon had not stepped up as it had in the developed world. Despite these challenging factors, tech-innate, hyper-informed, and savvy, most Generation Z adopted the new learning modality as their norm because it was an authentic reality: The new e-pedagogy imposed was at face value Western and modern. The majority knew that the imposed localized new e-pedagogy sustained or worsened the old established T&L context. Nonetheless, Generation Z stepped up, networked, and trail-blazed e-communities that were supportive. Their web-based course performance culture was personal platforms; they were an e-success story, empowered (Prensky, 2018) and resilient (Schlender & Tetzeli, 2015). Despite transitioning into e-pedagogy without sufficient orientation, training, and development, many successfully adopted the new e-pedagogy because Generation Z was self-taught, integrating e-tools to create a more innovative course performance culture. They incrementally engendered and nourished their own space. Therefore, there is much to learn from Generation Z in lieu of technology-­ enhanced education and innovation. First of all, educational practitioners need to learn more about aligning the Generation Z e-communities because communities play a relevant role in Generation Z’s innovative T&L context. Second, as many other developed nations have done, it is time to learn how to openly empower youth, to delegate authority to todays’ higher-education learners so that Generation Z participate in developing school-based settings and university-based settings. It is time to select delegates to sit on school/university curriculum committees to participate

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in design thinking to arrive at pragmatic pedagogical solutions in the post-industrial COVID-19 pandemic digital age, trending in a new setting, creating accountability, moving forward constructively with a Lebanese e-pedagogy built at home with learners on board.

References Ambrose, S., & Wankil, K. A. (2020). Higher education’s road to relevance: Navigating complexity. Routledge. Akhras, C., & Alam, A. S. A. (2020). A hope impact in MENA: Business leadership and job performance. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24(1), 898–906. Akhras, C. (2019). The MENA business context and indigenous assessment. The International Journal of Recent Technologies and Engineering, 7(685), 1069–1074. https://www.ijrte.org/ wp-­content/uploads/papers/v7i6s5/F11830476S519.pdf Awada, G., & Diab, H. (2016). Lebanon’s 2011 ICT education reform strategy and action plan. Cogent Education, 3(11), 245–286. Bensalah, K., Sinclair, M., Hadj Nacer, F., Commisso, A., & Bokhari, S. (2000). Education in situations of emergency and crisis: Challenges for the new century. World education forum: Education for all 2000 assessment. UNESCO. Chang, N. (2015, May 13). Global School Rankings: Interactive maps show standards of education across the world. The Independent. Diab, H. (2011). Towards modernization: Rescue plan, projects, achievement of the Ministry of Education & Higher Education. Typopress. Escueta, M. & Holloway, S. (2016). Investment in technology across the globe: Where profit meets purpose (Entrepreneurship and Policy Working Paper Series). Columbia School of International and Public Affairs. https://sipa.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/25222_SIPA-­ White-­Paper-­Global-­Ed-­Tech-­web.pdf. Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Hattie, J. (2020). The distance learning playbook, grades K-12: Teaching for engagement and impact in any setting. Corwin. Fullan, M. (2013). Stratosphere: Integrating technology, pedagogy, and change knowledge. Pearson. Iorgulescu, M. C. (2016). Generation Z and its perception of work. Cross-Cultural Management Journal, 18(01), 47–54. Kadi, S. (2020, March16). Coronavirus puts online learning in Lebanon to the test. The Arab Weekly. https://thearabweekly.com/coronavirus-­puts-­online-­learning-­lebanon-­test Ko, S., & Rossen, S. (2017). Teaching online: A practical guide. Routledge. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Bossu, C., Coughlan, T., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Gaved, M., Herodotou, C., Rienties, B., Sargent, J., Scanlon, E., Tang, J., Wang, Q., Whitelock, D., & Zhang, S. (2021). Innovating Pedagogy 2021: Open University Innovation Report 9. The Open University. http:// www.open.ac.uk/blogs/innovating Lemov, D. (2020). Teaching in the online classroom: Surviving and thriving in the new normal. Wiley. McLaren, P. (2016). Pedagogy of insurrection: From resurrection to revolution. International Academic Publishers. McLaren, P., & Jandric, P. (2020). Postdigital dialogues on critical pedagogy, liberation theology and information technology. Bloomsbury Publishing. Pigozzi, M.  J. (1999). Education in emergencies and for reconstruction: A developmental approach. UNICEF. Prensky, M. (2018). Real world project: Empowerment education. The Global Future Education Foundation Institute. https://bit.ly//2MLKqFq

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Raimondo, G.  M. (2022). Remarks by U.S.  Commerce Secretary Gina M.  Raimondo at the National Governors Association Plenary Session on K-12 Computer Science Education. U.S.  Department of Commerce. Retrieved from https://www.commerce.gov/news/ speeches/2022/01/remarks-­us-­commerce-­secretary-­gina-­m-­raimondo-­national-­governors-­0 Rouadi, N., & Anouti, M. (2020). The Online Learning Experiment in the Intermediate and Elementary Schools in Lebanon during the Coronavirus (COVID 19) Crisis. Online Learning, 7(7), 14466–14485. Sabieh, C. (2021, February 5). We want magic. Keynote speaker. Aspiration, innovation, and challenges in the classroom of today. TESOL Kuwait. https://tesolkuwait.net/ConferenceGate Sabieh, C. (2020, October 24). Partnering tools to optimize a teaching/learning environment during COVID 19 lockdown. Featured speaker. Tools of the trade. Gulf TESOL. Schlender, B., & Tetzeli, R. (2015). Becoming Steve Jobs: The Reckless Visionary Leader. Penguin. Skaf, A., & Habib, Z. (2008). Lebanon. In I. V. S. Mullis, M. O. Martin, J. F. Olson, D. R. Berger, D.  R. Berger, D.  Milne, & G.  M. Stanco (Eds.), TIMSS 2007 Encyclopedia: A Guide to Mathematics and Science Education Around the World (Vol. 1, p.  361). TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2007/PDF/T07_Enc_V1.pdf U. S. Department of Education. (2021). Digital government strategy report. https://www2.ed.gov/ digitalstrategy/index.html Wink, J. (2011). Critical pedagogy: Notes from the real world. Pearson. World Economic Forum (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has changed education forever. This is how. The World Economic Forum. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/ coronavirus-­education-­global-­covid19-­online-­digital-­learning/ Caroline Akhras is Associate Professor of Business Management at Notre Dame University. An international business management practitioner-researcher, she has presented her research work, keynoted, and chaired conference sessions globally; is a journal editor, contributor, and reviewer of global textbook and online educational platforms; and plays an instrumental role as educator, university standing committee member, student advisor, and mentor.  

Chapter 10

Blended Academic Communication On Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning in Digital and International Virtual Academic Cooperation (DIVA) Anselm Böhmer, Götz Schwab, and Illie Isso Abstract  Even before the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, virtual mobility became of the utmost importance for higher education as an answer to the new requirements and conditions under the pandemic. In 2020, an international project of research and teaching collaboration started to foster virtual mobility of students through blended mobility and blended learning. This chapter evaluates resources, practices, high-impact activities, and platforms used in these specific contexts of collaboration on intercultural education. The chapter first describes the global situation and the educational challenges of the project (1). From there, it derives the research question (2) and explains the state of research by referring to the current literature (3). After outlining the resulting theoretical framework of the project (4), our data and the methodology used for analysis are described (5). When presenting the core results, we also discuss the findings on technical-enhanced teaching and learning. Keywords  Higher education · Blended mobility · Blended learning · Digital practices · Intercultural collaboration · Platforms

Introduction Even before the COVID-19 pandemic struck the world, globalization and transnational collaboration among researchers and students had been promoted by many stakeholders (e.g., Allen, 2014; Rosyidah et  al., 2020; Strand & Emstad, 2020). Thus, virtual mobility became of the utmost importance for higher education as an A. Böhmer (*) · G. Schwab · I. Isso Ludwigsburg University of Education, Ludwigsburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_10

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answer to the new requirements and conditions under the pandemic. In 2020, an international project of research and teaching collaboration started to foster virtual mobility of students through blended mobility and blended learning – called “Digital and International Virtual Academic Cooperation” (DIVA). Participating universities from Israel, Australia, and Germany focused on intercultural learning. In particular, teaching formats such as digital learning, peer learning, virtual cooperation formats for students and teachers, etc. were used. Based on the findings of this project, this chapter examines how such formats can be used in university teaching under pandemic conditions and what potential can be gained for future post-pandemic teaching in higher education. In order to do so, this chapter is going to evaluate resources, practices, high-impact activities, and platforms used in these specific contexts of collaboration on intercultural education. It includes a description of the contexts and practices such as digital lecture series, students’ collaboration in virtual projects and peer teaching as well as blended counselling in a virtual environment. Based on theoretical principles of telecollaboration and digitalization in higher education distance learning and digital media literacy (Schwab & Drixler, 2021; Waldman et  al., 2019), the chapter presents core findings of the evidence-based research in this project. Therefore, it uses data of students’ reflections, presentations of digital teaching, and quantitative findings of the digital outcomes of DIVA.  It concludes with concrete suggestions for how the ideas presented can be implemented, modified, and adapted for different contexts in order to support instructional environments for the future by providing evidence-based recommendations for asynchronous and synchronous online engagement and interaction. Hence, the present chapter offers the opportunity of an informed and sound application of technology-­enhanced teaching and learning with regard to the challenges of intercultural environments.

DIVA – Challenges of Virtual Learning and Real-Time Technical-enhanced teaching and learning has been of relevance for international development and research in higher education for a long time. But with COVID-19, digital devices did not only foster enhancement, but even provided the basic infrastructure of teaching in general. Digital platforms and tools turned out to be the only way of “keeping on track” with lectures and seminars. This increased the importance of the DIVA project which had been planned before the pandemic and intended to connect students and scholars from Israel, Australia, and Germany. The project was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). It ran from 2020 to 2021 and aimed at strengthening existing networks and building new connections between national and international partners in teacher education. Our objectives with DIVA were to promote digital lecturing, create innovative didactical approaches for current curricula, implement blended mobility, and develop and strengthen intercultural awareness and competencies through

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international collaboration. In this vein, the overarching goal of DIVA was to build communities of practice between all participants  – students and scholars (DAAD, 2020). DIVA was divided into two sub-projects: on the one hand, different collaborations between Ludwigsburg University of Education (LUE) and Kibbutzim College of Education (KC) Tel Aviv and, on the other hand, an emerging cooperation between LUE and Charles Darwin University (CDU). While the first part is based on a longstanding cooperation between the participating researchers, the latter was newly set up for this project. As an interdisciplinary project, we cover content areas such as pedagogy, foreign language teaching (mainly KC/LUE), or general education (mainly CDU), due to the fact that – from our understanding – educational challenges of the twenty-first century can no longer be restricted to single subject areas or institutions. In the context of the DIVA project and the topic dealt with here, some results will be presented in the following sections. • Students’ conceptualization of cultural differences. It was shown that students predominantly interpret culture as a social construct and that students identify cultural competence as a key competence for educational work in schools. • Learning and cooperation of student teachers. Here it became clear that the organization of group work – especially in an international and virtual context – is a challenge that should not be underestimated – e.g., the time difference (of hours between Ludwigsburg and Darwin) must be taken into consideration and included in the plan. It has also been shown that digital communication tools such as WhatsApp or Padlet are taken for granted by the students and that collaboration – or the prospect of collaboration – with international students in particular – asks for a high degree of motivation. • Innovative use of technology. Video conferencing tools such as Zoom or wonder. me have been proven to be beneficial. Digital document management via GoogleDocs and Etherpad or digital tools for surveys and short reflections (e.g., Flipgrid) also were found to be very practical and functional. • Emerging cooperation between students and teachers. As mentioned above, the organization of online teaching, digital meetings, deadlines, etc. is a challenge for both students and teachers. • Postgraduate students already have strong digital skills and yet there are still gaps. These gaps were particularly evident in relation to the theoretical foundations covered in the context of digital and especially intercultural education in DIVA. A lack of reflection on the part of the students regarding the underlying strategies of the digital tools was also evident. Shortcomings also emerged in the possible outcomes of the didactic process. • Impulses for pedagogical implications: illuminating gaps in the accessibility to education. Especially power-critical and cultural-critical perspectives in the context of different educational systems seem to offer great potential  – also with regard to future projects.

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Research Questions As COVID-19 occurred in early 2020, the project was at its beginning. Thus, virtual collaboration and distance learning fell in one. Both issues found their answers in different designs of instructional methods, technology integration, student and teacher achievements, assessment and evaluation, professional development, and support systems. Therefore, the research question arose: How does technology-­ enhanced teaching and learning develop and what role does digital equipment play for communication within the project? In particular: • Did the digital equipment support or obstruct the project processes? • How did students deal with the digital equipment? How did lecturers accommodate to it? • In what way was intra- and international communication affected by digital and pandemic conditions? • Finally, how can informed decisions be made for the future from the shared experiences?

Literature Review It is increasingly common that traditional learning is substituted by digital learning and technological work systems, i.e., “the implementation of new technologies and digital work systems, contribute effectively to productivity of human capital and to the work environment” (Abdulrahim & Mabrouk, 2020, p. 303). By this, three different forms of interaction in digital learning are described: “Learners can interact directly with the instructor, with other learners, or with content materials” (Stein & Graham, 2014, p. 55). This leads to the understanding that asynchronous experiences, synchronous, and those of learning on campus should be combined in order to “motivate and support students in engaging with digital and asynchronous materials” (Petronzi & Petronzi, 2020, p. 505). But also factors of potential barriers can be identified for digital learning: instructional processes, community concerns, or technology issues might limit the learning outcomes (Jokinen & Mikkonen, 2013). The following paragraphs will demonstrate current research findings on the issues.

Digital Environments As Damşa and Lange (2019) point out, learning cannot be exactly determined with regard to teaching, planning, and assignments. The authors rather clarify that education depends on structuring the environment and choosing tools that support and

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lead the learners and their activity (Damşa & Lange, 2019). In doing so, the authors suggest that individual interests, needs, accesses to different dimensions of complexity, and their deeper understanding can be better addressed in so-called “learning environments” (p. 13). Here, a specific shift form transmission of knowledge over to support of active and interactive learning can be seen (Means et al., 2013). Different models of environments for digital learning are described. Learning Management Systems (LMS) can be understood as digital learning environments as they present learning material and organize learning processes (Ng & Ong, 2018). In detail, asynchronous and synchronous courses need to be differentiated as well as traditional courses in present and those in hybrid or digital-only environments (Skylar, 2009). A synchronous activity allows more spontaneity and by this promotes collaboration, whereas students might feel under temporal pressure or face problems through technical interruptions. An asynchronous activity allows more flexibility of time and space and therefore might allow for more thinking about answers and helps creating a learner-centered environment (Means et al., 2013). As group work often appears to be helpful for learning interactions, the digital environment should offer those scenarios as well in order to “create a learning environment in support of active learning pedagogy and collaborative problem solving” (Baepler et al., 2014, p. 228) as previously mentioned. When it comes to learning in environments of blended mobility, different skills and competencies are needed here – especially those that support learning in intercultural fields, with regard to individual as well as group-specific learning settings (Rajagopala et al., 2020). Seven categories of (physical) learning space quality have been described by Baepler et  al. (2014): “engagement, enrichment, flexibility, effective use, student learning outcomes, room/course fit, and confidence” (p.  233). Hence, it can be assumed that these factors are also valid for virtual spaces, as the categories are more about individuals within the learning environment and their interaction on physical parts of the environment. As students are often quite familiar with digital devices, the environments these tools create should be familiar to them, too, and appropriate digital devices should be at hand in order to co-construct the digital learning environment (Anthonysamy et al., 2021). Therefore, the forms of understanding, studying, and producing outcomes are related to the environment and the habits of moving around in it (Boozer & Simon, 2020). In constructing those learning environments, students get access to many learning resources, can interact with peers and lecturers, receive feedback, and thus generate individual forms of learning (Tubagus et al., 2020) As such, lecturers become facilitators and moderators of the emerging processes. If lecturers support online learning activities, students are enabled to show “higher-order thinking skills.” Nonetheless, learners need to step forward in self-regulating skills in order to move on within the given digital environment (Anthonysamy et al., 2021). But how to create such an environment? Jokinen and Mikonen (2013) identified nine themes to conceptualize teacher’s views on planning blended learning programs: “collaborative planning; integration; student group; face-to-face teaching;

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online learning; learning activities; teaching and learning methods; learning in and about work; and confirming competences” (p. 526). With regard to creating a learning environment, this means that active and social interactive aspects need to be planned by the teachers and performed by them for the digital learning environment. As Abdulrahim and Mabrouk (2020) have shown, learning in digital environments helps most of the students learn well and as expected. Some however, especially when in socio-economic distress or with distinct special needs, may not access digital technology with the same ease or the same opportunities as other students. It is certainly a major remaining issue that social aspects, societal or institutional factors that obstruct in-depth learning in digital environments are often neglected. Therefore, “we argue that a contextual perspective on open technologies in learning is required in relation to achieving the goals of personal empowerment and societal transformation” (Chib et al., 2019, p. 52).

Tools and Practices According to a number of researchers, interaction with peers and the instructors as well as to interact with and on the given tools and platforms is a very important aspect of supporting digital learning processes and motivates students in their educational endeavors. “Many researchers have reported that a higher level of interaction with peers and instructors led to better performance among students” (Anthonysamy et al., 2021, p. 37). One important toolbox for digital learning practices has been found in using social media. Students are said to be able to bridge formal and informal learning by those tools (Chib et al., 2019). Another sample of tools can simply be found in the presentation of an appealing and easily accessible performance in familiar spaces (Veil, 2018) and of familiar content. As research on blended learning found this makes it easier for students to follow and improve learning processes and outcomes (Shantakumari & Sajith, 2015). Often, students’ dealing with information seem to combine “traditional” and “digital” forms with using online tools and the resulting forms of interacting with peers and lecturers (Noskova et al., 2021). Nonetheless, traditional tools such as e-mails are still the most popular (Pérez-Navío et al., 2021). Students need methodological support in their autonomy focused work (Noskova et al., 2021). Therefore, a “backward design process” is recommended in order to construct the right learning path from its goal downward to assessments and from there to single (and small-sized) activities (Stein & Graham, 2014, p. 77). As “the culture of the students directed the culture of the learning concerns” (Veil, 2018, p. 20), tools are not only a matter of technology, but also of culture. Therefore, digital learning tools have to be reflected on their cultural responsivity and their impact on the learning processes of the students. Tools are important means to support a student’s learning process, but also to facilitate the lecturer’s planning task: Learning outcomes are to be measured in order to provide information for further planning (Tubagus et al., 2020).

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With regard to learning analytics, useful tools and practices are listed as follows: Dashboards and visualization methods and tools, tools of learning analytics including educational data literacy to gain evidence, technological bridging of instructional design and learning analytics, tools and practices of combining different data types, models, resources, and analytics methods, and finally the vendors of analytic systems (Ifenthaler et al., 2021). In addition, the authors also require ethical standards, an issue that has become of more and more importance over the years. Finally, it comes into sight that not only specific tools and practices are needed, but even more understanding of pedagogical rationales and the evaluation of learning impact of different technologies and their tools (Podorova et al., 2019).

Knowledge, Skills, and Competencies Blended learning shows relationships of learning strategies and cognitive skills, meta-cognitive skills, peer scaffolding and tutoring, and the use of e-portfolios (Kim, 2019). Consequently, it can be said that students need to use devices and tools as well as apply critical thinking. Based on these findings, it becomes obvious that skills, environments, tools, and culture are interconnected even if they are just separated into different paragraphs for analytical reasons. In order to impart, represent, and construct knowledge in digital learning environments, “abstraction, encapsulation, modularity, hierarchy, typing, parallelism and preservation” (Belichenko et al., 2017, p. 263) are recommended. Not only in Blended Learning is it important to support students toward more autonomy (Jokinen & Mikkonen, 2013), it is also suggested to strengthen self-regulated abilities in digital learning, so that learning performance intensifies, and subjective as well as non-academic outcomes emerge (Anthonysamy et al., 2021). So, to achieve these outcomes, Self-regulated Learning Strategies are of great importance (Chuang et al., 2013). They can be practiced by rehearsal, organization, time management, peer learning, and effort regulation while using cognition, metacognition, motivation, environmental, and behavioral components (Anthonysamy et al., 2021). “Self-­ regulation is not a person’s behavior or characteristic. Instead, it is a skill that can be developed and mastered” (p. 33). The authors suggest that critical thinking can be achieved by careful and intense examination of online learning materials. With regard to social inequity, some authors believe in an anti-poverty effect of digital skillsets, as they are suggested to “help to close the poverty related attainment gap” (Coker, 2020, p. 134). One reason the author mentions is the aspect that digital skills acquired in an online course (Skylar, 2009) could put learners in a position that is beyond “physical and temporal boundaries” (Skylar, 2009, p. 138). As discussed in the previous section (section “Digital environments”), this might not always be the case. On the other hand, students are able to pace their learning in watching instructional videos as often as they need for their learning process, which might be helpful especially in large and very diverse groups (Ying & Yang, 2017). However, some students mentioned having issues when using too much time for this

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form of asynchronous learning and perceived a certain amount of injustice with regard to the workload given to the working groups (Ying & Yang, 2017). “Generally, epistemologies emphasizing knowledge acquisition are here linked with pedagogical designs wherein knowledge transmission scenarios prevail and learning environments aim at information transfer” (Damşa & Lange, 2019, p. 14). The authors describe learner-centered, multi-perspective, participative, and environmental consequences for those scenarios. Notwithstanding, it becomes obvious that more training on information technologies is required for teaching this way (Pérez-Navío et al., 2021).

Theoretical Considerations As can be seen students combine new knowledge with prior knowledge in order to achieve their own insights, knowledge, and competencies (Stapa et al., 2015) while relating to environments and other persons (Damşa & Lange, 2019), we decided for a constructivist approach that considers students as active participants in the on-­ going learning process. Our theoretical framework is based on the aesthetics of subjectivity (Foucault, 1988). This approach takes subjectivity as the result of the interaction between what can be seen as the appellation from others, the diapositives of society and power, and the self-construction (i.e., aesthetical practices) of the individual. We also take subjectivity as a situational (Haraway, 1988) result of subjectivity in order to create identity (Butler, 2011, 2008). This leads to an aesthetic of education (Böhmer, 2012) conceptualizing education as a socializing performance within the digital environment of instructional design.

Research Design, Data Collection, Analysis, and Results Our reconstructive qualitative research design uses different data and approaches for hermeneutical processes of interpretation and – from time to time – deconstruction (Derrida, 1995) of processes, mindsets, and the construction of learners’ identities. Five seminars and a lecture series were held in the summer semester of 2021 in cooperation with three universities – one Israeli, one Australian, and one German. All seminars and lectures were given online as the pandemic did not allow any face-­ to-­face teaching. Therefore, students’ outcomes such as presentations, products, assignments, portfolios/written papers for reflection, Etherpad conversations, Flipgrid videos, and protocols of an open office setting online were collected. In total, 68 students and nine educators (lecturers, research assistant, student assistants) participated – in the winter semester 20/21, six students (CDU), 20 students (KC), and 42 students (LUE) were involved; in the summer semester 21, there were six students (CDU), 27 students (KC), and 35 students (LUE) who actively participated in DIVA. The method we use is content analysis (Mayring, 2015). It is based on the notion of categorization. These categories are developed deductively (from

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theoretical framework) and inductively (from data). In order to reconstruct, the empirical material is investigated along those categories, their internal structure and their emerging propositions. Here we present a sampling of our findings with regard to the goal of our chapter: We evaluate resources, practices, high-impact activities, and platforms used in our collaboration on intercultural education.

Students’ Resources As a learning resource, many of the students mentioned their motivation, which was caused by the match between seminar content and individual interests of the students: “I chose this seminar because it sounds very interesting and promising but also my critical attitude towards the capitalist system made me to choose” (EW 23). Also, individual interests of crossing departments’ borders were mentioned: “With my quite different educational background, I never got the opportunities or enough time to develop my approaches on elective subjects or seminars from different faculty departments” (EW 23). Issues that occurred during the seminars lowered motivation and by this the resources for collaborating with other students: Some mentioned technical issues (open office 2 and 5) and others mentioned their group-intern difficulties with workload and commitment of single students (open office 8).

Students’ Digital Practices Differences in digital practices between suggested behavior and performance could happen: “[He – Australian student] turned off his camera during the entire video meeting” (OO2,1 Australian student). But in other cases, interactive practices seemed to be appropriate: “The language communication takes place in German. The cameras are switched on, the atmosphere is respectful and relaxed at the same time” (OO5, German student). Also, group processes came into the focus of students’ reflexive practices while online: “Problems with the group organisation are also discussed, as one student […] does not report. The time differences (approx. 6.5 h) between Germany and Australia are also discussed and the difficulties they cause” (OO2). Students also showed their rising awareness of the role of digital tools: “I think that the use of these cross-cultural digital tools can help us build more empathy and broaden our perspectives and help us have a better understanding of other countries and cultures,” (Eng2, Israeli student).  Here and in the following paragraphs we use codes to mark the origin of the quotations. These codes mean: OO  – minutes of open office hours for student counseling; Eng  – English written reflection; EW – course reflection done by an inter-university group of students; Anonymous – anonymous feedback at the end of the courses. 1

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As reported by many students, practices in order to present the group product were intensive, wide, and varied: “We decided to record a podcast of our discussion because we thought that each of us had so much to say to the proposed questions that we wanted to share that. We left the meeting with the task that each of us answers the questions with cues first so that we would have a more guided discussion. We also created the Mind-map in that sitting” (EW127, German student). Additionally, the request was articulated to get some other didactical support: “like stated above, synchronous sessions would be a great way of learning and I think this is especially true for this topic” (Anonymous48, Australian student). Nonetheless, students took the opportunity to develop their digital competence: “The pandemic has not only shown the importance of having skills and competences when it comes to the use of digital media, but it has also broadened the horizon with regards to its benefits” (Eng 2, German student).

Students’ Intercultural Practices Participating students seemed to be very aware of their intercultural situation: “In my opinion, it is an intercultural skill to behave appropriately when visiting a different country because every country has its own culture involving its own rules” (EW129, German student). Also, language was seen as a matter of interculturality: “In our group, we talked English the whole time because otherwise not all of us would have been able to follow the conversation. During our group meetings, I had an aha moment because they reminded me of my group work with the Israelis in last year’s seminar. It is always fun to get to know people from all over the world” (EW 129, German student). Another student from the aforementioned course referred to language in the following way: “I do not think there were any big problems regarding our communication. Most of the time we understood each other, if not, we would just ask if the person meant this and that or if they could repeat what they said one more time” (Eng1, German student). In her written feedback on the course content and the role of language (teaching) and interculturality, a German student wrote: “Looking back, the DIVA collaboration made clear to me that teaching a second language should always be connected with teaching cultural awareness” (Eng2). Also, space and time are important aspects of intercultural collaboration. One participant wrote: “It was an exciting collaboration. The meeting of different cultures and age groups made the work unique. Due to different time zones and seasons of the year, our meetings were sometimes very funny” (EW127, German student). The same person mentioned respect as a further category of intercultural practice: “Culture is a very beautiful and unique thing. I think that learning about different cultures and trying to understand them is very beneficial for everyone. Even when you don’t understand someone and their culture, it is important to respect it and maybe educate yourself to try and understand” (EW127, German student).

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With regard to her or his own knowledge, skills, and competencies, another student claimed: “After this course I probably won’t be culturally competent. But this course has given me an awareness on my role in culture and towards other cultures as well as a sensibility towards navigating everyday life regarding interculturalism. And I think that is a good start” (EW129, German student). In a similar vein, a student from another course stated: “The concept of collaboration with a different culture or country altogether is fascinating and highly efficient in raising tolerance, interpersonal relations with foreign students, and getting people together around a common goal” (Eng2, Israeli student).

Platforms The following mobile technologies, platforms, and online devices were used in the course of our collaboration. Sometimes these tools were suggested by the respective lecturers, but quite often it turned out that the students brought up new applications and ideas in their transnational cooperations and discussions: • • • • • • •

Etherpad in Moodle for topic discussion. WhatsApp to organize students in small groups. Zoom or wonder.me to talk to each other for longer periods of time. Padlet to discuss topics and collect information. Google docs or Google slides for collaboration. LearningApps.org to collect information during meetings or develop activities. Genially, Mentimeter, Popplet, or Canva for other student-generated activities.

Conclusion The first important finding regarding the learning environments (section “Digital environments”) is that most students had no particular problems using the digital platforms, tools, and environments for their learning. They sometimes even searched for more digital offers and challenges. This is one aspect of following one’s own interests and needs. Learner-centered practices were used and gave students flexibility in learning and provided new experiences in inter- and transcultural learning. Thus, they could implement their different skills and competencies. Nearly no information about socio-economic distress or special needs could be identified in the analyses – apart from only one statement on income disparity. The review on tools and practices above (section “Tools and practices”) also helped identifying that some form of interaction was missing: interaction with (digital) tools that were available depending on individual affluency and, to some extent, with the lecturers, too. Social media was frequently used and other messenger services, platforms as well. Students’ combination of “traditional” and digital tools did

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not seem to cause real problems; nearly everybody was interested in and able to use the provided tools. Furthermore, the aspect of “backward design processes” revealed great significance; wherever possible, students could access their material easier and by this presented rich and multiform products of their group process. Tools of learning analytics have not been used and therefore are neither mentioned in the students’ reflections nor in this discussion here. Regarding knowledge, skills, and competencies (section “Knowledge, skills and competencies”), most of the participants showed a number of learning strategies and cognitive skills, peer scaffolding and tutoring, and the e-portfolios used in the learning environments; only meta-cognitive skills could be identified. Many reflections documented the self-regulated abilities in digital learning of the participants. Only a few students dropped out (around four in total); reason for leaving could not be asked for afterward, but possible explanations could be that the very form of only online learning may have put them off. As other studies have shown, taking (online) classes during the pandemic caused several obstacles for many students which often led to a higher drop-out rate than in face-to-face teaching (e.g., Cinar et al., 2021). However, most of our students were certainly able to pace their learning and make big steps forward in the learning content of the courses and acquiring social and intercultural competencies as well. Finally, knowledge transmission in the processes can be presumed because of the counselling talks with staff and the quality of most of the final products. Having found and discussed these aspects, we here present some of our recommendations for asynchronous and synchronous online engagement and interaction with a special focus on blended academic communication: 1. Communication can be facilitated in face-to-face, synchronous, or asynchronous meetings. However, most important is the right mixture, a sensible ratio of the various constituents. We refrain from providing any set figures, but it should be mentioned that this “mixture” depends on the individuals and the group processes. Therefore, at least one faculty member needs to keep in contact with the students at all times. 2. Interaction with peers and lecturers (section “Digital environments”) is important, especially for those students who are not so familiar with online engagement and interaction. Thus, peer-to-peer and student–lecturer interaction is needed on a regular basis. 3. Flexibility in creating a learning environment, using different tools and platforms and referring to different epistemologies (and their pedagogical consequences), is crucial for digital learning. Here, too, regular “blended communication” in asynchronous and synchronous forms is pivotal. 4. Critical thinking occurred across all courses as our data revealed clearly. Such thinking processes need fostering and room for individual freedom. Two aspects lecturers need to facilitate continuously, even if learning has to be seen as complex, situational, and thus more pragmatic process of ambiguity and opacity. In light of these findings and considerations, digital learning provides a vast array of opportunities for learning and personal/individual development  – and it

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certainly needs intense and flexible modes of communication of all those involved. One of the student participants said it best: “We were able to work together and collaborate on ideas and opinions – everyone had a platform to be heard. This way of collaborating is essential in teaching to let everyone have a turn and give insight because we can all learn from each other” (Eng 2, Israeli student, written reflection).

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Jokinen, P., & Mikkonen, I. (2013). Teachers’ experiences of teaching in a blended learning environment. Nurse Education in Practice, 13, 524–528. Kim, K.  T. (2019). The structural relationship among digital literacy, learning strategies, and core competencies among South Korean college students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 19(2), 3–21. Mayring, P. (2015). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse. Grundlagen und Techniken (12th ed.). Beltz. Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M. (2013). The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Teachers College Record, 115, 1–47. Ng, B., & Ong, A. K. (2018). Neuroscience and digital learning environment in universities: What does current research tell us? Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 18(3), 116–131. Noskova, T., Pavlova, T., & Yakovleva, O. (2021). A study of student’s preferences in the information resources of the digital learning environment. Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, 14(1), 53–65. Pérez-Navío, E., Ocaña-Moral, M.  T., Martínez-Serrano, M., & d. (2021). University graduate students and digital competence: Are future secondary school teachers digitally competent? Sustainability, 13(8519), 1–14. Petronzi, R., & Petronzi, D. (2020). The Online and Campus (OaC) model as a sustainable blended approach to teaching and learning in higher education: A response to COVID-19. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(4), 498–507. Podorova, A., Irvine, S., Kilmister, M., Hewison, R., Janssen, A., Speziali, A., Balavijendran, L., Kek, M., & McAlinden, M. (2019). An important, but neglected aspect of learning assistance in higher education: Exploring the digital learning capacity of academic language and learning practitioners. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 16(4), 1–21. Rajagopala, K., Firssova, O., Op de Beeck, I., Van der Stappen, E., Stoyanov, S., Henderikx, P., & Buchem, I. (2020). Learner skills in open virtual mobility. Research in Learning Technology, 28, 1–18. Rosyidah, N., Matin, M. M., & Rosyidi, U. (2020). Internationalization in higher education: university’s effective promotion strategies in building international trust. European Journal of Educational Research, 9(1), 351–361. Schwab, G., & Drixler, N. (2021). Telekollaboration und Digitalisierung in der Hochschullehre: Interkulturelles Lernen durch virtuellen Austausch im Studium zukünftiger Lehrerinnen und Lehrer. In D. Elsner, H. Niesen, & B. Viebrock (Eds.), Hochschullehre digital gestalten in der (fremd-)sprachlichen LehrerInnenbildung. Inhalte, Methoden und Aufgaben (pp.  235–254). Narr Francke Attempto. Shantakumari, N., & Sajith, P. (2015). Blended learning: The student viewpoint. Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research, 5(5), 323–328. Skylar, A. A. (2009). A comparison of asynchronous online text-based lectures and synchronous interactive web conferencing lectures. Issues in Teacher Education, 18(2), 69–84. Stapa, M.  A., Ibrahim, M., & Yusoff, A. (2015). Engaging vocational college students through blended learning: Improving class attendance and participation. Procedia  - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 204, 127–135. Stein, J., & Graham, C. R. (2014). Essentials for Blended Learning. A Standards-Based Guide. Routledge. Strand, M. K., & Emstad, A. B. (2020). Developing leadership by participating in principal professional learning communities (PPLCs) and the added value of transnational collaboration. Research in Educational Administration & Leadership, 5(2), 485–516. Tubagus, M., Muslim, S., & Suriani, S. (2020). Development of learning management system-­ based blended learning model using claroline in higher education. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 14, 186–194. Veil, H. (2018). Examining the need for culturally responsive digital learning. Waikato Journal of Education, 23(2), 17–23.

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Waldman, T., Harel, E., & Schwab, G. (2019). Extended telecollaboration practice in teacher education: Towards pluricultural and plurilingual proficiency. European Journal of Language Policy., 11(2), 167–185. Ying, A.  N., & Yang, I. (2017). Academics and learners’ perceptions on blended learning as a strategic initiative to improve student learning experience. MATEC Web of Conferences, 87(04005), 1–3. Anselm Böhmer is Professor of General Education at Ludwigsburg University of Education, Germany. He is Head of the General Education Section. His main research topics are transnational migration, poststructuralist perspectives on education, and social differences. Current research projects investigate transcultural learning in international comparison, digitalization in higher education, and the effects of social differences in educational organizations.  

Götz Schwab is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the Institute of English, Ludwigsburg University of Education, Germany. He worked as a secondary school teacher before starting a career at the university where he received his PhD in 2008. He is currently head of the Institute and coordinates a number of transnational projects (e.g., DIVA, proPIC, ETP, digTED@EU).  

Illie Isso is Research Assistant at the Ludwigsburg University of Education (LUE) since April 2021 and is responsible, among other things, for project management in the DAAD-funded IQ-Lab project. Previously, he worked at LUE as an assistant on the DIVA and EUGEN projects. He is also a doctoral student in History at the Ludwigsburg University of Education. His research interests include history, education and social inequality, diversity, inclusion, and migration.  

Part III

Factors that Impact Student and Teacher Success

Chapter 11

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Course Design and Instructional Material Development Jacqueline S. Stephen , Nadia Glover Barnett, and Awatef Ahmed Ben Ramadan Abstract  Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) continue to receive significant attention in higher education across the United States. As such, this chapter defines DEI as establishing a shared, fundamental understanding of each term, identify how these terms are interrelated, and making meaning of each term’s applicability to teaching and learning. In addition to defining DEI in the context of an instructional setting, this chapter discusses and recommends effective pedagogical practices that instructors could use to promote DEI in their classroom setting, regardless, of course, delivery medium (i.e., face-to-face, online, and blended). Naturally, this includes guidance on the design of a student-centered course syllabus as foundational to integrating DEI into an instructional setting. Instructional design strategies and best practices for developing and delivering instruction are identified to promote and cultivate DEI in an instructional environment. DEI is critical to student engagement, motivation, community building, and a sense of belongingness. Keywords  Equity · Diversity · Inclusion · Teaching and learning · Higher education

Introduction The shift in ethnic and racial demographics at colleges and universities across the United States (U.S.) is well-documented in the literature (Espinoza et al., 2019). In 2020, several events across the U.S. (i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic, racism, J. S. Stephen (*) Department of Leadership Studies, College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] N. G. Barnett · A. A. Ben Ramadan Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_11

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discrimination, and inequities) prompted the need for higher education leaders to assess and monitor their approaches to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) (Clayton, 2021). Prior to 2020, elements of DEI were weaved into college and university strategic plans through targeted initiatives (Kezar & Fries-Britt, 2020; Kezar et al., 2019; Williams et al., 2005). However, the crises of 2020 led colleges and universities to reexamine existing initiatives and reconsider different approaches to DEI, including an emphasis on DEI in teaching and learning (Dowling et al., 2021; Evans & Knepper, 2021; Fuentes et al., 2021). As such, many resources have been developed and shared with instructors to reiterate the relevancy of DEI. However, it is often left to individual instructors to integrate elements of DEI into their practices, while receiving minimal or limited guidance on application and impact on the student learning experience. Furthermore, it is assumed that instructors understand DEI terminology and how these terms relate to an instructional setting. However, DEI terminology is broad because such terms are used in many other contexts, which necessitates a clarification of how these terms should be understood and applied in an instructional setting, specifically, the instructional (i.e., face-to-face or virtual classroom) setting. Hence, this chapter defines diversity, equity, and inclusion, explains the relationship among these terms, and discusses the specific implications of DEI for teaching and learning. Furthermore, this chapter emphasizes pedagogical practices and instructional design strategies to promote and cultivate DEI at the course level.

Defining Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Higher Education The increasing focus on diversity in higher education has led the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) to develop a strategic framework for implementing diversity, equity, and inclusion practices. Four central principles outline their model: (1) establishing a welcoming environment that meaningfully encourages student learning; (2) attention to the cultural differences of students and how these lived experiences enhance the classroom; (3) intentional focus on the intellectual and social development of all students; and (4) applying institutional resources deliberately to support student learning and student contribution in the organizational processes (Ford et al., 2021). This charge to academic institutions of higher education seeks to demonstrate the value of diversity through meaningful integration of inclusive efforts and enhancing the academic quality of the institution. The main tenet of this framework is to offer colleges and universities strategic actions to enhance the collaboration of actions from all stakeholders that support the integration commitment to diversity and demonstrations of such through inclusive and equitable actions. Some institutions tackle diversity from a structural standpoint, such as the number of underrepresented students on campus and/or the number of racial and ethnic groups represented in the student body in addition to the socioeconomic status. Ozturgut (2017) notes that institutions that fail to achieve diversity as a strategic goal reflects their inability to create a sense of institutional ownership for diversity and a lack of understanding that diversity is an evolving multidimensional concept

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involving political, administrative, and cultural frames. Diversity is the invitation or intention of unbiased actionable behaviors. Therefore, these behaviors would align with what we see as equitable and inclusive actions. Diversity is often defined based on markers of difference and sameness that exists within and between groups (Garcia et al., 2020). Examples of diversity in higher education include race, ethnicity, age, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, immigration status, marital status, language, physical appearance, first-generation status, military service, and mental and physical abilities. The demonstration of equity and inclusion includes their definitions and the behaviors associated with commitment to action. Equity is the fair and just treatment of all people in institutional processes, procedures, and distribution of resources while removing barriers that prevent the participation of all individuals (Garcia et al., 2020). This is a core human need and can be critical to the physical, mental, and emotional health of university students, instructors, and staff. Bernstein et al. (2019) note that equity is the absence of systemic disparities between groups with various levels of underlying social advantage/disadvantage, placing the outcome at the system or organizational level rather than the group or individual level. Inclusion is cultivating an environment where diverse groups can fully participate and contribute, authentically bringing traditionally excluded individuals and/or groups into processes, activities, and decision/policy-making in a way that shares power (Garcia et al., 2020). Inclusion differs from diversity in focusing not only on the compositional mix of students, but on how every student is incorporated into the institution’s processes and culture (Bernstein et al., 2019, p.396). For instructors, the key here is to focus on including every student while not making everything the same for all students.

Implications for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education In respect to identifying DEI in the context of higher education, we must note that there are negative influences counter to inclusive excellence. This brief overview offers the justification for continued evaluation of DEI-proposed and implemented practices across college campuses. Hindrances to DEI in the classroom include implicit (unconscious) biases, microaggressions, and privilege. Social psychology research shows that we are all vulnerable to biased judgments that operate without our awareness and can impact our interactions and decision-making (Killpack & Melon, 2016). Implicit or unconscious bias includes stereotypes, prejudiced attitudes, and beliefs that influence judgments and behaviors. Implicit biases of instructors directly impact classroom interactions and impede efforts toward creating an inclusive environment. This can include instructor expectations of diverse students by creating a less than welcoming social and emotional climate leading to reduced performance; instructors making inaccurate judgments about student abilities based on subjective evaluations; and lastly, implicit bias can negatively impact student

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success through nonverbal communication, or microaggressions, that can go beyond the classroom (Killpack & Melon, 2016). Microaggressions can occur in all types of higher education institutions. They are defined as brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative slights and insults to the target person or group, which can be layered in that they can attack one’s race, gender, class, sexuality, language, immigration status, phenotype, accent, or surname (Franklin, 2016). These intentional or unintentional behaviors can be classified into three forms: micro assaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations. Micro assaults are explicit verbal slurs or more overt actions, while microinsults and microinvalidations are subtler, subvert actions such as insensitivity or taking for granted the experiential reality of a person (Franklin, 2016). Examples of microaggression can include complimenting nonwhite students on their use of the English language, assuming all students have access to computers, assuming the gender of any student, scheduling exams or assignments on religious or cultural holidays, or denying student experiences by questioning the validity of the information that was disclosed. Privileges are elements of our identities that provide unrequested advantages, leading to a sense of belonging within a social system. These elements can be derived from demographic and social identities such as race, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic or immigration status (Killpack & Melon, 2016). Examples can include students who have family members that have earned college degrees; students who do not have to work and can participate in extracurricular activities or research internships that may support their marketability postgraduation; students who may be invited to work with instructors on projects or laboratory studies, and the ability to gloss over or ignore the socio-political climate events. Instructors need to examine their unacknowledged advantages and highlight the disadvantages to create equitable classroom environments. Instructors can impact student experiences with diversity and equity as institutional stakeholder by implementing inclusionary classroom practices. Knowledge of the background, cultural artifacts, and social identities of students is important for creating an inclusive classroom where students can experience a sense of belonging (Forde & Carpenter, 2020). As the institutional landscape continues to change, DEI practices in the classroom can support the development of culturally competent and globally conscious students.

 ffective Pedagogical Practices for Traditional E Face-­to-Face Courses AAC&U (2009) has encouraged intercultural competence across the nation’s higher education institutions by promoting a value rubric used to measure the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to assess different higher education pedagogy and syllabi cultural contexts. National pedagogy associations and scholars recommend that

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instructors consider DEI factors (i.e., instructional setting and content, students’ background, instructors’ characteristics) prior to course design and development (Fink, 2013; American Psychological Association [APA], 2013). The course syllabus has been recommended as the ideal source for instructors to infuse DEI principles (APA, 2013; Bain, 2004; Richmond et  al., 2019). Pedagogical methods, teaching practices, and a description of the classroom setting should be explained in the course syllabus to ensure instructors are not inadvertently promoting exclusion and inequity (Fuents & Shannon, 2016). The syllabus aims to promote a student-­ centered instructional setting. As such, the language used in the syllabus should emphasize the role of a student as an active participant in the learning process. Active learning approaches help students develop better study habits and foster their sense of belonging as a class member (Eddy & Hogan, 2014). Instructors should gradually consider cultural consciousness in their syllabi and pedagogical methods to build on their success. Instructors should be encouraged to engage in professional development activities, such as self-reflection and critique, to assess the impact of integrating DEI principles into their syllabi and pedagogical approaches (Fuentes et al., 2021). Recommended practices for integrating DEI into classroom settings have been provided to guide instructors in course design, development, and teaching practices (NASEM, 2018; Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009): • Engage in an introductory discussion with students. • Refer to students by their preferred names and learn how to pronounce names. • Be accessible through various methods (i.e., phone, videoconference, office hours, email). • Maintain eye contact when engaging with students. • Use positive and professional language, avoiding offensive terms or expressions. If you use fictional names or examples in discussions or assignments, use names from diverse cultures. • Connect the course content to the students’ individual experiences and interests. • Develop and choose pedagogical methods that symbolize diverse identities and multiple views and perspectives. • Use multiple approaches to demonstrate and teach course content using a mix of textual, audio, and visual methods. • Interrelate course material and learning outcomes to the students’ lives and interests. • Motivate students to share their views and perspectives in the classroom and in their assignments. • Ensure that the underrepresented identities are equally represented in your curricula—for example, guest speakers, case studies, assigned readings, etc. • Demonstrate an interest in students’ academic success and guide them to succeed in and out of the academic setting. • Use multiple approaches to engage students in instructional activities and measure their learning.

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• Promote transparency by clarifying grading criteria and providing ongoing feedback on performance. • Provide multiple opportunities for students to give feedback on the course and assess your teaching (i.e., mid-course teaching evaluation and end-of-course evaluation). • Assign projects that make students feel connected within their communities and cultures.

Implications on Course Syllabus Design An academic course syllabus is an institutional requirement that communicates the teaching and learning experience to students. It provides the foundation for the student learning outcomes, including the methods, policies, materials, and assessments that will be used as part of the learning process (Fornaciari & Lund Dean, 2014). As such, a syllabus is considered a legal document that regulates and shapes the interrelations between the instructor and the students by providing information on standards and expectations and roles and responsibilities for both students and instructors (Nilson, 2016). Hence, this shared document should also be used to embed principles of DEI, shifting from the traditional syllabus to a more inclusive syllabus. An inclusive syllabus differs from a traditional syllabus. An inclusive syllabus emphasizes the use of specific language and strategies to foster an inclusive and welcoming learning environment. An inclusive syllabus includes policies and resources that help to ensure all students are supported in their learning (Finley, 2021). For example, an inclusive syllabus does not make assumptions about students’ access to resources and services provided through the university. An inclusive syllabus provides information on all resources and services any student may need throughout the course, such as counseling, tutoring, research assistance, advisement, financial aid, etc. Recommended practices to guide instructors in embedding DEI principles into the design of a course syllabus to support a diverse, equitable, and inclusive learning environment: • Use a positive and engaging tone when writing the syllabus content to ensure students view themselves as learning partners. • Include a brief bio in the syllabus that speaks to your experience with the course topic. • Provide your office hours and availability through various methods (i.e., email, phone, office). • List required textbooks and other learning tools, along with information on costs, why these specific resources were selected, how they will be used to support student achievement of the course learning outcomes, and where students can purchase these items.

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• Include learning material written by authors of diverse backgrounds to offer multiple perspectives. • Highlight how the curriculum is relevant and linked to students’ individual experiences. • List and clearly explain course assessment measures (i.e., rubrics, checklists, and grading scale). • Provide a course summary with all deadlines. • Include a statement on accessibility and accommodation and provide information on how to navigate the process of completing relevant documents. • Include a statement on observance of additional religious holidays beyond those observed by the college or university and accommodate students accordingly based on the student handbook. • Include a statement on accommodations that may also be necessary for other students (i.e., students participating in university-sponsored events). • Include clear information about student resources (writing centers, tutoring services, library, and lab hours).

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Online Courses Many of the previously mentioned practices and implications also apply to online courses. Teaching in an online learning environment involves additional areas of consideration aimed at promoting and cultivating DEI.  Whereas enrollment in a traditional face-to-face course may be limited to residential or commuter students, enrollment in an online course is not constrained by geographic location. The student demographics of an online course are likely to be broader. In 2020, more than 60% of students enrolled in online programs in higher education reported that they had never even visited the physical campus (Venable, 2021). While this percentage does not reflect those students whose programs shifted to an online format during the COVID-19 pandemic, it does highlight a trend in student enrollment in online courses at institutes of higher education that may not be physically accessible to them. As such, this shift commands additional consideration centered on diversity, equity, and inclusion in an online course.

Embracing Diversity in an Online Course Since the student population in an online course has the potential to be even more diverse than a course offered on-site, embracing diversity in an online learning environment has become critical. A multitude of constructs of diversity can exist in any learning environment. Culturally responsive teaching is one approach that can be used to address diversity in an online course (Gay, 2018). Differences in the

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interpretation of diversity in a globalized online learning context can often lead to contrasting expectations between instructors and students. Students from diverse cultures learn differently (Merriam, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978), and therefore, an approach to teaching that connects students’ cultures, languages, and life experiences is fundamental to student success in an online course. Online instructors must be willing to embrace different approaches to course design, activity and assessment development, and course delivery practices to embrace and accommodate the myriad of cultural and life differences that online students bring with them to the virtual classroom. Literature on diversity in online courses initially emerged from studies involving Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and has since expanded to address constructs of diversity in asynchronous and synchronous online learning environments in higher education (Broderick, 2020; Tualaulelei et al., 2021). Consequently, these efforts have resulted in informed practices that can be incorporated into an online course as a means of embracing diversity, such as: • Survey students prior to the course start date to learn more about who they are as individuals (e.g., past learning experience, work experience, interests, goals). Equipped with this information, instructors can customize some elements of the learning experience to meet the diverse needs of their students. • Lead and participate in an introductory discussion forum to encourage students to get to know the instructor and fellow students. Students can be prompted to share information about themselves, their interests, geographic location, etc. Students can use the instructor’s initial post to the discussion as an example. • Incorporate diversity in instructional materials by selecting textbook resources, reading materials, and videos representing diverse ideas and incorporating examples and challenges from diverse settings. Utilize a variety of formats (i.e., audio, video, print) to deliver course content. Ensure print-based materials are also available in electronic format for students who may not have access to bookstores or postal delivery services. • Define the online course format and how students should expect to engage with the course content, their peers, instructor, and any other university or college support system or resource (e.g., library, tutor, etc.). Students can interpret a course labeled as “online” or “blended” differently. Some students may not feel as confident or comfortable initiating communication with others. Create opportunities that encourage students to engage and interact in academic settings positively. • Orient students to the online course. Do not assume that every student will be familiar with the system being used to deliver the online course. • Clarify the roles and responsibilities of students and instructors. Such roles and accompanying responsibilities can vary from culture to culture. Establish ground rules for student-to-student communication in online collaborative activities (i.e., group work, synchronous and asynchronous discussions, and email).

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• Vary the assessment types that are used in the course to evaluate student achievement of the learning outcomes. Provide a general grading rubric or examples to illustrate how a student’s work will be evaluated further. • Provide opportunities for online students to make connections between their new learning and existing knowledge about their physical environment (i.e., workplace, city, country, and region). Assignments should tap into students’ diverse backgrounds to encourage them to draw from their past experiences, values, and perspectives as they make sense of their new learning.

Promoting Equity in an Online Course An instructor cannot embrace diversity in an online course without also deliberately promoting equity. Equitable online course design commands additional considerations beyond those necessary in a face-to-face course. Digital equity is a factor that instructors need to consider from the initial planning of the course all the way through to course implementation. Digital equity has been defined in the literature as a condition in which everyone can access information technology, such as hardware, software, and Internet connectivity (National Digital Inclusion Alliance, 2019; Resta et al., 2018). The global COVID-19 pandemic further illuminated the need for digital equity (McKenzie, 2021; O’Keefe et al., 2020). Student access to technology and comfort in the use of technology to engage in learning are essential. However, designing and delivering an equitable online course involves other additional areas of consideration, such as, academic, pedagogical, psychological, and social (Kelly, 2019; Stark & Kelly, 2019). Technological considerations involve an online student’s ability to have continuous access to the technology used for the course and also to be able to use the technology selected by an instructor effectively. The following are some examples of considerations: • Inform students prior to the course start date of hardware and software requirements, including information on how to communicate with the technology support systems available through the university or college. • Help students troubleshoot basic technological issues at the course level and guide them to additional technology-related resources. • Identify all hardware, software, and applications students will be expected to use in the course syllabus. • Seek alternatives to some software and applications if a student faces a barrier to access or availability of a required technology component. For example, many popular and widely used technologies, such as YouTube, Zoom, and Google, are unavailable in some countries. Another example is the lack of high-speed Internet access from one home to the next, regardless of geographic location.

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Academic considerations encompass a students’ readiness and preparedness to effectively learn online. Mechanisms of human agency (e.g., self-directed learning, self-regulated learning, online learning self-efficacy) are fundamental and should be emphasized in initiatives aimed at preparing students for the online learning environment (Stephen et al., 2020; Stephen & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2021). It cannot be assumed that just because a student is enrolled in an online course, they are prepared and ready to effectively learn online. The following are some examples of considerations: • Guide students to any prerequisite orientation programs offered through the university or college and require completion. • Orient students to the online course. A recorded screencast made available to students at the start of each week or module can demonstrate how to navigate the material, submit an assignment, locate information, and use resources/services to complete the assigned work successfully. • Help students become more self-directed by encouraging them to engage in problem-solving and seeking help when needed (i.e., librarian for research, help desk for technology issues, tutors, and advisors). • Help students become more self-regulated by encouraging them to establish learning goals and engaging in ongoing monitoring and reflection on their learning. Pedagogical considerations involve decisions made by the instructor-centered on online course design, teaching practices, and interactivity. While these decisions can often be discipline-specific, there are some commonalities that instructors can address related to pedagogy. The following are some examples of considerations: • Provide content, if possible, in a downloadable format that students can access and view offline. For example, consider sharing a lecture’s audio and video file, or even the transcript, since different file types require less bandwidth. This can also support student learning preferences. • Use course materials and examples that are representative of the students. Involve students in identifying relevant examples. • Present course content in a meaningful structure that supports the learning process. • Avoid overloading the online course with material that is not aligned with the student learning outcomes. • Create opportunities for students to engage with the instructor, peers, and other resources and services available to support student learning, such as a librarian or a tutor. Psychological and social considerations encompass students’ feelings of integration, belongingness, relevance of learning outcomes, and connectivity. A student’s sense of belonging and integration at various levels across the university is essential to their persistence (Rockinson-Szapkiw et  al., 2019). The following are some examples of considerations:

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• Use student names when providing feedback on an assignment or interacting with students in asynchronous or synchronous activities. • Interact with students as a class, in small groups, or one-on-one. Interactions can be informal or formal, asynchronous, or synchronous. • Schedule student-centered office hours to encourage virtual drop-ins and accommodate those who are in different time zones. • Encourage student interaction with other students enrolled in the same program. • Invite graduates or past students as guest speakers to interact with students on a selected topic.

Cultivating an Inclusive Online Learning Environment Effectively embracing diversity and promoting equity in an online course relies upon an inclusive online environment that is conducive to learning. Meeting the needs of students, whether enrolled in an online, blended, or face-to-face course, is challenging, and there is not one single approach that can be used to effectively produce the expected results for all. The flexibility of an online environment provides instructors with additional opportunities to customize an online course further. Universal design for learning (UDL) provides a framework and guidelines that instructors could use to design, develop, and deliver an inclusive online course, with an emphasis on the critical need to provide students with multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression (CAST, 2018; Harshbarger, 2020; Peuler & Bartlett, 2020). The following are a few recommendations for cultivating an inclusive online learning environment: • Respond in a timely manner to student emails, messages, and requests for virtual meetings. • Check-in periodically with students through email or scheduled one-on-one meetings to review progress. • Provide student participation and interaction guidelines in course spaces that emphasize etiquette and mutual respect for differing perspectives and experiences. • Administer an anonymous mid-point survey to learn about students’ perceptions of the online course climate. • Allow for flexibility to major deadlines and required virtual synchronous meetings to accommodate various cultural, spiritual, or national events. • Provide timely and useful feedback in a supportive tone that directly addresses the student by name. Consider providing feedback through different formats (i.e., audio, video, and text). • Review course content to ensure it is free from stereotypes and biases. • Involve students in curating or locating course materials representative of their contexts.

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Conclusion As the institutional landscape continues to change, DEI practices in the classroom can support the development of culturally competent and globally conscious students. Instructors can impact student experiences with diversity and equity as institutional stakeholder by implementing inclusionary classroom practices. Knowledge of students’ background, cultural artifacts, and social identities is important for creating an inclusive classroom where students can experience a sense of belonging (Forde & Carpenter, 2020). Instructors should be encouraged to continually update teaching content and practices by collecting feedback from students and peers and conducting different evaluation techniques to assess teaching and learning activities (Tung, 2020). The components of a syllabus should be aligned with the curriculum, clearly articulated, and written at a level that all students can understand (Fink, 2013). It is recommended that colleges and universities, with input from instructors and students, establish a checklist of DEI principles that should be reflected in course syllabi. In addition to the checklist, student course evaluations should incorporate items centered on elements of DEI. Student feedback can be used to identify gaps and inform professional development. Given the dynamic nature of DEI, it is critical that instructors engage in purposeful annual professional development to guide pedagogical practices and address identified gaps in DEI to ensure an academic environment that is conducive to learning by all students. As universities and colleges continue to offer academic courses in different formats and aim to attract students and instructors from around the world, strategic plans and imperatives must consider the implications of DEI on teaching and learning practices.

References American Psychological Association (APA). (2013). APA guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major: Version 2.0. http://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/undergrad/index.aspx Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U). (2009). Intercultural knowledge and competence VALUE rubric. https://www.aacu.org/value/rubrics/inquiry-­analysis Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Harvard University Press. Bernstein, R. S., Bulger, M., Salipante, P., & Weisinger, J. Y. (2019). From diversity to inclusion to equity: A theory of generative interactions. Journal of Business Ethics, 167, 395–410. Broderick, M. (2020). Representation in 21st century online higher education: How the online learning culture serves diverse students. In Socioeconomics, diversity, and the politics of online education (pp. 165–183). IGI Global. CAST. (2018). Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org Clayton, T.  B. (2021, January 13). Refocusing on diversity, equity, and inclusion during the pandemic and beyond: Lessons from a community of practice. Higher Education Today. https://www.higheredtoday.org/2021/01/13/refocusing-­diversity-­equity-­inclusion-­pandemic-­ beyond-­lessons-­community-­practice/ Dowling, T., Metzger, M., & Kools, S. (2021). Cultivating inclusive learning environments that foster nursing education program resiliency during the Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Professional Nursing, 37(5), 942–947.

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Eddy, S. L., & Hogan, K. A. (2014). Getting under the hood: How and for whom does increasing course structure work? CBE—Life Sciences Education, 13(3), 453–468. Espinoza, L. L., Turk, J. M., Taylor, M., & Chessman, H. M. (2019). Population trends and educational attainment. In Race and ethnicity in higher education: A status report. American Council on Education (ACE). https://www.equityinhighered.org/ Evans, M. D., & Knepper, H. J. (2021). Building inclusive PA classrooms: The diversity inclusion model. Teaching Public Administration, 39(1), 84–106. Fink, L. D. (2013). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing college courses. Jossey-Bass. Finley, D. (2021, April 28). Inclusive syllabus: Suggestions for creating a syllabus that is respectful, welcoming, and inclusive. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psychology-­teacher-­network/ introductory-­psychology/inclusive-­syllabus Ford, L., Goodspeed, S., Groh, C., Ikram, A., Jortani, H., Wohlfarth, D., & Zoeller, D. (2021). Practicing cultural humility to build inclusive excellence. The Journal of Faculty Development, 35(2), 35–41. Forde, T., & Carpenter, R. (2020). Situating inclusive excellence in faculty development programs and practices. The Journal of Faculty Development, 34(3), 1–5. Fornaciari, C. J., & Lund Dean, K. (2014). The 21st-century syllabus: From pedagogy to andragogy. Journal of Management Education, 38(5), 701–723. Franklin, J. (2016). Racial microaggressions, racial battle fatigue, and racism-related stress in higher education. The Journal of Student Affairs at New York University, 12, 44–55. Fuentes, M. A., & Shannon, C. R. (2016). The state of multiculturalism and diversity in undergraduate psychology training. Teaching of Psychology, 43, 197–203. Fuentes, M.  A., Zelaya, D.  G., & Madsen, J.  W. (2021). Rethinking the course syllabus: Considerations for promoting equity, diversity, and inclusion. Teaching of Psychology, 48(1), 69–79. Garcia, S., McCoy, T., & Nguyen, H. (2020). The paradox of inclusion and exclusion. In Burrell Storms, S. L, Donovan, S. K., & Williams, T. P. (Eds.), Teaching through challenges for equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) (pp 35–44). : Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group. Gay, G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. Teachers College Press. Ginsberg, M. B., & Wlodkowski, R. J. (2009). Diversity and motivation: Culturally responsive teaching in college. Jossey-Bass. Harshbarger, D. (2020). Universal Design for Learning (UDL). Journal of Online Higher Education, 4(1), 51–57. Kelly, K. (2019). Peralta equity rubric bibliography of research citations supporting research criteria. Peralta College. https://web.peralta.edu/de/files/2019/08/Peralta-­Equity-­Rubric-­ Research-­for-­Criteria-­Aug-­2019.pdf Kezar, A., & Fries-Britt, S. (2020). Navigating a campus racial crisis: Building capacity, leading through trauma and the recovery process. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 52(2), 89–93. Kezar, A., Fries-Britt, S., Kurban, E., McGuire, D., & Wheaton, M. M. (2019). Speaking truth and acting with integrity: Confronting challenges of campus racial climate. https://vtechworks. lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/90753/SpeakingTruthActingIntegrity.pdf?sequence=1&i sAllowed=y Killpack, T. L., & Melon, L. C. (2016). Toward inclusive stem classrooms: What personal role do faculty play? CBE – Life Sciences Education, 15(3), 1–9. McKenzie, L. (2021). Bridging the digital divide: Lessons from COVID-19. Inside Higher Ed, 2, 2021. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/content/ bridging-­digital-­divide-­lessons-­covid-­19 Merriam, S.  B. (2007). Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing: Perspectives from around the world. Krieger Publishing Company.

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). (2018). The integration of the humanities and arts with sciences, engineering, and medicine in higher education: Branches from the same tree. The National Academies Press. https://www.informalscience.org/ sites/default/files/24988.pdf National Digital Inclusion Alliance. (2019). Definitions. Retrieved from https://www.digitalinclusion.org/definitions/ Nilson, L. B. (2016). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors. Wiley. O’Keefe, L., Rafferty, J., Gunder, A., & Vignare, K. (2020). Delivering high-quality instruction online in response to COVID-19: Faculty playbook. Online Learning Consortium. https://files. eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED605351.pdf Ozturgut, O. (2017). Internationalization for diversity, equity, and inclusion. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 17(6), 83–91. Peuler, M., & Bartlett, M. (2020, April). Universal design for learning in online environments. In Society for Information Technology & teacher education international conference (pp. 588–593). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Resta, P., Laferriere, T., McLaughlin, R., & Kouraogo, A. (2018). Issues and challenges related to digital equity: An overview. In J. Voogt, G. Knezek, R. Christensen, & K. W. Lai (Eds.), Second handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education (pp. 1–18). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­319-­53803-­7_67-­1 Richmond, A. S., Morgan, R. K., Slattery, J. M., Mitchell, N. G., & Cooper, A. G. (2019). Project syllabus: An exploratory study of learner-centered syllabi. Teaching of Psychology, 46(1), 6–15. Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., Holmes, J., & Stephen, J. S. (2019). Identifying significant personal and program factors that predict online EdD Students’ program integration. Online Learning, 23(4), 313–335. Stark, I., & Kelly, K. (2019). Peralta equity rubric. Peralta Colleges. https://web.peralta.edu/de/ equity-­initiative/equity/ Stephen, J. S., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2021). A high-impact practice for online students: The use of a first-semester seminar course to promote self-regulation, self-direction, online learning self-efficacy. Smart Learning Environments, 8(1), 1–18. Stephen, J. S., Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., & Dubay, C. (2020). Persistence model of non-­traditional online learners: Self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-direction. American Journal of Distance Education, 34(4), 306–321. Tualaulelei, E., Burke, K., Fanshawe, M., & Cameron, C. (2021). Mapping pedagogical touchpoints: Exploring online student engagement and course design. Active Learning in Higher Education, 23, 1–15. Tung, N. T. (2020). A case study of curriculum development: Backward or forward/central design? Social Sciences, 10(1), 18–28. Venable, M.  A. (2021). 2021 Trends in online student demographics. BestColleges.com.https:// www.bestcolleges.com/research/online-­student-­demographics/ Vygotsky, L.  S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Williams, D. A., Berger, J. B., & McClendon, S. A. (2005). Toward a model of inclusive excellence and change in postsecondary institutions (p. 49). Association of American Colleges and Universities. Jacqueline S. Stephen is an Assistant Professor, Director of The Office of Distance Learning, and Instructional Designer, in the College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. Her research has examined factors associated with persistence of undergraduate online students, with much of her research focusing on self-regulated learning, self-directed learning, online learning self-efficacy, and high-impact practices for online teaching.  

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Nadia Glover Barnett is an assistant professor in the Department of Human Services and Psychology in the College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. She serves as the Graduate Program Coordinator of the Masters of Science in Human Services. Her research interests involve human behavior related to academic advising, assessment practices and innovation, student affairs, organizational culture, wellness, along with diversity, inclusion, and equity with leadership.  

Awatef Ahmed Ben Ramadan is an assistant professor at the Mathematics, Science, and Informatics department in College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. Awatef has worked as a physician and a supervisor of an immunization program in a community health center in Tripoli/Libya, researcher and lecturer at the Family and Community Medicine Department from 2003–2008, and a graduate research assistant at the Missouri Cancer Registry and Research Center.  

Chapter 12

Responding to the New Normal: Strengthening Student Identity Development Jo-Ann Netto-Shek

Abstract  Student identity is an important aspect of development for both the learner and for learning. Oftentimes, identity development is sacrificed for content goals in university courses. However, the inventory of twenty-first-century competencies reminds us that more needs to be done to help students embrace their future roles. In this chapter, I present findings from a study on the development of reader and global identities in university students. Quantitative and qualitative data reveal that student identities are developed through engagement in literacy activities like collaborative online discussions, social media, and digital book talks. Findings from the study suggest that identity development is possible when introduced explicitly in tasks through course content. The findings suggest that by strengthening student identities in courses, we may be inching forward toward responding to the new normal. Keywords  Identity construction · reader and global identities · university learners

Introduction There is little doubt that COVID-19 has significantly disrupted life, being, and living as we know it for the world (Guppy et  al., 2022). Its management of it has resulted in utilizing largely digital tools that accommodate restricted movement. Remote digital interaction, for a time, was the mainstay solution for quarantines and lockdowns. As a result, the need to be adept in both digital literacy and communication for work and learning became an almost immediate priority.

J.-A. Netto-Shek (*) National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_12

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Beyond the global migration to digital spaces in place of face-to-face interaction, last year is also the creation of third spaces (Gutiérrez et al., 1999; Prensky, 2001) to better meet the needs of learners. In education, these spaces were the new normal. The new normal has meant shifts in three ways for teaching and learning in higher education institutions. The first shift was the type and quality of instructional facilitation in online instructional interactions. Research in face-to-face interactions is much more developed, as one would expect given its familiarity, but it has shaped online and blended instructional facilitation frameworks (Czerkawski & Lyman III, 2016). The second involves incorporating a wide range of teacher and learner identities in both face-to-face and online interactions (Lowenthal & Dennen, 2017). This expanded notion of facilitator and learner identities has provoked thought as to how these may be maximized to situate learners as leaders and architects of their own learning. The third pertains to the development of ecologies of learning (Williams et al., 2011) in programs and courses so as to enable a multitude of outcomes. This has meant less linearity of delivery and greater attention to enabling lateral thinking for mastery. In addition, ecologies of learning speak of the use of technology as interdependent tools in courses that increase student autonomy and engagement (Czerkawski & Lyman III, 2016).

Identity Construction and Literacy Tools In institutes of higher learning and teacher preparation, where the development of professional qualities is a priority (Tatto, 2015), understanding student identities is of particular interest. Current understandings of identity are that it is socially constructed rather than “a unified, cohesive essence belonging to an individual whose core unfolds or develops in stages (Erickson, 1968)” (as cited in McCarthey & Moje, 2002, p. 229). As such, identity construction is shaped by “the experiences individuals [they] have had in their families, their previous experiences with institutions such as schools, as well as the larger social and political frameworks” (Briggs et al., 2012; MacFarlane, 2018; McCarthey & Moje, 2002, p. 230). Furthermore, because identity construction is argued to be relational and situated in relationships, they can be unconscious, conscious, or strategic depending on who individuals choose to align or contrast with (Law, 2014). Importantly, power has been identified to play a role in how identities are expressed or enacted. In classrooms, positionings by teachers, peers, and others have also been found to impact the development of student identities (Wortham, 2004). Another key idea is that individuals have a hybrid of identities that are fluid and flexible (Tomlinson, 2010) “depending on the spaces they are in and the relationships they enact within those spaces” (McCarthey & Moje, 2002, p.  230). Gee (1996) explains that identities are “culturally situated, mediated and constructed” as

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individuals move from relationships, groups, and spaces. Consequently, identities are “clusters of stories” (Anzaldúa, 1996) that represent individuals to themselves and inform others about them. From the perspective of identity construction, literacy tools are expressions of identity and “constructed in relation to others’ perceptions (Tatum, 1997).” They are described as “moments in identity construction and representation” and teaching literacy are “acts of supporting and challenging learners’ identities and providing spaces for learners to explore how their identities are hybrid, and how hybridity is stabilising” (McCarthey & Moje, 2002, p. 233).

University Students: Stage Development and Identities Developmentally, the postsecondary and university years are described as “transitional and novel” that “has the potential to evoke feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness” (Faye & Sharpe, 2008, p. 190; Law, 2014; MacFarlane, 2018). We know that at this stage, students personal identities are forged by many first-time and new experiences such as leaving home, learning and experimenting with new skills, and forming new friendships. Importantly, as students’ personal identities mature, academic motivation and purpose intensify (Tinto, 2012). Against this psychosocial backdrop lies the need to strengthen metacognitive decision-making since these stage-related experiences require students to make efficacious decisions about life goals, personhood, and relationships. Identity development is a component of metacognitive knowledge (Flavell, 1979) where positive learner and learning identities have been found to enable purpose, autonomy, and self-improvement (Simon, 2004). The process of learner identity development is also described as fluid and personal to the learner (Tomlinson, 2010). At university, students begin to adapt to their roles as university students by relating to themselves as learners, their learning experiences, interaction with peers and, professors, and mentors. Research has found that this process is linked to academic performance (Lounsbury et al., 2005; Maaranen & Stenberg, 2020). Learning identity, on the other hand, speaks to the attitudes and beliefs of students toward learning and their abilities to learn. Kolb and Kolb (2009, p. 1) argue that this is “the heart of the learning way.” Interestingly, they point out that “positive learning identities are less about past learning successes or failures but about self-­ attributions about successes or failures.” Dweck (2000) explains that learning identities can be fixed or incremental and that peers play an important role in shaping learning identity. Universities of today attend to more than learner and learning-focused identities. Today, universities include within their repertoire of student outcomes related to identity development that prepare students for the roles they will fill in the future.

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Reader and Global Identities Conversations about reader identity development are usually focused on school rather than university contexts. Furthermore, Vetter et  al. (2017) observed that reader identity development is either misunderstood, devalued, or ignored in academic contexts. Wagner (2020) explains that reader identities are the ideas that people have of themselves as readers. These identities include a sense of confidence about reading, reading preferences and reading experiences. Reader identities have been argued to form in childhood when children draw upon concepts, patterns of speech, behaviors, and actions of people they interact with and associate them with texts they read. These reader identities reflect the ways individuals make meaning of experiences in their formative years with reading and language. In the middle and senior school years, learners take greater charge of their identity development by either engaging in or avoiding literacy activities (Hall, 2010). Fairbanks and Ariail (2006) found that when student identities were not aligned with school expectations, learners did not use or link their skills and knowledge to reading tasks. Reader identities are also argued to be dynamic, continuously being shaped and adjusted within reader communities. As students strengthen their own awareness of who they are as readers across courses at university and other spaces, they repeatedly reformulate their ideas about themselves as readers. In addition, literacy activities such as book talks encourage further exploration, refinement, and development of these identities. At university as well as attention to the development of student global citizenship by requiring students to keep abreast of world issues that shape cultural understanding. Schall (2010) observed that students often have a simplistic understanding of culture and cultural identity despite exposure to a wide range of global literature. As a result, they often resort to limited labels and stereotypes that may not reflect an understanding of their own identity as citizens of a global village. The need to attend to the development of global identities in students is critical since cultural diversity is a norm (Ogbu, 1992). If anything, the COVID-19 pandemic is confirming this.

The Study In this study, I aimed to locate and determine changes in reader and global identities of university students enrolled in an open elective course on children’s literature for the Bachelor of Arts program. The course was chosen for two reasons. First, the course’s popularity with students from a range of programs, and second, the course required students to read a range of young fiction aimed at developing children as readers and global citizens. In addition, the course allowed me to determine if student consciousness about their own reader and global identities could be raised when considering how young fiction may shape these identities in children.

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As such, the research questions for this study were: 1. What are the reader and global identities of university students enrolled in the course? 2. In what ways were their reader and global identities shaped through course activities and tasks?

Why Children’s Literature? A significant category of young fiction introduced and discussed on the course is multicultural or global literature. This fiction category reflects many real and imagined story worlds and identities that students are not always familiar with. As Harris (1997, p. 43) notes, “If literature is a mirror that reflects human life, then all children who read and are read to see themselves reflected as part of humanity.” Stories from this category of young literature reflect a range of experiences, cultural, ideological, and naturalistic that offer opportunities to shape reader and global identities. As a conduit of identity development, children’s literature in general and this sub-genre specifically gives students as readers the opportunity to meet new characters and their cultures as windows or as sliding doors (Bishop, 1990, 1997) where the potential for readers to be “conscientized” (Freire, 1970) to praxis through the reading of literature.

The Course (a) Overview The course is a 39-hour course that runs for 13 weeks. Teaching and learning on the course are organized according to lectures, tutorials, and seminars both on and offline. Student learning outcomes for the course were: • Read, view, and listen to a wide range of children’s literature from different parts of the world. • Select appropriate books for children. • Critically respond to selected children’s literature. • Create a promotional book talk for children. Features of the course curriculum also included: (a) a selection of subgenres reflective of the reading preferences of today’s children, (b) inclusion of children’s literature in different modes, (c) the use of book talks for students to refine their own learning, and (d) the use of social media to encourage exploration, exchange, discussion and learning from experts, enthusiasts from the wider global community.

168 Table 12.1  Profile of Students Enrolled

J.-A. Netto-Shek School of Humanities Sociology Aerospace Engineering Psychology Wee Kim Wee School of Communication Public Policy and Global Affairs Sports Science and Management Teacher education

5 2 1 8 2 2 1 4

(b) Student Profile Students who usually enroll in this course specialize in various disciplines. For this study, Table 12.1 presents the student profile. (c) Assignments There were two assignments required of students on the course. The first required them to select a story for children that would model positive reader and/or global identities in children and argue for their choice in a talking point discussion with peers. They were then asked to write a reflective essay on their understanding of the reader and global identities, and the second required the students to revisit their initial story choice and develop a promotional video for children on their book choice before reflecting on their understanding of the importance of developing reader and global identities in children through their book choices. The assignments were structured as developmental tasks with reflection opportunities to consider how stories enabled identity development and why identity development is critical for children and themselves. (d) The Role of Social Media Social media plays a role in fashioning aspects of the reader, and global identity has given the role it plays in student lives. Therefore, social media was situated both as a collaborative learning tool and a tool to engage with the world. Three social media platforms, Twitter, Instagram, and Pinterest, were identified for these purposes. Twitter was selected to encourage interaction with writers of young fiction. The research on the use of Twitter, however, is at best mixed with some evidence on its use increasing student engagement (Junco et al., 2010), which is important. Next, Instagram was selected as a means to allow students to appreciate the role of literature in their own lives. By applying knowledge learned in the course about text-visual relationships in picture books, Instagram posts showcased their own applications of learning course content (Huang & Su, 2018). Finally, students were asked to create Pinboards of subgenres as a longer-term task in the course. These boards served as personal collections of young literature that they could share with their peers and other enthusiasts. As argued by Knake et al. (2021), Pinterest allows students to access the wider global community for book treasures beyond local or university libraries.

12  Responding to the New Normal: Strengthening Student Identity Development Fig. 12.1  The Use of Social Media for Identity Development

Instagram

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Pinterest

Twitter An Ecology of Social Media Collaboration for Advocacy

Method (a) Quantitative Data In this mixed-methods study (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017), both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. I analyzed two surveys that the students completed during the course. The first was on reader identity, and the other was on global identity. The reader identity survey comprised 20 questions on self-­perception and self-efficacy as readers, while the global identity survey comprised 23 questions on reading for self-development and global citizenship identity and action. In both surveys, students were asked to respond to questions on a 4-point Likert scale. (b) Qualitative Data Four additional sets of qualitative data were collected: (1) student social media interactions, (2) peer discussions on the selection of children’s stories, (3) peer discussions clarifying the initial selection of children’s stories, and (4) student reflections on the reader and global identity development. Finally, an inductive thematic analysis (Hayes, 1997) was conducted on the discussions to answer the research questions.

Quantitative Findings Student Reader Identities Quantitative data on student reader identity showed that their identities were neutral regarding self-perception and efficacy. Possible reasons include “the type of material I am reading – scholarly articles and journals are more challenging to read at times” or “the type of text or genre that I am reading. If it is up to my liking, I am able to read with not much problem.” Student reader identities seemed to be shaped by the type of reading they were engaged in.

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In response to questions about reading pleasure, students seemed to have very positive identities, as shown in Fig. 12.2. In addition, students identified fiction as the preferred genre for reading such as “fantasy, mystery/thriller, anything supernatural honestly” and “classic lit, Japanese fiction,” suggesting the potential need for book clubs and reading interest groups. In terms of whether the reading was a characteristic of their identity, many rated that reading was not (see Fig. 12.3) because “everyone’s tastes are different” and that “none of my friends judge me for what I read.” However, among the responses was the view that “most people have the perception that classic literature as a genre is difficult to read,” revealing students’ specific reading interests. Regarding setting reading goals, most students preferred fiction rather than nonfiction, although some revealed a strong preference for nonfiction (see Fig.  12.4). Again, this confirms the potential need for book clubs and reading interest groups.

Fig. 12.2  Reading for pleasure

Fig. 12.3  Reading as an admirable characteristic

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Fig. 12.4  Reading goals

Student Global Identities The data suggests that students did not value the development of a global identity and were ambivalent about this aspect of identity development, although they were preparing for employment around the world. It was also clear that students did not perceive that their global identities would be encouraged by the development of their reading identities either (see Figs. 12.5 and 12.6). Overall, the data from the surveys reveal an ambivalence and lack of development among students about their identities as readers and global citizens. If left unchecked or unshaped, these beliefs will likely continue into their personal and work lives.

Qualitative Data Social Media Interactions Yang and Lee (2020, p. 63) point out that social media afford three types of activities, that is, directed interaction, information broadcasting, and content consumption. In this project, we used Twitter for students to engage students in directed interaction, Instagram for information broadcasting, and Pinterest for content consumption. Findings confirm that students require further instructional support in order for these tools to reach the level of community practice (Tur et al., 2017). Twitter Interactions To support directed interaction, students were provided with detailed task prompts that required them to engage on Twitter. In the Twitter task prompts, students were asked to interact with their favorite children’s writers by tweeting about the impact

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Fig. 12.5  Global identity awareness

Fig. 12.6  The relationship between reader and global identity

of their book choice on their personal lives. Findings from student Twitter interactions reveal that interactions were limited to the task prompt alone. Furthermore, student interactions reveal that while students tweeted, few encountered extended interactions with authors or the wider online community on the topic. One example is provided in Fig. 12.7. There are some reasons for this: first, the task prompts did not explicitly state that the goal of the tweet was to engage in extended conversations. Second, some attention is required in terms of guiding student Twitter profiles to create the authenticity of the interactions. Finally, in discussions about their Twitter experiences, students indicated that authors would only respond when tweets were about more than the usual accolades. Figure 12.8 shows an author who responded to a student’s tweet. Tweeting is an activity that is assumed to be comfortable for students as twenty-­ first-­century digital natives (Lackovic et al., 2017; Prensky, 2001). Yet, through this activity, I observed that students were challenged by interactions arising from a lack of confidence in both content and their own identities. The following is an example of how the tweet failed to adequately capture a student’s point of view (Fig. 12.9).

12  Responding to the New Normal: Strengthening Student Identity Development

Fig. 12.7  An example of a student tweet #1

Fig. 12.8  An example of student tweet #2

Fig. 12.9  An example of student tweet #3

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Fig. 12.10  An example of student post #1

Instagram Posts Findings from Instagram posts were much more encouraging. To develop student understanding of poetry’s place in children’s lives, students were asked to create an Instagram post using formulaic poems such as cinquains or diamante poems as text with an accompanying photograph as a visual. Student posts tended to be about aspects of their personal lives and were successful applications of this aspect of course content. Figure 12.10 is an example. Pinterest Posts Findings from student Pinterest boards also proved to be promising. Through the support of ways in which to search for pins, students discovered and collected novel examples of children’s literature advocated by practitioners, experts, writers, and enthusiasts—this elevated student confidence about the course content. Figure 12.11 is an example of children’s literature for girls in STEM. Overall, the use of social media tools extended the course “beyond classroom walls” (Greenhow et al., 2019), which urged students to develop their identities as readers and global citizens more fully.

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Fig. 12.11  An example of a Pinterest board

Peer Discussions 1 Peer discussions were analyzed for students’ initial understanding of reader and global identities of children. The following themes were found in these discussions: Reader Identities Students found that when reader identities were modeled in literature such as through “constant reference to reading and stories…allow[s]ing [the] children…to realise that… reading is fun and can be seen as a leisure activity” (Discussion 1b). Others pointed out that activities where “the characters…constantly exchanging and reading letters from each other” (Discussion 1c) were equally powerful. Students remarked that representations of reading, however, in their selected stories remained monomodal, passive, and initially negative, as explained by one student: “So when the TV is broken, the boy has no choice but to engage in the book that is in front of him” (Discussion 2a). Representations of reading ranged from functionalist “a means in itself” (Discussion 2b) to its use in building an understanding of themselves and others, a trait of global identity. Students also found stories of poor reader self-concepts shaped by teachers and other students in schools (Discussion 1f) and stories about the lack of access to books (Discussion 2c). Others pointed out that fractured fairy tale characters like Rapunzel were reconstructed as one who “is seen to be an avid reader” (Discussion 2f).

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Global Identities Students argued for stories that “depict[s]ed an inclusive community” (Discussion 1a) where there was the representation of cultures reflective of the wider society. The findings reveal that student notions of inclusion were current in terms of cultures, both specific and global, animals, nature (Discussion 2e), the “disadvantaged, like, for the global issue” (Discussion 1b), and migrant children (Discussion 2d). The findings also revealed that students were aware of the “urgency” (Discussion 1b) of inclusion in current times. Students expressed that stories focusing on how to develop inclusion were of greater value for children than those presenting the ideal. Others argued that stories about love and happiness enabled global identity development in children (Discussion 1d). 21 Century Identities The data also found justifications for stories that “mirrored” (Bishop, 1990, 1997) the identities and lives of twenty-first-century children. For example, stories about critical reading were argued to be more important than stories about reading, and stories of self-acceptance were argued to be important for identity development in children: “Children can learn from this book that they should embrace themselves, since everybody can contribute to society in their own ways, and they should always feel positive about themselves” (Discussion 1e).

Student Reflections The Role of Stories in Identity Development Student reflections revealed that students appreciated the role of literature in shaping their own identities: “As a child, the telling of storybooks in my childhood impacted me more rather than the act of reading it individually” (Student #2). Others explained that visuals were important in modeling positive identity since “the illustrations help children better visualise the characters for themselves” (Student #4). Others felt that stories taught children “the way I should react, to what I should say when similar occurrences happen to me in real life.” (Student #4) by ‘providing them with a safe environment to possibly learn from the characters in the book on how to deal with their own stressors and problems (Pulimeno et  al., 2020)” (Student #29). Overall, student reflections revealed an appreciation for literature in their own lives in terms of shaping “the values and perspective that I have grown to adopt as I got older” (Student #13) and in terms of shaping their identity as “a critical reader especially when deciding whether the book is suitable for young children” (Student #18).

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Development of Student Reader and Global Identities Reader Identities The reflections also revealed development in student understandings of reading identity. For example, some explained that “Reading is a hobby that I developed recently” and that “books taught me how to be more compassionate and respecting others, and in the future, I know these qualities I learnt from books will help me live as a global citizen” (Student #3). Others observed that their reading choices evolved as they embraced “a progressive global identity” (Student #11). Family literacies such as reading with siblings were considered critical for this: “As the eldest daughter of four children, I was reminded of my role in shaping my younger siblings’ reader and global identities. Growing up, I realised that they modelled after me by copying the things I did. If I read a book, they would also want to read a book” (Student #22). Library visits were also argued to be an important literacy activity that “allowed the child to realise that there is more to just reading on their electronic gadgets” (Student #7). One pointed out that positive reading identities were not celebrated in schools: “Personally, I was in Library Society CCA in Secondary School, but that has never made me feel proud, as I felt like it was not an activity that positioned me to be in a ‘lame’ group. But the wholesome self-confidence Estella has truly touched me and made me feel a sense of connection to her devotion towards literature. Reading is not something to be ashamed of, and neither is being in Library Society” (Student #32). Global Identities Student reflections revealed an increased awareness about their own global identity development. One student remarked that ideologies about children could be a reason: “The tutorial on the changing ideologies of childhood as well as this experience really helped me be aware of my own tendency to fall into this ‘trap’ of adhering to dated ideologies of children and the books they should be reading” (Student #31). Another added that “Personally, much of what I learnt about the world around me was through the books that I read during my childhood” (Student #19) suggesting an awakening to the role of children’s literature in the development of global identities. Another acknowledged that “While I was an avid reader growing up, I now recognize through this module that my exposure to books were largely limited to conventional Western settings and characters, which does not reflect my lived experience at all” (Student #16). Furthermore, student reflections revealed the realization that global identity development was dependent on reading identity development, as found in this comment: “I see now that I could have vocalised the connection between the book and global identity more specifically, referencing the variety of ethnicity and clothing in illustrations and normalizing of multiculturalism” (Student #10). As one student concludes: “For global citizenship awareness to blossom, it is vital for children’s

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literature to keep pace with the breathtaking changes around the globe, reflecting the diversity of problems and burdens” (Student #33). The Role of Book Talks in Developing Student Reader and Global Identities Overall, students appreciated the role of book talks in deepening their own understanding of identity and their own reader and global identities. Students remarked, “The creation of this book talk has also led me to reflect on the role of literature in my own global identity. Reading about a cultural or societal issue is nowhere close compared to reading a personal account of a person’s private encounter with these issues” (Student #20). Another asserted that “All in all, the book talk allowed me to gain a deeper understanding of how reader identity and global identity can be constructed” (Student #24), which one student suggested was “to look inwards at my own experiences with the two components” (Student #29). Others argued that “I hope that I can continue to do book talks so that I may share my passion for reading and let reading touch the hearts of more children” (Student #6). Students explained that book talks were an excellent platform to demystify reading by sharing how they overcame negative experiences such as this one: “I fumbled and blurted out the wrong words when I was tasked to read a difficult passage” (Student #11). The same student added that book talks “helped me improve my reading behaviour which in turn enhanced my awareness of being a global citizen” (Student #11). Students also pointed out that book talks as a collaborative activity enabled the development of their own understandings of reader and global identities. For example, one student states, “The experience of reading the book also inspired us to present this seamlessness of text and images in our book talk, and we carefully curated the images we selected for the video to support our script. This experience of both reading the text and creating the book talk really exposed me to the importance of being an informed global citizen and strengthened my reader identity as it made me realize the importance of reading widely” (Student #13). Another student points out that “my identity as a global citizen was refined through my role as script writer and video editor” (Student #23). Another key activity of the book talks was online discussions that students felt were engendering their own identity development. One student remarks: “Through the online discussion, I have likewise developed a positive reader identity. The brainstorming of ideas…pushed me to think critically about how much I comprehended the book, so as to condense it into a simpler form for the children. This shaped my identity as it trained me to become a responsible reader, sieving out valuable information as I read, and not just reading for the sake of it” (Student #27). The student goes on to say that “When creating the book talk, my global identity was also shaped” (Student #27). Students also reflected that the book talks revealed to them “the impact the new digital age has on readers’ identity” because “the Internet “offers a vibrant and significant storehouse of literature intended for children to explore and enjoy” (Wolf, 2014), just like The Mermaid’s Purse was for Stella and the villagers” (Student #28).

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Discussion Vetter et al. (2017) observed that reader identity development is either misunderstood, devalued, or ignored in academic contexts. Yet, they are crucial as students take ownership of their future roles as twenty-first-century citizens. Findings from this study reveal that through explicit attention to student identity development in assessment tasks. A crucial aspect of identity development is the selection of literacy activities that will provide students with opportunities to form and shape these identities. In this study, literacy activities such as social media interactions, peer discussions, and the creation of book talks enabled students to explore, revisit and determine whether they wished to repair, reformulate or reassert their identities as readers. This would not have been achieved otherwise. Reflective essays that directed their attention to identity development were handmaidens to student identity development. The data reveals that students who had negative experiences that initially shaped these identities could revisit and restore these identities through the assigned tasks. Others, who had positive experiences showed appreciation for their ownership of this identity. The study also affirmed the place of collaborative talk in exploring and shaping personal reader and global identities. Students reported positive experiences from peer discussions as they learned from one another how their personal reader and global identities might be realized. Through the sharing of negative and positive personal experiences, students affirmed their identities as readers and the special role that literature plays in shaping these identities. Equally significant is the understanding that their identities as global citizens depend on positive reader identities. Student understandings of these sorts hold promise regarding the larger but important goals of university education.

Conclusion The study attempted to locate that third space (Guppy et al., 2022; Gutiérrez et al., 1999; Prensky, 2001) in a university course where students have insight into their own development as learners. Learners began the course with little or no idea about their readers or global identities but ended with a better understanding of themselves as readers and global citizens. Findings from the study reveal that consideration needs to be given to the kinds of literacy activities on courses that students are to engage in that will illuminate these identities to themselves. The findings also reveal that reflective essays with an explicit focus on identity formation through the course content allow students to consider this important aspect of work and learning in the twenty-first century.

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Chapter 13

An Empirical Analysis of Motivational Factors that Enhance Student and Teacher Achievements: The Mediating Role of Evidence-Based Learning Sameera Iqbal Abstract  This chapter attempts to nurture the importance of eductional beliefs by describing three success factors: self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-direction, that affect students’ learning in academic sectors. The term “evidence-based” is widely used in the realm of education. Teachers must have a solid understanding of successful evidence-based strategies to help students accomplish their goals and close achievement gaps. While many alternative pathway teachers are aware of the material they are required to teach, many have never been trained to do so using evidence-based techniques. The findings of this chapter will guide teachers and policymakers on how to improve evidence-based practices that can impact learning for teachers to support effective instruction. This chapter will also show statistical analyses of questionnaire results to measure the relationship between self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-direction in students’ academic achievements. Focus group interviews were conducted to analyze teacher preparedness and readiness to achieve teacher success. Keywords  Self-Efficacy · Self-Regulation · Self-Direction · Teacher Readiness · Teacher Preparedness · Evidence-Based Learning · Evidence-Based Teaching

S. Iqbal (*) Department of Engineering Technology & Sciences, Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_13

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Introduction This chapter will systematically review factors that influence learners’ and teachers’ motivation toward academic success, especially during COVID-19. The nature of this study is – qualitative and quantitative; the conceptual model has aligned with relevant variables identified from the literature review. Although many studies have concluded the motivation factors of students toward learning, since education methods have evolved, there is constant need to review the factors that influence learners’ and teachers’ motivation (Grannan & Calkins, 2018).

Literature Review Any notion or method generated from or informed by objective evidence, typically student performance, is referred to as evidence-based learning (Gao et al., 2016). This kind of learning refers to a set of methods, procedures, and techniques that have been empirically proven to improve learning outcomes (Grannan & Calkins, 2018). Evidence-based learning does not imply that we adhere to research-based guidelines. On the contrary, it necessitates that students assess their performance, and it is the principle that stresses that education should follow practices based on the available scientific evidence. Instructive analysts concur that learning is more than remembrance and data review. (Green & Hutchings, 2018). Profound and enduring learning includes understanding, relating thoughts, and making associations among earlier and more recent new information, autonomous and decisive reasoning, and the capacity to move data to new and various settings (Green & Hutchings, 2018). Some of the examples highlighted by Çakmakkaya (2021) include the following: • • • • • • • •

Case studies Classroom activities Student portfolio Student learning assessments Peer evaluation Feedback from various stakeholders in learning Simulation Qualitative and quantitative outputs

Underpinning Theory Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) explains how the human mind processes new data (Atiomo, 2020, p.  965). All forms of content, delivery media, and learners are affected by CLT. CLT is based on two schools of thought. First, the human brain

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limits how much new information it can process at any time. The second is that no known boundaries exist to the amount of data stored (Hartono, 2018, p.98). Three components of CLT (Hartono, 2018, p. 98) are identified as intrinsic, extraneous, and germane and defined within the context of learning. Intrinsic refers to the effort that is required to understand a specific topic. Extraneous is considered as the noise or irrelevant load in the process or the teacher’s demands and directions placed on the student. The building of schemas causes the third type of cognitive load, which is organizing information the way humans use it because it aids in learning new skills and knowledge (Haas et al., 2020). Especially with COVID-19’s strike, things are being viewed differently with respect to the theories.

 ognitive Load Theory (CLT) and Evidence-Based C Learning (EBL) There is a solid relationship between CLT and EBL because CLT works on the three parts of human memory: sensory, working, and long-term. Based on the information processing model as put forward by Atiomo (2020) in his research (p. 965), sensory memory and working memory are where information is stored in chunks and can be forgotten. At the same time, long-term memory holds information for extended periods. Schema theory helps us understand how information can be stored in long-­ term memory for longer time, as mentioned by Li (2016) confirmed in component maxims of cooperative principles (p. 2045). As per the analysis, it was obvious from the results that those who follow the cooperative principle tend to have good communication (Li, 2016, p. 2050). It is evident from the research that data storage in long-term memory improves when students engage in retrieval practices (Karpicke et al., 2009). All of the examples of EBL, such as portfolios, simulations, case studies, laboratories work, etc., require students to participate in hands-on activities or require extensive research in which students experience performing repetitive tasks. Many kids, after the lockdown, took on different part-time jobs. These repetitive tasks help in conserving information in long-term memory. For example, as a part of the research, I interviewed one of the pharmacy students who used to work in the industry. As a part of her job, she designed or conducted clinical drug trials and helped develop new medicines. To understand how industrial laboratories work can impact long-term memory, I asked her a few questions: Do you remember the sounds associated with the tests you are doing in the lab? Her response was, “I remember vaguely.” My next question was, “Are you aware of the sounds when working in the lab.” She responded, “I am, but it’s like white background noise after a while, and I usually tend to ignore it.” I then asked her, “How do you ignore the repetitive sounds while working and stay focused on the tests?” She replied, “I usually just shut out the noises and keep myself focused on the task.” Our conversation concluded that if any skin ointment is triturated in a

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pestle, the whole focus is on getting a smooth end product saved in long-term memory due to repetitive actions; therefore, the sound produced by the mortar is ignored. This data from sensory memory passes into working memory, where it is either handled or disposed of. Similarly, in another task, checking the purity of samples in a UV spectrophotometer produces mechanical sounds, which are ignored as the sole purpose of long-term memory is to check the purity of samples.

Student Self-Efficacy and Evidence-Based Learning (EBL) Student self-efficacy is directly related to evidence-based learning. According to research, the type of learning environment and teaching approach used in the classroom might promote personal efficacy for students (Ha & Jung, 2021). Similarly, when checking the purity of samples in a UV spectrophotometer, the mechanical sounds produced are often ignored by experienced researchers who have developed confidence in their skills, which can contribute to a sense of self-efficacy in their scientific abilities. Students’ self-efficacy refers to their views and attitudes about their capacities to attain academic achievement and their belief in their capacity to complete academic assignments and study the materials successfully (Hayat et al., 2020). According to research, pupils with high self-efficacy believe they can complete even the most challenging assignments (Ha & Jung, 2021). Many teens were seen self-financing themselves even during the financially disruptive time of COVID-19. Similarly, using a question-and-answer style, inquiry-based lab activities, and conceptual (rather than quantitative) challenges all contributed to a good classroom atmosphere that will eventually improve student confidence and lead to student self-efficacy. Faced with the prospect of failure, these students boost and maintain their efforts to succeed, and they approach challenging or dangerous situations with the assurance that they can handle them. On the other hand, students who question their capacity to complete challenging tasks regard them as dangerous or as impossible, resulting in task avoidance, inactivity, a lack of participation, and surrender to failure. For example, a student with high self-efficacy in mechanical engineering concerning design, development, and manufacturing will feel confident in their ability to do well in challenging automotive engineering.

Student Self-Directedness and Evidence-Based Learning (EBL) A student with a high level of self-efficacy in mechanical engineering, which concerns design, development, and manufacturing, is more likely to engage in self-­ directed learning in the field. Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals

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take ownership of their learning and seek out the necessary resources and strategies to achieve their learning goals, which requires a strong sense of self-efficacy and confidence in one’s abilities. Self-Directed Learning is a process in which individuals diagnose their learning needs, formulate learning goals, discover human and material resources for learning, choose and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluate learning with or without the assistance of others (Yusof et al., 2012). For example, let us take a logistics engineering student self-directed learner in a formal setting at a men’s college who wants to learn the custom system in different modes of transportation. Perhaps this student was initially inspired by his father’s observations, who works as a logistics engineer. To begin, the learner reviews background information and explores internet sites to learn basic custom methods. Then he visits YouTube for video tutorials on different custom valuations and visits and interviews people at different ports to obtain technical information on custom valuation. The logistics student spends a lot of time searching for information on custom valuation, and he may download online materials from experts, which also help with the learning process. As an ongoing process, the self-directed learner is constantly evaluating his learning.

 tudent Self-Regulated Learning and Evidence-Based S Learning (EBL) The logistics student’s self-directed learning on custom valuation, which includes searching for information and downloading online materials, demonstrates a level of self-regulation. Self-regulation is controlling one’s attention, thoughts, and emotions, an essential component of effective self-directed learning. Student self-­ regulation can have a direct impact on evidence-based learning. Self-regulation is the capacity to control one’s attention, thoughts, and emotions. Students who manage their emotions and conduct are better equipped to interact with their peers and respond to various class events, such as completing projects or assignments. Student self-regulation is when students set their own rules and regulations for their learning (Vrieling-Teunter et al., 2021). Self-regulation is an essential characteristic of individual learning (Kuznetsova, 2021). Many teens have reported to go through drastic changes such as weight loss, etc., during the time of COVID-19. Giving life to what is going on in your mind and bringing it to life during a time when many proved to be lazy is a great example of self-regulation. These rules could vary from one age group to another. For example, at the university level, self-regulation could be participating in class discussions, completing the project, leading or coordinating the project, staying focused on the learning objectives, etc. In other words, the self-­ directed process through which learners change their mental capacities into task-­ related skills is self-regulation.

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Evidence-Based Teaching (EBT) Self-regulation is a key aspect of self-directing learning process where learners transform their mental abilities into task-related skills. EBT is considered a principle that educators and scientists embrace to develop further education and learning procedures in higher education (Cassidy & Ahmad, 2019). In EBT, instructors obtain consistent reviews of students’ profiles, perspectives, attributes, and scholarly possibilities within the education sector. Studies have shown that evidence-­ based teaching practices should be based on three areas: developing an effective learning environment, structuring intentional learning experiences, and assessing teaching effectiveness (Malott et al., 2014). Evidence-based teaching practices for the twenty-first century have been identified. They include the following guidelines for educators: explaining the focus of what you want your students to learn, checking their prior knowledge, using a show-­ and-­tell strategy, which can be done by verbal explanations and supporting visuals, integrating the previous familiarity with the new knowledge, recalling practices and providing constructive feedback (Kuznetsova, 2021).

 eacher Preparedness and Readiness for Evidence-Based T Teaching (EBT) Evidence-based teaching practices have been identified for the twenty-first century, which include guidelines for educators such as explaining the learning focus, checking prior knowledge, using show-and-tell strategies, integrating familiar and new knowledge, recalling practices, and providing constructive feedback. Teacher preparedness describes how well the teacher can devote time to preparing curriculum, activities, and lesson plans (Hughes, 2010). Teacher readiness means the teacher has the knowledge and skills to teach effectively. To acquire twenty-first-century learning competencies, teachers must strengthen their teaching professionalism (Ullah, 2021, p. 202). To engage in EBT, teachers must dedicate additional time to lesson planning, identifying resources, and selecting learning materials. Teachers’ willingness to measure evidence-based learning is aided by several aspects, including their ability to construct inquiry-oriented lesson plans and the presence of peers who help them measure the learning process (Ullah, 2021, p. 202).

 ognitive Load Theory (CLT) and Evidence-Based C Teaching (EBT) Teachers’ ability to construct inquiry-oriented lesson plans and the presence of supportive peers can aid their willingness to measure the learning process in evidence-­ based teaching. This is important because the learning process is closely linked to

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memory capacity. The ability of memory to receive information is linked to the learning process. Each person’s memory capacity is unique and restricted, making it a burden when dealing with a large amount of knowledge (Haas et al., 2020). CLT is a highly practical guide for designing multimedia and other learning materials, and it is one of the essential theories in educational psychology. Various teaching methods can be used to align inherent cognitive strain from complicated tasks. Restructuring exercises can help to reduce intrinsic cognitive load by starting with more straightforward and less complex information, establishing relatively easy tasks, simplifying complex tasks, and then moving on to more extensive explanations in stages. Teachers can split the assessment tasks so that students do not have to remember multiple pieces of information. While designing a curriculum reduces the redundancy effect, which means avoiding a lot of information that does not need to be understood by the learner, increasing the motivation of students to use their working memory capacity in the learning process. According to Haas’s report (2020), this can be accomplished through the use of scaffolding.

Research Framework Based on the literature review, the questionnaire used in this research was developed based on three independent variables: students’ self-efficacy, student self-­regulation, and student self-directedness, with the moderator effect of evidence-based learning on the dependent variable, students’ achievement. The interview questions were developed based on the independent variable, teacher preparedness, and teacher readiness, with the moderator effect of evidence-based teaching on the dependent variable of teacher achievements.

Study Setting, Population, and Sample In this cross-sectional study, interview questions were designed to explore the impact of teacher preparedness and readiness as the independent variable, with evidence-­based teaching as the moderator effect, on teacher achievement as the dependent variable. This cross-sectional study used a survey and focus group interviews with two participants. Participant groups included students and teachers. Data was collected from students to analyze their academic achievements. This multicenter study included two campus locations of Higher Colleges of Technology: the Abu Dhabi Men’s campus and the Abu Dhabi Women’s campus. The curricula of the two campuses are similar in that they are innovative curricula that employ evidence-­based learning with both vertical and horizontal integration of primary and engineering sciences. Focus group interviews were conducted to examine teacher success. The characteristics of the teachers and the courses are the same across both campuses.

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The study population included male and female students of different academic tracks at two study centers. Student participants represented undergraduate and graduate programs. A set of questions was developed to interview focus group instructors. Independent variables were teacher preparedness and teacher readiness having the mediating role of evidence-based teaching and its impact on the dependent variable, teacher achievement. The study used a convenience sample of students taking all the major subjects. The total number of student participants who responded to the questionnaire within the timeframe (1 month) was 200 across the two campuses. The focus group was conducted with two instructors of the teaching fields in different areas of study: Civil Engineering and Mechanical Engineering. They were interviewed because they have more than 10 years of teaching experience in evidencebased approaches.

Survey Instrument and Focus Group Interview Questions In this study, a focus group was conducted with two experienced instructors in the fields of Civil Engineering and Mechanical Engineering who have over 10 years of experience in evidence-based teaching approaches. The focus group aimed to gain insights and opinions from these instructors to inform the development of a survey. The survey was adapted by following these steps: (1) extensive review of the relevant literature and similar studies that included items that address student self-­ efficacy, student self-regulation, and student self-directedness, (2) items adapted and revised by the author, (3) revision by four education experts from three different institutes, and (4) pilot testing on a small number of respondents. The survey was in English and included 32 items representing student self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-directedness toward evidence-based learning. In addition, it included – a 5-point Likert scale with 1 = Rarely confident; I hardly ever feel this way, 2 = Not often confident; I feel this way less than half the time, 3 = Sometimes confident; I think this way about half the time, 4 = Usually confident; I think this way more than half the time, 5 = Almost always confident; there are very few times when I don’t feel this way. For the focus group, open-ended questions were developed. Validity and reliability studies were conducted to determine the survey’s suitability. Below is the list of questions that the instructor asked: • • • •

What is your understanding of evidence-based teaching? What are your evidence-based practices/ strategies in your class? What are the challenges of evidence-based practice? What are the three main requirements of evidence-based practice – planning or preparation point of view? • How well must a teacher be prepared for evidence-based teaching (EBT)?

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• What kinds of characteristics should a teacher have to deliver evidence-based practices? • What type of questions can evidence-based practice answer? • How substantial is evidence to evaluate students’ performance and teaching effectiveness?

Statistical Analysis and Results of Students’ Achievements Correlation analysis was conducted on student self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-directedness with the dependent variable of student achievement. The linear relationship between two continuous variables is described by correlation. Correlation is commonly used to assess the strength and direction of linear relationships between two or more variables. Two variables have no linear link if their correlation coefficient is zero. This, however, only applies to a linear relationship. Pearson coefficient correlation is used where the r-value is measured as it is feasible that the variables are linked in a curvilinear fashion. The variables are considered to have no linear relationship when the value is close to zero, usually between −0.1 and +0.1 (or a linear relationship). Twenty-nine questions were developed to collect data from university students. The r-value for student self-efficacy and evidence-based learning on students’ achievement was 0.62, which shows a positive correlation. On the other hand, student self-directedness and evidence-based practices have an r-value of 0.24, which shows that self-regulation and evidence-based learning do not impact students’ achievement. Similarly, student self-directedness and evidence-based learning (r-value 0.30) indicate a low correlation between student self-directedness and evidence-­based learning on students’ achievements. To summarize the findings, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and self-directedness among students are evident. In addition, the students’ self-efficacy with the moderator effect of evidence-based learning has a stronger relationship with students’ achievements.

Focus Group Interview Results for Teachers’ Achievements Two instructors were chosen from the education field, each with more than 10 years of teaching experience from different fields of study. The questions were meant to understand teacher preparedness and readiness and their impact on teacher achievement. Findings from these interviews are discussed in the next section.

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Teachers’ Understanding of EBT and Strategy Use The learning process is delivered to students using authentic theories and published factual information either through the peer-reviewed textbook or the conference proceedings, which are peer-reviewed, or peer-reviewed research articles. In some cases, we can consider the project completed by the local councils. These projects were authenticated by some authority and accepted as official documents. Those could be evidence that we can pick up and create the learning outcome based on such findings. This evidence-based learning is that once the student graduates from the university, they are supposed to work in a council or for the government. Students should be aware of the procedures they are adopting. One good example is the application of relevant standards in the design of civil engineering structures. As such, we used design standards or design structures as evidence-based learning because this evidence would be based on the specifications provided by the council or government. Students were required to design a robust motor system. We applied the relevant design procedures established by scientific research and used the standards set by local councils to achieve the final learning outcome for that particular topic. When students start designing robust motor systems, it could be applied to any area. They have to make sure that their project must comply with legal requirements. As such, we facilitated students in designing well-developed projects that complied with the law and ones that were financially feasible. For example, the building act’s central law sets the procedures and guidelines in the New Zealand system. We followed these procedures and standards and showed the students that you indirectly followed these procedures in your project. We complied with the building act and directly adopted the procedures. In evidence-based teaching, the instructor adopts methodologies and approaches that have been empirically proven to be successful in student learning by yielding effective learning outcomes, such as providing clear lesson objectives before the lecture. It is essential the teacher must inform the students about what they will be able to perform by the end of the lecture (and relate this to their future practical career skills). Then it is recommended that the teacher recap what was covered in the last lecture. Finally, the student should be given ample opportunities to practice problem-solving skills themselves.

Challenges, Planning, and Preparation Sometimes there are challenges in curriculum development; to develop a curriculum, you need to get council standards. In some councils, there are not many established procedures, and sometimes, there is a lack of coordination between the university and the councils. The second challenge is that sometimes councils do not share their standards with universities/institutions.

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Sometimes there are already case studies developed by the council, and other times, we have to develop case studies. It takes time, especially if standards are not given or available to us. When we are stuck, we follow the procedures of other city councils. For example, if the Oakland council is established, we follow their guidelines. Since the world is moving toward automation, we should use different simulation software to show students how things can be built or function. We must provide relevant formulas rather than ask students to find the formula for themselves. It will lessen the burden on students and save classroom time. The teacher must also have enough time to prepare ahead of delivery. Once the activities have been developed, every semester, these activities should be updated frequently, and the teacher should have the liberty to keep improving the activities. Regardless of how engaging and compelling the class is, there will always be students who genuinely lack interest, irrespective of how interesting and exciting the sessions are. Such students are very determined not to participate – in class, and they reveal their clear intentions by publicly expressing them. The teacher needs to have at least some years of experience in teaching within educational institutions and to have received sufficient practical training (in addition to theoretical training). The teacher must be competent in using technology to deliver engineering courses. In addition, the teacher needs to skillfully solve complex numerical problems, convey the procedures to students in simple steps, and develop competent cognitive skills.

 evel of Teacher Preparedness and Teacher L Characteristics for EBT It has been observed that there is confusion among teachers about evidence-based learning, and I feel that it is best not to limit oneself to just one kind of methodology. The teacher can be innovative and try different methods. For example, lecture A can be about delivering knowledge. The teacher can have a follow-up lecture where they can practice evidence-based learning by showing students some samples and telling them what is expected from them by encouraging group discussions. Other skills teachers should have excellent communication skills, the ability to deliver engaging speeches, demonstrate leadership skills, communicate in a persuasive manner, and perform under tight deadlines.

Application and Evidence of EBT Importance of evidence-based learning has a considerable role from the marketability point of view of the learner. For example, they can put this information on their CV. If the student learned about designing stormwater management systems in the

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final project, they could add this as a skill on the CV. If the student can successfully demonstrate these skills at work, that will eventually be a success for the teacher and the institute. Students can answer questions related to the primary key points learned during the lecture, solve numerical problems related to the course, and provide clear explanations of key fundamental concepts. Evidence is the leading indicator that highlights whether a teaching approach is practical. It has been empirically proven in the past (and also back-tested and confirmed by myself in my courses) that students’ computational and cognitive skills improved considerably when exposing them to solving numerical problems.

Recommended Practices The findings from this study have revealed some recommended practices. Below are some of the recommendations, along with examples, that will improve EBL increase student self-efficacy, self-directedness, and self-regulation among students, and improve the awareness of self-readiness and self-preparedness among teachers. A Clear Focus  As a teacher, we must ensure that students understand the learning outcomes; therefore, learning outcomes can be divided into different categories that can be considered objectives. We can understand it using one Enterprise Resources Planning (ERP) example. To ensure that students understand the concept of ERP and how ERP software functions, the students may explain the learning objective, such as “Illustrate the integration of information systems and businesses.” Pretesting and Integrating Prior Understanding  Pretesting can significantly impact students learning, for example, if we continue with the same instance of ERP. Students who have taken the courses ERP-I can perform better because they have a fundamental knowledge of creating inventories and users, giving access rights to users, etc. They can easily activate their previous knowledge, focus on what they need to learn and reduce errors. Show-and-Tell  In this phase, the teacher should be working on showing and explaining. The teacher will integrate one of the databases with another module. In another task, the teacher can incorporate Amazon for buying and selling purposes of any product – It is important to remember to teach those strategies, not the content. Do not model and show the assessment tasks; however, show them how to do them. Explain to students what your expectations in terms of evidence are and how you will assess them. Retrieval Practice  Provide students sufficient time to try different approaches. Provide and guide them to other resources through which they can remember the steps, such as video tutorials, books, web pages, etc.

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Spaced Practice  Research has shown that students learn better when they practice (Vrieling-Teunter et al., 2021). For example, students can be assigned labs to practice each week with different scenarios and tasks. At the end of the semester, they can demonstrate their understanding of assessment tasks. They can utilize their knowledge when preparing for their final year project. This way, they will have the opportunity to practice their expertise at different levels. Productive Group Work  Positive group work has improved student learning, student retention, and overall institute success. However, as a course teacher, you need to include group work in the task. If yes, then break down the task ahead of time. Provide guidelines to students for their roles and responsibilities. Hold High Expectations of Students  Students develop self-esteem, confidence, and academic success when teachers set high expectations and assign engaging and exciting activities. This is especially true in learning because how we anticipate performing or how teachers expect their students to perform can impact the outcome. Similarly, high expectations boost performance, while low expectations sabotage achievement. In addition, students will provide considerable supporting evidence if they know teachers’ expectations are high. Reciprocal Teaching  Reciprocal teaching is when students are given a turn to explain the concept they have learned. The most apparent advantages of this type of instruction are further developed understanding and metacognition propensities and abilities. In the above example, students can explain the purpose of the activity and bridge communication among students regarding their knowledge of the text. In that way, students will develop a shared understanding of what they have experienced through the reciprocal teaching experience. Use Blocking and Interleaving Practices Whenever Needed  Blocking is reasonably similar to scaffolding, where the teacher provides all the support in the beginning and gradually removes the support. Interleaving is the art of delivering lessons, switching up your courses in ways that make it difficult for pupils to recognize patterns and force them to think. The blocking approach can be helpful for special needs students and students with learning difficulties, whereas interleaving approaches can be used with gifted students. Blocking and interleaving approaches can also be used for differentiation purposes. For example, blocking is most suitable when the topic is new for the student, and interleaving is most appropriate when the student understands the topic/subject. Regular Feedback  It is essential to give meaningful feedback to students. The feedback should be constructive, which means it should be educative, given promptly, and sensitive to the students’ needs.

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Conclusion As per the findings of this study, it has been observed that student self-efficacy toward evidence-based learning has a positive, strong correlation which means if student self-efficacy increases. Consequently, students’ academic achievements will also increase. At the same time, students’ self-regulation and students’ self-­ directedness have a low correlation. In short, students’ self-efficacy has a significant impact on students’ achievements. Therefore, parents, colleges, universities, and institutes must put more effort into improving students’ self-efficacy. It was evident from the interview discussion with the two experts that teacher preparedness and teacher readiness have a direct or indirect strong relationship with teachers’ achievement. The learning process and student learning outcomes are influenced not only by the structure and content of the curriculum but also by the competence of the teachers who teach and guide students. Therefore, teachers should build shared knowledge of good teaching and learning in the classroom to support excellence in practice.

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Hughes, J. A. (2010). What teacher preparation programs can do to better prepare teachers to meet the challenges of educating students living in poverty. Action in Teacher Education, 32(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.2010.10463542 Karpicke, J.  D., Butler, A.  C., & Roediger, H.  L., III. (2009). Metacognitive strategies in student learning: Do students practise retrieval when they study on their own? Memory, 17(4), 471–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210802647009 Kuznetsova, E. (2021). Problems of communication between teacher and student in the organization of secondary vocational education. Science and Practice in Education: Electronic Scientific Journal, 1, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.54158/27132838_2021_1_32 Li, Q. (2016). Conversational implicature in English listening comprehension teaching. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6(10), 2044. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0610.22 Malott, K. M., Hall, K. H., Sheely-Moore, A., Krell, M. M., & Cardaciotto, L. (2014). Evidence-­ based teaching in higher education: Application to counselor education. Counselor Education and Supervision, 53(4), 294–305. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-­6978.2014.00064.x Ullah, I. (2021). Teachers’ perceptions regarding factors affecting concept based learning at government schools in Nowshera, Pakistan. Humanities and Social Sciences, 9(5), 202. https://doi. org/10.11648/j.hss.20210905.18 Vrieling-Teunter, E., Hebing, R., & Vermeulen, M. (2021). Design principles to support student learning in teacher learning groups. Teachers and Teaching, 27(1–4), 64–81. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/13540602.2021.1920909 Yusof, K. M., Hassan, S. A. H. S., Jamaludin, M. Z., & Harun, N. F. (2012). Cooperative problem-­ based learning (CPBL): Framework for integrating cooperative learning and problem-based learning. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 56, 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2012.09.649 Sameera Iqbal is a Lecturer in the Department of Logistics Engineering at HCT, UAE. She is a registered Internal quality Verifier from NQC, in the UAE. She has a Ph.D. from the Department of Technology, Operations and Logistics Management at the University Utara Malaysia. She has published numerous technical papers, including Logistics, Operations Teaching, and Learning, and has been recognized for excellence in research, teaching, and outreach.  

Chapter 14

Strategies Adopted for Building Students’ Rapport in an Online Classroom Gomathy Krishnan, Wahida Dastakeer, and Neha Gupta

Abstract  Rapport is the ability to have a harmonious relationship with people based on mutual understanding, affinity and respect. People who share a good rapport, connect, interact well and respond to each other favourably. The importance of building rapport with the students’ right at the beginning of the semester is well established and acknowledged by instructors. It helps to create a healthy environment and build trust and respect towards each other. It is the initial “Click” between students and instructors through which the interaction and connection are established irrespective of age, background or culture. Recently, student success in an online environment has been a cause for continuous concern. Students in an online learning platform quite easily lose their focus, and they also tend to lose track as the class progresses, affecting the retention rate. This action research initiative has evolved from issues observed by instructors in their online classrooms. In this action research study, we have attempted to adopt some strategies to build rapport with the students in our online classes that will help them stay focused which will contribute to their success. Our study is divided into three phases. In phase 1, a list of strategies is compiled from instructors who will prioritise them based on their class strength, courses taken and the level of students. A group of students will also be presented with a pre-existing list which they will rate to make the class lively and informative. These preferred strategies will then be deployed in phase 2. Phase 2 is implementing the strategies from the list compiled in phase 1. The instructor preference list and the student preference list will be implemented by the participating instructors in their respective online classrooms. Phase 3 is analysing and evaluating the outcome. At the end of the semester, focus group discussions with the instructor and the students will be conducted to evaluate the outcome of implementing these strategies.

G. Krishnan (*) · W. Dastakeer · N. Gupta Dubai Men’s College, HCT, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_14

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Keywords  Rapport · Online classrooms · Strategies · Student success · Student retention

Introduction Rapport is possible between people who have a lot in common. According to Glazier (2016), rapport building represents a simple, instructor-driven intervention that can significantly improve online retention and grades. Instructor–student rapport is not as easy to initiate as the rapport between two individuals of the same age or profession with shared interests. However, once that rapport is established between an instructor and a student, the mutual trust develops, and the student finds it easy and comfortable to follow and understand the course. It increases the motivation of the student, and encourages them to answer more freely in class, giving them a better perception of the programme itself which in turn gives the student and the instructor a sense of satisfaction. Although rapport does not enhance the learning process, it creates a conducive learning environment for the student. No significant learning can occur without a significant relationship. As educators, we will all agree that the rapport and the comfort level that the students have with us bridges the gap between the knowledge sharing in a classroom. Online learning can be a lonely experience. Social presence and interaction are a few proposed ways to combat students’ feelings of loneliness from peers and their instructors (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020). Class rapport is not only important in fostering a positive environment, but it also goes a long way in impacting student success. It has only become increasingly important in recent times with the popularity of online and hybrid delivery models. Rapport building not only makes the student comfortable and helps build trust in the instructor, but it is one of the factors that make a difference in that they feel a sense of belonging, and this makes them more responsible and accountable. Building rapport with students is a topic that most instructors are familiar with, and every educator has their own way of achieving it. The students are generally cold and distant from their instructors during the first week in class. They are generally reluctant to communicate or open up with the instructors, but as they progress through the semester, the students move on from the feeling of fear, reluctance and unwillingness to the feeling of being part of the same team. They feel trusted, motivated and not only participate in the class discussions, but rapport is also known to promote student’s academic success over a period of time. In fact, rapport is an essential component of instructor pedagogy. It is responsible for imparting a satisfying experience for the instructors as well, reflecting the way they teach and automatically creating a positive, welcoming atmosphere in class. Building rapport with the students is a tool that works both ways. It not only brings a smile to the face of the student; it also makes the instructor want to ensure quality time with them. The instructor may walk into the class feeling grumpy, but the moment they are with the students, a good class dynamic and student–instructor relationship can create a

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magical transformation. One of the strategies to implement for building rapport with the students online would be to design an online course that will include four types of engagement, namely peer, multi-model, instructor and self-directed (Bolliger & Martin, 2021). Rapport building can be categorised into five themes: attentive behaviours, common grounding behaviours, courteous behaviours, connecting behaviour and information-­sharing behaviours (Webb & Barrett, 2014). For instructors, building rapport with students in an online environment is very important as it is associated with positive student perception with a more supportive and collaborative environment. This makes students enjoy their subject, enhancing behaviours like online attendance, class participation and taking responsibility for their actions in class. With increased participation, the students feel motivated as it has a lasting effect in their learning process. With more participation, students are able to clarify their doubts and confusion. This combination of educational experiences leads to desired outcomes. In a classroom environment, the major factors that influence the rapport between the student and an instructor are mutual respect for each other, approachability of the instructor for the student, consistency in what the instructor says and does, trust and care for the student and a positive approach towards teaching by the instructor.

 ransition From a Traditional Classroom T to an Online Environment Online students tend to withdraw more often and earn lower grades than students in traditional classrooms. (Glazier, 2016). Building rapport is a lot easier when the students are in real time classrooms, where there is eye contact and now with changing times, they are on the other side of the screen with the camera turned off. So, there is no eye contact. So how does one create a positive instructor–student rapport and a positive classroom environment online? Calling students by their names, engaging in non-academic discussions, and engaging all students at different levels throughout the learning process are some of the popular strategies most instructors use. Building rapport is motivated by rhetorical, relational, and motivational needs of students (Frisby, & Munoz, 2021). With the increase in online and hybrid delivery models, there is a need to research and prioritise some of the strategies that work best for our students and include them in our classes. This is how this research idea blossomed, and the team decided to pursue this through an action research study, so that the findings can be documented and disseminated in an effort to make the class a more rewarding experience for both the instructors and the students. Embedding a survey in the learning management system (LMS), is a good way to allow students to give constructive feedback on the teaching practices. This will help instructors gain insight into their best teaching practices and the ones that may

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not necessarily work in their favour, which will depend on the level of students, the course content and other factors. One of the important ways we can build rapport is by synchronous communication in real time. Being a person who has more control in class and is responsible for the teaching and learning that takes place inside the class, the instructor must break the ice and start establishing rapport with the students. These actions on the instructor’s part are not difficult to execute and practice and can be comfortably made a part of the classroom activities. Sometimes what a student needs would have nothing to do with our lesson plan. To convert our passion for teaching into the students’ passion for learning, we need to develop strong bonds with our students. The transition from classroom to online learning is not smooth for either the instructors or students. However, class and learning have its own advantages. Online enrolment is increasing, spurred on by the COVID-19 online shift. Yet online students are failing and dropping out at higher rates than a traditional classroom – students. A research study by Glazier and Harris (2020) indicated that instructors who establish rapport or positive relationships and communicate with their students are more likely to retain them. For instructors, there was no need for the digital adaptability; they could focus more on the teaching process and research materials used in class. From the students’ perspective, they could study from the comfort of their own space, travelling time is greatly reduced, using various online resources for learning, including peer tutoring and, most importantly, provide access to the course materials and recording the lessons 24/7. From the instructors’ perspective, although many adjustments are required for the lesson to be delivered online, it also saves the instructor time and encourages them to become more innovative in designing various new teaching techniques. For many instructors, learning to use new technology might be intimidating and overwhelming. Therefore, instructors need access to proper training that helps them make use of the latest technology provided to them and with minimum time spent on designing and formatting the technology so that they can focus more on teaching with the technology provided. From the parents’ perspective, providing a conducive learning environment at home is a priority to make sure their child benefits from the virtual classroom. Investing in good technology products that will not distract students but help them stay focused is an important factor to consider. Below is a brief account of the strategies that the research team adopted in class to instigate a feeling of belonging and help with lowering anxiety, which can be attributed as a measure of student success in terms of maximising interaction in the class and in terms of maximising their performance. Online engagement with students is known to heighten the effectiveness of critical reflection by elucidating an awareness of learning about ways of supporting student learning and online engagement to improve student success (Redmond et al., 2021).

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Important Strategies for Rapport Building Rapport between students and teachers leads to numerous positive student outcomes, including attitudes towards the teacher and course, student motivation, and perceived learning (Wilson & Ryan, 2013). • Personalised lesson plans. One of the best ways instructors can develop rapport with their students in an online classroom is to make personalised lesson plans. Every student has a different learning style, and every batch of students are different in their capabilities. Therefore, it is better to alter the lesson plans as per the needs and abilities of the students. This makes them more comfortable in class and encourages them to approach the instructor confidently. This confidence blossoms into trust and establishes a good rapport between the student and instructor. The lesson plan can have multiple activities like labs, simulations, games and other group activities involving everyone and the instructor, making the instructor effective and impactful. As per Sybing (2019), educators and policymakers must look at teaching practices in the classroom to include rapport building. Even though preparing personalised lesson plans for each group will be time-consuming, it is well worth the effort. • Encourage students to share thoughts and ideas. Another important strategy to use in building rapport in an online environment is to encourage students to share their thoughts, ideas and preferences about any general topic that can be discussed in class. An instructor can also give their personal opinion (as long as it is not offensive in any way or culturally and religiously sensitive), which would encourage the students to be more open about their ideologies with the instructor, who they feel has the same values and interests. The instructor and the students may not be from the same beliefs and culture, yet these discussions offer an opportunity to respect each other’s opinions and agree to disagree in a healthy environment. This helps in building a better rapport with each other. Students need encouragement at all levels. The need to be constantly reminded that their instructor believes in them and is always there to help them succeed, whether that means setting up virtual office hours or simply welcoming any questions from the students or by email. Above all, it is important for the instructor to ensure the students understand that attaining high standards is possible if they apply themselves to the task. Every instructor should involve the students by asking them how they think distance learning can be improved by embedding a survey in the LMS that can be further enhanced by holding focus group discussions. When students are given a voice and a choice in their learning, student accountability often follows. Giving students a say in how they will learn has been linked to gains in student effort and achievement. • Right learning environment. Student accountability for their own learning and application begins with establishing the right learning environment. Every instructor should ensure that the lessons are made lively and interactive, especially in an online environment where human interaction is greatly missed. The classroom norms which reflect classroom expectations and meets the demands of

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digital classroom can be set up digitally on Padlet or Microsoft forms. It helps to collectively share the ideas of the students and come to an agreement between the instructor and students. It enhances student involvement as the students are aware of the norms, feels they are part of the classroom, and stay committed to their learning. To promote student accountability, instructors must also create an environment in which all students feel trusted and respected and have the support they need for success. According to Curry et al. (2019), rapport-building behaviours lead to high levels of productivity, and students put in more effort. • Sense of belonging. There are a number of strategies that can be adopted in class without compromising the time to deliver the content. One of them is to lighten up the session and have a conversation that quite often deviates from the topics that are taught in class. For example, when teaching a course on “Introduction to sustainability” where the instructor discusses ways in which the carbon footprint can be reduced, they could brainstorm solutions encouraging students to come up with innovative ideas. Having a sense of humour and a pleasant disposition also helps students feel comfortable and nurtures a sense of belonging that plays a vital role in establishing rapport. Personal connection with the students can also raise their intrinsic motivation to learn. When students feel interested in their work for the sake of mastering it, they develop a love of learning that will benefit them for their entire lives. When students focus less on grades and more on mastery, they are on their way towards a successful school career. Nurturing a sense of belonging starts by teaching and reinforcing the core competencies of social and emotional learning, in which students learn to understand and manage their emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, build and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible choices. When students feel connected to each other and their instructor and learn that their actions have consequences, they are more likely to take responsibility for their behaviour and their learning. One of the other ways in which the instructors can bond with students is by engaging them in club activities. Coordinating and running clubs is an out-of-class interaction with students that can work really well in building rapport. • Lower anxiety. Ensuring even shy students are given a platform to interact is crucial. One of the ways this can be accomplished is by reiterating the fact that learning is enhanced when students make mistakes and learn from them. Letting students know that it is completely acceptable to make mistakes is important to make them feel comfortable. Emails from the instructor also have a positive impact. In fact, students seem to prefer emails from their own instructors to being sent generic announcements from the LMS. Once the students feel assured and convinced that their instructor is there only to support them, they start opening up and taking responsibility for their actions. Strategies and techniques are required to be developed to lower frustration levels, enhance classroom management and address academic deficiencies (Higgs, 2014). • Instructor’s positive attitude. An instructor with a positive attitude, enthusiasm and expertise in the subject wins the trust and confidence of the students more quickly than others. Many may not always find it comfortable to be cheerful and

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witty in front of students. However, once practiced, it also becomes a habit formation in an online environment. Particularly over the internet, the tone of the instructor plays a very important role in conveying and spreading the spirit of the instructor to the students. The inclusion of animations and simulations that add a humorous touch to the lesson that are related to the lesson will make the class less monotonous. It is important that instructors clearly know what they want students to learn (Sieberer-Nagler, 2015). • A caring environment. One of the factors that would contribute to a healthy student–instructor relationship is to ensure that the students attend class regularly. The instructor needs to provide a caring atmosphere of a mentoring relationship and direct assistance to facilitate student learning. One of the greatest issues facing instructor–student relationships is that many students are not regular in coming to class. Chronic absenteeism is a major problem to be dealt with and may cause serious issues for society later on. If a student is not in class, it becomes more difficult on the part of the instructor to build a relationship and establish a personal connection with the student. Building rapport with the students and establishing oneself as their mentor is an excellent way to combat this problem of student absenteeism. Students are more motivated to attend classes if they know their instructor cares about them and will help them succeed. Becoming involved in the student’s academic and personality development as part of an organisation will help the student attend classes regularly and benefit from the environment. According to Agyekum (2019), institutions must help students to work on building positive relationships with their instructors. • Build trust. Another important factor in developing a strong instructor–student relationship is to build trust. Absence of trust concerning instructors or employers has several consequences for the individuals (Dyrenforth, 2014). The students must trust their instructor and believe that the instructor would only do what is best for them in life. Many young students trust their instructors easily. At that tender age, they simply see their instructor as another mother inside the classroom. Consistency is a key word to win students’ trust. Students only trust an instructor who is consistent in words and actions. Classrooms become happier and more productive places when the trust in the instructor is strong. At the university level, it is only the care and understanding on the part of the instructor about the students’ situation that helps students develop trust. In case the student happens to be a working adult, the instructor needs to be considerate of the fact that the time available for them is minimum and make sure they get extra time to complete assignments in class. Simply delivering exceptional instruction can also develop trust. Also, the environment at home might be an issue in students developing trust in the instructor. As instructors, we need to be patient to win them over. • Digitalisation. Today’s students are quite tech-savvy as they belong to generation Z. They are millennials who are digital natives. However, issues will still arise when shifting from the classroom to distance learning. Student responses on shared expectations illuminated that building friendships were important to them, as was ensuring a supportive, collaborative environment (Glacier, 2016).

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Offering easily accessible information technology support for students helps them fix problems fast and get back to learning and working. Students can be encouraged to participate in online clubs. They can be motivated to watch online videos on YouTube about the courses. Encouraging them to discuss their views with their peers not only develops communication skills, team-building and time management but also improves their depth of understanding of the technical aspects of the course. Different platforms like Socrative can be used in online classes to express students’ feelings at the start of the class, and it helps them communicate with each other. By using some features of the LMS provided by the organisation for the online class, they can be put in small groups where they are encouraged to speak and participate in other activities. This gives them the courage and confidence to communicate well and develop comfort with the instructor. During the lesson, students should be asked questions, and anonymous polling methods can be used, so students are not afraid to answer questions incorrectly. With the polling, most of the software will analyse the students’ answers which can help the instructor take the lesson further without highlighting the names of the students. This improves the comfort level of the students in the class and encourages them to ask questions in the chat, either privately to the instructor or to the group. To make the class more interactive, instructors should try to bring in virtual laboratories into the classroom. Using simulations for various topics also helps meet students’ knowledge levels and is user-friendly. Furthermore, using the simulating activity ensures that students are engaged during the class and are actually applying these concepts to real-life situations. In addition, students should be encouraged to share their thoughts, opinions and preferences so the instructor can get to know them well and plan and organise the lesson accordingly. • Orientation week/informal chat. Maximising the time spent with the students during the first week of orientation helps a great deal. The start of the semester provides a great opportunity when the instructor can make an effort to get to know students personally. It will also give the instructors a chance to know their students well and can also serve as an icebreaker. Providing an opportunity to build rapport with peers is equally important, which in turn helps with group dynamics which becomes pertinent while they are engaged in group projects. This can be complemented with asynchronous communication. Additional strategies that can be adopted include: sending out weekly announcements and regular emails with reminders and updates; having a good sense of humour quite rightly tops the list for some; engaging in a good informal chat by letting students share their good news or their achievements. • Personalised feedback. Giving personalised feedback is an important aspect that can be achieved through the mail merge feature. Sending a projection of their score makes students feel accountable, and there is also a sense of gratitude that is expressed by the students who are convinced that the instructor cares for them and hence they strive to put more effort into showing improvement during the academic year. Sending timely feedback post-assessment is quite important as

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this helps to identify at-risk students. Moving from a traditional classroom into an online one, instructors had to consciously build rapport with their students. The informal discussion which is normally used to be at the start of the class or during break time can be paced at frequent intervals because online sessions tend to go at a much faster pace.

Research Process A list of strategies were prepared based on the experiences of the research team and other instructors in an online class. These strategies were shared by email with a random selection of students from various organisations and amongst other instructors. Data collection revealed several preferred strategies which were interestingly different from the instructors’ and students’ perspectives. The results indicated that some instructors prefer to interact with students informally or send individual feedback, while others may prefer to arrive early to the classroom with a smile and a positive attitude. Engaging the students with social and cultural examples was a favoured strategy. Few instructors felt they could build rapport by using gamification and fun activities during class. Most instructors preferred to encourage students to ask questions conveying that they have the freedom to ask any question and that no question is silly. Here is the questionnaire that was sent out to the instructors and students (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2).

Analysis The survey was sent to a random selection of 50 students, with 35 responses received. Participants mostly comprised Emirati males and a few international students in their first and second year of study at various universities. The results received from the students and instructors were analysed individually. Based on these activities, the following are some of the popular strategies adopted by instructors and preferred by students: From the students’ perspective, one of the most preferred strategies from their instructor is that the instructor logs in early to the online class, which would give the students some time to have an informal chat with the instructor. The students felt that this would break the ice and make them comfortable to converse with the instructor about any issues they might be hesitant to speak about in front of their peers. Many students also suggested that more fun activities and gamification techniques be included in the online lessons that would encourage them to participate more in class. These activities need not be any verbal discussion that might require

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Fig. 14.1  Survey – Instructor version

Fig. 14.2  Survey – Student version

the students to turn on the microphone and speak. With most students being ESL learners, speaking in English in front of their class might be challenging for most of them. Any gamification technique included in the lesson may allow them to participate using their laptop or mobile without actually communicating with the class or the instructor. Likewise, the survey was also sent to a random selection of 20 instructors with 18 responses. Again, they were from various nationalities and academic backgrounds. Most of the instructors preferred to lighten up the class with some non-academic conversations that would break the monotony of the lesson. Although, care needs to be taken not to distract the students from their lesson and lose the valuable time

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spent with their instructor. These short breaks from the lesson, from the instructors’ point of view, rejuvenated the class and brought the students back to the lesson if they were drifting due to prolonged focus on the lesson. Many instructors also preferred to refer to socially and culturally relevant examples in their lessons. However, all of them also felt that while referring to these examples, the cultural sensitivity must be kept in mind to maintain mutual respect in the online class. One more strategy preferred by most of the instructors was to be energetic and pleasant as they teach. When instructors are behind the screen, sometimes for various reasons, the cameras being turned off, the instructor’s demeanour brings the motivation to attend the class, and students pay attention to the class. In many instructors’ opinions, this played a major role in making the students comfortable in their classes. Displaying office hours online and being available for the students during those times, also built the trust for students in their instructor. One important strategy that both instructors and students preferred was getting to know each other by their names with or without a profile picture or an avatar in an online class environment. This gives them a sense of belonging and adds a personal touch to the classroom. In fact, it actually humanises the student–instructor relationship when most of the students have their cameras turned on. Students strongly felt that knowing their instructors’ names and interests would bridge the gap between them and their instructors. From the instructors’ perspective, getting to know the students by their first names was an ice breaker when everybody is behind the screen.

Conclusion and Implications The above strategies were implemented in the online classes which helps to establish a good rapport, and proved to be a successful intervention strategy to help with student retention, to increase academic success, and most importantly to make learning an enjoyable experience. Based on the study, it is recommended that the above strategies be used by the instructors in an online class environment to help build rapport with students. The specific strategies adopted by the instructor will vary according to the type and level of students and the course content. It is, therefore, advisable to embed a survey in the LMS at the start and end of the semester. The survey findings will guide the instructor, and this will also ensure that it is a continuous improvement process that is customised to a specific group of students. However, as with every research study, these findings have certain limitations. One of them was the survey was limited only to students based in a particular area rather than including students worldwide. The latter would have given us a global perspective and a better insight into popular choices adopted. Another important factor was that the response rate was lower than expected. Higher response rates would have highlighted a broader range of strategies to be used. The research could be further extended to using and improving these strategies to address “at-risk” students. This will help to analyse the intervention strategies that would improve the students’ performances. A combined qualitative and

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quantitative research study can be initiated to evaluate the use of the various features of the LMS like adaptive release, colour coding, etc. on these students in an online class. It is probably safe to assume that any intervention strategies used to enhance the students’ learning experience is bound to show a positive impact on the students, provided they are closely monitored. However, the impact of the results will vary based on the demographic profile of the students.

References Agyekum, S. (2019). Instructor-student relationships: The impact on high school students. Online Submission, 10(14), 121–122. Bolliger, D. U., & Martin, F. (2021). Factors underlying the perceived importance of online student engagement strategies. [Importance of online student engagement]. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 13(2), 404–419. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-­02-­2020-­004 Curry, S. M., Gravina, N. E., Sleiman, A. A., & Richard, E. (2019). The effects of engaging in rapport-building behaviors on productivity and discretionary effort. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 39(3-4), 213–226. Dyrenforth, T. (2014). Classroom success through rapport-building. Master Instructor Program, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY. Frisby, B.  N., & Munoz, B. (2021). Love me, love my class: Instructor perceptions of rapport building with students across cultures. Communication Reports, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.108 0/08934215.2021.1931387 Glazier, R. A. (2016). Building rapport to improve retention and success in online classes. Journal of Political Science Education, 12(4), 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2016.1155994 Glazier, R. A., & Harris, H. S. (2020). How teaching with rapport can improve online student success and retention: Data from two empirical studies. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 21(4), 1–73. Higgs, C. (2014). Connecting with students: Strategies for building rapport with urban learners. Rowman & Littlefield Education. Kaufmann, R., & Vallade, J. I. (2020). Exploring connections in the online learning environment: Student perceptions of rapport, climate, and loneliness. Interactive Learning Environments, 30(10), 1794–1808. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1749670 Redmond, P., Foote, S.  M., Brown, A., Mixson-Brookshire, D., Abawi, L., & Henderson, R. (2021). Adopting a framework to support the process of critical reflection and understanding of online engagement. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 34(1), 109–131. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12528-­021-­09281-­3 Sieberer-Nagler, K. (2015). Effective classroom-management & positive teaching. English Language Teaching, 9(1), 163–172. Sybing, R. (2019). Making connections: Student-instructor rapport in higher education classrooms. The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 19(5), 10.14434/josotl.v19i5.26578. Webb, N., & Barrett, L.  O. (2014). Student views of instructor-student rapport in the college classroom. The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14(2), 15–28. https://doi. org/10.14434/josotl.v14i2.4259 Wilson, J. H., & Ryan, R. G. (2013). Professor–student rapport scale: Six items predict student outcomes. Teaching of Psychology, 40(2), 130–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628312475033

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Gomathy Krishnan holds a postgraduate degree in Applied Physics from Madurai Kamaraj University, India, and has 25 years of teaching experience in the Middle East for various curricula. Gomathy comes from a family of teachers and is passionate about her profession. She is the recipient of many awards and recognitions including being voted as the Most Inspirational Teacher by Higher Colleges of Technology students.  

Wahida Dastakeer has over 20 years of experience teaching for a consortium of programs, which includes life sciences, chemistry, and general studies at the Higher Colleges of Technology. She is the recipient of the “Flipped Classroom” Award and the “Green Award” by the HCT-Dubai colleges, in addition to the “GESS Education” Award.  

Neha Gupta has over 15 years of experience of teaching Maths and Physics in aviation and engineering in Higher Colleges of Technology, as well as Emirates Aviation University and Dubai Aerospace Enterprise Flight Academy in UAE. She is passionate about her teaching and always shows a keen interest in learning new technologies. She has written a Maths and Physics book for a pilot program at Emirates Aviation University.  

Chapter 15

Leveraging the Art of Medical Illustration to Enhance Anatomy Instruction Valerie Weiss and Krista Casazza

Abstract  Medical illustration uniquely links art and science, serving as a conceptual crossroads between the creative and the scientific context of health science education. This chapter describes the course development of an evidence-based teaching method aimed at directly improving content knowledge and indirectly decreasing psychosocial barriers that limit comprehension of course material, of particular importance during the unprecedented uncertainty of the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead of traditional textbooks, students in the medical illustration honors elective course reviewed anatomy and physiology concepts through case studies and then used illustration techniques to display their knowledge through drawing. This pedagogical method allowed learners to approach science uniquely, through their own lens, to create learning guides, not by studying anatomy as a theoretical discipline or rote memorization, but rather by leveraging a low-stress creative learning environment. The implemented curriculum concurrently empowered creativity, problem-solving, and a deeper understanding of anatomy and physiology. Without exception, students in this novel course could relax and ultimately feel less isolated during the COVID-19 pandemic while simultaneously learning anatomy. Keywords  Medical illustration · Anatomy and physiology · Health science · Medical education

Introduction The anxiety came in the night. Reports of a virus spreading easily and causing death were all over the news. The world immediately shut down. How were we supposed to feel?

V. Weiss (*) · K. Casazza Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_15

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Even under typical circumstances, stress is extremely common among prehealth professional students (Jafari, 2017). The unprecedented layer of stressors encompassing the COVID-19 pandemic induced profound uncertainty and disruption across college campuses and, consequently, a profound need to mitigate the significant adverse mental health concerns. Beyond heavy course loads, undergraduate preprofessional health science majors have pressure to attain a high grade-point average for graduate program acceptance, increasing the risk of developing anxiety and other adverse mental health-related symptoms (Frazier et al., 2019). Both acute and chronic stress, and frequently co-occurring anxiety, negatively contribute to the quality of student learning and ultimately increase the risk of attrition from competitive health programs (He et al., 2019). In 2020, the challenge of engaging students in innovative learner-centered pedagogy became amplified; students in rigorous majors encountered an unprecedented, additional layer of stress. Qualitative research has suggested that incorporating art into preprofessional health science education improves visual perception skills, empathy, and personal reflection (Godley et  al., 2020). In addition, a creative curriculum integrating art into the sciences may foster self-esteem and self-awareness, cultivate emotional resilience, and ensure quality of life (Rieger et al., 2016). This chapter describes a course in medical illustration as a key representation of a pedagogical approach to promote a positive student learning experience. Specifically, we describe developing and implementing an undergraduate course merging arts and sciences: learning anatomy through illustration. In this course, the learner approaches anatomical science uniquely – creating illustrating structures not by the classical study of gross anatomy as a theoretical discipline or by rote memorization but rather by leveraging a low-stress creative learning environment. Art represents an evidence-based, widely accepted pedagogical strategy to improve student learning (Ruppert, 2006). While not innovative, learning via drawing characterizes an approach that, particularly during the pandemic, linked the acquisition of knowledge with emotional and psychological well-being. Specifically, we used drawing to reinforce anatomical concepts and, in doing so, optimized aesthetic experience, emotional processing, pleasure, and reward, ultimately decreasing stress and anxiety. The overarching objective of this chapter is to present an evidence-based method and high-impact teaching practice that fosters and supports optimal student learning.

Dare to Dream Gloria Steinem said, “Dreaming, after all, is a form of planning” (Hoff, 1991). For many students, planning for the healthcare profession necessitates visualizing a future with academic challenges, often seemingly unsurmountable. Anatomy forms the basis of health sciences; it is, therefore, essential to establish a fundamental understanding of key concepts and anatomical structures and their relationships at the beginning of undergraduate health education. Enrollment in anatomy and physiology, a prerequisite course for most health professional majors, is one of the first

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daunting endeavors in a student’s academic career. The academic and psychological rigors of this course generally result in lower-than-average course completion. Amid the pandemic, increasing opportunities to empower students to reach aspirations by increasing the relevance of anatomical instruction regarding lifelong experiences is now more important than ever. To date, many instructional design techniques employed to impact learning have fallen short in the utility needed to enhance medical and anatomical education, reform pedagogical efforts, and receive positive learner feedback (Kind, 2009). As Sarah Rose Cavanagh discusses in her book, The Spark of Learning, higher education is beginning to awaken our emotions’ power over our capacity to learn. The author advocates that the emotional impact of your teaching style and the design of the course is paramount to your student’s learning (Cavanagh, 2016). Because many students enjoy art, irrespective of talent, medical illustration can be viewed as a conceptual crossroads between arts and science in the context of health science education. The course goal of this hybridized medical/art undergraduate class was to fulfill the learner’s need to acquire fundamental understanding of core concepts in a nonthreatening environment.

 eimaging Learning: An Elective Course R in Medical Illustration Illustrating techniques and anatomy and physiology lessons were collectively integrated into the instructional design and development of a medical illustration course offered through the Honors College at Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU), a public, regional teaching university located in Fort Myers, Florida. FGCU has an enrollment of approximately 15,000 students (88% undergraduate, 56% female). This novel course in medical illustration was offered to approximately 1200 students in the FGCU Honors community, a select group of dedicated and diverse students. Exceptions were made for a few students not specifically part of the Honors College. The implemented curriculum aimed to promote student creativity, problem-solving, and a deeper understanding of anatomy and physiology. With instructor guidance in class, in lieu of text-based applications, comprehension of the human body and disease processes was bolstered by inquiry-based, learner-centered application of medical illustration. While the design of the curricula began pre-­ COVID-­19 pandemic, an alternative, innovative learning strategy, enriching anatomical and physiological constructs, was leveraged to enhance the students’ psychological well-being during the pandemic concurrently. To date, all the students were female and had majors within the College of Arts and Sciences or the College of Health and Human Services. Major fields of study included nursing, health science, public health, exercise science, biology, biotechnology, psychology, social work, forensic science, and integrated studies. Students represented each of the undergraduate classes, with sophomores comprising the

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majority of students (47%). The course had no specific prerequisites and simply served as an elective, not counting toward any specific student major. Reasons for taking this course included responses such as, “Interested in medical illustration, needed credits for full-time status, peer recommendation of professor, creative freedom and stress relief, Honors college credit, and interest in learning human anatomy.” Artistic talent was not required for taking the course, although many students expressed interest in drawing. When asked about how often they draw on their own, the majority of students (67%) responded, “sometimes.” Unaware of the ensuing chaos that the COVID-19 pandemic would deal with, the Spring 2020 course began as traditional in-class instruction. Attempts to approximate normalcy included providing face-to-face instruction for as long as possible and returning to campus as soon as safety measures and procedures were in place. However, approximately mid-semester, the distancing guidelines for the University required an immediate transition to online synchronous meetings via Zoom. All students continued to draw, collaborate, and share feedback on their progress working on their drawings, albeit virtually. While not specifically designed to reduce the stress associated with the content, the students reported therapeutic effects of their drawing in addition to enhanced content knowledge, especially while self-isolating. Safety accommodations and adherence to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines allowed the Fall 2020 course offering to proceed in person. The students came to class, spaced their drawing desks 6  feet apart, and wore masks. The course grew in popularity, evolving from a one-credit “Honors Reading Class” to a full three-credit Honors elective. The popularity and success also increased from a student enrollment cap of 10 to 24 (limited by room capacity guidelines). The Spring 2021 class was filled on the first morning of registration.

Medical Illustration: Its History to Present Medical illustration has a long history, dating back to third-century BC drawings done on papyrus (Mavrodi et  al., 2013). Fast-forward to the Renaissance period when two well-known artists, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, made great achievements in the medical illustration by painting and sculpting the human body (Bell & Evans, 2014). Leonardo da Vinci, sometimes referred to as the father of anatomic art, is famous for his Vitruvian man, which highlights the proportions of the human body (Jones, 2012). Following the progress established by these two Renaissance artists, the Flemish sixteenth-century physician, Dr. Andreas Vesalius, continued studying and drawing the human body. Considered a quintessential physician-­artist, Vesalius created the first anatomy textbook, The Seven Books on the Fabric of the Human Body (Afshar et al., 2019). After Vesalius’ advancement in the field, Max Brödel a twentieth-century medical illustrator, merged art and science with his creation of operative textbooks, highlighted by realistic surgical drawings and cross-sectional anatomy illustrations. Brödel is considered by many to be the father of modern medical illustration; his work continues to be invaluable in

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Fig. 15.1  COVID-19 virus Medical Illustration by Alissa Eckert, 2021

medicine today (Patel et al., 2011). Dr. Frank Netter followed Brödel as one of the most loved medical illustrators among medical students everywhere. Netter was an artist who became a physician and combined both passions, culminating in a successful career (Netter & Friedlaender, 2014). Netter’s Atlas of Human Anatomy is widely used as a standard reference book in many medical schools because of its incredibly detailed and accurately beautiful renderings of the human body (Netter & Friedlaender, 2014). Whereas medical illustration used to be more about the discovery of anatomy and its documentation, today, the field has expanded into effective medical storytelling. For example, as the COVID-19 virus grew in strength, the CDC asked its medical illustrators to create an educational yet striking image of the virus. Thus, the iconic illustration of the “gray blob with red spikes” (Fig. 15.1) was created by the medical illustrator, Alissa Eckert (Eckert & Higgins, 2020). This illustration taught the world about the pandemic, highlighting the important parts of the virus, including its perilous proteins. Although Eckert’s rendition went “viral” on the Internet, scientific precision was not sacrificed: a cohesive and accurate image of the microscopic virus was able to be displayed worldwide. Today, medical illustration is ever-­ present: medical illustrators have stepped up their unique skills, merging science with art, to aid in the communication of science while teaching diverse audiences.

Students’ Stress Levels I really enjoyed being able to relax and draw at my own pace. I always enjoyed art, so being able to do it for a grade is awesome. This is my favorite class, and I always look forward to coming. – Student Spring 2021 course

In higher education, high levels of stress and anxiety, accompanying core preprofessional health science courses, can impede academic success, and consequently, directly and indirectly decrease emotional well-being. The mandates necessitated by the pandemic, profoundly increased uncertainty across every domain of campus life. Studies estimated stress levels among college students across the U.S. were at an all-time high. The American College Health Association reported an alarming

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60% of U.S. students felt “overwhelming” anxiety while 40% experienced depression so severe they had difficulty functioning, with 27% reporting the anxiety caused them to achieve a lower grade on an exam or in a class (American College Health Association, 2019). To evaluate the stress of students returning to the classroom during the peri-­ COVID-­19 pandemic, the seven-question Generalized Anxiety Disorder Assessment (GAD-7) tool was used. Originally developed by Spitzer et al. (2006), the GAD-7 is a screening tool used in primary care and mental health settings to assess anxiety and its severity. The GAD-7 asks seven questions: Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems? (1) Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge? (2) Not being able to stop or control worrying? (3) Worrying too much about different things? (4) Trouble relaxing? (5) Being so restless that it is hard to sit still? (6) Becoming easily annoyed or irritated? (7) Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen? The seven questions are rated on a 4-point Likert-­ type scale with 0 points assigned to answers of “not at all;” 1 point to “several days;” 2 points to “more than half the days;” and 3 points to “nearly every day.” The points from the seven questions are tallied and summed together. A score of 10 is considered “moderate anxiety” while a score of 15 is considered “severe anxiety.” Using the threshold of 10, this survey is considered to have an 89% sensitivity for generalized anxiety disorder and an 82% specificity for generalized anxiety. All 24 students in the Spring 2021 medical illustration class were invited to engage in assessments without a promise of compensation, including receiving course points for participation. Ten students completed the survey. The protocol was approved by the FGCU Review Board. Our survey results showed students (n = 10) were experiencing frequent worry and anxiety (Table 15.1). Using the mean as an “average student,” our tallied sum score would be 18.2, which would be considered equivalent to “severe anxiety.” Table 15.1  GAD-7 survey results, part 1

Anxiety construct Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge Not being able to stop or control worrying Worrying too much about different things Trouble relaxing Being so restless that it is hard to sit still Becoming easily annoyed or irritable Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen

Mean ± SD (n = 10) 3.10 + 1.14

Frequency Not at Several all days 1 3

Over half the days 0

Nearly every day 6

2.60 + 1.36

4

0

2

4

2.90 + 1.14

1

4

0

5

2.70 + 1.19 2.50 + 1.36

2 4

3 1

1 1

4 4

2.20 + 0.87

3

2

5

0

2.20 + 1.25

4

3

0

3

15  Leveraging the Art of Medical Illustration to Enhance Anatomy Instruction Table 15.2  GAD-7 survey results, part 2

Response Not difficult at all Somewhat difficult Very difficult Extremely difficult

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Count (n = 10) 5 3 2

In addition, students were queried further regarding if any of the above problems listed in the GAD-7 survey were identified, “How difficult have these problems made it for you to do your work, take care of things at home, or get along with other people?” (n = 10) Answer choices included “not difficult at all, somewhat difficult, very difficult, or extremely difficult.” Five students responded, “somewhat difficult;” three students responded, “very difficult;” and two students responded, “extremely difficult.” (Table 15.2).

Converting Stress into Productivity One of the lessons taught each week was to start drawing, regardless of current stress level or what other homework tasks had to be completed. As one student explained, she learned an invaluable lesson in class: “Everyone starts somewhere. Do not be afraid to take that leap.” By drawing and creating art together in class, perhaps we become less lonely and then less stressed. Many students doodle; we are not all artists, but we may find relief in a creative outlet. In fact, mental health therapists use art as a means of expression after a traumatic event (Van Lith, 2016). The use of simplified drawings may even relax barriers surrounding verbal communication. Students responded positively to the classroom community we were able to create despite the global pandemic. Although we were spaced 6 feet apart and wore masks, we played music and checked in with each other. An emphasis was placed on giving positive feedback to classmates. We had many informal artwork critiques at the end of the class time and/or the start of the next class session. Students placed their sketchbooks and drawings on the wall, and we discussed their various successes. Depending on the specific project, students were called upon to verbalize what they liked about a classmate’s work. The mini critiques included various topics: creating a visual narrative, understanding and engaging the target audience, and creating imagery that is anatomically correct yet distilled down. By verbalizing our stylistic decisions while creating these illustrations, we hoped to instill confidence and further a sense of community, all for the ultimate intention of understanding anatomy and physiology. Qualitative assessment: At the end of the Spring 2021 semester, the 24 students were invited to answer, “What was the most beneficial skill learned from the course?” Responses included, “I loved just how relaxing and supportive the

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environment was. I never felt judged, just support and I feel that positive reinforcement made me do even better! I also learned so many techniques that I will surely be using throughout my future career (in biotechnology)” and “I learned that medical art doesn’t have to be absolutely perfect/symmetrical, the human body isn’t.” Another student responded that she gained “patience and humility,” skills that we were not objectively trying to teach. Although our intention was not to directly teach humility, we feel that getting in touch with our modest side can set us up for future success, and for that, we are grateful. To quote Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Most of the shadows of life are caused by standing in our own sunshine” (Emerson et al., 1967). Without exception, students were engaged. Other survey responses included: • “I’ve learned that it’s possible to learn information outside of a textbook and to practice this information with drawing rather than studying!” • “Adapting to a new learning environment.” • “Communicating science through art.” • “Review of anatomy.” • “How medical illustrations can be used in real life.” • “The ability to use tools to make something educational and beautiful.” • “Being creative, relaxing, and learning more in depth about specific diseases and anatomy through case study examples.” • “Patience and creativity.” • “Being able to convey complex scientific/anatomical concepts through art.”

Course Curriculum Dr. Frank Netter once said, “Draw what can’t be seen, watch what’s never been done, and tell thousands about it without saying a word” (Hajar, 2011). Medical illustrators seek to highlight the important parts of a process or structure, simplifying images where appropriate without doing harm to the scientific purpose of the presentation. Through medical illustration, art and science were leveraged with an integrated curriculum: we alternated drawing instruction with medical case studies and anatomy lessons in every class. Students were required to have a sketchbook and some basic drawing supplies such as colored pencils and pen and ink markers. The course was divided into nine units covering art and anatomy. During Unit #1, the art topics included an introduction to the field of medical illustration, as well as an introduction to basic drawing concepts such as point of view and drawing in lights and shadows. Next, students delved into a case study with a patient suffering from osteoporosis. After reviewing the pathophysiology behind osteoporosis, we started our first drawing of the semester, highlighting this disease. The students did a wonderful job with their first drawings. There were various approaches, including the textures of healthy and porous bone and a hip fracture commonly seen with osteoporosis and the benefit of calcium with drinking milk (Fig. 15.2).

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Fig. 15.2  Unit #1, bones and osteoporosis

We progressed to the next curricular unit by discussing how one learns how to see, translating observations to written drawings, and practicing visualizing the difference between conceptual drawing (what we know about an object) and perceptual drawing (drawing what you see). Our anatomy lesson centered around the right lower quadrant anatomy with the cecum and appendix. In our case study, the patient

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suffered from appendicitis. After reviewing possible causes of appendicitis, such as an obstruction secondary to fecalith formation, we made illustrations of the right lower quadrant, specifically focusing on the cecum and appendix (Fig. 15.3). During Unit # 3, our art lesson covered the use of text in medical illustration and general guidelines for labeling, including consideration of the audience prior to planning the artwork. We critiqued some other artists’ works and discussed whether or not the artwork was appropriate for the intended viewers and if the text was a helpful tool or a hindrance. The third project was to use one of the previous projects (bone or appendix) and add text. Some students even made mock-up magazine covers and educational posters with this text-based assignment. Drawings are displayed in Fig. 15.4. In Unit #4, we introduced the students to the field of medical legal illustration, specifically designed to use as demonstrative evidence in the courtroom. Our anatomical case study focused on a herniated disc, and we reviewed the anatomy of the vertebral column, its adjacent intervertebral discs, and the pathophysiology behind a herniated disc. The corresponding project was assigned to help demonstrate to a jury the difference between a normal intervertebral disc and a herniated intervertebral disc (Fig. 15.5). In the next unit, students learned how to create textures with lines. We worked on various exercises to practice our pen and ink techniques. The anatomy lesson focused on the integumentary system, specifically the skin and its unique structure. Our case study reviewed the skin’s layers and its many cell types. Students created educational black-and-white drawings of the skin using ink pens (Fig. 15.6). In Unit #6, we introduced the students to color and basic color theory. We talked about mixed media pieces such as the use of pen and ink with colored pencils. Further art topics in this unit focused on visual abstraction and using symbols in art. Finally, we talked about how medical illustrators can tell compelling stories without the use of words. Our anatomy case focused on an autoimmune disease called myasthenia gravis. At this point in the semester, we found the students to be incorporating many of the elements they had learned and practiced thus far (Fig. 15.7). In the next unit, we learned what value means in art, especially regarding color theory. We also talked about simultaneous contrast and how certain colors behave differently when they are placed adjacent to other colors. The anatomy lesson focused on blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. The corresponding anatomical case study focused on the physiology of blood flow through capillaries. We talked about how medical illustrators demonstrate the structural difference among the three big types of blood vessels, and we critiqued various illustrators’ work depicting blood flow through vessels. Finally, the students produced their own impressive pieces of the blood vessels in the human body (Fig. 15.8). In the next curricular unit, we practiced drawing in three-dimensions. We continued to incorporate and practice our new drawing skills. One classroom exercise involved drawing upside down to eliminate preconceived notions. Our medical-­ based case study was about a patient experiencing a heart attack. As the heart is such an iconic organ, everyone enjoyed this project (Fig. 15.9).

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Fig. 15.3  Unit #2: RLQ anatomy and appendicitis

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Fig. 15.4  Unit #3: the use of text in the illustration

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Fig. 15.5  Unit #4: illustrate for medical legal with normal disc versus herniated disc

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Fig. 15.6  Unit #5: the skin and integument

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Fig. 15.7  Unit #6: storytelling and myasthenia gravis

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Fig. 15.8  Unit #7: focus on the blood vessels

We feel like our hearts were drawn more beautifully than those seen traditionally on Valentine’s Day. The focus of our final unit was drawing a unique composition, again highlighting a story. Our case study was about the brain and a patient suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. The students finished the semester with creative ideas to illustrate neurologic decline, including a brain-melting, a brain being eaten by moths, and a brain being erased (Fig. 15.10).

Can Art Make Students Feel Less Isolated? The Spring 2021 students were also asked, “Did drawing help you to feel less lonely and isolated during this pandemic?” Every student (n = 24) answered this question affirmatively.

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Fig. 15.9  Unit #8: storytelling: the heart as an iconic organ

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Fig. 15.10  Unit #9: focus on Alzheimer’s disease

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Free responses to this question included: • “It did actually.” • “Drawing brought me pleasure during such a hard time for me.” • “Yes, I made new friends in this class.” One student commented, “Coming to this class on Tuesday and Thursday afternoon was the only reason for me to leave my dorm. Otherwise, I just sat on my bed and did homework.”

Can Art Teach Anatomy? While qualitative research has demonstrated a beneficial contribution of incorporating art as a supplement for medical student training, integrating art into health professional education has not yet had a specific curricular focus. Qualitative reports have provided some evidence that among medical residents, art may improve intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, diagnostic skills, and the ability to empathize with patients (Dalia et al., 2020). Leveraging an art museum partnership, medical students were engaged in a real patient-physician encounter and then sketched a picture of the encounter (Elder et al., 2006). More recently, instruction implementing other forms of art into medical education resulted in increased empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, and teamwork, as well as capitalizing on the inherent ambiguity of art to provide an “acceptance of multiple meanings,” improving mindfulness, and increased emotional awareness, with students consistently reporting satisfaction with the art integrated curricula (Bentwich & Gilbey, 2017; Huang et al., 2016; Jasani & Saks, 2013). Acknowledging the potential for drawing to enhance medical education has led to increased interest in curricular additions. A narrative review by Mukunda et al. (2019), entitled “The Art of Examination: Art Museum and Medical School Partnerships Forum,” identified 70 medical schools globally that offer courses in the arts for medical students, with 11  in the United States. These primarily elective courses employ techniques focused on developing observational and diagnostic skills, empathy, active recognition and mindfulness of one’s own emotional response, and development of trust between students to promote positive team dynamics and support relational communication (Mukunda et al., 2019). However, in the undergraduate courses described in this chapter, we posit the arts can provide distinctively different approaches to teaching and learning, which can facilitate the quality of learning content in new and creative ways. Alleviating the stress and anxiety frequently encountered in undergraduate prerequisite courses such as anatomy through integrating medical illustration, represents a paradigm switch from a continuous quest for excellence with little room for error to a route for engagement and application, often missing from a congested competency-based curriculum.

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Lessons Learned The course utilized a web-based survey to query students regarding their confidence in three categories: drawing skills, knowledge of anatomy, and ability to draw anatomy (combining the two fields) at the beginning and end of the course. Fifteen students responded to the survey rating their confidence levels on a scale of 1 (low) -10 (high). Student responses to the survey are included in Table 15.3 and Fig. 15.11. Confidence levels grew in all three categories: ability to draw, ability to understand medicine, and finally, the ability to combine art and science. Increasingly, these two disciplines  – art and science  – intersect and can reinforce each other, allowing students to learn anatomy on a deeper level. When asked, “Did drawing help you to reinforce anatomical concepts and/or build anatomy connections? The Table 15.3  Student confidence levels How confident were you in your drawing skills BEFORE taking the course? How confident were you in your drawing skills AFTER taking the course? How confident were you in your knowledge of anatomy BEFORE taking the course? How confident were you in your knowledge of anatomy AFTER taking the course? How confident were you in your ability to draw anatomy BEFORE taking the course? How confident were you in your ability to draw anatomy AFTER taking the course?

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Drawing Skills

Anatomy Confidence Knowledge in ability to draw Pre

Fig. 15.11 Pre-Post

Post

Mean ± SD 5.93 + 2.1 7.50 + 1.4 5.80 + 2.2 7.1 + 1.5 5.7 + 1.8 7.2 + 1.5

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answer was 100% “Yes or absolutely yes.” Some students were very talented. They ended up presenting their artwork in shows, and many will continue to draw, especially with some added confidence.

Conclusion This evaluation of instruction provides preliminary data regarding the interactions between stress and learning in prehealth college science majors. Findings suggest that an aesthetic experience leveraging medical illustration and overall well-being was enhanced, as evidenced by reduced self-reported stress and anxiety. We anticipated bringing students together with a common goal with a creative outlet: a course in drawing medical-related topics would help alleviate stress while advancing scientific knowledge. Each week’s lessons embraced art and anatomy: a brief drawing lesson followed by a medical case study. Connections and friendships were fostered. Ideally, we could look at the long-term friendships formed over a longer period and whether or not students knew each other prior to taking the course. Also, we were limited in the number of students in class and those that responded to our surveys. Likewise, measuring the impact of forming community and friendships is often difficult as the benefits are potentially abstract. We prioritized retaining the vibrant exchanges between students that characterize in-person classes while engaging in medical-based learning through art. As a bonus, drawing about medical case subjects increased the students’ knowledge of anatomy and physiology. Moreover, we did not formally assess the benefit of drawing anatomy concerning grades in the sciences. Did drawing a picture of the heart increase student exam scores in subsequent cardiovascular subject exams? Many would argue that personal time invested can have value, even if there is no direct proven relationship between exam scores or grades. Future Recommendations • Integrating art into core science disciplines promotes a bi-directional learner-­ centered enhanced quality of instruction, allowing students to improve content and creativity. • Drawing can help reinforce anatomical concepts: by decreasing the perceived stress with content, thus promoting academic success in the preprofessional health science curriculum. • A creative course in medical illustration offered for health science students may be leveraged to help students alleviate stress and engage with peers while simultaneously learning, which was particularly relevant during the uncertain and social isolation contexts of COVID-19.

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References Afshar, A., Steensma, D. P., & Kyle, R. A. (2019). Andreas Vesalius and De Fabrica. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 94(5), e67–e68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.03.018 American College Health Association. (2019). National College Health Assessment II: Reference group executive summary spring 2019. American College Health Association. Bell, L. T., & Evans, D. J. (2014). Art, anatomy, and medicine: Is there a place for art in medical education? Anatomical Sciences Education, 7(5), 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1435 Bentwich, M. E., & Gilbey, P. (2017). More than visual literacy: Art and the enhancement of tolerance for ambiguity and empathy. BMC Medical Education, 17(1), 200. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12909-­017-­1028-­7 Cavanagh, S. R. (2016). The spark of learning: Energizing the college classroom with the science of emotion (1st ed.). West Virginia University Press. Dalia, Y., Milam, E. C., & Rieder, E. A. (2020). Art in medical education: A review. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 12(6), 686–695. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-­D-­20-­00093.1 Eckert, A., & Higgins, D. (2020). Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARSCoV-2) COVID-19 illustration. Elder, N.  C., Tobias, B., Lucero-Criswell, A., & Goldenhar, L. (2006). The art of observation: Impact of a family medicine and art museum partnership on student education. Family Medicine, 38(6), 393–398. Emerson, R. W., Clough, S., & Press, P. P. (1967). Self-reliance: An essay. Peter Pauper Press. Frazier, P., Gabriel, A., Merians, A., & Lust, K. (2019). Understanding stress as an impediment to academic performance. Journal of American college health: J of ACH, 67(6), 562–570. https:// doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1499649 Godley, B.  A., Dayal, D., Manekin, E., & Estroff, S.  E. (2020). Toward an anti-racist curriculum: Incorporating art into medical education to improve empathy and structural competency. Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development, 7, 2382120520965246. https:// doi.org/10.1177/2382120520965246 Hajar, R. (2011). Medical illustration: Art in medical education. Heart Views: The Official Journal of the Gulf Heart Association, 12(2), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.4103/1995-­705X.86023 He, B., Prasad, S., & Higashi, R.  T. (2019). The art of observation: A qualitative analysis of medical students’ experiences. BMC Medical Education, 19(234). Retrieved from https://doi. org/10.1186/s12909-­019-­1671-­2. Hoff, M. (1991). Gloria Steinem: The women’s movement. Millbrook Press. Huang, J. T., Reynolds, S. D., DiGiovanni Evans, B., Zimmermann, C., Joyce, C. J., Katz, J. T., & Buzney, E. (2016). Fine arts curriculum improves observational skills of dermatology trainees: A pilot study. The British Journal of Dermatology, 175(4), 815–817. https://doi.org/10.1111/ bjd.14616 Jafari, M. (2017). Life101 enhances healthy lifestyle choices in pre-health undergraduate students. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 14(3), 10.14453/jutlp.v14i3.4. Jasani, S.  K., & Saks, N.  S. (2013). Utilizing visual art to enhance the clinical observation skills of medical students. Medical Teacher, 35(7), e1327–e1331. https://doi.org/10.310 9/0142159X.2013.770131 Jones, R. (2012). Leonardo da Vinci: anatomist. The British Journal of General Practice: The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 62(599), 319. https://doi.org/10.3399/ bjgp12X649241 Kind, V. (2009). Pedagogical content knowledge in science education: Perspectives and potential for progress. Studies in Science Education, 45(2), 169–204. https://doi. org/10.1080/03057260903142285 Mavrodi, A., Paraskevas, G., & Kitsoulis, P. (2013). The history and the art of anatomy: A source of inspiration even nowadays. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology = Archivio Italiano di Anatomia ed Embriologia, 118(3), 267–276.

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Mukunda, N., Moghbeli, N., Rizzo, A., Niepold, S., Bassett, B., & DeLisser, H. M. (2019). Visual art instruction in medical education: A narrative review. Medical Education Online, 24(1), 1558657. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2018.1558657 Netter, F.  M., & Friedlaender, G.  E. (2014). Frank H.  Netter MD and a brief history of medical illustration. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 472(3), 812–819. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11999-­013-­3459-­8 Patel, S. K., Couldwell, W. T., & Liu, J. K. (2011). Max Brödel: His art, legacy, and contributions to neurosurgery through medical illustration. Journal of Neurosurgery, 115(1), 182–190. https://doi.org/10.3171/2011.1.JNS101094 Rieger, K.  L., Chernomas, W.  M., McMillan, D.  E., Morin, F.  L., & Demczuk, L. (2016). Effectiveness and experience of arts-based pedagogy among undergraduate nursing students: A mixed methods systematic review. JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports, 14(11), 139–239. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBISRIR-­2016-­003188 Ruppert, S.  S. (2006). Critical evidence: How the arts benefit student achievement. National Assembly of State Arts Agencies. Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092 Van Lith, T. (2016). Art therapy in mental health: A systematic review of approaches and practices. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 47(2016), 9–22. Valerie Weiss, MD, MS, is Assistant Professor and Honors College Faculty Fellow at Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, Florida. With a background in both medicine and medical illustration, she teaches undergraduate Anatomy and Physiology to students in the pre-health professions. Her research interest is in using the art of medical illustration to enhance anatomy education.  

Krista Casazza, PhD, RD, MS, is the Assistant Director for Research and Outreach in the Water School at FGCU. She has two decades of experience teaching anatomy and physiology in secondary and post-secondary education. She also maintains an active extramurally funded research program.  

Chapter 16

The Future of Higher Education: Students’ Perspectives in the United Arab Emirates Lana Hiasat and Leilani Radaideh

Abstract  Tertiary educational institutions have witnessed many changes and disruptions over the past several years as educators had to cope with the major disruptions brought by the pandemic. This disruption brought with it several best practices and lessons learned that prompted educational leaders to transform their educational models. However, the discussion of the future of higher education from students’ perspectives has been underemphasized. The authors in this paper share key findings of their focus group research conducted with university students in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) as they have expanded their imagination, rethought the future of higher education, and connected these elements to the focal issue of happiness. In a practical workshop and through focus group interviews, participants in the UAE from a variety of disciplines, including law, fashion, engineering, and international relations and politics, engaged in thinking about the future of higher education, and their collective intelligence was leveraged to invent new frameworks for resilient futures that included basics of well-being and happiness. The approach to the focus group discussions was based on the strategic tools from future foresight. The authors of this paper provide a summary of the opportunities, including six specific recommendations for higher education leaders and institutions to consider and key concerns of possible and preferred futures in higher education, and make several recommendations for the way forward in higher education based on students’ perspectives in the UAE. Tertiary educational institutions have witnessed many changes and disruptions over the past several years as educators had to cope with the pandemic. Many best practices and lessons learned prompted educational leaders to transform their

L. Hiasat (*) Higher Colleges of Technology, Dubai, UAE e-mail: [email protected] L. Radaideh Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_16

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e­ ducational models. However, the discussion of the future of higher education from students’ perspectives has been underemphasized. Keywords  Future foresight · Well-being · Higher education · UAE · Emirati university students’ perspectives · Future of higher education

Introduction The future of higher education is shaped by the changing needs and expectations of students, as well as the rapid pace of technological innovation. In this context, a focus on student well-being and positive psychology are becoming increasingly important to cope with digitization and rapid uncertain changes. The integration of positive psychology into higher education can promote student success, enhance overall satisfaction with the college experience, and foster a sense of purpose and meaning among students. According to positive psychology scientists (Lancia, 2021; Kwok, 2021), implementing positive education into teaching and learning practices has proven to cause an increase in well-being and decrease mental health issues. Additionally, the increasing availability of digital resources and online learning platforms has made education more accessible, but it has also created new challenges in terms of student stress and burnout. To ensure the future of higher education is successful and sustainable, it is important to balance the benefits of digitization and the need to promote student well-being. By prioritizing student well-being and positive psychology, higher education can ensure that students are well-equipped to meet the challenges of a rapidly changing world and lead fulfilling, meaningful lives. The topic of well-being has emerged as an important issue after the COVID-19 pandemic affected all aspects of our daily lives. Higher education was impacted tremendously, with the abrupt changes needing to be made overnight. Decision makers made commitments to facilitate the transition from face-to-face teaching and learning to fully online and then slowly moving back to the hybrid and blended learning models. University students in the UAE participated in discussions to rethink the future of well-being in higher education. The purpose of these discussions was to investigate what the concerns perceived by university students in the UAE were as they experienced them in their programs of study. This future foresight discussion was an ongoing research study with university students in the UAE following the Futures Literacy Laboratories (FLL) methodology as part of future foresight. FLL is a learning-­by-doing scenario method that enables participants to explore assumptions and changes in framework conditions critically. John Dewey’s seminal book on experiential theory entitled Experience and Education (1938) is a key resource in experiential learning. Dewey’s idea of socially constructed knowledge was followed in this research study as students constructed their views of the future through discussions in a social environment. Miller (2018) explained the process of FLL and

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how it is connected to Dewey’s thoughts on experiential learning. The future literacy framework follows Dewey’s cycle of learning as the process exposes how students think of the future and why. The process takes on an experimentation approach to solve the problem in this research study as students discuss the future of their discipline. As such, the process is exploratory and sustains the learning cycle in Dewey’s experiential approach. Miller (2018) explained that the concept of futures literacy refers to an individual’s capability to “use the future” (Miller, 2018, p. 95) in the present, which helps participants to think more creatively about the future. Based on Miller’s (2018) explanation of the FLL process as an S-curve approach to structure learning about the future, three phases were implemented in this research study. The S-curve approach is used in innovation and organizational change management to understand the stages of growth, decline, and renewal of a particular product, process, or system. In learning about the future based on future learning labs, the S-curve approach can be used to structure the learning process by dividing it into three stages awareness and exploration, adoption and diffusion, and maturity and diffusion: S-curve approach and the hype cycle framework to innovation. The focus appears to be different, as Shi and Herniman (2023) emphasize that the S-curve focuses on the stages of growth and decline of a particular product or process over time, while the Hype Cycle focuses specifically on the hype and expectations surrounding new and emerging technologies. Researchers in this study applied the three stages or phases according to the S-curve approach as per Miller’s (2018) approach to frame future foresight discussions. Phase 1 was about revealing the most realistic, probable predictions of the future. This is an easy phase that starts off the learning process with experiential engagement about the future. In this phase, participants engage in discussions to make their assumptions explicit and prepare to rethink their chosen topic for future thinking. Phase 2, was slightly more difficult and focused on reframing and leaving behind the predictions to get into a more imagined future and get creative in thinking about the future. In this phase, participants are asked to reframe and extend their imagination beyond a simple extrapolation of the past or present. Phase 3 was the third phase about rethinking the future, comparing and consolidating ideas, and finally coming up with the next questions and new steps. The last phase was easier than the second phase in the learning cycle. This three-stage process is experiential. According to Raleigh et al. (2018) FLL is a process that keeps discussions of the future open and allows participants to steer their own learning, and boosts creativity and critical thinking. The objective of an FLL process is to provide a broader understanding of participants’ assumptions about the future, help them to reframe their assumptions, and use those reframed perspectives to pose new questions about the future, new ways of perceiving the present, and new ways of “using the future” in the present (Raleigh et al., 2018). Raleigh and his research team (2018) emphasize that thinking about the future is impacted by the images and ideas that we have about the future, our beliefs about what is possible in the present and in the future, the beliefs about what is probable in the given circumstances, and our capabilities to evaluate what kinds of futures are desirable. An experiential process toward thinking about the future

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and following the three-phase approach in FLL helps participants to liberate their thinking from the typical past or present images of the future to be more creative in a conscious effort. In previous studies, researchers have recommended that future literacy and foresight as part of the academic curriculum help students be future-­ ready (Hiasat & Ali, 2022).

Student Happiness in Higher Education Well-Being and Emotional Intelligence Well-being for this research study was defined in terms of mental health and the two key factors being happiness and emotional intelligence. These two factors were chosen because several research findings have proven a statistically significant positive correlation between happiness and emotional intelligence. A plethora of literature and research studies are making the connection between emotional intelligence, happiness, and well-being. A recent search on Google Scholar revealed over 17,500 research studies from 2020 to 2021 on this topic were conducted. For example, emotional intelligence was found as a predictive factor for happiness in medical students in the Ghahramani et  al. (2019) study. Moreover, students with higher emotional intelligence felt healthier. Personality factors appeared important in this prediction; extroverted students had higher happiness and emotional intelligence levels than introverted ones. Another similar study with Chinese participants revealed a positive correlation between emotional intelligence levels and positive well-being (Xu et al., 2020). Yet, another study revealed the connection between preservice stress and social support and emotional intelligence (Malinauskas & Malinauskiene, 2020). The connection between depression and levels of emotional intelligence was also established in Evrensel-İnanç et al. (2022) study. Researchers linked emotional intelligence skills, life satisfaction, and depression scales through an online survey of Generation Z 844 university students in a Turkish context (Evrensel-İnanç et al., 2022). Therefore, the focus on well-being practices to enhance emotional intelligence appears to be prominent in the literature across a variety of geographical contexts.

Positive Psychology and Happiness Positive psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of positive emotions, strengths, and well-being. In higher education, positive psychology can play an important role in promoting student success and overall satisfaction with the college experience. Seligman’s model of PERMA included five key elements of positive emotions (flourishing), engagement (being in flow), relationships (interactions with others), meaning (having a purpose in life), and accomplishments (sense of achievement) (Seligman et al., 2005; Madeson, 2017). This model was based on

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findings that gratitude and mindfulness practices can enhance students’ well-being and academic performance. The emphasis on a strength-based approach in education is seen in Uusiautti et al. (2022) study, where the context was based on Finnish university students. The authors of this study established that a student-centered approach recognizes students’ strengths, guides them to use and develop them, and finally focuses students on the future. The positive impact of the strength-based approach on students’ well-being and personal growth was established in their study. These findings highlight the potential benefits of incorporating positive psychology into higher education and suggest that this approach can play a valuable role in supporting students’ overall development. The next important element in happiness is based on general mood and adaptability.

General Mood and Adaptability The most important element in emotional intelligence is self-awareness, per the Goleman (1998) and Cartwright and Soloway (2009) models. Two general dimensions were also found to be important, including general mood and adaptability, in the innovative framework introduced by Bouslama et al. (2019). Bouslama and his team’s model included six dimensions: self-awareness in the center, and then self-­ management, relationship management, and social awareness, followed by two dimensions of adaptability and general mood that were found to be critical components in the context of the Gulf region (Fig. 16.1).

Research Methodology This research study followed the three-phase FLL process of the S-curve and attempted to answer the following two research questions: RQ 1: What do university students in the UAE think about the future of higher education? RQ 2: How can higher education institutions support the future of their students through positive psychology?

Data Collection A qualitative exploratory study methodology was used, and the researchers followed Miller’s (2018) explanation of the process. Data was collected from two different sources: an online questionnaire using Nearpod and focus group interviews.

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Fig. 16.1  Emotional intelligence model by Bouslama et al. (2019)

Participants were undergraduate students from a variety of programs which were based in the UAE. A purposive sample was implemented, and criterion-based strategies were used in this study. Participants were carefully selected so they could inform the phenomenon under study (Hiasat, 2018). Data Collection 1: Purposive Class Selection Using Recorded Questions on Nearpod The first data collection source came from answers submitted by undergraduate students following a Nearpod presentation. Nearpod is an online interactive tool used to collect data anonymously from participants. Participants enrolled in the research methods class General Studies program from a tertiary educational institution for local Emirati students were purposely selected from a list of students taking the same research methods course to follow the Nearpod slides the researcher had recorded instructions. Students contributed their thoughts to a collaborative board using the Nearpod tool and shared their responses. This data collection stage was conducted virtually, and the teacher of the selected participants used Blackboard Collaborate to hold the virtual synchronous session. Two online workshops were delivered across two consecutive days in early February 2021. Forty-three participants attended the first workshop, and ten participants attended the second workshop. Students came from various disciplines, which ensured a variety of perspectives from different majors.

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Data Collection 2: Purposive Sample Selection of Invited University Students in UAE to a Focus Group Discussion The second data collection took place in February and March 2021, with synchronous focus group discussions using Zoom. Again, purposive sampling was used to select undergraduate. This purposive sample included Emirati citizens and other residents in the UAE, including nationalities such as Iraqi, French, Syrian, Jordanian, Slovenian, and American. The purpose of this selected group was to capture the perspectives of university students in the UAE from a variety of undergraduate disciplines, including law, engineering, fashion, and international relations, and politics. The structure of the discussions followed the same process as with the online workshops. Three focus group discussions followed the same three phases in the FLL process. Structure of Discussions  The structure of discussions followed the FLL process and the learning-by-doing, following Dewey’s three cycles of learning explained earlier. Learning-by doing is an experiential process of applied learning, and in this study, there were three phases of this experiential process. John Dewey’s seminal work and concept of experiential learning in his seminal work (Dewey, 1938) was used by Miettinen (2000) to understand how experience can lead to new knowledge through concrete experience, observation, reflection, and testing new knowledge as depicted in Kolb’s theory that Miettinen (2000) analyzed. In this study, the three phases listed below-presented opportunities for experiential learning and gaining new knowledge through reflection and participants’ concrete experiences. Following the S-curve approach described earlier, the three phases include: 1. Phase 1: Reveal expectations and hopes  – Explore probable and desirable futures 2. Phase 2: Reframing  – Imagine nonprobable, nondesirable images of higher education in 2050 3. Phase 3: New Questions – Explore new questions and aspects of the preferred futures of higher education and the next steps The Six Basic Futures Questions  The specific questions that were asked using the focus group approach were based on Kedge Futures School, 2020 Future Foresight certification training, USA (Montero Salvatico & Spencer, 2017). There were six general guiding questions to frame with three phases: 1 . What do you think the future will be like? What is your prediction? 2. Which future are you afraid of? 3. What are the hidden assumptions of your predicted future? 4. What are some alternatives to your predicted or feared future? 5. What is your preferred future? 6. And finally, how might you get there? What steps can you take to move toward your preferred future?

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Research Findings and Discussion Key Findings – Part I: Most Likely Scenario The first key findings from phase 1 came from the Nearpod workshops and focus group discussions. Participants in this phase explored the most likely scenario and preferred scenario well-being of the possible futures of higher education. They explored the probable and desirable futures. The questions from phase 1 were: 1 . What is the most realistic future of higher education in your field of study? 2. What are your desired futures of higher education in your field? 3. What futures are you afraid of in your field? Thematic analysis was used to analyze the collected data. The coding process started with a search for initial categories. Thematic analysis began with the recognition of the patterns in the data. The coding process followed Saldana’s (2011) steps in coding which included the creation of patterns and classifying data by assigning an attribute to a word or phrase. The steps included precoding, the first cycle of structural, descriptive, and attribute coding, the second cycle of pattern coding, and finally, postcoding and writing up the results. The general result for this phase was the overall themes for the expectations for a future in higher education, including areas of safety, health, and technology assisting a healthy lifestyle (Fig. 16.2).

Fig. 16.2  Phase 1 contributions on a collaborative board using Nearpod

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Question 1 – Key Findings Phase 1 Researchers in this study asked about the most realistic future of higher education in various fields of study in the first phase of the focus group interview process. The results indicated that the future will require engineers to create new inventions to improve the quality of life. In fashion, participants shared their belief that the future will focus on body image and stereotypical images. For law students, however, the future shared would require them to solve legal problems posed by new technologies and use them to streamline administrative procedures, potentially reducing stress. Finally, in international relations and politics, participants shared that the future would require additional foresight into the actions of political leaders and trends to help alleviate anxiety about an unpredictable future. Question 2 – Key Findings Phase 1 The results from the second question in phase 1, asking about the desired futures of higher education in various fields, revealed that engineers hope for a future where they have the freedom to invent new things without limitations, leading to enhanced creativity and mood. In the fashion industry, the desired future for participants appeared to emphasize ethical production methods and less focus on body image. In the field of law, the desired future included regulations to protect lawyers from burnout and stress and incorporating the idea of well-being, positive education, and emotional intelligence practices into law degrees. Lastly, in international relations and politics program, the desired futures for participants seemed to revolve around cross-cultural beliefs, personalized experiences, and a focus on studying the future rather than the past. Question 3 – Key Findings Phase 1 The third question in phase 1 aimed to identify fears in various fields. The results showed that engineers appeared to fear that advancements in technology may lead to job loss, while in the fashion industry, concerns centered around environmental impact and cultural appropriation. In the legal field, fears of privacy invasion and emotional trauma were noted. In international relations and politics, the concern was focused on current issues and mental health that politicians may manipulate to achieve their goals.

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Key Findings – Phase 2: Reframing The second key finding related to the phase 2 questions, where data collection came from the Nearpod workshops and focus group discussions. Participants in this phase reframed their assumptions and thoughts about the future of higher education. In the second phase, participants first explored trends in general and then related them to their discipline. Then, they mapped the trends to the Probability Impact Matrix (PIM) based on Kedge’s Future School tool (Montero Salvatico & Spencer, 2017). This strategic future foresight tool was used to go beyond trends and explore the impacts of each of the trends in relation to thinking about the future. In their podcast, Spencer and Montero Salvatico (2021) explained that identifying trends is the start of future foresight, and the next step is analyzing the impact of these trends. PIM helps participants engage in the reframing process to identify what trends need attention. Participants found several trends in their scanning activities for the future of higher education. Participants shared the below general list of trends: Artificial intelligence, predictive medical data mining, stem cell medicine, smart health devices attached to our bodies, nanomedicine design, applications replacing people, virtual workplaces, personalization, digital immortality, maker movement, and use of drones in healthcare. After identification of trends, participants were asked to reflect on which of these trends they thought would have the most likely impact on their discipline. Finally, participants plotted the trends based on their impact and likelihood of happening. The PIM results revealed important trends to focus on in higher education, including artificial intelligence, the use of drones, nanotechnology, and predictive data mining. The results of the PIM plotting are in Figs. 16.3 and 16.4.

Key Findings – Phase 3: New Questions The third key finding in phase 3 focused participants on thinking of new questions and asked them to reflect on the role of higher education leaders in response to the future changes in 2050 concerning trends in mental health and happiness. Participants were asked to reflect on the leaders in their fields of study and suggest the best approach. The summary of key findings is the following. Participants shared that in their perspective, leaders in the engineering field were people like Elon Musk and Mark Zuckerberg, and the approach should be to encourage choosing majors that are relevant in the future for better mental health and student happiness. In the fashion industry, participants shared that they thought fashion icons and designers would continue to be the leaders, and they would need to embrace digital technology and the intersection with humans in the industry. In the law program, participants shared that students will be the leaders and need to be more interactive and trained in relationship management and emotional intelligence. As for the international relations and politics field, participants believed that the professors would continue to be the leaders, and reskilling would be critical to creating a sensitive environment. An

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Fig. 16.3  Probability impact matrix and plotting of trends tool applied from Spencer and Montero Salvatico (2021)

Fig. 16.4  Probability impact matrix and the trends that need to be focused on are highlighted under the “what if” column tool applied by Spencer and Montero Salvatico (2021)

additional theme emerged through phase 3. The theme could be summarized in the phrase “Go forward slow to go fast” or Make Haste Slowly as Caesar Augustus is said to have first adopted the motto of Festina Lente as explained in Mukunda (2020) article in Forbes magazine explaining the importance of two types of thought; slow and calculated thoughts as opposed to impulsive thinking.

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Limitations The main limitation of this study is based on the context. The participants represented university students in the UAE from various disciplines and institutions. However, the key findings and recommendations may apply to similar contexts in the Gulf region but cannot be generalized to other higher educational institutions. Therefore, it is recommended that educational leaders take into their transformational plans the perspectives of their students, and we suggest following the future foresight approach to engaging university students in transformational changes.

 ecommendations and the Way Forward for Higher R Education Institutions Based on the key findings of the three phases of this research study, the following six recommendations are suggested for the future of higher education. These recommendations are intended for leaders of colleges and universities to help them frame new curricula and educational opportunities that incorporate students’ perspectives. The first recommendation is to update the curriculum to accommodate digital transformation and meet the expectations of Generation Z. The abundance of digital technology tools nowadays is supposed to improve quality of life and create an ease of living. The quality of life in a digitized world was investigated in Kryzhanovskij et  al. (2021) study, where researchers developed a tool that they suggested to be used to correlate digitization and human development. They proposed three categories in this tool: knowledge, technologies, and future readiness. These categories are measured to assess the quality of living as explored through subjective well-being and national reports on happiness. The authors stated that quality of life is determined by several components, including social capital, achievement of professional goals, and a quality education where people can develop meaningful relationships. It appears that socioeconomic and political factors determine the quality of life and are in correlation with digital advances (Kryzhanovskij et al., 2021). The authors have made important conclusions in that, first, there was a close relationship between digitalization and quality of life, and second, the levels of digitization did not ensure a higher level of quality of life. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to socioeconomic factors and political conditions in managing digitization. The second recommendation is to focus on digital technologies, including the incorporation of artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, and predictive data mining into higher education teaching and learning programs. While digitization has brought many benefits to higher education, it is important to consider its impacts on well-being carefully, and to work toward finding ways to mitigate its negative effects. In a European Union context study, Ionescu-Feleagă et al. (2022) present an optimistic outlook on the impact of digitalization on happiness. The researchers

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investigated the relationship between digitization and happiness before the pandemic. In addition, they investigated the relationship between two indicators and found a positive correlation between Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) and World Happiness Index (WHI) globally for all EU countries. The third recommendation is the realization that the future leaders of higher education may not necessarily be academics. Such a realization would encompass an open and cross-disciplinary collaboration with industry. The trend of individuals from industry transitioning into educational leadership positions and bringing unique skills and experiences from their previous careers is not new (Brauckmann et al., 2023). These educational leaders from the industry bring a focus on innovation, efficiency, and data-driven decision-making to their roles, which can have a positive impact on the education system. Educational institutions need to efficiently transform their educational models to be able to compete globally by focusing on their contextual factors, as emphasized in the Brauckmann et al. (2023) study. The authors concluded that an effective educational leadership approach should be focused on a differentiated perspective about contextual conditions. The fourth recommendation is that mental health including well-being and student happiness should be a focus in higher education across all disciplines that are suggested to include programs aimed at student happiness and emotional intelligence. For example, students in engineering may fear that technological advancements may render their jobs obsolete, while students in the law may fear that privacy concerns may be violated. By addressing these fears and providing support to help students manage them, higher education institutions can create a positive learning environment and improve the happiness levels of their students across all disciplines. Therefore, it is recommended that each discipline carefully examine their students’ fears and find ways to address them because they are real and may impact performance. Mental well-being should be a key focus in higher education across all disciplines, as it is critical to the success and overall satisfaction of students. To achieve this, higher education institutions should provide programs that aim to promote student happiness and emotional intelligence. This will help students to manage their stress levels better, improve their emotional well-being, and increase their chances of success. The fifth recommendation is based on the realization that students in higher education are afraid of unemployment due to artificial intelligence (AI) advancements and a lack of understanding of the hidden opportunities of these fast changes in AI technology tools. Consequently, colleges and universities are often recommended to update their programs to ensure student readiness to work in Fourth Industrial Revolution jobs that will be mostly automated, according to experts at the 2019 World Economic Forum (Menon, 2019). However, in another debate at the same World Economic Forum a year later, Betti and Palamariu (2021) suggested that the focus should be on talent development and engagement to be future-ready rather than career readiness. The importance of collaboration and interdisciplinary work rather than working in silos to be future-ready is emphasized. Therefore, the recommendation for educational institutions is to focus on getting their students future-­ ready rather than career ready in addition to focusing on developing students’

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talents, increasing their engagement, and emphasizing an interdisciplinary approach to programs. Minasi (2023) emphasized the importance of critical thinking skills, creativity innovative thinking, and digital literacy as some of the key competencies needed with the advances in technology and artificial intelligence. Therefore, educational institutions are recommended to focus their teaching and learning approaches to help their students develop these skills. Finally, the sixth recommendation is about the role of universities in launching startups and promoting innovation with economic impact. Some higher education leaders in the UAE introduced three key elements a student should have and framed those in a student persona 4.0 (Al Shamsi, February 12, 2020). These characteristics included digital, entrepreneurial, and professional capabilities. The recommendation here is for educational leaders to rethink what student personas their educational program is aiming to graduate and update the curriculum to equip students with the required skills. Finally, furthering the depicted image of our desired futures by viewing it through the lens of the human flourishing theory by Aristotle in Alexander (2018), which functions upon the basis of welfare maximization. Alexander (2018) explained that this theory aims at self-actualization and the fulfillment of people in various communities. It is important because it promotes human growth, development, and well-­ being. By taking this into consideration, we may analyze how influential social life in various communities is for the development of human life in educational institutions. In modern times, the concept of human flourishing has been adopted by scholars and practitioners in fields such as positive psychology, ethics, and education and is seen as a way to promote well-being and personal growth. Moving forward, it is crucial to implement measures to improve the mental well-­ being of students across all disciplines in higher education. This can be achieved through programs aimed at promoting student happiness and emotional intelligence. Moreover, it is recommended to regularly assess the fears and concerns of students in each discipline and find ways to address them effectively. In addition to this, researchers should explore the future skills required in higher education and the impact of emotional intelligence on these skills. They should also examine the relationship between digital literacy and emotional intelligence in the context of well-­ being and happiness in higher education. Finally, it is important to view the desired future of higher education through the lens of the human flourishing theory by Aristotle in Alexander (2018). This theory focuses on the self-actualization and fulfillment of individuals in various communities, promoting the growth and well-­ being of human beings. By taking this into account, it becomes possible to understand the significance of social life in various communities for the development of human life in educational institutions. The list of six recommendations is summarized in Fig. 16.5.

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Conclusion In conclusion, the pandemic has brought about major disruptions and changes to tertiary educational institutions, transforming educational models and best practices. However, students’ perspectives on the future of higher education have not been fully explored. The authors of this paper presented the key findings of their focus group research with university students in the UAE, where participants from various disciplines came together to think about the future of higher education in relation to happiness and well-being. The authors leveraged the collective intelligence of these participants to develop new frameworks for resilient futures in higher education. Based on the opportunities and concerns discussed in the paper, the authors provided several recommendations for the way forward in higher education, specifically tailored to university students’ perspectives in the UAE.

Fig. 16.5  List of recommendations for higher education as a road map

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References Alexander, G. S. (2018). Property and human flourishing. Oxford University Press. AlShamsi, A. (2020, February 12). Student retention and at-risk workshop. Higher Colleges of Technology. Betti, F., & Palamariu, R. (2021). How 4IR is encouraging the development of people, not just machines. Retrieved from: https://www.weforum.org/ agenda/2021/12/4th-­industrial-­revolution-­people-­machines/ Bouslama, F., Hiasat, L., Medina, C., Coombe, C., & Manser, R. (2019). Designing localized bilingual surveys for emotional literacy and intelligence assessment. In International academic conference proceedings on education and teaching (WEI-ET-Montreal 2019), Canada, 28–30 Oct 2019, pp. 11–27. Brauckmann, S., Pashiardis, P., & Ärlestig, H. (2023). Bringing context and educational leadership together: Fostering the professional development of school principals. Professional Development in Education, 49(1), 4–15. Cartwright, A., & Soloway, A. (2009). Emotional intelligence: Activities for developing you and your business. Routledge. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. The Macmillan Company. Evrensel-İnanç, E., Aydoǧmuş, C., Metin-Camgöz, S., & Özdilek, E. (2022). For generation Z: What is the underlying reason between emotional intelligence and depression relationship? [Z Kuşaǧı İçin: Duygusal Zekâ Özelliǧi ve Depresyon İlişkisinin Arkasında Yatan Sebep Nedir?]. Sosyoekonomi, 30(53), 27–48. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.03.02 Ghahramani, S., Jahromi, A. T., Khoshsoroor, D., Seifooripour, R., & Sepehrpoor, M. (2019). The relationship between emotional intelligence and happiness in medical students. Korean Journal of Medical Education, 31(1), 29–38. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam Books. Hiasat, L. (2018). Blended and experiential learning for Emiratis in tertiary education. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 15(3), 874–881. Hiasat, L., & Ali, G. (2022). Making the transition from blended to fully online: Reflections from Two Tertiary Level Teaching Professionals. In C.  Coombe, L.  Hiasat, & G.  Daleure (Eds.), English language and general studies education in the UAE: Theoretical, practical and empirical perspectives. Springer. Ionescu-Feleagă, L., Ionescu, B., & Stoica, O. C. (2022). The impact of digitalization on happiness: A European perspective. Mathematics, 10(15), 2766. https://doi.org/10.3390/math10152766 Kryzhanovskij, O.  A., Baburina, N.  A., & Ljovkina, A.  O. (2021). How to make digitalization better serve an increasing quality of life? Sustainability, 13(2), 611. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su13020611 Kwok, S. (2021). Implementation of positive education projects in Hong Kong. In M. L. Kern & M. L. Wehmeyer (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of positive education. Palgrave Macmillan. Lancia, G. (2021). Positive psychology in education: Your ultimate guide. Retrieved from: https:// positivepsychology.com/positive-­psychology-­schools-­education/ Madeson, M. (2017). Seligman’s PERMA+ model explained: A theory of well-being. Retrieved from https://positivepsychology.com/perma-­model/ Malinauskas, R., & Malinauskiene, V. (2020). The relationship between emotional intelligence and psychological well-being among male university students: The mediating role of perceived social support and perceived stress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051605 Menon, J. (2019). Jobs and the fourth industrial revolution. Retrieved from: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/09/fourth-­industrial-­revolution-­jobs/ Miettinen, R. (2000). The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey’s theory of reflective thought and action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19(1), 54–72. https://doi. org/10.1080/026013700293458

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Miller, R. (2018). Futures Literacy Laboratories (FLL) in practice: An overview of key design and implementation issues. In Transforming the future (pp. 95–109). Retrieved from: http://www. cnid.cl/wp-­content/uploads/2018/11/MILLER-­Riel.-­Capi%CC%81tulo-­4.-­Futures-­Literacy-­ Laboratories-­FLL-­in-­practice.pdf Minasi, R. (2023). Industry revolution 4.0 and its impact on education. In Encyclopedia of data science and machine learning (pp. 2211–2222). IGI Global. Montero Salvatico, Y., & Spencer, F. (2017). Strategic foresight primer: Unlock the futurist mindset. Retrieved from: https://thefuturesschool.com/resourcecenter/strategic-­foresight-­primer/ Mukunda, G. (2020). Why the first roman emperor’s motto matters: Move slowly to move quickly. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/gautammukunda/2020/05/18/why-­the-­first-­ roman-­emperors-­motto-­matters-­move-­slowly-­to-­move-­quickly/?sh=7a1bf03d4ef7 Raleigh, N. A. B., Pouru, L., Leino-Richert, E., Parkkinen, M., & Wilenius, M. (2018). Futures literacy lab for education. Retrieved from: https://www.utupub.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/147415/ FFRC_eBook_3-­2018.pdf?sequence=1 Saldana, J. (2011). Fundamentals of qualitative research. Oxford University Press. Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https://doi.org/1 0.1037/0003-­066X.60.5.410 Shi, Y., & Herniman, J. (2023). The role of expectation in innovation evolution: Exploring hype cycles. Technovation, 119, 102459. Spencer, F., & Montero Salvatico, Y. (2021, October 3). Emerging wicked weak signals. Retrieved from https://thefuturesschool.com/article/emerging-­wicked-­weak-­signals-­2/#!matches=impact s,impact Uusiautti, S., Kari, S., Hyvärinen, S., Löf, J., Kangastie, H., Naakka, M., Rautio, K., & Riponiemi, N. (2022). Character strengths in higher education: Introducing a Strengths-Based Future Guidance (SBFG) model based on an educational design research in two Northern Finnish universities. Journal of Psychological and Educational Research, 30(2), 33–52. Retrieved from: https://www.marianjournals.com/about-­jper/ Xu, X., Pang, W., & Xia, M. (2020). Are emotionally intelligent people happier? A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and subjective well-being using Chinese samples. Asian Journal of Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12445https://doi. org/10.1111/ajsp.12445 Lana Hiasat is Senior Lecturer, the program team leader of the General Studies Department, and a Senior Fellow HEA (SFHEA). She is a certified trainer in future foresight and a practitioner in intercultural intelligence, emotional intelligence, and Kaizen Creativity. Lana has published in areas of future foresight, emotional intelligence, artificial intelligence, smart learning, blended learning, educational leadership, intercultural intelligence, and online teaching and learning.  

Leilani Radaideh is a current European Law student at Maastricht University with a great interest in emotional intelligence, criminal law, and research. Prior to embarking on her law journey, Leilani’s interests outside the law profession include research into well-being and sustainable living, theater and drama, literature, and the arts. Leilani won the best composition award that enabled her to join an intensive 2-week law program at Cambridge University.  

Chapter 17

The Impact of Emergency Remote Learning on Student Motivation and Opportunities to Shape a More Successful and Productive Educational Future Megan Kohler

, Sherri Restauri, and Tracy Balduzzi

Abstract  During the COVID-19 pandemic, institutions experienced a major shift in strategies for providing educational materials for students. Administrators, instructional support specialists, and digital learning professionals with expertise in the online modality were called upon to offer guidance on how to transition to emergency remote learning. The main priority became the continuation of teaching and learning, while the quality of the experience and its impact on student motivation became an afterthought. Early indications post-COVID-19’s initial onset are showing that some institutions managed this transition better than others and provided insights on how to transition while keeping students and faculty motivated and engaged. Universities in certain regions of the United States that regularly evacuate mid-semester for environmental factors (wildfires, hurricanes, floods, etc.) were better equipped to respond to the current global events. Institutions with instructional or learning design support, typically an under-utilized resource, were instrumental factors in the successful transition to emergency remote teaching. These vast experiences give higher education administrators a critical typology for designing future learning experiences. Reflecting on the circumstances encountered during the pandemic, some key outcomes lend themselves to become best practices for all institutions moving forward. Collaboration across units, departments, and even institutions led to a rich set of support models that can be implemented to ease any future transitions while keeping students, designers, and faculty

M. Kohler (*) The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA S. Restauri Automatic Sync Technologies, Myrtle Beach, SC, USA T. Balduzzi Syracuse University, Jamesville, NY, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_17

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motivated. This newly collected knowledge can enhance the quality of learning experiences and create a more resilient future for higher education. Keywords  Motivation · Academic continuity · COVID-19 · Engagement

Introduction Student motivation has consistently played a critical role in the educational process, and recent global events have demonstrated how easily students’ ability to succeed in both virtual and face-to-face (F2F) classrooms can be impacted. Students, designers, and faculty, including those accustomed to the online environment, found themselves quickly transitioning from ideal learning scenarios to relying on any means necessary to ensure continuity with their teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Many students and educators lost access to key resources such as updated technology, student support services, and childcare, which introduced additional stressors. Students migrated from classrooms to coffee shops and parking lots to listen to course lectures and complete online activities. Faculty adapted to new grading strategies, academic policies, and technologies. The technologies were often new, complex, and had competing priorities with other software. Many faculty supported students struggling to adapt to a changed learning environment while the pandemic altered their social, physical, fiscal, and surrounding worlds. Everyone faced concerns for the health and safety of their loved ones, and these psychological factors impacted the community’s motivational needs in the educational arena. The pandemic offered a unique view into the student experience, the challenges they face, and how we can work toward improving learning experiences to address their needs better. One specific area we can offer better support is student motivation, as engaging and interacting underpins desired student outcomes (i.e., satisfaction, grades, retention, among others) in courses. By reflecting on the known challenges students encountered during the past year and a half, educators can offer better insights into how student motivation in educational settings can best be supported, both in a F2F and digital learning space. This chapter will discuss how student motivation is impacted regardless of the institution or geographic location. Using three case studies from internal perspectives, the authors will discuss personal observations as well as current and future strategies for academic continuity. Continuity studies within business and academics have evolved over time, with business professionals, academics, and other professionals working to plan for various types of disruption that may impact both the short-term, long-term, and ongoing business. These business continuity (BC) models readily apply to the academic framework and provide helpful insights in terms of useful approaches for planning well in advance of unexpected or expected disruptive events. A useful continuity framework model is the resilient response framework (RRF) (Burnard & Bhamra, 2011). This model, which is discussed later in this

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chapter, notes the inclusion of critical areas of collaborative partnerships; decentralization in decision-making; and an overall focus on operational flexibility to allow the optimums in best supporting the unexpected needs that may arise in an organizational crisis of any kind, impacting a unit in the short- or longer-term. The RRF’s focus on decentralization (e.g., distributed faculty training and support); flexibility (e.g., allowing and encouraging multiple modalities and supporting student-­directed choice); and collaborative interactions between multiple groups on each campus in combination allows campuses to produce the most successful outcomes for the faculty and students at large. The following case studies from three separate institutions highlight these and many supporting aspects that help promote student engagement and motivation to participate and succeed in distance learning (DL) coursework.

Case Study 1: Large R1 Institution The first case study represents a large research 1 university (R1U) in the United States. Several universities fit this demographic, and by reflecting on the experience outlined in this case study, lessons learned from this example will hopefully provide points of reflection for offering more effective support for student motivation. Other qualities represented by this institution include being a public, land-grant institution with approximately 90,000 enrollments. This institution has a well-recognized brand and a dedicated alumni network with a major focus on the student community. R1U has a global footprint with an exceptional portfolio of programs offered and a strong national ranking while managing multi-million dollar research grants, which contributes to high-quality research within numerous fields. The same qualities that define the institution may have contributed to a less significant enrollment drop during the pandemic. For example, the national average for decreased enrollments was 3%. At institutions such as R1U, enrollment numbers dropped only slightly for a total decrease of 1.8%. Even with all the resources, reputation, and global positioning of R1U, students faced numerous challenges during the pandemic, which impacted their lives in many ways. The topics discussed in this case study do not represent all challenges, but this section does address several concerns which research 1 institutions were able to provide insight and support for.

Transitioning to Remote Emergency Teaching The transition from in-person instruction to a fully online format raised several concerns for students, given the rapid transition time and resulting lack of preparation to be successful in the new modality. The transition from traditional learning modalities occurred rapidly, leaving many faculty and students to pivot to remote emergency teaching in as little as a few days. The dramatic shift left no time for

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faculty and students to adapt to this new format. This significantly impacted their motivation and concern for their academic performance. To support students, many institutions created online resources similar to R1U’s Keep Learning website, which offered a variety of high-quality resources to support students during the transition and to successfully complete the semester. The Keep Learning website was collaboratively developed by administrators and learning designers. The resources included topics pertaining to: • Academic Advising – reminding students their advisors could offer support and planning during the pandemic to help students achieve their academic goals. • Academic Integrity  – a resource highlighting that academic integrity policies were still in place during emergency remote teaching (ERT). • Effective Learning practices – strategies to help support students who have never participated in an online learning modality prior to the pandemic. • Health and safety – information on obtaining medical support for a student who is experiencing symptoms of COVID-19. This resource later transitioned to include information on appropriate classroom safety protocols. • Instructional Modes  – defines the various modes of instruction available to students. • Semester Planning  – a description of the types of course offerings available semester by semester to help them prepare effectively for the learning experience they would be participating in. • Technology Resources – provided a direct route for students to access information on technology resources and support. This website served as a canonical source where students could quickly and easily locate the information most relevant to the current circumstances.

Caring for Students Student Health and safety were a major concern for the university. In response to increased concern from both the students’ parents and the university community (administrators, faculty, and staff), a COVID-19 dashboard was established to keep everyone apprised of the infection rates and other critical data. Additional protocols were implemented to ensure all students’ health and safety, such as regular COVID-19 screenings. Students living in on-campus dormitories who became ill with the virus were transferred to a local inn. Moving them to the onsite hotel gave students a more comfortable and secluded location to recover from the virus while preventing further spread. An institution such as R1U has a very strong community, which is one reason why it may have survived the pandemic with a less severe impact on its enrollment numbers. To be a part of this institution is to be part of a family. As a result, many departments created virtual events to keep the students connected to their fellow

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students and faculty. For example, one college on-campus hosted an open game night regularly for anyone who was a member of the college.

Academic Considerations Academic performance was an important concern for all students attending R1U during the pandemic. In response, the university took several actions. First, the university relied heavily on its instructional design resources to support faculty as they migrated their materials to the Learning Management System (LMS). A temporary design collaboration was put into place to provide instructional design support to faculty across all colleges and departments within the institution. For additional support, an alternative grading scheme was developed for individuals who faced increased challenges due to illness, health and safety concerns for family members, increased provider responsibilities (child support or caregiving for elderly parents), and the numerous other challenges presented by these unique circumstances. Students were able to notify their instructor of their preference to receive an alternate mark that would not negatively impact their academic standing within the institution. The alternative grading system was in place through the Spring 2021 semester. This case study offered several strategies which had a prominent impact on student motivation. First, both faculty and students were offered support through various resources. Student health and safety were a top priority for both faculty and administrators. Lastly, student performance was not impacted by circumstances beyond their control. These practices offered the community the support they needed to continue with their academic endeavors.

Case Study 2: Comparison of Two Institutions March 16, 2020, the day that will infamously be known as the day most colleges and universities across the United States began the struggle to ensure continued operation for employees and students. After almost two decades of working at different institutions in higher education, one thing is apparent: all colleges and universities are more alike than they think and can learn best practices from each other. All institutions, regardless of location, size, and reputation, can learn from each other and work together to ensure continued academic operations during times of disruption such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The observations for this case study are from two institutions with very different classifications. One is a small, young professional, liberal studies college with a small endowment (known throughout this chapter as LCU), and the other is an older institution with high research activity and a large endowment (known throughout this chapter as BCU) with similar characteristics as R1U.  The differences and

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similarities in how these two institutions reacted to emergency remote teaching can be starting points for others to create an emergency preparedness plan in the event of another global pandemic or any other locally contained emergency. It is important to note that the observations in these two scenarios are solely observations from an administrator and faculty member and were only observed of graduate students and faculty. The observations discussed in this case study are in relation to online transition, remote resources, and instructor flexibility.

The Two Institutions As noted, two different institutions are used for this case study to compare reactions to the transition to emergency remote teaching. Both institutions are geographically close but very different in longevity, demographics, historical reputation, and operations. It is also important to note that both institutions had some reactions that were well received and should be documented as best practices, but each also had strategies that could have been implemented better. Both the strengths and areas of opportunity will be explored. LCU is a small college consisting of only three schools or academic departments. It is a very young college with a low endowment and primarily serves students from lower socioeconomic statuses. The graduate student population at LCU is roughly 1500, with about 1169 being exclusively online. There are only a few international graduate students, with the majority of students residing in the same state as the college. LCU’s graduate programs are more professional in nature and predominantly online. The graduate programs at LCU are mostly master’s level, with two professional doctorate programs. Due to the centralized administrative oversight of the different schools, graduate programs adhere to the general policies and procedures outlined in the graduate catalog, but academic programs may implement stricter policies if required by an external accrediting agency. BCU is a very large, old institution with an intense research designation and nine schools or academic departments. The graduate student population at BCU is just under 8000 grad students, with 2300 in an online program. International students account for roughly 25% of the graduate population. BCU’s graduate programs are predominantly “traditional” with physical classrooms and only a few online programs. The graduate programs offered include certificates of advanced studies, masters, and both research and professional doctorates. Due to the very decentralized nature, there is no general oversight except for the state requirements to earn a degree, which are simply credit hour requirements and the culminating academic experience at the end of a program (capstone, thesis, etc.)

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Learning Management Systems The first observation was with the oversight of each college for the learning management systems. There are many learning management systems (LMS) that institutions can use to deliver educational materials and programs. The smaller institution, referred to throughout this chapter as LCU, is tuition-dependent, with many students in online programs. A few years before the pandemic, a college-wide initiative was to ensure that all faculty members, regardless of modality, be trained on the LMS. As a result, there is a college-wide acknowledgment that all online courses, except nursing, use the same LMS, and all campus-based courses have a companion shell to their physical classroom space. While somewhat reliant on tuition, the larger, more established university, referred to throughout this chapter as BCU, has a large endowment and many significant alumni donors. BCU is an older university with a rich history of scholarly research and world-renowned faculty. There is much more of a traditional academic “feel” at this university. Additionally, there is less centralized oversight as to what systems the different schools can use. In a conversation with the Center for Teaching and Learning, the director noted how challenging it was to provide support for the various LMS the Faculty were using. Lastly, there was no requirement for faculty to learn any LMS prior to the pandemic, making the transition to ERT more challenging and disruptive to students and instructors.

Remote Resources For those in the online space, increasing student support services was always a priority. However, the pandemic increased this need, regardless of the modality by which students were learning. All academic institutions recognized the need to provide students with resources, including mental health, tutoring, social engagements, etc. However, while both colleges were, and still are, good at providing academic and social support to campus-based students, the support during the pandemic was different and difficult to administer. LCU was moderately good at providing academic support, given their longevity in the online space. In comparison, they could offer few emotional or social support resources to students. At times it seemed as though faculty members were the only connection to social and emotional support for students. This took a toll on faculty who were already feeling much of the burden of transitioning to ERT. Even online instructors were fielding many more questions on how students were supposed to prioritize schoolwork with their essential job, remote work, their children’s remote work, caring for others, and their own mental and physical health. BCU had sufficient funds to afford additional support services in terms of resources and technologies. While this did not alleviate all the challenges, it did help provide extended services both in terms of mental health counseling and online

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social events for students to connect to the campus and each other. Even though these services, events, and programming were imperfect, students were provided opportunities to connect. Through a collaboration with local businesses, BCU was able to offer “care packages” at no additional cost. Students could forward these packages along with personalized notes to their friends to show care for students during the COVID-19 pandemic. BCU also offered additional funding to graduate students who found themselves in financial hardship. Lastly, BCU could assign a teaching assistant to many of the courses offered during the pandemic, which added support to both students and faculty.

Instructor Flexibility During the pandemic, instructor flexibility was critical, and both LCU and BCU effectively supported faculty managing their classes to the best of their abilities. LCU provided instructors with the ability to offer mental health days to students for resident instruction courses. While this same option was not possible for online courses, instructors in this space could remove an assignment from a course. In addition, both institutions offered an emergency pass/fail option which either students or instructors could initiate. The rigid state and federal guidelines presented the greatest challenges to faculty and institutional flexibility. Policies enacted by these agencies have a purpose but are most frequently designed for resident instruction. This led to additional stress and frustration for both faculty and administrators. Ultimately, the various organizations were able to work together in the best interest of the students.

Case Study #3: Liberal Arts Teaching Institution (LAT) Some communities and their supporting higher education institutions had early preparations and experiences strategically configuring academic continuity needs before COVID-19. Preparations for academic continuity are a long-running challenge for this case study, which represents a mid-sized Liberal Arts Teaching institution (LAT) geographically located in a location in which recurrent annual weather threats warranted early preparations for academic instructional continuity ahead of many peer- and aspirant institutions. Due to the recurrent weather-mandated school closures at this higher education institution, preparations in place years in advance of the onset of COVID-19 resulted in pivot points across numerous elements adjacent to the onset of the March 2020 COVID-19 closures across higher education in the United States. These early preparations were initially investigated, and in many cases, low-impact implemented well ahead of the Spring of 2020 semester in which COVID-19 became a reality for most higher education campuses, resulting in a

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quicker, more effective, and more comprehensive pivot for this higher education campus. This campus began academic continuity (AC) preparations within the unit responsible for digital and online learning beginning in Fall of 2016 due to ongoing weather closures, requiring the campus to swap unexpectedly with sometimes less than a 24-h notice to emergency remote learning. Beginning in 2016, such AC preparations as the following were implemented and available for faculty and students’ adoption as needed for short-term and long-term disruptions in learning: • A searchable self-help knowledge base with prebuilt downloadable help guides for faculty, including just-in-time tutorials and self-guided training courses supporting both pedagogy and instructional technologies • By request and prescheduled group training on instructional technologies and distance learning (DL) pedagogies • By request training on academic continuity considerations for departments and individuals, typically offered early in fall terms to prepare for the possibility of impactful weather with subsequent closures. • Development of readily available LMS-based course templates with the ability of faculty to request implementation of these templates on a case-by-case basis, including standardized “Getting Started” modules to familiarize students with the core instructional and digital learning tools, student help support desks and tutorials, and more. Using previous experiences with the campus in question as well as those with campus closures due to weather; campus shootings with long-term closures; short-­ term campus-wide illness impacts; and other measures, the administration for this campus’ DL unit implemented an AC model aligned with the resilient response framework (Burnard & Bhamra, 2011; Burnard et al., 2018). As COVID-19 hit the campus in March of 2020, it began building onto the already-present AC framework to expand support and focus more extensively on not only continuity of access to teaching and learning but also explicitly to focus on interactivity and engagement for students within the DL environment.

Access to Technology Even prior to COVID-19, an assessment of currently available technologies had begun previously at the LAT, with identification of concerns with lack of access to devices, lack of compatibility of devices and software ahead of the full swap to remote (such as with Chromebooks during the 2020 year with COVID-19 onset). Additionally, this campus had also reviewed on-campus systems available for collecting and reallocating devices and programs to students in need. Prior to COVID-19, this campus did not have extensive loan-out capabilities to provide technology to faculty, staff, or students. Beginning in Spring 2020, with the onset of COVID-19, reorganization and reallocation of resources allowed for the distribution

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of much-needed hardware to campus community members for academic purposes, including laptops; online software distribution; hotspots; WIFI extenders; access to eBook alternatives where physical textbooks were not available, as well as tablet packages including keyboards and digital writing stylus devices to facilitate remote teaching by campus faculty members. Related research from the recently published article from Means and Neisler (2021) found similar hurdles to students in a large study of over 1000 undergraduates assessed for adequate resources available from hardware, to software, to internet connectivity, to many other technological barriers. The provision of these core resources for such basic teaching and learning needs as a connection to LMS and web conferencing, grading, and communication was a cornerstone for success at this campus during and throughout the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Basic communication to engage with faculty and classmates was a cornerstone of student performance and motivation to engage online.

COVID-19 Enhancements for Engagement and Interactivity With the development of a faculty leadership in digital learning and instructional technology peer mentor and leadership group in March 2020, this campus optimized the pivot to full digital learning for the entire campus in excess of 10,000 students to do an early launch of a collection of more than ten previously recognized faculty leaders in the field of digital and online learning and instructional technology. These faculty leaders, herein termed the Faculty Course Mentors (FCMs), were immediately provided with advanced access to hardware, software, technology tools, and training, as well as frequently cohort-based meetings in which they were presented with a collection of resources to share with their peers in their local departments and colleges. FCMs were selected based on expertise demonstrated in engaging, interactive DL teaching performance, DL course design, and delivery excellence. These faculty took basic instructional technology trainings-being held in the hundreds at the start of COVID-19-and added a discipline and department-specific approach to personalize the professional development support made available to campus colleagues within their reporting units. In doing so, these FCM’s offered tailored, higher-level, individualized peer support to faculty new to DL and extended the reach of a small DL unit to provide advanced peer support during an especially difficult time for teaching and engaging with students remotely. Faculty surveys were quickly developed as needs assessments at the start of COVID-19 and were distributed and analyzed so that immediate feedback could be used to shift gears where needed. Faculty surveys produced explicit requests for software allowing for heightened interaction and engagement with their students, instructional technologies not readily available to the campus as a whole prior to COVID-19. As such, survey results led to the campus adopting additional software licenses for tools such as EdPuzzle, VoiceThread, and a campus-wide license for a faculty-preferred web conferencing tool not previously available to employees,

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Zoom. Additionally, early faculty survey feedback pointed to a need for easy-to-use and portable hardware that could be utilized across multiple modalities (including upon the eventual return to the classroom), and would allow faculty high-quality audio and video interactivity with their students to ensure there was a continued focus on effective teaching. The campus opted to adopt 1000 iPad packages consisting of Apple iPads, detachable keyboards, as well as Apple Pencils, a purchase allowing all full- and part-time faculty as well as graduate teaching assistants the opportunity for highly interactive and high-quality hardware/software to use to best engage and interact with their students during remote learning. The goal of this new hardware was to allow faculty to overcome the student-voiced concerns-difficulty hearing/seeing their faculty, wishing for audio/video feedback on assignments, and enhanced engagement to keep them motivated. The adoption of these iPads by campus faculty and immediate implementation into remote teaching was a game-changer for faculty and students alike, with training supported by self-paced training, rolled out simultaneously, as well as 1-1 and ongoing group support and training. One interesting outcome from the initial two terms of COVID-19 at LAT was students’ familiarity with the many varying opportunities for interaction with faculty and classmates. As with many other institutions, LAT adopted a wide array of modalities outside of the fairly standardized “online” and F2F learning options. Additionally, this campus adopted remote-synchronous onsite and remote-­ synchronous off-site, as well as a mixed modality where students could flex between those models. The introduction of such a wide range of modalities as a means for continuity to ensure that students and faculty did not fall behind, opened up new doors of interaction and engagement for students. Thereby motivating them to seek out modalities with additional flexibility to meet better their academic, personal, and professional needs, even after the campus in question began reopening for traditional, F2F classes. Experience with these highly diverse modalities resulted in a student-led campus-wide petition for alternative digital formats due to quarantine beyond the standard “online” and “F2F” being provided. Students voiced a clear preference for a larger variety of class modalities with varying levels of interactivity and engagement, pointing to their previous success in the preceding terms and their ongoing needs for unexpected quarantines, changing work schedules, and family responsibilities due to school closures. Recently, research from Peimani and Kamalipour (2021) indicated similar findings from the case in question, in which students acknowledged the benefits of both synchronous platforms (such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams) and also asynchronous platforms, such as an LMS. However, acknowledgment of the utility of these tools versus the preferences for students participating in these technologies in a nonoptimal location (such as at home with partners, children, and other distractions) may yield special considerations and requests from students to effectively use these tools with high levels of success and engagement. Some of these recommendations and accommodations from students include such items as permission to join synchronous sessions and be counted for attendance without a required audio or video option enabled in order to protect student privacy while others are in their streaming

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space. Students expressed need or preference for “live lectures” from faculty, contrasted with their simultaneous request for the flexibility to turn off cameras, presents unique struggles for faculty who may also be teaching from spaces in which the audio and video may not be optimized, due to teaching in nonpermanent setups from their home office or locations. To summarize, while this particular LAT campus was in a state of unusual AC readiness ahead of COVID-19, both faculty- and student-oriented feedback from campus-wide surveys indicated an increased demand for interaction, engagement, and flexibility. These requests were presented as critical for students’ interest in ongoing success within classes, and even further, for students’ motivation to enroll in classes at the chosen university going forward, outside of the pandemic. Likewise, the implementation of a faculty-led peer mentoring program, as noted with support from previous research across the nontechnical teaching spheres, may provide additional support for campuses needing advanced, distributed, discipline-specific peer support and knowledge (Smith & Nadelson, 2016; Sood et al., 2020).

 uture Directions with Academic Continuity F and Institutional Resilience Continuity of educational pursuits was and still is crucial for students to successfully learn and for the faculty who teach them. ERT is more than simply putting materials online; it requires creating a space for effective teaching and learning practices balanced with personal responsibilities (caregiving, homeschooling, etc.). Understanding that faculty and students had competing priorities and with equal and/or greater weight than their academic pursuits recognizing that a strategic plan that considers the many support services that people need during times of crisis is crucial. Preparations for small- and large-scale impact events should be integral to campus culture. Considerations extending past some of the successful examples listed in these case studies and more may look at campus-wide policies allowing greater sharing of content resources and extended access to materials. Future recommendations for AC and IR were developed through the case study observations and Burnard et  al.’ (2018) Organizational Response Framework (p. 356) and Resilience Configurations Matrix (p. 357). With observations gathered from the three case studies presented in this chapter, along with adapted practices from business models, higher education institutions can develop strategic plans that will ensure a smoother transition should ERT be needed again in the future.

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 ecommendations for Institutional Resilience R and Academic Continuity This chapter has identified a number of recommendations higher education institutions may entertain when evaluating their own academic continuity plans. A common theme among the case studies was the appreciation expressed by students and faculty for the various accommodations in light of the circumstances. Strategies such as alternative grading, which was implemented at numerous institutions, proved effective in reducing significant amounts of stress at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Through this demonstration of compassion, instructors, and administrators were able to unite individuals across their campuses and strengthen the human connections that were crucial for navigating the challenges we were all experiencing. Another strategy that should be included in college and university preparedness plans is those focused on academic and social student support. For example, an initiative that LCU tried, on a very small scale, was allocating federal work-study money to undergraduate students to provide tutoring support to grade school-aged children of graduate students. While this initiative was not put into place until about 6 months into the pandemic and was only offered to one graduate program as a pilot study, other initiatives that utilized federal work-study money could be used in institutions with little reserved funds or endowments. Outcomes from a study by Burnard and Bhamra (2011) noted a gap in the ability to successfully utilize subject matter experts (SMEs) as a means for an organization, including an academic one, to pivot to support emergency needs for continuity of service successfully. Identifying the ability to have decentralization and flexibility as cornerstones for institutional resilience in short- and longer-term models of successful continuity, Burnard and Bhamra (2011) left the next steps unknown. Applying these recommendations first-hand in the emergency pivot to DL supported the finding that SMEs are critical to time-sensitive projects, queuing for review, development, assessment, implementation, and improvement cycles. Utilizing SMEs and providing appropriate training early on in terms of quick-develop projects from readily available templates with preauthorized usage may provide institutions small and large with opportunities to quickly bring to scale stronger, more student-and faculty-oriented, lower bandwidth, higher quality, and overall, more organizationally sound support systems with the greatest organizational infrastructure for ongoing support. Another strategy identified that also utilizes SMEs is training on the LMS. If colleges and universities came to a consensus on what LMS to use, faculty, staff, and students could be trained on that LMS, and instructors would be encouraged to have a companion shell even with campus-based courses. Ensuring faculty are trained in and using the same platforms and training creates better support from SMEs, learning designers, technology departments, and help desks, who can then focus on learning one platform and how to best assist instructors on LMS best practices.

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R1Us implementation of a website that helped that provided information, resources, and updates on the pandemic was a great strategy and a resource that should be available during times of disruption. This website should be a fluid page updated regularly with accurate and verified information. Information about COVID-19 in the media, both news, and social media, was confusing and sometimes conflicting. Having a site that clearly discusses health and safety provides a resource where students can feel confident in the information provided. Lastly, one of the interesting observations was how some colleges and universities did have preparedness plans in place, but those plans were not intended to be long-term solutions. At the same time, those that had plans were a bit ahead of those that did not; after nearly 2 years in at least a partially digital world, institutions are still trying to determine how to best meet the needs of students, staff, and faculty. Institutions should examine what emergency plans are currently in place and determine what can be modified or added from the lessons learned from ERT during a global pandemic.

Conclusion Emergency remote teaching implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic was never meant to be full-scale digital learning. However, all institutions are aware that there are things that went well and others that, looking back, could have gone more smoothly. Through collaborations and understanding how different institutions handled the transition to ERT, educational leaders, and instructors can develop long-­ term preparedness plans that address strategies for keeping students, staff, and faculty motivated. It is important to note that the recommendations listed in this chapter are not all-encompassing but provide a starting point for institutions to create academic continuity and institutional resilience plans for academic disruptions. As many institutions now know, these plans are important because, as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown, there are many unknowns during times of crisis. While no plan will account for all the unknowns, a proactive approach to ensuring education does not stop during a crisis is crucial to the survival and success of an academic institution. Additionally, while it is not expected that another global pandemic will happen anytime soon, having strategic IR and AC plans will ensure an institution’s ability to provide support and academic delivery during cases such as hurricanes, snow days, or any other localized, national, or global emergency.

References Burnard, K., & Bhamra, R. (2011). Organisational resilience: Development of a conceptual framework for organisational responses. International Journal of Production Research, 49(18), 5581–5599. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2011.563827

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Burnard, K., Bhamra, R., & Tsinopoulos, C. (2018). Building organizational resilience: Four configurations. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 65(3), 351–362. Retrieved from https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8301599 Means, B., & Neisler, J. (2021). Teaching and learning in the time of COVID: The student perspective. Online Learning, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v25i1.2496 Peimani, N., & Kamalipour, H. (2021). Online education in the post COVID-19 era: Students’ perception and learning experience. Education Sciences, 11, 1–14. Retrieved from https://www. mdpi.com/2227-­7102/11/10/633/htm Smith, J., & Nadelson, L. (2016). Learning for you and learning for me: Mentoring as professional development for mentor teachers. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 24(1), 56–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2016.1165489 Sood, A., Qualls, C., Tigges, B., Wilson, B., & Helitzer, D. (2020). Effectiveness of a faculty mentor development program for scholarship at an academic health center. The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 40(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1097/ CEH.0000000000000276 Megan Kohler, M.S. is a learning designer at Penn State University. Her area of expertise is in creating impactful learning experiences, especially for neurodivergent learners, and in establishing collaborative design dynamics for faculty and designers. In 2021, she was awarded the G. Montgomery and Marion Mitchell Innovative Teaching Award by The College of Earth and Mineral Sciences.  

Sherri Restauri, Ed.D. is the Senior Customer Support Manager at Automatic Sync Technologies, supporting higher education institutions in digital access and inclusion. She is a faculty member with the Departments of Psychology and Education at Coastal Carolina University where she also served 6 years as the Senior Executive Director of the Office of Digital and Online Learning. In 2021 she was awarded the OLC Gomory-Mayadas Leadership Award in Higher Education.  

Tracy Balduzzi, Ed.D. is the Associate Director for Strategic Initiatives at Syracuse University where she is responsible for student engagement across all learning modalities. She is also an adjunct lecturer at Utica University teaching in face-to-face, online, and hybrid environments. Her research is focused on providing quality academic and social development experiences in higher education across all modalities.  

Part IV

Curriculum, Course, and Instructional Design

Chapter 18

Strategies for Instructors: Establishing and Maintaining Presence in an Online Course Jacqueline S. Stephen

Abstract  The Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework will be used to describe the different types of presence necessary in an online course, such as social, cognitive, and teaching presence (Garrison DR, Anderson T, Archer W, Internet High Educ 13:5–9, 2010a). CoI is critical to instructor presence in an online course because it impacts a student’s perceived and actual learning, student satisfaction with the course and instructor, and a student’s sense of belonging (Akyol Z, Garrison DR, J Asynchronous Learn Netw 12:3–22, 2008; Arbaugh JB, Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 9:1–21, 2008; Richardson JC, Maeda Y, Lv J, Caskurlu, Comput Hum Behav 71:402–417, 2017). This chapter describes strategies for implementing the CoI framework at the course level and provides guidance and best practices for instructors on the use of this framework to design, develop, and deliver effective online courses. In addition, specific strategies are provided to support instructors in strengthening each type of presence in an online course. To address the anticipated and continuous growth in online program enrollment, it will be imperative for instructors of online courses to establish and maintain their social and teaching presence to stimulate cognitive presence. Keywords  Community of inquiry (CoI) · Instructor presence · Online learning · Online teaching

Introduction Student enrollment in online programs was already on the rise in the United States prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020 and was projected to continue to grow well into 2026 (Hussar & Bailey, 2018; Seaman et al., 2018). As a J. S. Stephen (*) Department of Leadership Studies, College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_18

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result of the pandemic, many institutes of higher education in the United States and globally quickly transitioned from traditional face-to-face programs to virtual programs using technology tools and applications. It is important to note that the sudden shift from face-to-face courses to fully online courses was a response to a crisis (i.e., pandemic), which resulted in emergency remote teaching (ERT) (Alexander, 2020). As such, ERT emphasizes maintaining instruction during the pandemic by attempting to replicate traditional face-to-face teaching methods using technology. In contrast, online teaching involves well-aligned learning experiences designed specifically for virtual delivery and necessitates teacher preparation in the use of various technology tools to effectively design, develop, and deliver instruction at a distance. The differentiation between ERT and online teaching is important, especially in understanding presence in the context of an online learning environment. In an ERT setting, instructor presence may not be a priority, given that it is a response to a crisis and instruction was not initially intended for online delivery (Whalen, 2020). However, in a planned online course, instructor presence has long been deemed critical to student learning, satisfaction with the course, and the instructor (Akyol & Garrison, 2008; Richardson et al., 2017; Tyrväinen et al., 2021). Moreover, instructor presence is associated with factors of human agency that support student persistence in an online course (Stephen & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2021; Stephen et al., 2020). The emphasis on instructor presence as a contributing factor to student success necessitates an in-depth understanding of establishing, maintaining, and measuring instructor presence in an online course to foster deep and meaningful student learning.

Dimensions of Presence in an Online Course Defining instructor presence in a traditional face-to-face classroom environment can be simple and familiar. In its most basic form, instructor presence in a traditional classroom can be determined through some of the following activities in which they engage in: reporting to the physical classroom, presenting lectures they have prepared in advance, meeting with students in class or in an office space, facilitating instructional activities in the classroom, leading collaborative groups in problem-­solving, etc. Whereas in an online course, many of these activities take shape and form in a virtual environment that may not be as visible or familiar to students. Consequently, defining instructor presence in an online course can often be complex. Over the years, researchers and educators have relied on the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework to define and explain instructor presence in an online course (Fiock, 2020; Micsky & Foels, 2019; Radovan & Kristl, 2017). The CoI framework first emerged in the 1990s to evaluate online courses in asynchronous learning environments, and it continues to be widely used today to describe instructor presence in an online course and inform professional development programs for online instructors (Akyol & Garrison, 2008; Fiock, 2020; Garrison et al., 2010b). Validity studies have been conducted over the years to support the structure of the

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CoI framework (e.g., Arbaugh, 2007; Kozan & Richardson, 2014). Based on the CoI framework, deep and meaningful student learning in an online asynchronous or synchronous course occurs at the intersection of teaching, social, and cognitive presence. Garrison et  al. (2001) posit that student engagement with instructors, peers, and course content is necessary for developing a successful community of learners. Thus, all three dimensions of presence are necessary for an online learning experience.

Teaching Presence The role of an instructor in an online course is critical and encompasses many functions that differ from traditional and familiar functions associated with teaching in a physical classroom. As a dimension of the CoI framework, teaching presence is described as “the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes” (Anderson et al., 2001, p. 5). For an online instructor to perform these three functions, they must engage in distinct types of activities. Designing and facilitating a course and directing cognitive and social processes are functions that are familiar to instructors with experience teaching in face-to-face classroom settings; however, these functions are interpreted differently in an online classroom. Designing a course for online delivery necessitates a great deal of preparation ahead of the course start date, and it continues throughout the lifespan of the course. Course design involves activities such as selecting and developing curricular materials, determining the sequence of the lessons, writing assignment guidelines, and establishing assessment criteria. While these activities are elements associated with teaching in any course delivery format, they are more pronounced in an online learning environment, which Anderson et al. (2001) describe as the “grand design” of the course. Online instructors need to have knowledge of instructional design (ID) models and receive guidance in the application of an appropriate ID model to structure course content in a meaningful way, design activities that promote student-­ to-­ student interaction, and design assessment components to measure student learning. Once the online course has been designed, instructors play a key role in facilitating learning throughout the course. The emphasis of learning facilitation is on student-­to-instructor interaction. Anderson et  al. (2001) explain that instructors must facilitate learning so students remain interested, motivated, and engaged as active learners. Learning facilitation involves helping students make meaning of their new learning, engaging them in skill development through discovery, and guiding them through the learning process. In addition to learner facilitation, instructors employ their expertise in the subject matter to support student learning through direct instruction activities. Direct instruction involves the instructor imparting their expertise to students through effective pedagogical methods, such as scaffolding, to support student learning.

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According to the CoI framework, direct instruction can be achieved through instructor facilitation of student reflection and discourse, presentation of content through various formats, and incorporation of various forms of assessment and feedback (Anderson et al., 2001). Hence, direct instruction is instructor-directed, emphasizing their engagement throughout the learning process, such as presenting instructional content in different asynchronous and synchronous formats (i.e., video, audio, text), using effective methods to assess student achievement of course learning outcomes, and providing ongoing feedback to students.

Social Presence Social presence theory (SPT) has been used over the years to guide practices associated with effective interaction in an online course. SPT was first introduced in the 1970s to understand social cues and interactions that occur through communication media (Short et al., 1976). Over the years, researchers have relied on SPT to define the social presence and introduce theoretical frameworks to guide its application to online teaching. Gunawardena and Zittle’s (1997) conceptualization of social presence led to the identification of two constructs, immediacy, and intimacy. They ascertained that the length of time it took an individual (i.e., student) to receive a response (immediacy) and the quality of interpersonal relationships (i.e., student-to-­ instructor) in the technology-mediated interaction impacted student perception of social presence and level of engagement. Subsequent studies revealed that increasing the immediacy and intimacy of responses in online courses led to an increase in student satisfaction with the level of interaction (Gunawardena, 1995; Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997). In their articulation of the CoI framework, Garrison et al. (2001) sought to measure the level of social presence in online interaction, and they relied on some of the discoveries of previous scholars to determine dimensions of social presence that are more specific to an online learning environment. As a dimension of the CoI framework, social presence was initially defined as “the ability of participants in a community of inquiry to project themselves socially and emotionally, as ‘real’ people (i.e., their full personality), through the medium of communication used” (Garrison et al., 2000, p. 94). Subsequently, Garrison (2009) redefined social presence as “the ability of participants to identify with the community (e.g., course or study), communicate purposefully in a trusting environment, and develop interpersonal relationships by way of projecting their individual personalities” (p. 352). The purpose of redefining social presence was to better align it with new developments centered on teaching and cognitive presence. Purposeful communication in a trusting environment can be characterized as “reciprocal and respectful exchanges” (Garrison et al., 2000, p. 100). In an online course, such exchanges occur among members (i.e., students, instructors, librarian, and tutor) through asynchronous or synchronous virtual tools (i.e., discussion forums, email, and web conferences). Demonstrating mutual awareness and

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recognizing ideas presented by others are examples of open communication and can serve as foundational to building social presence, especially in asynchronous communication (i.e., discussion forums and emails) settings that do not allow for nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, facial expressions, and/or body language. Hence, a learning climate fostering open communication and risk-free expression can increase student-to-student and student-to-instructor interaction. Interpersonal affective communication is sometimes referred to as the expression of emotion, and it is characterized by “the ability and confidence to express feelings related to the educational experience” (Garrison et al., 2000, p. 99). This involves opportunities for students to develop their online social identity through meaningful activities that promote self-awareness. Therefore, creating an online classroom environment that engages students in self-expression and supports differing perspectives is foundational to student development of interpersonal communication skills and confidence in their abilities to communicate effectively in an online learning environment. Sustained group cohesion involves student-to-student and student-to-instructor interaction. Collaboration among students and instructors in the learning process is crucial for social presence because it supports cognitive presence (Garrison et al., 2000). This involves opportunities for students to collaborate with their peers on coursework and interact with their peers through synchronous or asynchronous small-group discussions. Most importantly, such activities help students to develop their group identify, which makes them feel more connected, and, thus, increases their sense of belonging in an online course.

Cognitive Presence Cognitive presence is defined as “the extent to which learners are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse in a critical community of inquiry” (Garrison et al., 2000, p. 92). This definition suggests that learning is more than absorbing information, and emphasizes the importance of learners as active participants in the process. Garrison et al. (2000) posited that cognitive presence “reflects higher-order knowledge acquisition and application and is most associated with the literature and research related to critical thinking” (p.  94). Cognitive presence is essential for student learning because its emphasis is on how students in an online course move through the learning process. This includes how students approach new learning, how students demonstrate their depth of understanding, and student articulation of their understanding to their learning community (i.e., classmates and instructors). As Garrison et al. (2000) explained, cognitive presence involves instructors guiding students through the learning process by helping them develop the agency they need to achieve meaningful learning and demonstrate an understanding by applying new concepts. To accomplish this, instructors need to set goals (i.e., student learning outcomes) for the learning and incorporate various methods (i.e., instructional,

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interaction, communication) to help students achieve these goals. Based on the CoI framework (Garrison et  al., 2000), cognitive presence encompasses four phases used to help cultivate learning: triggering event, exploration, integration, and resolution. Cognitive presence is centered on the process used to create meaning and the instructional activities that support this process. A triggering event involves introducing a problem or a dilemma to engage students in identifying a potential solution. Once the problem or dilemma has been presented, instructors guide students as they engage in exploration to seek an understanding of the nature of the problem or dilemma. Third, integration involves making meaning and imposing order on the discoveries made through exploration. Finally, resolution refers to drawing on newly acquired knowledge or skills to decide on a solution. According to the CoI framework (Garrison et al., 2000), instructors play a key role in helping students move through these four phases and are part of the learning process. As such, cognitive presence is necessary throughout the learning experience (i.e., semester), along with teaching and social presence.

Establishing and Maintaining Presence in an Online Course All three dimensions of presence are equally significant to cultivating a community of inquiry (Garrison et al., 2001). Presence in an online course requires planning and forethought. Presence across all three dimensions must be maintained throughout the course. It is not something that occurs at any one point. As such, it is recommended that instructors who do plan to teach an online course determine in advance which strategies they will use to establish and maintain the three dimensions of presence. However, careful consideration does need to be given to ensure a balance across the three dimensions so that students do not feel overwhelmed (Larson et al., 2019). An online course with excessive teaching, cognitive, and social presence (e.g., too many instructor posts in the discussion forums, high email and/or course announcement frequency, content, and information overload) may overwhelm students, lead to confusion between their roles and that of the instructor, cause communication fatigue, and create confusion (Arbaugh, 2010; Dolan et al., 2017; Zhao & Sullivan, 2017). Conversely, an online course with minimal teaching, cognitive, and social presence may lead to student dissatisfaction with the course and instructor and affect a student’s decision to persist (Rovai, 2003; Stephen & Rockinson-­ Szapkiw, 2021). Thus, maintaining a balance across all three dimensions of presence is paramount. Many of the recommended strategies for presence are somewhat similar to those utilized by instructors to fulfill their pedagogical, social, managerial, and technical roles in an online course (Bonk et  al., 2001; Stephen, 2020). Recommended strategies for establishing and maintaining presence in an online course are provided in the ensuing subsections.

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Teaching Presence in an Online Course Teaching presence has been referred to as the binding dimension of the CoI framework, with social and cognitive presence being dependent upon it (Garrison et al., 2000). Students experience teaching presence through the course syllabus, the design of the online learning environment, the facilitation of the course, and direct instruction and feedback. For an online course, the emphasis of course planning and preparation is centered on designing learning modules with specified learning goals, assigned reading, instructional content, interactive activities, engagement requirements, and assessment procedures. When using an LMS to deliver the online course, instructors must employ sound instructional design methodologies to structure the course content. This involves determining the sequence of the instruction, organizing content and activities into a meaningful structure (i.e., weekly modules and folders), clearly labeling all items (i.e., file names), establishing deadlines for graded course components, and informing students of anticipated learning outcomes. Many of the aforementioned activities should be incorporated into the course syllabus and mirrored in the online course. Instructors also demonstrate their presence when they facilitate discourse. This can be easily accomplished by creating asynchronous or synchronous opportunities (i.e., discussion forums in an LMS or virtual live meetings) for instructors and students to introduce themselves and engage in some form of icebreaker. Instructors can also use these activities to model the behaviors they expect of students. Facilitation occurs at the start of a course and is an activity that an instructor must maintain until the course ends. Instructors must carefully craft meaningful and relevant discussion prompts that promote student engagement if discussion forums are used in an online course. Additionally, student participation in an online discussion must be structured. For example, instructors need to provide students with guidance on fulfilling the requirements of a discussion (i.e., word limit, responses to peers, timeliness). Instructors also need to clarify their role in the discussion forums. This is something that can be accomplished through the syllabus. At times, an instructor may need to also engage in discussions to draw in participants, assess the efficacy of the process, encourage, or reinforce student contributions, and so on. Conversely, an instructor can summarize a discussion to reveal any gaps and help students see the relationship between the content of the discussion and the course learning outcomes. Direct instruction is another means through which instructors demonstrate their presence in an online course. Direct instruction activities involve students modeling their new learning, practicing their new learning, receiving feedback on their new learning, and engaging in independent practice. Direct instruction activities should be clearly delineated in a course syllabus so that students are informed of the experiences they will be expected to engage in as a student in the course to achieve the learning outcomes. An instructor fulfills the requirements of direct instruction by developing instructional activities (i.e., self-assessments, assignments, group work, virtual field trips, virtual guest speakers, video- or audio-based activities, discussion

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forums, quizzes, projects, presentations) that provide students with variety of experiences to engage in the learning process. In addition, most importantly, the instructor actively participates in the student learning process by providing ongoing feedback throughout the duration of the course, guiding students through the process.

Social Presence in an Online Course Social presence has been referred to as the mediating dimension between cognitive and teaching presence. A higher level of social presence is associated with the overall quality of cognitive presence (Garrison et al., 2010b; Lee, 2014). When designing collaborative activities, instructors may want to carefully consider forming smaller subgroups of students and allowing students to input into selecting a group based on topic or activity. In group-based activities, such as discussions, instructors need to communicate their role with students. For example, if an instructor does not have any role in a discussion other than prompting the discussion, then this should be clarified to students, so they understand their role and do not wait for instructor input before proceeding with a follow-up post. Furthermore, an instructor should not feel the need to be overly present (i.e., respond to each student’s post) if this is not the intent of the discussion forum. The start of the course presents an opportunity for instructors to project their teaching persona. This can be accomplished by recording a video welcome message for students, creating a screencast overview of the course, orienting students to the online course, and sharing their teaching philosophy. Most importantly, instructors should use the introductory discussion forum to model behaviors for students by introducing themselves. Often, such icebreakers are developed for students, but it is important that instructors also engage in these icebreakers with students. If using an LMS for the online course, instructors can set up regular announcements in advance and set them to post for student view on specific dates throughout the semester. Weekly course reminders help students remain on task and feel part of a learning community. Timeliness and immediacy are critical in an online course. As such, an instructor must consistently communicate with students throughout the online course. Instructors should consider establishing a weekly or daily routine for course check-­ ins or student communication. One strategy instructors can use to inform students of days and times they check course messages. This helps students plan when seeking guidance or clarification from an instructor. Additionally, an online instructor may want to consider virtual office hours or drop-ins for students requiring further interaction to better understand an assignment or activity. Being responsive to students is important, but timeliness in the response is even more crucial, especially in autonomous learning settings. If an online students’ lack of presence is noticeable (i.e., missed assignments and not responsive to peers in a discussion), then the instructor’s presence becomes even

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more critical. Most of today’s widely used LMS has built-in tools that enable instructors to monitor student activity and participation easily. Instructors can use these tools to increase the frequency of their social presence with specific students. For example, instead of posting a general announcement to all students about a missed learning experience (i.e., assignment and activity), instructors can directly message only those students who did not participate in the experience. Communication can be individualized, and the use of student names in such communication is just as critical. An instructor can also access the analytics produced by an LMS to reach out to students who do not regularly access the course or its contents. Instructors can use Course Analytics to identify students early on who may not be spending as much time as needed in the online course to experience success. An instructor’s increased social presence with students who do not regularly engage in an online course may help students become less isolated and disconnected. However, this requires an instructor to be proactive and monitor students regularly.

Cognitive Presence in an Online Course Cognitive presence, in a sense, is like social presence, but instead of instructors and students connecting through personal characteristics, the connection occurs through the mutual sharing of ideas, thoughts, beliefs, and cultural elements (Boettcher & Conrad, 2021). Major course activities and assessments should be developed around the course learning outcomes. Effective instructors often do this. However, it is equally important to identify the purpose of each assignment or activity so that students understand its relevance to the learning process. The instructor will know the purpose, but the purpose or intent may not be as obvious or transparent to the student. Students possess different skills, knowledge, and abilities. An online instructor needs to recognize these differences and provide students with frequent opportunities to support their development. As such, instructors need to help students identify resources and support systems. For example, many universities that offer online courses also provide virtual academic support for research (i.e., access to librarians), writing (i.e., online writing lab), test-taking anxiety (i.e., counseling), and tutorial services. Instructors should develop course activities that encourage or require students to use university support systems and resources. Using such systems, students can hopefully develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to achieve the course’s learning outcomes. Other practices, such as the use of grading rubrics, opportunities for peer reviews, and submission of assignment drafts, can also support student skill development and convergent thinking. Most LMS in use today provide instructors with features that enable the easy creation of grading rubrics, which can then be shared with students for use as a self-assessment prior to final submission for a grade. Grading rubrics can be simple or complex, but they should be informative and transparent in evaluating a student’s work. Students should be encouraged to use grading rubrics

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as a checklist to ensure all requirements were met and as a point of reflection on the quality of the work they produced based on the requirements. Content in an online course should be presented in different formats, and assessment types should also vary. Technology tools exist today that make it possible to create and present content in different formats. Content in an online course can be presented through text, videos, screencasts, images, and audio. The virtual delivery of course content can also occur synchronously or asynchronously. Therefore, an instructor needs to determine which content is best presented through the various formats. Simply populating an online course with links to mass-produced online videos (i.e., YouTube and TedTalks), publisher-created content and materials, weblinks to external websites and resources, and notes from presentation files (i.e., Microsoft PowerPoint slides) can lead to cognitive overload. While some of these resources can be integrated into an online course, it is imperative that an instructor carefully determines how students will use each to achieve the course learning outcomes. Moreover, as previously discussed, such items need to be accompanied by a narrative that explains the purpose of use to students. Timely feedback is also essential to cognitive presence. Students require regular feedback on their learning and performance, which must be received in a timely manner so that a student can apply it to future assignments and activities. As instructors establish submission deadlines for student coursework in the course syllabus, they must also establish grading and feedback deadlines to provide students with ongoing input and guidance.

Measuring Presence in an Online Course Several instruments have emerged to measure individual or collective dimensions of presence over the years. A specific survey has been developed and validated for the CoI framework (e.g., Arbaugh et al., 2008; Garrison, 2017, 2018; Swan et al., 2008; Abbitt & Boone, 2021), and the survey has also been translated and validated in other languages (e.g., Ma et al., 2017; Moreira et al., 2013; Olpak & Cakmak, 2018; Velázquez et al., 2019; Yu & Richardson, 2015). It is recommended that instructors use this instrument to develop an awareness of their presence across the dimensions of teaching, cognitive, and social presence within an online course. Survey results could be used to inform future course design, instructional development, and/or course delivery. However, it is important to note that the presence measurement is based on student perception of the learning experience. As such, instructors may want to collaborate with their peers and leadership to examine the use of such an instrument within their specific context.

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Conclusion Presence, in the form of teaching, social, and cognitive, is fundamental to student learning in any course delivery format. However, the strategies used to demonstrate presence differs when a course is delivered fully online. As such, the professional development of instructors prior to online teaching is essential. Presence begins during the design and development phases of an online course and must be sustained through the end of the course. An effort must also be made to educate and inform students of what constitutes presence in an online course, as it relates to their course instructor. Students must also be informed of their role in the course, and how their presence across these dimensions can impact their overall learning experience and perception of their instructor’s presence. Administrators of online courses also need to evaluate their existing student course evaluations to ensure the survey items are relevant to the course delivery method and purposefully written to capture the three dimensions of presence.

References Abbitt, J. T., & Boone, W. J. (2021). Gaining insight from survey data: An analysis of the community of inquiry survey using Rasch measurement techniques. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 33, 367–397. Akyol, Z., & Garrison, D. R. (2008). The development of a community of inquiry over time in an online course: Understanding the progression and integration of social, cognitive and teaching presence. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 12, 3–22. Alexander, B. (2020, March). Coronavirus and higher education resources. Educause. https:// bryanalexander.org/coronavirus/coronavirus-­and-­higher-­education-­resources/ Anderson, T., Liam, R., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. https://auspace.athabascau.ca/handle/2149/725 Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). An empirical verification of the community of inquiry framework. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 11(1), 73–85. Arbaugh, J. B. (2008). Does the community of inquiry framework predict outcomes in online MBA courses? The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(2), 1–21. Arbaugh, J. (2010). Sage, guide, both or even more? Computers and Education, 55, 1234–1244. Arbaugh, J. B., Cleveland-Innes, M., Diaz, S. R., Garrison, D. R., Ice, P., Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. P. (2008). Developing a community of inquiry instrument: Testing a measure of the Community of Inquiry framework using a multi-institutional sample. The Internet and Higher Education, 11(3–4), 133–136. Boettcher, J. V., & Conrad, R. M. (2021). The online teaching survival guide: Simple and practical pedagogical tips. Wiley. Bonk, C. J., Kirkley, J. R., Hara, N., & Dennen, N. (2001). Finding the instructor in post-secondary online learning: Pedagogical, social, managerial, and technological. In J.  Stephenson (Ed.), Teaching and learning online: Pedagogies for new technologies (pp. 76–97). Kogan. Dolan, J., Kain, K., Reilly, J., & Bansal, G. (2017). How do you build community and foster engagement in online courses? New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2017(151), 45–60. Fiock, H. (2020). Designing a community of inquiry in online courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 21(1), 135–153.

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Garrison, D. R. (2009). Communities of inquiry in online learning. In Encyclopedia of distance learning (2nd ed., pp. 352–355). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-­1-­60566-­198-­8.ch052 Garrison, D.  R. (2017). E-learning in the 21st century: A community of inquiry framework for research and practice (3rd ed.). Routledge/Taylor and Francis. Garrison, D. R. (2018). Validity of COI. The Community of Inquiry Editorials. http://www.thecommunityofinquiry.org/editorial15 Garrison, D., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment; computer conferencing in higher education model. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105. Garrison, D.  R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 7–23. Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2010a). The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(1–2), 5–9. Garrison, D.  R., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Fung, T.  S. (2010b). Exploring causal relationships among teaching, cognitive and social presence: Student perceptions of the community of inquiry framework. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(1–2), 31–36. Gunawardena, C.  N. (1995). Social presence theory and implications for interaction and collaborative learning in computer conferences. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 1(2), 147–166. Gunawardena, C. N., & Zittle, F. J. (1997). Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer-mediated conferencing environment. American Journal of Distance Education, 11(3), 8–26. Hussar, W. J., & Bailey, T. M. (2018). Projections of education statistics to 2026. NCES 2018-019. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2018/2018019.pdf Kozan, K., & Richardson, J. C. (2014). New exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis insights into the community of inquiry survey. The Internet and Higher Education, 23, 39–47. Larson, E., Aroz, J., & Nordin, E. (2019). The Goldilocks paradox: The need for instructor presence but not too much in an online discussion forum. Journal of Instructional Research, 8(2), 22–33. Lee, S. M. (2014). The relationships between higher order thinking skills, cognitive density, and social presence in online learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 21, 41–52. Ma, Z., Wang, J., Wang, Q., Kong, L., Wu, Y., & Yang, H. (2017). Verifying causal relationships among the presences of the community of inquiry framework in the Chinese context. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning: IRRODL, 18(6), 213–230. Micsky, T., & Foels, L. (2019). Community of inquiry (CoI): A framework for social work distance educators. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 39(4–5), 293–307. Moreira, J., Ferreira, A., & Almeida, A. (2013). Comparing communities of inquiry of Portuguese higher education students: One for all or one for each? Open Praxis, 5(2), 165–178. Olpak, Y. Z., & Cakmak, E. K. (2018). Examining the reliability and validity of a Turkish version of the Community of Inquiry Survey. Online Learning Journal, 22(1), 142–160. Radovan, M., & Kristl, N. (2017). Acceptance of technology and its impact on teachers’ activities in virtual classroom: Integrating UTAUT and CoI into a combined model. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 16(3), 11–22. Richardson, J. C., Maeda, Y., Lv, J., & Caskurlu, S. (2017). Social presence in relation to students’ satisfaction and learning in the online environment: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 402–417. Rovai, A. P. (2003). In search of higher persistence rates in distance education online programs. The Internet and Higher Education, 6(1), 1–16. Seaman, J. E., Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2018). Grade increase: Tracking distance education in the United States. Babson Survey Research Group. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED580852 Short, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. Wiley.

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Stephen, J. S. (2020). Transforming yourself into an online educator. In C. Coombe, N. J. Anderson, & L.  Stephenson (Eds.), Professionalizing your English language teaching (pp.  185–195). Springer. Stephen, J. S., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2021). A high-impact practice for online students: The use of a first-semester seminar course to promote self-regulation, self-direction, online learning self-efficacy. Smart Learning Environments, 8(1), 1–18. Stephen, J. S., Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., & Dubay, C. (2020). Persistence model of non-­traditional online learners: Self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-direction. American Journal of Distance Education, 34(4), 306–321. Swan, K., Shea, P., Richardson, J., Ice, P., Garrison, D.  R., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Arbaugh, J.  B. (2008). Validating a measurement tool of presence in online communities of inquiry. E-Mentor, 2(24), 1–12. Tyrväinen, H., Uotinen, S., & Valkonen, L. (2021). Instructor presence in a virtual classroom. Open Education Studies, 3(1), 132–146. Velázquez, B. B., Gil-Jaurena, I., & Encina, J. M. (2019). Validation of the Spanish version of the ‘Community of Inquiry’ survey. Revista de Educación a Distancia, 59(4), 1–26. Whalen, J. (2020). Should teachers be trained in emergency remote teaching? Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 28(2), 189–199. Yu, T., & Richardson, J.  C. (2015). Examining reliability and validity of a Korean version of the Community of Inquiry instrument using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The Internet and Higher Education, 25, 45–52. Zhao, H., & Sullivan, K. P. H. (2017). Teaching presence in computer conferencing learning environments: Effects on interaction, cognition and learning uptake. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(2), 538–551. Jacqueline S. Stephen is an Assistant Professor, Director of The Office of Distance Learning, and Instructional Designer, in the College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. Her research has examined factors associated with persistence of undergraduate online students, with much of her research focusing on self-regulated learning, self-directed learning, online learning self-efficacy, and high-impact practices for online teaching.  

Chapter 19

RECIPE, an Innovative Model for Instructional Technology Task Design Via Interactive Media Sam Yousefifard

Abstract  With the ever-growing advances in digital learning technologies, the need to explore the impact of implementing new modes of digital media for instructional and assessment purposes is required more than ever. Also, there has been a significant rise in online education since the pandemic, which has made the evolution of online education faster than in previous decades. The main aim of this chapter is to propose an instructional technology task design model via interactive media and show how it can positively impact learning. A model called RECIPE (Reflection, Engagement, Collaboration, Interaction, Production, and Evaluation) is introduced, and its theoretical applications and practical implications are discussed. This chapter also discusses how this model could maximize critical instructional, assessment, and learning factors leading to active, meaningful learning with technology in online and blended higher education courses. This chapter provides significant guidelines and insights for promoting an engaging learning experience through interactive media tasks in online and blended courses in higher education in the postpandemic era. Moreover, this chapter guides further research in designing more cognitively and socially engaging tasks and courses in online and blended higher education. Keywords  Online learning · Instructional technology design · Interactive media · Higher education

S. Yousefifard (*) McMaster University, Ontario, Canada e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_19

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Introduction The higher education landscape has gone through a digital transformation since the COVID-19 pandemic (Xie et  al., 2021); as online learning took precedence (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020), higher education institutions shifted to online education. Online learning, as it provides opportunities for a learner-centered design (Dwivedi et al., 2019), and its flexibility in terms of space and time via digital technology (Lee & Kim, 2020), was found to be beneficial to learners in some respects such as higher learning outcomes and satisfaction rate (Paulsen & McCormick, 2020), higher engagement, and motivation (Perets et al., 2020). While the rise in demand for online courses (Sithole, et al., 2019) and the expansion of online learning started before the pandemic (Im, 2021), it was significantly accelerated during the pandemic, and this prompted instructional designers and instructors to consider investigating innovative approaches to designing and developing a positive, engaging learning experience with technology in the postpandemic era. Many emerging instructional technology design approaches have been proposed in higher education, as the traditional forms of instructional design have failed to meet the current multimodal learning needs of the new generation of digital learners in technology-­ enhanced and virtual learning environments. According to Dixson (2015), learning is a social activity for many learners, and “simply reading posts, emails, and content and so on may not be enough to be engaged in the course” (p. 9). On the other hand, media plays a critical role in learning with technology as the “multimedia principle” claims that “people learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer, 2020, p. 47). Multimedia involves a digital tool that comprises “text along with at least one of the following: audio or sophisticated sound, music, video, photographs, 3-D graphics, animation, or high-­resolution graphics” (Maddux et al., 2001, p. 253). Task engagement is one of the other most critical factors in instructional technology design, impacting the level of motivation and engagement in courses. Thus, at that point, an innovative model for technology-­mediated task design that promotes conceptual understanding, critical reflective thinking, active application of knowledge, and critical evaluation in online or blended courses in higher education is essential.

Instructional Technology Task Design With growing advances in learning technologies and the rise in online education, instructional technology, media, and task design have become indispensable components of instructional, design, and assessment practices. Technologies have provided us with opportunities to develop connections across borders. This is one of the main factors leading to a rise in the number of online learners forming learning communities on virtual learning platforms. One of the drawbacks of traditional approaches to instructional design is using text-heavy pages on learning

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management systems. Media-rich courses that include a reasonable amount of media (e.g., videos, visuals, interactive media) are required as online learning shares some of the features of multimodal learning. Also, with instructional design has entered a new technological and instructional phase, instructional designers must design and develop more instructional and technologically creative courses in higher education. Tasks, due to their impact as a significant component of online instruction and assessment on students’ learning (Watson & Ohtani, 2015), have been the center of attention among researchers and practitioners (e.g., Perry et al., 2020). They can help to form an active community of inquiry in online and blended learning environments. Task engagement is one of the other factors worth noting, considering the significant impact it could have on learners’ overall performance. It is one of the fundamental components of effective learning because if learners do not find the tasks interesting enough, it could negatively impact their motivations resulting in losing interest in those learning tasks (Leung, 2020), and less involvement in them. Philp and Duchesne (2016) noted the intricacy associated with the multi-faceted concept of engagement. They provided a comprehensive definition of it: “a state of heightened attention and involvement, in which participation is reflected not only in the cognitive dimension, but in social, behavioral, and affective dimensions as well” (p. 51). Considering the complexity of making tasks as engaging as possible, many practitioners find task design and development extremely challenging. As the nature of tasks impacts the learning approaches, instructional technology designers also need to make appropriate adaptations to ensure the engagement element is promoted in online and blended courses. One of the questions instructional designers need to answer is how to promote social, cognitive, and emotional engagement in learners leading to higher learner engagement through authentic, engaging tasks. Mohamadi (2017) states that there are several interrelated elements associated with the occurrence of task engagement which is as follows: • cognitive related to how to design intellectually challenging and engaging tasks that could stimulate learners to employ cognitive strategies to self-assess their performance on the assigned tasks. • affective related to how to design emotionally responsive tasks which learners could perceive as educationally worthwhile goals, making them feel emotionally attached while doing something positive and rewarding. • social emphasizes how to design socially relevant tasks intended to be both instructional and gripping, promoting considerable collaboration among learners while socially engaged in fulfilling the given tasks. • behavioral focuses on how to design instructional relevant tasks which could arouse a significant deal of interest and consequent active participation among learners. Each of these technology-mediated tasks could be well used in instructional design by developing an emotional attachment to the course and helping learners

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make optimal use of their cognitive strategies. In contrast, these tasks make them socially and cognitively engaged through active involvement in those tasks.

Theoretical Learning and Design Framework While technology enhances greater facilitation, flexibility, and customization in the learning process, merging technology to enhance the educational and social part of learning is still underdeveloped. The successful application of learning technologies in higher education depends on appropriate knowledge of learning objectives, the nature of tasks, and the impacts of tasks chosen in alignment with learning objectives. Research indicates that online learning should not be limited to one-way content presentation. It must be designed to promote social and cognitive engagement among learners and between learners and instructors (Reese, 2015). Also, learner autonomy and community inquiry development are common themes in virtual learning environments. Thus, innovative approaches to design consistent with effective learning theories such as social constructivism are required. The RECIPE model is inspired by constructivism, sociocultural theory, and active learning theory and supports meaningful learning with technology, multimodal learning, and multimedia learning theories. All of these elements significantly impact learners’ learning outcomes and performance level.

Constructivism The significance of constructivism has been highlighted in online education (Bryant & Bates, 2015; Mbati & Minnaar, 2015). While there are different perspectives regarding constructivism, with some focusing on cognitive and sociocultural dimensions of constructivism, overall, it regards learning as an active process of knowledge construction rather than knowledge acquisition (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). It is helpful in online learning due to its focus on the active involvement of students in solving problems and negotiating meaning which leads to meaningful understanding (Jonassen, 2003). Also, socioconstructivism is one of the most commonly used theories on which instructional design is based. Socioconstructivism is defined as “knowledge construction based on previous knowledge and interaction with the social environment” (Synteta et al., 2003, p. 1). In constructivism, the roles of teachers and learners are redefined as the teacher’s role from content provider changes to the content facilitator. Also, learners move from passive knowledge recipients to active knowledge constructors (Weller, 1988), promoting autonomy among learners (Bandura, 1994). Constructivism is rooted in the idea that the active involvement of students in the learning and assessment processes could help develop connections between new concepts and prior knowledge, leading to the construction of new knowledge (Ripoll et  al., 2021). This theory benefits technology-enhanced and

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online learning environments, as working collaboratively on tasks provides learners with opportunities to share multiple perspectives while constructing and negotiating to mean. The RECIPE model is aligned with the principles of constructivism, as it supports active knowledge construction through collaboration, critical reflection, and shared exchanges of perspectives.

Active Learning Learning involves ongoing receptive and productive practice, so it requires active knowledge construction rather than passive knowledge transmission. The traditional mechanical approaches to online learning have been found to fail contemporary learners’ creative, communicative, and reflective needs (e.g., communication, collaboration, and negotiation of ideas). Thus, newer approaches to learning that stress effective, meaningful communication and learning through active and critical engagement are required. Research indicates that active learning has a lot of benefits such as critical thinking development (Kwon & Woo, 2017), higher performance (Lasry et al., 2013), and more motivation and engagement among learners (Slavich & Zimbardo, 2012). Theoretically, active learning is a broad term that “involves students doing things and thinking about the things they are doing” (Bonnell & Eison, 1991, p.  2). Prince (2004) views it from a pedagogical perspective and regards it as a term for pedagogies with the main emphasis on the level of activity and engagement of learners in the learning process. Active learning theory supports the idea that knowledge should be constructed as learners actively experience learning in authentic contexts. Thus, activities with a collaborative and problem-based nature can provide opportunities for active learning to occur (Erbil, 2020). The proponents of educational technology tools highlighted some of the essential benefits of creating new learning modes, learning theories, and learning environments with the support of emerging learning technologies.

Meaningful Learning with Technology While learning technologies and online learning have many advantages, including flexibility, adaptability, and availability essential for a diverse learning community, it has its own challenges. One of the critical questions is what role technology plays in promoting meaningful learning with technology in online and blended learning environments and how instructional technology designers could facilitate the optimal use of technology to make it happen. Meaningful learning is intentionally connecting new information to prior knowledge, schema, and relevant or experiential learning (Rumalolas et al., 2021). For meaningful learning to occur, learners must be provided with meaningful, authentic tasks promoting collaboration, reflection, and knowledge construction. According to Jonassen et  al. (2003), meaningful

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learning occurs when learners are actively engaged in the learning process and when dimensions of active, constructive, intentional, and cooperative learning are involved. It can also occur when cognitive processes necessary for problem-solving are activated (Somyürek, 2015) and when learners are actively involved in the assigned activities (Almulla, 2020). Thus, new concepts must be smoothly integrated into existing knowledge, developing a connection between them (Fletcher & Ní Chróinín, 2022). While meaningful learning with technology has been investigated (Huang et  al., 2011), there are still questions about what approach would promote it in learning technology contexts. Jonassen et  al. (2008) suggested five major components of meaningful learning with technology, • • • • •

active authentic constructive cooperative and intentional learning (INT)

Each of these components can help create an interactive, collaborative, and reflective learning environment where learners are offered opportunities to learn with technology rather than from technology. The RECIPE model also supports such a view of learning.

 heoretical Applications and Practical Implications T of the RECIPE Model In order to utilize new media tasks in our design practices, I propose a new model called RECIPE for interactive media task design, which could be used as a model for designing and developing cognitively, affectively, and socially engaging interactive tasks that provide students with opportunities for active knowledge construction through reflection (i.e., metacognitive reflective media tasks, and problem-solving media tasks), engagement (i.e., cognitive, social, affective, and task), collaboration (i.e., group/peer collaboration, technology-mediated collaboration), interaction (i.e., student–content, student–student, and student–instructor), production (i.e., audio/ video journals, audio/video messages/replies, and group visual projects), and evaluation (i.e., self-assessment, e-portfolio, visual peer review, and audio/video feedback) leading to active, meaningful learning with technology in higher education programs.

Reflection Despite learners’ level of engagement in tasks and learning activities, many students do not typically reflect on the process and strategies that lead to their learning. Research suggests that instructional activities should include metacognitive

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strategies (Ellerton, 2015). Students need to be provided with opportunities to have metacognitive reflection and engage in thinking about thinking, as this can help them have a deeper understanding of the thinking and learning process. Metacognitive reflection tasks can also help develop connections between new information and relevant existing information. What is currently needed is designing and using metacognitive reflection tasks in our instructional design practices. Metacognitive reflective tasks aim to help learners find answers to what they have learned and how this learning has occurred. In this way, learners would be encouraged to use their metacognitive and self-efficacy skills. Examples of metacognitive tasks are reflective media tasks, which are problem-solving media tasks that require learners to reflect on their own learning process and provide video-based summaries of what went well and what still needs further enhancement.

Engagement Student engagement is one of the most significant concepts in online and blended learning environments. There are different yet relevant definitions of student engagement among scholars. Student engagement is defined as: “the student’s psychological investment in an effort directed toward learning, understanding, or mastering the knowledge, skills, or crafts that academic work is intended to promote” (Lamborn et al., 1992, p. 12). Kahu et al. (2014) provided a different definition of student engagement: “a student’s emotional, behavioral and cognitive connection to their study” which has a direct impact on student success and achievement” (p. 523). The engagement element is very critical to be explored in online and blended learning education. The efficacy of online instruction and its potential to promote students’ engagement in online learning has been at the center of research (Gao et al., 2021), as it could prompt more positive feelings such as enjoyment (Garn et  al., 2017), and learners with higher levels of engagement tend to achieve higher success (Bond et al., 2020). Engagement is also believed to be highly connected to another critical psychological factor contributing to higher learning outcomes, the motivation factor (Christenson et al., 2012), since the level of attention, interest, and effort of learners would significantly affect and shape a certain amount of engagement among learners (Philp & Duchesne, 2016). Despite the interconnectivity of both constructs, they differ in many respects. Engagement is an observable phenomenon that could be perceived based on learners’ performance level on the given tasks. Still, motivation is an either internally or externally driven construct that is stimulated psychologically and results in more engagement (Reeve, 2012). Another difference is the fact that sustained motivation leading to higher engagement is dependent on the existence of some anticipated rewards. However, engagement could still be sustainable if the task itself sounds attention-grabbing even after the disappearance of the potential rewards (Lee, 2012). It should be noted that this difference is significant, as there would be highly motivated learners who are less engaged, particularly when they find the task too cognitively and intellectually

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challenging. Thus, the way a task is designed could have either a facilitative or debilitative impact on the amount of learners’ engagement in the given tasks (Mohamadi, 2017).

Collaboration One of the main objectives in online and blended learning environments is forming a community of learners that promotes reflection through collaboration and meaningful production through two-way communication. Collaboration is regarded as an indispensable component of instructional tasks (Herrington et  al., 2003). Thus, developing a deeper understanding of this fundamental element of design which can promote more interaction and engagement among learners, content, and instructors, is very critical. Many studies explore the role of online collaboration in knowledge facilitation, critical thinking, group moderation, interaction, knowledge construction, and meaning-making (Gemmel et  al., 2020). Collaborative learning offers many benefits such as more collaborative opportunities that promote more active involvement in the learning process, resulting in a more positive learning experience in online education (Almusharraf & Bailey, 2021). Online collaborative learning in higher education is more critical than ever, partly due to the acceptance of constructivist instructional approaches (Kirschner et  al., 2004), the ever-growing need to design engaging learning environments (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005), and ongoing advances in learning technologies (Chang et al., 2017). Despite its benefits, it has its own challenges in design and applicability. For example, while the significance and impact of exchanging information in small groups are highlighted (King, 1992), many instructors are still facing challenges in online and blended learning environments as to how to promote collaboration when the number of students is limited. Overall, the collaborative features of tasks are beneficial to learners. Research indicates that tasks with a more collaborative and participatory nature can lead to more learning engagement in online learning (Knopf et  al., 2021), more motivation in exchanging knowledge (Laux et  al., 2016), enhancing critical thinking abilities (Hwang et  al., 2015), and promoting more social interaction among learners (Motameni, 2018). Also, the social interaction and communication opportunities provided in such online tasks can positively impact willingness to collaborate among learners, leading to increased knowledge internalization, accommodation, and production.

Interaction Interaction is another critical yet challenging component of online learning. Online learning could be more beneficial to learners with more interaction opportunities in interactive learning environments, as they find it a more enjoyable learning

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experience (Yu et al., 2020). There are many benefits of including the interaction aspect in online courses, such as lowering affective barriers, promoting communication opportunities between student–instructor and student–student, course engagement (Dixson, 2010), and higher satisfaction with a course (Beaudoin et al., 2009). Interaction is also one of the most important elements in determining the level of engagement among online learners (Roque-Hernandez et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2020), and one of the predictors of self-efficacy (Ma et al., 2020a, b). However, instructional technology designers still find it challenging to make optimal use of interaction in the course design and implementation. The lack of interaction could result in decreasing motivation and engagement among learners leading to lower learning performance. Interaction can take different forms (i.e., student–content, student– student, and student–instructor) and modes (e.g., voice-based/video-based interaction). Over the last decade, there has been growing recognition of the social benefits of using online interactive tasks to promote collaboration and metacognitive skills in higher education courses. One of these recognized benefits of interactive tasks is their capability to provide optimum collaborative context for learning through the interactive elements and functions. On the other hand, interactive tasks can help promote group cohesion and collaborative learning while developing a social community of inquiry. Interactive tasks can also provide optimal conditions for practicing and learning through peer interaction, peer support, and peer feedback, all of which are critical in leading to peer learning through ongoing discussion of why a particular task requires a specific set of actions. For example, video-supported interactive tasks with hotspot features could be designed and used as learners are given opportunities to learn about the perspectives of other learners on the screen and share theirs. On the sidebar, answering questions and sharing their perspectives about the content of the video while using the interactive features of the video could promote cognitive and social engagement among learners as they are cognitively engaged in the content and socially engaged in discussions with their peers.

Production It is fair to say that providing learners with content and instructional input alone cannot lead to meaningful learning. Just knowing about a concept does not signify the ability of learners to apply those pieces of knowledge in real-world environments. Effective learning requires mutual interaction, reflection, and negotiation of ideas. One of the main constructs of meaningful learning with technology is the “constructive/articulative, and reflective” feature. They stress the role of reflection and articulating what learners have achieved. Thus, tasks should be designed to promote the construction and articulation of knowledge through reflection. One example of such effective tasks is media-supported learning tasks such as video journals which could enhance reflection and active knowledge production. Group visual projects are another constructive, productive task that promotes collaboration and meaningful production both individually and collectively. For example, learners

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could be assigned problem-solving visual tasks that require them to develop orders of the digital flashcards and put them into categories and simultaneously provide reasons as to why they chose this order. Another example would be to ask learners to customize locations on an interactive map and put them in order.

Evaluation The significant role of evaluation and assessment in the overall teaching and learning processes is undeniable. Baron (1994) states assessment is an opportunity for learners to “deepen their understanding of the concepts and skills being assessed” (p. 3). As assessment takes two major forms, summative and formative, different approaches to designing relevant assessment tasks have different measurement objectives and rubrics. With technology integration into instructional and assessment practices, online assessment is entering a new phase. The online assessment offers many benefits, such as forming an environment with peer feedback opportunities regardless of time and space (Wen & Tsai, 2006), ongoing peer-to-peer communication and interaction while sharing feedback and making required revisions accordingly (Yang, 2011), and promoting higher engagement among learning peers (Tsai, 2009). Despite its benefits, it also comes with its own challenges, one of which facing many teachers and instructional designers is how to make optimal adaptations to use technology-mediated assessment tasks while maintaining the quality of assessment in online and blended learning environments. Despite promoting learner-centered approaches to teaching and learning, teachers are still the primary designers and evaluators of assessment tasks. While assessment by teachers is an indispensable component of any instructional and assessment practices, there is a need for designing tasks that encourage students to take active roles in the assessment process either individually or collectively as a group through self-assessment, peer-assessment, and group assessment. In this way, they can be given assessment opportunities that lead to more engagement, reflection, and understanding of their learning process, performance, and outcome. Self-Assessment One of the areas which could significantly impact learning is self-assessment. Being premised upon social and cognitive constructivist approaches to learning, self-­ assessment promotes ongoing active monitoring (Shepard, 2001). The main principle is that self-assessment enhances their assessment literacy and meaning-construction development, leading to deeper knowledge construction, accommodation, and assimilation. As self-assessment promotes more interaction with the system, it can lead to higher motivation (Castillo-Merino & Serradell-­ López, 2014; Schunk, 2012), more learning engagement (Gikandi et  al., 2011), leading to higher self-efficacy (Shank & Cotten, 2014). It can also help learners

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identify their areas of strengths and weaknesses through reflection (Yan, 2020), thus making it one of the key elements for self-regulated learning (Liberty & DeSpain, 2020). Research also indicates that self-efficacy, metacognition, and learners’ perspectives of their ability to perform well on assigned tasks could positively impact learners’ engagement (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Online self-assessments have been used in various educational settings, such as completely online learning courses (Ozarslan & Ozan, 2016) or contexts supporting blended learning approaches such as flipped learning classes (Juhanˇak et al., 2019). Having learners engage in online self-assessment could promote higher critical engagement in recognizing strengths and weaknesses in the online learning path and process. In addition, it could enhance learner motivation for determining their future learning directions and objectives (Schunk, 1990; Yan, 2020). Thus, learners can develop connections between new information and existing information leading to a higher comprehension of new input. However, the question of how to promote self-­ assessment tasks in online and blended learning environments is still challenging. New approaches to task design that could be used to promote multimodal learning are required. For example, learners could be asked to reflect on their learning by creating short screencast videos (approximately 3–5 min) providing semi-structured information while answering questions such as: • • • •

What did they find challenging? What did they find easy to learn? What strategies did they use to deal with challenges? What subjects would they like to explore in their future endeavors?

Peer-Assessment One of the other important types of assessment is peer-assessment. There has been a significant rise in the use of peer-assessment in higher education (Van den Berg et al., 2006; Wen & Tsai, 2006). With the rise in online education, peer-assessment is also gaining significance and is being used in different fields such as education, psychology, and business (Topping et al., 2000; Tsai et al., 2002). Peer-assessment is an assessment process initiated and completed by peers (Lee, 2008), promoting critical analysis of concepts and enabling learners to develop a deeper understanding of the evaluation process (Zevenbergen, 2001). Online peer-assessment offers learners more autonomous assessment opportunities while developing and exchanging feedback through online collaboration and communication (Liu & Lee, 2013). Peer-assessment tasks can take many forms, including “writing, portfolios, oral presentations, performance tests, and other skilled behaviors” (Topping, 2009, p. 21). Precautions must be taken when designing peer-assessment tasks, as other factors such as knowledge, literacy, and attitude of learners could impact the success of peer-assessment tasks. Innovative approaches to peer-assessment tasks via media could be video presentations, e-portfolios, and video-supported feedback with audio/video reply functions to promote interaction while exchanging feedback.

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Collaborative Group Assessment Another type of assessment focuses on measuring the performance level of learners working in collaborative groups. According to social constructivist principles, learners can construct knowledge, skills, and understanding while collaborating with others and going through problem-solving endeavors as part of a group (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore, group assessment, as it involves assessing individual and collective performance in group collaborations, focuses on collaborative knowledge construction and communication skill development (Rau & Heyl, 1990). Also, the collaborative assessment component provides learners with opportunities to achieve peer learning through the social learning theories of Vygotsky (Webb, 1995). Thus, this type of assessment is mainly concerned with individual and group performance. For example, video-supported collaborative group assessment tasks can play a significant role in assessment and learning as learners are asked in turns to provide short summary-like feedback to their group members and peers. Also, they could be asked to provide a short digital summary of their learning process, their challenges, and how they dealt with those challenges.

Conclusion and Further Research Suggestions The pandemic compelled many educators to embrace new approaches to teaching and learning in higher education (e.g., online learning), and it highlighted a critical need for more innovative approaches to instructional design to meet the emerging teaching and learning needs in the postpandemic era. Regardless of the existing challenges in online education such as delivery, and lack of sufficient technological facilities (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020), the pandemic opened a new era in technology-­ enhanced education, as it inspired many scholars to reconsider embracing the use of technology and digital tools in education. Despite its benefits and wide acceptance including instructors’ adaptation to virtual learning environments (Ribeiro, 2020) and its sustainability potential in the postpandemic era (Hodges et al., 2020), this transition to online education posed its own challenges in teaching and learning (Chiu et  al., 2021) such as learners’ slower adaptation to this mode of learning (Cueva & Terrones, 2020), lack of a sense of belonging among online learners (Arslan et al., 2020) and a high drop-out rate among some students struggling with it (Delgado, 2021). Thus, it inspired researchers and practitioners to consider further investigating different aspects of teaching and learning including the design modality, mode, and efficacy of delivery and evaluation (Zhang et al., 2022). The RECIPE model offers evidence-based guidelines on how to design more engaging online tasks which provide learners with opportunities to have a reflective, collaborative, and interactive learning experience in addition to having deeper self- and peer-­ assessment through the online learning journey. Thus, it could be instrumental in helping instructional designers to enhance and evaluate the efficacy of online instruction and design in higher education in the post-pandemic era. According to

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Tsimane and Downing (2020), tasks that promote more interaction, collaboration, reflection, and analytical thinking facilitate meaningful learning, and RECIPE model supports meaningful learning with technology in that respect. Online environments can provide optimal conditions for learning purposes as they include multiple elements which could impact learning motivation and engagement. Learners could be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to engage in tasks and achieve better results. Also, instructional technology design can facilitate and transform the design, implementation, and evaluation of technology-mediated and interactive media tasks. It should be noted that critical thinking, competence, and reflective knowledge development should be some of the main goals rather than pure knowledge transfer. What is currently needed is to explore how to get everyone cognitively, socially, and culturally engaged in digital instructional tasks and resources and what factors in instructional media design as a digital learning resource would be instrumental in building and supporting online inclusive learning communities. As motivation can impact other equally important variables related to learning, such as willingness to collaborate, readiness for online learning, the learner’s attitude toward online learning, and the level of engagement and interaction among learners, if tasks used in online courses have some elements of arousing motivation, they would help increase the factors mentioned above. Thus, it is crucial to reflect on multiple design elements and include them in our interactive media task design process to accommodate the needs of online learners. With regard to future research and practice endeavors, instructional designers are encouraged to continue researching the impact of design and task design in online learning environments and the attitude of learners toward emerging and new learning technologies. While the facilitative effects of using tasks for learning purposes have been well explored in this chapter, more comprehensive explorations of metacognitive impacts and strategies, as well as cognitive phenomena such as self-­ regulation, self-efficacy, and self-directed learning in online learning, and how this could impact learning could be explored. Also, the impacts of tasks as predictors of communicative competence, intercultural communicative competence, and cognitive skills of critical thinking, problem-solving, knowledge application, and creativity could be investigated, as they play a critical role in learning in this ever-growing culturally diverse education. Also, critical factors such as equity, inclusion, and diversity in instructional technology design need to be considered and further explored as they impact learning.

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Chapter 20

Novel Times Call for Novel Ways: Effective Teaching and Learning in Digital Learning Environments Alexius Chia and Shanti Divaharan

Abstract  The COVID-19 global pandemic has expedited the need for educational institutions worldwide to embrace a new normal. Teachers have had to make sense of what was normal and redefine effective ways of teaching and learning in often very challenging circumstances.  Singapore was no different. When a “circuit breaker” – a nationwide partial lockdown – was imposed, all schools and institutions of higher learning in Singapore were forced to close. Many at the university were pushed out of their comfort zones and compelled to teach in a virtual space at short notice. Essential teaching qualities like designing hands-on tasks, encouraging interactivity, and ensuring a personal touch took on an entirely new dimension in a somewhat fluid digital learning environment – some of the traditional strategies had to be tweaked, others discarded. This chapter will clarify how blended learning was adopted in light of educators’ challenges. It will describe how the blend of online learning and physical classes had to be modified to a continual virtual space. It will then discuss the challenges and lessons learned from this unprecedented experience where face-to-face teaching continued to be interrupted by spikes of infections in the community. The chapter will then explain some guiding principles that underpin effective teaching and learning in this new and uncertain environment. These have been gleaned from the authors’ personal experiences teaching at the local teacher education institute on a range of courses spanning the teacher’s career, initial teacher preparation courses, graduate courses, and professional development courses. Keywords  COVID-19 · Digital learning environments · Virtual classes · Synchronous · Asynchronous

A. Chia (*) · S. Divaharan National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_20

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Introduction Much has been written about the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Since the first reported case in December 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported about 245 million positive infections and nearly 5 million deaths globally (WHO, 2021). In these two years, significant disruptions have occurred to local businesses, international trade, travel, tourism, and food supply chains. Many schools, institutions of higher learning (IHLs), and learning spaces worldwide have had to close. The official figures are staggering – i.e., the United Nations reported that nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries had been affected. School closures have affected “94 percent of the world’s student population, up to 99% in low and lower-middle-income countries” (United Nations, 2020). The United Nation’s (UN) online humanitarian information source on global crises and disasters, ReliefWeb, has warned that these worldwide school closures together with “other secondary impacts” of COVID-19 will have “far-reaching implications in short and the long term for children, their families, and their communities” (ReliefWeb, 2020). The UN agency reported that while 90% of countries that have enacted school closures managed to adopt some kind of remote learning, many children still faced limited learning as “the quality of these alternatives has not been adequately assessed, and students may face other challenges studying from home” (ReliefWeb, 2020). In several research studies, teachers and students who had to adjust to new ways of delivery and communication were found to have higher levels of anxiety and stress. This could be attributed to many conflating factors – technical barriers, keeping up with teacher–learner relationships, and responsibilities on the home front (Klapproth et al., 2020; MacIntyre et al., 2020). While the situation has not been as dire as many parts of the world, Singapore has had challenges coping with the pandemic. Since the first case was reported in January 2020, Singapore has seen close to 500,000 positive infections and more than 500 deaths (CNA, 2021). The country went into a partial lockdown (coined a ‘Circuit Breaker’) for a month from April 7, 2020, where except for essential services, businesses and workplaces were forced to close and schools moved to home-­ based learning. Since then it  had gone through several iterations of opening and tightening (see Table 20.1) where everyone has had to adhere to a strict regime of safe management measures, physical distancing and wearing of masks. Where onsite face-to-face sessions were no longer possible, schools and institutions saw a need to implement a shift in the modalities to ensure that teaching and learning could continue. This chapter will first provide a brief background of Singapore’s challenges with the COVID-19 pandemic. It will outline the major policy decisions and how schools and IHLs, including ours, were affected. One of the main strategies across the education sector was to adopt a modified blended learning approach – a pedagogically pragmatic choice given that the country continued to teeter between tightening restrictions and opening up in the past 2 years. This chapter will clarify how blended learning was adopted in light of the challenges educators had to deal with. It will

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Table 20.1  Singapore’s COVID-19 timeline for education 2020 Response by institutions January 23 First confirmed case was reported in Singapore. February 7 Singapore Ministry of Health (MOH) raises the Dorscon level from yellow to orange. February 12 MOH uses the term COVID-19 for the first time in all its press statements April 7 Schools and IHLs shifted to home-based learning (HBL) from Circuit breaker April 8 till may 4. As a result, practicum for student teachers was affected June 2 Phased reopening of schools Phase 1 reopening Summer vacation for most IHLs. However, those who had in-service were asked to teach online June 19 IHLs progressively increase the number of students allowed Phase 2 reopening back on campus, maintaining a significant amount of online learning Students return to schools adhering to strict management measures, including physical distancing, wearing of masks, staggered arrivals and dismissals, and separate recess breaks for a different cohort of students December 28 School and university vacation Phase 3 reopening 2021 February 8 Start of National COVID-19 Vaccination Program May 16 Tightened measures at IHLs and schools (reverting to many of Phase 2 heightened alert the measures imposed on June 19, 2020) June 14–21 IHLs progressively increased the number of students allowed Phase 3 heightened alert back on campus for in-person learning Schools progressively bring students back to school after the June school holidays July 22 Tightened measures at IHLs and schools (reverting to many of Phase 2 heightened alert the measures imposed on May 16, 2021) September 27 Gradual opening up with high vaccination numbers but still Stabilization phase high community infections Change to living with IHLs and schools HBL (September 24 to October 7) COVID-19 strategy

describe how the blend of online learning and physical classes had to be modified to a continual virtual space. It will then discuss the challenges faced and lessons learned from this unprecedented experience where face-to-face teaching continued to be interrupted by spikes of infections in the community. As the chapter is entirely

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conceptual, it will attempt to explain some guiding principles that underpin effective teaching and learning in two sets of environments – asynchronous and synchronous – that have been gleaned from the authors’ personal experiences teaching at the local teacher education institute on a range of courses spanning the career of a teacher, that is, initial teacher preparation courses, graduate courses, and professional development courses.

Background Singapore, a small independent Southeast Asian nation of slightly less than six million people, is situated at the tip of the Malay Peninsula. Without the natural resources endowed to its neighboring countries, one of the city state’s main strategies for survival and growth since gaining independence in 1965 has been investing heavily in its human capital. For decades (before the COVID-19 pandemic), it is annual spending on education was only second to its defense expenditure. It is no wonder that when the pandemic struck (and with the later realization that it could be long drawn), the entire system sprang into action, determined that the country would not be at risk of losing a generation of learners. While the lessons learned from the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic in 2003 – where schools and IHLs were closed for an unprecedented 11 days (March 27 till April 6) – were useful, Singapore quickly discovered that it was dealing with a different beast with COVID-19.

Fluidity of the Situation The first COVID-19 case was reported on January 23, 2020. Since then, daily infections have gone through several cycles of lows and highs, with the highest peak reported on October 27, 2021, with more than 5200 positive cases. Table 20.1 outlines the different phases the country has gone through. Included are how IHLs and schools responded via various safe management measures.

Challenges to Schools and Institutions When a “circuit breaker”  – a nationwide partial lockdown  – was imposed, all schools and IHLs in Singapore were forced to close. Many at the university were pushed out of their comfort zones and compelled to teach in a virtual space at short notice. Good teaching qualities like designing hands-on tasks, encouraging interactivity, and ensuring a personal touch took on an entirely new dimension in a somewhat fluid digital learning environment – some of the traditional strategies had to be

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tweaked, others discarded. The circuit breaker also unintentionally uncovered pockets of inequality in Singapore. Some students had to learn online in less than conducive situations. When students were required to do home-based learning (HBL), and the adults worked from home, lower-income households faced space constraints and struggled with increased expenditure for utility and grocery bills (Ng & Meah, 2021). Many students faced a lack of internet connectivity and problems accessing learning devices. In a short-term attempt to alleviate the situation, the Ministry of Education (MOE, 2020) loaned out about 12,500 laptops and tablets and 1200 internet-­enabling devices (The Straits Times, 2020). Despite school closure and the implementation of full HBL, many schools and institutions kept open some learning spaces to provide safe environments and support for students who could not find a secure area to do their HBL. The MOE has also committed to providing every secondary student with their own Personal Learning Device (PLD) in the form of a tablet or laptop by the end of 2021. This scheme was brought forward over several years. As measures eased after the circuit breaker, schools, and IHLs had to deal with new challenges. Some examples include classes in a school that were served home quarantine orders while at the same time, the rest of the institution could continue with face-to-face lessons; international students who had gone home before the pandemic but were now stuck in their home countries because of border closures; teachers and professors, and/or their students who were served leave of absence orders (lasting between 5 and 15 days) due to a variety of reasons while the rest of their class could still attend lessons on campus. On top of these challenges, the number of people allowed on campus and in campus learning spaces continued to shift depending on changing safe management guidelines issued by the authorities. Subjects like the Sciences, Performing Arts, and Physical Education were the hardest hit because these disciplines required actual physical spaces within their program and onsite interaction, that is, laboratory work, performances, and collaborative skills development.

Singapore’s National Institute of Education The National Institute of Education (NIE) in Singapore is an autonomous institute of Nanyang Technological University (NTU). As Singapore’s sole teacher education institute, NIE is responsible for a suite of initial teacher preparation programs (ITP) that prepare teachers for the Singapore education service. These programs range from a one or two-year Diploma program to a 16-month Postgraduate Diploma in Education to a four-year Degree program that offers a BA/BSc (Education). Besides ITP, NIE also offers various masters and doctoral programs on top of a wide array of leadership programs and professional learning courses. In its 70-year history, the institute has impacted thousands of educators’ professional and academic careers in Singapore alongside an ever-increasing number of professionals in other sectors and international students. With so much at stake, NIE had to adapt quickly to the highly fluid situation caused by COVID-19. During these novel times, it had

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to find novel ways to ensure that it was business as usual for its suite of teacher education programs.

Blended Learning Environments Digital Learning Environments (DLE) are spaces that bring together the teacher, students, and technology tools to create a technology-mediated environment to support effective teaching and learning (Divaharan & Chia, 2021). The blended learning approach harnesses the affordances of DLEs to enhance learning. While blended learning is a common approach within the education sector, educators face challenges adapting to the restrictions placed on the physical learning space. The following section will discuss the foundation principles of blended learning and how each interaction dimension had to be modified to engage and enhance learning and minimize technology-mediated learning fatigue.

Blended Learning Blended learning combines face-to-face instruction and an online mode of learning (Graham, 2006; Rooney, 2003; Ward & LaBranche, 2003). As seen in Fig.  20.1, blended learning falls in the space or intersection of a traditional face-to-face environment and a technology-mediated environment. Figure 20.2 shows a slightly adapted version of the four dimensions of interaction in face-to-face and online environments first introduced by Graham (2006). The traditional blended learning environment focuses on four main dimensions: space, time, fidelity, and humanness. The design focuses on how the physical classroom is live and face-to-face with minimal lag time in communication in terms of space and time. At the same time, the online segment is asynchronous and has a lag time in communication. In fidelity, the physical classroom provides richness to the senses with various modalities that offer resources. On the other hand, the online mode is traditionally seen as text-based and hence, low in fidelity. Finally, humanness is another area where the physical classroom does not require any device Fig. 20.1 Blended learning

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Fig. 20.2  Dimensions of interaction in face-to-face and online environments

interaction and is premised on peer-to-peer interaction and teacher-to-student interaction. At the same time, the virtual environment is perceived as the complete opposite, that is, one where students experience a void of human interaction. COVID-19 changed all these. The fluidity of the pandemic and the repeated loosening and tightening of safe management measures in educational institutions meant that the conventional ways of looking at learning spaces changed. With that, the very nature of what each dimension represented in this new blended learning environment also has to be challenged. Often physical spaces and face-to-face interactions had to be enabled by using a device. The continuous interaction with devices alongside the demand for higher-quality resources has also impacted the delivery of the online portion of blended learning. Hence, a couple of questions arise: Do the four dimensions still hold true for blended learning in light of the new normal adopted for learning? How should the dimensions be modified to reflect the blend of online (asynchronous) and virtual classroom (synchronous) settings? The following section discusses how the design of both segments needs to be reconsidered to avoid online fatigue and ensure continual engagement in learning.

Virtual Learning Spaces When schools and IHLs were compelled to adopt full or partial HBL due to the various COVID-19 restrictions, the adoption of blended learning as an approach for teaching and learning had to be adapted. In an HBL situation, face-to-face sessions had to pivot completely into a virtual learning spaces. A virtual learning space or a virtual classroom is where teachers connect with their students online instead of in a physical setting (Divaharan & Chia, 2021; Wang & Newlin, 2001). Virtual learning spaces can be used as tools for “mediating synchronous learning, whereby learners engage with material and instructors in real-time, although not necessarily in the same place” (Luke, 2021, p. 3). This mode is in contrast to “asynchronous” learning, which does not involve instructors and learners “in the same place or at the same time” (Luke, 2021, p.  3), where preprepared sets of learning materials

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resources are uploaded on a digital platform for students to access at their own time (Divaharan & Chia, 2021). There are many benefits when teaching in synchronous online learning environments. Collis (1996) names quite a few which have been adapted and distilled down to the following: 1 . Being online together and learning together motivates students. 2. While it is not the same as a physical classroom setting, group cohesion among the students and a sense of belonging can be fostered by interacting online with one another. 3. Being in a synchronous learning environment provides opportunities for immediate feedback, support, and decision-making in group activities. 4. Helping to pace the lesson activities encourages students to be disciplined in learning and prioritize their studies. With online virtual teaching and learning occupying a much larger space in the ways universities deliver the curriculum, several considerations had to be taken into account, for one, how lesson designs would engage the students, ample opportunities for interactivity (not only with each other but also with content) and making sure that there was minimal screen fatigue. Another consideration was, in cases where there was a choice, how one would decide if a lesson were an online (asynchronous) one or a virtual (synchronous) one. The following section will outline the different types of blended learning designs and provide examples of how instructors and teachers can distinguish between them to engage their students when learning in both modes.

Types of Blended Learning Designs Graham (2006) lists four types of blended learning designs, as presented in Table 20.2. The more general approaches to blending are the first two – activity-­ level blending and course-level blending. In this section, we will explore how the Table 20.2  Graham’s (2006) blended learning designs Blended learning designs Activity-level Course-level blending blending Learning takes place Clear distinction is in a face-to-face made between learning environment and with in a face-to-face elements of environment and technology-mediated technology-mediated learning. learning (online learning)

Program-level blending Usually occurs in IHLs, where students choose to attend a mixture of both face-to-face and online courses to complete their education.

Institutional-level blending Institutions offer classes at the beginning and end of courses, and students learn the content online in between.

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design of these blended learning levels has had to be modified to continue to cater to our students’ learning needs and engagement levels to optimize their learning. Sample Lesson (Conducted Pre-COVID-19) The following was a lesson that required graduate students in a masters seminar session to unpack technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (TPACK) and design technology-mediated learning. The pre-COVID-19 lesson outline is described in Table 20.3. The teacher adopted a course-level blending for this lesson. The students were required to access assigned resources to understand what TPACK meant, what key concepts it entailed, and what a lesson design undergirded by TPACK might look like. Sample Lesson (Conducted During the COVID-19) The lesson described in Table 20.4 was subsequently modified in order to adapt to the changing learning environment. The context was that the students were all required to attend classes from home, that is, HBL. Evident in Table 20.4 is that HBL has increased the dependence on technology-mediated learning. Moreover, given the fact that the use of technology would be prevalent to enable effective learning to take place, the design of blended learning had to be re-examined. It is evident from this lesson conducted during COVID-19 that teachers could re-design existing lessons by tapping technology and still have high levels of engagement. Noteworthy is that modifications to the current blended learning approach had taken place where both the face-to-face and online sessions were being mediated by technology. However, lesson designers must be cognizant that prolonged exposure due to too much onscreen time might inevitably lead to fatigue. Therefore, comparing the two lesson samples, a re-evaluation of the four dimensions of interaction in blended learning is in order because the approach in a virtual classroom and online learning now will look quite different in this new normal. Figure  20.3 is our take on what blended learning could look like during these novel times.

 uiding Principles for Designing Blended G Learning Approaches From the above discussion, it is evident that when designing for blended learning, educators need to consider the student profile, the context of learning, and the pedagogy that enhances the learning experience. Concerning the dimensions of interaction, it should be noted that space is now a continuum. There need not be any

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Table 20.3  Lesson outline: unpacking TPACK to design for technology-mediated learning Duration Preclass learning (online, asynchronous)

During class

During class

Postclass

Key points to note relating to the four dimensions Since this is preclass, students are able to access the resources and learn at their own pace. Space (online and distributed), time (asynchronous, but students can work at their own pace), fidelity (mainly text and video resources being interactive to ensure selfassessment takes place), and humanness (mainly machine and the human element is introduced through the support provided via the synchronous chat group) Teacher recaps key Slides for content Space (physical, with other learning points and input, lesson students in the class), time highlights key concepts in ideas for (synchronous with students TPACK. reference, flip interacting with each other and In groups, students chart paper for with the teacher fidelity (actual develop a lesson idea students to write interaction with each other, undergirded by TPACK to develop their with the teacher, testing out and present it to their lesson idea in ideas activates all senses), and peers. preparation for humanness (minimal or no Teacher walks around and group machine involved) helps to clarify doubts and presentation. questions that might arise. (It is possible to integrate activity-level blending within this lesson design. For example, students could access the online resources while working in groups to reference the resources if they have doubts.) Group presentation of Flip chart, group As above their lesson idea. Gallery presentation, walks with other students interaction, and and teacher giving peer learning feedback. Focusing on the Students work on Space (online and distributed), application of what they their own, at their time (asynchronous, but have learned in class to pace. They can students can work at their own plan for another TPACK- access the pace), fidelity (mainly text and guided lesson idea. materials and video resources our humanness resources posted (machine) by the teacher in the preclass online activity. Description Teacher assigns video resources and relevant readings on what TPACK is about and what the mechanics are. Students are to access the resources independently, self-paced learning, and learn about the mechanics of TPACK before the lesson.

Resources Preclass learning (online and asynchronous)

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Table 20.4  Lesson outline: unpacking TPACK to design for technology-mediated learning V2 Key points to note relating to the four dimensions Duration Description Resources Teacher assigns video resources and Web readings Since this is preclass, Preclass students are able to resources. relevant readings on TPACK, the learning Video resource access the resources, key concepts, and lesson idea (online and learn at their own pace. on TPACK. asynchronous) examples. Space (online and Synchronous Students to access the resources distributed), time independently, self-paced learning, chat where students could (asynchronous, but and learn about TPACK. students can work at Video resource becomes interactive contact the their own pace), fidelity teacher for with questions that monitor clarification or (mainly text and video students’ understanding. Web resources), and reading resource is also monitored contact each humanness (machine) other for since students need to have support. understood the resources before coming to class. Teacher introduces formative assessment as a self-assessment quiz for students to evaluate how much they have learned. During class Teacher recaps key learning points Online virtual Space (virtual but with and highlights key concepts of other students and meeting TPACK. platform, slides teacher present), time Teacher gets students into breakout for content (synchronous with rooms to work in their groups. The input, online students interacting groups are to work on unpacking with each other and cloud the key concepts of TPACK and with the teacher fidelity productivity interaction with video tool for designing a technology-­mediated resources, enacting and lesson. Students will develop their students to testing our re-designed work on in lesson idea using a cloud lesson and hence productivity real-time collaboration real-time activating all senses), tool. This will allow each of them to during contribute to developing the lesson breakout room and humanness (while the interaction is sessions, to idea and continue to refine it. through a device, the Teacher monitors the development prepare for design of the lesson has group of lesson ideas on the template by increased humanness by presentation, the students since it is a real-time increasing the collaboration. In addition, teachers and peer interaction among the can step in to help groups that need feedback. students and with the coaching and encourage groups to teacher providing progress well. guidance and feedback (It is possible to integrate activitywhere necessary) level blending within this lesson design. Since students are attending classes virtually, they will still be able to access the online resources while working in groups to reference the resources if they have doubts.) (continued)

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Table 20.4 (continued)

Duration Postclass

Postclass

Description Group presentation of their technology-mediated lesson idea. This could be posted on an online platform with opportunities for peer feedback. A virtual online gallery walk with other students and teachers giving feedback on their own time. This will reduce online fatigue and allow students to evaluate each other’s contributions at their own pace. Individual written work focuses on applying what they have learned in class to another technology-­ mediated lesson idea development activity.

Resources Online platform that supports group presentations and opportunities for peer and teacher feedback.

Students work on their own, at their pace. They can access the materials and resources posted by the teacher in the preclass online activity.

Fig. 20.3  Revised dimensions of interaction in blended learning

Key points to note relating to the four dimensions As above

Space (online and distributed), time (asynchronous, but students can work at their own pace), fidelity (mainly text and video resources), and humanness (machine)

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distinction between physical and online space. It can be a continuum with the inclusion of virtual classrooms. The difference between the two spaces blurs as the blend is more about the mode of learning related to time, whether it is synchronous or asynchronous. So as designers of learning, educators need to pay particular attention to the content. They will have to decide which content or activity requires an asynchronous mode of interaction with facilitated learning. While content that should be learned at the students’ discretion and own pace could be online and asynchronous. Fidelity as a dimension becomes a continuum. It will not be based on whether learning occurs in a physical setting or is mediated by a device. Fidelity will depend on the lesson’s design by the educator and the resources made available to the student with complementing pedagogy. Finally, humanness is again not dependent on physical settings or device-mediated learning. Instead, it is the design of the lesson by the educator that provides opportunities for interaction. Given the new approaches, there are several key considerations that teachers may want to keep in mind: • Fatigue will set in if we attempt to transform a lesson from a face-to-face class to an online or virtual one. • The need to consider students’ attention spans and the distractions that come with technology-mediated learning. • Physical classrooms and learning spaces have a “humanness” element present in them. Hence, there is a need to ensure as much interactivity is present in virtual classrooms. • A blend of virtual classes and online student learning is mediated through devices. Since it is device-dependent, it will become impersonal if due consideration is not given to the design of the lessons.

Guiding Principles for Designing Lessons As far as possible, we would recommend that teachers adopt a course-level blending approach for virtual classrooms. This will allow students to take ownership of content learning. The focus during virtual classrooms should be on applying learning, validation, and opportunities for clarification. • Virtual classrooms should be interactive, with quizzes and ample opportunities for students to participate. • Learning needs to be “bite-size” with changes to the momentum of the lesson to keep students engaged. • More peer interaction should be allowed by getting them into breakout rooms for group work. • Group work in virtual classrooms should be complemented with online cloud productivity or real-time collaboration platforms so that students can showcase and make visible their discussions and thinking processes. Teachers here need to be comfortable as facilitators to monitor the progress their students are making

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by observing the real-time work on these platforms and providing them feedback as and when necessary. For the online learning segment in a blended learning approach, teachers need to consider that their students already spend considerable time virtually during the virtual classroom lessons. The design of online segments should focus on the following: • Provision of multimodal resources to cater to various students’ learning needs. • Self-assessment through interactive activities so that students can take ownership of their learning. • Through self-assessment, students are also given opportunities to select areas where they need to deepen their knowledge, which they can skim through since they know they are competent. • A support group formed in a synchronous chat group where the teacher or peers can respond.

Conclusion During these difficult times, virtual classes and online learning have become an important lifeline for students who have been made to stay away from their usual learning spaces for extended periods. No one was prepared for the prolonged and devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Everyone had to make do. In retrospect, the Singapore experience in reacting to the pandemic – which is still in the making given the high numbers of positive infections as this chapter is being written – could be seen as one where the entire education system tried its level best to pull together and make the best of a bad situation. It saw this disruption as a chance to expedite future plans, reassess current practices, and reconsider how education (in our case, teacher education) could be done differently. Darling-Hammond and Hyler (2020) put it very succinctly when they wrote: While learning in the time of COVID-19 has been challenging for students and prospective teachers alike, this moment of disruption has created the opportunity for rethinking and reinventing preparation and schooling itself. (p. 463)

We suppose that we could all learn two lessons about teaching and learning from navigating these novel times. We should continue to challenge ourselves to seek novel solutions to try to make technology work for us. Two, the student should still be at the center of everything we do.

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References CNA. (2021, October 31). Novel coronavirus map. Channel News Asia. Retrieved November 1, 2021. https://infographics.channelnewsasia.com/covid-­19/map.html Collis, B. (1996). Tele-learning in a digital world: The future of distance learning. International Thompson Computer Press. Darling-Hammond, L., & Hyler, M.  E. (2020). Preparing educators for the time of COVID … and beyond. European Journal of Professor Education, 43(4), 457–465. https://doi.org/10.108 0/02619768.2020.1816961 Divaharan, S., & Chia, A. (2021). Managing learners and learning in a digital environment. In S.  C. Tan, S.  Divaharan, & C.  L. C.  Quek (Eds.), Technology for meaningful learning (pp. 155–164). Pearson. Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3–21). Pfeiffer Publishing. Klapproth, F., Federkeil, L., Heinschke, F., & Jungmann, T. (2020). Professors’ experiences of stress and their coping strategies during COVID-19 induced distance teaching. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(4), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2020062805 Luke, K. (2021). Twelve tips for using synchronous virtual classroom technologies in medical education. MedEdPublish, 10(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.15694/mep.2021.000066.1 MacIntyre, P. D., Gregersen, T., & Mercer, S. (2020). Language professors’ coping strategies during the Covid-19 conversion to online teaching: Correlations with stress, wellbeing and negative emotions. System, 94, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102352 Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2020, December 29). Blended learning to enhance schooling experience and further develop participants into self-directed learners [Press Release]. https:// www.moe.gov.sg/news/press-­releases/20201229-­blended-­learning-­to-­enhance-­schooling-­ experience-­and-­further-­develop-­participants-­into-­self-­directed-­learners Ng, J.  S., & Meah, N. (2021). The big read in short: Covid-19 has worsened inequality. Today Online. Retrieved October 20, 2021 from https://www.todayonline.com/big-­read/ big-­read-­short-­covid-­19-­has-­worsened-­inequality ReliefWeb. (2020, November 4). Global Analysis: COVID-19: Impact on education (Thematic series on education  – November 2020). https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/ resources/20201102_acaps_thematic_series_review_of_covid-­19_impacts_on_global_education.pdf Rooney, J.  E. (2003). Blended learning opportunities to enhance educational programming and meetings. Association Management, 55(5), 26–32. The Straits Times. (2020, April 18). How home-based learning shows up inequality in Singapore – A look at three homes. The Straits Times. Retrieved November 1, 2021. https://www. straitstimes.com/lifestyle/how-­home-­based-­learning-­hbl-­shows-­up-­inequality-­in-­singapore-­a- ­ look-­at-­three-­homes United Nations (UN). (August 2020). Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-­content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_ brief_covid-­19_and_education_august_2020.pdf Wang, A.  Y., & Newlin, M.  H. (2001). Online lectures: Benefits for the virtual classroom. Technological Horizons in Education Journal, 29(1), 17–18. Retrieved October 28, 2020 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/94125/ Ward, J., & LaBranche, G. A. (2003). Blended learning: The convergence of e-learning and meetings. Franchising World, 35(4), 22–23. World Health Organisation (WHO). (2021, October 29). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. https://covid19.who.int/

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Alexius Chia, PhD, is Senior Lecturer of English Language and Literature at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. The bulk of his teaching and administrative work revolves around teacher education programs, but he remains very much in touch with schools. Alexius continues to engage teachers through workshops, talks, and research projects. His research and teaching interests include multiliteracies, teacher professional learning, and curriculum implementation.  

Shanti Divaharan, PhD, is Associate Professor of Learning Sciences and Assessment at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. A practitioner at heart, with more than 20 years of working experience with pre-service teachers, teachers, heads of departments, and school leaders. Her primary focus is in augmenting technology-integrated teaching practices, in various learning environments such as online, blended, as well as physical settings.  

Chapter 21

Cultivating Student Employability Skills: Classroom to Career Preparedness and Readiness Jacqueline S. Stephen

and Ashley Fru

Abstract  Student development of employability skills should be a critical learning outcome of a university degree. Employability skills are often used as an umbrella term to describe competencies, professional, and transferable skills that new graduates need beyond academics to improve their ability when seeking employment, progressing in a career path, and adapting to changes. As a result of the ongoing global coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, community and industry partners increasingly expect graduates to have skills to navigate online work environments as well as online training to meet the anticipated growth in remote career opportunities (Fisher, As work from home becomes the norm, companies get more comfortable hiring fully remote employees, 2020; Mercer Global, Global Talent Trends Report, 2020). Remote career opportunities are projected to continue to grow, especially as companies continue to navigate the COVID-19 crisis and develop plans for a post-COVID-19 workplace. The shift to remote work requires employees to be prepared to work and learn online. Consequently, employment opportunities of the future also necessitate development of specific employability skills. The purpose of this chapter is to identify employability skills graduates will need to prepare them for their careers, provide course-level strategies for instructors to promote student skill development, and discuss high-impact practices for incorporating activities that support student career readiness and preparedness. Challenges and opportunities that emerged because of the COVID-19 pandemic will also be addressed to gain insight on the impact of the shift in employer needs for skills and abilities of the workforce. This chapter, thus, provides discussion on classroom to career readiness and presents a model for a high-impact practice first-year seminar course that emphasizes cultivating employability skills in online undergraduate students. J. S. Stephen Department of Leadership Studies, College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] A. Fru (*) Mercer University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_21

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Keywords  Employability skills · Remote careers · Online learning · Student development · High-impact practices

Introduction The global pandemic brought on by the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) impacted every industry, including higher education. Prior to the onset of the pandemic in the United States (U.S.) in early 2020, student enrollment in online programs was already experiencing growth, and it was anticipated to continue to grow (Hussar & Baily, 2018; McFarland et al., 2017; Seaman et al., 2018). At the height of the pandemic, traditional face-to-face programs offered at colleges and universities in the U.S. shifted to an online delivery format (Gallagher & Palmer, 2020). Given the continued challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic, many traditional face-to-face universities and colleges in the U.S. are opting to resume with online delivery of courses and programs, in addition to blended/hybrid and face-to-­ face on-campus offerings (Anderson, 2021). It is projected that students will remain interested in pursuing a college or university degree through a variety of formats, especially online and blended delivery formats for additional flexibility and work-­ life-­family-academic balance (Busteed, 2021; Friedman & Moody, 2021). Similar changes and projections are also being experienced in the workplace. A survey of U.S. adults working full and part-time in October 2020 revealed that 20% were already working from home before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, while 71% reported that they were working from home because of the pandemic, with 54% indicating that they prefer to continue to work from home beyond the pandemic (Pew Research Center, 2020). While it can be assumed that the continued concerns about being exposed to COVID-19  in the workplace and lack of access to the physical workplace due to closure contributed to the high percentage of those working from home, this may not necessarily be the case post-­ pandemic. The majority of those who completed the survey indicated a preference to work from home as the major reason (Pew Research Center, 2020). Given these findings, it is not surprising that plans are underway in many organizations to reimagine the post-pandemic workplace, which could be similar to the hybrid/blended, online, and on-site formats offered in academic settings. A survey conducted by McKinsey & Company (Alexander et  al., 2021) revealed that 52% of full-time employees who work in corporate, or government settings, prefer a post-pandemic hybrid/blended working model that allows for flexibility and work-life-family balance. As many sectors of industry, including corporate and government entities, work to reimagine a post-pandemic workplace, it is critical that higher education institutions remain abreast of these changes. The current and projected shift from a traditional on-site job or career path to a hybrid or online virtual site necessitates a revision of traditional employability skills. As community and industry partners

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increasingly expect graduates to have skills to navigate online work environments as well as online training to meet the anticipated growth in remote career opportunities (Fisher, 2020; Mercer Global, 2020), higher education must prepare itself to address these changing needs. The shift to remote work will require employees prepared to work and learn online. Online high-impact practices, namely first-year experiences, will be critical to prepare students for online courses and remote work, to address the needs of the changing workplace, and especially if a crisis like COVID-19 were to occur again. Thus, this chapter reexamines post-pandemic employability skills and focuses on developing an evidence-based, online high-­ impact practice first-year seminar course to prepare students for the reimagined remote academic and career environments.

Description of Employability Skills Employability skills, sometimes referred to as transferability skills, are essential capabilities for work. The skill types include applied knowledge, workplace skills, and effective relationships (STEMNET, 2015). Applied knowledge is using critical thinking to put academic knowledge to practical use in work roles. It is important to know how to be able to navigate contrasting information to make informed decisions. Forming effective relationships requires the integration of interpersonal skills and personal qualities, like teamwork, leadership, conflict resolution, a positive attitude, self-discipline, adaptability, and a sense of professionalism. Though some jobs require working independently and self-starting self-regulation, traditional careers have an organizational structure. An example of this are companies that have a chain of command and classes of employees based upon type of work, difficulty of work tasks that must be done. Workplace skills are those expected by employers to complete work tasks, like the ability to manage time and resources, understanding and evaluating a variety of information and technology related to work tasks, and how employees can effectively communicate with others across multiple formats. Students who are exploring a career interest should consider how unrelated personal and professional obligations can affect time management, as well as how to prioritize and successfully complete those tasks. Professionalism is important as a representative whether within or outside of an organization. When communicating, it is important for everyone to display professionalism, which establishes trust among colleagues and across the entire organization. This in turn contributes to an organization’s reputation among its potential partners and clients. (U.S.  Department of Labor, n.d.). Even before the events of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a need for digital literacy as a skill in the workplace. Technological advancements have contributed to changes in the way people interact in the workplace and the pandemic has advanced trends for remote work exponentially. The next section will further explore those trends.

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 merging Employability Skills for Remote Careers E and Future Workforce In-demand industries and personal interests are often the basis on which college students choose their academic majors. The COVID-19 pandemic events caused both companies and consumers to adopt new behaviors, with the most obvious impact being an increase in remote work, e-commerce, and automation (Lund et al., 2021). While millions of jobs were lost or indefinitely furloughed, others adjusted to working from home, excluding the essential works of the service industry and medical professions. Companies are using digital resources to become more resilient to future disruptions (Marr, 2020). Leaders of the workforce and the students who wish to enter it must commit to prolonged learning. Since consumers have changed how they access products and services, the businesses that provide them are changing to meet consumer demands. There are also restrictions on how businesses operate, so employees must expand their skills to be productive amidst the change (Eischeid, 2020). Digital literacy is the ability to use technology to uncover, review, and share information (American Library Association, 2019). These skills are often necessary to achieve the company’s goals by using technology. Flexibility is more aligned with adjusting to new and unexpected deadlines than it is with geographic mobility. Flexibility is also expected of workplace requirements regarding remote and hybrid work availability. Work environments have social, financial, and cognitive demands that can exacerbate these symptoms. Workforce professionals need to be aware of interpersonal relationships and how to express and react appropriately. Self-management skills regulate and control actions, feelings, and thoughts. Cultivating these skills before entering the workforce gives autonomy and accountability to individuals and can lead to broader opportunities for success in the workplace.

 reparing Today’s Graduates for Tomorrow’s Careers—Role P of Higher Education At the beginning of the pandemic, many students were faced with challenges revolving uncertainty about studies and prospects. Institutions of higher learning can prepare students to become more competitive by enhancing their study offerings. One way is through the offering of in person, hybrid/blended, or remote coursework and the use of synchronous and asynchronous communication tools. Students who have experienced virtual learning are more familiar with remote work demands. Another way is to ensure that students’ talents and courses are aligned with labor trends (SAS Institute, 2021). By managing internship and recruitment opportunities, institutions can gain feedback for which skills their students fall short and integrate additional outcomes into the curriculum that foster student development of employability skills. For many professions, both degrees and certifications are sought after.

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Certifications directly from companies in partnership with institutions provide students with the base-level skill sets that are expected of recruitment professionals. However, in situations where this may not be possible, colleges and universities play a key role in continuously adapting student learning outcomes to align with future career prospects for graduates (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.).

High-Impact Practices High-impact practices have been used with undergraduate residential and online students to cultivate factors of human agency, such as self-regulation, self-direction, and online learning self-efficacy (Kimbark et al., 2017; Stephen et al., 2020; Stephen & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2021). Self-regulated online students engage in actions and demonstrate behaviors that involve setting goals, managing time, seeking help, employing task strategies, and participating in self-evaluation. Similarly, self-­ directed online students engage in actions and demonstrate behaviors that involve the following: developing an awareness of the impact of one’s actions, behaviors, and/or attitude on performance, selecting appropriate strategies for independent learning, proactively engaging in activities, monitoring one’s own performance, and demonstrating effective interpersonal skills. Since technology is the medium used to support online learning, it is also critical for online students to be knowledgeable, skilled, and confident in its use. As such, a high level of online learning self-efficacy is imperative for online students to be able to efficiently navigate online spaces, manage time, and use technology to complete work, including virtual collaboration and interaction with others. Factors of human agency are equally as important in the workplace, especially in a remote work environment that is dependent on an employee’s skills, actions, behaviors, and/or attitude to perform and achieve positive outcomes. In the context of a remote work environment, self-regulated employees set goals, manage their workday, communicate with others across the organization to seek help or guidance, employ a variety of strategies to successfully complete tasks, and engage in self-­ evaluation of strategy used to determine their effectiveness and productivity. Similarly, self-directed employees demonstrate an awareness of how their work performance, including productivity, impacts others across the organization, actively engage in virtual activities that may be required to complete a work-related task, monitor their own performance in achieving positive results, and demonstrate professionalism in their virtual interactions with others, whether external or internal members of the organization. Since technology is the medium used to support remote work environments, digital literacy skills are critical. As such, remote employees with a high level of self-efficacy in the use of technology are confident in their abilities to navigate various hardware and software to perform their job duties, including the use of technology to virtually interact, engage, and collaborate efficiently and effectively with others across the organization.

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Cultivating human agency in online students through coursework can help students to develop the employability skills necessary for a future career path, whether remote or on-site. There are several high-impact practices that can be employed at the course level to support student development of employability skills. In higher education, high-impact practices are practices that rely on active learning to promote student success through engagement and interaction (Kuh & O’Donnell, 2013). Kuh (2008) identified several high-impact practices, such as learning communities, writing and capstone courses, service and community-based learning, global learning, intellectual experiences, and research. One high-impact practice that Kuh (2008) identified is the first-year seminar, which can be fundamental in cultivating human agency in online students for positive academic outcomes, and subsequently, prepare students for future remote work environments.

First-Year Seminars First-year seminar courses are designed and structured to meet the varying needs of first-year students, with an emphasis on their personal, professional, and social development (Barefoot & Fidler, 1996). A typical first-year seminar course incorporates instructional activities specifically designed to promote active learning, critical thinking, information literary, writing, collaboration, and other competencies necessary for academic success (e.g., human agency, study skills, time and stress management, team and relationship-building, awareness, sense of belonging). While the content and structure of a first-year seminar course can vary, the objectives should remain similar in their focus to promote active learning, community, and human agency (Barefoot, 2000, p. 14; Kuep & Young, 2018). Barefoot (2000) and Keup and Young (2018) identified the objectives of a first-year seminar course to guide the course design, instructional activity development, and delivery. A first-year seminar course should aim to increase student-to-student interaction and instructor-to-­ student interaction, including frequent, constructive, and timely feedback; increase student involvement and time spent on campus; align the curriculum and co-­ curriculum; increase academic expectations and communicate high expectations of all students; increase levels of academic engagement; and assist students who are not prepared for college-level academics. While a first-year seminar course was historically intended for students enrolled in residential programs, it is possible to adapt the objectives of a first-year seminar to an online learning environment (Stephen & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2021). For example, student-to-student and student-to-instructor interaction in an online course can be increased using various virtual tools and collaborative activities. Similarly, student involvement with virtual campus resources can be increased through deliberately designed instructional activities. Furthermore, academic expectations and levels of academic engagement can be increased through specific modules on technology use, virtual communication, and access to virtual resources and services. Most importantly, a first-year seminar course for online students can incorporate

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embedded activities to assist students in developing competencies and attitudes (e.g., self-regulation, self-direction, online learning self-efficacy) necessary for success as an online student and prospective future employee in a remote work environment.

 Model for an Online High-Impact Practice First-Year A Seminar Experience to Cultivate Human Agency and Employability Skills An online high-impact practice first-year seminar course can be designed to prepare undergraduate students for college-level online learning and careers that may require partial or full remote work. The objectives of a first-year seminar should be used as a foundation to design and develop the course, emphasizing student development of academic and employability skills necessary for success. At a private university in the U.S., an online high-impact practice first-year seminar course was designed to promote human agency, and other competencies, in undergraduate online students who enroll in a program within a specific unit of the university. Barefoot’s (2000) objectives informed the course design and instructional activities, with an emphasis on self-directed learning, self-regulated learning, and online learning self-efficacy. The online high-impact first-year seminar is taken by students during the first semester. It is a three-credit course delivered across 8 weeks, and the course is structured using modules that span across two weeks each. At the start of each module, the instructor meets with all students via synchronous video-conference sessions. The synchronous virtual meetings provide ongoing opportunities for students to interact with peers and the course instructor. During these sessions, students are prompted to reflect on their learning experiences, share strategies, discuss barriers to their learning, and seek clarification on completed or upcoming coursework. At the end of each module, students are prompted to reflect on their learning, share personal stories of weekly achievements, and reflect on feelings of excitement or anxiety related to their experience as an online learner. The reflective activities are accessible to other students enrolled in the course, and all students are encouraged to read their peers’ reflections and respond accordingly. During the first module, students prepare for online college academics by developing a study and coursework schedule and completing a self-paced hands-on orientation to the LMS.  The orientation assignment is a requirement and students cannot proceed with the course unless they successfully complete this prerequisite. Since the LMS serves as the learning environment, it is imperative that students know how to use the various tools and functions. An orientation to the LMS is foundational to a student’s readiness and preparedness for online learning (Liu & Adams, 2017), and constructing a coursework plan assists students in developing an awareness of planning and meeting deadlines (i.e., time management). Students also engage in an activity during the first week in which they reflect on their strengths,

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weaknesses, opportunities, and threats as they relate to their role as a student and establish and set SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound) course goals. Throughout the course, students are required to regularly revisit their course goals to monitor their progress. As previously noted, time management is associated with all elements of human agency, and thus, critical to success as an online student and an employee who works remotely. Throughout the remaining modules of the high-impact first-year seminar course, students engage in several activities designed to help them develop elements of human agency. Many assignments are designed to engage students with resources and services available to them beyond the high-impact first-year seminar course instructor. For example, students are required to draft and send an email to their academic advisor to request a virtual synchronous meeting, plan for the meeting by developing a list of discussion questions, schedule and meet their advisor through a videoconference, and summarize key points learned through the meeting. Other examples include similar student-initiated virtual synchronous assignments that involve collaborating with a librarian to locate specific research articles through a relevant database, consulting with a math online tutor to verify understanding of a quantitative research study, and seeking feedback on a written assignment through an online writing lab tutor. Engagement and interaction are an essential part of the student learning experience and human agency can be cultivated through interactions with others, such as peers, course instructors, advisors, resources, and support systems (Kuh, 2008; Tinto, 2017). Peer-to-peer interaction is also encouraged throughout the course, with opportunities for students to engage with one another through asynchronous group-based discussions and reflective learning logs. Learning logs are submitted by students at the conclusion of each module and prompt students to revisit their course goals, discuss strategy use, and engage in planning, self-monitoring, and self-assessment. Self-reflection can help students to develop an awareness of actions, behaviors, and attitudes that may lead to success, or present barriers to success (Zimmerman, 1989). The final learning log prompts students to revisit their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats, and goals from the first week of the course and reflect on their development and overall progress. Course activities are of high frequency and evenly distributed across the four biweekly modules. Announcements are posted each week to remind students of upcoming deadlines and encourage students to revisit their course goals and monitor their progress through the online gradebook in the LMS. The course syllabus is provided to students one week before the first day of class and the online LMS course is open to students to encourage completion of pre\requisite self-paced online orientation items, such as a syllabus quiz, an online course agreement, and an orientation to online learning. The syllabus serves as the foundation for the course and includes all course deadlines, tips for success, policies, procedures, activity descriptions, assessment strategies, and resources. Hence, regular references and reminders are shared to encourage students to revisit the course syllabus. While students cannot submit late work, opportunities for all students to earn extra credit exist during each module.

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 tudent Preparedness and Readiness for the Transition S to Remote Work Due to the global COVID-19 pandemic, many universities, colleges, and organizations have shifted to virtual or remote operations starting in March 2020. Undergraduate students were enrolled in the online high-impact first-year seminar course during that time. The unit of the university in which this course is required enrolls primarily working adult students. As such, this population of students was impacted by the pandemic because they were not only online students but they were also required to work remotely, and many were balancing familial responsibilities (i.e., helping their children with distance learning, caring for a family member). An exploratory qualitative study was conducted in August 2020 to learn more about the experiences of working adult students as they transitioned from an online learning environment to a remote working environment. Participation was elicited from 47 students who participated in the online high-­ impact first-year seminar course between January 2020 and July 2020, with a particular interest in participants who were first-time online learners. Twelve students agreed to participate in the study and one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted through virtual videoconferences. Students were asked to describe their experience after engaging in the online high-impact first-year seminar course, identify challenges or barriers encountered in persisting in the online learning environment, and discuss how, if at all, and why did their participation in the online high-impact first-year seminar course influence their academic and remote work experience. The case study analysis was used to interpret the data to identify themes, including how students persisted in the course and in their remote work environment, how the high-impact first-year seminar course facilitated this persistence, the challenges faced while persisting, and factors that contributed to their persistence as a student and an employee. Eight of the participants were female and four were male. Eight reported their ethnicity as Black or African American, 2 reported White, and 2 reported Hispanic or Latino. While participants were in different life and family stages, all reported that they had children under the age of 18 and were employed full-time. None of the participants had any previous experience as an online student or a remote employee. All participants indicated that they were working remotely because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Those with school-aged children also reported that their children were also engaged in online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic. At the time of the interviews, all participants remained actively enrolled in online courses on a full-­ time basis. Results of the analysis revealed the high-impact first-year seminar course held practical significance in its influence on student development of human agency and transferability of skills, behaviors, and attitudes to the remote work environment. The ensuing themes emerged from the analysis to answer the central research questions about the first-year seminar course’s influence on students’ academic and remote work persistence. These themes further illuminate the significance of the

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first-year seminar course in helping students develop human agency for both academic and career success. Theme 1: Goal Setting and Self-monitoring Proved To Be Necessary for Both Academic and Remote Work  All participants found the SMART goal setting and creating a coursework plan assignment to be instrumental in helping them to remain on-task in the online course. Ten of the twelve participants found this same assignment to be appropriate and relevant to their remote work environment. Participants indicated they created similar plans based on their assigned work tasks to help them create a daily schedule, prioritize work tasks, and meet their supervisor’s expectations. The two participants who did not find this academic assignment relevant to their work environment indicated that their direct supervisor set goals for them and monitored them on a regular basis throughout the day. Theme 2: Time Management Was Critical, and Very Much a Necessity, Especially at the Height of the COVID-19 Pandemic When the Lines Between Work, Study, and Family Life Became Increasingly Blurred  All participants reported that they struggled with time management, especially at the onset of the pandemic. Nine of the twelve participants indicated they effectively employed time management strategies and skills developed through the first-year seminar course to help them manage their time as they worked from home. Three of the participants reported that they struggled with time management in the online course and faced similar struggles as they attempted to engage in remote work. However, their struggles with time management were compounded by other factors, such as being sick, caring for a sick family member, limited home Internet connectivity, and/or homeschooling their children. All participants found that time management, including deadlines, was important to their success as a student and employee, given that they were held accountable for completing tasks on time in both settings. Theme 3: Being Proactive in Virtual Engagement and Interaction with Academic and Work Colleagues, Including Support Systems and Resources, Was Fundamental  All twelve participants reported they felt very comfortable and confident in initiating and participating in virtual meetings for remote work purposes. All participants credited the first-year seminar course in helping them to gain the necessary skills and increase their confidence in using videoconferencing software by engaging in synchronous virtual class meetings and initiating similar meetings with advisors, librarians, and tutors. Seven of the participants noted that prior to the first-year seminar course, they had not felt comfortable engaging or interacting with others through virtual tools and appreciated the added value of requiring them to do so, as it was something that became a part of their daily remote work routine. Theme 4: Developing an Awareness of Actions, Behaviors, and Attitudes Assisted in Overcoming and Avoiding Barriers Related to Work Performance and Academic Persistence  All participants reported that awareness was critical to their day-to-day performance in both settings. They shared stories of time and days lost to a lack of

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routine. Three of the participants contemplated quitting their jobs because they were unsure of their ability to virtually tend to their daily work tasks. Seven of the twelve participants found that engaging in a daily or weekly reflection on their remote work activities, just like they had done in the first-year seminar course, helped them to develop a similar awareness of what is working, and what is not working, and to act. The same participants used reflective practices to help them identify barriers preventing them from moving forward and they sought assistance and guidance from supervisors, colleagues, and services provided through the organization’s human resources department. Theme 5: Interpersonal Skills, Including Being Able to Communicate and Collaborate Virtually with Others on an Academic or Work-Related Task, Became a Critical Measure of Success  All participants reported initially feeling reluctant to initiating virtual contact with the course instructor, academic advisor, librarian, career counselor, and tutors. Eight of the participants attributed their reluctance to a lack of self-confidence in their ability to articulate their needs through written communication. The remaining participants attributed their reluctance to their limited experience in the use of virtual technology tools as a communication medium in an academic setting. They clarified that the technology itself did not present them with any barriers, but it was the forethought that they had to engage in to prepare themselves for the virtual communication and collaborative activities. All participants agreed they had to regularly remind themselves that such activities, although reliant on similar virtual tools they have used in interacting with friends and family, required a greater degree of professionalism in the academic setting, hence the need for advance and deliberate preparation. Participants reported that they felt much more equipped than their colleagues when their work shifted to remote operations, especially in their confidence, skills, and professionalism in communicating and collaborating virtually with internal and external members of their organization. Theme 6: Digital Literacy and Confidence in the Use of Various Technologies Were Instrumental in Helping Students to Persist in Their Online Degree Program and Remote Work Environment  All participants found the completion of the hands-on orientation to the LMS prior to the course start date relevant and useful to the work they were expected to engage in during the course. Nine of the participants expressed a great deal of anxiety over enrolling in an online course due to fears associated with technology use. All participants indicated they had not received any previous orientation or instruction in the use of technology for learning. Seven of the participants indicated they felt highly confident in their use of technology, but not necessarily in how it would be used to support their learning. The nine participants who expressed technology-related anxiety at the start of the course reported a tremendous decrease in their anxiety levels as the course progressed. All participants reported they were able to transfer many of the course-related digital skills to their remote work environment, with ten participants indicating that they were called on by their supervisor to orient and support colleagues through the transition.

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It is clear from the results of this qualitative study that specific instructional strategies and activities used in a first-year seminar course can cultivate the development of skills, attitudes, and behaviors in students to positively impact their academic and remote work experience. This study was limited to student development of employability skills using a first-year seminar course, predicated on the integration of a high-impact practice to cultivate human agency in undergraduate students. As such, results may not be generalizable to other similar courses or across different institutions. However, the design and development of a similar high-impact first-year seminar course can be replicated and delivered across a more diverse population to improve generalizability. Doing so can help to unearth additional high-impact practices that contribute to the body of research on cultivating employability skills in students.

Conclusion Educational institutions still have challenges that existed before the pandemic. The availability and quality of employment opportunities are evolving, thus, there are implications on the economy and within corporations. Organizations must shift priorities, techniques, and expectations for the next generation of employees. While the pandemic does not have many positive aspects, it has shown that higher education institution administrators and students can adapt quickly to change through collaborative workings. Adaptability, understanding, and practical application of competencies allow for the development of necessary skills to enter the workforce. Colleges and universities must proactively adapt to the changing work environment, and this includes realigning program and course-level student learning outcomes to prepare tomorrow’s graduates for remote work opportunities. This chapter described a high-impact practice that can be easily integrated into an undergraduate curriculum or adapted for use in a graduate program to promote the development of employability skills. It cannot be assumed that students will naturally develop employability skills without a deliberate effort on the role of course instructors to cultivate factors of human agency through well-crafted coursework. Instructor presence (i.e., social, cognitive, teaching) is essential to the overall impact of a first-year seminar course on students. In addition to interacting with students through regular synchronous and asynchronous events, instructors need to provide timely and relevant feedback to students to help them develop an awareness of their actions, behaviors, attitudes, and strategy use. Instructors should also provide encouragement, help connect students with additional resources and services, and recommend different strategies, if needed. In essence, instructors should model the skills, behaviors, and attitudes students are expected to develop through the course.

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References Alexander, A., De Smet, A., Langstaff, M., & Ravid, D. (2021, April 1). What employees are saying about the future of remote work. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved from https:// www.mckinsey.com/business-­f unctions/organization/our-­i nsights/what-­e mployees-­ are-­saying-­about-­the-­future-­of-­remote-­work American Library Association. (2019, June 18). Digital literacy. Welcome to ALA’s Literacy Clearinghouse. Retrieved October 21, 2021, from https://literacy.ala.org/digital-literacy/ Anderson, N. (2021, Sep 28). The post-pandemic future of college? It’s on campus and online. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/09/28/ post-­pandemic-­university-­online-­classes/ Barefoot, B. (2000). The first-year experience: Are we making it any better? About Campus, 4(6), 12–18. Barefoot, B., & Fidler, P. (1996). The 1994 national survey of freshman seminar programs: Continuing innovations in the collegiate curriculum. National Resource Center for The Freshman Year Experience and Students in Transition. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED393386.pdf Busteed, B. (2021, May 2). Pandemic-to-permanent: 11 lasting changes to higher education. Forbes Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/brandonbusteed/2021/05/02/ pandemic-­to-­permanent-­11-­lasting-­changes-­to-­higher-­education/?sh=25082e7b452f Eischeid, K. (2020, June 8). Lifelong learning is essential to post-pandemic recovery. Retrieved October 26, 2021, from https://www.edcor.com/blog/lifelong-­learning-­is-­essential-­ to-­post-­pandemic-­recovery/ Fisher, A. (2020, April 7). As work from home becomes the norm, companies get more comfortable hiring fully remote employees. https://fortune.com/2020/04/07/ remote-­work-­from-­home-­jobs-­hiring-­coronavirus/ Friedman, J. & Moody, J. (2021, Jan 26). Discover 14 current online learning trends. US News. Retrieved from https://www.usnews.com/higher-­education/online-­education/slideshows/ discover-­10-­current-­trends-­in-­online-­education Gallagher, S., & Palmer, J. (2020, Sep 29). The pandemic pushed universities online. The change was long overdue. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2020/09/ the-­pandemic-­pushed-­universities-­online-­the-­change-­was-­long-­overdue Hussar, W.J., & Bailey, T.M. (2018). Projections of education statistics to 2026 (NCES 2018–019). U.S.  Department of Education, Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2018/2018019.pdf Kimbark, K., Peters, M., & Richardson, T. (2017). Effectiveness of the student success course on persistence, retention, academic achievement, and student engagement. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 41(2), 124–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/1066892 6.2016.1166352 Kuep, J. R., & Young, D. G. (2018). Investigating the first-year seminar as a high-impact practice. In The first year of college: Research, theory, and practice on improving the student experience and increasing retention (pp. 93–125). Cambridge University Press. Kuh, G. D. (2008). Excerpt from high-impact educational practices: What they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Association of American Colleges and Universities. Kuh, G. D., & O’Donnell, K. (2013). Taking HIPs to the next level. Ensuring quality and taking high-impact practices to scale. Association of American Colleges and Universities. Liu, J. C., & Adams, A. (2017). Design of online student orientation with conceptual and procedural scaffolding. In F. Lai & J. Lehman (Eds.), Learning and knowledge analytics in open education (pp. 41–68). Springer. Lund, S., Madgavkar, A., Manyika, J., Smit, S., Ellingrud, K., & Robinson, O. (2021, September 9). The future of work after COVID-19. Retrieved October 28, 2021, from https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-­insights/future-­of-­work/the-­future-­of-­work-­after-­covid-­19

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Marr, B. (2020, April 17). 8 Job skills to succeed in a post-Coronavirus world. Retrieved October 26, 2021, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2020/04/17/8-­job-­skills-­to-­succeed-­ in-­a-­post-­coronavirus-­world/?sh=f6bbdd12096d McFarland, J., Hussar, B., de Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Gebrekristos, S., Zhang, J., Rathbun, A., Barmer, A., Bullock Mann, F., & Hinz, S. (2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-144). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved on October 11, 2021 from https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2017144 Mercer Global. (2020). Global Talent Trends Report. Retrieved from https://www.mercer.com/ our-­thinking/career/global-­talent-­hr-­trends.html Pew Research Center. (2020, December). How the coronavirus outbreak has – And hasn’t – Changed the way Americans work. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/social-­trends/2020/12/09/ how-­the-­coronavirus-­outbreak-­has-­and-­hasnt-­changed-­the-­way-­americans-­work/ SAS Institute. (2021). Preparing students for post-pandemic success. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://narratives.insidehighered.com/post-­pandemic-­success/index.html Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Network (STEMNET). (2015). Top 10 employability skills. Retrieved from https://www.exeter.ac.uk/students/ambassadors/HESTEM/ resources/General/STEMNET%20Employability%20skills%20guide.pdf Seaman, J., Allen, I., & Seaman, J. (2018). Grade increase: Tracking distance education in the United States. Babson Survey Research Group. https://babson.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/ SV_djbTFMIjZGYDNVb Stephen, J. S., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2021). A high-impact practice for online students: The use of a first-semester seminar course to promote self-regulation, self-direction, online learning self-efficacy. Smart Learning Environments, 8(1), 1–18. Stephen, J. S., Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., & Dubay, C. (2020). Persistence model of nontraditional online learners: Self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-direction. American Journal of Distance Education, 34(4), 306–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2020.1745619 Tinto, V. (2017). Through the eyes of students. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 19(3), 254–269. United States Department of Education. (n.d.). Employability skills. Retrieved from https://cte. ed.gov/initiatives/employability-­skills-­framework Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329–339. Jacqueline S. Stephen is an Assistant Professor, Director of The Office of Distance Learning, and Instructional Designer, in the College of Professional Advancement at Mercer University, USA. Her research has examined factors associated with persistence of undergraduate online students, with much of her research focusing on self-regulated learning, self-directed learning, online learning self-efficacy, and high-impact practices for online teaching.  

Ashley Fru is an undergraduate psychology major at Mercer University’s College of Professional Advancement. She has a diverse vocational background in pharmaceutical and veterinary medicine, Christian ministry, legal services, information technology, and program management. Her research and career interests include personal and professional development, diversity and inclusion, and individual and organizational partnership collaboration.  

Chapter 22

Distance Learning Considerations for Initial and Continuing Teacher Education in Brazil Camila Höfling, Patricia de Oliveira Lucas, and Luciana C. de Oliveira

Abstract  Public higher education institutions in Brazil had to deal with the sudden change from face-to-face to remote teaching and learning, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter demonstrates how a mandatory need of the insertion of information and communication technology (ICT) tools and platforms, as well as the adaptation, preparation, and rearrangement of teaching plans for this new online format, led to not only challenges but possibilities for the participants involved— university faculty and preservice teachers—in undergraduate language teacher education programs. Considering the fundamental issue of certain limitations due to government funding and digital exclusion in different forms, we provide a report focused on the adaptation of the teaching plans of an introductory course for preservice English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers to its realization in the online platform, concerning changes in teaching and learning strategies, methods, and forms of evaluation and feedback. The chapter describes the context of Brazil and undergraduate teacher education programs that prepare EFL teachers for multiple educational contexts, whose curriculum still needs changes due to technology-­ enhanced instruction for those preservice teachers, and discusses the results from this experience, reflecting upon the feedback and all the materials developed by preservice teachers who attended the introductory course, and specifically their first lesson plan. We also discuss how this emergency remote teaching context could contribute to the development of more well-grounded teaching plans, considering preservice teachers’ profiles, aiming at their careers as EFL teachers in a future post-pandemic world. C. Höfling (*) Federal University of São Carlos – UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil P. de O. Lucas Federal University of Piauí – UFPI, Teresina, Piauí, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] L. C. de Oliveira Virginia Commonwealth University – VCU, Midlothian, VA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_22

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Keywords  Distance learning · Remote teaching and learning · Initial teacher education · Language teacher education · Preservice English as a foreign language teachers

Introduction The year 2020 has been considered a turning point when it comes to the area of teacher education, especially regarding the change from onsite face-to-face to online remote teaching and learning (Lucas & Donadio, 2020). According to data provided by the Brazilian Census Bureau regarding the year 2020, the country faces an unequal provision of Internet service through all the regions and this reality seems to directly impact on how teachers have (or have not) been prepared to develop their work with the students (Lucas & Donadio, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed that developing countries like Brazil still need lots of improvement in many different areas, such as health and education. In education, there is a significant gap between knowing how to understand technology per se and using it in reflective ways, as an attempt to promote a meaningful learning environment for students. As a result, during the first year of the pandemic, educators have been challenged to confront the school model as it has been confirmed throughout history, a school model that “was consolidated and spread around the world, which, despite much criticism, has endured to this day” (Nóvoa, 2019, p. 2). Considering the higher education context, undergraduate language teacher education programs have struggled to update their curriculum to the reality of the twenty-first century, trying not just to develop preservice teachers’ cultural and scientific knowledge and critical thinking but also to help these teachers understand existing practices in various educational contexts. As Nóvoa pointed out, “the link between training and profession is central to building coherent profession education programs” (2019, p. 9). It is known that residency programs such as “Pedagogical Residency” (Residência Pedagógica), in addition to the mandatory courses such as supervised internship, usually taken at the very end of the program, have had the role of joining preparation and practice. Another such program that connects preparation and practice is the Institutional Scholarship for Initiation to Teaching Practice (Programa Institucional de Bolsas de Iniciação à Docência, PIBID; Brasil, 2018), funded by the Coordination of Higher Education Personnel Improvement (CAPES). Its objective is to offer scholarships to students from undergraduate teacher education programs in order to provide real school contexts for them to practice pedagogical activities in elementary public schools, enhancing their preparation and contributing to the improvement of the quality of those public schools (da Silva & Cruz, 2018). It is worth noting that this program has been suffering from a continuous lack of funding by the past federal government (from 2018 to 2022). Within this context, the challenge remains how to connect those realities throughout the whole

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program where we should ask ourselves as educators about the implications of both emergency remote teaching (ERT) and learning contexts in the preparation of future English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers. A new era in teaching and learning has been established with the use of technological resources (Oskoz & Smith, 2020); however, among the most substantial challenges of this new era, the adaptation of the course syllabus seems to be difficult to tackle, especially because we were used to a more traditional way of preparing our preservice teachers, and now we are educating teachers for an unclear future. In many undergraduate language teacher education programs, since the classes became remote, one of the main concerns is the imbalance between theory and practice, alongside with the interaction among students and teachers, mainly due to the quality of the Internet, the handling of technological educational tools, among other factors. In addition, those undergraduate language teacher education programs have faced a dual challenge: to provide support for university faculty who are not so familiar with remote teaching and to prepare students to become future teachers. Although this scenario seems a little bit controversial, as we believe that faculty who work in teacher education programs have all the needed knowledge to prepare future teachers, reality shows some hidden gaps that we have still been struggling with for many years. For these reasons, we describe the experiences of faculty and preservice teachers in an introductory course that is mandatory for first-year preservice teachers, in which adaptations have been made in order to accommodate the syllabus to the new teaching environment imposed by the pandemic, without compromising a focus on building preservice teachers’ teaching professional knowledge. We know that the first educational years for preservice teachers are crucial, once they define and tailor their relationships with the profession (Huberman, 1989). In this chapter, we intend to show those syllabus adaptations by the educator who taught this course, besides demonstrating through the students’ final task—the presentation of a very first attempt to build a lesson plan—and their last feedback at the end of the course, how the limitations present in this remote context taught us valuable lessons in order to improve and transform our undergraduate language teacher education program curricula.

 ndergraduate Language Teacher Education Programs U in Brazil in a Pandemic The choice of teaching careers in Brazil rarely appears as students’ first option when attending an undergraduate program, due to a series of factors, among which is the devaluation of the teaching profession and the school itself by municipal, state or federal governments, concerning, for example, updated and rightful wages, work

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conditions, working hours, solid educational and language policies, among other factors. Although vocational competence and professional dispositions are very important to the making of a teacher, financial recognition is also vital to the investments teachers must make in their continuing education, especially because money is necessary to buy books, to attend conferences, to study new methods, approaches and techniques, and to improve the quality of their technological resources, among other needs that those teachers would demand for their professional growth. For instance, among several studies, Jacomini and Penna (2016) observed the need of improvements in three important aspects in order to establish a professional teaching career, that is the expansion of tenure track hiring, the establishment of a regular full-time working day and the regulation of leave of absences for continuing education, that would contribute to the necessary political and social value of the profession. But, unfortunately, this reality in most Brazilian public educational contexts has taken the opposite road, forcing the majority of teachers to work on a full-time schedule, leaving no place for their professional development. In undergraduate language teacher education programs, technology and languages have always been together, and it is important to remember that every approach or method in the language teaching area has always counted on its proper technology (Warschauer & Meskill, 2000). Educating preservice language teachers to teach languages is a social process (Freeman, 2016), and blended learning has been an undeniable part of it (Matheos & Cleveland-Innes, 2018). Although the Internet is a powerful tool for teaching (Warschauer, 2000), this resource by itself is not capable of promoting all of the elements that a teacher needs to teach a foreign language, but unfortunately, some undergraduate and graduate programs advocate technology to be more important than teachers, leading teachers to believe that they must have technological resources or they will fail. Higher education institutions all over the world and in Brazil, specifically, have worked diligently to maintain undergraduate and graduate instruction since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, differences between this ERT context and distance learning itself are an undeniable reality. Although access to information by the Internet is spread worldwide, remote teaching and learning need much more than online instruction to provide future teachers with meaningful preparation (Lucas et  al., 2020), a fact that has been truly evidenced through online conferences, presentations, and dialogue among faculty and researchers all over the world, by showing how teachers have struggled to understand their roles in practice. To illustrate this context, Mendonça (2021), in a field survey during the pandemic, mapped experiences and perceptions of teachers, professors, and language instructors concerning ERT, the use of digital information and communication technologies (DICT) in educational contexts, and the pedagogical adaptations and changes they were supposed to do in a short period of time. Results pointed out some critical aspects already in progress at that time such as reconfiguration of didactic resources as well as the creation of new ones; use of (or lack of access to) digital tools and resources; negative perceptions about work conditions, among others.

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Besides some technological issues, teacher education programs have faced additional challenges, which include the lack of reflective practices when it comes to moving from face-to-face to remote instruction. The practices of some teachers, who still insist on maintaining traditional approaches and methodologies, without taking into account students’ needs and their environments and backgrounds, are contributing to transposing on-site methods to remote teaching contexts, therefore reinforcing the idea that old strategies would perfectly fit these still unpredictable educational systems (Finardi, 2017). In addition, another worrying fact that has been misunderstood by teachers and students is the use of remote and online teaching interchangeably. The concept of ERT has been described as a temporary instructional responsive teaching modality due to the pandemic, differing from preplanned distance learning (Whittle et  al., 2020). ERT is referred to as unexpected short-term instructional delivery to an online delivery model because of a mammoth catastrophe, in contrast to online academic programs originally planned and designated to be delivered virtually (Hodges et al., 2020). In addition, as Blessinger and Bliss (2016, p. 12) pointed out, remote teaching means to be “flexible, free, and welcoming, non-prejudiced, non-restricted and unfettered.” In a regular distance online education course, teachers’ planning and preparation would start some months before the course is delivered, once it is necessary to develop teaching materials, to plan activities, and to discuss all the possibilities of tools to be used with an information technology (IT) specialist (de Oliveira & Olesova, 2013). Just when all the units planned for the online course are ready, it is the right moment to upload them in the chosen institutional online platform. During the pandemic, it would not be humanly possible for every faculty to suddenly become an expert in distance online teaching and learning. For this reason, most higher education institutions, with the aid of their support technology team and the articulation of most deans’ offices of undergraduate and graduate academic affairs, prepared online live workshops in order to help faculty understand the resources available to help them develop some online teaching strategies that brought the ERT as one provisional measure, with course design and creation support, content development, learning and teaching strategies, in partnerships with experts. Remote teaching courses, created during the pandemic, were not designed to be long-term solutions, but temporary practices addressing some overwhelming problems, such as COVID-19. As educators, we should confront the political interests of taking this temporary solution to permanent status, when it comes to undergraduate programs specifically, or even in all levels of education in general. More importantly, in Brazil, higher education institutions should continue choosing the path of inclusive education, to ensure that everyone has the right to access higher education. These discussions show that these differences must be understood far beyond the terms “distance” and “remote,” especially because the use of one in detriment of the other may influence how teachers understand and work in their educational contexts, and the decision of choosing one or another may also have political impacts as we have seen so far, directly affecting how we prepare our future teachers.

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Faculty’s Syllabi for Online Remote Teaching Instruction According to Johnson (1989), the curriculum is “all the relevant decision-making processes of all the participants” (p.  33), including all the goals, objectives, processes of the program itself, with the syllabus its materialization. According to Brown (1995, p. 7), “a syllabus provides a focus for what should be studied, along with a rationale for how that content should be selected and ordered.” In other words, educators try to define and state through the syllabus all the content of a course, arranging everything that would be taught. Syllabus design is the reflection of teachers’ decisions concerning the content to be delivered, considering many facets related to teaching and learning, such as students’ background and needs, the methods and approaches chosen, and not least important, the modality, whether face-to-face or online/remote teaching (Sabbah, 2018). Before the pandemic, syllabi and teaching plans could be concise and to the point, mainly presenting the objectives of the course, but perhaps without a clear and more detailed demonstration of students’ activities and what is expected from them, evaluation, group management, and the specific tools and methods used by educators. With the pandemic, teachers’ concerns have become more substantial, due to the change from the face-to-face model to the ERT model. Consequently, syllabi reflected these concerns, listing all the tools and platforms used, the timing of each content topic and activity or task, the students’ learning activities, the steps of the evaluation and what is expected from the students, besides more elaborate objectives of the course throughout its delivery. Immediately, we noticed an adjustment in teachers’ and students’ profiles, as well as in all that was related to the remote classroom. Mendonça (2021) stated that this production of digital content points out to higher active participation and collaboration among teachers and students. Such practices, according to Cope and Kalantzis (2009), could be considered as new literacy practices, once embedded of a new ethos. The use of the technology is not enough to characterize these new practices, once it is needed that the teacher or student “user” would be able to find, criticize, curate, share and produce digital content, using complex meaning-making processes, that involve negotiations and active involvement in this new context. It is evident that all the research and its findings in the distance learning area contributed to building teaching plans in a short time. Vicentini and de Oliveira (2018) investigated and brought up discussions concerning digital technology tools in instruction. Discussions such as the need for digital literacy in the academic context are not new. However, they conclude that “technology had indeed taken a central role in communication and collaboration practices. Still, significant questions arise and further research is needed to address matters such as access to technology as well as teacher training…” (Vicentini & de Oliveira, 2018, p. 49) Analyzing the syllabi produced to adapt to the ERT, we could observe teachers as the subjects of knowledge, as pointed out by Tardif (2002). Being able to teach in such conditions shows that teachers go beyond mere knowledge transmission:

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teaching practices integrate different types of knowledge. Teachers’ knowledge is considered plural and heterogeneous, personalized and situated, formed by knowledge coming from professional preparation as well as from experience (Tardif, 2002). These constitute a teacher’s teaching competences, emphasizing the central role that developing professional competence has in a teacher education program (Alvarenga, 1999). The pandemic showed that, as educators, we must go beyond the teaching of techniques and principles, and among our tasks, it is crucial to invite future teachers to reflect upon their social responsibilities, by inviting them to participate in activities that will demand a social response to society, such as the inclusion of remote teaching as part of our reality.

 he Introductory Course—English Language T for Preservice Teachers The background context for this chapter is the Introduction to English Language Studies, a course taught in an undergraduate language teacher education program at a federal public university in the southeast of Brazil, the attendance of which was mandatory for first-year preservice teachers. It was delivered during the first official fall term during the pandemic. Before the fall term, a trial period was proposed in the Spring of 2020 to preservice teachers and faculty, and the decision for preservice teachers to enroll and faculty to deliver the course was optional and served as experiments of new ERT. Some Brazilian public institutions took the same road, and this trial period was designed as an opportunity for both faculty and students to learn and understand this new environment. In addition, the pedagogical areas of the institutions required teachers to reformulate their syllabi for the fall term that would be mandatory for them. Regarding the syllabi, besides considering the reformulation of topics such as the students’ activities, content, and evaluation, there was an extra concern: how to adapt the initial theoretical discussions related to language teacher education in this ERT course. The objectives of this course are to introduce studies of English language use, giving preservice teachers an opportunity to develop their own linguistic-­ communicative competence, leading them to the initiation of a reflective practice about the processes of teaching and learning a FL, which should be consolidated during all the upcoming courses for the development of their pedagogical professional practice as an English teacher. In this way, vocabulary, grammar, and notions of phonetics, in a basic level, are introduced, within a communicative view, through topics such as the teaching and learning of English in the Brazilian context; awareness about the similarities and differences between first language (L1) and target/ foreign language (L2); the process of learning English as a FL such as the role of input, learning styles, self-study, and self-evaluation, among others.

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In face-to-face instruction, faculty had the opportunity to separate theoretical and practical classes in which they would work with some initial concepts in the area of Applied Linguistics, making use of English as the medium of instruction, in addition to classes where English vocabulary and grammar could be taught and discussed in a more practical way, considering not only the learning but also the teaching processes of such topics. The ERT contexts pushed faculty to make some crucial decisions about content and delivery methods, including deciding on the amount of synchronous and asynchronous classes that would best address the needs of this population. The decision between synchronous and asynchronous was strongly based on previous face-to-face instruction, especially because at the beginning of a course in the teacher education area, preservice teachers struggle with theoretical frameworks presented. Therefore, all of the classes where preservice teachers would depend on some guidance from faculty, in terms of theory, synchronous instruction was the best option, leaving the asynchronous moments for preservice teachers to practice language by themselves and also reflect upon their own learning process as future teachers.

 reservice Teachers’ First Lesson Plan—Some Considerations P and Reflections In this course, when delivered face-to-face, the preservice teachers’ last evaluation is the development of a lesson plan, followed by the experimentation of it through what the faculty member teaching this course has named “nano teaching,” once there would be other kinds of “teaching experiments” through the language program, such as micro-teaching in the fourth term, project presentation in the sixth term, and so forth. The nano teaching serves as the first attempt to develop a lesson plan, helping preservice teachers realize they are more than just regular students of an undergraduate program, but preservice teachers, who would have to learn all the content of their language teacher education program and, at the same time, reflect about their own practices as preservice teachers. The delivery of this course in an ERT context, especially at the moment of the nano teaching evaluation, was an opportunity for learning by both faculty and preservice teachers. In face-to-face instruction, the final evaluation is intended to be a presentation of a lesson plan followed by the nano teaching, having in mind the on-site context and other considerations, such as school context, chosen content, target audience, target language and level of proficiency, language of instruction, among other features. Throughout the face-to-face instruction, rubrics to evaluate have always been the same, such as the tone, pace and volume of the teacher’s voice, body language and the teacher’s rapport with the audience, content delivery, vocabulary, and grammar, besides features of classroom management.

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For remote instruction, nano teaching, which is one part of the lesson plan, was the most significant challenge for preservice teachers, as they had to take into consideration the same issues as before but with the addition to all of the strategies that are needed to be used when teaching in a remote context. Although this scenario may show that the final evaluation was more difficult, the role of the faculty in evaluating it was also complex and challenging, especially because the instructor would evaluate the performance having to rethink and modify her evaluation rubrics in addition to her own performance as a teacher educator in this remote teaching context. Evaluation rubrics that made sense in face-to-face classes seemed difficult to observe and evaluate, based on the same criteria. For this reason, the feedback for preservice teachers after the presentation, instead of suggesting different paths or correcting postures and actions, such as eye contact and classroom interaction, among others, was in fact an open dialogue, with both the teacher educator and preservice teachers figuring out together which classroom management aspects and teacher’s characteristics really worked well and which ones needed improvement or more reflection. For clarification, Table 22.1 shows the rubrics used to evaluate on-­ site presentations of the nano teachings and the lesson plans for a face-to-face classroom context. In the same table, the rubrics with asterisks show that those rubrics were changed and adapted. This kind of activity, the presentation of the nano teaching and their lesson plans, in an introductory course for preservice teachers in teacher education programs, would help them become more engaged, at the very beginning of their undergraduate program, with online instruction, since they have put great effort into this task and put themselves in the teachers’ shoes for the first time, in an online environment. The same kind of effort was made by the teacher educator who delivered the course, once it was also the first time to challenge her own technological background and to face the difficult task of evaluating students who were both in a new environment. At the end of this introductory course, some valuable lessons were learned by both faculty and preservice teachers, despite all the challenges observed, such as: Table 22.1  Teacher’s rubrics for on-site nano teaching and lesson plan evaluation On-site presentation of a face-to-face classroom Remote presentation of a remote class* Teacher’s characteristics Classroom management aspects Eye contact* Fluency Vitality Grammar accuracy Gestures* Vocabulary related to the content Rapport with audience* Content and instructions* Convincing speech* Pronunciation Use of note cards Organization* Use of visual aids Attitude* Voice volume and pace Creativity L1 > L2 (Language of instruction) Use of L1/L2—translanguaging and language of instruction

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• Minimum time for synchronous interaction without tiring the students and the teacher; • Decisions over what kind of activities could be asynchronous; • Use of different evaluation tools and techniques; • Reflection upon the course credits and the hours dedicated to theory and practice, learning how to deal with practice in ERT contexts; • Work overload for teachers, who were expected to dedicate more time to plan and structure the classes as well as to deal with correction and feedback for students; • Adaptation of content, evaluation tools, and activities, demanding more organization by the teacher; and • EMI approach, making the teacher to deal with all those aspects of the ERT context and moreover, using the foreign language as the medium of instruction. Even facing all those challenges, accomplishments also emerged in the ERT context, such as low dropout rates, even being a mandatory course for first-year students; preservice teachers’ consistent and solid feedback, as they were more confident in giving peer feedback for the faculty, for example, when dealing with technological tools; mutual use of resources, with preservice teachers teaching faculty how to use tools; face-to-face interaction replaced by interaction in the online platform chats, with laughs and sincere comments, promoting a relaxing environment; and finally, preservice teachers’ presentations of the lesson plan demonstrated to be more elaborate and complex than the lesson plan presented in the face-to-face context, following the pattern of the course syllabus, with more elaborate and specific objectives, considering the students’ needs and the remote context they were all experiencing.

Conclusion One of the most significant challenges in a teacher education program is to guide and help future teachers to develop their own professional identities, based on many kinds of knowledge that educators try to bring to the classroom. Although it may seem like an easy task, in reality it is not, especially because the reflective process should be an intrinsic part of all teaching careers (Lucas, 2016). With the introduction of remote teaching and learning in some educational contexts, it is undeniable that we faced an abrupt change in the process of preparing EFL teachers for the future. But even with all of these changes, we have to remember why we use technology in the classroom (Kessler, 2018), and the impact of it on how teachers should (re)think their current and future practices. In an era where students may have better digital literacy skills than their teachers, it is important for teachers to understand that this technological environment may be more natural for students. Therefore, teacher education programs need to consider that this intrinsic knowledge brought on by preservice teachers should be considered as an asset to

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enhance their future professional development instead of an attitude that will diminish teacher educators. Regarding the introductory course that was used in order to exemplify what we intended with the writing of this chapter, and during the collective feedback sessions, the teacher educator recognized that preservice teachers had greater technological knowledge compared to hers which served as an indication that changes in thinking about expertise are always needed if our intention is to promote meaningful teaching. Therefore, the role teacher educators have in the classroom is one of sharing and reflecting upon all sorts of knowledge (Tardif, 2002). Even with setbacks as the lack of social and face-to-face interactions, the technological limitations related to Internet connections, and all the pressure of studying and working from home in the middle of a pandemic, the ERT experience showed how teachers and students are resilient and capable of succeeding in their professional knowledge construction. Although a considerable amount of teacher education programs in Brazil have not received the deserved recognition, it is important to value all the opportunities and benefits we have in this profession. At the beginning of remote teaching, everything was so unclear and uncertain, and predictions we made became a burden to lots of teachers and students, and that was not beneficial to anyone involved in this context. Technology has been the future of education, but human resources in the classroom are the key to the success of teacher education programs. How they prepare their EFL teachers is a question that should continue to be considered by educators in teacher education programs in various contexts around the world. We hope the experience shared in this chapter helps others to consider not only obstacles but also opportunities presented by the ERT context.

References Alvarenga, M. B. (1999). Configuração de competências de um professor de língua estrangeira (inglês): implicações para a formação em serviço [Configuration of competences of a foreign language (English) teacher: Implications for in-service teacher education]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Campinas (Unicamp). Blessinger, P., & Bliss, T. J. (2016). Introduction to open education: Towards a human rights theory. In P. Blessinger & T. J. Bliss (Eds.), Open education: International perspectives in higher education (pp. 11–30). Open Book Publishers. Brasil. (2018). Programa institucional de bolsas de iniciação à docência (Pibid) [Institutional scholarship for initiation to teaching practice]. Retrieved from http://portal.mec.gov.br/pibid Brown, D. (1995). Teaching by principles-an interactive approach to language pedagogy. Prentice Hall. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2009). Multiliteracies: New literacies, new learning. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 4, 164–195. da Silva, K. A. C. P., & Cruz, S. P. (2018). A residência pedagógica na formação de professores: história, hegemonia e resistências [The pedagogical residence in teacher education: History, hegemony and resistance]. Momento: diálogos em educação [Moment: Dialogues in education], 27(2), 227–247.

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de Oliveira, L. C., & Olesova, L. (2013). Learning about the literacy development of English language learners through technology. Journal of Education, 193(2), 15–23. Finardi, K. R. (2017). Abordagens híbridas e inclusivas e formação de professores de línguas do e para o século XXI [Hybrid and inclusive approaches and language teacher education in and of the 21st century]. Atos de Pesquisa em Educação [Acts of Research in Education], 12, 78–90. Freeman, D. (2016). Educating second language teachers. Oxford University Press. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/ the-­difference-­between-­emergency-­remote-­teaching-­and-­online-­learning Huberman, M. (1989). La vie des enseignants: évolution et bilan d’une profession [The life of teachers: Evolution and assessment of a profession]. Delachaux & Niestlé. Jacomini, M. A., & Penna, M. G. de O. (2016). Carreira docente e valorização do magistério: condições de trabalho e desenvolvimento profissional [Teaching career and recognition of the significance of teaching: Working conditions and professional development] Pro-Posições [Propositions], 27(2). Retrieved from: https://www.scielo.br/j/pp/a/M34nYfJTrzB4Sfv7NqV gTTp/?lang=pt Johnson, R. (1989). The second language curriculum. Cambridge University Press. Kessler, G. (2018). Technology and the future of language teaching. Foreign Language Annals, 51(1), 205–218. Lucas, P. de O. (2016). Os materiais didáticos de inglês como língua estrangeira (LE) na prática de professores da escola pública: Um convite à formação reflexiva ou à perpetuação do ensino prescritivo? (Publication Number 7402) [Teaching materials in English as a foreign language (EFL) in public school teachers’ practice: An invitation to reflective practice or the perpetuation of prescriptive teaching?]. Doctoral dissertation, Federal University of São Carlos. UFSCAR Institutional Repository. Retrieved from https://repositorio.ufscar.br/handle/ufscar/7402 Lucas, P. de O., & Donadio, L. F. P. S. (2020). Orientações didáticas para o uso significativo-­ reflexivo das tecnologias digitais: (Res)significando práticas pedagógicas [Teaching orientations for the meaning-reflexive use of digital technologies: (Re)signifying pedagogical practices]. EDUFPI. Lucas, P. de O., Donadio, L. F. P. S., & Gomes, F. W. (2020). Orientações pedagógicas para o período remoto 2020.1 [Pedagogical orientations for remote teaching period 2020.1]. EDUFPI. Matheos, K., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2018). Blended learning: Enabling higher education reform. Revista Eletrônica de Educação, 12(1), 238–244. Mendonça, M. (2021). Aula de língua(s) no ensino emergencial remoto: práticas e percepções iniciais de professores [Language class in the emergency remote teaching: Teachers’ initial practices and perceptions]. In M.  Mendonça, E.  Andreatta, & V.  Schlude (Eds.), Docência pandêmica: práticas de professores de língua(s) no ensino emergencial remoto [Pandemic teaching: Language teachers’ practices in the emergency remote teaching] (pp. 40–76). Pedro & João Ed. Nóvoa, A. (2019). Teachers and their education in the time of school metamorphosis. Thematic section: Resistances and reexistences in educational social spaces in times of neo-­conservatism. Educação e Realidade, 44(3), 1–14. Oskoz, A., & Smith, B. (2020). Unprecedented times. CALICO Journal, 37(2), i–vii. Sabbah, S. (2018). English language syllabuses: Definition, types, design, and selection. Arab World English Journal, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no2.9 Tardif, M. (2002). Saberes docentes e formação professional [Teaching knowledges and professional education]. Vozes. Vicentini, C., & de Oliveira, L. C. (2018). Technology tools for writing instruction. NYS TESOL Journal, 5(2), 44–51. Retrieved from http://journal.nystesol.org/july2018/6VicentinideOliveir a%28CGFP%29.pdf Warschauer, M. (2000). The death of cyberspace and the rebirth of CALL. English Teachers Journal, 53, 61–67. Retrieved from http://www.gse.uci.edu/person/markw/cyberspace.html

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Warschauer, M., & Meskill, C. (2000). Technology and second language teaching and learning. In J.  Rosenthal (Ed.), Handbook of undergraduate second language education. Lawrence Erlbaum. Whittle, C., Tiwari, S., Yan, S., & Williams, J. (2020). Emergency remote teaching environment: A conceptual framework for responsive online teaching in crises. Information and Learning Sciences, 121(5/6), 311–319. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-­04-­2020-­0099 Camila Höfling is Associate Professor in the English language and literatures program area in the Department of Languages at Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Paulo state, Brazil. Her research in applied linguistics focuses on issues related to teaching and learning English as a foreign language, including the role of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in specific contexts, teacher education, and lexical studies.  

Patricia de Oliveira Lucas is Associate Professor in the English language and literatures program area in the Department of Foreign Languages at Federal University of Piauí (UFPI), Piauí state, Brazil. Her research in applied linguistics focuses on issues related to materials development, teaching and learning English as a foreign language, teacher education, active methodologies, blended learning, and the teaching of Portuguese as a FL both in Brazil and abroad.  

Luciana C. de Oliveira is Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and Graduate Studies in the School of Education and Professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at Virginia Commonwealth University. Her research focuses on issues related to teaching multilingual learners at the K-12 level, including the role of language in learning the content areas and teacher education, advocacy, and social justice. She was the first Latina to ever serve as President of TESOL.  

Chapter 23

Sustaining Presence: Partnering with Technology During the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown Christine Sabieh

Abstract  Challenged by our own digital divide, I, as many educators in Lebanon, have had to accommodate the University Administrators’ decisions and student expectations when addressing these needs to maintain the cloud of normality and facilitate teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. The trials and tribulations of Lebanon include not only the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic but also the mayhem caused by the economic and political instability, the banking sector and foreign/local currency control, and the August 4, 2020 Beirut port explosion; thus, creating havoc within the education realm and introducing the need for emergency in education through a humanitarian response paradigm. Braved by the endeavor, keeping the pedagogy in mind, limited in boundaries of functionality, I used tech-tools to make teaching–learning doable, attractive, motivating, operative, and plausible. Given the dilemma, I redefined teaching–learning hats and aligned roles to promote educator and learner responsibility and commitment. With technology, I patchworked teaching–learning spaces coupled with aspiration and innovation to ensure the practice of education. I created a virtual learning environment that ensured teaching and learning took place during our virtual time, practiced shared learning responsibility with learners in the courses, put on a detective hat and kept an active presence in the course, and used tool partnership to make teaching–learning engaging and effective. Details are shared to show how the key to success is educator development and how by transforming the teaching and learning spaces through diverse methodology, technology, activity integration, and assessment enables customized success. The challenges to our teaching–learning realm remain alive today; the educator is the pivot to define the future of education. Keywords  Optimizing teaching environments · Digital divide · Educational challenges · COVID-19 pandemic C. Sabieh (*) Department of Psychology, Education, and Physical Education, Faculty of Humanities, Notre Dame University, Zouk Mosbeh, Lebanon e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_23

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Introduction Lebanon has its own unique challenges that have also affected its digital divide. As an educator in Lebanon, I, as many others, have been requested by University Administrators to address the challenges, accommodate, and maintain an air of normality to move the education mission forward. The administration decided and we needed to decide on the best path to facilitate teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. The rest of the world was also challenged by the same request (The World Bank, 2021). How was the globe expected to react to the emergency and provide students with the right to education when the world was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic? As real as that challenge was that was not the only dilemma Lebanon experienced at that time.

The Confrontation The trials and tribulations of Lebanon included not only the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic but also the mayhem caused by the economic and political instability, the banking sector and foreign/local currency control, and the August 4, 2020 Beirut port explosion; thus, creating havoc within the education realm and introducing the need for emergency in education through a humanitarian response paradigm. Mayhem would be a better descriptor to describe the scenario the educators have had to deal with given the infrastructure challenges that has become the norm to daily life. The norm is what Sinclair (2001) in her chapter, entitled Education in Emergencies, shared. UNESCO (UNHCR, 1999) described an “educational emergency as a crisis situation created by conflicts or disasters which have destabilized, disorganized or destroyed the education system, and which require an integrated process of crisis and post-crisis response” (p.  14) or as Pigozzi (1999) clarified in his concept of silent emergency caused by life-threatening stressors that result in ill-fated living conditions such as extreme poverty, HIV/AIDS, and hunger. Given the effects of COVID-19 pandemic, there should be no doubt that it became a silent emergency serious enough to warrant the need for an emergency response to calm the chaos and salvage students’ right to education. I set out to define how to provide the students’ right to education became an individual endeavor. I, as many other university educators in Lebanon, took it upon myself to see what would be feasible. It is true that the Education sector—the Ministry of Education and the education institutions—responded to the need, but they did not provide a feasible response paradigm to address the educational emergency (Relief Web, 2020). The Minister of Education had taken a decision. He was well aware of the existing challenges, especially those specific to the teaching and learning needs; he acknowledged that “electricity cuts in many areas across Lebanon, the lack of a reliable internet network or access to technology to facilitate e-learning, parents/ caregivers playing the teachers’ role, often with more than one

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child to support, which adds pressures to households also affected by the economic crisis, and movement restrictions imposed by the government to contain the spread of the disease which also poses an added challenge to schools using non-ICT modalities” (Relief Web, 2020). Nevertheless, the priority to educate was put forth. There was no consideration given to canceling the academic year. The verdict was real; the education institutions complied. I set out to create a doable paradigm for both my undergraduate and graduate students. I addressed the challenges, created a doable paradigm to create effective teaching–learning spaces, collaborated with the students, and succeeded in providing quality teaching-­learning communities. I will share how I planned and sustained a teaching–learning presence, partnering with tech-tools to optimize my students’ learning during the crisis. My paradigm may be used not only during times of crisis but whenever an educator wants to build active learning spaces that promote synchronous and asynchronous quality teaching and learning practices.

The Challenges With diminutive support, no financial support, and penetrating challenges, the largest conundrum faced was whether or not the learners and the teachers would be able to afford to do all that was needed to respond to the challenges and find the education solution during the time of crisis. The Administrators voiced their expectations: They expected educators to cater to the needs of the students. The teachers were required to promote wellness, minimize pressure to perform, invite student presence and participation in the teaching space, and teach and maintain course quality online to ensure a success story—a fairytale ending. With that in mind, the following framing questions needed to be examined: • Should the teaching of the curriculum be delivered online, hybrid, or face-to-face? • Were the teachers sufficiently trained to create the needed tech-based or tech-­ supported learning spaces? • Were the tools, online tools, platforms and learning management systems, blogs, wikis, software readily available for use? • Was the telecommunication infrastructure set up to accommodate the needs? • Did the education institutions have the needed budgets? • Were the learners equipped with the needed technology and know-how to maneuver learning at a distance and the platforms to view, collaborate, and share? At that point in time, a key factor was motivation. Aware of the importance of motivation and meeting Maslow’s hierarchy of needs—not necessarily in order, I planned my teaching–learning spaces (Kunc, 1992; Montag et al., 2020). I echoed how “the new generation”—our learners—perceived their pertinent needs. Maslow developed a pyramid-shaped hierarchy to explain motivation based on the human

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needs being met. Essential wellness of learners would be based on addressing physiological, safety, social, emotional, and esteem needs to enable them to self-­ actualize. Given the influence of technology in our daily lives, what is currently being shared by Bhandari (2019) and Malbon (2015) is a redefined pyramid—A Maslow 2.0 Hierarchy of needs—that relates the internet presence to millennial needs and calls on the importance of technology to ensure technical identity and presence define their actualized existence (Bhandari, 2019; Malbon, 2015). As flippantly as the advocacy may echo, I do acknowledge the power of digital presence as defining the learners’ survival—the key need to maintain existence during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown saga. Apart from the need for different batteries, the Wi-Fi, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) battery backup for their computer and Wi-Fi modem, the diverse technology tool availability, and the varied social and professional platforms of communication, the tech-defined identity presence was central to start the ascent toward digital self-actualization and community presence, belonging, and security. It also was a need in my world as an educator as well—a need to maintain professional as well as social and emotional existence; it allowed me to feel associated with the rest of the world. As educators in Lebanon, we faced three common challenges: The expectations from education institutions; the digital divide; and the role of the educator to ensure the teaching and the learning. • Challenge 1: The education leaders wanted the teachers to show care and ensure the success story. • Challenge 2: Most of the digital divide challenges were common and were experienced across the globe. Common challenges include availability of digital access, knowledge of usage, tool usage, and functionality for general, fun, and/ or education purposes, quality of tool use, amount of tool use, data manipulation and creativity, and tech-based mentoring, tutoring, and training. Challenges in Lebanon also include affordability, availability, technology tool and tech-support affordability, electrical availability, electrical affordability, connectivity availability, connectivity speed and broadband, and infrastructure in general. • Challenge 3: The educator’s challenges included their role as educator/facilitator, the effective planning of the students’ learning, the maintenance of the cognitive, psycho-motor, and affective/emotional well-being of the students, the integration of the learning theories and conditions into the teaching and learning set-up, the teaching and assessment efforts to address and meet the students’ needs, and the facilitating, guiding, and mentoring as well as providing the technology and teaching aids to enhance the overall teaching–learning space.

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 ecision-Making, Planning, and Creating the Solution: D The Patchwork As an educator, faced with the challenges of the time, I asked myself: What is it that I had to do? How was I to be innovative in my endeavor and create the expected fairy tale? I decided to patchwork my teaching space to effectively practice education. By creating a patchwork environment, I aspired to calm the chaos and create a solution. The challenges present in Lebanon affected all levels within the education system. Administrators and Ministries involved with education and governance made a decision but had not provided a paradigm. Many education settings provided their teachers with a shallow shell of ideas without in-depth assessment. It was left to educators to advance, to explore and assess the needs, and figure out the prototype to adopt. I considered the needs prior to the pandemic, the current need, and the needs to move forward. To explore and build and create the needed teaching–learning spaces called on educators to delve into the unknown spaces with confidence, make judgments, and use their know-how to adapt the spaces to delivery of content for teachers and/or learning purposes. I patchworked the setting and saved from the past. According to Merriam-­ Webster (n.d.), to patchwork means to try and piece together, to create a collage, and/or to makeshift. For me, these patchwork descriptors are dangerous synonyms for use in the realm of education. I want us to consider the meaning of each descriptor and reflect on the concept value each term offers to build a teaching and learning community. When I create the patchwork, I provide the prospect to piece together. That implies I am providing a platform to reconstruct meaning, rationalize context, assemble ideas, join words, and repair information. When I create the patchwork, I provide the opportunity to piece together a collage of students collecting ideas, combining concepts, considering an assortment of notions, and mixing their thoughts. I encourage a jumble, a clutter, a mélange of resources, tools, technologies, content, settings, instructional methodologies, activities, and assessments, to enable students to create a colorful potpourri of fresh learning opportunities. I, as the educator, provide the motivation, the collaboration, the interactivity, the platform, the technology, the tools, the resources, the content, the activities, and the know-how. I create fun in the quest and assimilation of needed knowledge, by partnering with the platform and utilizing the tech-tools effectively.

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The Purpose: My Paradigm Combines Space and Technology The paradigm is an exploration, a strategy, a use of tech-tools, collaborated and shared with peers—students and educators alike. The chapter is to showcase what I did. Figure 23.1 reflected the day-to-day combo reality of my teaching–learning space. The visual reveals the tech-tools along with the traces of common and comfort essentials, such as water and cookies. The virtual set-up included paper, books, pens, two laptops, two iPhones, a tablet, a Wi-Fi router, computer battery power bank, an external store jet hard drive, and a back-up uninterruptible power battery (UPS) to protect and maintain network power throughout the extended electricity outages, phone chargers, and portable electrical sockets and extensions. I was prepared for any state of emergency. I maintain my aspiration that learning is possible and will always happen. I believe in student and teacher accountability to measure creative learning and teaching effectiveness. I redefine the teaching–learning hats and align roles to promote educator and learner responsibility and commitment. Aware of the students’ needs and the infrastructures’ strengths and weaknesses, I create spaces that accommodate the roles, and the pedagogy—the varied theories, methodologies, and alternative assessments. I promote Flip learning–teaching and expect active partaking in and out of the learning space as a plan for educators and learners to partner with the tools to ensure effective teaching and learning happens. It is important to note that a transformation in a learning space does not automatically guarantee that effective teaching and learning happens.

Fig. 23.1  My teaching-learning space and my technologies

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The transformation was defined by the practice of education: It is how the partnership happens with the tech-tools that promote effective teaching and learning measurability. The educator must find a fine balance to patchwork the tech-tools in the teaching and learning space to engage the students in the practice of education, synchronously and asynchronously. The teaching and learning opportunities may be online, blended, hybrid, and/or face-to-face. Best practices happen when, theoretically, goals are planned into the education space (Lierman & Santiago, 2019). In my planned patchwork transformation, the learning outcomes were reflected through the instructional methods, and the technology integration made the activities operational to measure the learning. Teachers are to be trained to plan, and students are to be trained to focus and showcase proof of content, skill, and/or technology expertise and knowledge assimilation and achievement. Both of them use the tech-tools to maximize active, individual, collaborative, and/ or interactive teaching and learning.

My Technologies: The Tools to Work the Fairy-Tale Technologies, in general, are engaging and interactive. It is the educator who needs to design the lessons to make this collaboration happen. There is a lot of technology available for use in the lesson. However, I have selected the following in my teaching and learning synchronous and asynchronous spaces. • Blackboard Learn, Microsoft Teams, Canvas, Google Classroom, TalentLMS, as the communication platform or learning management systems. • Zoom and Microsoft Skype for Business as the video conferencing platforms. • WhatsApp Messenger as an instant messaging platform. • Google Docs and PbWorks as blogs and wikis. • Padlet, Canva, YouTube, Flipgrid, Kahoot, Storyboard, Bubbl.us as a few of the online tools. With the diverse technologies, I patchworked the teaching–learning spaces and promoted active collaboration and interactivity. The students had hands-on trials, encouraging engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving to help them acquire ownership of their work. The learning scenario was authentic to ensure content assimilation was sustainable. I mixed the tech-tools, worked with the content, and made the setting a teaching space and a learning space. Considering the theories of Cognitive Development and Social Learning, my formula of work ethic was governed by my purpose: I acted on intent; I foresaw what I intended to mix together (Mayer, 2003; Thompson, 2019; Toki & Pange, 2013); I planned the learning space; I responded and met the needs of space, tools, content, and students, and I provided constructive feedback and growth opportunities (Denton et al., 2020; Sabieh, 2000).

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To implement the suggested paradigm, the teacher must understand the know-­ how and plan how to mix to predict the outcome before it occurs. The educator teaches, guides, and facilitates the mix. The students acquire authentic ownership as they learn, actively, and responsibly, assimilating and creating fairy-tale success. The students’ journey of cognitive growth becomes a measured reality. Thus, the planned practice of education combines knowledge with know-how. Accountability, informed decision-making, and mixing enable the educator to make the fairytale a reality. With time, as other committed educators explore and share their experiences, the paradigm will evolve and the diverse technology tools will gain a larger manifestation in creating the answer to the learning quest. I created a virtual learning environment that ensured teaching and learning took place asynchronously and synchronously. I practiced shared learning responsibilities with the learners, put on a detective hat, and kept an active presence in their teaching–learning space. I was determined to succeed.

 he Partnership with the Technology Tools Makes Teaching T and Learning Engaging and Effective The following tools were used synchronously or asynchronously to create the virtual fairytale success. Blackboard Learn, a learning management system was used asynchronously to share content, to align information and send out announcements and email messages, to post and have assignments, assessments, discussion forums, and collaborative work, keep track of the learning through the grade book. Zoom, an audio and video conferencing platform, was used synchronously to share content during course meeting times and to chat. One other conferencing platform I used synchronously was Skype for Business, supplied as part of the Office 365 Suite, to share content, chat, and conduct polls during course times. A third tool, also an Office 365 Suite contribution, I used for audio and video conference purposes only was the learning management system, Microsoft Teams. WhatsApp Messenger, an instant messaging platform was used as a cross-platform app synchronously and asynchronously to enable communication by text, voice, and images to keep the students connected and up-to-date with any immediate announcement or the need to connect with peers or the instructor. Google Docs, a blog and wiki web-based document management system, was used synchronously and asynchronously to create, view, and edit word processing documents, sheets, slides, and forms individually or in groups, to collaborate with others, and to provide feedback. Students and the instructors worked on the Docs during class to showcase their work on the same document as they collaborated with the content, carried out the activities, and provided or received feedback during class time. They were able to share their ideas, make comments, and work on content by modifying or adding material.

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 artnering with Blackboard Learn as the Learning P Management System Blackboard Learn was used as a platform for course content. Guidance was provided to facilitate synchronous and asynchronous active learning. The content area page reflected the learning plan, the guidance, reading and resource lists, the attachments, web links, tech-tool integration, as well as the tasks, assignments, assessments, and grading process (see Fig. 23.2). When I wanted to make an announcement during the course, I selected the announcement button from the course tools and typed the topic in the subject line and developed the message in the allocated area. From within the announcement options, I also selected to have the announcement sent as an email message to the course participants. Keep in mind that communicating with the students continuously is an important strategy to maintain the shared learning responsibility; blackboard features facilitated such outreach. Figure 23.3 provided a content area example of a tech-based assignment with guidance for each technology used. In part 1, the learners worked on a Discussion Forum, creating threads and enabling student collaboration by viewing and/or commenting within the dialogue. It is important to interact and engage with their peers. The students read their peers’ contribution and participate in feedback to better assimilate the course content. In part 2, the learners used Google Docs to plan and align lesson plan with the learning theories, then, uploaded the work file on

Fig. 23.2  An example of content shared on Blackboard learn

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Fig. 23.3  A tech-based assignment on Blackboard

Fig. 23.4  SafeAssign options for assignment submission

SafeAssign. The SafeAssign link was created through the Assignment page. SafeAssign is a plagiarism prevention tool that allows the teacher and the students to check the originality of the homework submission. Figure 23.4 showed the SafeAssign options I considered for the assignment: Grade allocation, review attempts, and plagiarism checking. The Blackboard Grade Center enables the instructor to view the progress of the coursework. When the

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assignment is uploaded on SafeAssign, the Grade Center indicates the submission symbol for evaluation or grading. Learning management systems have a lot to offer educators when planning course development. Given the richness of Blackboard Learn, the teacher needs to explore the platform and customize learning spaces to provide a mix in tech-tools to deepen learning authenticity.

 artnering with Zoom and Skype for Business as an Audio P and Video Conferencing Platform Zoom and Skype for Business were synchronously used for audio and video conferencing to share content, chat, and meet. To initiate joining the conference platform, an invitation for Zoom, Skype for Business, or Microsoft Teams was sent to the students. Once accepted, the link appeared on the tech-supported calendar as a reminder of the event and platform access shortcut. To facilitate course access, I also added the conference platform link to the Blackboard Learn Control panel and the course WhatsApp Messenger group as two other outreach options for the students. Challenged by electricity, connectivity, broadband width, and speed, the digital divide forced many of the participants to only use audio collaboration during synchronous meetings. The platform would identify the name of the participant. For many, the connectivity issues continued to create havoc when trying to join the virtual platforms and so, it was common practice to join the online session 15–25 min prior to the set meeting time. Active learning takes place throughout the meeting. Diverse tools were used, and content was uploaded or shared on the platform to promote a teaching ambiance for engagement and collaborative discussion. Options included sharing content information on Microsoft PowerPoint presentations or from websites and e-material for discussion and task-building exercises on Google Docs (See Fig.  23.5). When needed, the option to plan Breakout Rooms for the students to work in small groups to further discuss ideas and/or collaborate on tasks was also utilized. Participants also accessed the chat function on the platform to further contribute to the conversation. A popular feature that many educators use on virtual platforms is polling. Polls are often used for content warm-up or lesson closure, comprehension purposes, quick assessment or evaluation check on student engagement, and/or attendance. I often conducted a poll during a course session to measure engagement and account for actual student presence online. Audio and video conference platforms are effective synchronous communication channels that allow the educator to plan the environment to reflect the setting of a classroom. Supporting the planned activities with diverse technology provided the successful mix to empower the learning dynamics. I created diversified technology-­ based channels of scenarios to connect with my students. Determined and

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Fig. 23.5  Virtual platform options for content upload on Skype for business

optimistic, I took on the challenges of Lebanon’s digital divide and struggled to make the success happen with more outreach mediums. I also used WhatsApp messenger to maintain student contact, with wiki and blog interactivity, and with diverse online tools. I bombarded the learners ceaselessly, varying the mixing and matching formula to give to entice them to engage in real-life learning, in course content, with the peers, and with the course goals. I planned for authentic learning to happen through practice and fun on the virtual conference platforms and with tech-tools.

 artnering with WhatsApp Messenger as an Instant P Messaging Platform When students feel they have a connection with their peers and the instructor, there is a success. Netiquette is often ignored when the platform space is WhatsApp connectivity. Given that the time frame of WhatsApp communication is 24/7, many students often forget time or language decorum when they message. The question or content they post might be communicated inappropriately on the platform. Moreover, they expect the response to be immediate. Little thought is given as to whether a respondent is away, busy, or asleep. I often faced this dilemma; however, I reacted and responded according to the nature of the communiqué, the urgency of the message, and the emotional well-­ being of the student. I am well aware of the challenges within the country and know the students, just like the educators, are under pressure to sustain positivity and wellness. So, for the magic to happen in the education context, the educators must consider the learners’ emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and social wellness. I believe WhatsApp is a fertile platform to assure that such wellness is met: The feeling of connectivity promotes community belonging. The message received or delivered is considered an instant outreach. The magic happens simply because the students receiving the communication feel involved and part of a community. The

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motivation is to reciprocate and complete the intended act (Bandura, 1978). The emotional tie, accompanying the communiqué, gives way to enhance the work contribution and stimulates the effort to perform and complete the act. I used text, voice, emoticons, and images on WhatsApp Messenger, as a synchronous and asynchronous instant messaging platform, to connect within the various student communities. I also sent content material in the form of text dialogue, picture image, link, or attachment. Most of the time, students’ messages were positive, informative, asking for a request or sharing content related to the course or tasks. However, many of the messages were also complaints or negative comments about course issues or infrastructure problems. My observation was that the instant message always proved to have a positive effect on the students even when the message was negative. The answers were always perceived as an appeal to help the students move forward; I tolerated the outreach, irrespective of tone or language. At times, I would send back a topic-­related joke or poster to foster positive energy and diffuse the stress. Keep in mind that connectivity is central to maintaining the feeling of belonging, and the informal space is an effective and important addition to the collaborative mission of fairytale success. Google Docs is another tech-tool that proved as successful and as effective as WhatsApp.

Partnering with Google Docs as a Wiki for Course Collaboration Google Docs as a wiki was used synchronously or asynchronously to engage students in collaborative coursework as a whole class, as a group, and/or as individuals. The planned activities dictated whether the students worked on the wiki as editors, commentators, or viewers. The identities of the students were revealed as they typed or commented on the documents; they paced their growth and contributed accordingly. Engaged, the students were able to work together, add comments, and complete tasks. Two other effective ways I used the wiki were to account for course engagement and attendance as well as to observe students’ understanding and assimilation of course content. I highly recommend using wikis when planning collaborative learning opportunities. Similar features exist in the other Google Docs—the Forms, Slides, and Sheets. Teachers can plan to use the wikis based on their planned activities. For years, the education community has been using the Microsoft Office tools to plan learning. A few more online tools I have used successfully with students to promote knowledge acquisition include Padlet and Kahoot for content summary, sharing, assessment, fun, and motivation; Bubble.it for organization and planning; You Tube for content, resources, and skill development; and Canva to design and transfer knowledge into poster-like visuals to share information. The tools are out there for educators to explore. It is essential to patchwork digital tools into the paradigm as long as the educator provides guidance for students to practice and operational alignment to learning outcomes.

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Conclusion I shared the tools to show how powerful the patchwork paradigm was and how digital tools may be used to create effective partnerships to promote active and innovative teaching and learning environments. The learning should reflect the students’ journey to ensure teaching accountability, guidance, and sustainable real-life learning. The endeavors remain alive amidst Lebanon’s crisis and digital divide. However, with the educator as the pivot to sustain and define the future of education, the suggested paradigm will succeed. No matter what the challenges were—global or unique to Lebanon—I was able to explore and experiment to create the magic and ensure the fairytale outcome was a success. For me, the conclusion is simple. The technology-based teaching and learning space become a reality when there is authentic ownership of knowledge. Determination, ambition, learnt know-how, and creative mixing of digital tools and activities make the practice of teaching and learning transpire. I was determined to find a solution: my patchwork tech-based education paradigm may be used in any teaching–learning virtual capacity when it is the educator’s intention to move the learners forward through partnering with the tech-tools. This chapter has exposed the challenges of today’s teaching world, but it shared the hopes and needs of Lebanon and any threatened education setting worldwide, and it explored a teaching–learning formula to make the fairytale success happen. I described how the educator, braved by an endeavor, holds the key to guarantee the mixed know-how. With pedagogy in mind, and aware of limited physical boundaries of functionality, I partnered with the technology tools to make virtual teaching and learning engaging, effective, and conceivable. I intend to continue to explore and expand my patchwork by adding more technology to the pool of tools. With other educators, the journey of continued growth towards best practices will redefine the twenty-first-century stakeholders to partner with the technology to enrich the patchwork paradigm. The COVID-19 pandemic has been ongoing for over five semesters now; I continue to work in emergency education settings and patchwork the teaching and learning spaces with technology partnership and offer quality education and best practices. The paradigm described in this chapter could be implemented, modified, and/or adapted for different contexts.

References Bandura, A. (1978). The self-system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33(4), 344–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-­066X.33.4.344 Bhandari, S. (2019, May 10). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: The millennial perspective. YourStory Media. https://yourstory.com/mystory/maslows-­hierarchy-­of-­needs-­redefined-­for-­ millenial/amp

23  Sustaining Presence: Partnering with Technology During the COVID-19 Pandemic… 363 Denton, C., Muis, K., Munzar, B., & Etoubashi, N. (2020). Putting self-regulated learning and metacognition into multiple representations and perspectives. In P.  Van Meter, A.  List, D. Lombardi, & P. Kendeou (Eds.), Handbook of learning from multiple representations and perspectives (1st ed., pp. 314–328). Routledge. Kunc, N. (1992). The need to belong: Rediscovering Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In R. A. Villa, J.  S. Thousand, W.  Stainback, & S.  Stainback (Eds.), Restructuring for caring and effective education: An administrative guide to creating heterogeneous schools (pp. 25–39). Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Lierman, A., & Santiago, A. (2019). Developing online instruction according to best practices. Journal of Information Literacy, 13(2), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.11645/13.2.2649 Malbon, B. (2015, May 1). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 2.0. https://twitter.com/Malbonnington/ status/594229982668464129/photo/1 Mayer, R. E. (2003). Theories of learning and their application to technology. In H. F. O’Neil Jr. & R. S. Perez (Eds.), Technology applications in education: A learning view (pp. 127–157). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Patchwork. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved November 15, 2021, from https://www.merriam-­webster.com/dictionary/patchwork Montag, C., Sindermann, C., Lester, D., & Davis, K. L. (2020). Linking individual differences in satisfaction with each of Maslow’s needs to the Big Five personality traits and Panksepp’s primary emotional systems. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7387820/ Pigozzi, M. (1999). Education in emergencies and for reconstruction: A developmental approach. UNICEF. Relief Web. (2020, May 28). Lebanon  – Education sector short-term response to COVID-19, guiding framework. OCHA. https://reliefweb.int/reporT&Lebanon/ lebanon-­education-­sector-­short-­term-­response-­covid-­19-­guiding-­framework Sabieh, C. (2000). The psychology of learning and the use of the computer: A practical solution. In H. E. Klein (Ed.), Creative international teaching: Case method and other techniques (pp. 231–245). WACRA. ED 451135. Sinclair, M. (2001). Education in emergencies. In J. Crisp, C. Talbot, & D. B. Cipollone (Eds.), Learning for a future: Refugee education in developing countries (pp.  11–93). UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). https://www.refworld.org/docid/51e91de94.html The World Bank. (2021, January 22). Urgent, effective action required to quell the impact of covid-19 on education worldwide. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-­story/ 2021/01/22/urgent-­effective-­action-­required-­to-­quell-­the-­impact-­of-­covid-­19-­on-­education-­ worldwide Thompson, P. (2019). Foundations of educational psychology. Oklahoma State University Libraries. https://doi.org/10.22488/okstate.19.000002 Toki, E. I., & Pange, J. (2013). Social learning theories as tools for learning in an ICT educational system. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education, 3(1), 53–55. http://www.tojned.net/ pdf/v03i01/v03i01-­07.pdf UNHCR. (1999). Handbook for emergencies (2nd ed.). UNHCR. Christine Sabieh is Full Professor at Notre Dame University, administers, and teaches and does teacher-training on teaching, learning, assessment, and/or technology partnership. She is interested in creating technology-enhanced-learning spaces, instruction, development, and assessment. Christine is an advocate of CALL and a certified on-line instructor/trainer. Christine consults, tutors, conducts workshops, and publishes nationally and internationally. Active in TESOL and its affiliates, Christine was TESOL CALL-IS chair 2019–20.  

Part V

Future of Professional Development

Chapter 24

Moving Beyond Web Conferencing Tools: ESL Professional Development Workshops in Virtual Reality Platforms Amany Alkhayat

Abstract Many educational institutions quickly shifted to remote learning in response to the spread of COVID-19. Consequently, professional development webinars in institutions of higher education and Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) affiliates were in full swing to equip educators with technological and pedagogical tools to prepare them for the new normal. Video-­ conferencing tools were incorporated into e-learning classrooms to cater to learners’ needs and to ensure that learning objectives were being met. Simultaneously, disruptive technologies such as virtual reality (VR) saw an uptick in use during the pandemic (Rach and Scott, A virtual reality check: Covid-19 & the challenges facing virtual reality as an off-the-shelf mainstream EdTech solution. In Fuzzy systems and data mining VI.  IOS Press, pp  201–209, 2020). VR provides more powerful tools and interactive environments for language learners than web-conferencing tools, which may result in fatigue (Wiederhold, Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw, 23(7), 437–438, 2020; Williams, Occup Med, 71(3), 164–164, 2021), lack of effective collaboration (Layali and Al-Shlowiy, Indones EFL J, 6(2), 97–108, 2020), limited engagement, lack of active participation (Chou, From simple chat to virtual reality: formative evaluation of synchronous communication systems for online learning. In WebNet world conference on the WWW and internet. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), pp  225–230, 1999), and limited interaction among peers. Moreover, the transmissive nature of web-­ conferencing tools negatively impacts students’ practice of productive skills, such as speaking confidently (Bower, A framework for adaptive learning design in a web-­ conferencing environment. In Learning design. Routledge, pp  235–267, 2015; Fuentes Hernández and Flórez, Linguist Lit Rev, 6(2), 157–171, 2020). This chapter focuses on VR professional development webinars offered by the New York State TESOL Technology Enhanced Language Learning Special Interest Group (NYS TESOL TELL SIG). It highlights how VR can be a powerful medium for enhancing A. Alkhayat (*) Columbia University, Teachers College, New York, NY, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_24

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teacher–student and student–student interaction (Symonenko et al., Virtual reality in foreign language training at higher educational institutions. Retrieved from http:// ds.knu.edu.ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2197/1/Virtual%20reality%20in%20foreign%20language%20training%20at%20higher%20educational%20institutions. pdf, 2020). VR platforms used in professional development webinars are introduced and their potential for facilitating interaction, autonomous learning, and fostering complex cognitive skills is discussed (Lege et al., Pedagogical considerations for successful implementation of virtual reality in the language classroom. In New technological applications for foreign and second language learning and teaching. IGI Global, pp 24–46, 2020). Finally, the chapter addresses VR from the perspectives of Computer Assisted Language Learning and pedagogy. Keywords  Virtual reality · CALL · Engagement · Web-conferencing

Introduction The spread of COVID-19 in 2020 forced many colleges and universities across the globe to switch from in-person learning to distance or hybrid learning. This resulted in teachers using different teaching methods and changing assessment methods (Orlov et  al., 2020). Numerous institutions of higher education started preparing their faculty to teach online using web-conferencing tools such as Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, and others. The majority of language instructors found themselves having to learn, unlearn, or relearn different technology tools to make their classrooms more engaging. In a short amount of time, teachers had to get ready for the new normal. This meant interacting with students with different mental models and learning preferences using available online tools. COVID-19 lockdowns had negative impacts on students, especially in terms of stress and anxiety (Wang et al., 2020) and affected their motivation and engagement in virtual classrooms (Murphy et  al., 2020). Although English as a Second Language (ESL) faculty are usually provided with the necessary professional development online training, research shows that many of them were not aware of online education best practices (Baggaley, 2020). As for ESL students, a more engaging methodology and an interactive medium that inhibits the affective filter and compensates for the lack of physical interaction are crucial (Rippé et al., 2021). The problem was not just using online tools to teach but using best practices for efficient classroom teaching to reduce the cognitive load of less proficient students and engage them in second-language activities remotely. The problem for language instructors was twofold: learning best practices in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) to be able to interact with students online and learning how to engage students with different needs and proficiency levels. The New  York State Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Technology-Enhanced Language Learning Special Interest Group (NYS TESOL

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TELL SIG) was founded in 2019, before the pandemic began. One of its goals was to host professional development sessions in which education technology practitioners and TESOL educators could share knowledge regarding teaching methods; theories of second-language learning; and instructional technology for delivering effective, efficient, learnable, and memorable teaching experiences. The NYS TESOL TELL SIG aimed to (a) promote the integration of technology into the classroom while applying second-language learning theories and pedagogies; (b) educate TESOL practitioners on the best pedagogical frameworks for integrating technology into language learning; (c) share knowledge about best instructional practices that make use of technology in the ESL classroom; (d) support innovative teaching methods and best practices; (e) introduce emerging technologies and related pedagogies and understand challenges in terms of pedagogy, content, and technology; and finally (f) empower teachers to make informed decisions about what technology tool to use and how and why. NYS TESOL TELL SIG training sessions focused on different training approaches, pedagogical frameworks, and emerging technologies to give teachers a myriad of skills, options, and spaces to discuss what worked in meeting the needs of their students. The focus of the sessions was various learner-centered approaches in which constructivism, sociocultural theory, the role of interaction in CALL, the theory of transactional distance, and communicative language teaching (CLT) were used to explicate the teacher–student relationship. Some sessions that focused on virtual worlds (VWs) and virtual reality (VR) initially took place over Zoom but gradually came to be hosted in VWs and on VR platforms, unraveling many false assumptions and barriers that teachers previously had.

Challenges in Professional Development on CALL Teachers’ understanding of how to implement CALL in the classroom is vital to their being able to make informed decisions on both applying CALL and integrating it into the classroom (Hubbard, 2008; Lee, 2000). Zhao and Cziko (2001, p. 5) concurred that “relatively few teachers use technology regularly in their teaching and the impact of computers on existing curricula is still very limited.” Many teachers are not adequately prepared to use CALL in the classroom or make informed decisions about the use of technology in different settings (Son, 2017). This is because they encounter certain barriers in terms of technical and theoretical knowledge, acceptance of technology, financial constraints (Lee, 2000), assumptions about certain CALL applications and fear of the unknown (Georgina & Hosford, 2009; Wang et  al., 2014), and lack of confidence in applying technology (Georgina & Hosford, 2009).

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Theory and Practice Research on professional development has highlighted the importance of defining teachers’ goals in the classroom using theoretical and pedagogical frameworks. Powers et al.’s (2011) perceptual control theory has been used to explain how teachers can infuse technology into the classroom. Zhao and Cziko (2001, p. 9) explained the applicability of the theory to teacher training as follows: “Human beings, and all other living organisms control perceptual input, or reference condition, not motor output.” Once humans control their perception through behavior, they can attain their desired result (Taylor, 1999). Other researchers have used the theory of transactional distance to examine the relationship between teachers and students in online classrooms (Moore & Keegan, 1993; Themelis & Sime, 2020). The concept of transaction among teacher, student, and environment focuses on distance as a pedagogical concept that shapes the interaction between teachers and learners in an online learning environment (Themelis & Sime, 2020). The idea of transaction was originally derived from Dewey in his theory of knowledge (Dewey & Bentley, 1960). For Dewey transaction means: where systems of description and naming are employed to deal with aspects and phases of action, without final attribution to “elements” or other presumptively detachable or independent “entities,” “essences,” or “realities,” and without isolation of presumptively detachable “relations” from such detachable “elements.” (Dewey & Bentley, 1960, p. 133)

Moore and Keegan (1993) developed the concept for distance education and explained transactional distance among teachers, students, and the environment as entailing different forms of interaction that involve physical separation. This separation is conducive to birthing “special patterns of learner and teacher behaviours” (Moore & Keegan, 1993, p. 22). The main elements of transactional distance are dialogue, structure, and learner autonomy. Therefore, whether it is a web-­ conferencing tool or a VR platform, the medium being used determines the nature of effective dialogue between teacher and student and whether transactional distance is reduced or not (Themelis & Sime, 2020). Furthermore, structure refers to the language program and how the course content, objectives, and teacher–student dialogue are maximized to meet students’ needs and to enhance their autonomous learning (Moore & Keegan, 1993). When teaching a second language, for instance, teachers are expected to be able “to analyze and adapt their teaching to particular students in particular social, cultural, and political contexts” (Liu, 2015, pp. 136–137). This becomes more challenging when teaching students who are linguistically, culturally, ethnically different. Therefore, integrating media that are engaging and culturally responsive can be effective and empowering to teachers and, consequently, students (Chapelle, 2006). Negotiation of meaning is one of the major components of the communicative ESL classroom. Lengluan (2008) contended that how effectively meaning is negotiated depends on how appropriately the teacher uses a communicative method to create a learning environment that is interactive, engaging, and comprehensible.

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According to Hubbard and Levy (2016), negotiating meaning is a core element of the interactionist account of second-language acquisition. Like the theory of interactional distance, the interactionist account focuses on the interaction among learner, teacher, and computer. Mediation, one of the main theoretical constructs in sociocultural theory, describes how “higher forms of human mental activity are always and everywhere, mediated by symbolic means” (Lantolf, 1994, p.  418). Sociocultural theory is a theory of social activity that describes learners’ application of what they have learned in new situations through collaboration and negotiation of meaning to improve cognition (Beatty, 2013). It involves scaffolding and expanding the zone of proximal development. Hubbard and Levy (2016) argue that, according to sociocultural theory, the role of technology is not to mediate interaction but to facilitate it through different affordances that vary the interaction from one platform to another. Beatty (2013, p. 50) defined affordances and their opposite, misaffordances as follows: Affordances are the visual clues that an object gives to its use as well as what it is capable of doing in terms of both intended and unintended functions. A chair is for sitting on and the size of the seat suggests that it might be comfortable for that purpose, but the chair can also be stood upon or used as a weapon; these are other affordances. Affordances can be both obvious and learned. But an object can have both affordances and misaffordances. A misaffordance is something which distracts from an object’s intended use. A misaffordance for a chair would be design features that disguised its purpose or interfered with its central purpose of being comfortably sat upon. Misaffordances are common in software programs where, for example, flashing words or pictures distract from the purpose of reading. (Beatty, 2013, p. 50)

In contrast to the traditional view of knowledge transmission, constructivism motivates students to build on their schemata through collaboration, analysis, synthesis, and the negotiation of meaning. It involves higher order thinking skills. The constructivist model sees knowledge as a process and not as a product (Beatty, 2013; Bruner, 1966; Brown, 2007).

Communicative Language Teaching Interest in behaviorist CALL shifted to communicative CALL in the 1970s, giving rise to CLT. In CLT, authentic communication, a focus on the use of language, feedback in the target language, the negotiation of meaning, and positive feedback are seen as more effective than drills and a focus on form (Richards, 2005; Savignon, 1976; Warschauer, 1996). CLT empowers teachers as they facilitate learning “through the process of struggling to communicate” (Alamri, 2018; Finocchiaro & Brumfit, as cited in Brown, 2007, p. 49). Teachers should encourage their students to express their ideas, negotiate meaning, overcome challenges, and immerse themselves in role-play to help them interact in the target language regardless of the limitations of their communicative competence (Toro et  al., 2019). Richards (2005)

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suggested that two trends are crucial for helping teachers achieve the aim of CLT: content-based instruction and task-based instruction (TBI).

Content-Based Instruction Content-based instruction focuses on teaching content in the target language rather than on linguistic input. Content is used to generate classroom activities that connect different language skills. Content-based instruction involves interaction and collaboration among students in the target language, negotiation of meaning, and the use of language in different contexts. According to Sagliano et al. (1998), providing content-based instruction in higher education is challenging. They set some guidelines to help teachers adjust to new pedagogies. They suggested that for teaching methods to remain effective, “the appropriateness and choice of content materials, modes of delivery, and tasks must be determined and constantly assessed” (p. 44). In addition, teachers should pay attention to learners’ diverse cultural, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds. Content-based instruction involves mediation, collaboration, and interaction, which are also central to sociocultural theory (Gibbons, 2003).

Task-Based Instruction Task-based activities focus on language as linguistic input. Students make use of interactional skills and communication strategies to negotiate meaning through authentic activities that require solving problems, sharing ideas, listing and reordering, and comparing and contrasting, especially when these activities are conducted in groups (Richards, 2005; Toro et al., 2019). Ellis (2003) defined TBI as “the social communication between learners as a source of input and methods of acquisition [that] includes the negotiation of meaning, communicative strategies, and communicative effectiveness” (p. 65). Example activities in TBI include games, role-play, and simulations, which are ideal for VWs and VR platforms. Students perform better when they use their senses to experience the target language and are directly connected to materials being used to facilitate learning (Parmaxi, 2020). Moreover, Norris (2009) recommended that when using TBI teachers should perform certain activities before they start teaching, such as conducting a needs assessment, creating classroom tasks and materials, facilitating learning, evaluating students’ performance and finally evaluating all the prior steps to make informed decisions on what strategies that worked and what needs to be changed.

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 rom Web-Conferencing Tools to VR: Experiencing F Is Believing This chapter does not favor one digital tool over another but reinforces the idea that teachers should have quality professional development on diverse CALL tools so they can make informed decisions when teaching. Theories have been used to examine the relationship among learners, teachers, and the environment. When it comes to the role of technology in the language classroom, many factors come into play, such as content, pedagogy, affect, and communicative competence. All help leverage technology in the classroom. Zoom’s transmissive nature makes it more teacher-­ centered and less interactive than VWs and VR platforms, in which teachers can monitor students’ performance, motivate students, and reduce transactional distance and cognitive load. VR platforms and VWs produce more effective engagement between teachers and students and the environment as well (Parmaxi, 2020). VR platforms bring spaces and environments to the language classroom that reduce transactional distance, augment learning, improve interaction, and enhance the negotiation of meaning. These elements are profoundly centered in the pedagogical approaches and learning theories discussed in the previous sections. In line with these theories and pedagogical approaches to language learning, online professional development training webinars hosted by NYS TESOL TELL SIG, since 2019, aimed to expose teachers to a plethora of technological media that could be used to engage students in the classroom. This training gradually shifted from using web-­ conferencing tools to using VWs and VR platforms. The professional development webinars began with TESOL International Electronic Village moderators introducing participants to Second Life (https://secondlife.com) and OpenSim (http://opensimulator.org). Introductory presentations took place via Zoom to walk participants through creating their own Second Life accounts, creating avatars, moving in-world, interacting with others, and understanding different affordances and important elements, such as teleporting, sitting down, flying, standing, facial expressions, and so on. The sessions took place in different worlds, such as EduNation, the European funded program, Treasure Island, and others.

Second Life and OpenSim Second Life and OpenSim are three-dimensional virtual environments in which users create avatars, interact with others, teleport to other virtual lands, and meet other users from around the globe. To prepare teachers to understand the nature of these platforms, TELL SIG hosted online sessions where presenters showcased and evaluated 20 VWs and VR platforms (Immersive Language Language Teaching and Learning, 2020) and their usefulness for language learning where OpenSim was considered the best platform in terms of affordability, affordances, and creativity.

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Other sessions that focused on OpenSim tackled the importance of communication and communicative competence in immersive language learning and interaction in VWs, where learners meet native speakers and interact in VWs in real time.

Transmedia Storytelling and Higher Order Thinking Skills One of the most important aspects of VWs and VR is their ability to empower teachers and students to be creators and co-creators, which aligns with the highest level of Bloom’s taxonomy. With a focus on transmedia storytelling, other webinars introduced VWs such as Treasure Island in OpenSim (Stevens, 2021). The webinar stressed the importance of content mastery, collaboration, effective communication, self-directed learning, critical thinking, problem-solving, and an academic growth mindset. Similar webinars elaborated on the use of VWs and the 4 E’s framework: equity, enrichment, engagement, and empowerment. This pedagogical and instructional framework was applied to teaching and learning in virtual platforms.

Virtual Conferences in VWs Most platforms used to facilitate teaching, conference presentations, and meetings are web-conferencing tools; however, when teachers learn about alternative platforms in which engagement and interaction increase, they may then design experiences similar to those of their students. Therefore, other talks were hosted to highlight activities related to TESOL and conferences that had been held in VWs such as Second Life, OpenSim, and Minecraft, showcasing other alternative platforms and best practices in education (Stevens, 2021).

Presence and Interaction Imagine studying for the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) exam using a web-based platform with minimal interaction versus a three-­ dimensional computer-generated environment that includes multimedia and an environment that can be explored by the learner (e.g., a virtual coffee shop, an international city, a hospital, a museum). VR platforms differ from VWs in many respects. In VWs users can be in third-person view only, whereas some web-based VR platforms offer first-, second-, and/or third-person views. The availability of many VR platforms on the web has made it possible for teachers to engage their students in a plethora of engaging lessons. Some training sessions offered by NYS TESOL TELL SIG included Mozilla Hubs (https://hubs.mozilla.com/) showcasing Lingospaces Cinema a VR platform created by Gold Lotus ­(https://www.goldlotus.

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co) for students to practice for the IELTS exam. Mozilla Hubs is an open-source social VR collaboration platform. Users can create their own spaces and collaborate with others. One of the interesting features of Mozilla Hubs is that it is accessible via browsers such as Chrome or Firefox or via head-mounted displays such as Oculus. It is also free to use. This makes it possible for teachers to design interactive classes in which students can practice language through role-play and project-based learning. Another feature of Mozilla Hubs is spatial audio, which means if you are close to people, you can hear them, and if you are far away you cannot. This can mimic real-life scenarios in which teachers put students in groups and monitor their performance, instead of putting them in breakout rooms in Zoom or Google Meet without actually observing them. Moreover, students do not need to download Mozilla Hubs: Teachers can send a link to students, and students can access it from their smartphones or desktop browsers without the need for a VR headset. Teachers can also create their virtual worlds using Spoke, a three-dimensional editor that enables users to create their own VR spaces and upload them to Mozilla Hubs. The audience members attended a VR scene to teach IELTS and were able to interact with one another in VR.

Decision Making in the Classroom It is important that teachers engaged in TBI to evaluate technology tools before creating classroom materials. Otherwise, students’ experiences will be far from educational, and the lesson objectives will not be met. Webinars that tackled decision-­making in the classroom explored VR as a medium that is useful for language learning provided that the purpose of the VR lesson is clear, and the lesson is structured properly.

Innovation VR offers innovative opportunities for language learning that can result in more effective teaching and learning compared to traditional methods and pedagogies. TELL SIG webinars emphasized interaction and experiential learning when utilizing VR in the ESL classroom by highlighting examples of VWs across VR platforms, providing tips for developing platforms and Unity designs, discussing the design of user experiences for experiential language learning, as well as describing research on the use of immersive technology for language learning.

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Vocabulary Retention Cued recall is a technique used in VR that helps students retrieve information by giving them hints while they are playing a game. “The Vocabulary Palace” was a webinar provided by Educators in VR Vlanguages team (https://educatorsinvr.com) on a VR world in Mozilla Hubs where Anki cards were created to teach students vocabulary and gave them a number of chances to guess the secret word until the right word was revealed. This activity activates spatial memory and vocabulary retention.

Conclusion Although the pandemic caused many schools to close, it also motivated many teachers to pursue teacher training in order to support students during challenging times. To address the challenges that teachers encounter in catering to the needs of second language learners and engaging them in meaningful learning, webinars provided during the pandemic provided an excellent opportunity for teachers to learn more about innovative approaches, such as the use of virtual reality and virtual worlds in the second language classroom. Nevertheless, providing training and professional development workshops to teachers is not an easy task. Just as teachers should identify their students’ needs, teacher trainers should identify trainees’ needs and their university’s requirements, which will differ from one trainee to another. Initially, teachers approached by NYS TESOL TELL SIG did not show interest in attending webinars in VWs, let alone VR, for many reasons, including assumptions about themselves, university requirements, or lack of confidence using such types of technology in the classroom. Yet when webinars were offered gradually, during the pandemic, to NYS TESOL TELL SIG attendees, and presenters started showing them the pedagogical benefits of using VWs and VR, they saw the potential in these platforms. Teachers who were able to join VWs or use VR and create avatars expressed that they were more likely to use VR because they had seen a demonstration of the platform and knew how to use its affordances. The most crucial element in a professional development workshop is making connections among new technologies, learners’ needs, second-language learning theories, and pedagogical approaches to guide teachers to understand and apply technology in new contexts.

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Parmaxi, A. (2020). Virtual reality in language learning: A systematic review and implications for research and practice. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–13. Retrieved from https://doi. org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1765392 Powers, W. T., Abbott, B., Carey, T. A., Goldstein, D. M., Mansell, W., Marken, R. S., & Taylor, M. (2011). Perceptual control theory: A model for understanding the mechanisms and phenomena of control. In W. T. Powers (Ed.), Perceptual Control Theory: Science & Applications: A Book of Readings (pp. 18–34) Retrieved from http://www.pctweb.org/PCTunderstanding-­2.pdf Rach, M., & Scott, R. (2020). A virtual reality check: Covid-19 & the challenges facing virtual reality as an off-the-shelf mainstream EdTech solution. In Fuzzy systems and data mining VI (pp. 201–209). IOS Press. Richards, J.  C. (2005). Communicative language teaching today. SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Rippé, C. B., Weisfeld-Spolter, S., Yurova, Y., & Kemp, A. (2021). Pandemic pedagogy for the new normal: Fostering perceived control during COVID-19. Journal of Marketing Education, 43(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475320987287 Sagliano, M., Stewart, T., & Sagliano, J. (1998). Professional training to develop content-based instruction in higher education. TESL Canada Journal, 36–53. https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl. v16i1.709 Savignon, S.  J. (1976). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED135245.pdf Son, J. B. (2017). Teacher training in computer-assisted language learning. In Language teacher education and technology: Approaches and practices (Vol. 1). Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Stevens, V. (2021). Virtual worlds at virtual conferences. TESL-EJ, 25(1), n1. Retrieved from https://tesl-­ej.org/pdf/ej97/int.pdf Symonenko, S., Zaitseva, N., Osadchyi, V., Osadcha, K., & Shmeltser, E. (2020). Virtual reality in foreign language training at higher educational institutions. Retrieved from http://ds.knu.edu. ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2197/1/Virtual%20reality%20in%20foreign%20language%20 training%20at%20higher%20educational%20institutions.pdf Taylor, M.  M. (1999). Editorial: Perceptual control theory and its application. International Journal of Human-Computers Studies, 50(6), 433–444. Themelis, C., & Sime, J. A. (2020). From video-conferencing to Holoportation and haptics: How emerging technologies can enhance presence in online education? In Emerging technologies and pedagogies in the curriculum (pp. 261–276). Springer. Toro, V., Camacho-Minuche, G., Pinza-Tapia, E., & Paredes, F. (2019). The use of the communicative language teaching approach to improve students’ oral skills. English Language Teaching, 12(1), 110–118. Wang, S. K., Hsu, H. Y., Campbell, T., Coster, D. C., & Longhurst, M. (2014). An investigation of middle school science teachers and students use of technology inside and outside of classrooms: Considering whether digital natives are more technology savvy than their teachers. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(6), 637–662. Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., Ho, C. S., & Ho, R. C. (2020). Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1729. Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer assisted language learning: An introduction. In S. Fotos (Ed.), Multimedia language teaching (Vol. 19, pp. 3–20). Logos International. Wiederhold, B. K. (2020). Connecting through technology during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic: Avoiding “Zoom Fatigue”. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 23(7), 437–438. Williams, N. (2021). Working through COVID-19: ‘Zoom’ gloom and ‘Zoom Fatigue’. Occupational Medicine, 71(3), 164–164. Zhao, Y., & Cziko, G.  A. (2001). Teacher adoption of technology: A perceptual control theory perspective. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 5–30.

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Amany Alkhayat is a doctoral student in the Instructional Technology and Media program at Teachers College, Columbia University. She is the founder and co-chair of the Technology Enhanced Language Learning SIG and VirtuaTELL conference at NYS TESOL, New  York, USA. Her research interests are focused on XR as a medium for language learning, immersive storytelling, and designing conversational agents for the EFL/ESL Classroom.  

Chapter 25

Transforming Teacher Professional Identity Through Social Emotional Learning: Two Narrative Case Studies Fajer M. Bin Rashed

and Eman Y. Mahmoud

Abstract  The cultural and demographic shifts that have been happening around the globe have necessitated educators to implement social-emotional learning (SEL) in today’s ever-changing classrooms. Empathy, self-awareness, awareness of others, self-regulation, and motivation are five different but equally important concepts for maintaining culturally responsive education (CRE). This chapter explores how educators can implement SEL in two academic settings through narrative. Each shared narrative is analyzed in a subsequent commentary section in light of several high leverage practices (HLPs). The chapter concludes with recommendations for sharing classroom narratives by way of teacher introspection, which has proven to be especially significant in both face-to-face and online teaching settings like the ones imposed by the Covid-19 pandemic. Keywords  Social-emotional learning (SEL) · Culturally responsive education (CRE) · Classroom narrative · High leverage practices (HLPs) · Teacher introspection

Introduction Global cultural and demographic shifts caused by people leaving their communities have made it necessary for the future of education to be more inclusive. Inclusivity can be introduced and maintained in education through employing Culturally Responsive Education (CRE). CRE equips educators with the needed tools for addressing cultural issues and responding to educational inequalities regarding gender, social class, religion, and diversity in ethnic groups (Gay, 2018; Mellom et al., 2018; Saint-Hilaire, 2014). For instance, Saint-Hilaire’s (2014) scholarship is one that “focused on the elimination of racial and social inequities, the necessity of the F. M. Bin Rashed (*) · E. Y. Mahmoud United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_25

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inclusion of culture in teaching and equal opportunity for all students” (p. 595). It is significant to note that such reform initiatives have always attempted to represent multicultural perspectives in the curriculum, which are necessary for maintaining educational equality and cultural inclusivity. However, achieving culturally responsive education should capitalize on students’ cultural and linguistic repertoires (Mellom et al., 2018) and create a space for social and emotional interventions. Yet, making online contingency arrangements in the advent of unforeseen circumstances, such as the Covid-19 outbreak, makes it challenging for educators to implement Social-emotional Learning (SEL) interventions behind a computer screen. Although the shared narratives in this chapter date back to pre-Covid-19 times, the authors acknowledge the necessity to reflect on the challenges that have been imposed on the education sector by the pandemic. Thus, more emphasis should be given to incorporating inclusivity in online and offline classes through CRE and SEL SELinterventions.

Sustaining Culturally Responsive SEL Like CRE, which necessitates developing teachers’ knowledge and skills to create an inclusive environment where diverse racial, ethnic, social, and linguistic backgrounds are celebrated, SEL caters to the diversity among learners inside and outside the classroom. The SEL framework consists of self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, relationship management, and responsible decision-making (Neimi, 2020). SEL interventions are diverse, with most of them supporting young people and adults in developing healthy identities, regulating emotions, sustaining positive and supportive relationships, and practicing responsible decision making (Collaborative for Academic & Social Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2016). CASEL’s recent SEL definition sustains that social and emotional learning is fundamental to education and human development (Neimi, 2020). The term “culturally responsive SEL,” according to McCallops et al. (2019, p. 12), best describes the overlapping nature of CRE and SEL, which assists students in navigating their emotions about diverse cultural issues (McCallops et al., 2019). Culturally responsive SEL incorporates instruction that utilizes students’ lived experiences and frames of reference to reinforce and teach SEL competencies (Barnes & McCallops, 2019; McCallops et  al., 2019). Following CASEL’s aforementioned framework, Reicher (2010) organizes key person-centered-approach SEL competencies into five groups: “self-awareness, social awareness, responsible decision-making, self-management and relationship management experience” (p.  214). Similarly, McCallops et  al. (2019) shed light on a framework that incorporates empathy, self-awareness, awareness of others, self-regulation, and motivation as five SEL concepts, argued to facilitate delivering culturally responsive instruction. The categorization of SEL concepts in Reicher (2010) and McCallops et al. (2019) echo Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) emotional intelligence framework, which examines the influence of emotional intelligence on thought. The framework includes a set of skills necessary for appraising

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and expressing emotions in oneself and others, including empathy and regulating and utilizing emotions. In addition, the framework refers in part to the ability to recognize emotions for reasoning and problem-solving purposes. Similarly, Mayer et al. (2011) explain that emotional intelligence encompasses four categories of emotional abilities: “perception and expression of emotion, assimilating emotion in thought, understanding and analyzing emotion, and reflective regulation of emotion” (p.  532). In light of this, Mayer et al. (2011) posit, The contemporary view that emotions convey information about relationships suggests that emotions and intelligence can work hand in hand. Emotions reflect relationships between a person and a friend, a family, the situation, a society, or more internally, between a person and a reflection or memory. (p. 531)

Emotional intelligence is an essential part of self-awareness and awareness of others because it includes understanding self-emotions and managing them, which leads to understanding others’ emotions.

Defining SEL Concepts A number of SEL frameworks are put forth to emphasize the significance of understanding and managing self-emotions, maintaining respectful personal and social relationships, and showing empathy towards others. Empathy is vital for taking on the perspective(s) of students. Empathy is described as teachers’ feelings for students, understanding their perspectives, and adequately responding to their needs (McAllister & Irvine, 2000; McCallops et  al., 2019; Mirra, 2018). Mirra (2018) states, “Empathy is considered a crucial part of emotional intelligence because it is a hypothesized causal relationship between cognition and action” (p. 4). In addition to empathy, self-awareness refers to reflecting on one’s biases through journaling (McCallops et al., 2019, p. 12). It implies one’s awareness of their (implicit) bias(es) and cultural points of reference (Hammond, 2015; McCallops et al., 2019). Reicher (2010) defines self-awareness as identifying one’s thoughts and emotions and recognizing their influence on choices and actions. Moreover, awareness of others denotes one’s appreciation of others’ cultural backgrounds and emotional states (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; McCallops et al., 2019). Within the school context, it denotes teachers’ appreciation of students’ cultural backgrounds and emotional well-being (McCallops et al., 2019). Awareness of others is referred to as social awareness, defined as “understanding the needs and feelings of others, respecting their rights and appreciating similarities and differences among individuals and groups” (Reicher, 2010, p. 214). Furthermore, self-­regulation requires teachers to modify their cultural perceptions and biases about students. Sutton et al. (2009) explain that self-regulation refers to the facilitator’s attempts to alter their cognitive processes, action tendencies, expression of emotions, cultural perceptions, and biases. McCallops et al. (2019) explain that engaging in intercultural and/or emotion-filled interactions can build self-regulation. Finally, through

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motivation, teachers can direct their interest to fully participate in discussions about students’ emotions, including culturally different ones (McCallops et al., 2019). For the sake of this chapter, McCallops et al.’s (2019) framework incorporating empathy, self-awareness, awareness of others, self-regulation, and motivation will be represented in the authors’ narratives. McCallops et  al. (2019) discuss their SEL concepts in light of intervention, which necessitates the navigation of cultural conflicts in school and at home. SEL interventions assist in equipping students with the necessary means and information to recognize and manage emotions and achieve empathetic thinking (Barnes & McCallops, 2019). Barnes and McCallops (2019) explain, “Within school settings, school personnel (i.e., educators) are likely to fill the role of intervention implementers and/or supporters and, thus, are vital to the success of student’s social, emotional learning” (p.  71). They further argue that educators require support in overcoming the challenges they might face in implementing SEL interventions. Nevertheless, it is vital to stress that educators must also engage in emotion recognition and management. Therefore, SEL interventions are vital for supporting teachers’ professional development.

High-Leverage Practices High-leverage practices (HLPs) serve in various fields of academic, social, emotional, and behavioral skills. School teachers often bring their HLP knowledge to collaborate with relevant professionals and parents (McLeskey et  al., 2017). Moreover, although HLPs are generally divided into assessment, instruction, collaboration, and social–emotional–behavioral practices, these different areas overlap in some cases (McLeskey et  al., 2017). Collectively, there are twenty-two high-­ leverage practices, as stated by McLeskey et al. (2017), numbered under four HLP categories: HLPs 1–3 under collaboration, HLPs 4–6 under assessment, HLPs 7–10 under social–emotional–behavioral practices, and HLPs 11–22 under instruction. Although HLPs are considered special educational techniques, as they cater to differently abled students inside and outside the classroom, we argue that they are equally essential for all students, including all levels of education, whether they are differently abled or not. This is because all students deserve equitable opportunities for expressing and managing their emotions and using their emotions for problem-­ solving purposes.

Author Narratives Human experience can be examined through story. Nunan and Choi (2011) use the word voice to refer to “the centrality of the human story to qualitative research in terms of what the story is and how the story is told” (Nunan & Choi, 2011, p. 222).

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Strategies of telling stories revolve around “concepts of collaboration, reflexivity, personal narratives, storytelling, autoethnography, and writing life histories,” which have existed for several decades (Nunan & Choi, 2010, p.  2). Similarly, Bruner (2008) explains that narratives are regarded as one of the most powerful means for internalizing and realizing deviations from shared ordinariness. By the same token, Mirza (2016) posits that a narrative is, a form that provides a frame for testing and reflecting on the implications of identity changes in a secure way; is a shared, cultural form that allows ruptures in one’s life trajectory to be structured and given meaning; may support the elaboration of emotions and provide a sense of continuity. (p. 427)

Since reflective journaling is argued to be vital for building self-awareness (McCallops et al., 2019), we believe that reflecting on one’s identity can be securely done by employing it. This chapter explores our engagement in SEL interventions through narrative by shedding light on our experiences with self-awareness, self-­ regulation, awareness of others, empathy, and motivation. The epiphany entitled Was I Good Enough? is narrated by the first author, in which she attempts to reflect on and manage her personal biases through self-awareness and self-regulation. Moreover, the epiphany entitled She is a Hopeless Case! is narrated by the second author, in which she attempts to support her student’s emotional state through implementing empathy, awareness of others, and motivation. Both narratives are followed by commentaries that link our reflections to relevant SEL concepts and several HLPs.

Was I Good Enough? The first author wrote the following epiphany from the stance of an educator that continuously aspires to be more culturally inclusive in her pedagogical practice. What is a culturally relevant topic? It is a question that I often asked myself while looking for supplementary material to teach in class. For as long as I can remember, I always rationalized my final selection of topics by believing that the closer the topics were to ‘home,’ the more ‘culturally relevant’ they were. Home, in this theorization, always meant Kuwait. But why wouldn’t it be Kuwait? Since the college was based in Kuwait, most of the students were Kuwaiti, and the teacher herself was Kuwaiti? I remember feeling proud and satisfied after assigning a reading, a speaking, or a writing task about using renewable energy sources in Kuwait. I always was sure that similar contextualized topics would motivate my students to learn. In such lessons, I would ask questions like what is the future of fossil fuels in Kuwait? What type of renewable energy could replace them? Do you think Kuwait is ready to switch from using fossil fuels to using green energy? After which, I would automatically expect all students to participate in discussions about the country where they resided, regardless of their diverse cultural backgrounds and citizenship. Today, I cannot help but wonder if my version of culturally relevant teaching was enough for maintaining culturally responsive education.

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In one of my co-ed speaking classes, I wrote the statement women belong in the kitchen on the whiteboard as a discussion topic. By discussing the statement, I hoped my students could practice discussion skills such as agreeing, disagreeing, clarifying, asking for clarification, compensating, etc. More importantly, I expected they would all disagree with the statement. I remember agonizingly resisting the urge to frown upon hearing a male student say: “Yes, they must learn how to cook,” “cooking is their job,” or “women don’t need to work. They can receive a salary from the government by simply staying home.” As a feminist, who calls for gender equality, I always felt committed to setting an example of a hardworking, independent, and broadminded person for all my students, regardless of their gender. This constantly pushed me to be vocal about gender roles in society. Nevertheless, my reaction to male and female students’ responses surprisingly, or perhaps not so surprisingly, differed. I remember not being able to resist displaying my disappointment, especially when a female student once said, “I’d rather stay home than deal with hard-headed managers in the future.” I would instantly interrupt the discussion by asking follow-up questions like, “Why?” “Don’t you think women can be resilient?” “How would you feel if your daughter said the same thing?” Eventually, most of my students would change their answers upon seeing my reactions. I cannot help but retrospectively ponder if some of my students’ stances were (un)consciously programmed to please their feminist teacher. As a teacher, I often removed myself from class discussions as much as possible, but my (implicit) biases would unconsciously not let me do so in certain situations, especially with female students. I was not consciously aware of this back then. Therefore, I raise the following questions: Is it natural for teachers to allow their biases to surface in class? If so, to what extent should those biases be shared and regulated? If not, how do we eliminate them? Commentary In April 2020, I registered for an inclusive teaching course offered by Columbia University, in which I was tasked to reflect on my pedagogy and biases at the end of each module. At that time, my reflective responses were written from a background of teaching English as a second language at the tertiary level in Kuwait since 2007. Keeping a daily reflective journal pushed me to think if my overall positive and welcoming approach in class was enough for maintaining a culturally responsive education. Taking the course was the start of my introspective journey. In August 2020, I was tasked by one of my PhD professors at United Arab Emirates University to write an autobiographical account in light of responding to Siwatu’s (2007) Culturally Responsive and Teaching Self-Efficacy (CRTSE) and Culturally Responsive Teaching Outcome Expectancy (CRTOE) scales. Responding to Siwatu’s (2007) scales helped me reflect on my ability to recognize the significant influence of students’ cultural and environmental milieu, linguistic diversity, and social status on their learning. Although most of my students were Kuwaiti, my

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classes also included a few other students with different nationalities and cultural backgrounds, coming from Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and others. While responding to Siwatu’s scales (2007), lower numbers were allocated to statements regarding obtaining information about students’ home life. Getting such information was not an encouraged practice by the educational institution where I taught in the past. The college always approached students’ home life information with caution to protect students’ privacy. However, HLP3 encourages collaboration with families to support student learning in which “teachers should respectfully and effectively communicate considering the background, socioeconomic status, language, culture, and priorities of the family” (McLeskey et al., 2017, p. 2). Therefore, communicating with students and their families about their cultural and linguistic backgrounds is vital for their learning. Another statement within Siwatu’s scales (2007) that was also allocated lower numbers was regarding having students share their cultures’ contributions to science. Unfortunately, I was not equipped with the sufficient and necessary professional development tools for starting and maintaining multicultural discussions in class; therefore, my past teaching can be described as mainly global rather than multicultural. An example of this is discussing renewable energy sources in light of Kuwait only rather than extending it to other cultures, through which students could mention their cultures’ contributions to green energy. Furthermore, reflecting on the representation of diversity in my classes enabled me to be more aware of how my culture influenced my childhood, upbringing, and past and current career choices, which resonates with self-awareness as an SEL concept. The frames of reference that I often used in class, being social, religious, artistic, economic, or political, are formed by my Kuwaiti culture. It is a culture that holds a collective memory of my ancestors and their ties to Islam, social habits, and lifestyle. Yet, this might have led me to practice unintentional favoritism and bias when selecting what content to teach in class. When teachers fit certain students into a group, assuming that they are all the same, it is often a result of having (implicit) bias. Hammond (2015) defines implicit bias as. The unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape our responses to certain groups. Implicit bias operates involuntarily, often without one’s awareness or intentional control, which is different from explicit racism. It is important to understand that implicit bias is not just overt racism hidden on purpose. Implicit bias is not implicit racism… Even educators who have taken an explicit social justice or progressive stance have an implicit bias based on their exposure to the dominant culture’s messages and memes over a lifetime. (pp. 94–95)

In other words, unintentionally, my culture might have been presented as the standard culture in class discussions. Such unintentional favoritism and bias probably left students from different cultures feeling alienated and less valued in class. HLP13 encourages adapting curriculum tasks and materials in light of assessing individual student needs, which should help create a balance in presenting diverse cultures in class (McLeskey et al., 2017). In addition, HLP18 promotes the use of student engagement strategies “by connecting learning to students’ lives (e. g., knowing students’ academic and cultural backgrounds)” (McLeskey et  al., 2017, p.  5). Such HLPs are significant for modifying teachers’ cognitive processes,

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cultural perceptions, and biases (Sutton et al., 2009), necessary for maintaining SEL through self-regulation. Reflecting on how my culture has influenced my identity and life choices helps me understand the way my social position is assigned and negotiated based on cultural factors like race, religion, class, sex, and gender.

She Is a ‘Hopeless’ Case! The second author wrote the following epiphany regarding her SEL experience with a Special Educational Needs (SEN) student in a school, based in the UAE. “She is a ‘Hopeless’ Case!” is what I repeatedly heard about Meera (pseudonym) by many of her teachers and supervisors. The social worker verified that she has no physical or medical issues that prevented her from speaking and once told me, “Don’t push her too much; whenever I try to get words from her, she would tear up and never speak.” I tried to learn more about her from her classmates, and they confirmed, “She doesn’t speak to anyone; she is always alone!” Whenever I looked at Meera, her static situation was a concern. Although I kept wondering about the causes and possible solutions, I could not simply find a way to reach her. What would cause her to be in this state? What shall I do to help her? Shall I simply ignore her as if she does not exist? Meera was a seven grader who sat silently in class, refused to speak to anyone, and never replied to her teachers. As her English teacher, I tried to get her on task by being gentle at one time and strict at another. For example, I tried to convince her to read during a regular class, and I firmly asked her to read for a reading assessment. As a result of my insisting requests, she would finally move her lips, but her faint voice, or lack thereof, would still make her unheard. I told myself once, “It is true. She is a hopeless case! But, No, Wait! I cannot just label her as others do.” After many episodes of trying and quitting with Meera, I started to see the light at the end of the tunnel. Due to a schedule change, her class started to have an art period after my English class once a week. One day, the girls were lining up to go to the art room when I noticed that Meera was rolling some papers and holding them tightly to her chest. I looked at her, and another girl said: “Meera loves to draw. She makes nice costumes.” I only nodded then. The following week, I noticed the same roll of paper, and I just said to her, “Why don’t you show me your drawings one day?” Her reaction was just an eye blink, which I took as a positive sign, as she did not frown or freeze as usual. A week later, I stood by her when the line was ready. This time, I asked her to show me her drawings. Amazingly, she opened them in a slightly excited movement, and I started giving honest comments about her sketches: “Oh, this is a nice one; Aha; Wow, beautiful; This is ok; Oh, I may get this dress for a party.” At that moment, I looked at her face and saw her eyes glowing, and a slight smile started to form on her lips as if her features indicated her pride and happiness. The students then moved to the art room, and I felt relief that I thought all the air in that empty classroom was not enough. Finally, something worked!

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That one-sided conversation was sufficient to build a new relationship with Meera. It was like reaching a mutual agreement. From my side, I never pushed her hard to speak in class, and she welcomed bridging the gap between us. I took every opportunity to talk to her privately during the morning assembly, breaks, and class. She also started to communicate with her classmates, albeit silently, through gestures or limited words. On the other hand, according to the social worker, she improved her academic achievement slightly, although she still failed some exams, including my assigned English assessment. However, I regarded her move from the static position as a vast improvement. For example, she used to score 4–5 out of 25  in English exams, and after feeling recognized, she started scoring 9–10/25. Although the latter results did not help her pass formal assessments, it was double what she previously scored, which was definitely a considerable improvement. Meera’s emotional progress motivated her to develop her academic achievement. To illustrate, when Meera felt included socially and emotionally, she started working on her educational activities and resources better than before, which enhanced her education. Grade seven was over that year, but I was lucky to be her English teacher again for grade nine. I still remember how Meera kept smiling throughout the first period. During lessons, she started to ask for help with solving some grammar exercises, which was positively surprising. Although this usually happened privately and in a very low voice, it was still a good indication of her overall emotional and academic improvement. I also remember how surprised her classmates were when she once raised her hand to read aloud for the first time. She poorly read and was barely heard, but she tried hard. This was a tangible representation of her growing motivation, which her teacher and classmates initially nurtured, yet more came her way. To our utmost astonishment, Meera once joined a performing group of four girls to participate in a roleplay before the whole class. As soon as she finished, her classmates celebrated her relatively short act, and I tried hard to hide a happy tear. Meera left a great impression on all of us that day. Eventually, Meera’s gradual inclusion in class was a tremendous and rewarding accomplishment. Her interaction with her classmates and teachers was reflected in her improved classwork and communication. I started to see her sitting with friends during breaks and, most importantly, chatting and laughing with them. Meera eventually closed her Individual Education Plan (IEP) for her academic level, which means she has passed most of her exams. At last, she is now treated like the rest of the students. Meera always looked lovingly at me as if I did her a favor. Though, I am not sure who did the other a favor. The dark cloud finally passed, and she became more beautiful than ever. Whenever I remember Meera, I feel proud, and the thought of her happiness and success makes me feel elated. Commentary Reflecting on Meera’s story, I cannot help but question my rights and duties as a mother, a teacher, and a community member. Consequently, this reflection extends to my awareness of others, which sheds light on students in this context. For

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instance, what power do our beliefs have on our actions? What conclusions do we expect to spring out from our judgments? A judgment is never a mere statement that ends when stated; it determines our thoughts, actions, and communication with others. In other words, our attitudes can open locked doors and/or close opened ones. During my initial concerns about Meera, I kept thinking about many questions. What if Meera was perceived as helpless instead of hopeless? Wouldn’t she be treated differently if others genuinely wanted to help? What if she had a valid reason that got her into this abnormal state? What if she did not know better than that? As a matter of fact, it was unpleasant to see how some teachers dealt with Meera, or worse, did not deal with her at all. In light of Meera’s academic underachievement, she was categorized by the school as an SEN student who was allocated an IEP. This, unfortunately, convinced most of her teachers to pass and maintain judgments about her static situation and decided that they could do nothing for her since she has a “critical” case. Among many researchers, Mayer et al. (2011) reported that emotions affect thoughts and vice versa. Thus, believing that Meera is hopeless gave those teachers a fake sense of relief to overlook her emotional and social well-being and academic achievement. As stated earlier, empathy is key in implementing emotional intelligence, which requires teachers to feel for students, understand their perspectives, and respond to their needs (McAllister & Irvine, 2000; Mirra, 2018). Therefore, teachers need to make sure that they employ SEL interventions to create and maintain culturally responsive pedagogy (McCallops et al., 2019; Reicher, 2010). In addition, English teachers have a unique position to teach empathy through literature (Mirra, 2018). This mainly happened when Meera first decided to interact with the class by role-­ playing the assigned narrative poem with her group. I still doubt if I were more empathetic toward Meera because she is the same age as my son, but should teachers have reasons to be compassionate toward their students? This is a question worth pondering. Moreover, the empathy of teachers, family members, and peers influence students’ affective domain. Although family collaboration is much needed here, I had no information about Meera’s parents or caregivers because they restricted their contact with the social worker. However, Meera was lucky to be in a calm and supportive classroom, which boosted her self-confidence and achievement. For example, celebrating her success gave her the confidence and willingness to try harder. Because she had studied with the same girls for about 5 years, their support and recognition gave her pride, security, solidarity, and a sense of belonging. Likewise, having the urge to know my students better, which echoes awareness of others as an SEL concept, I realized from the social worker and personal observations that Meera was an introvert who did not suffer from any physical issues or belong to a low socioeconomic status. She was taken good care of in matters of clean and neat clothing, and she always had available learning tools and resources. In other words, she simply avoided communicating with others at first. With Meera, I kept looking for a way of communication, which happened to be her protected drawings. Unlike Meera’s other skills that were not subject to exposure to others, she felt that her sketches were good enough to be shared with a

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person whom she started to trust. As a result, Meera began a slow and positive transformation toward social interaction. It took her around 2  years to be included in classroom instruction without being labeled an SEN student. Genuine care for students becomes a necessity when practicing awareness of others. To explain, caring is essential for successful teaching, as “it does not discriminate but instead uplifts every student and assures them that teachers will seek to know, understand, teach, and not degrade them” (Williams, 2018, p. 1). More importantly, it is not enough to write HLPs in lesson plans or IEPs. They should be carefully addressed and systematically reviewed with professionals for constructive feedback and feedforward. McLeskey et  al. (2017) note, “Teachers must be flexible problem solvers who not only have expertise in using highly effective practices, but also are proficient in monitoring the effectiveness of these practices with individual students and making decisions regarding changes in practice as needed” (p. 8). For instance, HLP 1, which encourages to “collaborate with professionals to increase students’ success” (McLeskey et al., 2017, p. 17), is evident in approaching the social worker, section supervisor, and Meera’s former and current teachers to find a way to support her. Moreover, HLP 5, which is to “interpret and communicate assessment information with stakeholders to collaboratively design and implement educational programs” (McLeskey et al., 2017, p. 19), was applied by approaching the SEN coordinator and other teachers to discuss Meera’s strengths and weaknesses and modify her IEP accordingly. In addition, HLP 21, which is to “teach students to maintain and generalize new learning across time and settings” (McLeskey et al., 2017, p. 25), is presented in caring for Meera and approaching her whenever I could inside and outside the classroom. In a nutshell, each student is a unique combination of many features, so there are no hopeless students. On the other hand, helpless students should be treated with empathy and care. Through putting empathy and awareness of others in action, struggling students can be supported gradually, whether emotionally, socially, and/ or culturally. Most importantly, this should be done smartly and collaboratively. It always works when students are perceived as humans rather than numbers. After all, students are individuals who matter personally, and their learning journeys should be celebrated without passing (non)academic judgments.

Conclusion Implementing SEL in today’s classrooms is an approach that derives its importance from the ever-changing cultural and demographic shifts that have been happening around the globe. Consequently, the social, emotional, and cultural aspects of education should be recognized and supported by teachers and educational leaders. In addition, to maintain culturally responsive pedagogy, we encourage educators to implement empathy, self-awareness, awareness of others, self-regulation, and motivation in their pedagogical practices (McCallops et al., 2019). Our narratives argue for the effectiveness of utilizing high-leverage practices, which should not be

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restricted to special education or SEN cases. Opportunities for regulating and managing emotions through learning should be equitably granted to all students and teachers. Furthermore, sharing classroom narratives assists in supporting teacher introspection. Johnson and Golombek (2002) explain that it is vital for teachers to engage in self-reflection to reach transformative changes. In light of this, Johnson and Golombek (2002) write, “Inquiry into experience enables teachers to act with foresight. It gives them increased control over their thoughts and actions; grants their experiences enriched, deepened meaning; and enables them to be more thoughtful and mindful of their work” (pp. 6–7). Without a doubt, the advent of unforeseen circumstances, including the Covid-19 outbreak and its compulsory distance learning, can dramatically affect teacher-student interaction in class. Thus, it is deemed significant to explore the role of introspection and share teacher narratives during online and offline teaching and learning.

References Barnes, T. N., & McCallops, K. (2019). Perceptions of culturally responsive pedagogy in teaching sel. Journal for Multicultural Education, 13(1), 70–81. Bruner, J. (2008). Culture and mind: Their fruitful incommensurability. Ethos, 36(1), 29–45. Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning [CASEL]. (2016). What is SEL? Retrieved from http://www.casel.org/what-­is-­sel/ Gay, G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. Teachers College Press. Hammond, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Corwin Press. Johnson, K. E., & Golombek, P. R. (Eds.). (2002). Narrative inquiry as professional development. Cambridge University Press. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications. Basic Books. Mayer, J.  D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D.  R., & Cherkasskiy, L. (2011). Emotional intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & S. B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of intelligence. Cambridge University Press. McAllister, G., & Irvine, J. J. (2000). Cross cultural competency and multicultural teacher education. Review of Educational Research, 70(1), 3–24. McCallops, K., Barnes, T. N., Berte, I., Fenniman, J., Jones, I., Navon, R., & Nelson, M. (2019). Incorporating culturally responsive pedagogy within social-emotional learning interventions in urban schools: An international systematic review. International Journal of Educational Research, 94, 11–28. McLeskey, J., Council for Exceptional Children, & Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability and Reform. (2017). High-leverage practices in special education. Council for Exceptional Children. Mellom, P. J., Straubhaar, R., Balderas, C., Ariail, M., & Portes, P. R. (2018). “They come with nothing:” How professional development in a culturally responsive pedagogy shapes teacher attitudes towards Latino/a English language learners. Teaching and Teacher Education, 71, 98–107.

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Mirra, N. (2018). Educating for empathy: Literacy learning and civic engagement. Teachers College Press. Mirza, N. M. (2016). Culture, emotions and narratives in education for cultural diversity: A sociocultural approach. Psihologija, 49(4), 415–429. Neimi, K. (2020, June). CASEL is updating the most widely recognized definition of social-­ emotional learning. Here’s why. Retrieved from https://www.the74million.org/article/ niemi-­casel-­is-­updating-­the-­most-­widely-­recognized-­definition-­of-­social-­emotional-­learning-­ heres-­why/ Nunan, D., & Choi, J. (Eds.). (2010). Language and culture: Reflective narratives and emergence of identity. Routledge/Taylor and Francis-e-library. Nunan, D., & Choi, J. (2011). Shifting sands: The evolving story of “voice” in qualitative research. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. II). Routledge. Reicher, H. (2010). Building inclusive education on social and emotional learning: Challenges and perspectives – A review. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(3), 213–246. Saint-Hilaire, L. A. (2014). So, how do I teach them? Understanding multicultural education and culturally relevant pedagogy. Reflective Practice, 15(5), 592–592. Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185–211. Siwatu, K.  O. (2007). Preservice teachers’ culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy and outcome expectancy beliefs. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1086–1101. Sutton, R.  E., Mudrey-Camino, R., & Knight, C.  C. (2009). Teachers’ emotion regulation and classroom management. Theory Into Practice, 48(2), 130–137. Williams, T. M. (2018). Do no harm: Strategies for culturally relevant caring in middle level classrooms from the community experiences and life histories of black middle level teachers. RMLE Online, 41(6), 1–13. Fajer M. Bin Rashed has 13 years of teaching experience at the tertiary level in Kuwait. She is a published researcher and a PhD candidate at United Arab Emirates University, specializing in language and literacy studies. She previously served as a TESOL Kuwait Board member and is currently a reviewer for Springer Nature Social Sciences.  

Eman Y. Mahmoud is a PhD candidate in Language and Literacy Education at UAEU. She has a BA in English Language and Literature from the University of Jordan and an MA in English Curriculum and Instruction from UAEU. Eman has 14 years of teaching experience in the UAE, is a Google Certified Teacher, and served as a teacher and student coach. Her research interests are ESL, SEL, reading, assessment, and TBLA.  

Chapter 26

A Professional Development Model for English Teachers in Indonesia: A Pathway to the Industrial Revolution 4.0 Era Dwi Poedjiastutie

, Hilda Suat, and Nisrina Balqis Huwaida

Abstract  Qualified teachers are needed to provide quality education in a nation because they are major players in educational reforms. Today’s teachers, particularly those in higher education, are expected to prepare students to fulfill the requirements of the Industrial Revolution (IR) 4.0, which emphasizes the direct integration of learning methodologies, digital competencies, and vocational abilities. As a result, schools in general, and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms in particular, are expected to equip students with methods and procedures geared toward acquiring and developing creativity, critical thinking, cooperation, self-­ direction, cross-cultural skills, and other qualities necessary in this era. These processes are entirely new to many teachers in some East Asian nations, especially Indonesia. Will Indonesian teachers readily shift to the model of IR 4.0? A quick and brave response to the twenty-first century should be taken into account in the planning of teacher professional development (TPD). This chapter discusses how TPD in Indonesia adapts to this development and what type of TPD should be considered to achieve this current demand. These processes are entirely new to many teachers and the possible challenges need to be anticipated by Teacher Training Institutions. The last sections of the chapter describe alternative solutions matching the Indonesian context. Thus, two dimensions of TPD will be discussed here: a collaborative strategy with overseas counterparts and stricter admission for candidates enrolled in teaching institutions. Keywords  Industry revolution 4.0 · Global needs · Global challenges · Teacher professional development (TPD) · EFL Indonesia

D. Poedjiastutie (*) · H. Suat · N. B. Huwaida University of Muhammadiyah Malang, East Java, Malang, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_26

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Introduction Qualified teachers are needed to provide quality education in a nation because they are major players in educational reforms (Chew, 2007; Choi, 2007; Raheem, 2004; Raheem & Devendra, 2007). The Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS, 2009) data explained that teachers nowadays are required to teach in increasingly multicultural classrooms by emphasizing the integration of information and communication technologies. However, the need for an Industrial Revolution (IR) 4.0 that focuses on continuing to integrate learning strategies, digital skills, and career abilities directly cannot be separated from the current preparation of students. Therefore, schools and classrooms of EFL are to provide students with practices and processes that focus on creativity, critical thoughts, collaboration, self-management, cross-cultural skills, and other skills required in this era (Bautista & Ortega-Ruiz, 2015). On the other hand, many instructors are unprepared to deal with these new issues since they were reared and taught in a traditional manner (Jardine et al., 2003), described by Haberman (2010a, b) as the “Pedagogy of Poverty.” Instead of being a facilitator for building student skills in the twenty-­ first century, this model places the teacher in a prominent role as an information supplier, task giver, and assessor. As a result, a paradigm change is required to transform teachers’ practice to generate graduates capable of addressing the challenges of the twenty-first century. Therefore, a paradigm shift is needed to transform teachers’ practice to produce graduates required to solve the challenges of the twenty-first century. Therefore, this chapter discusses how teacher professional development (TPD) in Indonesia is directed to adapt to this development and what type of TPD should be alternatively considered, which may significantly contribute to the achievement of Indonesia’s education goals.

The History of Professional Development in Indonesia Professional Development in Indonesia has undergone several changes (Pereira, 2016; The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)— Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2015; Chang et al., 2014). According to Syahril (2016, 2018), different types of TPD have been established at the national level. The first includes strengthening teachers’ work or hereafter in Indonesia Pemantapan Kerja Guru (PKG), which was established between the 1980s and 1990s. It was the single most extensive TPD program. Thair and Treagust (2003) introduced teachers to the concept of student-centered learning to encourage open communication and active engagement in the classroom. The second is the Lesson Study, in which the teachers’ lessons are made available for others to observe and reflect on (Pereira, 2016; Saito et al., 2006). Since the early 2000s, this TPD has gotten a lot of attention

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in Indonesia. It focuses on collaboration between schoolteachers and university faculty members to develop, administer, and report on lesson plans in the classroom (Chang et al., 2014). The third TPD, introduced in 2010, is a blended approach to promote Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use by teachers. This approach was established due to the popularity of the Internet. This method facilitated online cooperation and collaboration among teachers and experts. It relied on cognitive, teaching, and social presence. The cognitive presence is a process in which participants create, analyze, and validate meanings through cooperation and reflection. The presence of teaching is demonstrated through instructional design and the facilitation of learning, while students’ participation and interaction briefly characterized social presence. The fourth model is Learning Teachers Communities or hereafter in Indonesian Kelompok Guru Belajar (KGB), which was introduced through a bottom-­up approach. This was introduced in 2016 under the Ministry of Education’s auspices. It equipped teachers to discover learning skills by finding relevant issues to study using online and offline platforms. However, the establishment of TPDs often uses a top-down approach. Even though the nature of subjects such as natural science, math, social science, religion, and language are different, the TPDs are developed in the same way for all subject area teachers in terms of the content focus, the approach of the training, and the duration. Professional development for EFL teachers should be given greater attention for several reasons. First, language learning is distinct from learning other areas of content as it includes learning or teaching as “a vehicle for communicating content” (Bradford & Brown, 2018, p. 4). Besides, the utilization of the most up-to-date technological and scientific resources is primarily written in English. Furthermore, meeting the needs of the information age and making effective use of the Internet necessitates knowing English (Akbari, 2015). English teachers play a pivotal role since English is the global communities’ language in the twenty-first century. This assertion is based on the English First– English Proficiency Index (EF-EPI, 2012), which revealed disappointing statistics about the overall English language proficiency of Indonesian teachers which was ranked 27th out of 57 country participants. How could EFL teachers inspire students to learn and to communicate in English with such inadequate English skills? In the latest edition of the EF EPI, the largest ranking of English skills by region, EF EPI (2020) suggested that English has a significant impact on national and economic development. Research reveals a strong connection between a society’s English skills and the country’s economic performance. One of the indicators such as Gross National Income (GNI) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is increasing along with the increase of the society’s English proficiency level. In almost 60 countries and territories surveyed, it was found that an increase in English proficiency was linked to an increase in per capita income. Moreover, at an individual level, job recruiters worldwide estimate 30–50% higher wages received by job seekers with exceptional English skills than nonproficient English users.

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The Characteristics of Education 4.0 The IR 4.0 has led to the introduction of potentially innovative models for the twenty-first century under the concept of Education 4.0. The global change in educational systems has been reported to require well-skilled and qualified intellectual graduates, particularly in utilizing discoveries such as artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR) in classroom activities. These processes are entirely new to many teachers in some East Asian nations, especially Indonesia. Some research studies claim (e.g., Afrianto, 2018; Claus, 2019; Crossley, 2018; Shahroom & Hussin, 2018) that some jobs would no longer exist in the era of technological disruption while some new occupations that are unimaginable for a decade or two ago would emerge. Those jobs include bloggers, social media influencers, web developers, apps developers, smart chief listeners, intelligence managers, big data analysts, cloud computing services, cloud service specialists, and drone pilots. So, how will Education 4.0 and the global competencies challenge EFL learners in Indonesia?

A Major Dependence on Technology as the Source of Learning There is a growing demand for technologically trained EFL teachers to support the e-teaching commitment in today’s English teaching. The Internet may be used to help people learn languages (Evans, 2009). EFL educators, as digital citizens, should have at least a basic understanding of the Internet. Many online learning platforms such as Edmodo and Moodle should have been adopted for students’ learning. The teacher should have been familiar with the technology connecting one nation to another so that learning will not only occur within students’ classrooms. Learning should occur across nations with students not only able to communicate with their own classmates and their own teachers but also their overseas counterparts, so they learn new concepts like the way other people express their ideas, behave around particular issues and so forth. Teleconferencing, Skype, and video will enrich learning opportunities. The teacher may incorporate and collaborate with other teachers all over the world to present the materials, ideas and learning concepts. Therefore, the urgency of utilizing ICT in the teaching process became one of the highlights for TPD in Indonesia. A survey administered by the Center for Information and Communication Technology and the Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia 2018 reported that 60% of teachers in Indonesia are technologically illiterate (Makdori, 2021). Mastery of ICT is now part of the demands of teacher competency, both to support the implementation of their duties (preparation of lesson plans, presentation of learning, evaluation, and analysis of evaluation results) as well as a tool to search and download learning resources. Every teacher at all levels must be ready to continue learning ICT to fulfill the demands. Aspects of teacher

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competency which are correlated with ICT are in pedagogic competencies: “utilization of learning technology”, and in social competence: “the use of Information and Communication of Technology functionally” (Husain, 2010). Thus, all teachers can master and integrate ICT to a greater extent to sustain their performance as a professional. In addition, students’ behavior changes as they complete their duties, and they are increasingly relying on the Internet to supplement their knowledge. They can quickly locate publications using corpus-based data from a variety of sources all across the world. Cloud computing technology is the most recent breakthrough in an online storage system, allowing users to upload and retrieve files, datasets, multimedia-­based content, and more. These phenomena would either have a bad or good impact on the student’s analytical thinking and ability to filter information. However, it is not a quick process to get EFL teachers to use technology. It is critical to retrain and equip them with technical skills as part of an intensified training program. Participation of teachers in ICT training programs is still a hot topic in many cases today (Bonilla-Molina, 2020; Esfijani & Zamani, 2020; Schleicher, 2020; Valverde-Berrocoso et al., 2021). If the teacher is not technologically competent, the ICTs shaping the student’s cognition will be excluded from teaching and learning.

A Greater Emphasis on Students’ Responsibility for Learning Previous studies have discovered that many teachers in Indonesia consider their students immature and clueless and most times tell them what to learn, which books to read, and other instructions to direct them. They also believe there is a need to teach them repeatedly and, in many classrooms, teachers were discovered to be the center of learning activities. This is in line with Richard and Bolkhe’s (2011) findings that teachers dominate classroom conversations, present, and explain nearly all assignments, control, order, and manage the class. Richardson (2003) and Opfer and Pedder (2011) revealed that the actions of teachers somehow reflect their learning experience as students. In Indonesia, teachers commonly provide the knowledge while the students passively receive it instead of being active participants in the learning process. Bjork (2005) further reported that this teacher-centered model is an integral part of education in this country. According to Shahroom and Hussin (2018), the classroom, which is currently the most common place for learning and where the teacher is the sole source of information, should not be the only place available for the teaching and learning process. This evolution necessitates those old-school teachers shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered approach to allow students to choose what they want to learn. Moreover, suppose particular course learning objectives are predetermined by the institutions or by a specific body managing the curriculum, in which case, students should be granted the liberty to decide the learning devices and strategies they desire. Some strategies to facilitate student-centered learning include blended

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learning, flipped classrooms, and BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) approaches. In addition, students should also be involved in some project-based assignments to ensure they apply the knowledge and skills they have acquired during the learning process. This is expected to improve their abilities in organization, collaboration, and time management and allow them to learn autonomously while the teachers play a new role as a facilitator to guide the students during the learning process. In short, to adapt to the current education paradigm shift, teachers should be willing to pass down learning responsibility to the students. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the first TPD focused on inducting teachers to use student-centered learning and students’ active participation in the classroom. However, it does not come easily in real classroom implementation for several reasons.

The Needs to Induce Critical Thinking on the School Curricula To adjust to the IR 4.0 era, several efforts have been implemented by the government to reform and improve the quality of education through different policies, and an example is a change in a curriculum that requires teachers to be more active in developing students’ critical thinking. Teachers have to be trained to have critical thinking and creativity before they require the students to have the same. Critical thinking is intentionally, actively, and systematically conducted in line with the principle of logic and consideration of several perspectives to understand and evaluate information and to determine if it is accepted, rejected, or suspended. Hassaobah (2004) also defines it as an ability possessed by individuals to identify and solve problems such as high curiosity, risk-taking ability, respect for the rights of others, direction, and guidance and being continuously challenged by pluralism. Since the IR 4.0 era is associated with the use of the Internet, students are expected to filter the information obtained digitally, for example, data manipulation can be minimized by infusing critical thinking.

 he Challenges of Implementing the Education 4.0 Model T in Indonesia Even though TPD has been transformed many times to suit the current state of education, the skills obtained often do not match expectations as most of the teachers have been discovered to be incapable of putting them into practice. However, this ineffectiveness is not entirely the teachers’ fault as many factors need to be considered. Thair and Treagust (2003) suspect that the teachers’ time availability to learn all the new concepts and practices in TPD is too short. This lack of time combined with the remoteness of the Indonesian islands such as Nusa Tenggara, Ambon, and Sulawesi, non-English graduates are being employed to teach English due to the

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unavailability of teaching professionals in these areas. However, there is a surplus in other parts of the countries like Java such that a school may have about six or seven English teachers for fewer classes. To some degree, the principal would be forced to reassign some of them to teach non-English subjects, and this leads to the problem of enactment (Grosser-Clarkson & Neel, 2020; Grossman et  al., 2018; Kennedy, 2016), weaker content of knowledge (Rahman et al., 2015), and pedagogy (Harjanto et al., 2017). Another problem observed is the incoherence and disconnection between PD focus, curriculum, and assessment (Thair & Treagust, 2003). Most PD sessions encourage teachers to focus on student-centered learning, which means having more freedom to develop materials based on relevance. However, the goal of schooling prescribed by the national curriculum is to ensure the students pass the National Examination especially the compulsory subjects including English, Mathematics, and Indonesian. This disparity forces teachers to adopt the conventional method of teaching English. Their attitude often exacerbates this, neither applying the new classroom skills nor passing the information and knowledge to others. Political cultures are also seen to be a factor in the TPD’s implementation difficulties. Teachers in Indonesia have a strong public servant identity, with an attitude of obedience, devotion, and fanatical commitment to commands, which can lead to a devaluation of professionalism (Bjork, 2005; Syahril, 2016, 2018). Because of the significant political uncertainty and instability in 1980, President Suharto issued the New Order, which urged teachers to show devotion and obedience to the government and promote and strengthen national unity. It was also discovered that teachers’ status as civil servants has a significant impact on how they approach their jobs. Many of them defining their professional responsibilities as “educating” learners on moral and ethical development rather than “teaching” them in terms of intellectual development (Bjork, 2005, p. 107). As a result, there is a widespread belief that the best teachers are chosen primarily on their devotion to national ceremonies and lengthy years of service rather than their creativity and intellectual ability. In addition to the aforementioned challenges, almost all teachers were recruited from teaching institutions throughout Indonesia. There are currently over 450 teaching institutions with over 1.5 million students or candidate teachers. It is estimated that approximately 300,000 students graduate each year, whereas the demand for teachers is only about 40,000 people per year. The number of teacher candidates is oversupplied (OECD-ADB, 2015). Furthermore, due to the establishment of a teacher certification program in 2007, certified teachers began to receive additional professional allowances. As such, the teaching profession has become more promising and attractive. This has resulted in a huge number of students enrolling at teaching institutions to make it difficult to control in terms of their quality. This situation is not easily changed overnight. Poedjiastutie (2019) argued that understanding a country’s culture is essential in any reform initiative and this is observed from the resistance and tension usually raised when introducing any type of change in schools. Moreover, the incoherence leading to the failure of several TPD reforms is linked to the pace at which educators and teachers are expected to understand new concepts of TPD.

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PD Path for Education 4.0 Since internationalization has been reported to be essential to the country’s educational system to cope with the global trend, the Indonesian governments and those involved in the educational sectors have greater responsibility to reform teachers’ quality to find solutions to the challenges of Education 4.0. Sri Mulyani Indrawati, the Indonesia Ministry of Treasury Affairs claims that it took Indonesia 45 years to reach its level of reading ability with OECD countries and 75 years on the ability of technological development (Indriantari, 2017). Accordingly, a quick and brave response to the twenty-first century and its current demand should be taken into account in planning TPD.  Thus, two dimensions of PD will be discussed here: Collaborative strategy with the native counterparts and stricter admission for candidates enrolled in teaching institutions.

Strategic Collaboration with L1 Teachers The speculative opinion of pairing NTE (Native Teachers of English) and LET (Local English Teachers) in team teaching is to provide LETs a chance to adopt a new philosophy of learning. NTEs are usually from the education system where the teaching and learning philosophy is different from the Indonesian context. A student-­centered approach is more emphasized in the Western education system. Students are active participants in the classroom and are encouraged to contribute and share their ideas to develop effective learning and teaching activities. When students participate in a group discussion or complete an assignment, they are encouraged to think and express their opinions. Students are also allowed to demonstrate their ability and talent by independently analyzing and solving problems. If they have been assigned to research a specific topic, they will be required to discuss it in the following lesson. As a result, it is possible to say that Western education includes the integration of thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills. Considering the similarities in the characteristics of many Asian countries, Indonesia should learn from other similar countries such as Malaysia, China, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates. For example, one of the universities in Malaysia which set a record for foreign faculty members recruited to collaborate with local teachers is among the best 100 in the world. This recruitment and collaboration help improve university rank (Islam et al., 2019). Furthermore, Alsharari (2018) argues the outcomes of the strategic collaboration with western academics, the UAE has pushed to promote itself as a Middle East “education hub.” This is in line with the government’s goal of equipping its citizens with the skills required by globalization. He adds that there are three significant influences driving internationalization in the UAE namely neoliberalism, quality assurance, and imported internationalization as a strategy that seeks the prestige granted by international certification.

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Even though pairing NTEs and LTE has generated many debates (Hoque et al., 2010), implementing traditional TPD is unlikely to produce the expected results in a short timeframe. It may need a decade to change teachers’ perspectives, as education 4.0 challenges for schools are also challenges for teachers. Educators need to have global mindsets in this era. It is speculated that if teachers’ teaching approaches and roles remain the same year after year, Indonesia is predicted to face serious pressure and rising challenges (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005). According to Jeon and Lee (2006), in a survey of governmental recruiting policy, hiring NTEs is one of the most effective ways of improving local students’ English proficiency and problem-solving capabilities. Their findings concentrated on five Asian countries: Japan, South Korea, China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. However, how NTEs are recruited may differ from country to country. Hong Kong, Japan, and South Korea are implementing a more centralized policy for recruiting NTEs. Private agencies, on the other hand, are typically responsible for recurring NTEs in China and Taiwan.

A Stricter Admission to Teacher Education Programs Education systems face a demanding challenge in recruiting high-quality graduates as teachers. A quote of “those who can’t teach” (Langsford, 2020; Leogrande, 2020; Wang & Huang, 2016) should become a point of attention especially to educators in Indonesia. For instance, a particular concern related to preservice education in Indonesia is the graduates’ quality of English education students can be categorized as low. This was influenced by two aspects: the input and the process. Input is the initial quality of students who enroll in English education. The entrance selection in general was not designed comprehensively. Accordingly, this may be very difficult to attract the best secondary school graduates. Often the best high school leavers prefer to enroll themselves in a nonteaching institution such as the school of medicine and the school of business. This saying seems to reflect a commonly held belief that teachers are mediocre compared to people in other job sectors. In contrast, in Singapore, teaching is considered a desirable profession. Its standing can be further reinforced through selective recruiting, giving teacher candidates the sense that they will be entering a job sought after by high flyers. The Singaporean government is particularly committed to attracting young people from the top one-­ third of the secondary school class. It gives them a monthly school grant that is competing for fresh graduates in other areas while still in school. These teachers, in return, must pledge to teach for 3  years or more. The need for strong academic qualifications, professional devotion, and service for different student groups is considered crucial. Secondary-school internships allow kids to discover their academic interests early in their education. Teacher education programs in Taiwan have higher academic entry standards and can attract a group of highly qualified individuals. Indeed, a study has shown that increasing the standards for the recruitment of teachers can be a beneficial policy for promoting the quality of instructors. In his international studies in world top-performing school systems, Whelan (2009) found, in

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general, to have higher standards for entrance into the teaching profession for nations like Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Finland with a relatively high quality of education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2010, 2017). The context of teaching in Indonesia is indeed unique in many ways. This can be associated with the fact that, throughout Southeast Asia, the country probably has the greatest cultural diversity due to different histories about the residents’ contact with the outside world (Hannigan, 2015; Madya, 2007). Indonesians commonly live on 930 out of approximately 17,508 islands spread across the sea located on 5110 km (3194 miles) from east to west and 1888 km (1180 miles) from north to south in the archipelagic nation. Most of the islands have mountains, volcanoes, and pristine rainforests serving as natural barriers. The geographical situations of these islands have caused a development gap mainly due to the lack of access to the appropriate information required for the development. It is, however, essential to consider these diversities before policymakers decide on TPD issues. The pilot project needs to be taken into account.

Conclusion The IR 4.0 brings a new stimulus to educational systems around the world, including in Indonesia. The teachers’ positions are evolving to meet the needs of the global society of well-trained teachers who can synthesize information, detect, and solve problems, develop new technologies in their specific fields, work in teams, and contribute positively to civil society. The recruiting of teachers in Indonesia has forced new approaches as a result of these global realities. Establishing strategic collaboration with western academics and transforming teaching appointments will confidently accelerate these changes.

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Saito, E., Harun, I., Kuboki, I., & Tachibana, H. (2006). Indonesian lesson study in practice: Case study of Indonesian mathematics science teacher education project. Journal of In-Service Education, 32(2), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674580600650872 Schleicher, A. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on education  – Insights from education at a glance. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/education/the-­impact-­of-­covid-­19-­on-­education-­ insightseducation-­at-­a-­glance-­2020.pdf Shahroom, A.  A., & Hussin, N. (2018). Industrial revolution 4.0 and education. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(9), 314–319. https://doi. org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v8-­i9/4593 Syahril, I. (2016). The Indonesian teacher certification policy: A case study of policy sense- making. Dissertation for the degrees of doctor of philosophy in curriculum, instruction, and teacher education – Educational policy, Michigan State University. https://doi.org/10.25335/M5QH95. Syahril, I. (2018, October 15–16). Teacher professional development in Indonesia: What have learned so far? Paper presented at the workshop ecological and socioeconomic functions of tropical lowland rain forest transformation system: Land use change research and its potential for Indonesian teacher education. https://www.slideshare.net/iwan_syahril09/ teacher-­professional-­development-­in-­indonesia-­what-­have-­learned-­so-­far TALIS (Teaching and Learning International Survey). (2009). Creating effective teaching and learning environments: First results from TALIS. OECD Publishing. Thair, M., & Treagust, D.  F. (2003). A brief history of a science teacher professional development initiative in Indonesia and the implications for centralised teacher development. International Journal of Educational Development, 23, 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0738-­0593(02)00014-­7 Valverde-Berrocoso, J., Fernández-Sánchez, M.  R., Revuelta Dominguez, F.  I., & Sosa-Díaz, M.  J. (2021). The educational integration of digital technologies preCovid-19: Lessons for teacher education. PLoS One, 16(8), e0256283. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256283 Wang, H.  H., & Huang, C.  C. (2016). Those who can, teach: The academic quality of preservice students in teacher education programmes in Taiwan. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 44(1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2014.987722 Whelan, F. (2009). Lessons learned: How good policies produce better schools. Fenton. Dwi Poedjiastutie is Professor at the English Language Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Muhammadiyah Malang. She is an active researcher, and her research focuses on studies of second language acquisition including large-scale studies on English for Specific Purposes (ESP), needs analysis, and curriculum development. Her works have appeared in a number of journals.  

Hilda Suat graduated with Master of English Language Education, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia, in 2021. Her minor thesis for her master’s degree is “Teacher Professional Development in Teaching Practice at Junior High School.”  

Nisrina Balqis Huwaida graduated with Master of English Language Education, University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia, in 2020. Her minor thesis for her master’s degree is “The Use of Digital Photograph Toward Students’ Analytical Exposition Text at Madrasah Aliyah Al-Qodiri Gumukmas, Jember.”  

Chapter 27

Professional Development Support Systems in Public Universities in Kosovo Drita Kadriu and Trenia Walker

Abstract  Education is key to the economic and social transformations of developing countries such as the Republic of Kosovo. This has led to a rapid and mostly unchecked expansion of tertiary education, especially in terms of quality of the educational experience and result. The Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were inconsistent in preparing students for the twenty-first century. To address the inconsistencies and set standards for institutional quality, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) developed the Kosovo Education Strategic Plan (KESP) 2017–2021. Two main objectives addressed in the KESP Strategic Objective 7 on Higher Education are education and research. These areas are important to ensure a positive return on the government’s investment. The KESP SO 7 specified that HEIs must provide professional development to train Academic Staff in the new approaches in ways that were centered in quality. Research shows that professional development is most effective when faculty members are allowed choices of training. Faculty at the University “Fehmi Agani” Gjakova (UFAGJ), one of the fastest growing universities in the Republic of Kosovo, were surveyed to express a preference for professional development options that reflected the priorities of the KESP: scientific research and publication, competency-oriented and effective teaching, or transformational leadership in higher education. Keywords  Higher education · Professional development · Institutional quality

D. Kadriu (*) College of Education, University “Fehmi Agani” Gjakovë, Mitrovica, Republic of Kosovo T. Walker University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_27

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Introduction Even prior to the pandemic, higher education had been facing challenges over the past several decades. According to Trow (1973), most of the problems have been the result of enrollment growth in “every advanced society” (p. 1). Prior to the 1960s, higher education institutions (HEIs) were an “elite” system enrolling around 15% of total school leavers. During the 1960s and 1970s, HEI enrollments began to reflect a “mass” system of between 15% and 50% of school leavers and finally a “universal” system of 50% (Marginson, 2017; Trow, 1973). At the universal level, the entire educational system of a country is changed by, and for, the “new” students and their families. Marginson (2016) wrote that many middle- and low-income countries now see the expansion of tertiary education as a “duty of the states – like airports and roads, clean water, provincial hospitals and a viable banking system” (p.  414). Unfortunately, there also have been many problems associated with unchecked growth of HEIs, especially around issues of “quality.” Worldwide, HEIs have been transforming due to changes in political alignments, financing structures, demographics, technology, and the world of work (Marginson, 2017). Most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted education and organizations in unprecedented ways. Campuses closed around the world and HEIs transitioned to emergency online learning (Tucker & Quintero-Ares, 2021). Jaschik (2021) quoted Irene Mulvey, President of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) who explained that “the pandemic was extremely difficult on faculty. At the beginning, faculty had to move all instruction online with very limited time for preparation or training. The work needed to teach last spring was overwhelming and exhausting. The added burdens of trying to teach classes in extremely difficult circumstances, and with students facing their own personal challenges related to the pandemic, brought most other work to a grinding halt” (p. 2). With school buildings and educational organizations physically closed, how would academic staff continue to do their jobs and make meaningful contributions to their HEI and to the students?

Changes in Teaching as a Result of the COVID-19 Pandemic In March 2020, when most HEI campuses around the world closed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, faculty were forced to continue their classes through remote instruction. This was especially difficult for those who had never previously taught online. The majority of them had a long-held belief that online learning was not as effective as face-to-face learning. Wieland and Kollias (2020) explained that many faculty perceived remote instruction as the “poor cousin of face-to-face training” (p. 85). In the early days of online teaching, delivery was limited by the hardware and software tools available at the time. It was therefore not surprising that many faculty had a negative opinion of online instruction and were hesitant to teach

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courses at a distance. Faculty surveys conducted since March 2020 show that this gap is narrowing as more faculty express a favorable opinion of online teaching (Lederman, 2020). This may be due to the fact that faculty are no longer in an instructional “crisis” mode and have received support aligned with best practices in teaching online. Even before the pandemic, researchers in Kosovo found that students in higher education were not satisfied with the instruction and evaluation used by their professors (Sokolia et al., 2021). According to Sokolia et al. (2021), the European Union encourages significant investment in education in order to improve a country’s advancement: “Quality of instruction and time spent by teaching professionals on it are crucial aspects resulting in a productive labor force that will substantially impact economic development” (p. 686). The research conducted by the authors shows that students in many HEIs in Kosovo “are not satisfied with the teaching techniques and evaluation approaches used by their professors” (Sokolia et al., 2021, p. 687). The researchers report that most of their study respondents “confirmed that the reappointments of professors is not done according to the specified standards and institutional laws. However, professors are capable of publishing scientific papers; in which most of them are not the authors. In which, it is still considered as an additional academic qualification. Reappointments and academic promotion should consider the quality of teaching as its main pillars that must be prioritized before other qualifications, but it is unfortunate that they are not necessarily considered” (Sokolia et al., 2021, p. 693). Sokolia et al. (2021) describe the need for improving teaching quality in higher education and recommend using measures “such as cultural influence, pedagogical teaching skills, and the professional ability to transfer knowledge” (p. 689). These foci would be excellent goals for professional development related to teaching quality, especially with an increased need to develop knowledge and skills related to teaching online.

Professional Development for Faculty A survey conducted of University Provosts, or Chief Academic Officers of HEIs, revealed that even after campuses reopened for in-person instruction, most institutions would likely increase online course offerings. According to Jaschik (2021), many of the Provosts surveyed indicated that in order to support faculty teaching online, they offered professional development in • • • • •

Teaching with technology (97%) Promoting active teaching techniques (90%) Promoting student success (85%) Using assessment systems (68%) Measuring the effectiveness of digital tools (46%)

Keeping in mind the objectives of upgrading the quality of tertiary education and promoting excellence, specifically in the areas of teaching and scientific research. It

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is therefore essential for HEIs to provide professional development opportunities for faculty. Academic staff benefit from the chance to acquire new knowledge, develop new skills, remain up to date on current research and trends, and ultimately, advance their careers (Mohr, 2020). Professional development does not just benefit the faculty. By extension, it also benefits the students and the institution. According to Mohr (2020), the most effective professional development opportunities are those that are personalized. That is, professional development experiences that are chosen by the faculty members rather than the institution. This will help ensure a greater return on investment (Glaveski, 2019). Faculty development should be “flexible to provide equitable support with a diverse offering of opportunities” (Ramsay & Dick, 2019). Mohr (2020) explained that “faculty don’t want to waste their time on offerings that fail to meet their needs and interests” (n.p.). Providing choice is key to securing a more significant return on investment. In an effort to address the issues of quality in tertiary education in the Republic of Kosovo, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) developed the Kosovo Education Strategic Plan (KESP) 2017–2021. The KESP Strategic Objective (SO) 7 specifies that the “main priority … is the improvement of quality in higher education institutions.” Per SO 7, “upgrading the quality and competitiveness of higher education” would be accomplished through the “promotion of excellence in teaching, scientific research, artistic creation, innovation and internationalization” (p. 6). Key to the KESP development was the belief that in a developing country such as Kosovo, the demands for economic, social, and educational transformations are “both a driver and a reflection of these transformations” (Chankseliani et al., 2021, p. 109). Education and research, according to Chankseliani et al. (2021), is critical for “stimulating a more holistic imaginary of the developmental purposes of higher education” (p. 109). According to the KESP SO 7 (p. 89): In the 21st century, higher education is one of the key drivers of democratic consolidation and economic development of a country … Higher education is one of the essential components of social and political transformations, especially in transition societies, which directly affects the sustainable state institutions and creates preconditions for economic development. As shown by the experiences of many other countries, higher education significantly affects the provision of quality and competitive staff for the labour market. The KESP SO 7 (p. 89) also specifies that: Quality standards are focused on the development of quality assurance mechanisms and building adequate infrastructure conditions for academic and scientific research work … . Scientific research is among ten priorities of the Bologna Charter. An integrated link between higher education and scientific research is the distinguishing feature of modern universities. The KESP 2017–2021 SO 7 was written to address the questionable quality of some programs and institutions caused initially by the unchecked growth in tertiary education. The Strategic Objective 7.2 provides details for the: Mechanisms for professional development of academic staff in HEIs (pp. 92–93)

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7.2.1. Establishment and functioning of the offices for teaching excellence. The intention is to establish new offices for teaching excellence in all HEIs which will provide academic staff with academic development services, and different training programs respective to the new teaching and scientific research methodologies. The KESP 2017–2021 identified the following as challenges for HEIs, especially in the areas of quality standards and scientific research (pp. 89–90). Non-compliance with the Quality Standards in Higher Education Institutions In the last decade, higher education in Kosovo has undergone tremendous growth compared to its capacity and the possibilities it provides. Despite the importance it holds as an education policy for increased participation in higher education, this growth has nevertheless contributed to the, sometimes dramatic, decline of higher education quality. Insufficient Scientific Research Work in Higher Education Institutions Although recognised as an important aspect of higher education development, scientific research work is not fully integrated into regular activities of higher education institutions in Kosovo …. Increasing the number of scientific publications by staff in international indexed journals raises the need to support researchers in the process of publishing their work and presenting research at international conferences. According to the MEST, the speed at which societies are changing in the twenty-­ first century presents a challenge for government agencies and organizations (KESP, p. 14). This is especially challenging for recently emerging countries such as Kosovo that prioritizes the development of citizens through education. According to the KESP, HEIs must encourage academic staff, through training, financial support, and adjusted workloads, in their teaching and research activities.

Faculty Preferences for Professional Development The COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented changes in education at all levels, making the need for professional development in higher education institutions even more necessary. In Kosovo, this was combined with the mandate for improving the quality in tertiary education. If given a choice of professional development opportunities, what would faculty in Kosovo choose: teaching, research publication or leadership? At the University “Fehmi Agani” Gjakova (UFAGJ) on 27 October 2021, faculty were asked to express a preference for professional development. This is one of the fastest growing public universities in the country and therefore a good model to view practice, especially post-COVID-19 pandemic. The municipality of Gjokova has a population of nearly 95,000 and is located in the Southwestern part of Kosovo, near the Albanian border. UFAGJ started operating on October 1, 2013, with the Department of Education, programs for Preschool and Elementary School, the Department of Medicine with Nursing and Midwifery programs and the Department

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of Philology with programs in Albanian Language and English Language, all of which were accredited by Kosovo’s Accreditation Agency in April 2013. UFAGJ focuses its work on unique study programs, constantly working to make them easily accessible and distinct from other programs in the public higher education system in Kosovo. Due to its special geographic position, UFAGJ takes advantage of the opportunity to attract students from other countries in the region, in particular from the northern part of Albania and Montenegro. The new Bachelor’s degree [undergraduate] programs are designed to be unique offerings in Kosovo. UFAGJ is constantly working to expand the Master’s degree [graduate] program. To date, UFAGJ has offered only undergraduate degree programs and participated in advancing the provision of quality programs. UFAGJ developed a 5-year plan to advance undergraduate studies in the Faculty of Medicine in 2021, a graduate degree (2021) and a doctoral degree (2024) in the Faculty of Education. Plans for an advanced graduate degree require a partnership with accredited academic institutions. Given the recent circumstances created by the COVID-19 pandemic and the development of information technology as a tool of accomplishing academic work, UFAGJ has taken the necessary steps to adapt to the established reality and carefully treat the solutions and needed infrastructure to suit the demands and needs of the time. Moreover, in order to increase performance and credibility, UFAGJ allocates a considerable budget in support of publications and research projects. UFAGJ has successfully managed to organize online learning and has created a unique eLearning platform that integrates directly through the UMS (University Management System) and enables the inclusion of staff and students. The UFAGJ is planning to expand the use of the platform to organize joint trainings, conferences, and seminars with our local and international partners in the field of teaching. While the job placement rate for graduates from UFAGJ is satisfactory, there are some graduates who do not find work in their chosen profession, as it may not reflect demands of the job market. This presents a recruitment challenge for UFAGJ and the country of Kosovo to encourage the new generations to enter a university program. It is also important, whenever possible, to retain graduates in the country to contribute to the economic and social development. The country will receive a return on the investment in those graduates. For those graduates who will leave the country to pursue their careers abroad, the UFAGJ adheres to European and International standards that will help graduates be successful both inside and outside of the Republic of Kosovo. The circumstances created by the COVID-19 pandemic can be seen as a challenge for the focus of donors in support of economic and social recovery post-pandemic. The UFAGJ is adapting to these new realities (UFAGJ, 2020, p. 24).

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Faculty Professional Development Quality assurance is critical for students and their families. Recent legislation in Kosovo specified areas for faculty quality: teaching, research, and leadership. Given the new guidelines from the MEST for the accreditation of high-quality programs, faculty are an important investment for HEIs in Kosovo. At UFAGJ, faculty success helps ensure the success of the university. Therefore, UFAGJ administrators must support faculty by providing professional development. Logistically, it is impossible to offer simultaneous training in the three areas (teaching, research, and leadership), so faculty were asked to rank the professional development opportunities in order based on preference. Faculty choice is critical for the success of professional development (Glaveski, 2019; Mohr, 2020; Ramsay & Dick, 2019). On October 27, 2021, 89 faculty and administrators at UFAGJ were surveyed to determine what professional development opportunities they would most like to pursue. This training would be provided by the Didactic Center for Teaching Excellence (DCTE) at UFAGJ. A total of 54 responses were received, with representation from all of the units on campus. Participation of the academic staff in questionnaire by academic units is as follows: 28% administration and management. A total of 54 responses were received, with representation from all of the units on campus. Participation of the academic staff in questionnaire by academic units is as follows: 28% from administration and management, 28% from Faculty of Medicine, 26% from Faculty of Education, 11% from Faculty of Philology, and 7% from Faculty of Social Science. Selection of training areas by overall responses from academic staff participants is 48% scientific research and publication, 32% transformational leadership in higher education, and 20% competency-oriented teaching and effective teaching. Selection of training areas by the staff of the Faculty of Education is 57% competency-­oriented teaching and effective teaching and 43% scientific research and publication. Selection of training areas by the staff of the Faculty of Medicine is 80% scientific research and publication, 13% transformational leadership in higher education, and 7% competency-oriented teaching and effective teaching. Selection of training areas by the staff of the Faculty of Philology is 83% scientific research and publication and 17% competency-oriented teaching and effective teaching. Selection of training areas by the staff of the Faculty of Social Sciences is 50% transformational leadership in higher education, 25% scientific research and publication, and 25% competency-oriented teaching and effective teaching. Selection of training areas by Administration and Management is 87% transformational leadership in higher education and 13% scientific research and publication. The leading response (48%) was scientific research and publication. This was surprising given the new challenges and unprecedented demands related to online teaching as a result of COVID-19. Further, teaching was ranked last by all

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respondents except those from the Faculty of Education. The Faculty of Medicine had the widest disparity between research (80%) and teaching (7%). The Faculty of Social Sciences split evenly on research (25%) and teaching (25%). The choice of scientific research and publication by a majority of respondents is likely a reflection of a redefinition of what constitutes quality in higher education in Kosovo. Faculty evaluation will be based primarily on scholarly productivity rather than teaching. The Kosovo Accreditation Agency (KAA) is an independent agency that “guarantees the quality of work educational [sic] and scientific research in Higher Education Institutions in Kosovo” (https://akreditimi.rks-­gov.net/). According to the KAA website, the agency was established in March 2008 by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) in accordance with the Law on Higher Education (2003/14) in Kosovo. Through the accreditation process, the KAA supports the development of quality in Higher Education Institutions and at the same time assures the society of Kosovo that the quality of teaching and learning is at the level of international standards. The KAA’s primary responsibilities include reviewing new and existing public and private HEIs, at the university and program level, for accreditation, as well as monitoring the quality of programs and HEIs. Legal Dispositions The KAA is a public quality assessment agency in public and private institutions of higher education. Through the accreditation process, it supports the development of quality in these institutions. The responsibilities of the KAA and the accreditation criteria are provided through the Law on Higher Education in Kosovo (No. 04/L-037, dated 31.08.2011), Administrative Instruction on Accreditation of Higher Education Institutions in the Republic of Kosovo (Nr. 20/2016, dated 20.09.2016). The legal obligations of the KAA include establishing standards and guidelines for quality, instrument development for measuring performance of HEIs, engaging in international cooperation for accreditation and quality assurance, and producing annual activity reports. While the KAA Accreditation Manual (KAA, 2021) states that education is a measure of quality, there does not seem to be any specific criteria included for measuring faculty or institutional teaching. For example, the teaching criteria are covered in Standard 6. According to Standard 6.2: There is an effective system for ensuring that all programs meet high standards of learning and teaching through initial approvals, regular changes and monitoring of performance. While this requires “high standards of teaching and learning,” there is no definition or examples of high standards or how these might be measured. The same is true for Standard 6.3: The institution monitors quality indicators, identifies and investigates differences in quality between programs, and takes action required to ensure that all programs meet required performance standards. What are “quality indicators?” While the teaching standards lack specificity in defining quality, the metrics for scholarship (Standards 7) quality are much clearer. For example, Standard 7.6: Each academic staff member and researcher has produced at least an average of one

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scientific/applied research publication or artistic outcome/product per year for the past three years. This is very specific with the requirement of one publication per year. The primary measure of quality for publication is further defined to be a journal listed in either the Web of Science (WoS) or Scopus. Scopus and WoS are the two largest international citation databases. The KAA Accreditation Handbook (KAA, 2021) also requires higher education institutions to offer Professional Development to Faculty and Administrators (Standard 8). The Standard 8.5 specifies that Training programs in teaching skills are provided within the institution for both new and continuing teaching staff, and they include effective use of new technology. When faculty and administrators were offered a choice of a teaching focus for a professional development program, it was not a top choice, at least in the experience of the UFAGJ. Another key monitoring agency of higher education institutions in Kosovo is the Organization for Increasing Quality of Education (ORCA). According to their website, this agency is “active in monitoring academic processes in higher education in Kosovo, and in coordinated reactions for improving the quality of teaching in public universities” (http://orca-­ks.org/en/about-­us/). It is noteworthy that similar to KAA, the ORCA recommendations related to faculty is less about teaching and more about scholarly publication. In fact, a main focus of the report is a calculation of the “justification of academic ranks” based solely on the number of publication that a faculty member has. The responses from the faculty and administrators at the UFAGJ on the questionnaire related to choices for professional development reflect the focus on scholarship as a measure of quality. Interestingly, the most productive faculty in Medicine (66 papers) and the least productive faculty in Philology (2 papers) had over an 80% support rate for professional development on scientific research and publication (ORCA, 2020). The Faculty of Education has 27 publications and showed the greatest support for professional development in teaching. This is indicative of the faculty in the content area’s knowledge of the importance of teaching in the university mission.

Conclusion Many of the educational regulatory agencies in Kosovo acknowledge the importance of teaching in the overall quality of education in the country’s higher education institutions. Unfortunately, there is no specific guidance around the meaning of quality teaching. There is, however, a good deal of specificity around what constitutes quality scholarship, including the number of articles and type of journals required. The implicit message to academic staff and administrators is that research and scholarship is the most important work in which to engage. The respondents from UFAGJ reflected this belief in their choices for professional development with 48% selecting scientific research and publication and only 20% choosing competency-­oriented teaching and effective teaching.

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The DCTE at UFAGJ may offer a way to recenter the discussion on quality in higher education, especially around teaching. According to the UFAGJ website, this center for professional development provides “advanced services for a sustainable, transformed and perfected system of teaching, research and leadership.” This is a more balanced way to view the three primary duties of faculty and to consider quality measures of each. Rather than a focus on research without sufficient attention paid to the main business of HEIs, and that is education (Sokolia et al., 2021). This may be a way to use the professional development of faculty as both medium and message.

References Chankseliani, M., Qoraboyev, I., & Gimranova, D. (2021). Higher education contributing to local, national, and global development: New empirical and conceptual insights. Higher Education, 81, 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-­020-­00565-­8 Glaveski, S. (2019, October 2). Where companies go wrong with learning and development. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2019/10/where-­companies-­go-­wrong-­with-­learning-­ and-­development Jaschik, S. (2021, April 26). Survey shows how provosts faced the pandemic. Inside Higher Education. https://www.insidehighered.com/print/news/survey/survey-­shows-­how-­provosts-­ faced-­pandemic. Kosovo Accreditation Agency. (2021). Accreditation manual. https://akreditimi.rks-gov.net/wpcontent/uploads/2020/10/AKAManuali-i-Akreditimit-%E2%80%93-i-plotesuar-2021-1.pdf Lederman, D. (2020, October 6). Faculty confidence in Online learning grows. Inside Higher Education. https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-­learning/article/2020/10/06/ covid-­era-­experience-­strengthens-­faculty-­belief-­value-­online Marginson, S. (2016). The worldwide trend to high participation higher education: Dynamics of social stratification in inclusive systems. Higher Education, 72, 413–434. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10734-016-0016-x Marginson, S. (2017). Elite, mass, and high-participation higher education. In J. Shin & P. Teixeira P. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of international higher education systems and institutions (pp. 1–9). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­94-­017-­9553-­1_50-­1 Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) of the Republic of Kosovo. (n.d.). Kosovo Education Strategic Plan 2017–2021. Retrieved from https://masht.rks-­gov.net/ uploads/2017/02/20161006-­kesp-­2017-­2021-­1.pdf Mohr, S. (2020, January 24). 2020: A new decade for faculty professional development. Online Learning Consortium. https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/2020-­a-­new-­decade-­for-­faculty-­ professional-­development/ Organization for Increasing Quality of Education (ORCA). (2020). Academic integrity, scientific publication and justification of academic ranks in Prishtina, November 2020, University of Gjakova. http://orca-­ks.org/wp-­content/uploads/2020/12/Academic-­integrity-­ in-­the-­University-­of-­Gjakova.pdf Ramsay, C., & Dick, A. (2019). Pedagogical agility in flexible learning spaces: Why faculty development needs to be as adaptable as classroom. Educause Review. https://er.educause.edu/ blogs/2019/5/pedagogical-­agility-­in-­flexible-­learning-­spaces Sokolia, D., Sirca, N., & Koren, A. (2021). Quality of teaching in Kosovo’s higher education institutions: Viewpoints of institutional leaders and lecturers. Human Systems Management, 40, 685–700. https://doi.org/10.3233/HSM-­201155

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Trow, M. (1973). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education. Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. Tucker, A., & Quintero-Ares, L. (2021). Professional learning communities as a faculty support during the COVID-19 transition to online learning. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, XXIV(1) https://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/spring241/tucker241.html University “Fehmi Agani” Gjakova. (2020). Strategic plan 2021–2025. Retrieved from https:// uni-­g jk.org/upload/dokumentet/1610114257-­P lani%20Strategjik%20i%20UFAGJ%20 2021%20-­%202025%20eng.pdf Wieland, N., & Kollias, L. (2020). Online learning before, during and after COVID-19: Observations over 20 years. International Journal Advanced Corporate Learning, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v13i2.16779 Drita Kadriu is Professor of Teacher Education at “Fehmi Agani” University and Coordinator for the Didactic Center for Teaching Excellence (DCTE). She is responsible for the professional development of the academic staff in teaching, research, and leadership. She is co-author of the dictionary Vocabulary Terms in Education: An Explanatory and Comparative Vocabulary. She was the first international fellow in the ACE program at the “James Madison University,” Class 2017–2018.  

Trenia Walker is Professor of Teacher Education, Educational Leadership and Policy at the University of New Mexico, USA. Her research interests include organizational leadership, school/ teacher effectiveness, and accreditation. She began working in Kosovo in 2002 on their first civic education curriculum. Later she was a Fulbright Scholar assigned to the University of Pristina. Most recently, she was a Fulbright Specialist working with the Kosovo Accreditation Agency.  

Part VI

Academic and Administrative Support Systems

Chapter 28

Instructional Designers’ Roles in the Post-­COVID-­19 Pandemic Era Elif N. Gokbel and Nicole P. Lipscomb-King

Abstract  The coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has brought opportunities for higher education institutions to increase their use of various instructional models and tools. Instructional designers played a role in supporting the continuation of teaching and learning during COVID-19. This support included professional learning opportunities in the form of workshops and coaching. This chapter will discuss the instructional designers’ roles and qualities in the new normal and the next normal. The chapter outlines the traditional roles of instructional designers in history, instructional designers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, the reshaped role of instructional designers in the post-COVID-19 world, and what qualities we need in instructional designers in the next normal. This chapter will also provide recommendations for higher education professionals and instructional designers about the post-COVID-19 world in higher education. Keywords  Roles of instructional designers · The shift in the instructional design profession · Online teaching and learning

Introduction The coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has brought unprecedented challenges to our society around the world, resulting in a pressing need for change in most aspects of our lives. One of the areas most affected by this epidemic is undoubtedly the education industry. Educators at all levels of education have forced themselves to E. N. Gokbel (*) Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA e-mail: [email protected] N. P. Lipscomb-King Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_28

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adapt to emergency remote teaching (ERT) in a short time. In higher education across the United States (US), more than 4200 institutions had to transition to online instruction, impacting nearly 26 million students. Emergency remote teaching differs from online education and even distance education in terms of definition, goal, design process, instructional delivery mode, or ways to integrate technology (Xie & Rice, 2021). However, ERT has something in common with online teaching and distance education and that is teaching with digital technologies. As recent studies have pointed out, ERT refers to a temporary shift in instruction due to crisis circumstances and its goal is to provide ‘reliable, temporary, fast, and durable access’ to instruction and its elements (Hodges et al., 2020; Mohammed et al., 2020). During the sudden transition to ERT, about 55% of faculty across the US had never taught an online course, more than 70% preferred face-to-face teaching, and 36% claimed that online delivery did not provide equivalent learning outcomes compared to face-to-face delivery (Bauer-Wolf, 2019; Leederman, 2019). Prior to the outbreak, 6 out of 10 faculty reported that they were uncomfortable and inexperienced in using the learning management system and other classroom technologies, and 40% did not have on-site technical support or professional development to guide the design and delivery of online courses (Leederman, 2019). The pandemic demonstrated a greater need for instructional designers. Millions of students were exposed to virtual learning with great success; at the same time, millions were exposed to classrooms with no preparation, less technology, and poorly designed online instructions. Lederman (2020) reported that about two-­ thirds of the faculty said they received help from teaching and learning centers and instructional designers in Fall 2020, while more than three-quarters of faculty reported receiving aid from instructional technology staff members (78%) and peer-­ to-­peer forums (76%). The extensive use of ERT in the last couple of years changed both faculty and student perceptions of online education, likely triggering a more comprehensive online education adoption in the post-COVID-19 pandemic world (Ghodrat Abadi, 2021; Xie et al., 2020). There is no doubt that instructional designers will continue to play an essential role in online education in the post-COVID-19 pandemic, which is the next normal. The primary purpose of this chapter is to discuss the traditional roles of instructional designers before COVID-19, instructional designers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, the reshaped role of instructional designers in the post-­ COVID-­19 world, and what qualities we need in instructional designers in the next normal. This chapter will provide recommendations for higher education professionals and instructional designers about the post-COVID-19 world in higher education.

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Birth of the Traditional Instructional Design Role Brief Overview of Instructional Design The concept of instructional design (ID) originated in the 1940s during the WWII-­ era as a training and development model for the US military. Several psychologists and education specialists were assigned to create training materials and later assess the learning ability of a vast number of soldiers. Widely speaking, instructional design is the process of enhancing learning and applying instructional principles to solve real-world problems (Reiser & Dempsey, 2011). Instructional design, also known as instruction systems design (ISD), introduced a number of models. The most renowned model guiding many instructional designers is the ADDIE Model, a systematic learner-centered approach for designing effective instruction using five phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. The ADDIE Model incorporates an iterative design approach that involves review and revision throughout the design process (Hess & Greer, 2016). Though each phase has its own purpose and is equally important to the process, each step builds on the previous step before. The analysis phase begins with evaluating the learning environment in order to identify high-priority instructional problems (Molenda et al., 2003). The design phase involves conducting research and planning to then design specific objectives and plans that address those problems found in the learning environment. During the development phase, resources and materials are created according to the specifications translated in the previous phase. The implementation phase involves incorporating those resources and materials for learners to use in the learning environment. Lastly, the evaluation phase focuses on assessing those learners to determine the mastery level of the objectives outlined at the beginning, with revisions made as needed. On account of its process-based approach, Hess and Greer (2016) note the argument that the ADDIE acronym itself is interchangeable with the term instructional design. Decades later, educational psychologists, such as B.  F. Skinner, Benjamin Bloom, and Robert Gagné, championed instructional design even further with modified models based on systems information processing, or systems thinking. According to Khadjooi et al. (2011), the information processing model implies that “mental events occur when adults are presented with various stimuli and focuses on the learning outcomes and how to arrange specific instructional events to achieve those outcomes” (p. 116). Fast-forward to the twenty-first Century, instructional design evolved to embrace the use of rich instructional media, such as video and simulations, as Internet bandwidth improved. Alongside these media types was the introduction of learning management systems (LMS), which allowed for a single central location to manage, deliver, and track online learning courses and assessments. According to Sharma and Vatta (2013), an LMS can technically be defined as “a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, and delivery of e-learning education courses or training programs” (p.  1). Essentially, the LMS provides a

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place to learn and teach without the dependency of space or time, offering mediums like discussion forums, and wiki spaces for interactivity and social learning. LMSs, such as the most popular Blackboard, have become an integral component of education systems, universities, and even various industries, blending in class and online activities. Even traditional face-to-face classrooms even adopted the LMS-delivery platform to supplement instruction online. Also referred to as a course management system (CMS) or virtual learning environments (VLE), the evolution of the LMS changed the landscape of eLearning, prompting the role of the instructional designer to also evolve. Going forward, ID responsibilities further extended to the creation and curation of instruction within the LMS and other authoring tools, including leading training initiatives teaching others how to deliver instruction using these tools.

Role of an Instructional Designer in Higher Education Chao et  al. (2010) note that during the 1970s, instructional design models grew significantly among the US military, business, and industry sector, but not so much in higher education. The authors further detail that instructional designers were rarely found on college campuses until the 1990s when internet technology advanced and online learning began gaining momentum. Though some universities began employing ID positions before 1998, in that same year, Guernsey’s (1998) article “A new career track combines teaching and academic computing” published in the Chronicles for Higher Education declared the new profession of instructional designer as a combination of instructional technology and teaching. By this time, instructional designers noticed that the traditional ID models did not fully accommodate academia, so their practices had to be catered to meet higher education needs to create online learning experiences. Primarily thereafter, the instructional designer took on the role of a consultant, advising teaching faculty and academics [or subject matter experts (SMEs)]in the instructional design process and eLearning development (Kanuka, 2006). From here, the ID provides a range of customized consulting services—such as assessing existing course materials, collaborating with SMEs to redesign online course content, providing solutions for technology integration, and training faculty on new learning practices or digital tools. According to Wagner and Hulen (2015), “instructional designers can, in fact, be valuable members of online course development teams within higher education as they possess specific knowledge of learning theories and instructional design models that are the keys to improving the quality of instruction within online higher education courses.” Going forward, the role of the instructional designer in higher education institutions became more popular. Miller and Stein (2016) summarize that in higher education, instructional designers can take on a variety of roles, either course development-focused or technology-focused. Within these two focus areas, IDs can play the multifaceted role of facilitator, mentor, trainer, collaborator, reviewer, and

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mediator, or some combination of each. In any case, their involvement almost always requires collaborating with faculty and subject matter experts. Halupa (2019) additionally notes that instructional designers are also identified as instructional advisors, with the keyword advisor denoting the significant relationship between the instructional designer and the faculty member. While faculty experts have the knowledge of what to teach, instructional designers can assist in how to organize and develop the content to enhance student learning. So far, reports continue to support what we already know—“higher education is experiencing an increased demand for instructional designers, with an expected job growth of over 19% in the next 10 years” (CNN Money, 2013). A report funded in part by the Melinda and Bill Gates Foundation indicates that there are currently at least 13,000 instructional designers working in higher education in the US alone. This is due, in large part, to the expansion of online learning to make higher education accessible to learners (Intentional Futures, 2016).

Past Instructional Design Challenges Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the field of instructional design has not been without its challenges—lack of respect from faculty when the roles of each party [instructional designer and faculty content expert] is not clearly defined in the beginning. The role of an instructional designer in higher education can be dynamic, yet ambiguous (Pan et al., 2003). Drysdale (2021) attributes this ambiguity to the context in which an instructional designer carries out their job functions, including their position within the organizational structure of the college or university, which can often further be impacted by centralized or decentralize structures. As noted by Miller and Stein (2016), a major challenge for instructional designers is faculty resistance to new pedagogies and deliveries, regardless of the delivery method. This resistance resonates from a variety of reasons. One reason being the “fear of not looking knowledgeable in front of their students as they struggle with a new technology” and another, being the “uncertainty about the efficacy of the new teaching delivery” (Miller & Stein, 2016, p. 8). In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, a professor may be resistant to deliver traditional face-to-face classroom content online via Zoom because of unfamiliarity with the platform which in turns leads more time spent to a lack of student engagement from the class. However, a study by Jaschik and Lederman (2018) found that only one in four faculty members reported working with an instructional designer to create or revise face-to-face or online courses. While this may be, in part, due to a lack of access to instructional designers at particular institutions, it is also due partly to misconceptions about what instructional designers can do, potentially resulting in underlying struggles when they do come together with faculty (Dempsey et al., 2007; Intentional Futures, 2016; Ritzhaupt & Kumar, 2015; Rubley, 2016). Thus, such misconceptions often further blur the role of an instructional designer.

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Role of the ID and Challenges in Response to COVID-19 Moreover, because pairing instructional designers with faculty often demands considerable time and collaboration (Brown et al., 2013; Dempsey et al., 2007), faculty members may experience additional anxiety or frustration over time management, even though instructional designers can offer guidance and training on how to implement new methodologies into their teaching. Pilbeam (2020) notes that “instructional designers can make courses more equitable, help build community, and invest in important resources’‘ (p. 1). The ID can ascertain if faculty may be unintentionally erecting “barriers” (or obstacles) in the curriculum due to assumptions made when planning and providing instruction; this can in turn hinder an accessible and inclusive learning environment. Such “barriers” to learning vary widely and can be related to cultural barriers [such as students with language differences], students with learning disabilities, or students with hearing or visual impairment. Implementing ID innovation and plans of action to reduce these barriers can be the potential catalyst for welcoming diverse learning and cultivating inclusivity (Levey, 2018). For example, a design that accommodates learners having trouble understanding the speaker’s accent could include providing captions or transcripts with audio or video content. A design that accommodates learning difficulties stemming from disorganization and sensory overload could consider practices such as, implementing a consistent course design or “chunking” the material into bite-sized pieces, allowing lots of opportunity for practice. A design that is usable and marketable to diverse individuals could include investing in resources like community-­ building learning settings, such as email groups and social networking sites (Roberts et al., 2011). Pillbeam (2020) further concludes that: With the increasing need to create quality digital courses at rapid speed and scale as we navigate COVID-19, the practice of instructional design will further establish itself as a critical component of quality learning experiences. From overhauling systems to increasing access, to developing new models for an ever-changing modality, instructional designers must continue to innovate quickly to meet faculty and students’ needs to create enriching, accessible and inclusive learning experiences to ensure student success (p. 2).

A 2020 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics report (2020) estimated that instructional coordinators, another type of instructional design career, would see 10% career growth by the year 2030, consistent with the average growth for other occupations. However, that was before the COVID-19 pandemic; growth will likely increase now that organizations across the globe have seen the importance of remote contact. Outside of the COVID-19 pandemic, there are many other crises that today’s learners will eventually face and instructional designers play an integral role in both predicting and preparing for whatever comes next (SNU, 2021). Currently, the instructional designer role can vary based on the organization, employing professionals under an array of titles—eLearning developer, instructional technologist, learning content designer, learning architect, training consultant, and learning and development manager to name a few. The primary focus of the eLearning developer

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may be to design and create courses from content received by SMEs using e-­learning authoring tools. The learning architect may work extensively with SMEs to design assessments aligned with course learning objectives. The learning and development manager focus may be to implement learning programs and oversee training and professional development initiatives for the organization. Though each title and function may accommodate that specific organization’s structure, each role collectively embraces the purest form of instructional design foundation.

 he Shift in the Instructional Design Profession T Post-COVID-19 The role and value of instructional designers and the instructional design field have been amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic as higher education institutions who seek to continue to provide educational and professional development offerings to their students, staff, and faculty. Instructional designers’ role in the COVID-19 era has shifted to building relationships within the university community. Specific efforts included developing, gathering, and distributing resources for teaching and learning, designing faculty course design and development workshops, providing technical support, and advocating for students and for their profession (Xie et al., 2021). The number of instructional design, educational technologist, and e-learning specialist job announcements are on the rise in institutions of higher education. Professionals in these job fields are critical to an institution’s success as technology initiatives are carried out institution-wide and online education becomes fundamental to institutional policy in higher education. Previously, researchers have analyzed job announcements, conducted surveys, and interviews to determine the competencies needed by professionals in these job roles (Ritzhaupt & Kumar, 2015; Ritzhaupt & Martin, 2014; Sugar et al., 2012). These studies found that knowledge of ID and learning theories, soft skills, the ability to learn independently, and the willingness to learn are critical to the role of instructional designers in higher education. Teaching skills, communication skills, time management, problem-solving, stakeholder management, diplomacy, relationship building, and emotional intelligence were all found to be major qualities needed in a successful instructional designer (Ritzhaupt & Kumar, 2015). While instructional designers in higher education must have extensive knowledge in the use of ID theory and practice, learning theories, they also need to keep abreast of a wide array of information and communication technologies to be able to apply them to educational problems. Instructional designers within higher education use a wide variety of tools for a wide variety of purposes, such as communication and collaboration (e.g., Google Applications, Adobe Connect, Instant Messaging, Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, Microsoft Office products, Project Server), and development purposes (e.g., Learning Management Systems, Articulate, Camtasia, Photoshop, and Adobe

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Creative Suite). The list of tools further expanded after COVID-19. Emergency remote teaching required ID professionals to learn and teach new technologies in a short amount of time as faculty and students needed support in ERT technologies. As an example, during the initial months of the pandemic, IDs did most of the heavy lifting to redesign face-to-face courses using various technologies, introduce new assessment methods and tools, and guide faculty, particularly those who were new to online teaching. Abramenka-Lachheb et al. (2021) investigated instructional designers’ expressed needs with the rapid transition to online learning and ERT during the COVID-19 crisis. The data were collected in an informal learning environment—a large Facebook group for ID professionals. They found that seeking educational technology advice (27%) was the top urgent need where IDs sought support. The other three were seeking pedagogical advice (%18), seeking input related to the Instructional Designer role (e.g., transition from K-12 teaching to corporate ID) (24%), and announcing e-learning events and webinars (17%). As consistent with AbramenkaLachheb and her colleagues (2021), technical skills and familiarity with technology and programming were found to be an area that instructional designers feel insufficient (Ritzhaupt & Kumar, 2015). However, instructional designers believe that an understanding of why and when to use technologies was far more important than how to use technologies, which can be learned later. Therefore, understanding the capabilities of technologies can enable IDs to find solutions to educational problems, communicate these solutions to stakeholders, and collaborate with faculty to implement these technologies in teaching and learning (Ritzhaupt & Kumar, 2015). There is a growing need in the instructional design field to constantly offer opportunities for informal learning, professional development, and networking among instructional designers. Well-designed learning communities in which designers continue to learn and grow are much needed in the post-COVID-19 era. According to Abramenka-Lachheb et al. (2021), two major ideas could be brought to instructional design students’ attention early on while preparing for the field: (i) instructional design is always changing and learning never stops and (ii) knowledge from peers/other professionals’ judgments and experiences can be sources of knowledge when looking for the answers to the most pressing issues/questions and challenges. Also, there is a growing need for area-specific content knowledge in the ID field. Instructional designers with a background in a certain area often do well building instruction for that specific area. This means that the ID will likely be familiar with the audience, will be able to speak the content-specific language as the subject matter experts, and will be able to contribute to the content development itself.

Conclusion More than 2 years into the pandemic, administrators, instructors, and students in higher education institutions have made extreme efforts to adapt to different circumstances—but what about the contributions of instructional designers? Instructional

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designers have played a critical role in supporting the continuation of teaching and learning during COVID-19. This support included professional learning opportunities in the form of workshops and coaching. This chapter discussed the instructional designers’ roles and qualities in the new normal and the next normal. The chapter outlined the traditional roles of instructional designers in history, instructional designers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, the reshaped role of instructional designers in the post-COVID-19 world, and what qualities we need in instructional designers in the next normal. Designing learning experiences and courses is an activity where team effort is most needed because of its many dimensions. The two most fundamental roles in this team effort are usually faculty members and instructional designers. There are three main practices that can boost faculty and ID collaboration and create a product that ultimately benefits students. First, both parties should embrace a shared goal toward students learning. When faculty and ID know where they are headed and acknowledge their common goal and its importance, they are more likely to succeed in their collaboration. Second, both faculty and IDs bring valuable resources to the table during any collaboration, supplementing one another’s expertise. Building trust is crucial to fostering collaboration. Both parties’ professionalism, dedication, and concern in every step of the collaborative effort help them overcome problems and find solutions. Finally, scheduling a timeframe that allows healthy and ongoing collaboration is critical in ID-faculty collaboration. Putting together a high-quality learning experience or course takes a great amount of time and dedication. IDs and faculty should make sure to micromanage the whole process in time and aim to engage in professional dialogue, balance their workload, negotiate ideas, and make informed decisions. A career in instructional design requires expertise in design, instructional technology, and education. For instructional designers, there are plenty of roles available including teaching and learning consultant, digital learning coordinator, learning content designer, instructional technologist, course developer, e-learning designer, training design specialist, learning architect, learning experience designer, etc. Although the job responsibilities might slightly differ for each position, most of them work toward the same goal and they require excellence in similar skill sets. Higher education administrators who are looking to hire IDs should look for these skill sets: customer service skills, project management, time management, interpersonal and technical skills, comfort with learning new technologies, knowledge of instructional design and adult learning theory, up-to-date with the field, comfortable asking questions, adaptable to change, and building networks. An instructional designer with these skill sets can be a successful bridge builder between multiple stakeholders for connecting ideas, conflict resolution, and developing communities.

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References Abramenka-Lachheb, V., Lachheb, A., Leung, J., Sankaranarayanan, R., & Seo, G.  Z. (2021). Instructional Designers’ Use of Informal Learning: How Can We All Support Each Other in Times ofCrisis? The Journal of Applied Instructional Design, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.51869/103/ valaljlrsgs Bauer-Wolf, J. (2019). Report: Majority of faculty, students prefer face-to-face instruction. Education Dive. Retrieved from https://www.educationdive.com/news/report-­majority-­of-­ facultystudents-­prefer-­face-­to-­face-­instruction/568983/ Brown, B., Eaton, S., Jacobsen, M., Roy, S., & Friesen, S. (2013). Instructional design collaboration: A Professional learning and growth experience. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(3) Retrieved from https://jolt.merlot.org/vol9no3/brown_0913.htm Chao, I. T., Saj, T., & Hamilton, D. (2010). Using collaborative course development to achieve online course quality standards. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 11(3), 106–126. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v11i3.912 CNN Money/Pay Scale. (2013). Best jobs in America. CNN Money. https://money.cnn.com/pf/ best-­jobs/?iid=BestJobs_sp_header Dempsey, J.V., Albion, P., Litchfield, B.C., Havard, B., & McDonald, J. (2007). What do instructional designers do in higher education? A written symposium. Drysdale, J. (2021). The story is in the structure: A multi-case study of instructional design teams. Online learning, 25(3), 57–80. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v25i3.2877 Intentional Futures. (2016). Instructional design in higher education. A report on the role, workflow, and experience of instructional designers White Paper. Retrieved from https://intentionalfutures.com/static/instructional-­design-­in-­higher-­education-­report-­5129d9d1e6c988c25456 7f91f3ab0d2c.pdf Ghodrat Abadi, M. (2021, July), Understanding the academic shock of Covid-19: How are students’ perceptions of online learning evolving over time? Paper presented at 2021 ASEE virtual annual conference content access, Virtual Conference. https://peer.asee.org/37965 Guernsey, L. (1998, December 11). A new career track combines teaching and academic computing. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.chronicle.com/ article/a-­new-­career-­track-­combines-­teaching-­and-­academic-­computing/ Halupa, C. (2019). Differentiation of roles: Instructional designers and Faculty in the Creation of online courses. International Journal of Higher Education, 8(1), 55–68. https://doi. org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n1p55 Hess, A., & Greer, K. (2016). Designing for engagement: Using the ADDIE model to integrate high-impact practices into an online information literacy course. Communications in Information Literacy, 10(2), 264–282. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review, 27 March. https://er.educause.edu/ articles/2020/3/the-­difference-­between-­emergency-­remote-­teaching-­and-­online-­learning. Accessed 15 November 2021. Jaschik S., Lederman D. (2018). 2018 survey of faculty attitudes on technology: A study by inside higher Ed and Gallup. https://www.insidehighered.com/booklet/2018-­survey-­faculty­attitudes-­technology Kanuka, H. (2006). Instructional design and eLearning: A discussion of pedagogical content knowledge as a missing construct. E-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, 9(2), n2. Khadjooi, K., Rostami, K., & Ishaq, S. (2011). How to use Gagne’s model of instructional design in teaching psychomotor skills. Gastroenterol Hepatol Bed Bench, 4(3), 116–119. PMID: 24834168; PMCID: PMC4017416. Lederman, D. (2019, October 30). Professors’ slow, steady acceptance of online learning: A Survey. Inside Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/ survey/professors-­slow-­steady-­acceptance-­online-­learning-­survey

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Lederman, D. (2020, October 6). Faculty confidence in online learning grows. Inside Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-­learning/ article/2020/10/06/covid-­era-­experience-­strengthens-­faculty-­belief-­value-­online Levey, J. A. (2018). Universal design for instruction in nursing education: An integrative review. Nursing Education Perspectives, 39(3), 156–161. Miller, S., & Stein, G. (2016). Finding our voice: Instructional designers in higher education. Educause review. Retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/articles/2016/2/finding-­our-­voice­instructional-­designers-­in-­higher-­education Mohammed, A.  O., Khidhir, B.  A., Nazeer, A., & Vijayan, V.  J. (2020). Emergency remote teaching during coronavirus pandemic: The current trend and future directive at Middle East College Oman. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 5(3), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s41062-­020-­00326-­7 Molenda, M., Reigeluth, C. M., & Nelson, L. M. (2003). Instructional design. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cognitive science (Vol. 2, pp. 574–578). Nature Publishing Group. Pan, C., Deets, J., Phillips, W., & Cornell, R. A. (2003). Pulling tigers’ teeth without getting bitten: Instructional designers and faculty. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 4(3), 289–302. Pilbeam, R. (2020). The COVID-19 wake-up call: Instructional designers are key to creating accessible and inclusive learning models. The Evolllution. Retrieved from https://evolllution. com/programming/program_planning/the-­covid-­19-­wake-­up-­call-­instructional-­designers-­are-­ key-­to-­creating-­accessible-­and-­inclusive-­learning-­models/ Reiser, R., & Dempsey, J. (2011). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (3rd ed.). Pearson. Ritzhaupt, A. D., & Kumar, S. (2015). Knowledge and skills needed by instructional designers in higher education. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 28(3), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/ piq.21196 Ritzhaupt, A. D., & Martin, F. (2014). Development and validation of the educational technologist multimedia competencies survey. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(1), 13–33. Roberts, K., Park, H., Brown, S., & Cook, B. (2011). Universal Design for Instruction in postsecondary education: A systematic review of empirically based articles. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 24(1), 5–15. Rubley, J.N. (2016). Instructional designers in higher ed: Changing the course of next-­generation learning. The Chronicle of Higher Education and Pearson Education Report. Retrieved from https://interactive.holoniq.com/reports/2016_Instructional%20Designers_v9_Pearson_ Interactive%20Final.pdf Sharma, A., & Vatta, S. (2013). Role of learning management systems in education. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering, 3(6), 997–1002. SNU Professional and Graduate Studies. (2021, January 26). Why the pandemic has made careers in instructional design more relevant than ever before?” student success tips, online degree programs. Career Advancement & Advice. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://degrees.snu.edu/blog/ why-­the-­pandemic-­has-­made-­careers-­in-­instructional-­design-­more-­relevant-­than-­ever-­before Sugar, W., Hoard, B., Brown, A., & Daniels, L. (2012). Identifying multimedia production competencies and skills of instructional design and technology professionals: An analysis of recent job postings. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 40(3), 227. U.S.  Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020, May). Occupational outlook handbook, instructional coordinators. Retrieved from: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-­training-­and-­library/ instructional-­coordinators.htm#tab-­3 Wagner, D. L., & Hulen, K. G. (2015). Collaborating with an instructional designer to develop a quality learner-engaged online course. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 6(4), 40. https://doi.org/10.5430/jnep.v6n4p40 Xie, J., & Rice, M.  F. (2021). Instructional designers’ roles in emergency remote teaching during COVID-19. Distance Education, 42(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919. 2020.1869526

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Xie, X., Siau, K., & Nah, F. F. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic – Online education in the new normal and the next normal. Journal of Information Technology Case and Application Research, 22(3), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228053.2020.1824884 Xie, J., Gulinna, A., Rice, M.  F., & Griswold, D.  E. (2021). Instructional designers’ shifting thinking about supporting teaching during and post-COVID-19. Distance Education, 42(3), 331–351. Elif N. Gokbel, Ed.D., is the Instructional Design Specialist for Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. She collaborates with faculty on the design and development of courses, learning activities, and assessments. She also assists faculty in incorporating evidence-­ based practices and technology into classrooms. Her research interests include online teaching, instructional technology and professional development.  

Nicole P.  Lipscomb-King is the Systems Training Specialist for Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. She is responsible for developing and coordinating training and education programs in information systems for Winship Clinical Trials Office research staff. She is an experienced instructional designer and eLearning developer with 10 years of experience in higher education. Nicole is currently serving as President of the Association Supporting Computer Users in Education (ASCUE).  

Chapter 29

Graduate Students’ Work Readiness in the Context of COVID-19: Challenges and Recommendations Heyam F. Dalky, Yousef M. Aljawarneh, Adam M. Khraisat, and Lubna M. Rajab Abstract  Worldwide, the COVID-19 crisis has forced many academic institutions to close or operate through virtual formats. This has negatively impacted the learning process of millions of university students and instructors. During the closure, online learning solutions were applied to ensure education steadiness, and many alternative teaching strategies are considered to counteract the education gaps that occurred. Indeed, many students are suffering from the long-term impacts associated with COVID-19 with extended psychological and physical distress on their learning outcomes. Graduate students are among the most seriously affected by those impacts with special consideration to the effects on their work readiness. This “hysteresis” effect on work readiness requires specific attention, especially in regard to the “academic and psychological readiness” of the graduated students. Therefore, this chapter will provide a detailed overview of students’ perception of work readiness and how this has changed during the context of COVID-19 and provide strategic recommendations to mitigate effectively graduate readiness, shall future lockdowns occur. This chapter will provide more information to help academic institutions to refocus and realign goals and tasks toward meeting students’ and employers’ needs in a new world with new job opportunities in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Detailed discussions will cover examples for graduate students’ services that could enhance their work readiness including soft skills training

H. F. Dalky (*) Faculty of Nursing, Jordan University of Science & Technology, Irbid, Jordan e-mail: [email protected] Y. M. Aljawarneh School of Nursing, Health Science Division, Higher College of Technology, Fujairah, UAE e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Khraisat · L. M. Rajab Health Science Division, Higher College of Technology, Sharjah, UAE e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_29

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and career planning to train and empower graduates with the advanced skills required by the employers. Keywords  Work readiness · Employability · Graduate students · Soft-skills training · Career planning · COVID-19

Introduction The demands on higher education institutions to grapple with the issues of the modern world are growing. By demanding professionals who can meet the demands of new contexts and trends, such as the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the industry encourages personal skill investment to educate new graduates for the needs of the market (Schwab, 2016). Higher education institutions, on the other hand, are frequently criticized for failing to prepare graduates for the realities of professional practice (Knight & Yorke, 2003). As a result, it is no coincidence that graduate employability readiness has become one of the primary concerns driving higher education institutions’ missions (Small et al., 2018). One of the aims of educational institutions is to ensure that their alumni are ready for the workforce when they graduate. Nonetheless, many conventional programs continue to teach traditional material using old methods, ignoring the information and skills required for today and tomorrow’s employment markets (Bunshaft et al., 2015). As a result, there are gaps in employability skills (i.e., a lack of communication, teamwork, or problem-­ solving abilities) between what students learn in universities and what real-world companies are looking for in new graduates.

Employability/Work Readiness: Theoretical Perspectives Hillage and Pollard (1998) presented a model of employability based on the four elements over two decades ago to acquire and retain rewarding work: Personal/ external conditions (i.e., duties, household status, supply and demand in the labor market), deployment (i.e., job administration and job-hunting capabilities), presentation (i.e., CV, covering letter, interviewing), and assets (i.e., education, abilities, and mindsets). Their approach comprised baseline assets such as fundamental skills, intermediate assets such as vocational skills, and high-level assets such as collaboration or commercial acumen that could be transferred to other contexts. Employers have begun emphasizing the abilities they require from these new workers as a result of the influx of fresh graduates entering the labor market each year and the resulting rise in options. Previous studies have found a misalignment or gap between the abilities acquired in universities programs and the transferrable skills required in the job (Kilgarriff & Renau, 2013; Prinsley & Baranyai, 2015; Sarkar et al., 2016).

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While both educational institutions and companies acknowledge that there is a gap between graduate preparation and workplace demands, employers indicated a far larger disparity (Jackson et al., 2016). There is indeed a gap between the content delivered in educational programs and what is emphasized in education against contemporary workplace requirements (Banks et al., 2015). Academic institutions, for example, guarantee that students are familiar with the curriculum (theoretical knowledge and content-specific activities) and can learn. Employers, on the other hand, think that graduates require more technical (i.e., practical) and interpersonal skills (Jackson et al., 2016). According to Akdere et al. (2019), no new recruit has failed due to a lack of technical abilities; rather, the problem is a lack of workplace skills.

 mployability/Work Readiness in the Context E of the COVID-19 Pandemic The pandemic infection caused by COVID-19 in 2020–2021 impacted the majority of people’s daily lives throughout the world. To combat the disease’s spread, governments throughout the world use a variety of measures, including major lockdowns and mobility restrictions, and Movement Control Orders (MCOs). As a result of the lockdowns, students’ academic performance and educational activities were impacted, including practical training for nursing and midwifery students. Since the various governments enforced lockdowns on numerous functioning areas, including universities, and colleges, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a substantial influence on research procedures, posing a variety of challenges for clinical and surgical trainees. Science and clinical studies unrelated to COVID-19 came to a halt as a direct result of lockdown measures and the closure of numerous university research centers (Sohrabi et al., 2021). During the current epidemic, around 102 nations throughout the world closed all universities, colleges, and elementary schools in an attempt to block the virus’s transmission, impacting over 900 million children and young people (Burns, 2020). Given that advantaged households are more likely to have parents with better levels of digital literacy who can assist the learning of children who are unable to attend school, pupils from lower-income homes are less likely to attend. They don’t have this assistance, therefore they risk slipping further behind (Burns, 2020). After the COVID-19 epidemic, all academic institutions around the world, promptly switched certain classes to online courses, using Skype, Moodle, and Google Classroom to give live lectures (Khraisat et  al., 2020a). However, research has been unable to establish whether the different teaching styles would contribute to improved learning outcomes in terms of self-competence (Khraisat et al., 2020b), this problem has proven tough for individuals who are inexperienced with the intricacies of virtual learning (Singh & Haynes, 2020). Many medical educators and students were dissatisfied with the clinical practicum since the students were unable to conduct the procedures and the clinical instructors’ presentations

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relied solely on online learning. As a result, future studies on this topic should pay special attention to variations in competence development, which have been academically challenged (OECD, 2012). Face-to-face clinical experiences are required for educating caring practices, which develop the didactics of caring behaviors using emotional intelligence, which is a major concern for nursing professors throughout epidemic shutdowns (Tabudlo & Torres, 2021). Furthermore, nursing students need to be given the chance to prove their care abilities in a real-life setting (Persaud & Thornton, 2018). Given the pandemic’s deficiencies in educating and practicing caring, managers and preceptors must make a concerted effort to develop learning opportunities that foster caring behaviors (Tabudlo & Torres, 2021). The impacts of the lockdowns and the suspension of face-to-face clinical practicum harm nursing and midwifery students on numerous levels, including personal competence and selfconfidence owing to a lack of experience performing several fundamental nursing operations. Furthermore, because of the ongoing impact of COVID-19 on traditional teaching, gaining competency may need additional self-directed instruction, distant case study, or the use of other training methods like simulation (Arrighi et al., 2021). The post-COVID-19 environment, which limits the kind of educational contacts that might develop such pedagogies, makes this a much more serious issue, one that confronts new opportunities and dangers. One such issue is whether or not universities are ready to take part in the digital revolution (World Economic Forum, 2016). Also, the global labor market has been significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has accelerated transformation led by automation and digitalization, resulting in a skills shift (Agrawal et al., 2020). By 2030, an estimated 107 million employees may need to change jobs, up from the pre-pandemic projection of 106 million (Agrawal et al., 2020; de Locarnini et al., 2021). Some talents will be in shorter supply, while technological, social, and emotional skills will be in higher demand (de Locarnini et al., 2021). While the change in skills was already beginning prior to COVID-19, academics and industry leaders now anticipate it to accelerate (Bughin et al., 2018). It is anticipated that determining the skills required in the workforce is a hot topic in the literature. Furthermore, data shows that all stakeholders have a vested interest in resolving the skill mismatch between universities and workforce abilities (Brundiers & Wiek, 2017). Scholars have provided numerous ideas from the standpoint of human resource management that may be beneficial in overcoming uncertain times. Bakhshi et al. (2017) utilized a machine learning technique to determine the hard skills that would be needed in the future job markets. It said that information that aids in human understanding (e.g., psychology) is especially beneficial. Furthermore, many organizations must establish new economic strategies that fit with various environmental changes, such as social distance induced by the COVID-19 threat (Fullagar, 2020).

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 he Impact of COVID-19 on Healthcare Profession T Graduates: Education and Clinical Training Perspectives COVID-19 is an infectious illness with a high death rate and a quick transmission rate (Harapan et  al., 2020). There are several examples of transmission in health care professionals, including nurses. The instance of the nurses who died after contracting COVID-19 aroused a lot of concern and anxiety for nurses, particularly those who have had to care for COVID-19 patients daily (Santoso et  al., 2020). Health professionals who come into contact with sick patients are at a high risk of becoming infected, especially if they are not wearing proper personal protective equipment or are in poor physical condition, which weakens their immune system. For example, according to data from the Indonesian Physicians Association, 545 doctors and nurses had died as a result of the COVID-19 illness as of 18th July 2021 (Mazrieva, 2021, Syam, 2021). COVID-19 claimed the lives of 159 doctors, 9 dentists, and 114 nurses, according to reports (Santoso et al., 2020). The high death rate among healthcare workers will almost likely result in a reduction in the capacity and quality of healthcare services and maybe even the collapse of the healthcare system. Nurses are one of the health workers that are at the forefront of providing nursing care to patients, and their job is expected to be crucial during this pandemic so that they may give the best service possible (Santoso et al., 2020).

 nline and Hybrid Learning Perspectives of Today’s O Nursing Students The case of nurses who died after contracting COVID-19 instilled worry and anxiety among nurses, especially those who had to provide direct care to COVID-19 patients (Fang et al., 2021). Concerns can develop as a result of the danger of infection and the potential for illness to spread among coworkers and family members (Huang et al., 2020). Anxiety, dread, sadness, sleeplessness, mental illnesses, somatization, impatience, and irritation are among the psychological issues that nurses who work in health services face when caring for COVID 19 patients, according to previous studies (Akkuş et  al., 2021; Khatatbeh et  al., 2021; Shen et  al., 2020). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), decreased appetite, discomfort, helplessness, weeping, and even suicidal ideation have all been reported (Santoso et  al., 2020) in the literature. Other research has revealed how nursing students deal with psychological stress. Nursing students, according to research, also feel anxiety, dread, despair, and rage. Psychological problems among nurses are more common than in nursing students, according to research; nevertheless, when students enter the infectious care unit, they also face psychological stress (Huang et  al., 2020). Anxiety and fear of becoming infected with COVID-19, as well as a sense of uncertainty, can all have an impact on graduates’ willingness to work as nurses in health care. Preparing future nurses to overcome these situations and fears caused by the

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current pandemic situation indicated that there is a need to make sure the undergraduate nursing students, especially those in year 3 and 4, must be well prepared to take charge immediately after their graduation, which leads to questions about their education level and their preparedness. During the past 2  years, face-to-face nursing education has changed to online education, the transmission of learning materials over the internet for student-­ student and student-teacher interaction, as well as the distribution of educational resources, is known as online education. Teachers have begun to use online learning platforms to encourage self-directed learning and evaluation in students as technology-­assisted learning has advanced over the previous decade. With synchronous and asynchronous learning possibilities, online education can help engage a large group of students at once (where lectures may not be viable) (Sinclair et al., 2015). Students can access materials, ask questions, and practice skills at any time that is convenient for them via asynchronous learning. Synchronous learning is any type of learning in which the learner(s) and instructor(s) are both present at the same time and in the same location in order to enhance learning. This includes live online sessions with a complete class or with smaller groups as well as in-person classes (Suliman et al., 2022). The basic premise of asynchronous learning, on the other hand, is that learning can occur at different times and in different places for each student (Suliman et al., 2022). On the other hand, some universities have adopted a hybrid learning model, which is a teaching-­ learning paradigm that combines traditional face-to-face and online teaching-­ learning paradigms. Pesen (2014) has described hybrid learning as an excellent technique for integrating the best parts of classroom and online learning while also gaining the requisite knowledge and communication skills. It is assumed that the primary goal is to aid students’ learning by making the most effective and efficient use of the educational environment established by integrating face-to-face learning with technology-assisted teaching (Kazui & Yalçınii, 2022). Face-to-face lessons are taught with in-class activities in the hybrid learning process, but some activities and practices should be continued outside of the classroom. There is a need for an auxiliary tool that can manage the distance education process in order to carry out these activities outside of the classroom in an acceptable manner (Kurt & Yıldırım, 2018). Similarly, as part of blended learning, online education allows tutors to modify and analyze students’ learning styles on the go (Fontaine et al., 2019). It may help teachers give essential support for individual students when feedback in a big group face-to-face session is not available (Herbert et al., 2017). During the COVID-19 pandemic, universities, colleges, and schools all over the globe switched to distance education, with the majority of it being delivered online (Dost et al., 2020). For this procedure, health professional courses may employ a variety of blended learning methods, such as synchronous online tutorials and online learning in simulation sessions, controlled discussion, asynchronous activities forums, formative quizzes, and other teacher-directed or student-directed activities or self-directed learning activities. Also, during the pandemic, the physical presence among students, physical sessions between students and nurse educators, and physical interaction of

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students with lab equipment are all reduced (Khraisat, 2021). It is possible that using these learning approaches may be regarded differently from traditional classroom instruction. Both teachers and students have had to adapt to new learning techniques online, with a focus on active learning and the technical assistance needed to give instruction (Jowsey et al., 2020). Interacting with a curriculum that has been moved from in-person to online is likely to influence how students learn and apply what they’ve learned in clinical practice. Understanding the good and negative effects of these activities on student engagement, learning, and conduct will give useful information for future teaching and learning practices (Al-Balas et al., 2020). The impact of online education on the development of practical skills and graduate preparedness to practice, in particular. The authors describe a procedure devised to investigate the process and impact of student and teacher adaptation to emerging learning pedagogies as a consequence of the pandemic in this research. The major goal of this procedure is to investigate the effects of changing teaching and learning methods. This covers a short and long-­ term assessment of online education and modifications to work-integrated learning during the COVID-19 epidemic and its influence on students and instructors. Similarly, there has been a lot of shifts in practical learning. New emergency standards for preregistration nursing have been implemented in the United Kingdom, allowing student nurses to opt-in to paid extended clinical placements voluntarily (Carolan et al., 2020). While ‘making a difference and contributing to the greater good’ may give some students a sense of accomplishment, feelings of impotence in students who are unable to do so cannot be overstated, with current media “hero” bombardment potentially generating feelings of guilt and distress in students who are unable to do so. Furthermore, the uncertainty surrounding these new positions has the potential to impede learning opportunities, particularly for final-year students who must consolidate the required skills and competencies to make a safe transition to registration. Similar “innovations” have been proposed in Australia, although the most significant consequence has been the cancellation of clinical assignments (especially in the private and aged care sectors). Similarly, clinical placement availability in the United States has decreased As a result, numerous jurisdictions have passed laws allowing virtual simulation to be used to earn credit for clinical hours. Students would certainly experience a wide range of uncertainty as a result of the disruption to nursing programs, resulting in mental discomfort. This will almost certainly exacerbate more visible sources of anguish, such as worries about getting COVID-19 and moral distress as a result of seeing mass death. In the months, if not years ahead, widespread uncertainty regarding course advancement and completion will surely undergird all student experiences (Hung et  al., 2021). The disruptive effects of COVID-19 have required fast change in clinical practice; for example, in the UK, the usage of video consultations has now been implemented at a rapid pace and scale, in contrast to the practically glacial pace of adoption in the pre-COVID-19 period (Thornton, 2020). As a result, the upheaval has provided fertile ground for change. Many higher education institutions’ first approach was to mimic conventional classroom activities like face-to-face didactic instruction with synchronous

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online lectures, asynchronous lecture capture, or podcasts. While short-term replication is clearly required to avoid disrupting students’ learning, it is a must to critically consider whether short-term replication will suffice or whether revolutionary prospects should be pursued. In contrast to didactic transmission methods of education, undergraduate nursing has witnessed a gradual movement toward online learning, which provides a flexible student-centered approach to learning (Hawks, 2014). While the research is still in its early stages, recent systematic reviews have found that online learning had neutral or positive academic effects in undergraduate nurse and health professional education (Betihavas et al., 2016).

Personal Competence in Nursing and Online Learning Personal competency in nursing relates to a nurse’s capacity to apply analytical reasoning and precise clinical experience to provide health care that satisfies the requirements of clients. The nursing competence system is made up of four capabilities: recognizing needs, providing treatment, cooperating, and enabling decision-­ making (Fukada, 2018). The lockdown had an impact on the ability to perform particular fundamental abilities as well as the evaluation by displaying such skills. Because of the lockdown, students were unable to join the nursing educator’s clinical demo and were unable to re-demonstrate in front of the nursing educator. The challenge that nursing educators confronted would be how to reduce the students’ human contact or presence in the very same location (as a preventative security precaution for social distancing all through COVID-19) as well as how the students would then illustrate what they did learn and attain competency in conducting clinical nursing procedures before later reliance on such nurses to be competent and reliable. Nurse educators should utilize the COVID-19 framework to instill care skills and caring actions (Tabudlo & Torres, 2021). In addition, faculty members must increase their efforts to instill caring attitudes in their students during their undergraduate studies and assist frontline nurses throughout the COVID-19 epidemic; nurse educators must be equipped with evidence (Nashwan et al., 2020). Some academics have recently proposed utilizing a three-dimensional (3D) simulation in a virtual learning environment to compensate for this problem (Khraisat et al., 2020a), others pushed for the use of V-SIMs (virtual learning environment simulations) (Wild et al., 2020), others have praised the addition of a mixed teaching approach that combines asynchronous and synchronous modalities of instruction (Moorhouse, 2020). Using synchronous Learning Management Systems (LMSs) and asynchronous Video Conferencing Software (VCS). The advent of smartphones facilitates the implementation of mobile learning labs, or MobLeLabs, which are intelligent applications meant to serve as an educational environment for students during a pandemic (Lellis-Santos & Abdulkader, 2020). Others suggested using video conferencing and phone conversations as models of information and communication technologies in health care (Schweickert & Rutledge, 2014). Virtual

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reality simulations (VR) have also been proposed as a means of improving advanced nursing education (Dean et al., 2020).

 elf-Confidence in Conducting Clinical Nursing Procedures: S Simulation-Based Learning Perspectives At the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown times, the nursing learning process has shifted from a hospital-based teaching paradigm that emphasizes everyday familiarity with activities and processes to simulation-based learning, which pushes students to learn objectively and utilize information wisely. Nursing students may well be professional, confident, informed, and happy by applying their nursing knowledge and abilities to difficult situations in a structured learning environment utilizing clinical simulations (Mohamed & Mohame, 2020). Other research, on the other hand, has proposed implementing immersive health coaching and also other flexible computer-controlled learning approaches as an educational approach that could be changed to have included technological tools in the nursing curricula for finding new alternate learning strategies for nursing and non-nursing specialties practical training courses, starting the first year and proceeding into the final year (Mohamed & Mohame, 2020).

 mployability Trends and Contemporary Attributes During E COVID-19 Employability is commonly recognized as the ability to obtain and retain a job, and it is important in that it benefits graduates, the workforce, and the community. Employability can be understood as a set of higher order skills, understandings, and personal attributes that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their field. Recently, the labor market has undergone drastic changes in the new post-pandemic era and new expectations have developed (Abelha et  al., 2020; Al-Youbi et al., 2020). Studies on healthcare sectors revealed dissatisfaction with the traditional workers, and maximal importance has been given to an updated skill set. Researchers emphasized the need for workers to equip themselves with modern skill sets that promote emotional intelligence and work autonomy (Al-Youbi et al., 2020). To conceptualize employability in the new era, it is imperative to refine job expectations that is to tackle contemporary attributes that ensure the sustainability of employment during COVID-19. The authors thereby suggest a multidimensional framework for employability as a competency that is both conceptual as well as operational. Buheijs’ framework summarized the employability competencies of the “new normal” under the 5 Ps acronym (Buhej & Buhej, 2020);

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• The first P is proactivity defined by foresightedness and initiative-taking. • The second P is preparedness defined as the quality of being prepared for emergent and arising events. • The third P is represented by pull-together and it envelops the capacity to process and exchange information between individuals through a common system or behaviors that create a productive and harmonious environment. • The fourth P is problem-solving as manifested by the ability to find effective and efficient solutions to challenges. • The final P publicizing stated the importance of networking and sharing developments with the public. It can be noticed that the 5 Ps determine general umbrella terms under which several specific characteristics can be clustered. For example, beneath proactivity, leadership skills, decision-making, and contingency planning can be clustered. Preparedness includes information literacy, organization, and time management. Pull-together encompasses teamwork, communication, and transversal skills. UNESCO defines transversal skills as: “Skills that are typically considered as not specifically related to a particular job, task, academic discipline or area of knowledge and that can be used in a wide variety of situations and work settings (for example, organisational skills)” (UNESCO, 2013). Problem-­solving requires critical thinking, analytical career management, and creativity. Publicizing requires community and citizenship knowledge, interpersonal and entrepreneurship skills as well as intercultural communication skills (Mthethwa-Kunene et al., 2022).

Institutional Advancement and Empowerment of Graduates Among the existing body of knowledge, embedding employability in program curricula has been central. Many studies focused on the consolidation of career guidance services particularly career counseling in universities. Others have shed light on the role of expanding extracurricular activities by providing volunteering opportunities to enhance preparedness. Further research has focused on networking through well-structured mentoring programs and entrepreneurship courses (Abelha, et al., 2020). Some researchers attempted to identify specific learning strategies that foster employability while others have depended on assessment strategies that evaluate employability. Among those, content and language integrated learning and reflective assessments were prominent as they were thought to enhance cognitive flexibility, social integration, and communication skills (Miller & Konstantinou, 2021). The tuning approach is a worldwide accepted approach for reforming higher education and designing outcomes-based degree programs; it is an international tool for redesigning and implementing competency-based and outcomes-based degree programs. The tuning approach is inclusive in that it considers all the elements of curriculum design which are program specifications, content, and organization of the program, didactic concepts, student assessments, and evaluations. The

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achievement of graduates is measured across learning outcomes that reflect employer and stakeholder satisfaction. The outcomes include skills such as flexibility leadership, teamwork, and time management. Also, the tuning approach incorporates the assessment of academic and support staff, the profile of students, student advice and support, and facilities and infrastructures. Finally, quality assurance is maximized through developmental activities and benchmarking (Ishengoma, 2017). The tuning approach is distinctive in that it necessitates universities to build strategic partnerships with industrial employers to come up with suitable agendas that enhance the productivity of their workforces.

Faculty Support for Graduates’ Work Readiness Although institutional advancement is key in promoting employability, one cannot undermine the impact of individual faculty efforts and support. As role models, faculty provide guidance for students to meet their full potential through reflexivity. Faculty members influence graduates to understand, engage in, and manage the career-building process. By assisting graduates to gain an accurate understanding of what may be ahead of them, faculty enhance graduates’ ability to cope with the transition from students to workers. Moreover, it is important to help graduates make informed career-enhancing decisions and allocate career information. This cannot be achieved without deriving faculty experiences. Graduates need faculty input to better understand the broad structure of the working world and the diverse existing opportunities (Mcilveen, et al., 2011). This begs the question of how faculty can provide the support needed in a structured way. The DOTS model is a simple application of career development and work-integrated learning that faculty can follow to provide incentives for graduate participation in lifelong learning supportive of career goals (Korman, 2021). DOTS stands for decision making, opportunity awareness, transition learning, and self-awareness. Through discussions, faculty invite students to evaluate personal priorities and their effect on life planning and career action plans. Also, they can review changing plans and ideas on an ongoing basis to enhance decision-making. Opportunity awareness is accomplished by presenting career options. Transition learning involves enhancing graduate abilities to discern vacancy information and vary self-presentation. Finally, faculty build self-awareness by designing reflective activities that offer chances for graduates to synthesize a personal profile (Mcilveen, et al., 2011).

Reality Shock and the Mediating Role of Career Resilience As new graduates enter the workforce, they face a fundamental period of transition shifting from student to professional roles. Consolidating a professional identity requires novices to take on new responsibilities, manage workloads, and adapt to

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new roles and relationships. This pressure of equipping themselves for new career demands places multiple physical and mental constraints on new graduates. Among nurses, this transition period has been marked with what is termed as reality shock or transition shock. Reality shock describes the conflict between nursing preparation and adaptation mediated by changing roles, responsibilities, and relationships. Central to this experience are discrepancies between educational context and professional practice (Duchscher & Windey, 2018). Among the mediating factors that ameliorate reality shock, career resilience has been identified as key. In addition, career resilience has been associated with positive career outcomes including a low attrition rate, greater job satisfaction, and career success. Career resilience, interchangeably termed transition resilience, is defined as the ability to persist, adapt, and flourish in one’s career in the face of adversity (Mishra & Mcdonald, 2017). Exploring the antecedents of career resilience revealed a correlation with multiple variables including but not limited to contextual work factors, personality traits, personal attitudes, and behaviors (Mishra & Mcdonald, 2017). The selected authors have examined preexisting antecedents of career resilience as well as associated factors. It is aimed to disseminate said factors and explore further research on the development and building of self-resilience. Then it is followed by studying the applicability of resilience building in an academic context to better prepare graduates for career transition.

Soft Skills Training Mishra and Mcdonald (2017) suggested that career resilience may be a function of competencies that are developed over time; however, there was no differentiation of competencies. On the other hand, various behaviors have been enumerated as predictors of career resilience mainly boundary-setting behaviors, networking, rationale detachment, and the ability to self-soothe. These behaviors were postulated to enhance interaction with others and augment productivity and functionality in the workplace (Mishra & Mcdonald, 2017). Such behaviors can be learned by earning soft skills. Typically, formal education is task-oriented with a focus on the acquisition of hard skills or technical skills that build proficiency and reinforce employability rather than soft skills. Unfortunately, little devotion is dedicated to soft skills training. Soft skills can be classified into three main categories. Primarily, interpersonal skills include communication, conflict resolution, collaboration, cooperation, and empathy. Secondly comes cognitive skills such as problem-solving, decision-­making, critical thinking, self-evaluation, analysis, and understanding of consequences. Finally, emotional regulation skills play a vital role in workplace stress management. The acquisition of skills will enable employees to be better attuned to the workplace through mechanisms of coping with daily occupational demands, alleviating disruptions, and restoring intrinsic incentives (Lavender, 2019). It is essential to note that these soft skills are aligned with the 5 Ps previously explored and are therefore desirable attributes considered by employers and recruiters in job attainment.

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Self-Efficacy in the Context of Human Agency Self-efficacy and self-directedness have also been positively correlated with career resilience. This relation is attributed to the ownership of one’s actions and the likelihood to perceive control over situations. Taking ownership of career elements enables resourcefulness, operative utilization of coping strategies, and restoration against setbacks (Lyons et  al., 2015). Self-efficacy can be understood within the model of the human agency since it contributes to the operation of the agentic elements introduced by Bandura (2018). The prospect of human agency accentuates self-directedness as the principal for goal actualization. The pillars of self-agency are categorized into three agentic elements; forethought by expectation setting, self-­ regulation by adjustment, and self-reflection about self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is explained as the foundation of ambitions, commitment, and accomplishment. Self-­ belief is one’s capabilities that impacts aspirations in goal setting and motivation levels for goal attainment. As well, self-efficacy is reflected in one’s perception of his or her professional role and proficiency in performing a task. According to Bandura (2018), the exercise of collective human agency allows individuals to group their knowledge, resources, and skills into career attainment. Human agency can be implemented across the realms of change and adaptation mediating transition shock and fostering transition resilience.

Conclusion and Recommendations In conclusion, as universities are graduating an influx of professionals into the labor market annually, it becomes essential to train graduates to meet the demands of current employability contexts and trends. This calls for adopting innovative pedagogical plans that extend beyond theory to target graduates’ personal development. Purposefully designing flexible learning spaces makes for prepared graduates who can coexist with others in the industry and possess the propensity to excel in designated milieus (Charteris & Smardon, 2019). Based on Hillage and Pollard’s (1998) model of employability, the transferrable skills required in the job comprise baseline assets such as fundamental skills, intermediate assets such as vocational skills, and high-level assets such as collaboration or commercial acumen that could be transferred to other contexts. Therefore, theoretical and practical knowledge relating to a discipline, comprising training for doing, should be complemented with training for being. As such, a comprehensive pedagogy should teach graduates strategies to recognize and interact with their surroundings in a responsible, participatory, innovative, and socially meaningful manner. This requires a pedagogical shift that follows the tuning approach to incorporate social skills training and sets parameters for authentic student-­driven learning that fosters human agency and confidence. Furthermore, faculty play a role in exercising individual efforts to support their students and

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stimulate their awareness and decision making by following the DOTS model of career development and work-integrated learning to provide incentives for graduate participation in lifelong learning supportive of career goals. In the current COVID-19 era, the desirability of interpersonal skills has peaked. Moreover, interaction with a curriculum that has been moved from in-person to online has been identified as a prevailing variable on student learning and application. In light of this, graduate preparedness should progress to take into consideration the multidimensional framework for employability as a competency that is both conceptual as well as operational. Buheijis’ framework summarized the new employability competencies of the under 5 Ps to be taught: Proactivity, Preparedness, Pull-together, Problem-solving, and Publicizing. In alignment with the 5 desirable Ps soft skills originate as paramount in relation to interpersonal functioning and emotional intelligence. The acquisition of soft skills will enable graduates to be better attuned to the workplace through mechanisms of coping with daily occupational demands, alleviating disruptions, and restoring intrinsic incentives (Lavender, 2019). In addition, the tremendous impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the education and employability methodologies has risen the critical need for sustainable solutions to post-pandemic recovery. Therefore, universities and stakeholders are recommended to work jointly toward more flexible, digital, and sustainable solutions to post-pandemic recovery for the changing and future workplaces. In nursing, personal competency relates to a nurse’s capacity to apply analytical reasoning and precise clinical experience to provide health care that satisfies the requirements of clients. The nursing competence system is made up of four capabilities: recognizing needs, providing treatment, cooperating, and enabling decision-­ making (Fukada, 2018). In addition, the augmentation of nursing education with the use of virtual and simulated clinical training during the COVID-19 pandemic would increase the student’s self-efficacy, competence level, develop their crises management skills, and enforce their state of readiness for disasters and acute pandemics. Hence, nursing educators should develop various simulation procedures and methods aimed at crisis and disaster management teaching for undergraduate students. This will in turn assist and enable nursing educators and the students as well to cope with emergencies and crises at individual and community levels and to be prepared for future healthcare problems. Finally, the nursing students who have trained within the remote and simulated environment during the COVID-19 pandemic have insight into future employability attributes required to prepare professionals for a future career in such distinct working conditions. Therefore, future nurses should be armored against reality shock by resilience building in an academic context to better prepare them for career transition. This is achieved by building self-efficacy as the foundation of ambition, commitment, and accomplishment. By refining graduates’ perception of their professional role and proficiency in performing, colleges move towards cultivating knowledge, resources, and skills into career attainment.

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Santoso, T., Sari, D.  A., Junait, J., & Laely, A.  J. (2020). Kondisi Psikologis Perawat yang Memberikan Asuhan Keperawatan pada Pasien COVID-19: Tinjauan Narasi. Medica Hospitalia: Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(1A), 253–260. Sarkar, M., Overton, T., Thompson, C., & Rayner, G. (2016). Graduate employability: Views of recent science graduates and employers. International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 24(3), 31–48. Schwab, K. (2016). Welcome to the fourth industrial revolution. Rotman management, 25, 19–24. Schweickert, P., & Rutledge, C. (2014). Telehealth nursing education: The time is now. Virginia Nurses Today, 22(1), 4–4. Shen, X., Zou, X., Zhong, X., Yan, J., & Li, L. (2020). Psychological stress of ICU nurses in the time of COVID-19 (Vol. 24, pp. 1–3). Springer. Sinclair, P., Kable, A., & Levett-Jones, T. (2015). The effectiveness of internet-based e-learning on clinician behavior and patient outcomes: a systematic review protocol. JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports, 13(1), 52–64. https://doi.org/10.11124/ jbisrir-­2015-­1919 Singh, A., & Haynes, M. (2020). The challenges of COVID-19 in nursing education: The time for faculty leadership training is now. Nurse Education in Practice, 47, 102831–102831. Small, L., Shacklock, K., & Marchant, T. (2018). Employability: A contemporary review for higher education stakeholders. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 70(1), 148–166. Sohrabi, C., Mathew, G., Franchi, T., Kerwan, A., Griffin, M., Del Mundo, J. S. C., Ali, S. A., Agha, M., & Agha, R. (2021). Impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic on scientific research and implications for clinical academic training–a review. International Journal of Surgery., 86, 57. Suliman, M., Ta’an, W. a., Abdalrhim, A., Tawalbeh, L., & Aljezawi, M. (2022). The impact of online synchronous versus asynchronous classes on nursing students’ knowledge and ability to make legal and ethical decisions. Nurse Education Today, 109, 105245. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.nedt.2021.105245 Syam, A.  F. (2021). Indonesian health workers during COVID-19 pandemic. The Indonesian Journal of Community and Occupational Medicine, 1(2), 41–43. https://doi.org/10.53773/ ijcom.v1i2.25.41-­3 Tabudlo, J. B., & Torres, G. C. S. (2021). Cultivating caring behaviors in nursing academia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pondicherry Journal of Nursing, 90(3), 45–50. Thornton, J. (2020). COVID-19: How coronavirus will change the face of general practice forever. BMJ, 368, m1279. UNESCO, I. (2013). UNESCO International Bureau of Education glossary of curriculum terminology. In UNESCO International Bureau of Education IBE. UNESCO. Wild, L. M., Congdon, B., Boyle, K., Provost, V., Schlesinger, M., & Salyers, V. (2020). Innovations in nursing education: Recommendations in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Institutions of Higher Education in the State of Washington. nepincollaborative.org World Economic Forum. (2016). The future of jobs: Employment, skills and workforce strategy for the fourth industrial revolution. Global Challenge Insight Report. http://hdl.voced.edu. au/10707/393272 Heyam F.  Dalky, RN, CNS-PMHN, PhD, is a clinical nurse specialist in psychiatric mental health, with a focus on stigma and family caregivers’ research. She has published work on stigma perceptions, instrument translation and cultural ­modifications. Her research interests include nursing education and simulation pedagogy, bioethics, and psychometric and measurement theory in healthcare research. Heyam is listed as one of the most Cited-Scientists by Stanford and ElsevierAugust 2021, 2022.  

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Yousef M.  Aljawarneh, RN, PhD, is the nursing program chair at the Higher Colleges of Technology and a member of the UAE National Nursing Reform Board. His areas of research interest are management and complications of diabetes mellitus, psychometric measurement studies, and competency-based education.  

Adam M. Khraisat PhD, MSN, BSc, RN is a clinical instructor of nursing in the health science division at the Higher College of Technology, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. He has more than 4 years of experience in higher education and 9+ years of experience in clinical nursing. His master’s thesis was about Emotional intelligence and his PhD thesis was about online 3D nursing simulations. Research interests in education and nursing science.  

Lubna M. Rajab MSN, RN is a clinical instructor of nursing in the health science division at the Higher College of Technology. Outside of academia, her clinical experience includes psychiatric nursing and liaison, community outreach, and mental health counseling. In her dissertation, she focused on suicide loss survivors and the ramifications of suicide grief. Her research interests encompass not only mental health but also holistic person centered approaches to health and wellness.  

Chapter 30

Pedagogical Transformations in Support Services: The New Normal Nafees Sultana

Abstract  The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic globally brought many challenges for students, staff, faculty, families, and educational institutions. Both individuals and institutions adapted to these challenging circumstances and pivoted successfully to embrace a new pedagogic paradigm. As COVID-19 spread to every corner of the globe, educational institutions had to close their physical campuses overnight and turn to remote learning. These radical changes displaced students from learning on campuses and moved them to the digital mode, throwing them into a completely different format. Every educational institution is committed to the well-being of its students. At the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT), digital technologies and the conversion of a virtual environment became the backbone during momentous shift and platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Blackboard Collaborate supported the virtual learning. This chapter focuses on the innovative and transformative measures undertaken at the Higher Colleges of Technology and the novel strategies developed by the Student Life Department during the COVID-19 pandemic to ensure student engagement, mental health, well-being, and overall success. At HCT, the new normal is the Hybrid Model, a combination of online and on-campus academic program delivery, covering all aspects of the curriculum, both theoretical and practical which is here to stay due to its convenience and efficiency. Keywords  COVID-19 · Student life department · Hybrid model

N. Sultana (*) Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_30

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Introduction The goal for the citizens of UAE as per the Article 4 of the Fifty-Year Charter that was declared by H. H. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE and Ruler of Dubai on 6 January 2019 states that, “Our goal for our citizens is to have a life-long learning so they can continue to improve their skills and capacities to adapt to the rapid global changes in the world” (The Fifty-Year Charter—the Official Portal of the UAE Government, 2021). Every crisis requires intervention and every intervention results in transformation and change. On 31 December 2019, the WHO China Country Office was informed of cases of pneumonia of unknown etiology (unknown cause) detected in Wuhan City, Hubei Province of China. (World Health Organization, 2020a). On 11 March 2020, WHO Director General in his opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19, made the assessment that COVID-19 can be characterized as a pandemic (World Health Organization, 2020b). The COVID-19 pandemic hit almost every corner of the globe and dramatically set an unprecedented crisis altering every sphere of society. By definition, a crisis refers to “an unstable or crucial time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). According to the United Nations, the COVID-19 pandemic created the largest disruption of education systems in history, affecting nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries and all continents. (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2021). Every institution moved to digital platforms for teaching and learning. It was when all campuses of Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) were mid-way through the academic year that the news about the COVID-19 virus broke.

 ffects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Students E and Faculty Globally The challenge for universities lies in succeeding in digital education since the demand for the almost immediate digital transformation of courses, both graduate and postgraduate, not only required incorporation of technologies but also the creation or deeper modification of teaching and learning processes to fulfil the needs of each area of study. Every institution began to grapple with the changes and adapted, by digitally transferring all courses online, thus making advances in the teaching methodologies and making them suitable to embrace the virtual environment and e-learning pedagogies. Easy, low-cost access combined with the ability to connect people in real-time made videoconferencing one of the more popular ways to deliver virtual education. Platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, WebEx, Skype, and Blackboard Collaborate offer a range of features to support virtual learning (Jeffries et al., 2022). The results of a study conducted indicated that a digital leap occurred in education during the COVID-19 lockdown because teachers had to quickly adapt

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to a more technology-based teaching style (Alakrash, n.d.). Studies have also proved that students are willing to accept the change and that change which refers to the transformation of traditional face-to-face learning to new learning methods (Fageeh, 2011). Exams that were paper-based during the pre-COVID-19 era were moved online for practical reasons considering the safety and the applicability of the situation in question. Online exams were offered in both subjective and objective formats using various tools such as Blackboard collaborate, Zoom, Google classroom, WizIQ, etc. Proctoring which forms an important part of ensuring the integrity of any exam also had to change to accommodate the distance learning approach. Proctoring was done by humans in some cases by using cameras of the devices used by students or replaced with software services that monitor what’s happening on the screen, on the webcam, and through the microphone to look for any behaviors that might indicate an attempt to cheat. The Respondus LockDown Browser was implemented to increase the security of test delivery in Blackboard. When students use the RLD browser to access an exam, they were unable to print, copy, go to another URL, or access other applications (Higher Colleges of Technology, 2021). In research from Alkamel et al. (2021) in terms of ICT skills, the findings showed that students did not face any challenges during the online testing, which supported the idea that online testing does not require professional skills, and students could improve their ICT skills as the main requirement for twenty-first-century education. Similarly, faculty and staff had to undergo a momentous shift to deal with students digitally. Consequently, they face significant challenges in adapting to online teaching, maintaining at least a minimum of communication with students, and supporting students’ learning and development (König et al., 2020). Most of the students and teachers were friendly skilled in using social media apps, viz. WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, which turned into smooth facilitation of using online educational platforms such as ZOOM, Cisco WebEx, and Google Meet as a sign of positive transfer of learning (Mishra et  al., 2020). Universities also supported the faculty to help them comprehend the basic tenets of online teaching in place of face-to-face teaching. Thus, faculty, students, and support staff received training to successfully accommodate this massive move to online teaching by transferring all courses online instead of the traditional face-to-face teaching. Training was provided using online platforms for different users to effectively use the online educational platforms chosen to impart the teaching. Online parent training and interactions sessions were also conducted on regular basis to exchange information and respond to their queries or concerns. While complete online engagement can work in the short term, prolonged online engagement with students and quarantining, however, can pose unprecedented challenges. In a study conducted by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission evidence was found showing that quarantined students tend to spend less time learning when compared to attending schools, due to student confinement at home they undergo stress and anxiety which impacts their ability to concentrate and feel motivated. It was also found that this switch from offline to online learning is more likely to negatively affect those children, in primary and lower secondary schools, who have higher difficulties in adapting to the new learning environment (di Pietro et al., 2020).

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 oving to Remote Learning in the Gulf Cooperation M Council (GCC) The sudden, indefinite closure of academic institutions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) was announced on eighth March 2020, and institutions moved to distance or remote learning. This switch to online learning continued until July 2021 when the UAE government announced the return of students back to normal face-to-face teaching (Rizvi, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic thus had a massive impact on educational activity. In a matter of weeks, entire education systems from elementary to higher education had to completely transform activity to evolve to an online teaching-learning scenario (Mishra et al., 2020). The COVID-19 lockdown has negatively impacted university faculty, staff, and students in terms of health behaviour, psychological, and physical health. Changes in eating patterns, worsening chronic health problems, change in sleep patterns, and concentration difficulties were reported (al Miskry et al., 2021). A study conducted in higher learning institutions across Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has shown that in their response to COVID-19, the institutions have implemented online learning effectively thanks to their already established distance education and digital transformation (Bensaid & Brahimi, 2021). A study conducted in Oman found that the majority of the teachers had a strong sense of self-efficacy in using technology as well as considerably positive learning experiences and novel innovations, which all resulted in the various ways they faced pandemic-related challenges (Naqvi, 2021). To move from normal face-to-face teaching to the online model, the institutions had to extensively rely on the use of technology and innovation. “The pandemic has underscored the important role that technology can play in higher education,” Michael Trick, Dean of the Carnegie Mellon University in Qatar, told OBG in November (Oxford Business Group, 2021, n.p.). The COVID-19 era has escalated the technological innovations in all sectors and industries, particularly the education sector.

Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Student Mental Health Studies have shown that the COVID-19 pandemic and the need to quarantine affected the mental health of people. In a review of the psychological impact of quarantine, many of the studies have reported negative psychological effects including post-traumatic stress symptoms, confusion, and anger. Stressors included longer quarantine duration, infection fears, frustration, boredom, inadequate supplies, inadequate information, financial loss, and stigma (Brooks et al., 2020). Students were particularly vulnerable to the uncertainty surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of a study conducted in the United States from 2019 to 2020 academic year before and during the COVID-19 pandemic suggested a striking increase in depression and anxiety among a college student sample. The study also suggested that certain groups may be at elevated risk of mental health concerns,

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including individuals with preexisting psychological distress and women (Zimmermann et  al., 2020). Research has also shown that the mental health of young people has been significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Disruptions in academic processes due to the COVID-19 pandemic have increased student anxiety (Wang et  al., 2020), especially for those without adequate social support (Cao et  al., 2020). Students experienced an interruption in learning and deprivation of social interaction with their peers in classes and their faculty. The novelty of the virus affecting students with chronic and critical conditions, the fear of spreading it to the family of members suffering from chronic illnesses, the indefinite social isolation and social distancing, the challenges of wearing masks, and the unpreparedness for the COVID-19 pandemic caused disturbances among students at HCT. Students who found focusing on online studies difficult withdrew from the semester and those who tried to continue faced challenges of falling under the “at-­ risk” category. Some of the mental health issues that significantly increased among students at HCT due to lockdown included depression, anxiety, obsessive-­ compulsive disorder, eating disorders, digital addictions, etc. Some students also suffered the loss of family members, periods of grief, and the overall uncertainty affected their mental health and compounded their challenges.

I nnovative Transformative Measures in Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) During the COVID-19 Pandemic The fourth industrial revolution a digital revolution that has been occurring since the middle of the last century and is characterized by a fusion of technologies that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres (The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means and How to Respond, 2020). In line with the Fourth Industrial Revolution, HCT has been working on developing digital or hybrid solutions such as the Blackboard learning management system, since 2018 which stepped up to face the crisis with expedited fast-tracked changes. HCT’s readiness is a result of orchestrating an ecosystem perspective on digital transformation, a forward-looking institutional strategy that has technology utilization as a major pillar, an education technology strategy, and a comprehensive set of intelligent learning tools (AlShamsi et al., 2020). With digitization at the core of HCT’s strategic transformation and the strategic investments made by HCT over the past 5 years in people, infrastructure, and technology all have come together to facilitate a smooth transition during the COVID-19. Starting with a two-day virtual learning pilot, the implementation of a comprehensive distance-learning mode was undertaken across the entire system of colleges (of 20,000 students who took part in 272 online training sessions and 3000 online lectures) has paved the way to a digital campus environment since March 22, 2020, to-date. HCT thus transited to full online mode delivery. The online platforms selected by HCT for online learning for students were the Blackboard Learning

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Management Systems (LMS) and the Zoom videoconferencing platform, which enabled virtual classes, lectures, tests, and exams. Just as all educators were trained to shift to online platforms to teach, so were the non–academic staff who had to move to “Uber-like” service where they had to provide support to the students based on the student’s availability and needs. The non-academic staff were trained in using Blackboard and zoom to conduct live sessions on various topics related to counselling, mental health, physical fitness, and volunteering opportunities which were handled face to face before COVID- 19.

 ovel Program Development by the Student Engagement N and Success Department During the COVID 19 Pandemic The Student Engagement and Success Department of HCT developed the DIGI Campus program, which included online e-counselling and life skills support, e-health, nutrition and fitness programs, e-competitions, e-student clubs, and e-reading spaces via the Blackboard LMS. Flexible learning tools and resources, such as data, books, learning materials, laptops, digital devices, and information technology, support services that were made available to students. Students could borrow laptops for exams, monitors were sent home to students with visual impairments, and students were allowed to access campus under extenuating reasons if the houses were not conducive for learning or test-taking encouraging an inclusive learning environment supporting student needs. The Department of Student Engagement and Success devised the e-program and e-activities for students to continue engaging with nonacademic activities through the Digi Campus program that was implemented on the campuses through the Student Life Departments. Student Life Department at every campus of HCT plays a significant role in ensuring student well-being and success. The main goal is empowering students with twenty-first-century skills in a vibrant campus environment, engaged with their local communities, to broaden and enhance HCT’s campus life offerings. A supportive team that fosters a connection between students and the college is very critical to fulfilling the goals and objectives, and at the same time reflects the values of the institution. Student life services are perceived as the bridge that connects students’ positive experiences and success to the success of the institution. To reach out and connect with the students, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the HCT campuses relied heavily on online notifications and e-announcements reflecting the services, activities, facilities, policies, and programs. During the COVID-19 pandemic, HCT moved to the Digi-Campus Mode. HCT’s Digi-Campus is defined as the integration of a suite of HCT services, capabilities, and resources. It is a single online environment open to all HCT communities that are personalized to our students, their interests, and their relationship with HCT.  This is part of a futuristic setting HCT is

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working on that includes curriculum personalization, digital credentials, and campuses with no physical borders. HCTs technology and virtual resources ensure that full interactive engagement is available around the clock; “Whenever-Wherever”.

 trategies Adopted by the Student Life Department S to Support Students at HCT During COVID-19 During the fully online delivery mode period, HCT delivered 234,000  h through 61,000 online classes. HCT surveys result reported 86% satisfaction among its faculty and 54% among its student body. During the same period, more than 1900 nonfaculty employees were working full time, ensuring all the services continued to be offered without any major impact (AlShamsi et  al., 2020). Various strategies were implemented across all the campuses of HCT to successfully support students during the lockdown. A few of the strategies adopted are discussed in the next sections:

At-Risk Student Management Program Few students, who faced difficulties with the online mode of learning, withdrew from the semester. To increase student retention an at-risk committee was created on every campus to identify the students who had a Grade Point Average (GPA) of less than 2.0 and were under academic probation. The identified students were contacted by the respective academic teams to check if the student faced any academic challenges and academic advising was provided to the students. Simultaneously, the staff from the Department of Student Life also contacted the identified students to support them with any nonacademic challenges they faced for a range of issues from Internet access to counseling support. The Academic Success Centers were effectively utilized on the campuses to support the students at risk. Parental involvement was encouraged. Academic advisors and counselors played an active role in closely monitoring the at-risk students and applied early intervention plans to address challenging situations of students at risk. Meetings were held on an individual basis to understand the reasons for the low GPA.  Apart from academically advising and personal counselling, group tutorials were provided to students to improve their memory techniques, study skills, time management, and planning daily routines.

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Online Workshops Several online workshops were conducted on a wide variety of topics to support the students during the lockdown. Topics such as adjusting to online learning, mental health, and hygiene during pandemic, etc. were carefully chosen to address the challenges faced by the student students in the rapidly changing pandemic environment to provide them with strategies and tips in coping with the issues and keep them motivated. The well-being and success of students and their engagement with campus life were also facilitated through online extra-curricular activities, competitions, quizzes, and several other efforts. This resulted in improving the overall interaction and communication with the institution. The main concern and motto of the Student Life department were to focus on the overall well-being and success of students through engagement not just academically but also physically and psychologically. Therefore, well-being not only fosters student academic achievement but also prepares students for lifelong success (Mahatmya et al., 2018).

Greater Staff Involvement in Responding to Student Concerns The staff from various departments (Student Life, Academic Services, IT and Education Technology) were available for extended durations of time to address student queries. CISCO—JABBER, Microsoft Teams, and Microsoft Outlook platforms were used to receive and answer calls and emails from students, parents, siblings, and guardians to address concerns. Students were encouraged to contact the staff to discuss their academic and nonacademic concerns. The staff were prepared to empathize and communicate positively to the students and address their needs. Some of the concerns were related to study-from-home protocols, process to withdraw from courses, registration, online exam queries, and attendance issues, IT glitches, volunteering hours, when a student got in close contact with a family or friend being diagnosed positive for COVID-19, etc.

The Emergence of a COVID-19 Response Team On every campus, a COVID-19 response team was appointed, which served as a single point of contact for any COVID-19-related issues. Students and staff could reach the team through a dedicated helpline to obtain information and updates on the rapidly changing regulations. The Emergency Response Team was responsible for communicating to students and staff updated government-related COVID-19 regulations, reporting the COVID-19 positive cases and close contact cases to the relevant authorities’ stakeholders. This single point of contact handling all requests and inquiries contributed immensely to streamlining the entire process. Students

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and staff were able to get dependable and updated information efficiently, avoiding confusion or delay in a rapidly changing environment.

 tudy from Home Approvals for Students with Chronic S Medical Conditions Once the situation improved and the complete lockdown was lifted, students were allowed on campus. A new process was established where the students having a determined condition or with chronic/critical medical conditions were given the option to seek approval to study and undertake exams online from home. The study-­ from-­home requests would be raised at the Campus Council which is a decision-­ making body at the campus consisting of representatives from the management and academic teams to review and necessary approvals. This ensured that students with chronic medical conditions were able to continue in their academic pursuits without compromising their health.

Student Well-being Webinars At HCT, webinars became a prominent feature and the preferred medium for effectively communicating to a large audience base. Webinars concerning well-being, awareness, and physical and mental health were frequently conducted on campuses to help students cope better. Saravanan et  al. (2020) highly recommend frequent web-based workshops that include insight, guidance, online counseling, scheduled activity, and coping mechanisms for COVID-19. Some of the Student Wellbeing Webinars included information about Anxiety, social regulation, emotional regulation in families, social isolation and mental health, anger management, time management, etc. These Webinars helped students with a better understanding of the situation academically and holistically.

Online Activities for Student Engagement Student engagement is an important feature of a student’s college experience for a positive impact on students’ overall achievement. Typically, all student engagement activities were conducted face-to-face, and with the advent of COVID-19, these activities had to be moved to an online platform, without reducing the outcome of the activities. For a continued focus and engagement of the student with campus life, HCT was successfully able to conduct innovative the following programs:

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Together with Us: A parental engagement initiative where parents/guardians could meet with the Campus representatives to discuss the academic achievements of their wards, discuss concerns, or success stories during the pandemic. Well-being Manual: Series of live sessions on BB learn platform where the Counsellor addressed aspects related to happiness, physical health, mental health, relaxation, healthy habits, etc. Monday Morning Motivation: Bimonthly interactive sessions were conducted by the Counsellor on BB learn, where the students could discuss and share their personal reflections on a motivational quote shared by the Counsellor. Kahoot: An online competition for students was conducted on various topics related to UAE heritage, culture, history, etc. to promote campus involvement and participation. Knowledge Race: A weekly general knowledge quiz where the winners would be announced every week. Al Barzah: An event where the Student Council hears the concerns of students and resolves their concerns with the support of management. Final Exam Activities & Competitions: During the final exams, several activities such as guided meditation, relaxation techniques, and mindfulness techniques were conducted to improve the overall well-being of students during exams.

Support for the Determined Students The UAE refers to the people with disabilities as “people of determination” in recognition of their achievements in different fields (People of Determination—The Official Portal of the UAE Government, n.d.). In HCT, students with disabilities are called “The Determined One (TDO),” While all students required support during the COVID-19 time, this need was perceived more among the TDO students. The student life department was constantly engaging with the students of determination and providing an array of services to support the students. The Counseling department offered tele-counselling throughout the lockdown and the entire remote learning period. Students of determination were allowed to register for courses on a priority basis within stipulated dates before all other students. Focused interventions to boost student morale and motivation were also provided by the Counselors on campuses of HCT. Students of determination were provided with appropriate classroom and examination accommodations. The accommodations were re-assessed during COVID-19 to ensure appropriate support. With the onset of learning from home, some students of determination required special arrangements to be tested online. Innovative solutions were provided by the campuses to cater to the unique challenges encountered due to online learning. One such solution was for students who previously used scribe services physically on campus and had to take their assessments online from their homes.

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Smart Student Services As a part of the digital hybrid structure, the following process was moved completely to an online platform to facilitate quick delivery of services without face-to-­ face interaction. HCT currently offers the following services on the online platform: • • • • • • • •

identification card renewal or replacement student letters graduation clearance financial aid request volunteering report system club registration my HCT support system online payment gateway

Volunteering and Community Outreach In line with the vision of the UAE government to enhance the citizenship of Emirati youth and community involvement, the campuses empowered the students to involve themselves in volunteering work and actively participate in community projects and help others. During the COVID-19 pandemic, HCT paved the way for in-house opportunities for its students by encouraging participation in HCT events, organizing conferences, and attending awareness webinars on different topics such as beach cleanup campaigns, social intelligence webinars, good volunteer concepts, etc. Students who completed attending online webinars and awareness workshops were awarded volunteering hours, thereby substituting real-life face-to-face opportunities with custom-built activities. Campuses were encouraged to conduct regular awareness programs for students to engage in community outreach and be informed of the new volunteering system in support of well-being and positivity.

Online Physical and Sports Activities With homes turning into classroom corners, due to the lockdown and online learning, it was nearly impossible for students to engage in outdoor sports or use the gym. For all the students who engaged in sports regularly, the COVID-19 pandemic caused additional stress. While every student felt overwhelmed in their own way during the COVID-19 pandemic, staying home and not engaging actively in sports was not easy. To provide the best experiences given the circumstances, the sports coordinators of the campuses developed interesting and innovative ways of engaging students. Sports activities included live online workshops, health and fitness-­ related videos and articles, webinars, various sports clubs, fitness challenges,

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healthy eating challenges, an online sports day, etc., which kept the students engaged and physically involved from the confines of their houses.

Student Life and Parental Engagement An online parental engagement initiative called “Together with us” was launched by the student life department, where parents were encouraged to contact the college to discuss their queries, concerns, challenges, and their experience with online learning or share their success stories with the institution. This fostered a feeling of connectedness, togetherness, and involvement of the parents toward the success of the students.

Online Clubs Besides academics, student participation in clubs allows students to explore and pursue their interests. Student clubs also teach the student other skills such as time management and multitasking. HCT has endeavored that the students’ participation in clubs not be affected due to the lockdown by creating several online clubs such as business, innovation, tolerance, environment, sports, etc. where students could continue pursuing their interests. The students were encouraged to partake in extra and co-curricular activities and be active members of different clubs on campus.

Financial Aid The Student Life Department was responsible for coordinating the financial aid system for students. Under this system, deserving students could avail themselves for financial assistance that included cash aid, laptops, and/or college transport facilities. During the lockdown period, HCT increased the scope of the facilities to include mobile internet access, printers, TV monitors, etc. and ensured that they were delivered to the students at their residences for uninterrupted support.

Happiness Initiatives Along with academics, the happiness of the students was a primary area of focus at HCT.  With challenges due to the tight class schedules, online learning, and the uncertainty of the COVID-19 pandemic, the institution enhanced its focus on the happiness and well-being of the students. The campuses were highly encouraged to

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conduct happiness activities to increase the happiness and trust of students with a quick win approach. Some of the happiness activities included—“Happy Thursday” was an initiative conducted every Thursday during which different types of activities such as a movie in the auditorium, distribution of food, coffee vouchers, flowers, etc. and healthy contests between staff such as summer survivors were carried out. Apart from this well-being tips were shared with students electronically; happiness and relaxation were conducted during exams These initiatives contributed to the increased well-being of the students.

Role of Counselling While at college, students may encounter challenges that affect their academic performance, their personal growth, and overall well-being. While many students can cope on their own with these challenges, others require guidance and support to deal with such situations. HCT has trained professional counsellors who help students deal with their academic and personal issues. Pre-COVID-19 this support was offered physically on campus on a face-to-face basis. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic, because of the lockdown, there was an abrupt halt to accessing this important support system. HCT immediately moved their entire counselling services to an online platform and supported the students by providing the services using telecommunication technologies. This ensured that support was continued uninterruptedly to students already seeking counselling advice and support. Students who required support due to the rapidly changing circumstances were also able to reach out and seek counselling support remotely.

The New Normal at HCT With the outbreak of COVID-19, HCT was able to step ahead to campus without borders from a traditional model. Since 2016, through many initiatives, HCT invested in enhancing the educational tools, facilities, and infrastructure to become a vibrant and innovative work and learning environment. Different departments of HCT played a major role in creating a stimulating learning experience. The Education Technology Department transformed to online learning through its digital infrastructure and developed from a traditional brick and mortar campus to a Digi campus. The Academics transformed to a Hybrid Academic delivery model with courses online and on-campus with faculty prepared to teach via blended learning. The Student Engagement and Success Department implemented the e-activities such as student e-life experience, e-health fitness and nutrition, and e- volunteering services for the well-being of students. As a Higher Education Institute, to transform to online learning and to maintain the level of engagement and expected learning outcomes with the students, courses

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were delivered within the Hybrid Education Model – Blended Learning. The hybrid model for academic delivery is defined by the combination of online and on-campus academic program delivery, where appropriate and applicable, to cover all aspects of the curriculum, both theoretical and practical (Higher Colleges of Technology, 2021). The transformation of HCT from the traditional brick motor model to a hybrid model reflects a change in pedagogy and student wellbeing. The hybrid model is aligned with the UAE government to enhance the capability and well-being of students. While the restrictions are being removed and students are back on campus, the hybrid model will continue as it was proven to be effective during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusion COVID-19 was a crisis that no country or institution was ever prepared for. HCT being a pioneer in the use of technology in all aspects of student life had the digital tools to make rapid changes required to meet the constantly evolving needs of the students. HCT ensured that the students were not impacted and there was no compromise in the learning experiences during the time of lockdown and all support services continued without a glitch. Some of the changes implemented as a response to the crisis were found to have the potential to be more effective and efficient in the overall learning experience of the students. These changes have now become a part of the Hybrid model where the best aspects of both the conventional model and the digital model have been integrated to provide the best learning experiences for the students and prepare them for a successful life. This hybrid model is here to stay and has become the new normal. In the words of the President and CEO of the Higher Colleges of Technology, Dr. Abdullatif Al Shamsi, The Hyper-Hybrid model can only succeed when institutions commit to clear segregations of resources and learning techniques. On-Campus Education must strictly remain exclusive to applied studies, practical skills development, innovation, and entrepreneurship while Online Education should focus on cognitive development and theoretical pedagogy. In the words of our President and CEO, Dr. Abdullatif Al Shamsi, (2022), the physical learning spaces need to be re-designed as environments conducive for post-­pandemic era students.

References al Miskry, A. S. A., Hamid, A. A. M., & Darweesh, A. H. M. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on university faculty, staff, and students and coping strategies used during the lockdown in The United Arab Emirates. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 682757. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2021.682757

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Alakrash, H.  M. (n.d.). Education and the fourth industrial revolution: Lessons from COVID-19 | computers, materials and continua; 70(1):951–962, 2021. | Scopus. World Health Organization. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/ global-­literature-­on-­novel-­coronavirus-­2019-­ncov/resource/pt/covidwho-­1405616?lang=en Alkamel, M. A. A., Chouthaiwale, S. S., Yassin, A. A., AlAjmi, Q., & Albaadany, H. Y. (2021). Online testing in higher education institutions during the outbreak of COVID-19: Challenges and opportunities. Studies in Systems, Decision and Control, 349–363. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­67716-­9_22 AlShamsi, A. (2022, March 15). The hyper-hybrid campus: Analyzing the campus of tomorrow. Fierce Education. Retrieved March 20, 2022, from https://www.fierceeducation.com/ teaching-­learning/hyper-­hybrid-­campus-­analyzing-­campus-­tomorrow AlShamsi, A., Mohaidat, J., & al Hinai, N., & Samy, A. (2020). Instructional and business continuity amid and beyond COVID-19 outbreak: A case study from the higher colleges of technology. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(6), 118. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n6p118 Bensaid, B., & Brahimi, T. (2021). Coping with COVID-19: Higher education in the GCC countries. Research and Innovation Forum, 2020, 137–153. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­62066-­0_12 Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-­6736(20)30460-­8 Cao, W., Fang, Z., Hou, G., Han, M., Xu, X., Dong, J., & Zheng, J. (2020). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Research, 287, 112934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112934 di Pietro, G., Biagi, F., Costa, P., Karpiński, Z., Mazza, J., European Commission, Joint Research Centre, & Europäische Kommission Gemeinsame Forschungsstelle. (2020). The likely impact of COVID-19 on education. UTB. https://doi.org/10.2760/126686 Fageeh, A. I. (2011). EFL students’ readiness for e-learning: Factors influencing e-learners’ acceptance of the blackboard in a Saudi university. Jalt Call Journal, 7(1), 19–42. Higher Colleges of Technology. (2021, January 1). HCT’s transformation journey to online education during COVID-19. Retrieved March 17, 2022, from https://hct.ac.ae/wp-­content/ uploads/2021/04/SuccessStory_HCT_TransJourney_COVID19_12Apr.pdf Jeffries, P.  R., Bushardt, R.  L., DuBose-Morris, R., Hood, C., Kardong-Edgren, S., Pintz, C., Posey, L., & Sikka, N. (2022). The role of technology in health professions education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Academic Medicine, 97(3S), S104–S109. https://doi.org/10.1097/ acm.0000000000004523 König, J., Jäger-Biela, D. J., & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: Teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608–622. https://doi.org/10.108 0/02619768.2020.1809650 Mahatmya, D., Thurston, M., & Lynch, M. E. (2018). Developing students’ Well-being through integrative, experiential learning courses. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 55(3), 295–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2018.1474756 Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Crisis. The Merriam-Webster.Com Dictionary. Retrieved February 5, 2022, from https://www.merriam-­webster.com/dictionary/crisis Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012 Naqvi, S. (2021, March 5). Online EFL emergency remote teaching during COVID 19, challenges and innovative practices: A case of Oman. SSRN.  Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https:// papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3798108 Oxford Business Group. (2021, February 25). Has Covid-19 changed GCC education forever? Retrieved November 25, 2021, from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/news/ has-­covid-­19-­changed-­gcc-­education-­forever

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People of determination - The Official Portal of the UAE Government. (n.d.). The Official Portal of the UAE Government. Retrieved March 16, 2022, from https://u.ae/en/information-­and-­services/ social-­affairs/people-­of-­determination Rizvi, A. (2021, June 30). UAE school headteachers hopeful of return to normal lessons by September 2021. The National News. Retrieved January 1, 2022, from https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/education/uae-­school-­headteachers-­hopeful-­of-­return-­to-­normal-­lessons-­by-­ september-­2021-­1.1246499 Saravanan, C., Mahmoud, I., Elshami, W., & Taha, M.  H. (2020). Knowledge, anxiety, fear, and psychological distress about COVID-19 among university students in The United Arab Emirates. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 582189. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.582189 The Fifty-Year charter  – the official portal of the UAE government. (2021, August 1). The United Arab Emirates’ government portal. Retrieved March 15, 2022, from https://u.ae/en/ about-­t he-­u ae/strategies-­i nitiatives-­a nd-­awards/local-­g overnments-­s trategies-­a nd-­p lans/ the-­fifty-­year-­charter The fourth industrial revolution: What it means and how to respond. (2020, September 22). World Economic Forum. Retrieved March 9, 2022, from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/ the-­fourth-­industrial-­revolution-­what-­it-­means-­and-­how-­to-­respond/ The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2021, May 4). One year into COVID-19 education disruption: Where do we stand? UNESCO. Retrieved February 1, 2022, from https://en.unesco.org/news/one-­year-­covid-­19-­education-­disruption-­where-­do-­we-­stand Wang, C., Zhao, H., & Zhang, H. (2020). Chinese college students have higher anxiety in new semester of online learning during COVID-19: A machine learning approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 587413. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.587413 World Health Organization. (2020a, January 5). COVID-19 – China. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-­outbreak-­news/item/2020-­DON229 World Health Organization. (2020b, March 11). WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https:// www.who.int/director-­general/speeches/detail/who-­director-­general-­s-­opening-­remarks-­at-­ the-­media-­briefing-­on-­covid-­19%2D%2D-­11-­march-­2020#:%7E:text=WHO%20has%20 been%20assessing%20this,to%20use%20lightly%20or%20carelessly Zimmermann, M., Bledsoe, C., & Papa, A. (2020). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on college student mental health: A longitudinal examination of risk and protective factors. Psychiatry Research, 305, 114254. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/2y7hu Nafees Sultana is a qualified, experienced and a licensed Counselling Psychologist, working as a Senior Counselor, at Dubai Men’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology with over 20 years of experience in the field of counselling and students of determination. Her areas of expertise include counselling services, student affairs, inclusive practices, appropriate accommodations, assessments and mental health disorders. She is highly proficient in conducting workshops, training and awareness programs for staff and students.  

Chapter 31

Well-being as an Ecological Practice: Supporting Students Facing Housing Insecurity in Higher Education Christel Young and Luis Javier Pentón Herrera

Abstract  Housing insecurity, a problem that crosses ethnic, racial, gender, and religious lines, affects students across grade levels, including higher education. On average, 45% of students experience some form of housing insecurity each year in the United States (Broton KM J Soc Distress Homeless 29(1): 25–38, 2019). Navigating housing insecurity while enrolled in higher education has become so commonplace that the phrase struggling student is synonymous with attending college. The normalization of the term struggling student to describe the realities of college life has desensitized the larger community from the needs of higher education students (Crutchfield RM, Carpena A, McCloyn TN, Maguire J Fam Soc J Contemp Soc Ser 101(3): 409–421, 2020). Supporting students beyond their academic needs is of paramount importance as it affects attrition and graduation rates. However, publications exploring the well-being of students facing housing insecurity in higher education remain sparse. In this chapter, we urge higher education institutions to approach the well-being of students facing housing insecurity from an ecological lens. Keywords  Housing insecurity · Higher education · Student well-being · Well-­ being as an ecological practice

Introduction Housing insecurity, a problem that crosses ethnic, racial, gender, and religious lines, affects students across grade levels, including higher education. On average, 45% of students experience some form of housing insecurity each year in the United States C. Young (*) East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA L. J. Pentón Herrera Akademia Ekonomiczno-Humanistyczna w Warszawie, Warsaw, Poland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_31

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(Broton, 2019). For clarity, the terms housing insecurity and homelessness are not interchangeable. Homelessness refers to one’s lack of a fixed shelter (Hallett & Freas, 2018), whereas persons experiencing housing insecurity may have shelter but experience problems with maintaining their housing due to concerns of “affordability, safety, quality, insecurity, and a [temporary] loss of housing” (Bucholtz, 2018, para. 2). Navigating housing insecurity while enrolled in higher education has become so commonplace that the phrase struggling student is synonymous with attending college. The normalization of the term struggling student to describe the realities of college life has desensitized the larger community from the needs of higher education students (Crutchfield et  al., 2020). Supporting students beyond their academic needs is of paramount importance as it affects attrition and graduation rates. However, publications exploring the well-being of students facing housing insecurity in higher education remain sparse. In this chapter, we urge higher education institutions to approach the well-being of students facing housing insecurity from an ecological lens. To do this, we divide our manuscript into four sections, namely: (1) the well-being of students facing housing insecurity in higher education, (2) an ecological view of well-being for students facing housing insecurity, (3) supporting the well-being of students facing housing insecurity, and (4) call for action. In the first section, we introduce the concept of well-being, explain what well-being is for students, and explore how housing insecurity influences access to student well-being in higher education. In the second section, we rely on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) work on the ecology of human development to analyze how different systems at the micro, meso, and macro levels act as barriers to the well-being of students who are housing insecure. In the third section, we propose wrap-around services1 higher education institutions must enact at the micro, meso, and macro levels to support the well-being of students facing housing insecurity. We end our chapter with a call to action encouraging higher education institutions to implement initiatives grounded in equity and social justice that promote the well-being of students facing housing insecurity.

 he Well-being of Students Facing Housing Insecurity T in Higher Education Well-being, as a concept and ideal, is difficult to define because of its multilayered, intricate nature. Conversations about well-being are approached from different lenses such as, for example, quality vs. quantity of well-being (e.g., Van den Broeck et  al., 2013), factors affecting well-being (e.g., Palacio Sprockel et  al., 2020), or even understanding what well-being is and to what extent it is collectively or

 In our chapter, we use the term wrap-around services to refer to multilayered services that support the different needs of students experiencing housing insecurity, such as social, emotional, and psychological needs, basic food and hygiene needs, to mention a few. 1

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systemically determined (Mercer, 2021). In the literature, well-being has been largely researched from two general perspectives: the hedonic and the eudemonic approach (Ryan & Deci, 2001). The hedonic perspective understands well-being in terms of personal happiness—or pleasure (Kahneman et al., 2003)—and uses the construct of subjective well-being (SWB) to assess individuals’ experiences. In simple terms, hedonic views on well-being hold that maximizing pleasurable/happy experiences—and minimizing experiences that cause suffering or pain—increases the well-being of individuals (Diener et al., 1999). Some popular descriptions or practices that have been associated with hedonic well-being are instant/immediate gratification and procrastination. On the other hand, the eudemonic perspective understands well-being in terms of personal self-actualization and the individual’s ability to realize their true potential (Ryan & Deci, 2001). A construct used to measure happiness in the eudemonic perspective is the psychological well-being (PWB), which comprises six distinct aspects of human actualization: autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life purpose, mastery, and positive relatedness (see Ryff & Keyes, 1995). In simple terms, eudemonic views on well-being believe that, beyond experiencing happiness and pleasure, developing oneself and realizing one’s potential are necessary for achieving well-being. Some popular descriptions or practices that have been associated with eudemonic well-being are personal growth, the Danish practice of hygge, and the Japanese practice of ikigai. Table 31.1 provides a brief summary of these two perspectives. Although the hedonic vs. eudemonic debate has prevailed in the well-being literature, recent publications are beginning to take a more holistic—and positive— approach to well-being, with researchers asserting that “well-being is not either hedonic or eudemonic, but rather, it is likely…an integration of both ‘feeling good’ and ‘living well’” (Mercer, 2021, p. 15). In the field of education, this conversation has resulted in new multidimensional perspectives that go beyond the simple positive-­negative dichotomy (e.g., Seligman et al., 2009; Seligman, 2011). These scholarly works have helped expand definitions and understandings of well-being beyond the traditional, individualistic views by acknowledging that social relationships affect individuals’ wellness. However, in our view, there is a need to continue expanding the understanding of well-being, especially in the context of education, by looking at it from an ecological perspective that pays attention to systemic, contextual, and societal factors (Mercer, 2021). Acknowledging the diverging views on this hard-to-define concept, we approach the topic of well-being in our chapter from an ecological standpoint. As such, we describe well-being as feeling well and experiencing health, happiness, and prosperity in one’s life, which “includes good mental health, life satisfaction, a sense of meaning in life, and how well we cope with stress” (Wood, 2021, p. 4). Further, we agree with Wood (2021) and believe that it is useful to think of well-being “as a state of balance (equilibrium)” (pp. 4–5)—that is, how well our personal resources meet our life challenges in the different domains (e.g., physical, social, psychological, emotional, spiritual, and academic) while acknowledging that well-being is not an individual duty, but the responsibility of society as a whole.

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Table 31.1  Hedonic and Eudemonic Perspectives of Well-Being Description

Construct to assess Well-being

Common practices

Hedonic perspective Well-being is the result of increased positive affect such as pleasures and happiness, and the reduction/absence of negative affect such as pain and suffering. Subjective well-being (SWB) comprises three components: life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect. Life satisfaction (i.e., happiness, pleasure, and well-being) increases when pleasant affect increases and unpleasant affect decreases (see Diener et al., 1999). Instant/immediate gratification, and procrastination.

Eudemonic perspective Well-being is achieved by an individual’s ability to develop one-self and realize their true potential.

Psychological well-being (PWB) comprises six distinct aspects of human actualization: autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, life purpose, mastery, and positive relatedness. High indications of these six factors (individually and as a group) indicate higher levels of well-being (see Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Personal growth, the Danish practice of hygge, and the Japanese practice of ikigai.

For students, well-being has been identified as a foundational factor affecting participation and success inside and outside the classroom (Baik et al., 2019; Holzer et al., 2021; Houghton & Anderson, 2017; Leshner & Scherer, 2021). However, for students facing housing insecurity, well-being is even more critical because— beyond participation and success—it is more closely connected to life sustenance and basic human needs such as food (insecurity), sleep (deprivation), homelessness, and safety (Haskett et al., 2021). Recent publications are indicating that food and housing insecurity occur at alarming rates in higher education in the U.S. (Haskett et al., 2021; Young & Pentón Herrera, 2021) and, yet, not much progress has been made in recent years to ensure that students have access to basic needs and necessities affecting their well-being. If colleges and universities are truly committed to social justice and equity, then student well-being must be approached from an ecological perspective where higher education institutions acknowledge their responsibility in ensuring that all students have basic human necessities. From this ecological purview, well-being can be thought of as access—ensuring that students have prompt and easy access to the resources needed to be well, which will then result in active participation and success in the classroom and beyond.

 n Ecological View on Well-being for Students Facing A Housing Insecurity To frame our conversation, we rely on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) work on the ecology of human development. More specifically, we analyze how barriers can appear at the micro, meso, and macro levels affecting the well-being of students facing

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housing insecurity in higher education. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) work on the ecology of human development is a fitting framework for our discussion because it reaffirms that environmental interconnections inside and outside the different systems (i.e., micro, meso, and macro) have an effect on the forces directly affecting human growth, development, and success. In the context of the United States, these environmental connections (e.g., family nucleus, formal schooling, society, etc.) have traditionally enforced individual, isolating practices of well-being, which “do not account for power, privilege, oppression, or the needs of those with marginalized identities” (Sambile, 2018, p. 32). From this ecological lens, then, we begin to recognize that well-being, when expected as an individualistic duty, diverts responsibility away from society, institutions, and stakeholders, placing additional stress, blame, sole responsibility, and shame on vulnerable populations like students who are facing housing insecurity. In this manuscript, we approach well-being from an ecological perspective because we believe that societies, institutions, and stakeholders at all levels have the responsibility to ensure the well-being of their citizens. In education, more specifically, societies, policy-makers, institutions, and those in positions of power who are truly committed to social justice and equity have the responsibility to ensure that vulnerable student populations, like students facing housing insecurity, are provided with the necessary tools to first take care of their well-being (Maslow, 1954). To accomplish this, students must be viewed as human beings first, and students second, which has implications for how student success is defined, and how support is determined and provided. For example, in schools, student success is commonly defined as achieving high grades, and support is provided to help learners achieve those high grades. However, by viewing students as human beings first, success becomes synonymous with being well (i.e., well-being), which places the responsibility on institutions to provide adequate support to ensure individuals have their (human) needs met. By approaching our conversation from an ecological perspective, we are also able to move away from the ideology that well-being is the result of individuals adopting a lifestyle that prevents any affliction to their wellness (Crawford, 1980). Such conversations placing the individual as the sole and/or primary entity responsible for their well-being reflects elitist, privileged ideologies (Crawford, 1980, 2006) and “risk sliding into victim blaming” (Crawford, 2006, p. 411). We believe that individuals’ well-being is, in fact, more directly connected with dominant political and economic interests within the society than with individual practices. Societies that are concerned about their citizens’ well-being implement policies that ultimately produce healthy individuals. Conversely, societies that prioritize economic and political interests do so at the risk of their citizens, thus producing at-risk individuals and behaviors (Crawford, 1980). In the United States, students facing housing insecurity in higher education are a vulnerable population not because they are unable to engage in healthy lifestyles, but because policies prioritize national economic and political interests, which continue to expand opportunity and social equity gaps among populations. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (2015) reported that many

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students facing housing insecurity often come from low socioeconomic backgrounds or foster care and, once they enroll in higher education, the lack of affordable housing, limited access to federal financial aid, and inflated tuition costs prevent them from successfully participating and staying in school. For these students, the physical and emotional toll associated with housing insecurity often results in incredible mental distress, food insecurity, sleep problems or deprivation, and low self-esteem and depression, to name a few (Haskett et al., 2021). What, then, can be done to change this trend? In Table 31.2, we provide an overview of the common barriers that students facing housing insecurity experience at the micro, meso, and macro levels. Also, we share wrap-around services that may be offered at each of these levels, which will be expanded upon in the next section of the chapter.

 upporting the Well-being of Students Facing S Housing Insecurity Support of students facing housing insecurity should be multifaceted in nature to redirect the future trajectory of the students. Current research advocates for the establishment of supports directly targeted at eliminating the barriers to academic success (Rose et al., 2021). While students entering higher education may face similar obstacles, those without access to basic needs such as housing and sustenance face additional obstacles leading to higher attrition rates (Smith & Knechtel, 2019). Programs must not only provide tangible resources such as personal hygiene items or groceries but also must consciously and explicitly support students’ social-­ emotional well-being. Hernandez et al. (2021) highlighted the importance of using new experiences and opportunities to counteract the negative life journeys that may be common for students facing housing insecurity. With the combination of strategic student-forward institutional policies and additional positive life experiences within the context of the micro, meso, and macro levels, students can be better supported, and attrition rates are decreased.

Micro Level Toxic self-care is defined as finding the easy way to solve (or deal with) life problems by applying a temporary bandage versus finding a sustainable solution. The normalization of the term struggling student in U.S. society as an accepted hardship/rite of passage has contributed to students’ repression of the vocalization of need, leading them to seek solutions from among already strained resources (Crutchfield et al., 2020). Toxic self-care, often used as a way to escape reality, can result in overindulgences that serve as a pacifier for hardships. Although temporary bandages might feel good for the moment, the effects are short-lived. Students facing housing insecurity who engage in toxic self-care practices such as

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Table 31.2  Ecological View on Well-being for Students Facing Housing Insecurity Micro Level: “A pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting within particular physical and material characteristics” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 22).

Meso Level: “A mesosystem comprises the interrelations among two or more settings in which the developing person actively participates” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 25).

Common barriers Lack of sleep Nutritional barriers Stigmatization Personal hygiene insecurity Social-emotional hygiene Toxic self-care Technological health

Finding a balance between the worlds of school and work Securing funds to supplement the cost of higher education while supporting self and family Allocating time resources needed to successfully participate in school while working, taking care of personal obligations, and engaging in self-care negotiating definitions of mental Well-being Macro Level: “Consistencies… Idea that the student did that exist, or could exist, at the something wrong to be facing level of the subculture or the housing insecurity culture as a whole, along with The belief/myth that housing any belief systems or ideologies insecurity does not exist in underlying such consistencies” higher education because (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 26). students can live on campus

Wrap-around services Expanded access to toiletries and basic personal hygiene items Access to low-cost or free resources to acquire, secure, maintain, and repair technology resources Include in all degree programs a required, free course on student Well-being Professional development for students informing them of resources to support themselves and others they may encounter Mentorship and sponsorship program connecting students facing housing insecurity with community and business partners

Revision of policies concerning student enrollment and qualifications Funding transitional living scholarship programs Revising policies on educational harm to include an ecological perspective on student Well-being

overindulgence in drinking and illicit drug usage are further isolated from their peers. In turn, policies are written in such a way that when students engage in toxic self-care practices because of the lack of resources, agencies that normally provide support are excused from getting involved in the in-depth healing and stabilization processes. To truly affect student success, support services must be sustained while keeping in mind that practices such as toxic self-care exist because those in vulnerable positions are directly affected by policies designed to punish them rather than support them in their time of need. Allowing students the opportunity to make conscientious choices toward self-­ actualization breeds a healthy lifestyle which, in turn, affects student well-being and success in school and beyond. Implementation of programming to effectively support students results in conversations between students facing housing insecurity and support organizations about their needs instead of formulating a list of what is thought of as a need. The effect of these collaborative conversations results in

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healthy long-term social, emotional, and mental practices and self-regulation. An additional benefit from these collaborative conversations is that the incidences of toxic self-care are decreased (Atkinson, 2021). While many higher education institutions offer food, clothing, and toiletry resources, the addition of access to resources that are increasingly vital for participation, such as technology, will help students remain connected to the broader educational program (Young, 2021; Young & Pentón Herrera, 2021). The dependence on technology tools which seem to be more efficient as a means to participate in the higher education landscape has left students facing housing insecurity in positions of tension. Students facing housing insecurity often have to make the decision to either secure shelter, pay tuition, eat, or acquire technology hardware and software for educational purposes (Young, 2021). Institutions can help mitigate problems surrounding technology accessibility issues through the negotiation of contracts with vendors to provide free or low-cost repair services for students. Additionally, higher education institutions should include yearly technology tool maintenance services and all required software as part of the student enrollment experience. These (or similar) wrap-around services will bring balance to the students’ social-­ emotional and financial well-being, positively affecting their experiences in the increasingly digitally-dependent higher education context (Gonzales et al., 2020). Lastly, to target the social-emotional well-being of all students, we recommend that higher education institutions provide in all degree programs a required, free course on student well-being. The course should include information that helps students understand important topics affecting their social-emotional and physical wellness, such as toxic self-care, mental health, adjustment, emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and conflict resolution, to name a few. The course should be taken within the first semester of enrollment and count towards graduation. The premise for such a radical requirement is that many students enroll in college and are ill-equipped to handle the magnitude of the social-emotional strain that the academy can place upon them (Johnson et al., 2020). We would like to firmly recognize that students’ ill equipment is through no fault of their own. In the United States, formal schooling in K-12 largely ignores social-emotional concerns and well-being (Pentón Herrera & Martínez-Alba, 2021), which affects students’ life habits, practical knowledge, and ability to engage in self-regulatory behavior in higher education and in life.

Meso Level Within the meso-ecological sphere, managing the tensions between school, life, and work can present significant challenges. One of the greatest challenges presented in the research is a sense of belonging and a desire to be connected to the broader campus community (Roth & Bongoy, 2020). While programs purport to foster a sense of belonging and community, students facing housing insecurity share that the isolation they experience negatively affects their completion rates (Stidum et  al., 2021; Young, 2021). Much of the isolation experienced by students facing housing

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insecurity is secondary to the fact that housing insecurity does not often start when students initially enroll in higher education institutions. Research shows that students who experience housing insecurity while in college have faced similar situations throughout the years prior to enrollment because the students come from previous destabilized housing situations, foster care systems, as well as other situations that increase the vulnerability of this population. To bring balance, higher education institutions must acknowledge the reality that the lack of permanent, stable shelter disconnects students—physically, emotionally, and mentally—from the broader community. The lack of stability does not support the deep roots within a community to build a sense of belonging. The practices of higher education institutions associated with the idealized definitions of community and belonging, as defined by individuals in positions of power who are housing secured, fail to capture the experience and hardships of those facing housing insecurity. Thus, while supporting students facing housing insecurity, higher education institutions have an opportunity to grow their definition of community and belonging by looking at these concepts through the students’ purview. Supporting students facing housing insecurity will require professional development for students, faculty, and staff members targeting the specific community needs. The goal of the training would be to bring awareness about housing insecurity, community building, and belonging, as well as to equip participants with the resources and knowledge on how to address and better support individuals facing housing insecurity within the institution. To further connect students to the broader community and provide much-needed support, the development of mentorship and sponsorship programs is critical (Brower et al., 2021). Through the partnering of students with fellow students, faculty, staff, and community partners, mentorship and sponsorship within higher education can provide the catalyst needed to propel them to completion. A word of caution here is that mentorship and sponsorship programs must be implemented with fidelity. Students facing housing insecurity often have acquired the ability to recognize when others (including the institution) do not care about them and their well-being. When mentorship and sponsorship programs are implemented only to promote the institution’s ‘initiatives,’ students facing housing insecurity recognize that their well-being and success are not the priority and thereby disengage. The ultimate goal of implementing mentorship and sponsorship programs must be to recruit and help stabilize students’ lives as they successfully complete their program of study.

Macro Level Leaders and influential stakeholders must thoroughly review and consider systemic policies through an empathic lens to truly understand the effects, both positive and negative, that higher education institutions can have on students facing housing insecurity (Hernandez et al., 2021). Developing a strong community of support is

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vital to students’ long-term social, emotional, and physical health. Disconnection among students facing housing insecurity leads to further isolation, which negatively affects their overall wellness and their ability to participate in their schooling and complete their programs. Students enrolled in higher education institutions are required to maintain a minimum number of credit hours to receive financial aid. There are times when the financial aid does not cover expenses beyond the tuition, such as housing or basic personal necessities. When faced with the challenge of securing housing and providing for one’s personal needs while carrying a full-time credit load, the choice to secure employment—often which is full-time—causes tensions with the demands of higher education. As a result, students must reduce their credit hours at school to allow for increased work hours. Because of the reduction of credit hours, students become ineligible for many of the Federal financial aid programs and even some scholarships. Providing a waiver for students with a demonstrated need is vital. Maintaining a full-time course load and full-time work schedule affects students’ well-being and often results in the abandonment of the quest to obtain a degree that would result in greater career opportunities (Au-Yong-Oliveira et al., 2017). Supporting and addressing student housing needs requires an immediate institutional response. Students who struggle to secure adequate housing may engage in behaviors such as couch surfing, staying in their vehicle, shelters, or moving from residence to residence in an effort to afford the cost of tuition (Young, 2021). Mitigating the destabilized housing situations calls for institutional creative programming and support. Transitional living scholarship programs, such as the one at Montgomery College in Maryland, provide much needed support to bridge the gap between concept and reality for students facing housing insecurity (Montgomery College, 2021). With housing programs like the transitional living scholarship program, the specific needs of students are met, and the stigma and shame which presents a barrier to completion are removed. Further, these merit-based programs give students facing housing insecurity the opportunity to retain their dignity and feel a sense of accomplishment in the face of adversity. Traditionally, institutional leadership has developed policies that seem to teeter on the chasm between students and institutions. With the revelation of greater student needs during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative that higher education institutions revise policies on educational harm to include an ecological perspective on student well-being. Many of the established institutional policies in higher education focus on ensuring that quality instruction is provided; however, there is a great need to address the gaps that remain. For example, with the continued dependence on technology to communicate and navigate the higher education landscape, various student groups will continue to be further marginalized. If the mantra of higher education is to prepare and equip students for their careers, the cost cannot be students’ social, emotional, and mental health. Students must find support to complete their programs of study with the support of the leadership through the revision of policies that would ensure no educational harm is experienced by any student due to institutional neglect of their students’ well-being.

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Call to Action Shifting the focus of obtaining a degree from a self-involved process or activity to a larger community priority has greater value for society. Without the appropriate resources and supports, students facing housing insecurity are more likely to have greater debt, increased health concerns, and lower lifetime earnings (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). Further, students who start school but disenroll soon after see even higher debt and increased rates of default on loans that were secured while enrolled in school (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). We urge institutions, stakeholders in positions of power, and the society at large to consider the effects of policies on the well-being of students pursuing higher education. Shifting our focus from pursuing higher education as a community priority instead of a self-involved process or activity will become the foundation for conversations surrounding student well-being as a vital component of community and society well-being in the present and future. We end this chapter by amplifying the clarion call to action previously issued by scholars in support of students facing housing insecurity, especially after the additional needs and marginalization revealed during the COVID-19 pandemic (see Stidum et al., 2021; Strayhorn, 2021; Toquero, 2020; Young, 2021). Why does student well-being in higher education matter? Because the lack of access to satisfy basic needs leads to a significant decrease in overall grade point average (GPA), higher attrition rates, and greater social, emotional, physical, and mental health concerns (The Hope Center for College, Community, and Justice, 2021). Further, we truly believe that if students fail, society fails, and greater student well-being will result in greater societal well-being. The onus is now on institutions and leaders; looking at the well-being of students from an ecological perspective must become the most pressing (present and future) issue in education.

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Christel Young, Ed.D. is the Director of Using Information Technology and an instructor at East Tennessee State University (ETSU). Her research interests focus on the multi-dimensional impact of housing insecurity on higher education student success. She is also interested in the promotion of equitable educational access among vulnerable populations at the secondary and post-secondary levels. She serves as co-president of the ETSU Black Faculty and Staff Association.  

Luis Javier Pentón Herrera, Ph.D. is Full Professor at Akademia Ekonomiczno-Humanistyczna w Warszawie, Poland, the Coordinator of the Graduate TESOL Certificate at The George Washington University, United States, and Co-Editor of Tapestry: A Multimedia Journal for Teachers and English Learners. In addition, he is a Fulbright Specialist and an English Language Specialist with the U.S. Department of State.  

Chapter 32

Digital Education, Academic Performance, and Mental Health: How Can Chinese Students’ Development Be Facilitated While Engaging in E-Learning Jason Hung Abstract  There is a limited number of existing literature exploring the nuanced relationship between online learning, academic performance and mental health among Chinese students in the COVID-19 epoch (Chi X, Liang K, Chen S, Huang Q, Huang L, Yu Q, Jiao C, Guo T, Stubbs B, Hossain M, Yeung A, Kong Z, Zou L Int J Clin Health Psychol 21:100218, 2020). The limited amount of available research prompts the development of this chapter, where the author systematically reviews, evaluates and summarises relevant studies, for the purpose of presenting a broad understanding of how the digitalisation of learning approaches is associated with Chinese students’ academic and psychological performance. As per the framework of this systematic review, existing literature focusing on (1) digital learning, (2) academic performance and (3) mental health in Chinese contexts during the outbreak of the pandemic is exclusively examined. Since 30 January 2020, China has been one of the first countries to apply school closures and massification of digital learning (Ma Z, Idris S, Zhang Y, Zewen L, Wali A, Ji Y, Pan Q, Baloch Z, BMC Pediatrics 21:1–8, 2021). Thus, understanding if the digital pedagogies result in positive outputs regarding Chinese students’ development would be conducive to shedding light on whether a similar digitalisation process in academic settings should be delivered in contexts beyond China. In this chapter, the author explores available Chinese literature that assesses the nuanced relationship between digital learning, academic performance and mental health during the pandemic. He analyses how Chinese students undertaking e-learning are, positively and negatively, impacted by digital, non-face-to-face education. In addition, the author suggests interventions on how the design and delivery of digital education can be modified or improved, and how social support can be better arranged, in order to optimise Chinese students’ academic and psychological development.

J. Hung (*) Department of Sociology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. S. Stephen et al. (eds.), Global Perspectives on Higher Education, Knowledge Studies in Higher Education 11, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_32

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Keywords  Academic performance · Digital education · Mental health · China

Introduction The outbreak of coronavirus (COVID-19), first identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in March 2020. COVID-19 has been significantly interrupting individuals’ lives and causing a substantial number of causalities around the globe. As of 23 March 2021, WHO reported over 122 million confirmed COVID-19 cases, including a sum of 2.7  million deaths (Zhang & Liu, 2021). As to the spread of COVID-19, since January 2020, an increasing number of academic institutions (from kindergartens to universities) worldwide have been postponing or cancelling on-campus events, including lessons, lectures, seminars, tutorials, workshops and conferences. Primary schools, secondary schools and universities have been shifting from on-campus to online teaching, due to school closures  – a form of governmental restrictions on public life (Lischer et al., 2021). School suspensions have been affecting over one billion students from more than 150 countries, including China (Fu et al., 2021). In China, the Ministry of Education estimates that over 220 million children and teenagers are confined to their domestic settings (Li et  al., 2021). These include 47 million preschool children and 180 million primary and secondary school pupils. As Chinese students have been confined at home for a prolonged duration, it is necessary to investigate if their mental health has been affected. If so, hinting possible interventions for optimising Chinese students’ mental health amid the pandemic is one of the core aims of this chapters. There is a limited number of existing literature exploring the nuanced relationship between online learning, academic performance and mental health among Chinese students in the COVID-19 epoch (Chi et  al., 2020). The limited amount of available research outputs prompts the development of this chapter, where the author reviews, evaluates and summarises relevant studies, for the purpose of presenting a broad understanding of how the digitalisation of learning approaches is associated with Chinese students’ academic and psychological performance. Since 30 January 2020, China has been one of the first countries to apply school closures and massification of digital learning (Ma et al., 2021). Thus, understanding if the digital pedagogies result in positive outputs regarding Chinese students’ development would be conducive to shedding light on whether a similar digitalisation process in academic settings should be delivered in contexts beyond China. In fact, the positive impact of digitalised learning on students’ development was already being established prior to the outbreak of COVID-19. Indeed, digital technologies were employed to facilitate personalised, remote, adaptive and data-driven learning; also, blended learning – combining face-to-face and online pedagogies – had been integrated into education curricula (Lischer et al., 2021). Despite the progress of digitlaisation in academic settings, many Chinese teaching staff have still encountered a range of pedagogical challenges in the midst of the pandemic,

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including the lack of online teaching experience, insufficient time to prepare online learning courses/modules, and communication barriers with the educational technical support team. Students, alternatively, can easily be distracted when studying at home, especially when there is an absence of parent(s) monitoring their online learning progress (Lischer et al., 2021). Such contexts raise concerns on whether the pedagogical digitalisation is mature enough and how teachers can deliver their online classes in a more effective fashion. The relevant understanding is beneficial to the adjustment of pedagogical approaches, in order to optimise students’ academic performance. Although some Chinese schools have been reopened since the containment of the regional COVID-19 outbreak, the majority remain closed due to the fear of triggering the next wave of COVID-19 outbreak. Prolonged home stay is in relation with many challenges Chinese students face, including decreased social interactions with peers, increased conflicts with parents, tremendous academic pressures due to the drastic shift from face-to-face to online learning, doubts on whether online learning can generate similar outputs as onsite learning, and the need to live in isolation (Chen et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2021; Zhang & Liu, 2021). The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) states that students experiencing the aforementioned challenges are inclined to suffer from adverse psychological well-being, including high levels of anxiety and depression symptoms (Sundarasen et  al., 2020). The absence of parents at domestic settings and low household socio-economic status are two other important factors of students’ adverse psychological well-being (Lischer et al., 2021). These are because individuals from disadvantaged families experience additional digital barriers to education due to their lack of reliable Internet connection and an absence of necessary technological devices for learning at home. These cohorts are more digitally marginalised and excluded. Parental absence further hinders their formation of attachment to others and worsens their sense of isolation, leading to adverse psychological conflicts, including the development of depression symptoms (Lischer et  al., 2021). Furthermore, the pandemic and digitalisation of education may raise students’ levels of perceived stress (PS). In this context, PS refers to a condition or feeling individuals experience when they perceive that the demands exceed the personal and coping resources they can mobilise. Mental health and academic performance of individuals who are exposed to high levels of PS throughout a prolonged course are significantly and unfavourably affected (Wang et al., 2021). Yet, digital education has been beneficial to certain groups of students amid the pandemic. For example, some university students were worried about delays caused by the pandemic in academic activities, where online teaching and learning are welcomed as the only possible solution to guarantee the continuation of students’ academic routines (Zhang & Liu, 2021). In this chapter, the author explores available Chinese literature that assesses the nuanced relationship between digital learning, academic performance and mental health during the outbreak of the pandemic. He analyses how Chinese students undertaking e-learning are, positively and negatively, impacted by digital education. In addition, the author suggests interventions on how the design and delivery of

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digital education can be modified or improved in order to optimise Chinese students’ academic and psychological development. Systematic review is applied. As per the framework of this systematic review, existing literature focusing on (1) digital learning, (2) academic performance and (3) mental health in Chinese contexts during the outbreak of the pandemic is exclusively examined.

Digital Learning, Academic Performance and Mental Health In 2020, the National Clinical Research Centre for Mental Disorders of China conducted two national mental health surveys (Chen et al., 2021). The first survey was administered between 20 and 27 February 2020 (during the COVID-19 outbreak), while the second survey from 11 to 19 April 2020 (after the COVID-19 outbreak). Snowball sampling was applied and survey data were collected via WeChat (Chen et  al., 2021). A sum of 9554 and 3886 respondents, who were secondary school students aged between 11 and 20, participated in the first and second survey, respectively. In the first survey, the prevalence of depression was 36.6% (95%; CI: 35.6–37.6%) and that of anxiety was 19.0% (95%; CI: 18.2–19.8%). The rate of depression raised to 57.0% (95%; CI: 55.4–58.6%) and that of anxiety increased to 36.7% (95%; CI: 35.2–38.2%) in the second survey. It is noteworthy that China timely established online mental health education and services during the COVID-19 outbreak, nationwide. However, the content of such supportive e-education and e-services was not designated for adolescents and students. Also, Chinese students were highly occupied by their academic commitments and were therefore discouraged from engaging in the e-mental health services (Chen et al., 2021). In the critical epoch of the pandemic, many Chinese students have been facing ample transitions in their lives, including having the need to develop their digital literacy and stay at home most of the time. Their worries about COVID-19 infection and academic and digital challenges can significantly threaten their mental health. Yet, such cohorts might not necessarily be aware of the importance of psychological well-being. Even if they prioritise their mental health, they may not be equipped to understand the appropriate means to combat psychological challenges. As a result, it is essential for the Chinese government to deliver online mental health education and services designated for full-time students, teaching them the desirable ways to handle psychological and emotional obstacles and enabling them to virtually communicate with professionals whenever they find it necessary. While COVID-19 and the social distancing requirements prompt individuals’ dependence on the use of the Internet and smartphones, Chen et al. (2021) emphasised that spending too much time on online platforms per day, alongside lacking outdoor activities, can trigger depression and anxiety symptoms. Indeed, Chen et al. (2021) found that Chinese students who reported daily e-study durations of over 8 h and worried about academic performance were prone to suffer from depression and anxiety. It is important for the Chinese government and schools to deliver guidelines on how to use the Internet and electronic gadgets appropriately. While academic

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workloads might be heavy, leading to the need of overusing the Internet, relevant parties should encourage students to engage more in non-online activities after fulfilling their daily academic tasks. The online mental health services should provide detailed information on taking regular breaks from the computers and smartphones while students are fulfilling their academic work, for the purpose of maintaining a satisfactory level of visual and mental health. In an additional study conducted by Lei et al. (2021), 293 college students, aged 18 or above, in Hubei, China, were surveyed online between 16 December 2019 and 19 January 2020. Cluster sampling method was employed for data collection. Six out of 12 colleges across the region were randomly selected, and one class group was arbitrarily chosen from each of the six colleges. Among the respondents, 8% suffered from some form of mental disorder (i.e., obsessive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression). Nowadays, college students are encountering more social competition and pressure from studies and at work, which might foster the development of mental disorders. However, they failed to find out whether more academically competitive and promising students are prone to endure mental health threats. It could be possible that academically competitive students spent too much time on electronic gadgets for e-learning, adversely impacting their mental health. Ma et al. (2021) undertook the design and delivery of a cross-sectional survey between 11 April and 17 April 2020. A questionnaire was administered to parents or caregivers of seven to 15-year-old children via WeChat. The children were asked to complete the survey together with their parents or caregivers. Purposive sampling was used to select participants. Respondents were not informed about the survey aims in order to minimise any response biases. A total of 668 respondents nationwide completed the survey. Among the respondents, 46.7% believed their children were adversely psychologically affected by the COVID-19. Another 36.7% and 34.0% thought their children were impacted emotionally and socially, respectively. Chinese students were prone to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in junior secondary school (p = 0.05) and boarding school (p = 0.004), relative to their counterparts in primary school. Additionally, depression was more prevalent among students in junior secondary school (p  =  0.032) and boarding school (p = 0.02), compared to their counterparts in primary school. Ma et al. (2021) found that secondary school and boarding school students face more academic stress than primary school students, as the former are concerned more about their studies and future academic or career plans. Academic stress facilitates the confrontation of mental health challenges, hinting that academic performance and attitudes are tied to mental health among Chinese students. A sum of 44.3% of respondents argued online education is effective with respect to gaining knowledge and improving practical and communications skills. Also, 78% believed students could complete their assigned online homework or projects, communicate with teachers effectively and intrumentalise WeChat for self-­ development. While respondents were, in general, satisfied with their children’s engagement in e-learning, Chinese students’ digital literacy is divided. Ma et  al. (2021) reported that children aged older (p