Global Connections: The World in the Early Medieval Age, 600-900 9781413414424, 2003093840, 1413414435, 1413414427

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GLOBAL CONNECTIONS

GLOBAL CONNECTIONS The World in the Early Medieval Age, 600-900

Wilfred J. Bisson

Copyright © 2003 by Wilfred J. Bisson.

Library of Congress Number: 2003093840

ISBN: Hardcover 1-4134-1443-5 Softcover 1-4134-1442-7 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted

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CONTENTS Acknowledgement .........cccesceseesceseetrectteeeresstessersereeeere LD Preface ....cccccccsssccsessssceccssssscessesssscessssscscesssscccsesssssesesstsessessseees LO

Introduction : A Time Traveler in the Early Medieval Age....... 19 One : The American Difference ..............ccccccccceeeeseserereeeeeesensne 2 I North America ......c.ccccccsscccccssssccccccesscecceseressseeeeeeessee JO

New Inuit Technology ...........ccccccccccssssseceeeeeessseeeeeeeens DQ

New Weapons Wreak Havoc in North America..........31 Athapascan and Algonquin: Northern Foragers..........32 Ancient Iroquoians: Upland Farmers ....................60.33 Wealth in California and the Pacific Northwest ..........34 From Hopewell to Mississippian in Heartland North America ........ccccccsssccccccsssssscceccssssneeceseesssseaeeeerees DO

Emergence of Pueblo Civilizations ...... AL MESOAMETICA .ooeeeeececessesssseeceeccssessessecceeereestsssscteessessens 4

The Destruction of Teotihuacan and the Rise of SUCCESSOLS vicccccsccccssssssccsceesssseseccessssssecccesssssecessesssseees FA

Late Classic Maya .....ccccccccssssccccssssreeseessssecescssssecevenssens FL

Circum-Caribbean: A zone of transition ..................53 Andean Civilization .....ccccccccccccccessssstsccccsesersestssteeeeeeee JA Tiwanaku .o...cccccccesssssssssssssssssccccccecccseccescesscceeeetsreessessee ) /

Amazonia and the ArawakS ...........cccsssscccccseseeseeseneeeee O | TWO : OCEANIA oo... ececeeesscccesesssssceceeseessncsscessssseeessessssteeeeesssessens OO POLYNESIA 00... eeececcesetecceetsteeeeseneeesessssecesssssescessesssssssseres OO

Melanesia and Papua ......cccccccccsssssssssteecesseesesesseeeeees O/ AUStralia ...ccccccecccesscccceeessssseecccssssseccsessesetsreesesereesseeeess 08

Three : Islam Erupts .........cc:ccccsccsssscssscsscecsseeeeseceseeeseeeseeeesteeess 1O

The Umayyad Caliphate 0.0.0... eee eeeeessesteeeeessneeeee OF

Muslims Conquer the Sassanid Empire ....................86

|

|

Muslims Conquer Palestine and Syria ...............88 | Muslims Conquer Egypt and the Maghrib ...........91 | Muslims Conquer Spain .....cceeeeeeseseceeseeceeseeeeeeeneeene DA

Umayyad Splendor wee eeeeceesrcsssseestteeesseeeen DD Four : Tang Glory in East Asia wo... eeeeeeeerereereee LOAF

Sui and Early Tang Dynasties 589-756............... 107 Five : Mimicking the Tang .........cccccccssscceeesttreereesseoeee LZ I

Nanzhao, a Kingdom in South China... 123 Annan (Vietnam), a Chinese Province 600-900 ....... 125

Empire of Tibet 600-900 wo... eeeeteeeteeceee E27 Silla unites Korea; Parhae in Manchuria................ 130

Japan adopts the Tang Model ou... eee 189 Six : India: The South in Ascendence .........ccccccccseseerteeeee LAT North India 600-900 ..........c::ccccccsssstseececesssstterereree LAG

Feudalism in North India ........ccceesscccceeereeeeeeee 153

Battle for Supremacy in the Ganges Valley ........... 154 Buddhist Bengal ...........ccccccccccessststececeetttttteeerseneeee LOD Buddhist Kashmir .........ccccccccsccccccssesesestttetesereereeseene LOO Nepal .....ccccccccssscccsssscccsssecessssnecessssesecsssteeecsssssaseessses LOT

Buddhist Afghanistan ..........ccccccseeeceeeereeeee LOT

South India Flourishes 600-900 wee 158 Shankara Reorganizes Hinduism ou... eee 163

Seven : The Indian Model in Southeast Asia... 167 Indianized States of Mainland Southeast Asia ...... 170 The Khmer Empire .............cccccsssssssssssereresctssetersseeeee E72 Mon Kingdoms .............cccccccccccesseceeseseesseessesesesssseees LTA

Shrikshetra and Pagan .........cececcccceceeeeeeeesteseeteeeeee 176 CHAMPA .......eeeeeeceecesssessesssssetssstessssssstetstssststsesssseeeeee LTT

Malaya and Island South East Asia... 179 STIVIJAYE ...cceeececcecseesseesesetsststtssetsttsssstettstseeeee LEO Mataram .0.....cccecccscccssssececcccssssecseccsssescccssssssecssssstssseses 1OQ

Eight : Sinbad’s World ...........cccccccsscsssseeseceeesessssssesseseeeee 185

Indian Ocean Trade and the Silk Routes................ 186 Swahil Coast .........cccccccssssssssscseseeseesessesessssssesssee 19] Madagascal.......cccccsscsssscscccccseeecessssscssssssssstsssessssssseees LOB

Nine : Some Peoples of Inner Eurasia... eeeeeeeeeereeee LOS The Tork Empires ...........ccccccsscccccccccccccesssesessessssstteeee L9G

Turks Move WeSt.........cccccscssssssssssssessssssssssssssssssssees 198

Volga and Balkan Bulgars.... i eccceeeeeeeeeeeee LOD The Khazar Emp tre ..............ccceesssseeesessseseseesssseetrene LOL The Uighur Empire ..............cccssssssseccccceseceeeeeessesseeee DOD

Uighurs convert to Manichaeism....................02. 206 Khazars convert to Judaism .........ceceeeeseeeeeeeeeee 208 Ten : Europe: A Dark Age... cccccccccesesestsssetstttttttttteeree 21Q

The Byzantine Roman Empire’s Second Life ....... 213 Western Europe: Eurasia’s Periphery................00. 221 Merovingians and Carolingians ..............:.::ss00ee0e 224

Ireland, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons................... 228 Viking Raid .........cccccccceccccccccecceeeeeeeeecsssseetssessssssesseee 29 I

Slavs, Avars and Magyars............ccccccscssssssessssssseeee DID

Eleven : The Islamic Vital Center oo... cccccceeeeeesseeeee 239

Abbasids’ Golden Age (750-900) ween 240 Islamic Central Asia 650-900 ............ccccesssssssssrrereee 245 Twelve : Islam’s Far West ..............ccccccesssssesssesssssnstterseeseseeee 249

The Umayyad Kingdom of al Andalus................... 249 Berber Revolt .....ccccccccessssssssssstreeeeeeeessesessssstteee DOD Quasi-Shi’ ite MOrocc0..........cceessesssseseceeeeseceseseeeeesees DOA

The Aghlabid Emirate of Ifriqyia (800-909) ......... 255 The Maghrib’s Golden Ninth Century ................... 256 Thirteen : New Islamic Centers 0.0.0... .cccccccccscceessssstrtteeeees 298

Egypt 6041-900 oo ccccecsrssstsrsstesssssststsssesssssess DIO

Taharids and Saffarids in Iran... 201 Fourteen : Christian Africa 600-900 ......... cc ccccessssereeeeeee 203 NUD1a wooo eceeeecsseccccecesessstseeescesessssssssssccssssssstttstesees DOD

Ethiopia ........cceecscccccsssssseccecesssssesccsssssssesecessssseesessssss DOT

Fifteen : The Sahara ............cccccccccssssscsssssscessssssesssssessssssssenes 2O9

Sixteen : Africa South of the Sahara... cccssesessseeseeee 272 Sah!) oe eeeccsccccesssssseccessssseeseesssssssevessesssessessssssee 2 TA

Western and Central Sudan ...........cccceeessseneee 279

Upper and Lower Guinea ......... ccc escsscscccccceceeeeeeeeeee 219 Interior East Africa ......... cc eeeeecssssseseececceseeeeeeeseeseeeees LOD

Central and Southern Africa... cesses 204 The Somali Deserts .......cccccsccseessssssssssessseseeseeeees DOO

Seventeen : Empires Falling cc eccccccceceeseeseseteseesteteees 2O7

Decline and Fall of the Tang Dynasty ...........000... 288 The Abbasid’s Last Glorious Century 809-900.........292 Eighteen : Synthesis ...........cccscscccccssssssssccccesesssssseceeeeesssssstaeee DDO Endnotes ........cccsesssssscscccccccceceececceeeesssssessesessssssssssssssssssssssseses DOF

List Of Sources Cited ........cccccssscccccccsssssssseeccessesssteesseseessstssses DOD INCOX ve eeeceeessscccccsssssssseececessessnnsescessvesssssseesccesessssesssesssssessttee DOO

Map Page LIST OF MAPS

1) Organized States C. 800 oe eeceetteeertteene 20

2) Economic Map of the World c. 800... eee 22 3) North America C. 600 wo. ee eeceeseeseeessseseessssessssseees 29

4) Hopewell settlement and trading system.........0..0.......38

5) Mississippian Mound Builders c. 900 wo. eee ID 6) Classic Mesoamerica after the Fall of Teotihuacan.........43 7) South America C. 700 wc ceeeeesssrneeeeeeeseesessssssseeeeesees DD

8) Polynesia and Melanesia Cc. 800 ue eeeseeseesettereeeeee O4

9) Mediterranean through India C. 632 woes 12 10) Explosion of Islam 632 — 656 wu eeessssssecrccceeeesessssteeee DO 11) Islamic territory C. 800... cccccccccccccesceeeeeeseeeeeeeereeeeeee LOB 12) China C. 600 wc. cccccccceececcssssessssssttssttttttsseeseesseee LOO 13) East Asia C. 700 .u........ccccssssssssscecccecececeeceesesssesseesestsesseseee LLY

14) Korea’s Three Kingdoms C. 650 uu... ceesesseeertereeeeeeeee 132 15) Korea and Parhae C. 750 vucceecccesccssscessssstsessereee 133 16) India in the Early 6008 .......... ec eeceessseseessesserescrrrrreeeee LAB

17) India in the Ninth Century 0.0.0... ssssssssesesesseseeseveee LOS 18) Southeast Asia about 700 wu... ccseeesscsscssereereeseenee L608 19) Indian Ocean Trade c. 800 wwe cccessssscsscsssersseseees LOT 20) Europe C. 600... ccccssccccssssscesessseeecssssseccssssseseestsstseesssss 21D

21) Europe C. 800... cccccccccesssseecccessseesecessessseeeessssseeees DOO

22) Africa in the Late Eighth Century ..............cceesesseeees 205

To my wife Mal with love and gratitude

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | thank the many historians whose works I’ve used and cited,

and on whose shoulders I’ve attempted to stand. Their research and insights were invaluable to me in the production of this book but I take responsibility for any flaws in the work.

Lois Merry, inter library loan officer at the Mason Library of Keene State College, found many valuable and some rare works. Chris Cusack, of the Keene State College Geography Department, produced

outline maps. Nathaniel Casey Bisson, Plymouth State College, recreated the maps on computer.

Ed Perkins, Professor Emeritus at the University of Southern California, read the manuscript, offered trenchant criticism, and gave me much needed advice and encouragement.

Most of all, I thank my wife, Mal, for her critiques, advice, forbearance, support and love.

13

PREFACE () ne of my favorite professors as an undergraduate was Graham

Newell. He liked what he called “broad history” and, in lectures even on local issues, was careful to discuss the topic in its national and sometimes global context. His emphasis on the larger context kept us focused on the “Big Picture.” Like most World historians, I’ve always tried to understand and present the Big Picture, history in its global context. But for much of the world in many time periods, to see the Big Picture was only an aspiration. We had narrative histories of nations and states, and some excellent regional histories, but no global narratives. World History is the story of humanity, and every story is basically a narrative. For a truly unified World History, one must construct a

unified global narrative. To that end, it is necessary to learn the narratives of many nations and civilizations, and to discover common themes.

Many students of society attempted to circumvent the requirement of learning the histories of so many peoples by constructing theoretical

models of social development, most of which saw all peoples “progressing” through a series of stages. But these models treat each society as if it existed almost in a vacuum; they ignore contemporaneous events that were occurring in other societies. Those contemporaneous

events have repercussions. All neighboring societies are affected. No two societies go through the same stages of change. When Islam erupted in Arabia, the lives of most peoples in the Eastern Hemisphere were, to some extent, changed (and the dominoes continue to fall). But the Islamic state might have been stifled in its 15

16 WILFRED J. BissON infancy if the two neighboring great powers, Sassanid Persia and the Byzantine Roman Empire, had not fought each other to exhaustion in a long generation of war. Likewise, China’s reunification, after three and a half centuries

of division, resulted in neighboring countries adopting Chinese civilization, as well as a great economic upsurge. The prosperity of

Tang China, the growing wealth of the Muslim caliphates, the dynamism of South India and the trading areas of Southeast Asta interacted to produce a synergism with consequences for Central Asia, for Western Europe and the Mediterranean area, as well as across the Sahara to the Sudan and the West African forests and the East African coast; in fact, for most of the Eastern Hemisphere. In the “Old World”

a congeries of events interacted to create a “World System”, or ecumene. But the American continents were not part of that “World System.”

The Americas as well as the Pacific Islands, Australia and part of Africa, continued to live in their worlds, almost completely isolated from the “Old World.” But there were some interesting parallels and surprising coincidences, one of which was the nearly simultaneous discovery of the concept of zero by the savants of India and of the Mesoamerican Maya. This work attempts to capture the contemporariality of history throughout the globe from the years 600 to 900 C.E. The reasons for selecting this slice of time are that this is roughly the period of the

Tang Dynasty as well as the rise and early flourishing of Islamic civilization. This slice of time also represents a natural period in the experiences of Korea, Japan and much of Inner Eurasia. The career of the Khazar Empire roughly fits into this slice of time. One major problem concerning this work, which did not lend itself to easy or very satisfactory solution, was what to call this slice of time. The choice of the term “Early Medieval Age” in the subtitle

obviously comes from the traditional periodization of European history. I tried to come up with a name which would include the glory of the Tang as well as the beginning of Islamic civilization in the title,

but then decided that if I did that, then I would also have to include mention of the Maya as well as Ghana and much else to make the title

GLOBAL CONNECTIONS 17 inclusive. Such a title would be much too cumbersome. I hope this title does not make the book seem Eurocentric; very littlk—one chapter out of seventeen—1is about Europe.

This work is based entirely on secondary sources. The language is mine, but the information was mined from many excellent works, all of which are cited. Some notes about spelling: Most of the Chinese names are transliterated according to the Pinyin system, although a few are in the Wade-Giles system. Usually, when the Wade-Giles transliteration is used, an asterisk* is placed after the word. The system used for Arabic words was more eclectic. In general, I tried to use the same spelling as my sources.

For some terms concerning Native Americans, there were problems, because the sources were in disagreement: for example, should it be Algonkin or the more traditional Algonquin; Inka or Inca; Tiwanaku or Tiahuanaco; Huari or Wari and the like. In some cases, the traditional spelling is used but in other cases the revisionist system was used. I used Hawaii, rather than Hawai’1; Tang, rather than T’ang; Rus, rather than Rus’ and so forth. In general, I left out apostrophes, except for some words, such as Shi’ite, which customarily are transliterated with the apostrophe, and possessive nouns.

INTRODUCTION A Time Traveler in the Early Medieval Age |, ahumans time traveler could survey the earth and the activities of at 300 year intervals, she would see that, in the period discussed by this work, the human impact on the planet had expanded and intensified. Our time traveler would have noticed more land under

cultivation, and that the limits of cultivation were steadily creeping north in Europe and North America. She would have remarked the huge, new man-made constructions:

the artificial mountain that is Borobodur in Java, the Great Pyramid of Cholula in Mexico, many earthen mounds in the Mississippi Valley,

the Grand Canal in China, artificial lakes in Cambodia, irrigation dams and tanks in India, Southeast Asia and China, and the terraces constructed in the Andes and in other places.

The time traveler would see the swarming new or revitalized cities: Heien (Kyoto); Changan, Canton, Funan, Srivijaya, Baghdad, Fustat (Cairo), Qayrawan, Fez, Cordoba, Sijilmasa, Gao and others.

Our traveler would recognize that the area governed by bureaucratic states was expanding. New states were being established

in Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, Western and Eastern Europe, the Sudan, as well as in Mesoamerica and the Andes. Alert to cultural currents, the voyager through time would be impressed by the spread of religions and religious ideas: Christianity in the European wilderness, Buddhism in China, Japan and Korea, Buddhism

and Hinduism in Southeast Asia, Judaism among the Khazars of the Eurasian steppe, and, especially, the meteoric rise and spread of Islam. 19

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40 WILFRED J. Bisson After 800C.E., a new civilization, the Mississippian, established itself in the central lowlands of North America. Large agricultural settlements began to grow up along the flood plains of the Middle Mississippi, south of the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri,

where the mounds of Cahokia are now. While in Hopewell Culture, population densities were low (about 40 persons in 100 square kilometers),

Mississippian Culture eventually achieved much higher, perhaps five times higher, population densities. These new Mississippian villages were not only much larger than the Hopewell village preceding era, they used

a different agricultural technology and new crops.’ By about 700 C.E., varieties of quickly maturing maize (the ears of which had eight rows of large kernels) had been developed which reduced

the number of frost-free days required for the maturation of the crop from 200 to 120 days. This new maize was much more useful than the “pop corn” grown by Hopewell Culture villages, and it became the principal food for the denizens of the Mississippian villages. Indeed, the new maize came to dominate the diet of the Mississippians so completely

that, until about 1000 C.E. when the introduction of beans (another cultivar of Mesoamerican origin) provided more nutrition in their diets, they often suffered serious nutritional deficiencies. This is attested to by the skeletons from early Mississippian cemeteries. The Mississippian villages were concentrated in the alluvial flood

plains of the river valleys. In these bottom lands, it was possible to cultivate crops, particularly maize, year after year without fertilizing the soil or allowing it fallow periods. The annual floods renewed the soil’s fertility and rendered it easy to work and plant. The Mississippian

villagers, unlike the inhabitants of so many other agrarian societies, did not attempt to control water supply by irrigation and instead sought

out the rich and productive bottom lands of the rivers of the Central North American lowlands. The finite existence of such prime land,

together with the growing populations, produced an aggressive expansion of Mississippian culture after about 800 C.E. Mississippian conquest of Hopewell villages, with the subsequent appropriation of

Hopewellian land, marked this expansion. Hopewell villagers were killed, enslaved or driven out to less desirable land.

With an abundant, easily produced food supply, the larger

GLOBAL CONNECTIONS 4| populations could be mobilized to build large temple mounds and to

participate in a lavish ceremonial life centering around corn. Mississippian settlements became large enough to be classified as true towns. Mississippian culture developed a highly stratified society

with elaborate class divisions. The most spectacular flourishing of Mississippian culture took place after 1000 C.E

Emergence of Pueblo Civilizations By 600 C.E., the inhabitants of the Southwestern part of what became

the United States had learned the potter’s craft (probably by cultural diffusion from Mexico) began to cultivate squash and maize (and perhaps

beans also, but the evidence for this before 1000 C.E. is unclear), and had begun to build multifamily dwellings in “pueblos” (for the Southwest, the Spanish word pueblo, which commonly means village, has a special

connotation: here it refers to a kind of multifamily dwelling similar to an apartment house); but these pueblos were not yet sited on cliffs or on nearly inaccessible mesas as they would be in future centuries. This implies a greater sense of security and less fear of attack by the marauding

pillagers who would roam the area in future centuries.

At least two cultural patterns met in the Southwest during this slice of time: an indigenous culture pattern, characterized by pit houses

and ceremonial kivas, and a pattern derived from Mesoamerica, symbolized by ball courts and low platform mounds. This pattern was

especially evident in Southern and Central Arizona, where the Snaketown and Pueblo Grande sites have impressive ball courts. Latex rubber balls have been found at these sites, clear evidence of a trading connection with Mesoamerica.

The Hohokam, ancestors of the modern Papago, who built the settlements at Snaketown and Pueblo Grande, irrigated the desert with water released by the melting snows in distant mountains. They grew two crops of maize annually: one in the spring when the mountain snows melted and one in the fall when the autumn rains fell in the mountains.

They made pottery and cast copper ornaments, and traded widely.

42 WILFRED J. BISSON Among other groups which adopted the making of pottery and the cultivation of Mesoamerican cultivars in the Southwest were the Mogollon, who lived in individual houses smaller than the pueblos of the Hohokam. Their center was on the Mimbres River of Southwestern New Mexico, where their pottery was so artistically decorated that it

is avidly sought-after by modern collectors. Still other groups which adopted much of the Mesoamerican culture pattern were the ancestors of the Anasazi who,® during this slice of time, built pueblos over their pit houses. In these settlements,

the pit houses evolved into ceremonial kivas, where much of the ritual life of the Anasazi took place. The smoke hole of the erstwhile pit house became the entrance to the kiva.

In the last half of the Ninth Century, as the climate of the Southwest became wetter, Anasazi settlements expanded and multiplied. Anasazi pueblos were built in sites where irrigated agriculture was possible. The Anasazi constructed dams to catch the rare but torrential rains, and canals were dug to conduct the water to the Anasazi gardens. As the population grew in the Ninth

Century, society became stratified; a priestly warrior elite developed. Under the leadership of this priestly warrior elite, a unified Anasazi state emerged, with its center at Chaco Canyon. The Chaco “state” would flourish after 1000 C.E. (subsequent to the period discussed in this volume).

Mesoamerica “Mesoamerica” is a term used by historians to designate the area which includes Central and Southern Mexico and the Maya area of Central America. This is one of the two areas in the Americas where urban civilizations emerged (the Andes is the other). Mesoamerica is considered one of the agricultural “hearths” where many of the most important crops in the world were developed. Maize, beans and squash are the most significant. Urban civilization in Mesoamerica developed more than a thousand years before the Common Era and by the Seventh Century C.E., several civilizations had risen and fallen, but a tradition of urban civilization had been established.

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