Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India 3031305736, 9783031305733

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Chaitanya B. Pande

Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India

Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India

Chaitanya B. Pande

Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India

Chaitanya B. Pande Institute of Energy Infrastructure Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), 43000 Kajang, Malaysia

ISBN 978-3-031-30573-3    ISBN 978-3-031-30574-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Dedicated to my parents

Contents

1

 Introduction of Field Geology����������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.2 Geology of the Area��������������������������������������������������������������������������    2 1.2.1 Alluvial Deposits������������������������������������������������������������������    2 1.3 Field Geology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    5 1.3.1 Flow Nature and Classification��������������������������������������������    5 1.3.2 Field Classification ��������������������������������������������������������������    6 1.4 Field Stratigraphy������������������������������������������������������������������������������    9 1.4.1 Palsi-Budruk Area����������������������������������������������������������������    9 1.4.2 Hingana-Karegaon Field Traverse����������������������������������������   10 1.4.3 Nilgaon Field Traverse����������������������������������������������������������   12 1.4.4 Lakhangaon Field Traverse��������������������������������������������������   15 1.4.5 Kinhi Field Traverse�������������������������������������������������������������   19 1.5 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21 1.5.1 Correlation and Distribution of Lava Sequences������������������   21 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   22

2

Petrography����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25 2.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25 2.2 Methods��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   27 2.2.1 Petrography of Atali Formation��������������������������������������������   27 2.3 Petrography of “Lokhanda” Formation��������������������������������������������   30 2.3.1 Compact, Massive, Aphyric Flow����������������������������������������   31 2.3.2 Mafic Phyric, Amygdaloidal Flow����������������������������������������   31 2.3.3 Aphyric, Compact, Massive Flows ��������������������������������������   31 2.4 Petrography of Amdapur Formation ������������������������������������������������   31 2.4.1 Mafic Phyric Flow����������������������������������������������������������������   31 2.4.2 Aphyric Amygdaloidal Basalt with Primary Glassy Patches����������������������������������������������������������������������   32 2.5 Results and Discussion ��������������������������������������������������������������������   32

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2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   32 2.7 Modal Composition of the Flows�����������������������������������������������������   44 2.8 Mineral Assemblage in Basaltic Flow of Study Area ����������������������   45 2.9 Primary Constituents������������������������������������������������������������������������   47 2.9.1 Plagioclase����������������������������������������������������������������������������   47 2.9.2 Clinopyroxene����������������������������������������������������������������������   51 2.9.3 Olivine����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   52 2.9.4 Opaque Minerals������������������������������������������������������������������   52 2.9.5 Primary Glass������������������������������������������������������������������������   54 2.10 Secondary Constituents��������������������������������������������������������������������   54 2.10.1 Zeolite Group of Minerals����������������������������������������������������   55 2.11 Order of Crystallization and Composition of Lava Flows Exposed��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   55 2.12 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   56 2.12.1 Petrographic Characters of the Samples Collected from the Mahesh River Basin ������������������������������   56 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   60 3

Stratigraphy����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61 3.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61 3.2 Stratigraphic Nomenclature��������������������������������������������������������������   62 3.2.1 Group������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 3.2.2 Subgroup ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63 3.2.3 Formation������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63 3.2.4 Member ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63 3.2.5 Flow��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63 3.2.6 Chemical Type����������������������������������������������������������������������   66 3.3 Results and Discussion ��������������������������������������������������������������������   66 3.3.1 Flow Stratigraphy������������������������������������������������������������������   66 3.3.2 Stratigraphy of “Atali” Formation����������������������������������������   68 3.4 Stratigraphy of Lokhanda Formation������������������������������������������������   71 3.4.1 Chemical Type 1 ������������������������������������������������������������������   71 3.4.2 Chemical Type 2 ������������������������������������������������������������������   71 3.5 Stratigraphy of Amdapur Formation ������������������������������������������������   72 3.5.1 Chemical Type 1 ������������������������������������������������������������������   72 3.5.2 Chemical Type 3 ������������������������������������������������������������������   72 3.6 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   72 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73

4

Geochemistry��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   75 4.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   75 4.2 Geochemical: Variation and Petrogenesis of Lava Flows ����������������   82 4.3 Major Element Geochemistry ����������������������������������������������������������   82 4.3.1 Alkali Silica Variation����������������������������������������������������������   82 4.3.2 Variation of MgO Versus All Oxides������������������������������������   83

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4.4 TiO2 Versus MgO, P2O5, K2O, and CaO/TiO2 Variation ������������������   83 4.5 (FeO/MgO) Versus SiO2, FeO, MgO; Al2O3/SiO2 Versus MgO; and Al2O3 Versus CaO and Alkali Index Variation ����������������   89 4.6 Harker Variation Diagram ����������������������������������������������������������������   89 4.7 P2O5 Versus Major Element Variation ����������������������������������������������   89 4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry������������������������������������������������������������   91 4.8.1 Zr Versus All Major and Trace Elements Variation��������������   91 4.9 P2O5 Trace Element Variation ����������������������������������������������������������  103 4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation ��������������������������������������������  108 4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  125 4.11.1 Fe/(Fe+Mg) Versus Cr/(Cr+Al) Variation ����������������������������  142 4.11.2 Y/Zr Versus Ba/Zr and P2O5/TiO2 Variation��������������������������  142 4.12 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry����������������������������������������������������  143 4.12.1 (Ce)N Versus (Ce/Yb)N and Ce Versus La, Zr Variation��������  143 4.12.2 Variations of CaO Versus (La/Sm)N and (La/Yb)N; (La/Sm)N Versus (La/Ytb)N; Yb Versus La/Sm ��������������������  144 4.12.3 P2O5/Y Versus TiO2/Y and Zr/Y Variations��������������������������  144 4.13 MORB Normalised Trac Elements Enrichment Pattern ������������������  144 4.14 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  146 4.14.1 Geochemical and Petrogenetic Variation of the Lava Flows������������������������������������������������������������������  147 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  150 5

Sedimentology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  151 5.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  151 5.2 Alluvial Deposits in the Central India River������������������������������������  151 5.3 Methodology of Granulometric Analysis of Sediments��������������������  155 5.4 Sampling ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  157 5.4.1 Preparation of Samples ��������������������������������������������������������  157 5.4.2 Size Scale������������������������������������������������������������������������������  158 5.5 Results of Presentation of Grain-Size Frequency Distribution��������  158 5.5.1 Graphical Presentation����������������������������������������������������������  158 5.5.2 Statistical Parameters of Grain-Size ������������������������������������  159 5.6 Interpretation of Grain-Size Data������������������������������������������������������  164 5.6.1 Histograms����������������������������������������������������������������������������  164 5.6.2 Frequency Curves ����������������������������������������������������������������  165 5.6.3 Cumulative Curves����������������������������������������������������������������  165 5.6.4 Univariate Parameters ����������������������������������������������������������  167 5.6.5 Bivariate Discriminate Plots ������������������������������������������������  173 5.6.6 C.M. Pattern��������������������������������������������������������������������������  177 5.6.7 Multigroup Discrimination Plots������������������������������������������  180 5.6.8 Discussion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  180

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5.7 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  183 5.7.1 Heavy Mineral Analysis��������������������������������������������������������  183 5.7.2 Heavy Mineral Separation Procedure ����������������������������������  184 5.7.3 Description of Heavy Minerals��������������������������������������������  184 5.7.4 Interpretation������������������������������������������������������������������������  186 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  187 6

Hydrogeology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  189 6.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  190 6.2 Hydrogeological Investigation Data ������������������������������������������������  191 6.3 Results of Groundwater Properties of the Formation ����������������������  191 6.3.1 Alluvium ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 6.3.2 Deccan Trap��������������������������������������������������������������������������  193 6.3.3 Massive Basalt����������������������������������������������������������������������  193 6.3.4 Vesicular Basalt��������������������������������������������������������������������  193 6.3.5 Weathered Basalt������������������������������������������������������������������  194 6.4 Geomorphological Control for Groundwater Potential��������������������  194 6.4.1 Topography ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  194 6.4.2 Depth to Water Level������������������������������������������������������������  195 6.5 Groundwater Level Fluctuations������������������������������������������������������  200 6.6 Groundwater Quality������������������������������������������������������������������������  200 6.6.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������  200 6.6.2 Parameter for Analysis of Groundwater�������������������������������  201 6.6.3 Chemical Parameter��������������������������������������������������������������  209 6.7 Classification Based on Water Use Criteria��������������������������������������  232 6.7.1 Drinking Water Quality Standards����������������������������������������  234 6.7.2 Agriculture Water Quality Standards������������������������������������  235 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  246

7

Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  249

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  255

About the Author

Chaitanya  B.  Pande    He has  completed Ph.D. in Environment Science from Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati and M.Sc. in Geoinformatics from Amravati University. He has more than one decade of university, research, and industrial experience. Dr. Pande has reviewers of Urban Climate, Physic and Chemistry A/B/C, Marine Bullton, Scientific Reports, Ecological Engineering, Heliyon, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Earth Science Research Journal, American Journal of Geophysics, Geochemistry, and Geosystems, Sustainable Water Resource Management, Modelling Earth Systems and Environment, Applied Geomatics, Journal of Agriculture Sciences (Bioinfo Publication), Applied Water Science, Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India): Series A, Groundwater Sustainable Development, and Environmental Sustainable Development. He has published more than 70 research papers in international and national journals with citations more than 1695. He has published four books in Springer and has presented more than 20 research papers in national and international conferences. His research interests include remote sensing, GIS, watershed management, hydrogeology, geology, field geology, natural resources, hydrological modeling, land use and land cover analysis, groundwater quality, urban planning, hydro-geochemistry, groundwater modeling, hyperspectral remote sensing, remote sensing and GIS application in natural resources management, watershed management, and environmental monitoring and assessment subjects.

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Chapter 1

Introduction of Field Geology

Abstract  The state of Maharashtra is located in the country’s peninsular shield region, with hard rock formations covering around 94% of the total geographical area and sedimentary and alluvial deposits covering the remaining 6%. Basaltic lava flows cover around 80% of the state, with overlying alluvium confined to places near major rivers and streams. Alluvial deposits of shallow thickness, consisting of gravely, sandy, and clayey mixtures, are found in abundance along stream courses. With an estimated extent of 5,18,000 sq. km, Deccan Traps is one of the world’s largest accumulations of continental flood basalt. The Deccan Traps are a massive stack of volcanic rocks covering over 500,000 square kilometers (200,000 square miles) in west-central India, with a thickness of more than 2 km (1.2 miles). They were created 60–65  million years ago by a major volcanic eruption that ejected enough lava to blanket the Earth 3 m (10 ft) deep. The emitted gases may have influenced global climate and contributed to dinosaur extinction. Scientists blame the super-sized eruption on a hot spot, a stationary plume of super-hot buoyant rock in the Earth’s interior that forms a volcano when it reaches the surface. Hot spots create island chains as the rock plates forming the Earth’s surface move over them. Keywords  Maharashtra · Basaltic · Peninsular · Alluvial

1.1 Introduction The Deccan Traps hot spot may have led to the formation of the French island Réunion in the Indian Ocean. Subbarao et al. (1994) have given the stratigraphy and structure of Central Deccan Basalt province, proposed various eruptive models which appear to have been originated due to isostatic adjustment, proposed stratigraphy form and structure of east Pune Basalts, and reported the occurrence of new prescribe basalt horizons in Wai sub groups. Khadri et  al. (1996) have made an attempt to correlate the Malwa traps with the western stratigraphy and established the chemical and magnetostratigraphy of the region (Pande et al., 2018; Pande & Moharir, 2017). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0_1

1

2

1  Introduction of Field Geology

The earliest geological sketch map of Deccan Trap of Bombay Island was published by Thomson (1836). More detailed descriptions were subsequently proposed by Buist (1851) and Blanford (1867) who were the first to give a detailed account of the geology and subaerial origin of the Deccan Traps and Intertrappean beds of western and central India. He also proposed late cretaceous to early tertiary age with the help of stratigraphic classification. Oldham (1893) pointed out that the dykes were probably the foci from which the eruption of most lava took place. Washington (1922) has commented on the remarkable uniformity of the quartz tholeiitic character of the Deccan plateau basalt and presented some of their important physical, chemical, and optical properties. Fermor (1934) was the first to map the occurrence of individual lava flows near Chhindwada in the N-E part of the Deccan by using petrographic, chemical, and field studies which can be viewed as the forerunner for the recent investigations. Crookshank (1936) concluded that Narmada valley is a rift valley and ascribed different geological ages for its formation. Despite widespread acceptance of the impact hypothesis, the lack of a high-­ resolution eruption timeline for the Deccan basalts has prevented a full assessment of their relationship to the mass extinction. Khadri et al. (1996) have studied the Mineralogy and petrogenesis of the Deccan Trap lava flows around Mahabaleshwar. The drill hole intersected a 604 m thick basaltic lava pile comprising 26 flows. The basalt sequence is underlined by Lameta sediments. The basaltic flows of this area are of simple type and range in thickness from 4 to 75 m. They are porphyritic in varying degrees (5–22% phynocryst) set in a groundmass of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, opaque, glass, etc. Further they also divided the lava pile into three stratigraphic units on the basis of vertical variation in chemical characteristics and showed the close compositional similarity of these units with Ambanali and Mahabaleshwar formations of western Deccan basalt (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). Srinivasan (2002) has studied the post Deccan trap faulting in Raigad and Thane districts of Maharashtra trending north-south with their eastern blocks upthrown and western blocks downthrown. Shukla et al. (2001) have studied the geochemistry and magneto stratigraphy of Deccan Trap flows at Anjar area of Kutch region, Gujarat. Sethna et  al. (2001) have studied 45 major dykes intruding the Deccan traps, on the basis of geology and petrography of central and south-eastern Saurashtra region. In this region, the majority of the dykes were dolerite associated with Rhyolite with invariable content of microphynocryst of quartz and are thus described as quartz-porphyries (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016; Pande et al. 2021c).

1.2 Geology of the Area 1.2.1 Alluvial Deposits The northern part of the Mahesh River basin is characterized by the presence of alluvial deposits, while the Deccan trap covers the southern part. The alluvium deposit is quaternary in age and can be broadly divided into older and younger

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1.2 Geology of the Area

alluvium, with older clay silt and coarse sand grading upward into fine sand silt and clay, and it shows a graded pattern, with older clay silt and coarse. The alluvial deposits in the area are basically derived from the disintegration and decomposition of the basaltic rocks and are classified into two broad groups (Khadri & Moharir, 2016; Khadri & Pande, 2016). The younger alluvium which is about 70–80 m in thickness mainly consists of subangular to subrounded basaltic gravels with sand, silt, and clay (Khadri & Pande, 2016; Pande et al., 2021). The older alluvium consists of clay with basaltic gravel and sand at the base which is about 200–225 m thick. The total thickness of the alluvium varies from a few meters to 450 m and it also shows variation from place to place, while the northern part of the basin consists of thick deposits of alluvium as compared to the southern part (Pande et al., 2021). The thick deposits of alluvium lie in the valley of the basin and consider having a fluvial origin. The younger alluvium is composed of mainly coarser sediments and the older alluvium is having predominantly finer sediments (Table 1.1). The younger alluvium has granular zones of varying thickness, is not uniform in characters, and occurs as lenses or pockets with limited vertical and lateral extent. The older alluvium has greater homogeneity than the younger ones and is clayey in nature. The thick older fluvial-­alluvial deposits are distributed along the river courses and are significant hydrogeological units, whenever they have attained adequate thickness and some areal extent. The alluvium mainly consists of clays, sands, gravels, and sometimes cobble beds. The study area is characterized by the presence of nearly 200–250 m thick horizontal basaltic lava flows showing Cretaceous to Eocene age with a mantle of recently formed soil. The lava flows can be grouped into massive basalt showing limited water resources. The vesicular and amygdaloidal basalt containing weathered and jointed horizon indicates potential aquifers  (Pande and Moharir 2021a; Pande et al. 2021b; Pande et al. 2022). The thickness of flows varies from a few feet to more than 30  m, showing both simple and compound nature. The compound flows are characterized by the presence of more than two flow units showing pipe amygdales with massive nature at the base and dominated by vesicles at the top. Whereas the simple flows can be identified by the absence of flow units, showing monotonous sequence and uniform behavior. The vesicles are normally filled with secondary minerals like Zeolite, Quartz, and Calcite. In general, the lava flows do not extend laterally for long distances whereas vertically it shows wavy boundaries indicating pinching and swelling nature with an amygdaloidal horizon often merging into massive basalt (Khadri et al., 1988) (Fig. 1.1). Table 1.1  The geology of the study area Recent Unconformity Quaternary

Younger alluvium

Black cotton soil. Dark gray fine sand silt and day deposits with a few lenses of pebble beds

Older alluvium

Light chocolate brown and light yellow Caulfield clay and silt. Thin pebble beds with pebbles and coarse sand, grading upward into fine sand, silt, and clay

Unconformity Upper cretaceous Deccan to Eocene traps

Basaltic lava flows

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Fig. 1.1  Location map of the study area

1  Introduction of Field Geology

1.3 Field Geology

5

1.3 Field Geology Based on field characters, the basaltic lava flows can be broadly classified into “pahoehoe” (compound) and “aa” (simple) types. The presence of lava flows generally indicates relative proximity to sites of eruption (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). However, the study area is mostly dominated by simple flows with minor occurrences of pahoehoe type. Many flows come out from the vents as pahoehoe and change to “aa” as they advance downslope due to increasing viscosity resulting from the loss of gas, cooling, progressive crystallization, and the amount of stirring to which it is subjected (McDonald & Harbaugh, 1988). The transformation of compound to simple flows takes place due to high viscosity and more stirring. A critical field observation in the study area and the presence of both simple and compound flows at few places might be due to the downward movement of a portion of the flow along the gentle slope (Pahoehoe) and another portion that happens to plunge over a cliff showing steep slopes (simple). The field classification described by Khadri et al. (1988) and Bodas et al. (1988) which forms a part of the National Science Foundation, USA-sponsored research project on western Deccan Traps was adopted in this study for the identification of the individual lava flows and closely related flow groups in the field as well as for combining the individual lava flows for recognizable stratigraphic units (Pande et al. 2020).

1.3.1 Flow Nature and Classification In general, the lava pile can be divided into individual flows or closely related groups of flows based on gain size variation, textural characters (aphyric, microphyric to porphyritic), (feldspar, feldspar + mafic, mafics) as well as geomorphic field expression (Khadri et al., 1988). The flow contact can be demarcated by the presence of red and green bole horizons indicating time gap between successive lava flows. Pipe vesicles, vesicle, cylinders projecting upwards from the base, spheroidal weathering presence of pot holes on the top of the flow due to the rising of gases causing high degree of vascularity, relative enrichment of Fe in the upper part of the flow, relative enrichment of mafic at the bottom of the flow rampant zeolitization along with petrography and conspicuous grain size variation (Khadri et  al., 1988; Bodas et  al., 1988). The top and bottom of the lava flows are glassy with lenses of developed crystals, while the middle part is well crystallized and coarse grained (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). The compound flows are characterized by the presence of more than one smaller flow unit with a limited areal extent. Compound flow shows a shield like form and is thought to develop when the rate of extrusion of lava is relatively slow (Walker, 1969). The striking variation is the characteristic feature of the flow not only in the phenocrysts content between one flow unit and another but also between the top and

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bottom of the same unit. The flow units are characterized by the presence of pipe amygdales or spiracles at the base and ropy, amygdaloidal or vesicular tops. The thickness of the compound flow varies to a large extent from a few meters to more than 100 m. with an aerial extent of 100 km. vesicles shows spherical or elliptical shape with smooth or irregular outline and are generally abundant in compound flows showing average thickness (15  m). However, the thin flows are vesicular throughout and vesicles are more abundant in the central part (Khadri, 1989). The simple flows are characterized by the absence of recognizable flow units, and more uniformity in the field characters with well-developed columnar structure. The massive portion of the simple flow is very vesicular than the compound flow (Moharir et al. 2023).

1.3.2 Field Classification A sincere attempt has been made to identify the nature of various horizontal flows by utilizing various field characters such as difference in textural features, grain size variation, and phenocrystic assemblage. However, the presence of red and green boles at flow boundaries displaying vesicular nature with a higher concentration of amygdales and the occurrence of pipe amygdales at the bottom of the flows along with jointing and weathering pattern are also taken into consideration while identifying various flows (Pande et al. 2018). In this investigating area, seven field traverses were taken during two field sessions, which indicate the presence of XI lava flows mostly showing wide areal extent in a thick pile of 250  m. In general, the lava flows can be classified into aphyric and microphyric flows (Fig. 1.2). At some places mixtures of this type are not uncommon. A few flows are characterized by columnar joints at the bottom of the flow, which can help in identifying them even in isolated exposures. 1.3.2.1 Aphyric to Plagioclase Microphyric Flow In general, these flows contain large phenocrysts mostly weathered to iddingite and other mafic minerals like clinopyroxene and opaques, embedded in medium grained groundmass. The topography of these flows is medium grained, compact, massive, aphyric to plagioclase microphyric basalt. 1.3.2.2 Aphyric, Amygdaloidal Flow This flow shows a variable proportion of pyroxene and olivine phenocrysts in medium to coarse grained groundmass. In the field, it is very difficult to recognize these mafic minerals separately due to their dark and dense nature with the presence of amygdales.

1.3 Field Geology

7

Fig. 1.2  Legend for field section

1.3.2.3 Plagioclase-Mafic Microphyric Flow In this flow there is presence of phenocrysts of clinopyroxene and plagioclase in Medium to fine grained groundmass having the porphyritic texture. 1.3.2.4 Massive, Mafic Phyric Flow These are characterized by the presence of very big patchy phenocrysts (3–5 mm) of plagioclase sometimes associated with mafics in a medium grained groundmass which is either massive or amygdaloidal. In addition to the physiographic and chemical signatures, these flows are known as marker horizons due to their wide occurrence at the formation boundaries and have been effectively used for separating different formations.

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1.3.2.5 Plagioclase Phyric Flow These are characterized by the presence of medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt, and the groundmass is plagioclase and clinopyroxene, having glomeroporphyritic texture. It is sporadic granular opaque. 1.3.2.6 Massive, Mafic Phyric Flow These are characterized by the presence of coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt, and the groundmass is plagioclase and clinopyroxene, having ophitic texture. It is fine granular opaque. 1.3.2.7 Massive, Aphyric Flow These are characterized by the presence of fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt, and the groundmass is plagioclase and clinopyroxene, having porphyritic texture. It is sporadic granular opaque. 1.3.2.8 Mafic Phyric, Amygdaloidal Flow These are characterized by the presence of mafic phyric basalt with medium plagioclase, and the groundmass is plagioclase and clinopyroxene, having sub-ophitic texture. It contains the granular to sporadic granular opaque. 1.3.2.9 Aphyric, Compact, Massive Flow These are characterized by the presence of fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt; the groundmass is plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and Olivine, having porphyritic texture. It is fine granular opaque. 1.3.2.10 Mafic Phyric Flow These are characterized by the medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt; the groundmass is plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and Olivine, having porphyritic to glomeroporphyritic texture. It is sporadic granular opaque.

1.4 Field Stratigraphy

9

1.3.2.11 Aphyric Amygdaloidal Flow These are characterized by the fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches, and the groundmass is plagioclase and clinopyroxene, having glomeroporphyritic texture. It is fine granular opaque.

1.4 Field Stratigraphy The ability to distinguish various flows and trace them into different field sections on a regional scale covering a large area is important criteria in the stratigraphic studies of Khadri et al.’s (1989) Deccan basalts. In this study an attempt has been made to identify the nature of various horizontal flows by utilizing field characters, differences in textural features, grain size variation, phenocrystic assemblages, etc. and to establish flow-by-flow stratigraphic sequence by correlating and distinguishing various formations with the help of five field traverse giving due consideration to the traceability of the field characters. Map able sequences of individual flows recognizable in the field were grouped into the formation based on their similar characters, and major and minor physiographic breaks associated with the presence of marker horizon. A formation represents thick sequences of lava pile comprising simple and or compound flows with a comparably less evolved and more primitive type of flow at the bottom which shows progressive evolution toward the top. It is noticed that either a Giant Plagioclase Basalts (GPB) or a brecciated horizon associated with major or minor physiographic break is present at the top of each formation which is acting as a marker horizon. Thus in the study area, four different lithological units consisting of one or more flows have been identified as formations. They are Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations. However, the presence of red and green bole occurring at flow boundaries shows vesicular nature with a higher concentration of amygdales, and the occurrence of pipe amygdales at the bottom of flow along with jointing and weathering pattern is also taken into consideration while identifying various flows. The detailed stratigraphic features exposed in the area are discussed in the next chapter.

1.4.1 Palsi-Budruk Area This traverse is exposed at about 8 km away from Balapur. It is well exposed in the south-eastern part of the basin. The lowermost elevation of the area is 300 m and the maximum elevation is about 380 m. In this traverse, four flows belonging to Ajanta formation are recognized. This formation is characterized by the presence of the horizontal nature of the lava flows showing gentle sloping butte. The lowermost flow is characterized by the presence of highly altered, medium grained Aphyric to plagioclase basalt with microphyric nature. This flow occurs at an elevation of

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Fig. 1.3  Palsi-Budruk field traverse of Mahesh River Basin

300 m and is 10 m in thickness. This flow is overlain by fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt at an elevation of 320  m, and it is exposed up to an elevation of 330  m attaining a thickness of 10  m. In this area the fluvial erosional process is dominant as indicated by the presence of numerous pot holes in the area. This flow is exposed up to an elevation of 380 m and persists up to 330 m elevation having a thickness of about 25  m. This flow is overlain by fine grained plagioclase-mafic micro phyric basalt with amygdaloidal aphyric patches in between. The uppermost flow is lying just above this flow and is characterized by the presence of medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt. The total thickness of this flow is 8 m. Five lava flows have been identified in Palshi Budruk field traverse (Fig. 1.3 and Plates 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3).

1.4.2 Hingana-Karegaon Field Traverse This area is 32 km from Akola, and is characterized by the presence of undulating topography. The minimum and maximum elevation measured by the GPS is 320–370 m. This field traverse is characterized by the presence of three horizontal natures of the lava flows belonging to Amdapur formation. The lowermost flow is

1.4 Field Stratigraphy

11

Plate 1.1 Photograph showing fine grained, massive fractured, jointed Basalt at Palsi-­ Budruk village

Plate 1.2  Photograph showing jointed, massive basalt at Palsi- Budruk village

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Plate 1.3 Photograph showing weathered medium grained amygdaloidal basalt in Palsi-­ Budruk village

coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt. It is exposed at an elevation of 310 m; it occurs up to a height of 320 m, having a thickness of 15 m which is overlain by fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt; and it outcrops at 3300 m height and is present up to 350 m height having a thickness of 10 m. This flow is overlain by medium grained, plagioclase-mafic phyric, amygdaloidal basalt with clinopyroxene, microphenocrysts at an elevation of 340  m with 20  m thickness (Fig. 1.4 and Plates 1.4a, 1.4b, and 1.4c).

1.4.3 Nilgaon Field Traverse This traverse is 40  km away from Akola and is characterized by the presence of Mesa hills, the minimum elevation measured by GPS is 300 m and the maximum elevation is near about 400 m. This field traverse is characterized by the presence of three lava flows, the lowermost flow is fine grained compact aphyric basalt with the presence of zeolites. It starts at an elevation of 300 m and ends at 320 m and is 15 m in thickness. This flow is overlain by vesicular, compact, plagioclase mafic, microphyric basalt.

1.4 Field Stratigraphy

13

Fig. 1.4  Hingana-Karegaon field traverse of Mahesh River Basin

Plate 1.4a  Photograph showing fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt spheroidal weathering in basalt at Hingana-Karegaon village

This flow is overlain by the medium grained, compact mafic phyric basalt with vesicles and zeolite. This flow starts from 320 m elevation and is present at up to 360 m having a thickness of 20 m. This flow is overlain by highly vesicular, compact massive basalt with zeolitic minerals at an elevation of 360 m and persists up to 370 m elevation having a thickness of 10 m. This flow is overlain by topmost

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Plate 1.4b  Photograph showing fine grained, amygdaloidal, spheroidal weathering basalt at Hingana-Karegaon village

Plate 1.4c  Photograph showing wide fracture, jointed fine grained massive, amygdaloidal basalt at Hingana-Karegaon village

1.4 Field Stratigraphy

15

Fig. 1.5  Nilgaon field traverse of Mahesh River Basin

medium grained, compact, massive plagioclase mafic phyric basalt, and it is 10 m in thickness (Fig. 1.5 and Plates 1.5a and 1.5b).

1.4.4 Lakhangaon Field Traverse This traverse is 45 km from Akola and is characterized by the presence of Mesa hills, the minimum elevation measured by GPS is 380 m and the maximum elevation is nearly about 460 m (Fig. 1.6). This traverse is characterized by the presence of lowermost fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt at an elevation of 380 m, and it is 15 m in thickness, with concentration of zeolitic minerals and the presence of microphenocrysts of plagioclase feldspar. It is overlain by amygdaloidal aphyric basalt with higher concentration of zeolites and the presence of aphyric basalt top; it persists up to 460 m having 10 m thickness. At an elevation of 420 m it is overlain by medium grained, plagioclase-mafic phyric, amygdaloidal basalt attaining a thickness of 15 m. The fourth flow is 10 m thick, at 460 m height with

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Plate 1.5a  Photograph showing outcrop of compact massive basalt at Nilgaon villages

Plate 1.5b  Photograph showing outcrop of compact massive basalt near Mahesh River Basin

medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt. Along with concentration of zeolites vesicular top in the field traverse. The area is dominated by the presence of highly fractured and jointed basalts (Fig. 1.6 and Plates 1.6a, 1.6b, 1.6c and 1.6d).

1.4 Field Stratigraphy

17

Fig. 1.6  Lakhangaon field traverse of Mahesh River Basin

Plate 1.6a Photograph showing outcrop of fine grained, amygdaloidal, jointed basalt at Lakhangaon village

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Plate 1.6b Photograph showing outcrop of fine grained, weathered compact basalt at Lakhangaon village

Plate 1.6c  Red bole exposed at Lakhangaon village

1.4 Field Stratigraphy

19

Plate 1.6d  Photograph showing vertical and oblique joint patterns and fractures in Deccan basalt Lakhangaon area

1.4.5 Kinhi Field Traverse This traverse is nearly about 50  km from the Akola. The minimum elevation is 400  m and the maximum elevation was found to be 500  m. Both elevations are recorded with the help of GPS. This field traverse is characterized by the presence of four flows, the lowermost flow is highly amygdaloidal in nature, mafic phyric basalt with medium plagioclase, and it starts at a height of about 400 m and occurs up to a height of 420 m and is about 10 m in thickness. This flow is overlain by medium grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with vesicles in between; it starts at an elevation of 420 m and remains up to 440 m and is 20 m in thickness. This flow is overlain by medium grained, mafic phyric basalt. With glassy patches it starts from 430 m and ends at 440 m and is about 10–14 m in thickness. This flow is overlain by fine grained, compact massive aphyric basalt; it starts at an elevation of 450 m and is present up to 470 m representing a thickness of about 10 m. The topmost flow is 10  m thick and is composed of fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches; it starts at 480 m and is present up to 500 m (Fig. 1.7 and Plates 1.7a and 1.7b).

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Fig. 1.7  Kinhi field traverse of Mahesh River Basin

Plate 1.7a  Photograph showing outcrop of compact massive basalt at Kinhi village

1.5 Conclusion

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Plate 1.7b  Photograph showing spheroidal weathering in lava flow exposed at Kinhi village

1.5 Conclusion This chapter is so important for the understanding of the field geology, and plotting of lava flows with identification of flows and formation. We have newly identified three formations, which are discussed in detail and added in the entire chapter (Fig.  1.8). Some researchers focus on the petrography and geochemistry due to toughness for analysis and identification of lava flows and metals. In this context, we have designed the theory plus practical book as such type of work is not published in any previous publications. In the future, this book will be important for analysis and identification with the plotting of traverse maps, etc. Such a type of study requires any climate change impact on the geology and rock formations at the regional and local scale.

1.5.1 Correlation and Distribution of Lava Sequences In order to understand the nature and areal extent of various lava flows, seven field sections were measured and correlated. It is noticed that, with some exceptions, most of the flow sequences (formations) are traceable to a large extent with thickening and thinning appearances due to the pinching and swelling nature. In general, the study area is dominated by various lava flows showing horizontal nature with various thicknesses. Some of the flows can be traceable for more than 100  km

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1  Introduction of Field Geology

Fig. 1.8  Correlation diagram of the different flows exposed in the area

horizontal distance. By utilizing topography levels of particular flow horizons small dips of 0.50 to 10 are computed. The variation in the amount and direction of dip between individual flows and the presence or absence of some flows can be attributed to the thickening and thinning of individual lava flows (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). The vesicles present near the top of the vesicular zones can be utilized as indicators for determining the flow movement. Columnar structure sometimes indicates the possible direction of flow as seen near Palsi-Budruk field traverse. However, due to the presence of irregularities within the flow, they are not trustworthy (Fig. 1.8).

References Blanford, W. T. (1867). On geology of a portion of cutch. Memoir – Geological Society of India, 6, 17–38. Bodas, M. S., Khadri, S. F. R., & Subbarao, K. V. (1988). Stratigraphy of the Jawahar and Igatpuri formations, Western Ghat Lava Pile. Memoir – Geological Society of India, 10, 235–253.

References

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Buist, G. (1851). The geology of Bombay. Bombay Geological Transaction, 10, 167–214. Crookshank, H. (1936). Geology of Northern slop of Satpura between the Morand and shear Rivers. Memoir – Geological Society of India, 66, pt. 2. Fermor, L.  L. (1934). On the chemical composition of the Deccan Trap flow of Linga, Chindwaradistt, Central Province. Recorded Geological Survey of India, 68, 344–360. Kapur, V.  V., & Khosla, A. (2016). Faunal elements from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: A reappraisal of biostratigraphic, palaeoecologic, and palaeobiogeographic aspects. Geological Journal, 54(2018), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3379 Khadri, S. F. R. (1989). Flow stratigraphy, geochemistry and palaeomagnetism of a part of the Western Deccan Basalt Province, Maharashtra, India (p.  418). PhD thesis (Unpublished), IIT Bombay. Khadri, S.  F. R., & Moharir, K. (2016). Characterization of aquifer parameter in basaltic hard rock region through pumping test methods: A case study of Man River basin in Akola and Buldhana districts Maharashtra India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 2, 33. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s40808-­015-­0047-­9 Khadri, S. F. R., & Pande, C. (2016). Ground water flow modeling for calibrating steady state using MODFLOW software: A case study of Mahesh River basin, India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 2, 39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-­015-­0049-­7 Khadri, S.  F. R., Subbarao, K.  V., & Bodas, M.  S. (1988). Magnetic studies on a thick pile of Deccan Trap flows at Kalsubai. Journal of the Geological Society of India, Memoir No. 10, 163–180. Khadri, S. F. R., Subbarao, K. V., & Walsh, J. N. (1996). Stratigraphy from and structure of the east pune Basalts, Western Deccan Basalt province, India. Journal of the Geological Society of India, Memoir No. 38, W. D. West Volume. Khosla, A., & Verma, O. (2015). Paleobiota from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: Paleoenvironments, age and paleobiogeographic implications. Historical Biology, 27, 898–914. McDonald, M.  G., & Harbaugh, A.  W. (1988). A modular three-dimensional finitedifference ground-water flow model (586 pp). US Geological Survey, Techniques of Water Resources Investigation Book 6/A1. Moharir, K. N., Pande, C. B., Gautam, V. N., Singh, S. K., Rane, N. L. (2023). Integration of hydrogeological data, GIS and AHP techniques applied to delineate groundwater potential zones in sandstone, limestone and shales rocks of the Damoh district, (MP) central India. Environmental Research, 228, 115832. Oldham, R. D. (1893). Manual of the geology of India (2nd ed.). Government Printers. Pande, C. B., & Moharir, K. (2017). GIS based quantitative morphometric analysis and its consequences: A case study from Shanur River Basin, Maharashtra India. Applied Water Science, 7, 861–871. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-­015-­0298-­7 Pande, C. B., & Moharir, K. N. (2021). Groundwater resources development and planning in the semi-arid region (Vol. 571, p. XIV). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­68124-­1 Pande, C. B., Khadri, S. F. R., Moharir, K. N. et al. (2018). Assessment of groundwater potential zonation of Mahesh River basin Akola and Buldhana districts, Maharashtra, India using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Sustainability Water Resources Management, 4, 965–979. . ­https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-017-0193-5 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Singh, S. K. et al. (2020a). An integrated approach to delineate the groundwater potential zones in Devdari watershed area of Akola district, Maharashtra, Central India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22, 4867–4887, https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-019-00409-1 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Singh, S. K. et al. (2020b). Groundwater evaluation for drinking purposes using statistical index: study of Akola and Buldhana districts of Maharashtra, India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22, 7453–7471. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-019-00531-0 Pande, C.  B., Moharir, K.  N., Panneerselvam, B., et  al. (2021a). Delineation of groundwater potential zones for sustainable development and planning using analytical hierarchy pro-

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cess (AHP), and MIF techniques. Applied Water Science, 11, 186. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13201-­021-­01522-­1 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Khadri, S. (2021b). Watershed planning and development based on morphometric analysis and remote sensing and GIS techniques: A case study of semiarid watershed in Maharashtra, India. In C. B. Pande & K. N. Moharir (Eds.), Groundwater resources development and planning in the semi-arid region. Springer, Cham. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-68124-1_11 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N. & Khadri, S. F. R. (2021c). Assessment of land-use and land-cover changes in Pangari watershed area (MS), India, based on the remote sensing and GIS techniques. Applied Water Science, 11, 96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01425-1 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Singh, S. K., et al. (2022). Groundwater flow modeling in the basaltic hard rock area of Maharashtra, India. Applied Water Science, 12, 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13201-­021-­01525-­y Pathak, V., Patil, S. K., & Shrivastava, J. P. (2016). Tectonomagmatic setting of lava packages in the Mandla lobe of the eastern Deccan volcanic province, India: Palaeomagnetism and magnetostratigraphic evidence. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 445, 69–94. Sethna, S. F., Sethna, B. S., Kothare, P., Rao, D. R. K., Saraf, P. D., Venkateshwarlu, M., & Patil, S. K. (2001). A note on palaeomagnetic evidence to show tectonic deformation in the Deccan Volcanic Province of Saurashtra, Western India. Current Science, 80(8), 1067–1069. Shukla, A.  D., Bhandari, N., Kusumgar, S., Shukla, P.  N., Ghevariya, Z.  G., Gopalan, K., & Balaram, V. (2001). Geochemistry and magnetostratigraphy of Deccan flows at Anjar, Kutch. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences: Earth and Planetary Sciences, 110, 111–132. Srinivasan, V. (2002). Post-Deccan trap faulting in Raigad and Thane districts of Maharashtra. The Journal of the Geological Society of India, 59, 23–31. Subba Rao, K.  V., Chandrasekharam, D., Navaneethkrishnan, P., & Hooper, P.  R. (1994). Stratigraphy and structure of parts of the Central Deccan Basalt Province, Eruptive Models (Volcanism (Radhakrishnamurthy volume)) (pp. 321–332). Wiley Eastern Limited. Thomson, R. D. (1836). Sketch of the geology of the Bombay Islands. Madras Journal of Literature and Science, V, 159. Verma, O., & Khosla, A. (2019). Developments in the stratigraphy of the Deccan Volcanic Province, Peninsular India. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 351(7), 461–476. Walker, G. P. L. (1969). Some observation and interpretation of the Deccan Traps (Unpublished report). Center for Advanced study, University of Saugar. Washington, H. S. (1922). Deccan traps and other plateau basalt. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 33, 765–803.

Chapter 2

Petrography

Abstract  The variation in petrographical characters of stratigraphic sequence gives valuable information on petrogenesis along with their crystallization history. The petrographic characters show a considerable range of variation both in texture and proportion of mineral constituents. The lava flows not only show variation with one another but also within the same flow. Each flow type shows a fair degree of similarity with minor difference present in them, indicating the variation in composition of the lava flow with respect to their crystallization. In this chapter, we have observed the 11 lava flow in the area. Keywords  Petrography · Lava flows · Stratigraphic · Mineral

2.1 Introduction The Deccan trap is  one of the most continental floods basalt provinces on earth, consist of basalt with a wide range of composition not only in isotopic ratio but also in major and trace element constituent Mahoney (1988) during ascent of a plume related magma through thick continental crust, the verity of composition would be produced by various differentiation processes such as fractional crystallization, crustal contamination and accumulation of phenocrystal phase (Sen, 1986; Lightfoot, 1990). The range of composition could also be generated, in part by addition of magmas derived from continental lithosphere mantle (Hooper et al., 1984). The average petrographic analysis of the Deccan basalts shows porphyritic nature. The phenocryst plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine are present in variable proportions. The groundmass is dominantly sub-ophitic, intergranular, intersertal, and equigranular (Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). The presence of silica minerals in the groundmass is also reported. Deshmukh (1988) considers that groundmass consisting of silica minerals can be universally present in Deccan lavas. The flows solidified to yield highly crystalline groundmass. In general, the basalts are composed of abundant labradorite of the composition of (Ab2 to An2) and enstatite-augite (Pigeonite). These two minerals compose the bulk © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0_2

25

26

2 Petrography

of the lava flows in Maharashtra. Magnetite is quite common. In some varieties of basalts, a fair amount of olivine is also present. Studies were carried out on the basis of megascopic and thin sections to identify various mineral phases, textural characters, and their distribution (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). The difference between various lava flows and lava sequences are deciphered by distinct differences in field characters, phenocrystic assemblages, and the appearance of giant plagioclase basalt horizons (GPB). Each formation contains various lava flows distinguished by their stratigraphic position associated with the textural parameters like aphyric, microphyric, porphyritic nature, and phenocrystic assemblages such as plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine, and opaque associated with their physical and chemical characteristics. The common textures observed are porphyritic, ophitic, sub-ophitic, glomeroporphyritic, and equigranular. Plagioclase generally occurs as tabular laths usually of labradorite variety. Clinopyroxene occurs as augite and sub-calcic augite with minor occurrence of pigeonite. Olivine shows restricted occurrence showing alteration to iddingsite or serpentine along the borders. The common opaque minerals are titanomagnetite and ilmenite. The occurrence of primary glass is rare. Plagioclase shows albite, Carlsbad, and cross twins. Clinopyroxene occurs as subhedral grains of prismatic habit. Magnetite occurs as octahedral and anhedral grains, whereas ilmenite shows lath or skeletal forms. The zeolite group constitutes the widespread cavity filling minerals in the region, usually in association with quartz and calcite, etc. In this study an attempt has been made to investigate detailed petrography of various lava flows exposed in Katepurna river basin based on the physical properties of rock samples in hand specimens and in thin sections to identify various mineral phases, textural character, and their distribution. The variation of petrographic parameters in a stratigraphic sequence deciphered by the difference in field character, e.g., the presence of red bole, highly weathered zone, and amygdaloidal horizons, has thrown valuable information on the petrogenesis of lava flow. The collection of rock samples from the study area and their detailed study under the microscope has given rise to the presence of mineral phases. The variation in petrographical characters of stratigraphic sequence gives valuable information on petrogenesis along with their crystallization history. The petrographic characters show a considerable range of variation both in texture and proportion of mineral constituents. The lava flows not only show variation with one another but also within the same flow. Each flow type shows a fair degree of similarity with minor differences present in them, indicating the variation in the composition of the lava flow with respect to their crystallization. The detailed petrographic and mineralogical characters of individual lava flows belonging to various formations have been studied to identify and classify the lava flows into distinct groups (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et  al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). The common textures include porphyritic to sub-ophitic. However, certain aphyric flows show the presence of microphyric and flow textures. Plagioclase usually occurs as labradorite, clinopyroxene as augite to sub-calcic augite with minor

2.2 Methods

27

occurrences of pigeonite in the groundmass. Olivine occurs as iddingsite or serpentine along the borders and iron oxide as a solid solution series of titano-magnetite and ilmenite with the occasional presence of primary glass. Carlsbad, albite, and crossed twins are quite common in plagioclase with the occasional presence of baveno twins. Clinopyroxene occurs as prismatic grains showing subhedral form whereas magnetite occurs as octahedral to anhedral grains. Ilmenite occurs as irregular lath shaped and skeletal forms. In general, the cavities of amygdales are filled with various zeolite minerals like natrolite, stilbite, apophyllite, etc., which are associated with quartz, calcite, and other associated minerals like chlorite, etc.

2.2 Methods The detailed petrographic and mineralogical characters and their significance in various formations of study area are given below.

2.2.1 Petrography of Atali Formation Petrographically, this formation can be divided into six distinct groups which include (Table 2.1): • • • • • •

Aphyric to plagioclase microphyric flow Aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt flow Plagioclase-mafic micro phyric basalt flow Mafic phyric flow Massive, plagioclase phyric flow Massive, mafic phyric flow

2.2.1.1 Aphyric to Plagioclase Flow Medium grained, compact, massive, aphyric to plagioclase microphyric basalt and it shows glomeroporphyritic texture with the presence of plagioclase and clinopyroxene as groundmass phase. The opaque is granular in nature (Table 2.1). 2.2.1.2 Aphyric, Amygdaloidal Basalt Flow It is characterized by fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt. It shows sub-­ ophitic texture. In the groundmass, aggregates of plagioclase, olivine, and clinopyroxene are present. The opaque is fine granular in nature. Under the microscope, it is fine grained to medium grained, aphyric amygdaloidal basalt showing sub-ophitic

NG3

VI

CT2 380

CT1 410

420

LG2

LG1

CT2 420

440

LG3

KH1

CT3 440

450

LG4

KH2

CT3 470

KH3

VII

VIII

IX

X

Flow Sample Height no. no. CT meters XI KH4 CT1 500 In thin section Fine grained aphyric amygdaloidal

Medium to coarse grained mafic plagioclase phyric Medium to coarse grained, Medium grained mafic mafic phyric basalt plagioclase phyric Fine grained, aphyric, Medium grained with massive basalt large plagioclase Fine grained, compact, Fine grained aphyric massive, aphyric basalt basalt with plagioclase Mafic phyric basalt with Coarse grained, medium plagioclase plagioclase mafic phyric basalt Medium grained, Medium grained, plagioclase-mafic phyric, plagioclase phyric amygdaloidal basalt basalt with minute amygdales Fine grained, compact, Fine grained, with massive, aphyric basalt plagioclase laths Coarse grained, compact, Medium to coarse massive, mafic phyric basalt grained plagioclase mafic phyric basalt

Textural character In hand specimen Fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches Medium grained mafic phyric basalt

Ophitic

Sub-ophitic

Sub-ophitic

Sub-ophitic

Porphyritic

Sub-ophitic

Porphyritic

Porphyritic

Texture Sub-ophitic

Table 2.1  Summary of the petrographic data for the various flows exposed in the Mahesh River Basin

Pl.CpxOl

Pl,.Cpx,.Ol

Pl4C, Cpx″, Ol

Pl.Cpx

Pl,Microphyric Cpx Pl.Cpx Ab., Cs. Microphyric Pl.Cpx PL.Cpx

Pl, MicrophyricCpx Pl.Cpx

Cpx″, Ol

Sporadic granular Fine granular

Sporadic granular

Sporadic granular Fine granular Fine granular Granular

Sporadic granular

Groundmass Opaque Pl.Cpx Fine granular

Microphyric Pl,.Cpx Pl.CpxOl

Cpx″, Ol

Pl4C, Cpx″, Ol

Pl4C, Cpx″, Ol

Mineralogy pHenocryst Cpx, Ol

28 2 Petrography

HK2

NG1 PB2

PB1

III

II

I

CT3 310

320

CT1 330

CT3 340

CT2 350

370

PB4

PB3

CT4 360

NG2

IV

V

Fine grained, large plagioclase, aphyric basalt Medium grained, massive, Medium grained, plagioclase phyric basalt plagioclase to aphyric basalt Medium grained, compact, Medium grained with massive, mafic phyric basalt plagioclase, mafic phyric basalt Fine grained, plagioclase-­ Medium to fine mafic micro phyric basalt grained with large with amygdaloidal aphyric plagioclase aphyric patches in between amygdaloidal Fine grained, compact, Fine grained aphyric massive mafic aphyric, compact basalt with basalt large plagioclase Fine grained, aphyric, Fine grained to amygdaloidal basalt medium grained, aphyric amygdaloidal basalt Medium grained, compact, Medium to coarse massive, aphyric to grained with plagioclase microphyric plagioclase, mafic basalt microphyric basalt

Medium grained mafic phyric basalt

Sub-ophitic

Sub-ophitic

Porphyritic

Sub-ophitic

Porphyritic

Porphyritic

Pl, Cpx, Ol

Pl.Cpx

Pl.Cpx

Pl.Cpx

Pl, Cpx

Pl, Cpx

Microphyric Pl,.Cpx Pl. Cpx

Cpx″, Ol

Cpx″, Ol

Cpx″, Ol

Pl,microphyricCpx

Plagioclase, Pl4C,Cpx, Ol. Ab

Glomeroporphyritic Plagioclase, Pl4C, Cpx, Ol. Ab

Granular

Fine granular

Fine granular

Sporadic granular

Granular

Sporadic granular

Fine granular

2.2 Methods 29

30

2 Petrography

texture with phenocrysts of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine. The opaques are fine granular in shape (Table 2.1). 2.2.1.3 Plagioclase-Mafic Micro-phyric Basalt Flow Petrographically, it is characterized by the presence of large phenocrysts of plagioclase embedded in fine grained, plagioclase-mafic micro-phyric basalt with amygdaloidal aphyric patches in between. It shows porphyritic texture. The opaques are sporadic granular in shape. Amygdales are present frequently at different levels. It is characterized by the presence of medium to fine grained with large plagioclase aphyric amygdaloidal. This group is characterized by the presence of amygdales (Table 2.1). 2.2.1.4 Maficphyric Flow This is characterized by the presence of medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt. In microscope it is medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt. The plagioclase shows porphyritic texture. The opaques show a granular shape (Table 2.1). 2.2.1.5 Massive, Plagioclase Phyric Flow This is characterized by the presence of Medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt. In microscope it is medium grained, plagioclase to aphyric basalt. The plagioclase shows a porphyritic texture. The opaques show a sporadic granular shape. Medium grained mafic phyric basalt. The plagioclase shows glomeroporphyritic texture. The opaques show a fine granular shape (Table 2.1). 2.2.1.6 Mafic Phyric Flow This is characterized by the presence of coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt. In microscope it is medium to coarse grained plagioclase mafic phyric basalt. The plagioclase shows an ophitic texture. The opaques show a fine granular shape (Table 2.1).

2.3 Petrography of “Lokhanda” Formation Petrographically, this formation can be divided into three distinct groups, which include (Table 2.1). • Compact, massive, aphyric flow • Mafic phyric, amygdaloidal flow • Aphyric, compact, massive flows

2.4 Petrography of Amdapur Formation

31

2.3.1 Compact, Massive, Aphyric Flow It is present on the top of the Atali formation and characterized by fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt. It shows porphyritic texture with the presence of plagioclase microphenocrysts and clinopyroxene as groundmass phase. The opaque is sporadic granular in shape (Table 2.1).

2.3.2 Mafic Phyric, Amygdaloidal Flow Petrographically, it is characterized by the presence of medium grained, plagioclase-­ mafic phyric, amygdaloidal basalt. It is mafic phyric basalt with medium plagioclase. Groundmass is made up of mega phenocrysts of plagioclase, olivine, and clinopyroxene. It shows sub-ophitic texture. The opaque is sporadic granular to granular in shape (Table 2.1).

2.3.3 Aphyric, Compact, Massive Flows It is present at the top of the “Lokhanda” formation and characterized by fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt. It shows porphyritic and sub-ophitic textures with the presence of plagioclase olivine and clinopyroxene as groundmass phase. The opaque is fine granular in shape (Table 2.1).

2.4 Petrography of Amdapur Formation Petrographically, this formation can be divided into two distinct groups, which include (Table 2.1): • Mafic phyric Flow • Aphyric amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches

2.4.1 Mafic Phyric Flow It is present on the top of the “Lokhanda” formation and characterized by medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt. It shows porphyritic to glomeroporphyritic texture with the presence of plagioclase microphenocrysts Olivine and clinopyroxene as groundmass phase. The opaque is fine granular to sporadic granular in shape (Table 2.1).

32

2 Petrography

2.4.2 Aphyric Amygdaloidal Basalt with Primary Glassy Patches Petrographically, it is characterized by the presence of fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches. It is compact massive basalt embedded in fine grained aphyric amygdaloidal groundmass made up of mega phenocrysts of plagioclase, olivine, and clinopyroxene. It shows glomeroporphyritic texture. The opaque is fined granular in shape (Table 2.1).

2.5 Results and Discussion

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance The detailed petrographic investigations carried out reveal the presence of limited variations in similar flows belonging to different formations exposed in the study area. The result indicates a large diversion in textural parameters that bear reflection on the condition of formation of respective lava flows and the nature of the parental material in understanding the crystallization history of the magma along with the environmental condition for the development of different textures. In the present study, the texture is used for understanding the interrelationship of various mineral phases observed in thin sections. The lava flows exposed in the study area indicate considerable variation in grain size ranging from medium to fine grained varieties. The variation in the textures of the individual lava flows across their thickness can be accounted for by the difference in the rate of cooling, gravitative settlement, order of crystallization, quantitative mineralogy and the presence of volatile constituents, incorporation of foreign material xenoliths, and the effect of the movement of flows during crystallization. Other factors such as the composition of parent magma, presence of water, mode of emplacement of magma, geo-tectonic conditions of the region, and nature of the country rock will have a direct effect on the textural variation. The various textures observed in the area under study include porphyritic, ophitic, sub-ophitic, phyric, and flow. In general, the coarse grained flows are absent. The medium grained flows display sub-ophitic texture. The rate of cooling is reflected by individual lava flows due to their variation from base to the top (Plates 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11).

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance

33

Plate 2.1 (a) KH1, Lokhanda Fm, Chemical Type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (b) KH1, Lokhanda Fm, Chemical Type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (c) KH1 Lokhanda Fm, Chemical Type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (d) KH1 Lokhanda Fm, Chemical Type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (e) KH2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (f) KH2, Lokhanda Fm, and chemical type is CT1, Flow no. IX

34

2 Petrography

Plate 2.2 (a) KH2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (b) KH2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (c) KH3, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT3, Flow no. X. (d) KH3, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT3, Flow no. X. (e) KH3, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT3, Flow no. X. (f) KH3, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT3, Flow no. X

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance

35

Plate 2.3 (a) KH4, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. XI. (b) KH4, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. XI. (c) KH4, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. XI. (d) KH4, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. XI. (e) LG1, Lokhanda Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. VII. (f) LG1, Lokhanda Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. VII

36

2 Petrography

Plate 2.4 (a) LG1, Chikhali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. VII. (b) KH4, Amdapur Fm, chemical type is CT1, Flow no. XI. (c) LG2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (d) LG2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (e) LG2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. VIII. (f) LG2, Lokhanda Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. VIII

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance

37

Plate 2.5 (a) LG3, Lokhanda Fm, chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (b) LG3, Lokhanda Fm, chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (c) LG3, Lokhanda Fm, chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (d) LG3, Lokhanda Fm, chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. IX. (e) LG4, Amdapur Fm, chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. X. (f) LG4, Amdapur Fm, chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. X

38

2 Petrography

Plate 2.6 (a) LG4, Amdapur Fm, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. X. (b) LG4, Amdapur Fm, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. X. (c) NG1, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II. (d) NG1, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II. (e) NG1, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II. (f) NG1, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance

39

Plate 2.7 (a) NG2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (b) NG2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (c) NG2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (d) NG2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (e) NG3, Atali FM, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. VI. (f) NG3, Atali FM, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. VI

40

2 Petrography

Plate 2.8 (a) NG3, Atali FM, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. VI. (b) NG3, Atali FM, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. VI. (c) HK2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT2, Flow no. III. (d) HK2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT2, Flow no. III. (e) HK2, Atali Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. III. (f) HK2, Atali Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. III

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance

41

Plate 2.9 (a) PB1, Atali Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. I. (b) PB1, Atali Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. I. (c) PB1, Atali Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. I. (d) PB1, Atali Fm, chemical type is CT2, Flow no. I. (e) PB2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II. (f) PB2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II

42

2 Petrography

Plate 2.10 (a) PB2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II. (b) PB2, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT1, Flow no. II. (c) PB3, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. IV. (d) PB3, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. IV. (e) PB3, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. IV. (f) PB3, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT3, Flow no. IV

2.6 Textural Variations of Lava Flows and Their Genetic Significance

43

Plate 2.11 (a) PB4, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (b) PB4, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (c) PB4, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V. (d) PB4, Atali Fm, Chemical Type is CT4, Flow no. V

44

2 Petrography

The basalt portion of the lava flows indicates fine grained nature with the abundance of glassy material, which in turn indicates the rate of cooling. The middle portion of lava flow cools at a slow rate resulting in medium grained nature. Whereas the upper portion of the flows comes in contact with the atmosphere directly which results in sudden cooling leading to solidification at a faster rate resulting in vesicular nature. This study demonstrates that phenocryst assemblages are not evenly distributed within a flow. Some portions of the lava flow display flow texture indicating the nature of eruption of lava flow during crystallization. This might have been formed due to the viscosity and mode of eruption of lava, nature and the abundance of volatile constituents, and the gradient of pre-Deccan topography.

2.7 Modal Composition of the Flows The modal analysis was carried out for 16 representative thin sections, which indicate the modal proportions of various mineral phases in the phenocrysts assemblages (Pl, Cpx, Ol) from various chemical types of Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations exposed in the study area. The result indicates a genetic relationship between various mineral phases and groundmass. The most common mineral phase is plagioclase followed by clinopyroxene and olivine. In the study area, four types of basaltic flows are exposed, which are included in four CTs, i.e., CT1, CT2, CT3, and CT4. The “Amdapur” formation shows various chemical types with gradational variation in the composition of various mineral phases. In CTl there are 17% phenocrysts comprising 41% plagioclase, 47% clinopyroxene, and 11% olivine. The CT3 shows 20.5% phenocrysts out of which 46.36% are plagioclase, 41.46% clinopyroxene, and 12.19% olivine (Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.2). The “Lokhanda” formation comprises two basaltic flows separated into two chemical types. The CT1 consists of 16.65% phenocrysts comprising 40% plagioclase, 38.01% clinopyroxene, and 21.98% olivine. The CT2 consists of 19% phenocrysts out of which 18.42% plagioclase, 57.89% clinopyroxene, and 23.68% olivine (Table 2.2). In Atali formation, the CT1 comprises 17% phenocrysts of 41.17% plagioclase, 38.23% clinopyroxene, and 20.58% olivine. The CT2 consists of 18.5% phenocrysts with 13.51% plagioclase, 62.16% clinopyroxene, and 24.32% olivine. CT4 shows 30.5% phenocrysts with 80.32% plagioclase and 19.67% clinopyroxene (Tables 2.2 and 2.3).

2.8 Mineral Assemblage in Basaltic Flow of Study Area

45

Fig. 2.1  Histogram showing modal proportion of total phenocryst and various phases in phenocryst assemblages from different chemical types from Amdapur formation of the Mahesh River Basin

2.8 Mineral Assemblage in Basaltic Flow of Study Area The basaltic lava flow can be differentiated into primary and secondary constituents. In general, the mineralogy of any rock/litho unit can be explained in terms of essential and accessory minerals present in the rock formation. Megascopically Deccan basalt appears to be remarkably uniform and the rock is fine to medium grain, but microscopically it can be differentiated into fine, medium, and coarse grain having different textural characters. Through the petrographic investigations of rock samples from the study area, the lava flows have been classified into major and minor constituents. The major or primary minerals includes plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine, glass, and opaque and the secondary minerals occur as vesicular infillings in the lava flows, which contain various mineral types of zeolite group like aragonite, stilbite, natrolite, etc.; quartz group like agate, amethyst; and other minerals such as calcite and secondary glass.

46

2 Petrography

Fig. 2.2  Histogram showing modal proportion of total phenocrysts and various phases in phenocrysts assemblages from different chemical types from Atali and Lokhanda formations of the Mahesh River Basin

2.9 Primary Constituents

47

Fig. 2.2 (continued)

The lower portion of the basalt flows shows a higher concentration of secondary minerals associated with vesicles. This might be due to the escaping of volatile gases at the time of their formation. Mineralogically each lava flow exhibits absolute uniformity in mode with standard variation in textural parameters from base to top. The details of the major and minor constituents of the basaltic flows exposed in the study area are as follows.

2.9 Primary Constituents 2.9.1 Plagioclase Plagioclase shows porphyritic texture with the presence of phenocryst as well as in a groundmass phase. The plagioclase shows a large variation in the modal composition (20–87%) mainly due to the large variation of phenocrystic assemblages in

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Table 2.2  Modal proportion of various mineral phases in the phenocrystic assemblages (Pl, Cpx, Ol) from various CTs of Amdapur, Lokhanda, and Atali formations exposed in the study area Fm CT Sample Pl Cpx Ol Op Gm

Amdapur formation CT1 CT3 KH4 KH3 7 9 8 8 2 3 2 4 81 76

LG4 10 9 2 3 76

Lokhanda formation CT1 KH2 LG3 6 7 7 6 3 4 2 3 82 80

LG1 7 6 4 2 81

CT2 KH1 3 10 6 3 78

Fm Atali formation CT CT1 CT2 CT3 CT4 Sample PB2 NG1 PB1 HK2 PB3 NG3 NG2 Pl 7 7 2 3 8 9 24 Cpx 7 6 12 11 9 8 7 Ol 3 4 4 5 3 2 – Op 3 2 3 4 4 3 4 Gm 80 81 79 77 76 78 65 Pl Plagioclase, Cpx Clinopyroxene, Ol Olivine, Op Opaques, Gm Groundmass

LG2 4 12 3 4 77

PB4 25 5 – 3 67

Table 2.3  Variation of plagioclase/pyroxene, pyroxene ratio, and opaques in different chemical types exposed in the study area Flow Formation no Amdapur XI X Lokhanda IX VIII

Atali

VII VI V IV III II I

Sample no KH4 LG4 KH3 KH2 LG3 KH1 LG2 LG1 NG3 NG2 PB4 PB3 HK2 NG1 PB2 PB1

Chemical type CT1 CT3 CT1 CT2 CT1 CT3 CT4 CT3 CT2 CT1 CT2

Plagioclase/ pyroxene 0.87 1.11 1.13 0.85 1.16 0.3 0.33 1.16 1.12 3.42 5.0 0.8 0.27 1.16 1.0 0.16

Pyroxene ratio Cpx * 100/ Cpx + plagioclase 53.33 47.36 47.05 53.84 46.15 76.92 75.00 46.15 47.05 22.58 16.66 52.94 78.57 46.15 50.00 85.71

Opaque % 10.52 12.5 16.66 11.11 15.00 13.63 17.39 10.52 13.63 11.42 9.09 16.66 17.39 10.52 15.00 14.28

aphyric to phyric type of flows. Most of the plagioclase phenocrysts are dominated by albite and Carlsbad twinning; however, a few samples show indistinct to distinct normal zoning with their rims having similar composition to those of the groundmass plagioclase (Fig. 2.3).

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Fig. 2.3  Variation of modal proportion of groundmass with different chemical types of the Mahesh River Basin

The phenocrystic anorthite content of various chemical types has been plotted against MgO (whole rock) for representative samples. The results indicate a large variation in MgO content with considerable overlap in content, suggesting the dominance of mafic minerals in crystal fractionation. The plagioclase and groundmass show a range of compositional difference between percentages which indicate distinct differences in CT1, CT2, CT3, and CT4 irrespective of their stratigraphic position with considerable similarities within the same chemical type. The result shows a negative correlation between the modal percentage of plagioclase and groundmass, due to the least evolved nature of CT1, CT2 with low plagioclase and high groundmass, whereas CT4 and CT3 show highly evolved nature indicating the lower concentration of groundmass with a high concentration of plagioclase. 2.9.1.1 Mode of Occurrence of Plagioclase Plagioclase occurs in two generations both as phenocrysts or microphenocrysts and acicular crystals (microlites) in the groundmass. The distribution of plagioclase phenocrysts is not uniform either through the thickness of lava flows or over the aerial extent of the individual lava flows. They show irregular boundary with restoration of crystals at some places which might be due to the collision of early formed crystals with one another; some of them got struck up together when the magma was still in the mobile stage, and they might have welded together along the line of elongation. Khadri et al. (1989) concluded that plagioclase might have formed as

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phenocrysts and their large size growth is due to intra-telluric crystallization, the crystals having been brought up by the appraising lava flows. However, has questioned the intra-telluric formation of plagioclase phenocrysts based on his view that there was a principal temperature of crystallization for each flow at which the groundmass crystals suddenly begin to develop everywhere above which the lava was still in liquid condition with rapid solidification below. The phenocrysts might have developed during and after the extrusion of lava flows while it was still above its principal temperature of crystallization where there was sufficient mobility to enable the growth of crystals to develop rapidly. There is a sharp difference in grained size between the phenocrysts of plagioclase with maximum development at the middle part of the flow. The phenocrysts generally occur as tabular laths with irregular laths being filled by glass and opaques exhibiting sharp outlines with corroded margins. Due to the pressure generated by later formed crystals sometimes they exhibit tapering at margins. There is a large variation in size between two different groundmass plagioclase phases. 2.9.1.2 Twinning of Plagioclase It has classified the plagioclase twins into A-C twinned and untwined crystals. In the present study, the classification given has been followed to classify the various types of twins exposed. The results indicate the predominance of A-C twins forming a narrow field. The variation of Anorthite content with frequencies of Carlsbad twins indicates a positive correlation for various chemical types indicating their formation at an early stage with the development of fractures in the later stages. 2.9.1.3 Zoning in Plagioclase The study area is characterized by the presence of oscillatory zoning in the same untwined phenocrysts of plagioclase. Sometimes zoning has been noticed in one-­ half portion demarcated by twin planes in a single twinned crystal. The presence of twin planes in a few zoned crystals gives an impression of the unequal intensity of illumination under crossed nichols. The rim of the zoned crystal shows the same composition as that of the groundmass plagioclase which probably indicates the extensive growth of phenocrysts. Careful examinations of the two half of a single-­ zoned plagioclase phenocrysts show the difference in their Anorthite content. This result is in accordance with the observations made in the Satpuda region. The movement of crystals in the magma into zones of varying hydrostatic pressure can be attributed to the presence of high concentrations of volatile contents which will give rise to more calcic plagioclase whereas the loss of volatiles leads to the formation of plagioclase.

2.9 Primary Constituents

51

2.9.2 Clinopyroxene Clinopyroxene occurs both as phenocryst and in the groundmass out of which pound mass constituents are more predominant in the study area. On the basis of modal calculations, the pyroxene percentage varies from 4% to 14% in the phenocrystic careful study, indicating that a high concentration of opaque minerals is observed at well-crystallized lower and middle horizons, than the chilled top and bottom horizons of most of the flows. The equidimensional grains as magnetite and titanomagnetite and bars as ilmenite. A rise in oxidation ratio when the iron enrichment is constant in the titanium oxide minerals from the basalts of Bhopal. In general, the opaque minerals occur as skeletal grains, elongated bars, octangular patches, irregular patches, cubic, octahedral, and hexagonal forms scattered throughout the rock. The clusters of chlorite surrounding the magnetite grains are seen which the alteration product of olivine is probably. Opaque minerals are generally feebly altered. They also occur as inclusions in large phenocrysts of plagioclase and clinopyroxene and mostly are primary. The range of compositional difference in modal percentage of clinopyroxene with that of groundmass indicates a positive correlation with the different mineral phases, highlighting their degree of evolution. The CT4 and CT3 show lower range, whereas CT1 and CT2 show higher range in the modal composition of plagioclase and groundmass (Figs. 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5). In general, pyroxene occurs along with their colorless and non-pleochroic behavior due to

Fig. 2.4  Variation of the modal proportion of pyroxene with different chemical types of Mahesh River Basin

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Fig. 2.5  Variation of modal proportion of plagioclase/pyroxine with different chemical types of the Mahesh River Basin

the diversity of their mode of occurrence, and at some places, they are also found filling the cracks in the plagioclase lath probably due to the effect of high-pressure conditions created by the neighboring crystals.

2.9.3 Olivine Olivine normally occurs as a groundmass constituent with minor occurrences of micro phenocrysts in the mafic phyric flows. It occurs as pseudomorphic grains composed of iddingsite, chlorite, and serpentine like material with high birefringence. The abundance of olivine is more significant in understanding the petrogenetic history of the lava flows. However, electron microprobe analysis has indicated the cumulate behavior of picrite basalt in Western Deccan Basalt Province due to their lower Fe78–84 contents.

2.9.4 Opaque Minerals The opaque minerals include solid solution series of iron-titanium oxides which are restricted to the groundmass. The proportion of which is varied systematically in different horizons of individual flows. The chilled top and bottom horizons of most

2.9 Primary Constituents

53

of the flows show less amount of opaque minerals than the corresponding well-­ crystallized middle and lower horizons. Opaques occur as elongated bars, rectangular plates, irregular patches, and skeletal forms scattered throughout the rock. Many magnetite grains are surrounded by clusters of chlorite which are probably the alteration of clinopyroxene. The variation of modal proportion of opaques with different chemical types of study area indicates their enrichment and depletion trends showing their role in the genesis of these rocks (Fig. 2.6). The results indicate that the opaque minerals show considerable variation in different chemical types (2–5%) with higher concentration in mafic phyric flows, indicating their less evolved nature. The variation in the size of opaque oxides is found to be in accordance with the overall size of the constituent minerals. That iron oxide granules have evidently crystallized after a large number of plagioclase laths have commenced to crystallize before the sub calcic augite. In general, opaque minerals have a tendency to encroach on feldspar and clinopyroxene, which does not indicate prior crystallization of polarized light as ilmenite. This study confirms the presence of ilmenite in many thin sections following the observation made by the West.

Fig. 2.6  Variation of modal proportion of opaque with different chemical types of the Mahesh River Basin

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2 Petrography

2.9.5 Primary Glass Generally, the top and bottom portions of the flows are glassier than the corresponding lower and middle horizons representing the zone of very slow cooling. The proportion of primary glass varies in different flows as well as in different parts of the same flow. The palagonite (altered glass) is seen to be lining the inner walls of amygdales or present as the sole constituent of the vesicles. Primary glass occurs as interstitial material in plagioclase, pyroxene phenocrysts, and groundmass. Generally, it shows a variation in color from pink, greenish to almost colorless showing non-pleochroic to isotropic nature. In some thin sections, the transformation of primary glass into secondary glass which is brownish green in color showing pleochroic to non-pleochroic and isotropic to anisotropic behavior is noticed. The altered glass is sometimes seen to be lining the inner walls of amygdales or present as the sole occupant of the vesicles which indicates that the successive lava flows and different horizons of individual lava flows of the study area were subjected to variable rates of cooling and that the lower to middle horizons indicate the zones of very slow cooling.

2.10 Secondary Constituents As compared to the Western Ghats, the presence of zeolite minerals in the study area is very less. They occur as pockets, cavity fillings, and amygdales associated with quartz and calcite. In general, they are concentrated toward the upper horizons of lava flows as in fillings of vesicles. Zeolite zones, which cut across the basalt stratigraphy in the Western Deccan Trap basalt. However, recent investigations carried out using X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique for the identification of zeolites indicate no such zonation, stratigraphic relationship with zeolites distribution and co-­ relation between different zeolite species, and their mode of occurrence. Further studies based on geochemical analysis of zeolites show that the source of the fluid might be hydrothermal in origin indicating that the temperature of the mineralization could not have been 180 °C as remarkable purity of these minerals, suggesting that they do not form part of late stage magmatic fluid (Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019; Kapur & Khosla, 2016). Palagonite, chlorophaeite, various zeolite minerals associated with calcite, and different varieties of quartz occur as some secondary constituents in amygdales and cavity filling deposits. Amygdales are generally concentrated toward the top of the flow with the presence of pipe amygdales occurring at the bottom of the Now horizon. In the present area, the zeolite belongs to natrolite and heulandites groups including natrolite, stilbite, mesolite, heulandites, and chabasite. The hydration of glassy basaltic tuff produces chlorophaeite which is a “Figure substance.” It is described chlorophaeite as rounded grains found in amygdales and palagonite as decomposition product occurring as irregular patches showing variable composition

2.11 Order of Crystallization and Composition of Lava Flows Exposed

55

in amygdaloidal cavities. In microscopic studies, palagonite constitutes alteration product which may be formed to the alteration of clinopyroxene, olivine, and primary glass.

2.10.1 Zeolite Group of Minerals The study is characterized by the presence of several types of zeolite group of minerals such as Stilbite, Heulandites, Chabasite, Natrolite, Mesolite, and Apophyllite. The occurrence of zeolite group of minerals in the Narnala region is comparatively less than where they occur as cavity filling, pocket, and amygdales associated with quartz and calcite. The concentration of zeolites toward the upper horizon of lava flows as infilling of vesicles is quite common; however, at places they form irregular patches and large size geodes. The amygdaloidal horizons associated with zeolites are seen in the weathered zone of lava flows with the zeolites appearing to have formed subsequent to the decomposition of the host rock. Various zeolite zones which cut across the stratigraphy of the Deccan Traps. The basal Laumontite zone is concentrated in spilitized coastal tracts, whereas the middle scolecite zone and upper heulandites zones are restricted to the main tholeiitic basalt pile. However, recent studies utilizing XRD techniques for the identification of various zeolite minerals indicate any stratigraphic relation to the zeolite distribution, and there is also no correlation between different zeolite species and their mode of occurrence. Geochemical analysis of zeolite minerals indicates remarkable purity of these minerals, suggesting that they do not form part of late-stage magnetic fluids. However, the source of fluid might be meteoric and hydrothermal in origin, suggesting the temperature of mineralization 50°C. The conditions under which zeolites are formed and their relationship with the host rock indicates the absence of any sympathetic relationship between the host rock and zeolites. Zeolites are considered to have been formed by the action of meteoric waters. The distribution of zeolites exposed in the study area indicates that they fall within the stilbite and heulandites. The zeolites present in the study area might have formed by the reaction of water with solid material and the species of zeolite will depend on temperature, pressure, and various chemical parameters leading to their origin from late magmatic fluids.

2.11 Order of Crystallization and Composition of Lava Flows Exposed The anorthite content of plagioclase exposed in the study area ranges between An43-An68, which indicates its variation in composition from plagioclase to labradorite. The crystal of plagioclase encloses clinopyroxene, olivine, opaques, and

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glass showing more calcic nature than the host rock indicating their earlier formation. As plagioclase and clinopyroxene appear to have crystallized simultaneously, the relationship between plagioclase and clinopyroxene is difficult. However, the crystallization of plagioclase continued over a prolonged period extending beyond the formation of pyroxene. The presence of glassy inclusion in plagioclase may indicate a possible presence of altered olivine (Iddingsite). The presence of small inclusions of plagioclase in phenocrysts indicates their earlier formation supporting the probable movement of magma along the cracks during crystallization. The intra-­ telluric growth of plagioclase crystals due to the lack of wear and tear and the absence of marginal restoration due to the tremendous fall of pressure followed by a rise in temperature leading to solid-liquid reaction were proposed. In this study an attempt has been made to understand the presence of large phenocrysts of plagioclase showing irregular cracks, which indicate marginal restoration. In a cooling magma more calcic plagioclase crystallizes first followed by less calcic plagioclase, which indicates that their crystallization due to non-reaction between melt and crystals in the formation of albite-anorthite series will normally produce zoning. Due to the rapid rate of cooling, the course of crystallization and adjustment between the solid and liquid phases is generally disturbed leading to the formation of oscillatory zoning. If the crystal growth is faster, then diffusion zoning will be produced. The results indicate a low concentration of potassium in the groundmass plagioclase and in phenocrysts rim, whereas a high concentration of potassium is seen in the interstitial spaces adjacent to feldspar, suggesting that potassium enrichment was a consequence of post-crystallization alteration and was not diuretic. The simultaneous crystallization of phenocrystic and groundmass content of plagioclase feldspar shows a marginal overlap with each other which supports the view of crystal fractionation and intra-telluric origin.

2.12 Conclusion 2.12.1 Petrographic Characters of the Samples Collected from the Mahesh River Basin 2.12.1.1 Sample PB1 This sample belongs to Atali formation; it is collected at an elevation of 310 m. It is medium grained, compact, massive, aphyric to plagioclase microphyric basalt. Microscopically, it shows medium to coarse grained with plagioclase, mafic microphyric basalt. It contains microphyric Pl, Cpx, phenocrystic as well as in groundmass. Opaques are present; they show granular nature. Glomeroporphyritic texture is present (Fig. 2.7).

2.12 Conclusion

57

Fig. 2.7  Range of modal compositional difference in plagioclase, clinopyroxine, olivine, and opaque present in the Mahesh River Basin

2.12.1.2 Sample PB2 This sample is collected at an elevation of 330 m and belongs to Atali formation. Megascopically it is fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt. Microscopically it shows fine grained to medium grained, aphyric amygdaloidal basalt, having sub-­ ophitic texture. Minerals such as plagioclase, olivine, clinopyroxene, and opaques are present and show fine granular habit. 2.12.1.3 Sample NG1 This sample also belongs to the Atali formation and is located at an elevation of 320 m. The nature of the sample is fine grained, compact, massive mafic aphyric, basalt. In thin section it is very fine grained aphyric compact basalt with large plagioclase. Texturally it is porphyritic in nature; plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine are present as phenocrysts which are embedded in groundmass of plagioclase and clinopyroxene. Opaques are present in fine granular nature. 2.12.1.4 Sample HK2 This sample was collected from a height 340 m and it is of Atali formation. These are fine grained, plagioclase-mafic microphyric basalt with amygdaloidal aphyric patches and in between microscopically they are medium to fine grained with large plagioclase aphyric amygdaloidal porphyritic texture common. Clinopyroxene olivine and plagioclase embedded in the groundmass of the same minerals opaques are sporadic granular in nature.

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2.12.1.5 Sample PB3 This sample also belongs to Atali formation; it is collected at an elevation of 350 m. It is medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt. Microscopically, it is medium grained with plagioclase, mafic phyric basalt, showing porphyritic texture. Plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine occur as phenocryst and are embedded in the groundmass of the same minerals; the granular nature of the opaque is found. 2.12.1.6 Sample PB4 This sample is collected from 370 m elevation and belongs to the Atali formation. It is medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt. Microscopically it shows medium grained, plagioclase to aphyric basalt. Porphyritic texture is common. Mineralogically, it contains plagioclase, olivine, and augite present in plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine groundmass, albite. Opaque shows sporadic granular nature. 2.12.1.7 Sample NG2 This sample also belongs to Atali formation; it is collected at an elevation of 460 m. This rock specimen is medium grained, mafic phyric basalt. Microscopically, it is fine grained, large plagioclase, aphyric basalt having plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine, and augite, showing glomeroporphyritic texture opaques in the form of fine granular grain. 2.12.1.8 Sample NG3 This sample is collected at an elevation of 380 m and belongs to Atali formation. It is coarse grained, compact, massive, and mafic phyric basalt. In thin sections, it shows an ophitic texture. Opaques are fine granular in form. 2.12.1.9 Sample LG1 This sample belongs to the Lokhanda formation; it is collected at an elevation of 410  m. It is fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt. Texturally it is fine grained, with plagioclase laths. This shows porphyritic texture groundmass made up of plagioclase and clinopyroxene; opaques are sporadic granular in nature.

2.12 Conclusion

59

2.12.1.10 Sample LG2 This sample belongs to the Lokhanda formation; it is collected at an elevation of 420 m. It is medium grained, plagioclase-mafic phyric, amygdaloidal basalt. In thin section it shows medium grained, plagioclase phyric basalt with minute amygdales. It shows sub-ophitic texture. Phenocrysts of Pl and Microphyric Cpx are embedded in the groundmass of plagioclases. Sporadic granular nature of opaques is a common feature. 2.12.1.11 Sample KH1 This sample belongs to the Lokhanda formation and it is collected from 420 elevations. It is maficphyric basalt with medium plagioclase. In thin section it shows coarse grained, plagioclase mafic phyric basalt. Sub-ophitic texture is common phenocrysts of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine embedded in the groundmass of same minerals. Opaque shows granular habit. 2.12.1.12 Sample LG3 This sample also belongs to Lokhanda formation. It is collected at an elevation of 440 m. It is fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt having minute vesicles. Microscopically it is fine grained aphyric basalt with plagioclase showing porphyritic texture. Phenocrysts of plagioclase, olivine, and microphyric are present in the groundmass of plagioclase. Opaques are fined granular in habit. 2.12.1.13 Sample KH2 This sample belongs to the Lokhanda formation and it is collected at an elevation of 440 m. It is fine grained, aphyric, massive basalt. In thin section, it shows medium grained with large plagioclase; sub-ophitic texture is common. Phenocrysts of olivine plagioclase clinopyroxene are common and are embedded in the groundmass of same minerals. Fine granular opaques are also present. 2.12.1.14 Sample LG4 This sample belongs to the Amdapur formation and it is collected at an elevation of 450  m. It is medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt. Optically it shows medium grained, mafic plagioclase phyric. Porphyritic texture is common. Groundmass is made up of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine; sporadic granular opaques are found.

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2.12.1.15 Sample KH3 This sample belongs to the Amdapur formation and it is collected at an elevation of 470 m. It is medium grained, mafic phyric basalt. In thin section, it shows medium to coarse grained, mafic plagioclase phyric. It shows glomeroporphyritic texture phenocrysts of plagioclase, olivine, and clinopyroxene and are found embedded in the groundmass of same minerals. Opaques are sporadic granular in nature. 2.12.1.16 Sample KH4 This sample belongs to Amdapur formation and it is collected at an elevation of 500 m. It is fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches; microscopically it is fine grained aphyric amygdaloidal. It shows glomeroporphyritic texture. Mineralogically it consists of plagioclase, olivine, and clinopyroxene. Opaques are fine granular in nature.

References Deshmukh, S. S. (1988). Petrographic variations in compound flows of Deccan Traps and their significance. In K. V. Subbarao (Ed.), Deccan flood basalts (Vol. 10, pp. 305–319). Geological Society of India Memoir. Hooper, P.  R., Kleck, W.  D., Knowles, C.  R., Reidel, S.  P., & Thiessen, R.  L. (1984). Lmnaha basalt, Columbia River Basalt Group. Journal of Petrology, 25, 473–500. Kapur, V.  V., & Khosla, A. (2016). Faunal elements from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: A reappraisal of biostratigraphic, palaeoecologic, and palaeobiogeographic aspects. Geological Journal, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3379 Khosla, A., & Verma, O. (2015). Paleobiota from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: Paleoenvironments, age and paleobiogeographic implications. Historical Biology, 27, 898–914. Lightfoot, S. D. (1990). Isotop and trace element geochemistry of the South Deccan lavas, India. PhD thesis (unpublished), Open University, UK. Mahoney, J. J. (1988). Deccan traps. In J. D. Macdougall (Ed.), Continental flood basalts (Vol. 5, pp. 159–178). Kluwer Academic Publishers. Pathak, V., Patil, S. K., & Shrivastava, J. P. (2016). Tectonomagmatic setting of lava packages in the Mandla lobe of the eastern Deccan volcanic province, India: Palaeomagnetism and magnetostratigraphic evidence. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 445(2016), 69–94. Sen, G. (1986). Mineralogy and petrogenesis of the Deccan Trap lava flows around Mahabaleshwar, India. Journal of Petrology, 27, 627–663. Verma, O., & Khosla, A. (2019). Developments in the stratigraphy of the Deccan Volcanic Province, peninsular India. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 351(7), 461–476.

Chapter 3

Stratigraphy

Abstract  The study area is characterized by the presence of thick lava flows belonging to the upper Cretaceous to lower Eocene age with a thin mantle of recent soil. However, a certain portion of the area consists of an alluvial zone showing the saline nature of groundwater. In general, the lava flows can be divided into massive basalts showing limited water resources and vesicular and amygdaloidal basalts with weathered and jointed horizons indicating potential aquifers. The thickness of the lava flows varies from a few feet to more than 25 m showing both simple and compound flows. In this chapter, we have found the three geological formations in the area. Keywords  Lava · Basalts · Water · Stratigraphy

3.1 Introduction The term Stratigraphy refers to the study of stratified rocks and their sequential arrangement with respect to their time of formation, distribution, and lithological composition. The lithological characteristics of the different formations are persistent over the area in which they are exposed. Though there may be variation when followed. Stratigraphically, the Deccan trap is broadly classified into three groups: lower trap, middle trap, and upper trap. The three divisions based on the distribution and relative proportion of intertrappings, sedimentary bed, and ash layers at different elevations (Krishnana, 1960) comprise the eastern part of the province; the middle division trap refers to the contort Deacon and Malwa plateau whereas the Western Ghats around Maharashtra and Gujarat covers copper division (Kapur & Khosla, 2018; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019). The study area is characterized by the presence of thick lava flows belonging to the upper Cretaceous to lower Eocene age with a thin mantle of recent soil. However, a certain portion of the area consists of an alluvial zone showing the saline nature of groundwater. In general, the lava flows can be divided into massive basalts showing limited water resources and vesicular and amygdaloidal basalts with weathered and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0_3

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jointed horizons indicating potential aquifers. The thickness of the lava flows varies from a few feet to more than 25 m showing both simple and compound flows. The compound flows are characterized by the presence of more than two flow units showing pipe amygdales with massive nature at the base and a ropy structure dominated by vesicles at the top. The simple flows can be identified by the absence of flow units showing monotonous and uniform nature. The vesicles are generally filled with various secondary minerals like zeolite group, quarts, and calcite (Khadri et al., 1988). Remarkable unconformity divided the area into two geological formations of the upper part covered by quaternary to recent Purna alluvium. The study area is covered with Purna alluvium and Black cotton soil (Recent age) which is fine grained and highly argillaceous and also called Regur in this area; the black cotton soil attains a depth of about 12–22  feet at some places (Kapur & Khosla, 2018; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019). Cox (1983), Cox and Hawkesworth (1984, 1985), Bodas and Khadri (1988), Beane et  al. (1986), and Subbarao et  al. (1994) have provided a comprehensive stratigraphy (12 Formations comprising 3 sub-Groups) of the western Deccan Basalt Province based on field, geochemical, petrographic, and palaeomagnetic investigations. In this study, an attempt has been made to divide the 200-m thick Deccan trap lava pile exposed near the Uma River Basin into nine flow units consisting of two formations, namely A and B. Considering the vastness of the area and the magnitude of the problems, a sincere attempt has been made in this study to identify and correlate the aerial extent of various lava flows in the Mahesh River Basin by utilizing the latest available techniques. It is hoped that these results may provide a model to bring out the regional evolution and structure of Deccan Traps.

3.2 Stratigraphic Nomenclature For identifying the individual lava flows and grouping them into recognizable stratigraphic units, the nomenclature described by Bodas and Khadri (1988) and Khadri et al. (1988) which form a part of the National Science Foundation (USA) sponsored research project on Western Deccan traps, is being followed in this study. The important lithographic units adopted in this area include group, subgroup, formation, and flow, which are in accordance with the classification of International Subcommission on Stratigraphic Terminology.

3.2.1 Group It is a major litho-stratigraphic unit, which embraces two or more continuous or associated formations with significant lithological features in common (i.e., The Deccan Basalt Group).

3.2 Stratigraphic Nomenclature

63

3.2.2 Subgroup A group can be divided into various subgroups which constitute a formally differentiated assemblage of formations (Kalsubai and Lonavala subgroups).

3.2.3 Formation A map-able sequence of lava showing similar field, petrographic, and gross chemical and isotopic features has been termed as a formation, which is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphic classification. The formation boundaries can be marked by the presence of distinct breaks in field appearance or marker horizons (red and green boles) which are traceable over a large area with the same stratigraphic level associated with a considerable shift in chemical trend from the adjacent flows. Marker horizons are not only identified by their lateral traceability but also by physiographic expression and lithological homogeneity. Practicability of mapping and delineation on cross section is an important consideration in the establishment of formations. Whenever possible, the formations are separated into lower, middle, and upper divisions (Thakurwadi formation).

3.2.4 Member The formal lithostratigraphic unit next in rank to the formation and is always part of the formation is known as a member. It designates a flow or sequence of flow occurring at the same stratigraphic level having similar physical and chemical characteristics. However, flows with similar chemical signatures, but occurring at different trophic levels, are considered different members. A member is designated by geographic name followed by the word member, where a lithological designation is useful it should be included (Khardiphyric member of Jawahar formation).

3.2.5 Flow The flow represents the smallest unit in the lithostratigraphic classification, which is lithologically distinguishable from the layer above and below. A flow can be either compound or simple. Each compound flow is characterized by the presence of numerous flow units. The base of the flow unit in many cases is indicated by the presence of pipe amygdales and the top of a flow unit often exhibits a ropy structure (Walker, 1969). The absence of flow units with more uniform nature and the development of flow top breccias characterize simple flows. In some places the thickness

3 Stratigraphy

64

of a flow varies from 100 m where lithological identification is difficult because of poor criteria like geomorphic expression, lithology, distinctive vegetation, etc., which is only indirect evidence of lithology (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1  Stratigraphic nomenclature and thickness of the Western Deccan Basalt formations Formation (max. Member or (87Sr/86 chemical type Sr/T) Subgroup thickness) Wai Desur (175 m) 0.7055 Mahabaleshwar 0.7040– (280 m) 0.7055 Ambenali Ambenali CT 0.7038– (500 m) 0.7044 Poladpur Upper 0.7061– (375 m) 0.7083 0.7053– Lower 0.7110 Sambarkada 0.7068 Valvhan Ambavne 0.713– Lonavala Bushe (325 m) Pingalvadi 0.720 Bushe CT 0.7180 Shingi Hill 0.7078– Harf. Karla Picrite 0.7079 0.7147 Bhaja 0.7120 Khandala Rajmachi 0.7102 (140 m) 0.7107 Khandala Phyric CT 0.7102 KA3 0.7124 0.707 Madh 0.7094 Boyhare 0.7071– KA2 0.7072 Khandala 0.7098 Phyric CT 0.7073 KA1 0.7068– Dhak Dongar 0.7074 KOG Monkey hill GPB Giravli GPB

Avg. Mg# TiO2% 48 1.62– 1.9 52 1.6–2.3

Avg. Ba/ Zr 1.5

Avg. Zr/ Nb Samples 11.4

0.5

14.8

47

2.5–4.3

0.5

11.4

49

1.9–3.1

0.3

14.4 CAT-109

52

1.8–2.3

0.4

12.7

56 43 42 45 61 55 49 46 68 58

1.5–2.0 2.2–2.3 2.5–2.6 2.0–2.1 1.1–1.2 1.0–1.3 1.3–1.4 2.0–2.1 1.1–1.2 1.3–1.5

0.7 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.8 1.1 2.0 1.0 0.8 0.6

14.0 12.6 12.3 14.0 17.2 15.3 16.2 12.9 19.7 18.2

44 41

2.1–2.5 2.4–2.8

1.2 1.3

14.6 IG82-38 13.6

49 58 63 57 41 61 40

1.7 1.6 1.2–1.3 1.2 2.5–2.8 1.0–1.1 2.9–3.1

3.1 2.3 2.1 3.9 1.3 1.8 1.0

12.9 14.0 13.7 13.5 13.6 15.4 13.1

48 41 45

1.4–1.6 3.1–3.4 2.8–3.1

1.5 1.1 0.8

18.7 12.2 12.1 JEB1288

MBB2-5 JEB 211 JEB388, IG82-37 JEB116

JEB132 JEB431 JEB346 KOPO28 KOP026 IG82-35

(continued)

3.2 Stratigraphic Nomenclature

65

Table 3.1 (continued) Formation (max. Subgroup thickness) Kalsubai Bhimashankar (140 m)

Thakurvadi (650 m)

Neral (100 m)

Igatpuri

Jawahar (> 700 m)

Avg. Zr/ Nb Samples 11.7 JEB126, JEB366, JEB415, KOPO17 2.9– 0.5 KOP014, 3.1 12.0 IG82.32 0.8 12.3 BOR014, 1.5 12.0 IG82-39 1.3 15.2 JEB248 1.3 12.4 IG82-40 0.8 9.6 JEB015 1.2 11.6 BOR036, 0.8 9.8 IG82-27, 1.6 8.4 IG82-21 1.5 11.2 JEB013 JEB01R 1.1 BOR030

Avg. Ba/ Zr 0.8

Member or chemical type Bhimashankar CT

(87Sr/86 Avg. Sr/T) Mg# TiO2% 0.7067– 47 1.9–2.6 0.7076

Manchar GPB Thakurvadi CT Water pipe Member Paten basalt Thakurwadi CT Ashane Thakurvadi CT Jammu upper Palti middle Member lower Tunnel five GPB Tembre Basalt Neral CT Ambivil Picrite Kashele GPB Mg-Rich Igatpuri Igatpuri Phyric Thal Ghat GPB HFS-Poor Jawhar Plag. Phyric Mg-Rich Jawahar Kasara Phyric

0.7073– 0.7080 0.7099– 0.7112 0.7067– 0.7070 0.7068 0.7080– 0.7084 0.7112 0.7099 0.7066– 0.7067

58 59 71 58 58 62 58 34 46 56

42 1.8–2.2 1.4–1.6 1.0–1.1 1.0 1.8–2.2 2.0–2.1 1.8–2.2 13.2 2.7 2.2–2.3 1.7–2.0

0.7082– 0.7083 0.7062– 0.7073 0.7104

36 43 62 67

3.3–3.5 2.8–3.0 1.5–1.7 1.4–1.5

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.7

10.8 10.5 12.3 18.6

0.7102– 0.722 0.7107– 0.7124

40 59 49

2.6–3.1 1.4–1.9 1.9–2.2

1.1 1.0 1.1

11.5 SAM012, 13.3 IG82-20 14.3

0.7108 0.7085 0.7128 0.7091

36 51 38 59 39

3.6 1.3–1.6 3.0 1.4–1.9 2.8–3.0

0.9 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0

10.7 13.0 11.7 12.7 10.8

BOR026 JEB003, JEB007, BOR027 TEM003

IGA009 SAM001 IGA007 IGA003

Beane et al. (1986), Cox and Hawkesworth (1984) The heavy line between Bushe and Khandala separates the upper and lower groups of formations, CT Chemical type, GPB Giant plagioclase basalts, KCG Khandala coarse grained, KA Khandalaaphyric, HFS High field strength

66

3 Stratigraphy

3.2.6 Chemical Type A flow or sequence of flows occurring at different stratigraphic levels having similar chemical characters within a formation without stratigraphic bias is known as a chemical type (CT). Each CR is characterized by its own set of megascopic, microscopic, and chemical parameters. Useful chemical parameters include the concentrations of TiO2, MgO, CO, P2O5, B, Sr, Ca, Ni, Y, Ba/Y, Ba/Y, Ba/Ti, Ba/Zr, TiO2/ P2O5, Ba/Sr, Zr/Y, Zr/Y, Sr/Y, and Mg* number. Each chemical type exhibits a lesser range of variation within it than between other chemical types. However, in certain cases a few samples fall outside the normal chemical range, making the definition of CT less rigid. These samples show considerable overlap with the neighboring CTs, which makes the total variation a fairly continuous one. The result indicates the presence of four types in the Mahesh River Basin, which represent significant change in geochemical signatures. They are: • • • •

CT1: Fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal flows. CT2: Medium grained aphyric to plagioclase microphyric flows. CT3: Medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric flows. CT4: Medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric flows.

3.3 Results and Discussion 3.3.1 Flow Stratigraphy The detailed geological mapping of the lava flows based on five field traverses of Mahesh River Basin area coupled with petrographic and mineralogical investigations have led to the identification of 250 m thick lava pile which was divided into three formations, namely Amdapur, Lokhanda, and Atali, comprising 11 flows which have been further subdivided into various chemical types (CT), each of which consists of one or more lava flows showing similar characteristics without a stratigraphic bias (Table  3.2 and Fig.  3.1). The magneto-stratigraphic studies have revealed the presence of Normal-Reversed (N-R) sequence in the study area. Radiometric dating can be utilized to elucidate the stratigraphic relationship of lava flows. However, due to the similar nature of the tholeiitic basalts such work has been limited to K-Ar and rarely 40 Ar/39Ar methods which also have frustrated stratigraphic studies because of the loss and gain of Ar-K owing to alteration. The formation boundaries were marked by the presence of distinct breaks in field appearance or marker horizons (giant phenocryst basalt, brecciated horizons, and red/green boles) which are traceable over a large area with the same stratigraphic level associated with a considerable shift in chemical trend from the adjacent flows. Marker

Group Subgroup Deccan Shahyadri traps (Vidarbha)

Atali

Lokhanda

Formation Amdapur

V IV III

II I

10–15

25–30

20–25

10–15

10–15

VII

15–20 VI

VIII

15–20

15–20

IX

X

Flow XI

10–15

10–15

Thickness (m) 15–20 Characteristic features Fine grained, aphyric amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches Medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt Fine grained, aphyric, compact, massive basalt Medium grained, plagioclase-­mafic phyric, amygdaloidal basalt Fine grained,compact, massive, aphyric basalt Coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt Medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt Medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt Fine grained plagioclase-mafic micro phyric basalt with amygdaloidal aphyric patches in between Fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt Medium grained, compact, massive, aphyric to plagioclase microphyric basalt

Table 3.2  Detailed stratigraphy of various formations exposed in the Mahesh River Basin

CT2

CT1

CT2

CT3

CT4

CT3

CT1

CT2

CT1

CT3

CT CT1

X

–

–

–

X

–

–

X

–

–

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Phenocryst P1 Cpx – X

–

–

X

X

–

X

–

–

–

X

O1 X

M

F

F

M

M

C

F

M

F

M

Grain Size F

3.3 Results and Discussion 67

68

3 Stratigraphy

Fig. 3.1  Chemical variation diagram against height of Mahesh River Basin

horizons are not only identified by their lateral traceability but also by the physiographic expression and lithological homogeneity. The flow represents the smallest unit in the lithostratigraphic classification which is lithologically distinguishable from the layer above and below. Within a formation, a flow or sequence of flows occurring at different stratigraphic levels having similar chemical characters is termed as Chemical Type (CT). Each CT is characterized by its own set of megascopic, microscopic, and chemical parameters. The useful chemical parameters include the concentration of TiO2, MgO, CaO, P2O5, Ba, Sr, Cr, Ni, Y, Ba/Y, Ba/Ti, Ba/Zr, TiO2/P2O5, Ba/Sr, Zr/Y, Sr/Y, and Mg number. Each chemical type exhibits a lesser range of variation within it than between other chemical types. However, in certain cases a few samples fall outside the normal chemical range, making the definition of CT rigid. These samples show considerable overlap with the neighboring CT, which makes the total variation a fairly continuous one. Lava flows exposed at Mahesh River Basin were separated into four chemical types, representing a significant change in geochemical signatures. They are: CT1, Fine grained, aphyric flow; CT2, Medium grained aphyric to plagioclase microphyric flows; CT3, Plagioclase + mafic phyric flow; CT4, Medium grained Plagioclase phyric flows.

3.3.2 Stratigraphy of “Atali” Formation The “Atali” formation is the second largest formation. This formation comprises six basaltic flows. The lowermost flow is of aphyric to plagioclase microphyric basalt in between (CT2) which is overlain by fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt (CT2). Fine grained plagioclase, mafic microphyric basalt (CT2). The fourth flow of this formation is medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric (CT3). The fifth flow of this formation is medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt. The top most flow of the formation is coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt (CT3). This flow acts as a marker horizon with distinct physiographic breaks.

3.3 Results and Discussion

69

The middle two flows are of compound nature and are sparsely porphyritic to moderately porphyritic and show the presence of layered tuffs. The lowermost flow is a simple type of flow sparsely porphyritic in nature. The thickness of Atali formation is up to 25 m. This formation consists of six flows, which are characterized by the presence of fine grained, plagioclase mafic phyric flow with highly porphyritic giant phenocryst basalt (GPB) at the top. 3.3.2.1 Chemical Type 1 It is characterized by the presence of fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal flows showing irregular thickness in the area under investigation. This chemical type occurs at different stratigraphic horizons. The lower chemical type is overlain by chemical type III.  Petrographically, this chemical type is fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt showing fine granular texture with the occasional presence of plagioclase and clinopyroxene microphenocryst. This chemical type can be distinguished from the chemical type 4 of the overlying Lokhanda formation due to the scarcity of plagioclase phenocryst against the abundance of mafic microphenocryst as well as the occasional presence of olivine as a groundmass. 3.3.2.2 Chemical Type 2 This chemical type is exposed at one stratigraphic horizon. This CT is characterized by the presence of medium grained, compact, massive, aphyric to plagioclase microphyric basalt. In thin section, it is medium grained basalt showing porphyritic to glomeroporphyritic texture with the abundance of Cpx, Pl phenocrysts with the occasional presence of clinopyroxene microphenocrysts and granular to sporadic granular shaped opaque minerals (Figs. 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5).

Fig. 3.2  Chemical variation diagram against height of Mahesh River Basin

70

3 Stratigraphy

Fig. 3.3  Chemical variation diagram against height of Mahesh River Basin

Fig. 3.4  Chemical variation diagram against height of Mahesh River Basin

Fig. 3.5  Chemical variation diagram against height of Mahesh River Basin

3.3.2.3 Chemical Type 3 It is characterized by the presence of medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric flows showing irregular thickness in the area under investigation. This chemical type occurs at one stratigraphic position. Petrographically, it is medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt showing porphyritic texture. This chemical type can be distinguished from the chemical type 4 of the upper Lokhanda formation due to the abundance of microphenocrysts as well as the absence of olivine as a groundmass constituent.

3.4 Stratigraphy of Lokhanda Formation

71

3.3.2.4 Chemical Type 4 This chemical type is exposed at one stratigraphic horizon. It is characterized by medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt. It shows variable thickness in different areas due to the pinching and swelling nature of the flows. Megascopically, it is highly porphyritic with plagioclase mega phenocrysts associated with the occasional presence of red oxidized flow top breccia as observed in the field. Petrographically, it is medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt with an abundance of plagioclase megaphenocrysts showing glomeroporphyritic texture.

3.4 Stratigraphy of Lokhanda Formation The Lokhanda formation is the second largest region in the study area well exposed in the southwestern and northwestern parts of the basin. The Lokhanda formation comprises various lava flows which can be grouped into various chemical types, namely CT1 and CT2, showing compound and simple nature. These flows are characterized as aphyric to moderately porphyritic in nature. These flows show pinching and swelling effects at some places.

3.4.1 Chemical Type 1 This chemical type is characterized by the presence of fine grained, compact, massive, aphyric basalt. However, at some places it shows gradational variation in basalt. This chemical type is overlain by fine grained, with plagioclase laths with aphyric bands in between. In the thin section, it is fine grained basalt showing porphyritic textures due to the presence of clinopyroxene Pl, Microphyric, Ab, and Cs phenocrysts.

3.4.2 Chemical Type 2 It is characterized by the presence of medium grained, plagioclase, mafic phyric, amygdaloidal basalt flows showing irregular thickness in the area under investigation. This chemical type occurs at different stratigraphic horizons. The lower chemical type is overlain by chemical type III.  Petrographically, this chemical type is medium grained, basalt showing sub-ophitic texture with the occasional presence of plagioclase and clinopyroxene microphenocrysts. This chemical type can be distinguished from the chemical type 3 of the overlying Atali formation. Plagioclase and clinopyroxene as a groundmass is observed in chemical type 2.

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3 Stratigraphy

3.5 Stratigraphy of Amdapur Formation The Amdapur formation is exposed in the west to south margin of the basin. The flows are characterized by the presence of fine to medium grained, massive lava flows with moderately porphyritic nature. These flows show well-developed fragmentary top, impersistent clinkary bottom, with rare columnar joints. The remaining flows show moderately porphyritic characters. This formation is characterized by the presence of two different lava flows which can be divided into different CTs such as CT1 and CT3.

3.5.1 Chemical Type 1 It is characterized by the presence of medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt flows showing irregular thickness in the area under investigation. This chemical type occurs at one stratigraphic position. Petrographically, it is medium to coarse grained, mafic phyric basalt with microphenocrysts of clinopyroxene showing porphyritic texture. This chemical type can be distinguished from the chemical type 1 of the upper Lokhanda formation.

3.5.2 Chemical Type 3 It is characterized by the presence of fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches showing irregular thickness in the area under investigation. This chemical type occurs at different stratigraphic horizons. The lower chemical type is overlain by chemical type 1. Petrographically, this chemical type is fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches of basalt showing glomeroporphyritic texture with the occasional presence of plagioclase and clinopyroxene olivine. This chemical type can be distinguished from the chemical type 4 of overlying Atali formation due to the scarcity of olivine micro-phenocrysts against the abundance of Cpx mafic micro-phenocrysts as well as the occasional presence of olivine as a groundmass.

3.6 Conclusion This chapter focuses on the laval flows and stratigraphic in the basaltic rock of India. The thickness of Atali formation is up to 25 m. This formation consists of six flows, which are characterized by the presence of fine grained, plagioclase mafic phyric flow with highly porphyritic giant phenocryst basalt (GPB) at the top. The Lokhanda formation is the second largest region in the study area well exposed in

References

73

Fig. 3.6  Geology map of Mahesh River Basin showing various formations exposed within Deccan Traps

the southwestern and northwestern parts of the basin. The Lokhanda formation comprises various lava flows which can be grouped into various chemical types, namely CT1 and CT2, showing compound and simple nature. The Amdapur formation is exposed in the west to south margin of the basin. The flows are characterized by the presence of fine to medium grained, massive lava flows with a moderately porphyritic nature. This study is better understanding for basaltic rock what changes in the rock formation and geological parameters (Fig. 3.6).

References Beane, J. E., Turner, C. A., Hooper, P. R., Subbarao, K. V., & Walsh, J. N. (1986). Stratigraphy, composition and from of Deccan Baslats, Western Ghats, India. Bulletin of Volcanology, 48, 61–83. Bodas, M. S., & Khadri, S. F. R. (1988). In K. V. Subbarao (Ed.), Stratigraphy of the Jawahar and Igatpuri formations, Western Ghat lava pile (Memoir No. 10) (pp. 235–253). Geological Society of India. Cox, K.  G. (1983). The Karoo province of southern Africa: Origin of the enrichment patterns. In C.  J. Hawkesworth & M.  J. Norry (Eds.), Continental basalts and mantle xenoliths (pp. 139–887). Shiva, Nantwich.

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Cox, K. G., & Hawkesworth, G. J. (1984). Relative contribution of crust and mantle to flood basalt volcanism, Mahabaleshwar area, Deccan traps. Philosophical Transactions. Royal Society of London, 310A, 627–641. Cox, K.  G., & Hawkesworth, G.  J. (1985). Geochemical stratigraphy of the Deccan Traps at Mahabaleshwar area. Western Ghats, India, with implications for open system magnetic processes. Journal of Petrology, 26, 355–377. Kapur, V.  V., & Khosla, A. (2018). Faunal elements from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: A reappraisal of biostratigraphic, palaeoecologic, and palaeobiogeographic aspects. Geological Journal. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3379 Khadri, S.  F. R., Subbarao, K.  V., & Bodas, M.  S. (1988). Magnetic studies on a thick pile of Deccan trap flows at Kalsubai (Memoir No. 10) (pp.  163–180). Journal of the Geological Society of India. Khosla, A., & Verma, O. (2015). Paleobiota from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: Paleoenvironments, age and paleobiogeographic implications. Historical Biology, 27(2015), 898–914. Krishnana, M. S. (1960). Geology of India Burma (p. 604). Higginbothams. Pathak, V., Patil, S. K., & Shrivastava, J. P. (2016). Tectonomagmatic setting of lava packages in the Mandla lobe of the eastern Deccan volcanic province, India: Palaeomagnetism and magnetostratigraphic evidence. Geological Society of London Special Publication, 445(2016), 69–94. SubbaRao, K.  V., Chandrasekharam, D., Navaneethkrishnan, P., & Hooper, P.  R. (1994). Stratigraphy and structure of parts of the Central Deccan Basalt Province, eruptive models. Volcanism (Radhakrishnamurthy volume) (pp. 321–332). Wiley Eastern Limited. Verma, O., & Khosla, A. (2019, October–November). Developments in the stratigraphy of the Deccan Volcanic Province, peninsular India. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 351(7), 461–476. Walker, G. P. L. (1969). Some observation and interpretation of the Deccan Traps, (Unpublished report), Center for Advanced study, University of Saugar.

Chapter 4

Geochemistry

Abstract  In this chapter, we have focus on the rare earth elements related to geochemistry chemical analysis (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, K2O, TiO2, P2O5, MnO, B a, Ca, Cr, Cu, Li, Ni, Sc, Sr, V, Y, Zn, Zr, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Dy, and Yb) for representative samples from the different stratigraphic levels have been carried out and their detailed petrochemical characteristics and crystallization behavior were discussed for various major, trace and rare earth elements with the help of binary and ternary diagrams. The results of the study area can be useful to understand the rock minerals and elements in the basaltic rock area. Keywords  Geochemistry · Elements · REE · Rock

4.1 Introduction The term Geochemistry was first used by the German-Swiss chemist Christian Friedrich Schonbein in 1838. You might guess, merely from the etymology of the word, that the field of geochemistry is a marriage of the fields of geology and chemistry (Washington, 1922). That would be a good guess. But just how are chemistry and geology combined within geochemistry; what is the relationship between them? Perhaps the best explanation would be to state that in geochemistry, we use the tools of chemistry to solve geological problems. That is use chemistry to understand the Earth and how it works. The Earth is part of a closely related family of heavenly bodies, our Solar System that formed simultaneously. Hence, the realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth to encompass the entire Solar System. The goals of geochemistry are thus no different from those of other fields of earth science; just the approach differs. On the other hand, while geochemists have much in common with other chemists, their goals differ in fundamental ways (Srinivasan, 2002). For example, our goals do not include elucidating the nature of chemical bonding or synthesizing new compounds, although these may often be of interest and use in geochemistry. Though geochemistry is a subdiscipline of earth science, it is a very broad topic. So broad in fact that no one can really master it all, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0_4

75

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4 Geochemistry

geochemistsvinvariably specialize in one or a few aspects, such as geochemical thermodynamics, isotope geochemistry, marine chemistry, atmospheric chemistry, trace element geochemistry, and soil chemistry (Sen, 1986). Geochemistry has flourished in the quantitative approach that grew to dominate earth science in the second half of the twentieth century. This quantitative approach has produced greater advances in the understanding of our planet in the last 60 years than in all of prior human history. The contributions of geochemistry to this advance have been simply enormous. Much of what we know about how the Earth and the Solar System formed has come from research on the chemistry of meteorites. Through geochemistry, we can quantify the geologic time scale. Through geochemistry, we can determine the depths and temperatures of magma chambers. Through geochemistry, mantle plumes were recognized. Through geochemistry, we know that sediments can be subducted into the mantle. Through geochemistry, we know the temperatures and pressures at which the various metamorphic rock types form and we can use this information, for example, to determine the throw on ancient faults. Through geochemistry, we know how much and how fast mountain belts have risen. Through geochemistry, we are learning how fast they are eroding. Through geochemistry, we are learning how and when the Earth’s crust formed. Through geochemistry, we are learning when the Earth’s atmosphere formed and how it evolved. Through geochemistry, we are learning how the mantle convicts (Kapur & Khosla, 2016; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et  al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019). The geochemical analysis plays an important role in understanding the nature of the parent magma, its crystallization history, and drawing a complete picture regarding the genesis of rocks. The geochemical variation of rock is helpful in identification, classification, and nomenclature whose mineral constituents cannot be easily determined by their minute size. In addition to this, the chemical analysis forms one of the most useful tools for mapping the stratigraphic correlation of Deccan traps. Although significant compositional variations have been noticed in some of the flows, a majority of them show sufficiently uniform chemical composition (Kapur & Khosla, 2016; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019). With the help of major trace and rare earth element analysis, certain flows have been identified which look similar in their megascopic and microscopic characters. In this study, an attempt has been made to understand the various petrogenetic processes involved during emplacement and environment of crystallization through the chemical analysis and interpretation of the behavior of various chemical elements and their ratios with a comparison of geochemical criteria used to define various chemical types (Tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4).

Group Deccan traps

Sub Group Shahyadri (Vidarbha)

Thickness Formation (m) Flow Characteristic features Amdapur 15–20 XI Fine grained, aphyric amygdaloidal basalt with primary glassy patches 10–15 X Medium to coarse grained, Pl mafic phyric basalt Lokhanda 10–15 IX Fine grained, mafic phyric, compact, massive basalt 15–20 VIII Medium grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt 15–20 VII Fine grained, compact, massive, Pl mafic phyric basalt Atali 15–20 VI Coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt 10–15 V Medium grained, massive, plagioclase phyric basalt 25–30 IV Medium grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt 20–25 III Fine grained plagioclase-mafic micro phyric basalt with amygdaloidal aphyric patches in between 10–15 II Fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt 10–15 I Medium grained, compact, massive, plagioclase mafic microphyric basalt

Table 4.1  Detail stratigraphy of various formations exposed in the study area

X X X X X X X X

X X

CT3 X CT3 X CT2 – CT1 X CT2 – CT4 X CT2 – CT3 X

CT1 – CT3 X

– –

–

X

–

X

–

X

X

X

F M

F

M

M

C

F

M

F

M

6.84 7.98

7.87

6.64

5.55

7.51

8.73

8.93

9.56

6.84

27

20

1.89 0.21 202 148 41 2.31 0.24 236 152 44

2.02 0.20 228 157 42

2.18 0.23 251 173 44

2.64 0.36 259 186 35

1.75 0.24 290 171 39

1.54 0.15 164 108 24

1.19 0.16 154 96

1.09 0.13 158 91

2.04 0.21 224 196 33

Phenocrysts Grain Geochemistry CT P1 Cpx O1 size MgO TiO2 P2O5 Sr Zr Y CT1 – X X F 6.21 1.58 0.23 198 159 42

4.1 Introduction 77

Mahesh river basin Fm Atali CT CT3 MgO 7.98 CaO 8.62 TiO2 2.31 P2O5 0.24 Ba/(ppm) 259 Cr 194 Ni 52 Sc 37 Sr 236 Zr 152 Ba/Y 5.88

CT1 6.84 7.96 1.89 0.21 204 201 53 34 202 148 4.97

CT3 7.87 7.73 2.02 0.20 191 196 55 38 228 157 4.55

CT2 6.64 8.65 2.18 0.23 212 222 59 32 251 173 4.82

CT4 5.55 8.76 2.64 0.36 312 179 62 36 259 186 8.91

CT2 7.51 8.98 1.75 0.24 202 186 54 38 290 171 5.18

Table 4.2  Comparison of geochemical criteria used to define various chemical types Lokhanda CT1 8.73 10.94 1.54 0.15 156 285 141 26 164 108 6.5 CT2 8.93 10.92 1.19 0.16 167 274 158 23 154 96 6.18

CT3 9.56 10.83 1.09 0.13 162 386 164 22 158 91 8.1

Amdapur CT3 6.84 10.04 2.04 0.21 136 181 64 47 224 196 4.12

CT1 6.21 9.35 1.58 0.23 146 159 76 54 198 159 3.47

78 4 Geochemistry

Formation Chemical type (CT) Flow No SiO2% Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 MnO Ba (ppm) Co Cr Cu Li Ni Sc Sr V Y Zn

Atali formation CT1 CT3 I II 49.68 50.32 12.46 12.65 13.54 12.82 7.98 6.84 8.62 7.96 2.54 3.65 0.89 0.76 2.31 1.89 0.24 0.21 0.16 0.18 259 204 49 52 194 201 216 188 08 09 52 53 37 34 236 202 234 241 44 41 131 124 CT3 III 51.34 12.57 12.58 7.87 7.73 2.42 0.82 2.02 0.20 0.20 191 47 196 176 10 55 38 228 232 42 116

CT2 IV 50.13 12.24 13.18 6.64 8.65 3.39 0.81 2.18 0.23 0.19 212 53 222 180 11 59 32 251 266 44 125

CT4 V 51.04 12.35 12.55 5.55 8.76 5.63 0.79 2.64 0.36 0.22 312 48 179 232 08 62 36 259 294 35 136

Table 4.3  Comparison of geochemical criteria used to define various chemical types CT2 VI 49.13 12.84 13.25 7.51 8.98 3.32 0.92 1.75 0.24 0.21 202 54 186 196 09 54 38 290 328 39 146

Lokhanda formation CT1 CT2 VII VIII 52.12 50.52 14.11 13.17 14.84 13.85 8.73 8.93 10.94 10.92 2.62 2.53 0.51 0.58 1.54 1.19 0.15 0.16 0.12 0.14 156 167 33 31 285 274 154 129 14 12 141 158 26 23 164 154 238 322 24 27 113 107 CT3 IX 50.37 13.41 13.75 9.56 10.83 2.57 0.46 1.09 0.13 0.11 162 30 386 136 11 164 22 158 246 20 104

(continued)

Amdapur formation CT3 CT1 X XI 49.56 51.25 13.64 13.32 13.23 13.27 6.84 6.21 10.04 9.35 2.42 2.41 1.02 0.77 2.04 1.58 0.21 0.23 0.20 0.18 136 146 51 49 181 159 162 168 09 08 64 76 47 54 224 198 286 264 33 42 122 114

4.1 Introduction 79

Formation Chemical type (CT) Flow No Zr La Ce Nd Sm Eu Dy Yb

Table 4.3 (continued)

Atali formation CT1 CT3 I II 152 148 20 23 49 51 24 26 7.94 7.62 1.98 2.35 4.96 5.72 2.94 3.41 CT3 III 157 20 54 21 6.82 2.04 4.26 2.72

CT2 IV 173 22 50 27 8.16 2.92 5.53 3.52

CT4 V 186 26 59 29 7.22 2.32 6.13 3.71

CT2 VI 171 24 42 33 8.64 2.92 6.44 3.82

Lokhanda formation CT1 CT2 VII VIII 108 96 18 19 41 38 16 13 5.72 5.26 4.44 3.74 8.42 7.72 5.93 4.23 CT3 IX 91 21 40 12 5.62 3.86 6.84 5.72

Amdapur formation CT3 CT1 X XI 196 159 32 28 48 45 24 28 7.68 7.29 2.21 2.34 6.34 5.67 3.39 3.54

80 4 Geochemistry

4.1 Introduction

81

Table 4.4  Representative geochemical analysis of basaltic flows exposed in various stratigraphic formations from the Mahesh River Basin Elevation (m)

310

320

340

350

360

Lokhanda formation

470 500 Amdapur formation

CT2 VI

CT1 VII

CT2 VIII

CT3 IX

CT3 X

NG-2

NG-3

LG-1

LG-2

LG-3

KH-3 KH-4

51.04

49.13

52.12

50.52

50.37

49.56 51.25

12.24

12.35

12.84

14.11

13.17

13.41

13.64 13.32

12.58

13.18

12.55

13.25

14.84

13.85

13.75

13.23 13.27

6.84

7.87

6.64

5.55

7.51

8.73

8.93

9.56

6.84

8.62

7.96

7.73

8.65

8.76

8.98

10.94

10.92

10.83

10.04 9.35

Na2O

2.54

3.65

2.42

3.39

5.63

3.32

2.62

2.53

2.57

2.42

2.41

K2O

0.89

0.76

0.82

0.81

0.79

0.92

0.51

0.58

0.46

1.02

0.77

TiO2

2.31

1.89

2.02

2.18

2.64

1.75

1.54

1.19

1.09

2.04

1.58

P2O5

0.24

0.21

0.20

0.23

0.36

0.24

0.15

0.16

0.13

0.21

0.23

MnO

0.16

0.18

0.20

0.19

0.22

0.21

0.12

0.14

0.11

0.20

0.18

Ba (ppm)

259

204

191

212

312

202

156

167

162

136

146

Co

49

52

47

53

48

54

33

31

30

51

49

Cr

194

201

196

222

179

186

285

274

386

181

159

Cu

216

188

176

180

232

196

154

129

136

162

168

Li

08

09

10

11

08

09

14

12

11

09

08

Ni

52

53

55

59

62

54

141

158

164

64

76

Sc

37

34

38

32

36

38

26

23

22

47

54

Sr

236

202

228

251

259

290

164

154

158

224

198

V

234

241

232

266

294

328

238

322

246

286

264

Y

44

41

42

44

35

39

24

27

20

33

42

Zn

131

124

116

125

136

146

113

107

104

122

114

Zr

152

148

157

173

186

171

108

96

91

196

159

La

20

23

20

22

26

24

18

19

21

32

28

Ce

49

51

54

50

59

42

41

38

40

48

45

Nd

24

26

21

27

29

33

16

13

12

24

28

Sm

7.94

7.62

6.82

8.16

7.22

8.64

5.72

5.26

5.62

7.68

7.29

Eu

1.98

2.35

2.04

2.92

2.32

2.92

4.44

3.74

3.86

2.21

2.34

Dy

4.96

5.72

4.26

5.53

6.13

6.44

8.42

7.72

6.84

6.34

5.67

Yb

2.94

3.41

2.72

3.52

3.71

3.82

5.93

4.23

5.72

3.39

3.54

Ba/TiO2

112.12 107.93 94.55

97.24

118.18 115.42 101.29 140.33 148.62 66.66 92.4

Ba/Sr

1.09

1

0.83

0.84

1.2

0.69

0.95

1.08

1.02

0.6

0.73

Ba/Zr

1.7

1.37

1.21

1.22

1.67

1.18

1.44

1.73

1.78

0.69

0.91

Sr/ TiO2

102.16 106.87 112.87 115.13 98.1

165.71 106.49 129.41 144.95 109.8 125.31

Zr/TiO2

65.8

78.3

77.72

79.35

70.45

97.71

70.12

80.67

83.48

96.07 100.63

TiO2/ P2O5

9.62

9

10.1

9.47

7.33

7.29

10.26

1.18

8.38

9.71

6.86

TiO2/ Y

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.07

0.04

0.06

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.03

Zr/Y

3.45

3.6

3.73

3.93

5.31

4.38

4.5

3.55

4.55

5.93

3.78

Ba/Y

5.88

4.97

4.54

4.81

8.91

5.17

6.5

6.18

8.1

4.12

3.47

Sr/Y

5.36

4.92

5.42

5.7

7.4

7.43

6.83

5.7

7.9

6.78

4.71

Formation Chemical type (CT) Flow No

CT3 I

CT1 II

CT3 III

CT2 IV

CT4 V

Sam. No

PB-1

PB-2

HK2

PB3

SiO2%

49.68

50.32

51.34

50.13

Al2O3

12.46

12.65

12.57

Fe2O3

13.54

12.82

MgO

7.98

CaO

380

Atali formation

410

420

440

CT1 XI

6.21

82

4 Geochemistry

4.2 Geochemical: Variation and Petrogenesis of Lava Flows In order to understand the correlation of the stratigraphic position in different traverses and their chemical composition, the chemical variation of different lava flows belonging to various formations exposed in the study area have been studied using certain major, trace, REE, and their ratios. It has been noticed that there is negligible chemical variation within a flow; however, certain flows indicate enrichment of certain elements in their middle portion when compared to the top and bottom portion of the flow. The chemical proportions of various elements (major, trace, and REE) supplement the already established stratigraphy by providing the confirmation of the isolated outcrops and permitting further subdivision into smaller units.

4.3 Major Element Geochemistry 4.3.1 Alkali Silica Variation Kuno’s variation diagram indicates that the basalts in the study area can be grouped into high potash and low potash theoretic fields with few samples showing alkali basalt field. This silica versus alkali variation diagram indicates the theoletic nature of the lava flows in the study area with few lie in alkali field. The results indicate no clear differentiation trend of fractional crystallization (Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1  Variation of Na2O + K2O versus SiO2 indicating the Tholeiitic nature of basalt with fractional crystallization trend

4.4 TiO2 Versus MgO, P2O5, K 2O, and CaO/TiO2 Variation

83

4.3.2 Variation of MgO Versus All Oxides The plotting of MgO vs all major elements show in Fig. 4.2a, their relative abundance and their relative trends as MgO decreases continuously during fractional crystallization of mafic liquids irrespective of their primitive composition. The variation of MgO versus SiO2 indicates scattered nature without any trend. However, Al2O3, CaO, and to some extent MnO show a positive correlation with MgO. Whereas Fe2O3, TiO2, and K2O show a negative trend which can be attributed to the fractionation of plagioclase and clinopyroxene with traces of olivine. The MgO versus TiO2 variation shows a lower concentration of TiO2 and a higher concentration of MgO for CT1 and CT2 due to the presence of aphyric and mafic phyric flows showing the least evolved nature. However, the plagioclase phyric flows show high TiO2 and low MgO indicating the evolved nature with plagioclase + mafic phyric flows showing the intermediate position (Figs. 4.2a and 4.2b).

4.4 TiO2 Versus MgO, P2O5, K2O, and CaO/TiO2 Variation The dominance of fractional crystallization is indicated by a negative correlation in TiO2 versus MgO plots. Whereas P2O5 and K2O show a positive correlation with the least enrichment of P2O5 and TiO2 for aphyric and mafic phyric flows. High values for plagioclase phyric and GPB indicate highly evolved nature without much time gap between them. The variation of incompatible elements (TiO2) has been used in relation to CaO/ TiO2 to understand the nature of primary liquid and the degree of partial melting which shows a negative correlation, suggesting the dominance of fractional crystallization process with a minor amount of partial melting. TiO2 can be utilized as an indicator in determining the amount of partial melting process. A strong correlation to the MORB values is noticed. The ratio increases as TiO2 decreases, thereby indicating a progressive release of Ca from the mantle source. Modal calculations on the major element data indicate that MORB with 0.7% and 1.5% TiO2 could represent about 25% and 15% melting. This modeling is consistent with the abundances of the first transition series metals (Sc to Ni) which are also interpretable in terms of the degree of partial melting and residual mineralogy. In view of the limited variation, it is suggested that these basalts perhaps have been generated by a small degree of partial melting along with the dominant crystal fractionation process (Fig. 4.3).

84

Fig. 4.2a  Variation of MgO versus all oxides

4 Geochemistry

4.4 TiO2 Versus MgO, P2O5, K 2O, and CaO/TiO2 Variation

Fig. 4.2b  Variation of MgO versus all oxides

85

86

Fig. 4.2b (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.4 TiO2 Versus MgO, P2O5, K 2O, and CaO/TiO2 Variation

Fig. 4.3  Variation of TiO2 versus MgO, P2O5, K2O

87

88

Fig. 4.3 (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.7 P2O5 Versus Major Element Variation

89

4.5 (FeO/MgO) Versus SiO2, FeO, MgO; Al2O3/SiO2 Versus MgO; and Al2O3 Versus CaO and Alkali Index Variation The variation of FeO/MgO versus SiO2 and FeO indicates a positive correlation and a negative correlation with MgO, showing an increase in fractional crystallization from phyric and mafic phyric flows to plagioclase phyric flows which indicates that these rocks are fairy contaminated than the other flows. This is in support of the view that the basaltic magma is generally controlled by assimilation followed by crystal fractionation and the most fractionated magmas will also be the most contaminated one. This ratio can either be an indicator of the extent of fractional crystallization of olivine and clinopyroxene or the composition of mantle sources with which the parent magma is in equilibrium. The Al2O3/SiO2 versus MgO variation shows a positive correlation indicating the decrease of the fractional crystallization process from plagioclase to mafic phyric flows. This is supported by the lower concentration for the least evolved one. The variation of Al2O3 versus CaO can be useful in classifying the basalt flows in the study area into group II and group III following the nomenclature (Figs. 4.4 and 4.5).

4.6 Harker Variation Diagram SiO2 versus major and trace elements have been plotted to understand the petrogenetic significance of various lava flows exposed in the study area. Most of the elements (Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, TiO2, P2O5, K2O) show a positive correlation with SiO2 indicating the dominance of fractional crystallization. The Al2O3 variation indicates the role of plagioclase in fractionation. The Al2O3 variation diagram indicates that most of the samples are grouped into sub-alkali field showing the dominance of fractional crystallization with a minor amount of crystal contamination. However, few samples fall in the alkali field showing a trend of enriched source with decreasing partial melting (Figs. 4.5a, 4.5b, 4.5c, 4.5d, and 4.5e).

4.7 P2O5 Versus Major Element Variation The variation of P2O5 with all major oxides shows a positive correlation with Na2, K2O, and TiO2 indicating the progressively evolved nature for plagioclase phyric flows with the least evolved nature for aphyric flows. Similar behavior is reported

90

Fig. 4.4  Variation of Fe2O3/MgO versus SiO2, MgO, and Fe2O3

4 Geochemistry

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry

91

Fig. 4.4 (continued)

from other parts of Deccan, the Karoo volcano of South Africa, volcano from the Gregory Rift of Kenya, and Columbia River basalts. However, MgO and A12O3 show a negative correlation with P2O5 indicating the progressive evolution of the lava flows (Figs. 4.6a and 4.6b).

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry In terms of changing concentration expressed in ppm, trace element variations are discussed which provide a broad framework to understand the petrogenetic relationship both within and between the chemical types and formations. The trace element variation pattern gives a clear understanding regarding the role of these elements in various petrogenetic processes like fractional crystallization, partial melting, magma mixing, and crystal contamination.

4.8.1 Zr Versus All Major and Trace Elements Variation To understand the partial melting and fractional crystallization process, variation of Zr with other elements has been plotted which is utilized as a reliable index of evolution. Zr increases at a constant rate regardless of whether olivine, pyroxene, or

92

Fig. 4.5  Variation of Fe2O3/MgO versus SiO2, MgO, and Fe2O3

4 Geochemistry

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry

93

Fig. 4.5 (continued)

plagioclase is fractionating or in what proportion these phases are added or removed. The variation of Zr with SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, and K2O shows considerable scatters represented by separate clusters for each formation. Whereas Fe2O3, SiO2, and P2O5 show distinct trend indicating the fractional crystallization process associated with minor amount of partial melting. The aphyric and mafic phyric flows show low degree of fractionation indicating their less evolved nature whereas the plagioclase flows show higher concentration indicating a highly evolved nature. The Zr versus MgO and CaO variation diagram demonstrates the distinct variation between the various chemical types. The positive correlation of Zr vs TiO2 and the negative correlation with MgO and CaO show a single continuous with considerable overlap between various chemical types which range from evolved to highly evolved types strongly suggest their derivation from magmas of composition by a process of continuous fractionation. The magma possibly might have been trapped at regular intervals. The identical trend of various chemical types belonging to different formations in the study area showing very less compositional gap may indicate the possibility of having a similar source. The Zr versus MgO variation also indicates the role of partial melting in the fractionation vector. The MnO shows less variation with Zr (Figs. 4.7a, 4.7b, 4.7c, 4.7d, 4.7e, 4.7f and 4.7g). The variation of Zr versus Ba, Li, Na, and Cu shows a positive correlation indicating the fractionating process with the increase of these elements with Zr indicating the evolved nature of plagioclase phyric flows; however, the aphyric and mafic phyric flow clusters at lower forming distinct groups due to their less evolved nature. The variation of Ca, Cr, and Ni show negative correlation indicating the role of these

94

Fig. 4.5a  Harker variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry

Fig. 4.5a (continued)

95

96

Fig. 4.5a (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry

Fig. 4.5b  Harker variation diagram

97

98

Fig. 4.5b (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry

Fig. 4.5c  Harker variation diagram

99

100

Fig. 4.5c (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.8 Trace Element Geochemistry

Fig. 4.5d  Harker variation diagram

101

102

Fig. 4.5d (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.9 P2O5 Trace Element Variation

103

Fig. 4.5e  Harker variation diagram

elements in the petrogenetic significance. The aphyric and mafic phyric flows show higher concentration of these elements with lower Zr indicating their less evolved nature, whereas the highly evolved plagioclase phyric flows show lower concentration of these elements with Zr. The variation of Sc versus Zr indicates different tectonic environments present in the study area in relation to chondrites. It also indicates the control of mantle mineralogy during the process of melting. The basalts from the study area show higher values when compared to chondrite. These results are supported by similar observations reported from other parts of the Deccan Traps. The variation of Zr with some trace and rare earth elements indicates the role of factional crystallization process. It also indicates the dominance of these elements in Plagioclase flows showing a highly evolved nature. All these elements show a positive correlation with Zr which is more significant in understanding the various magmatic processes involved in the formation of these rocks.

4.9 P2O5 Trace Element Variation A positive correlation is indicated by the variation of P2O5 with Ba, Nb, and Cu with higher concentration for highly evolved plagioclase phyric flows and lower concentration for the aphyric flows indicating their least evolved nature. The crystal fractionation process increases from aphyric flows, whereas Ni, Cu, and Cr show a

104

Fig. 4.6a P2O5 versus major element variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.9 P2O5 Trace Element Variation

Fig. 4.6a (continued)

105

106

Fig. 4.6b P2O5 versus major element variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.9 P2O5 Trace Element Variation

Fig. 4.6b (continued)

107

108

4 Geochemistry

Fig. 4.6b (continued)

negative correlation with P2O5 indicating the fractionation process with the increase of these elements for the highly evolved flows. The aphyric flows show a large scatter, whereas mafic phyric flows show less variation forming a cluster. A distinct positive correlation is shown by the variation of certain trace (Sr, V, Zn, and Zr) and REE (La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Dy, and Yb) elements with P2O5 indicating the role of fractionation process with the dominance of plagioclase and clinopyroxene associated with a minor amount of crustal contamination. This is in support of the view that the basaltic magma is generally controlled by assimilation followed by crystal fractionation and the most fractionated magmas will also be the most contaminated ones (Figs. 4.8a, 4.8b, 4.8c, 4.8d, and 4.8e).

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation To understand the relative abundance and trends, MgO versus trace elements have been plotted as MgO decreases continuously during fractional crystallization of mafic liquids irrespective of their primitive compositions. MgO versus CO, Cr, and

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7a  Zr versus major element variation diagram

109

110

Fig. 4.7a (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7b  Zr versus major element variation diagram

111

112

Fig. 4.7b (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7c  Zr versus major element variation diagram

113

114

Fig. 4.7c (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7d  Zr versus major element variation diagram

115

116

Fig. 4.7d (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7e  Zr versus major element variation diagram

117

118

Fig. 4.7e (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7f  Zr versus major element variation diagram

119

120

Fig. 4.7f (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.7g  Zr versus major element variation diagram

121

122

Fig. 4.7g (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.10 MgO Versus Trace Elements Variation

Fig. 4.8a P2O5 versus trace element variation diagram

123

124

Fig. 4.8a (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

125

Fig. 4.8a (continued)

Ni shows a positive correlation indicating the fractionation of plagioclase and clinopyroxene. Whereas MgO shows a negative correlation with Ba, Cu, Li, Nd, Sr, V, Y, and Zr and the trend of fractional crystallization of plagioclase which increases from aphyric flows. The variation of Ba, Li, and Zr with MgO indicates the trend of olivine fractionation which increases from aphyric to mafic phyric flows; however, Cu, Sc, and V show a negative trend (Figs. 4.9a, 4.9b, 4.9c, 4.9d, 4.9e and 4.9f).

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd The variation of Ba/Zr versus Cu and Cr shows a positive correlation with the use of fractional crystallization process from aphyric to plagioclase flows. However, the mafic phyric flows show a negative correlation with Cu indicating the possible presence of olivine fractionation. The Ni versus Cr and Ti/Yb versus Nd also show a positive correlation indicating a similar nature to that of the abovementioned elements. The variation from aphyric to mafic phyric flows indicates a trend showing an enriched mantle source.

126

Fig. 4.8b P2O5 versus trace element variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.8b (continued)

127

128

Fig. 4.8c P2O5 versus trace element variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.8c (continued)

129

130

Fig. 4.8d P2O5 versus trace element variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.8d (continued)

131

132

Fig. 4.8e P2O5 versus trace element variation diagram

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.9a  Variation of MgO versus trace elements

133

134

Fig. 4.9a (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.9b  Variation of MgO versus trace elements

135

136

Fig. 4.9b (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.9c  Variation of MgO versus trace elements

137

138

Fig. 4.9c (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.9d  Variation of MgO versus trace elements

139

140

Fig. 4.9d (continued)

4 Geochemistry

4.11 Variation of Ba/Zr Versus Cu, Cr, Ni Versus Cr, Ti/Yb Versus Nd

Fig. 4.9e  MgO versus trace element variation diagram

141

142

4 Geochemistry

Fig. 4.9f  MgO versus trace element variation diagram

4.11.1 Fe/(Fe+Mg) Versus Cr/(Cr+Al) Variation The variation of Fe/ (Fe+Mg) versus Cr/ (Cr+Al) has been plotted to understand the nature of the enrichment pattern for these elements in the upper mantle. In general, the scattered nature of these elements indicates the dominance of the fractional crystallization process.

4.11.2 Y/Zr Versus Ba/Zr and P2O5/TiO2 Variation The variation of Y/Zr versus Ba/Zr has been plotted to understand the distinctness of various chemical types exposed in the study area in relation with a considerable shift in their trends. Similarly, P2O5/TiO2 versus Ba/Zr diagram also shows a positive correlation confirming the dominance of the fractional crystallization process. In general, the aphyric and mafic phyric flows show higher concentration of both these elements indicating their evolved nature whereas the plagioclase ferric flows show lower values of these elements indicating a highly evolved nature.

4.12 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry

143

4.12 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry The rare earth element pattern plotted for various elements in the study area reveal that fractional crystallization was quite a dominant process during the cooling, in general, all the chondrite normalized pattern show LREE enrichment, low and nearly flat HREE pattern indicating the predominance of fractional crystallization. The results of the experimental petrology indicate that tholeiitic basalts might have been formed by about 15–30% melting of the upper mantle periodtite. Thus, large variations in the LREE patterns of the tholeiitic lava flows exposed in the study area can be attributed to the variation in the LREE content of the mantle source. The fractional crystallization of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine from tholeiitic basalts does not result in much change in their REE content unless the degree of crystallization is large (Khadri, 1989). The rocks exposed in the study area show minute negative anomalies for Eu indicating the absence of plagioclase in the fractionation process. The REE pattern for various chemical types belonging to different formations has been plotted which indicates the dominance of the fractional crystallization process (grained (Kapur & Khosla, 2016; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019). The aphyric flow shows less abundance of REE followed by mafic phyric flow indicating weir less evolved nature showing a comparatively low degree of fractionation whereas the plagioclase phyric flows show enrichment of REE indicating a high degree of fractionation and evolved nature. In general, the overall enrichment of REE in various formations exposed in the study area indicates somewhat similar trend irrespective of their stratigraphic position of various chemical types. This can be interpreted as the possible presence of a similar enriched source for those rocks (Kapur & Khosla, 2016; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et  al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019).

4.12.1 (Ce)N Versus (Ce/Yb)N and Ce Versus La, Zr Variation The variation of (Ce)N versus (Ce/Yb)N and Ce/La abundance is positively correlated. These results are similar to the trends obtained for Harrburgite-Lherrolite suits from different locations. The results obtained in the study area indicate the predominance of fractional crystallization associated with a minor amount of partial melting.

144

4 Geochemistry

4.12.2 Variations of CaO Versus (La/Sm)N and (La/Yb)N; (La/ Sm)N Versus (La/Ytb)N; Yb Versus La/Sm The variation of CaO versus (La/Sm)N indicates considerable scatter with indistinct positive correlation of these elements. However, (La/Yb)N values show a negative correlation with CaO indicating the role of crustal contamination. (La/Sm)N versus (La/YB)N variation diagram shows a positive correlation with the increase of the fractional crystallization process. Yb versus La/Sm variation plot shows a negative correlation indicating the dominance of fractional process.

4.12.3 P2O5/Y Versus TiO2/Y and Zr/Y Variations The variation of P,O5/Y versus TiO7/Y and Zr/Y diagram has been plotted to understand the nature of the fractionation process along with the enrichment of these elements with minor scatter showing the dominance of fractional crystallization process with a minor amount of partial melting which increases from aphyric, plagioclase ferric flows.

4.13 MORB Normalised Trac Elements Enrichment Pattern To understand the nature of enrichment and process of contamination, MORB normalized trace element variation patterns have been studied by making use of the methodology given by Cox and Hawkesworth (1984) who have demonstrated that the contamination of magma particularly with granitic material must be enriched in these elements relative to the uncontaminated lavas. These results have considerable similarity in the trend with the variation in the enrichment pattern. The phyric flows show more enrichment of Ba content. The enrichment of incompatible elements increases from aphyric to mafic phyric flows and plagioclase phyric flow indicating intermediate stages (Tables 4.5, 4.6 and Figs.  4.10a, 4.10b, 4.10c, 4.10d, 4.11a, 4.11b, 4.11c and 4.11d).

145

4.13 MORB Normalised Trac Elements Enrichment Pattern Table 4.5  MORB normalized pattern S.N. Sr K2O Ba P2O5 Zr TiO2 Y

Atali Fm 1.9 1.68 5.93 5.06 12.95 10.2 2 1.75 1.68 1.64 1.54 1.26 1.46 1.36

1.9 5.46 9.55 1.66 1.74 1.34 1.4

2.15 5.26 15.6 3 2.06 1.76 1.16

2.41 6.13 10.1 2 1.9 1.16 1.3

Lokhanda Fm 1.36 1.28 3.4 3.86 7.8 8.35 1.25 1.33 1.2 1.06 1.02 0.79 0.8 0.9

83.87 73.01 48.33 37.02 3.15 19.03 17.75

77.41 51.98 55 44.3 3.97 20 18.27

Lokhanda Fm 58.06 61.29 50.74 47.02 26.66 21.66 29.33 26.97 6.04 5.08 26.14 23.97 28.37 20.23

2.09 5.4 10.6 1.91 1.92 1.45 1.46

1.31 3.06 8.1 1.08 1.01 0.72 0.66

Amdapur Fm 1.86 1.65 6.8 5.13 6.8 7.3 1.75 1.91 2.17 1.76 1.36 1.05 1.1 1.4

Table 4.6  Chondrite normalized value S.N. La Ce Nd Sm Eu Dy Yb

Atali Fm 64.51 74.19 60.64 63.11 40 43.33 40.71 39.07 2.69 3.19 15.4 17.76 14.06 16.31

64.51 66.83 35 34.97 2.77 13.22 13.01

70.96 61.88 45 41.84 3.97 17.17 16.84

18

67.74 49.5 20 28.82 5.25 21.24 27.36

Amdapur Fm 103.22 90.32 59.4 55.69 40 46.66 39.38 37.38 3 3.18 19.68 17.6 16.22 16.93

Atali FM

16

Sample/MORB

14 PB2

12

NG1

10

PB1

8

HK2

6

PB3

4

NG3

2 0 Sr

K2O

Ba

P2O5

Zr

Fig. 4.10a  MORB normalized pattern of Atali formation

TiO2

Y

146

4 Geochemistry 180

Lokhanda FM

Sample/MORB

160 140 120 100

LG-1 (CT1)

80

LG-2 (CT2)

60

LG-3 (CT3)

40 20 0 Sr

K2O

Ba

P2O5

Zr

TiO2

Y

Fig. 4.10b  MORB normalized pattern of Lokhanda formation

250

Amdapur FM

Sample/MORB

200 150 KH-3 (CT3) KH-4 (CT1)

100 50 0 Sr

K2O

Ba

P2O5

Zr

TiO2

Y

Fig. 4.10c  MORB normalized pattern of Amdapur formation

4.14 Conclusion This chapter is understanding of the reare earth elements (REE) in the deccan basalt rock. In this book, defined and interpreated data of geo-chemistry. It is very challenging the data analysis if researchers, students and NGO because so costly analysis of REE. In the reasons, nobody more peoples focused and more research on the geo-chemisty and other geological field. In this context, this book can be better to understanding of the geology in the deccan trap of Central India. In this book three new formations were identified in the area.

4.14 Conclusion

147

250

Sample/MORB

200 150

Atali FM Lokhanda FM

100

Amdapur FM

50 0 Sr

K2O

Ba

P2O5

Zr

TiO2

Y

Fig. 4.10d  MORB normalized pattern of Mahesh River Basin

70

Atali FM

Sample/Chondrite

60 50

PB-1 (CT3) PB-2 (CT1)

40

HK2 (CT3)

30

PB3 (CT2)

20

NG-2 (CT4) NG-3 (CT2)

10 0 La

Ce

Nd

Sm

Eu

Dy

Yb

Fig. 4.11a  Chondrite normalized pattern of Atali formation

4.14.1 Geochemical and Petrogenetic Variation of the Lava Flows The mineralogical and geochemical data plays an important role in the identification of various petrogenetic processes in addition to its aid in mapping and correlating the flow sequences and establishing the flow stratigraphy. Most of the mineralogical and chemical variations observed in the study area can be accounted for by the dominance of crystal fractionation associated with a minor degree of crystal contamination, accumulation, and partial melting process in varying degrees. During this study, an attempt has been made to understand the nature and extent of

148

4 Geochemistry 45

Lokhanda FM

Sample/Chondrite

40 35 30 25

LG-1 (CT1)

20

LG-2 (CT2)

15

LG-3 (CT3)

10 5 0 La

Ce

Nd

Sm

Eu

Dy

Yb

Fig. 4.11b  Chondrite normalized pattern of Lokhanda formation

60

Amdapur FM Sample/Chondrite

50 40 KH-3 (CT3)

30

KH-4 (CT1)

20 10 0 La

Ce

Nd

Sm

Eu

Dy

Yb

Fig. 4.11c  Chondrite normalized pattern of Amdapur formation

various petrogenetic processes that could have produced the rocks and to quantify various magmatic processes. In this study major, trace and rare earth element variation diagrams have been utilized to demonstrate the dominance of the fractional crystallization process associated with the minor occurrence of crystal contamination, crystal accumulation, and partial melting (Kapur & Khosla, 2016; Khosla & Verma, 2015; Pathak et al., 2016; Verma & Khosla, 2019). Different petrogenetic models have been proposed by various workers (Khadri, 1988; Beane et al., 1986). In this study, an attempt has been made to correlate trends of various major, trace, and rare earth elements patterns to understand their

4.14 Conclusion

149

70

Sample/Chondrite

60 50 40

Atali FM Lokhanda FM

30

Amdapur FM

20 10 0 La

Ce

Nd

Sm

Eu

Dy

Yb

Fig. 4.11d  Chondrite normalized pattern of Mahesh River Basin

petrogenetic aspects which are supported by the inverse relationship between Sr87/ Sr 86 which are ascribed to the effect of granitic contamination (Beane et al., 1986). Deccan Trap magmas may have erupted through multiple centers, the most prominent of which may have been a shield volcano-like structure in the Western Ghats area. The lavas are predominantly tholeiitic; alkali mafic lavas and carbonatites are rare. Radioisotope dating, magnetic chronology, and age constraints from paleontology indicate that although the eruption started some 68  Ma, the bulk of lavas erupted at around 65  Ma. Paleomagnetic constraints indicate an uncertainty of ±500,000  years for peak volcanic activity at 65  m.y. in the type section of the Western Ghats. Maximum magma residence times were calculated in this study based on growth rates of giant plagioclase crystals in lavas that marked the end phase of volcanic activity of different magma chambers. These calculations suggest that the >1:7 km thick Western Ghats section might have erupted within a much shorter time interval of ~55,000 years, implying phenomenal eruption rates that are orders of magnitude larger than any present-day eruption rate from any tectonic environment. Other significant observations/conclusions are as follows: (1) Deccan lavas can be grouped into stratigraphic subdivisions based on their geochemistry; (2) while some formations are relatively uncontaminated others are strongly contaminated by the continental crust; (3) Deccan magmas were produced by 15{30% melting of a Fe-rich lherzolitic source at ~3{2GPa; (4) parent magmas of the relatively uncontaminated Ambenali formation had a primitive composition with 16% MgO, 47% SiO2; (5) Deccan magmas were generated much deeper and by important more melting than other continental flood basalt provinces; (6) the erupted Deccan tholeiitic lavas underwent fractionation and magma mixing at ~0.2GPa. The composition and origin of the crust and crust/mantle boundary beneath the Deccan are discussed with respect to the influence of Deccan magmatic.

150

4 Geochemistry

References Cox, K. G., & Hawkesworth, G. J. (1984). Relative contribution of crust and mantle to flood basalt volcanism, Mahabaleshwar area, Deccan traps. Philosophical Transactions. Royal Society of London, 310A, 627–641. Kapur, V.  V., & Khosla, A. (2016). Faunal elements from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: A reappraisal of biostratigraphic, palaeoecologic, and palaeobiogeographic aspects. Geological Journal. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3379 Khosla, A., & Verma, O. (2015). Paleobiota from the Deccan volcano-sedimentary sequences of India: Paleoenvironments, age and paleobiogeographic implications. Historical Biology, 27, 898–914. Pathak, V., Patil, S. K., & Shrivastava, J. P. (2016). Tectonomagmatic setting of lava packages in the Mandla lobe of the eastern Deccan volcanic province, India: Palaeomagnetism and magnetostratigraphic evidence. Geological Society of London Special Publications, 445, 69–94. Sen, G. (1986). Mineralogy and petrogenesis of the Deccan trap lava flows around Mahabaleshwar, India. Journal of Petrology, 27, 627–663. Srinivasan, V. (2002). Post-Deccan trap faulting in Raigad and thane districts of Maharashtra. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 59, 23–31. Verma, O., & Khosla, A. (2019, October–November). Developments in the stratigraphy of the Deccan Volcanic Province, Peninsular India. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 351(7), 461–476. Washington, H. S. (1922). Deccan traps and other plateau basalt. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 33, 765–803.

Chapter 5

Sedimentology

Abstract  The fluviatile alluvial deposits occur along river courses and are locally significant hydrogeological units whenever they have adequate thickness and some areal extent. For the deposition of shallow alluvium, the streams are playing a vital hydrogeological role. They are the principal agencies and venues whereby the product of rock weathering is carried out from the land to form a new sedimentary formation. Some proportion of the weathered products is deposited along the bank of rivers by the activities of the streams that constitute alluvium. Gravity provides the force by which the weathered products are made available to stream channels for transporting and later deposition. The dynamics of the water flowing in the open channel is such that the weathered products are carried along in two ways according to the particle size, whereas the coarser material mainly sand and gravel are moved along or are close to the bed of traction load, the finest sand, silt, and clay are transported in the entire body of the stream as a suspended load. These modes of transport are partly responsible for the geometrical stratigraphical, textural, and structural contact for the stream deposition. Keywords  Sedimentology · Alluvial · River · Rock · Sedimentary

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Alluvial Deposits in the Central India River The coarse materials are deposited as point bars in the meandering portion of the main drainage which acts as good deposits of granular zone of alluvium. These sediments are generally found deposited along the bank of river, locked up in the meandering portion of the river, and are underlain by hard rock. The contact of rock and sediments consist of granular zones. Most of the granular zones are deposited during the river action (Plates 5.1a and 5.1b). The alluvium consists of clays, sands, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0_5

151

152

5 Sedimentology

Plate 5.1a  Photograph showing quaternary sediments in Sindkhed village

Plate 5.1b  Photograph showing talus or scree pebble deposits in study area River

5.1 Introduction

153

gravels, and occasionally cobble beds, the coarser granular strata like sand, gravels, and pebble beds when occurring below water tables, form productive aquifers that have generally limited real extent as they form lenses, embedded in finer strata. If the alluvium has deeper sand lenses occurring below clay layers, they act as semiconfined aquifers. In many parts, kankar beds show common occurrence with the alluvium (Plates 5.2a, 5.2b, 5.3a and 5.3b). Thick deposits of alluvial sediments comprising of clay, silt, sand, and gravel are found occurring in the basaltic area River valley in the northern part of the basin. The thickness of the alluvium is more than 450 m in the region, as deciphered by the drilling done by CGWB at Akot. This thick alluvium can be divided into younger and older alluvium. The youngest alluvium, which is about 70  m thick, includes sub-angular to sub-rounded basaltic gravel. The older alluvium is more than 250 m thick and mainly consists of reddish-yellow clay. It is underlain by gravel and sand toward the base above the trap basement (Fig.  5.1). The alluvial deposits in the study area are unique in that they have been deposited in the faulted basin. The alluvium generally consists of clays, silt, sands, gravels, pebbles, and boulders. The sand and gravels occur in one or more beds of 2–14 m in thickness generally within a depth of about 100 m and below. Boulders and gravel sometimes mixed with clays are predominant in the northern part of the alluvial area. The main constituent in the

Plate 5.2a  Photograph showing accumulation of gravel deposits in low lying area

154

5 Sedimentology

Plate 5.2b  Photograph showing river sediments formed due to weathering of bedrock

Plate 5.3a  Photograph showing clay deposits on the bank River

5.3 Methodology of Granulometric Analysis of Sediments

155

Plate 5.3b  Photograph showing clay deposits in the channel of River Andura village

alluvium is clay. This often contains a variable proportion of sand and gravel mostly derived from basalt. The basaltic sand and gravel undergo diagenetic alteration resulting in formations of clay. This may be one of the causes for the predominance of clay in the Morna valley area.

5.3 Methodology of Granulometric Analysis of Sediments Fundamentally, the mechanical analysis of sediments is performed to express, sort, and identify the size of sediments in mathematical terms and so it has threefold objectives. To ascertain relative abundance is prescribed size limits, hence particle size distribution, and to interpret the results of such analysis in a manner and in terms of numerical or graphical record as distinct from the mineralogical constituent of rocks or minerals concerned to establish certain determinative characters of the process of transportation and deposition (Krumbein, 1934). The evaluation of the grain size of clastic sediment and its sorting gives clues to the conditions of deposition (1938, 1963). There is some connection between size frequency distribution and environment. The sedimentation is preserved within the sediments by virtue of the distribution of different clastic grains, which obey some mathematical phenomenon as certain combination values, and is indicative of certain sedimentary environment. Considering the importance of particle size measurements, it is therefore not surprising to find numerous techniques adopted for their

156

5 Sedimentology

Fig. 5.1  Geological map showing various types of alluvial deposits exposed River

5.4 Sampling

157

evaluation (Pansare, 1980). Sieving is the most commonly used method of laboratory classification of grain particles. It is relatively rapid, trouble-free, cheap, and the most tested method, though Sahu, (1975) has cautioned about the accuracy of sieving techniques for certain size fractions of sediment. In the sieving method, a series of wire mesh sieves or screens having graded size opening are stacked with the one having the largest opening at the top (Sahu, 1982). A disaggregated sample or unconsolidated sediment is then paned through these series of screens. Each sieve of the series retains particles greater than its opening size and thus, the sample is size fractioned. Each retained fraction is then weighted accurately and a “weight-­ size distribution” is obtained. As the present work is concerned much more with the loose sediments, the sieve analysis has been given much more importance. Mainly based on the investigation developed by Krumbein (1938), the size frequency analysis was done by sieving only. The standard screen scales sieve series, based on automatic sieve-shaker machine. Ten minutes is usually sufficient for a reasonably accurate size separation.

5.4 Sampling Fresh samples of the sediments from different localities River were collected. As they are loose, unconsolidated analysis was very easy. The science of sedimentary petrology as a separate discipline received much attention in the last few years in India, and qualitative petrographic studies with statistical parameters of the grain size distribution of sediment of different formations have been done.

5.4.1 Preparation of Samples It is necessary, before sieving, that the individual particles must be separated from one another. Clay, insoluble salt, and impurities must be removed, because we establish the individual grain. The samples are first prolonged soaked in water and rubbed between hands. The iron-oxide coating from clastic grains was removed by the treatment with dilute hydrochloric acid. These particles are then washed, filtered, and dried. These wash aggregates were coned and quartered before they undergo sieving. The time for sieving was 10  min for satisfactory results. Sieving was done on the automatic Ro-top sieve shaker machine, after accurately weighing on a single pan electronic balance. In the present work, one phi-interval was used for size difference and sieves 8, 16, 30, 60, 120, 240, and 350 B.S. Mesh were used.

158

5 Sedimentology

Table 5.1  Conversion of screen opening from millimeter to phi (φ) scale and then into Wentworth grade scale Sieve no. 8 16 30 60 120 240

Opening in mm B.S.S 2.057 1.003 0.500 0.251 0.124 0.066

Wentworth mm 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16

φ 1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00

Wentworth’s size class Very coarse sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt

5.4.2 Size Scale Sedimentary particles range in diameter from a fraction of micron to large gigantic blocks up to many meters. Although this size spectrum is continuous sedimentologists have developed certain grade scales, each having definite lower and upper limits. Krumbein (1934) introduced phi (φ) scale as a log transformation of millimeters in order to simplify computations of statistical parameters. The principal advantages of the phi-scale are as follows: particle size distribution can be easily plotted on arithmetic graph paper as well as on semilog graph paper, it depends on our will; the particle diameter in each size classes becomes whole numbers instead of fractions of millimeters or microns; and increasing phi-values corresponds to decreasing particle sizes and vice versa. The conversion of screen opening from millimeter to phi (φ) scale and then into Wentworth grade scale is shown in Table 5.1.

5.5 Results of Presentation of Grain-Size Frequency Distribution There are various ways to represent the data obtained from the mechanical analysis of the sediment with the help of statistical parameters and graphical representations. First, the frequency percentage of each size fraction (φ-interval) was calculated, and then these were converted into cumulative weight percentages.

5.5.1 Graphical Presentation All the methods (for graphical representation) use grain size as the abscissa and some measure of percentage frequency as the ordinate. Grain size analysis may either be plotted directly in millimeters or in phi units; the latter is much more convenient and accurate to read. The data obtained from grain size analysis can be represented in the following ways.

5.5 Results of Presentation of Grain-Size Frequency Distribution

159

5.5.1.1 Histograms It is essentially a bar graph in which the percentages for each grade size are plotted as a column. It is a pictorial method and cannot be used for the determination of any statistical parameter; however, it is very easy to prepare and one can easily interpret the general features of the sediment. Its shape is greatly affected by the sieve interval chosen, and the same sample may look entirely different if it is analyzed on different sets of screens. 5.5.1.2 Frequency Curve It is a smoothed histogram in which a continuous bell-shaped curve takes the place of the discontinuous bar graph. It is also chiefly of pictorial value because no statistical parameters can be read from it; however, it is independent of the sieve interval used and is the best method to use in dissecting mixed populations into their separate normal distribution. 5.5.1.3 Cumulative Curve If the cumulative curve of sediments follows the normal symmetrical probability distribution and if it is plotted on the arithmetic probability paper, the result is a perfectly straight line whose position depends on the sorting. This is because the probability scale is very condensed in the middle of the scale (30–70%) and very much expanded at the ends (under 70 or over 90%) therefore straightening out the “S”-shaped curve which would result if the arithmetic ordinates were used. Cumulative curves with probability scales are more useful than the curve with arithmetic scale because they test for the normality of distribution. Statistical parameters can be read with much greater accuracy because of ease of interpretation and extrapolation, since the tails are straightened and the samples tend to plot as a straight line. The slopes of the lines of the segments are a function of the standard deviation of the distribution and separate sub-populations, when present, are identified as individual straight-line segments.

5.5.2 Statistical Parameters of Grain-Size For the evaluation of a set of samples, it is probably best to compare the curve by eyes, as only in this way we can compare the entire character of the sediment curves; however, this is inconvenient and furthermore not very quantitative. It sometimes becomes difficult to decide whether one curve represents better sorted or finer sample than curve B, or how large the difference. To solve this problem various statistical parameters were introduced which described quantitatively certain features of

160

5 Sedimentology

the curves; these values were then tabulated and certain combinations of values may be indicative of different sedimentary environments. There are two basic methods of obtaining statistical parameters. The first and most commonly used method is the graphical method and the second is the method of moments; in this work the graphical method is adopted. 5.5.2.1 Graphical Computation Techniques Graphical computation techniques were introduced to avoid the lengthy calculations required by moment statistics. It involves the plotting of cumulative curve on probability paper, and reading the grain size values (in phi) to compute each graphic statistic from the curve. This method gives much more accurate results. The statistical measures are as follows. Measures of Average Size These express the average grain size of the sample to compare whether a sample is coarse or finer than the other samples. Graphic Mean (MZ) It is the best graphic measure for determining the overall size and is given by the formula



MZ 

16   84   50  3



It is much superior to the median as it is based on three points and gives a better overall picture. Median (Md) It is the exact middle point of frequency distribution (φ 50). Half of the particles by weight are coarse than median and half are finer. It is not affected by the extremes of the curve, and therefore, does not reflect the overall size of sediments.

5.5 Results of Presentation of Grain-Size Frequency Distribution

161

Mode (M0) It is the most frequently occurring grain size class. It corresponds to the highest point on the frequency curve but cannot be determined directly from the cumulative curve. This is an important statistical parameter, especially in sediment having several sub-populations, each having its own mode. The presence of two or even more modes in samples suggests that the particles have been derived from different sources. 5.5.2.2 Measures of Uniformity These express the spread around the mean. Several measures are available for measuring the uniformity or sorting of sediments. In these measures only the inclusive graphic standard deviation is determined. Inclusive Graphic Standard Deviation (σI) It is the best overall measure of sorting and covers 90% of the distribution. It is given by formula:

I 



 84  16  95   5  4 6.6

The following sorting scale is used to interpret the nature of sorting: >0.35 0.35–0.50 >0.50–0.71 0.71–1.00 −2.00 2.00–4.00 0.67 0.67–0.90 0.90–1.11 1.11–1.50 1.50–3.00 300

Environmental engineering laboratory manual

References BIS. (2000). Indian standard drinking water specification. Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi Chen, L., & Feng, Q. (2013). Geostatistical analysis of temporal and spatial variations in groundwater levels and quality in the Minqin oasis, Northwest China. Environmental Earth Sciences, 70, 1367–1378 Fox. (1914). Proceedings of the Yorkshire geological society (Volume 19 Pages 67–69). https://doi. org/10.1144/pygs.19.2.67 ISI. (1983). Indian Standard Specification for Drinking Water. IS: 10500. Indian Standard Institute, India. Khadri, S. F. R., & Pande, C. (2016). Ground water flow modeling for calibrating steady state using MODFLOW software: A case study of Mahesh River basin, India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 2, 39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-­015-­0049-­7

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Moharir, K., Pande, C., & Patil, S. (2017). Inverse modeling of aquifer parameters in basaltic rock with the help of pumping test method using MODFLOW software. Geoscience Frontiers, 8, 1385–1395. Moharir, K. N.,Pande, C. B., Gautam, V. K., Singh, S. K., Rane, N. L. (2023). Integration of hydrogeological data, GIS and AHP techniques applied to delineate groundwater potential zones in sandstone, limestone and shales rocks of the Damoh district, (MP) central India. Environmental Research, 228, 115832. Pande, C. B., & Moharir, K. (2017). GIS based quantitative morphometric analysis and its consequences: A case study from Shanur River Basin, Maharashtra India. Applied Water Science, 7, 861–871. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-­015-­0298-­7 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. (2018). Spatial analysis of groundwater quality mapping in hard rock area in the Akola and Buldhana districts of Maharashtra, India. Applied Water Science, 8, 106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0754-2 Pande, C. B., & Moharir, K. N. (2021a). Groundwater resources development and planning in the semi-arid region (1st ed., p XIV, 571). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­68124-­1 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Singh, S. K., et al. (2020a). An integrated approach to delineate the groundwater potential zones in Devdari watershed area of Akola district, Maharashtra, Central India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22, 4867–4887. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-­019-­00409-­1 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Singh, S. K. et al. (2020b). Groundwater evaluation for drinking purposes using statistical index: study of Akola and Buldhana districts of Maharashtra, India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22, 7453–7471. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-019-00531-0 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Khadri, S. (2021b). Watershed Planning and Development Based on Morphometric Analysis and Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques: A Case Study of Semi-­ Arid Watershed in Maharashtra, India. In C.B., Pande, & K. N. Moharir (Eds.), Groundwater Resources Development and Planning in the Semi-Arid Region. Springer, Cham. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-68124-1_11. Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Panneerselvam, B. et al. (2021c). Delineation of groundwater potential zones for sustainable development and planning using analytical hierarchy process (AHP), and MIF techniques. Applied Water Science, 11, 186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01522-1 Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N., Singh, S. K., et al. (2022). Groundwater flow modeling in the basaltic hard rock area of Maharashtra, India. Applied Water Science, 12, 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13201-­021-­01525-­y Pande, C. B., Moharir, K. N. (2023a). Application of hyperspectral remote sensing role in precision farming and sustainable agriculture under climate change: A Review. In C. B., Pande, K. N., Moharir, S. K., Singh, Q. B., Pham, & A. Elbeltagi (Eds.), Climate change impacts on natural resources, ecosystems and agricultural systems. Springer Climate. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19059-9_21 Pande, C. B., Kadam, S. A., Rajesh, J., Gorantiwar, S. D., Shinde, M. G. (2023b). Predication of sugarcane yield in the semi-arid region based on the sentinel-2 data using vegetation’s indices and mathematical modeling. In C. B., Pande, K. N., Moharir, S. K., Singh, Q. B., Pham, & Elbeltagi, A. (Eds.), Climate change impacts on natural resources, ecosystems and agricultural systems. Springer Climate. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19059-9_12 Sorensen, S. P. L. (1909). Enzyme studies: II. The measurement and importance of the hydrogen ion concentration in enzyme reaction. Comptes rendus des travaux du Laboratoire Carlsberg 8:1. WHO. (2004). Guidelines for drinking water quality, vol 1. Recommendations (3rd ed., p. 515). WHO, Geneva.

Chapter 7

Conclusion

The alluvial deposits in the area are basically derived from the disintegration and decomposition of the basaltic rocks and are classified into two broad groups. The thick older fluvial-alluvial deposits are distributed along the river courses and are significant hydrogeological units, whenever they have attained adequate thickness and some areal extent. The alluvium mainly consists of clays, sands, gravels, and sometimes cobble beds. Whereas the simple flows can be identified by the absence of flow units, showing monotonous sequence and uniform behavior. The vesicles are normally filled with secondary minerals like Zeolite, Quartz, and Calcite. The thickness of lava flows varies from a few feet to more than 20  m showing both simple and compound flows. The compound flows are characterized by the presence of four flow units showing amygdales with massive and uniform nature. The vesicles are generally fields with various secondary minerals like zeolites, quartz, and calcite. In general, the lava flows can be divided into massive basalts showing limited water resources and vesicular and amygdaloidal basalts with weathered and jointed horizons indicating potential aquifers. Thus in the study area, four different lithological units consisting of one or more flows have been identified as formations. There are three formations found in Mahesh River Basin such as Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations. However, the presence of red and green bole occurring at flow boundaries shows vesicular nature with a higher concentration of amygdales, and the occurrence of pipe amygdales at the bottom of flow along with jointing and weathering pattern is also taken into consideration while identifying various flows. Extensive field mapping was carried out to trace and correlate the aerial extent of individual lava flows and flow sequences which lead to the establishment of field stratigraphy of Mahesh River Basin. A detailed geological map of the area was prepared with the help of GIS and remote sensing. In order to understand the nature and areal extent of various lava flows, five field sections were measured and correlated. It is noticed that with some exceptions, most of the flow sequences (Formations) are traceable to a large extent with thickening and thinning appearances due to the pinching and swelling nature. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0_7

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In general, the study area is dominated by various lava flows showing horizontal nature with various thicknesses. This formation consists of 11 lava flows, which are characterized by the presence of fine grained, plagioclase mafic phyric flow with highly porphyritic Giant phenocryst basalt (GPB) at the top. Extensive field mapping was carried out to trace and correlate the aerial extent of individual lava flows and flow sequences, which lead to the establishment of field stratigraphy of Mahesh River Basin. A detailed geological map of the area was prepared with help of GIS and remote sensing. In this study, an attempt has been made to formulate detailed petrographic characters of various lava flows exposed in Mahesh River Basin based on physical properties of rock samples in hand specimens and in thin sections to identify various mineral phases, textural characters, and their distribution. The variation of petrographic parameters in a stratigraphic sequence is deciphered by the difference in field characters. Presence of red bole highly weathered vesicular basalt zone, and amygdaloidal nature of lava flows in Mahesh River Basin has thrown valuable information on the pathogenesis of lava flows. The collection of various rock samples from the study area and their detailed study under Carl-Zeiss polarizing microscope have shown the presence of mineral phases. The common textures encountered are porphyritic to sub-ophitic. However, certain aphyric flows show the presence of microphyric and flow textures. Plagioclase usually occurs as labradorite and clinopyroxene as augite to sub-calcic augite with the minor occurrence of pigeonite in the groundmass. Olivine occurs as alteration products such as iddingsite or serpentine along the borders and cracks of olivine and iron oxides as a solid solution series of titanomagnetite and ilmenite with the occasional presence of primary glass. Carlsbad, albite, and crossed twins are quite common in plagioclase with the occasional presence of baveno type of twins. Clinopyroxene occurs as prismatic grains showing subhedral forms whereas magnetite occurs as octahedral to anhedral grains. Ilmenite occurs as irregular laths shaped and skeletal forms. In general, the cavities of amygdales are filled with various zeolitic minerals like natrolite, stilbite, mesolite, apophyllite, etc., which are associated with quartz, calcite, and other associated minerals like chlorite, etc. The present study area of three formations, namely, Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations, has been identified in the Mahesh River Basin. A detailed geological formation map of the study area depicting lava sequence exposed in the study area has been prepared with the help of ARC-GIS 10.1 software by using satellite images to understand the flow variation. Lava flows exposed in the study area can be distinguished with one another due to their stratigraphic position and textural parameters like aphyric, microphyric, and porphyritic nature. Phenocryst assemblages such as plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine are mostly altered to iddingsite, opaque minerals, and primary glass. The stratigraphic divisions are mainly based on field characters, phenocrystic assemblages, and major physiographic breaks. Based on the above characteristics the Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations exposed in the study area have been further subdivided into various chemical types such as CT-1: fine grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal flows, CT-2: medium grained, compact, massive mafic phyric flows, CT-3: medium

7 Conclusion

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grained, compact, massive, plagioclase mafic phyric flows, and CT-4: medium to coarse grained, massive, plagioclase phyric flows each of which consists of one or more flows showing similar characteristics without a stratigraphic bias. In this study 11 lava flows were identified in the Mahesh River Basin. Therefore, three formations characterized by the presence of fine grained, PI mafic microphyric flows with red bole at the top are identified in the study area giving four chemical types based on physiographic and chemical breaks which characterize these formations. Petrographically, these formations are characterized by aphyric to plagioclase and mafic phyric flows showing porphyritic texture. The presence of repeated occurrence of various chemical types at the stratigraphic levels highlights the cyclic nature. Extensive field mapping was carried out to trace and correlate the aerial extent of individual lava flows and flow sequences, which lead to the establishment of field stratigraphy of Mahesh River Basin. A detailed geological map of the area was prepared using remote sensing techniques. The main water bearing formation of the region is basaltic lava flows (Deccan trap). The recharge of groundwater is controlled by topography, thickness of weathered zone, and infiltration capacity of soil and subsoil strata within the zone of aeration. The study area is dominated by 11 different flows, which are separated by the horizons of red/green boles. The vesicular part of the flow possesses primary porosity but permeability has developed by processes of weathering. These and the fractured zones are the major water-­ bearing horizons in the area. In the present study area, the Atali formation is the largest formation well exposed in the central and eastern parts of the basin, especially in the villages such as Atali, Pedka, Patunda, Umra-Atali, Nadidevi, Nilegaon, Koregaon, Amikapur, Wihigaon, and adjoining areas. This formation comprises six basaltic flows. The lowermost flow is of medium grained, compact, massive, plagioclase mafic microphyric basalt in nature. The middle two flows are of fine grained, plagioclase mafic microphyric basalt with amygdaloidal aphyric patches in between. The topmost flow is coarse grained, compact, massive, mafic phyric basalt in nature with medium to fine grain size. In this formation four chemical types such as CT1, CT2, CT3, and CT4 are recognized. This formation shows significant variation in certain geochemical parameters such as MgO (7.98, 5.55), TiO2 (2.64, 1.75), P2O5 (0.36, 0.20), Sr (090, 202), and Zr (148, 44). The Lokhanda formation is third largest region in the study area well exposed in the western parts of the basin such as in villages like Pala, Ganeshpur, and adjoining areas. The Lokhanda formation comprises three lava flows consisting of three chemical type such as CT1, CT2, and CT3 showing compound and simple flow nature. These flows are characterized by the presence of aphyric to plagioclase, mafic phyric flows. In this formation lower most lava flows show fine grained, compact, massive, Pl mafic phyric basalt in nature with thickness of 15–20 m. The middle lava flow shows medium grained, aphyric, amygdaloidal basalt indicated by chemical type CT2. The uppermost lava flows show fine grained, mafic phyric, compact, massive basalt. The geochemical variation shows MgO (9.56, 8.73), TiO2 (1.54, 1.09), P2O5 (0.16, 0.13), Sr (164, 154), Zr (108, 91), and Y (108, 20).

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7 Conclusion

In general, the lava flows exhibit pinching and swelling effects at places. The Amdapur formation is exposed in the western margin of the basin in Pimpri, Wairagad, Kinhi, and Dasala areas. The flows are characterized by the presence of fine to medium grained, massive lava flows with moderately porphyritic nature. The thickness of two lava flows shows a variation from 15–20 to 10–15 m. Two chemical type such as CT1 and CT3 are identified. The geochemical variation shows MgO (6.84, 6.21), TiO2 (2.04, 1.08), P2O5 (0.23, 0.21), Sr (224, 198), Zr (196, 159), and Y (42, 33). The methodology adopted for various studies includes extensive field investigations carried out in four field seasons (pre-monsoon and post-monsoon) during which 60 hand specimens of fresh basalt flows were collected from five major field sections. Extensive geological mapping was carried out by five field traverses and numerous spot checks. Major and trace elemental analyses were carried out for 11 representative samples by utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICP-MS) and AAS techniques at the geochemistry laboratory of the Royal Holloway University of London, UK.  Detailed petrographic studies were carried out on 16 representative thin sections and model analysis for all the thin sections using point counter, which have led to the establishment of a comprehensive flow stratigraphy of the region. The presence of 11 lava flows belonging to Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations has been identified in the study area. A detailed geological map of the study area depicting the lava sequence exposed in the study area has been prepared to understand the flow variation. The lava flows exposed in the study area can be distinguished from one another due to their stratigraphic position and textural parameters like aphyric, microphyric, and porphyritic nature. Phynocryst assemblages such as plagioclase, clinopyroxene, and olivine mostly altered to iddingsite, opaque minerals, and primary glass. The present stratigraphic divisions are mainly based on field characters, phynocryst assemblages, major physiographic breaks, and significant shifts in elemental abundances and ratios particularly K2O, MgO, TiO2, P2O5, Ba, Sr, Ni, Cr, Zr, Mg*, Ba/Ti, Ba/Sr, Ba/Zr, Sr/Ti, Zr/Ti, La/Nb, and TiO2/P2O5. Based on the above characteristics, the Atali, Lokhanda, and Amdapur formations exposed in the study area have been further subdivided into various chemical types (CT) each of which consists of one or more flows showing similar chemical characteristics without a stratigraphic bias The geochemical behavior of the litho units and their petrogenetic significance has been evaluated based on the major, trace, and REE characteristics of 11 samples using Inductively Coupled Plasma Source Spectrometry (ICP-MS) and AAS techniques. Various models were proposed for understanding the genesis of these rocks. MORB normalized patterns for various major and trace elements were plotted for various stratigraphic formations exposed in the study area to understand the enrichment of various elements in their mantle source. The result indicates very high enrichment of K2O and Ba in the mantle source. REE pattern reveals the dominance of fractional crystallization with LREE enrichment, low and nearly flat HREE pattern. The HREE (Yb) was positively correlated with CaO, MgO, and Al2O3 and negatively with (La/Yb) N and (La/Sm)N. In

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253

transitional metal elements, the decrease in titanium to nickel with negative chromium anomaly and their uniformity in different flows may suggest homogeneous distribution of these elements in the mantle with slight variation in mineralogy. The variations of Mg*(100Mg*/Mg+Fe) indicate the progressive change in fractionation with time. The positive correlation of TiO2 with CaO/TiO2 indicates that Deccan Traps might have been generated by a small degree of partial melting. The higher Fe and lower Sc/Zr compared with chondrite reveal the role of residual garnet in partial melting of the parent magma of Deccan Traps. The positive correlation of Mg versus Cr and Ni suggests replacement of Mg, Fe in Cpx and olivine structures, and the dominance of fractional crystallization. Correlation coefficient pattern for the study area demonstrates the quantitative role of various petrogenetic processes responsible for the evolution of lava pile. The results indicate the depletion and enrichment of certain elements which might be due to either addition or subtraction of certain minerals from a basaltic melt leading to a net change in the bulk composition of the liquid. The direct positive correlation of SiO2 with all elements indicates the enrichment pattern of the elements in the mantle source, with progressive fractionation. The positive correlation of Nickel (Ol) and Cr (Cpx) with MgO demonstrates the removal of clinopyroxene from the liquid. The positive correlation of TiO2 with FeO, Sc, Sr, and V indicates the presence of opaque mineral phases during the substitution of Fe sites with Sc and V.  The geochemical variation of the mantle source compositions can be correlated due to the positive correlation of Sr with K2O and Ba. The results are in agreement with the results obtained for Mahabaleshwar and Karoo volcanism, which indicates enrichment of certain incompatible elements at the source due to magma mixing. The negative correlation of K2O with MgO indicates calc-alkaline differentiation trend with total iron content increases due to early crystallization of magnetite. The positive correlation of TiO2 with P2O5 and Zr indicates the dominance of fractionation processes in the study area with the increasing trend.

Index

A Alluvial, 2–5, 61, 151–156, 180, 181, 190–192, 194, 249 B Basaltic, 2, 3, 5, 44–47, 54, 68, 73, 81, 89, 108, 153, 155, 181, 183, 186, 190, 192, 193, 249, 251, 253 Basalts, 1–3, 6, 8–20, 25–32, 44, 45, 47, 51, 52, 54–62, 64–72, 77, 82, 83, 89, 91, 103, 143, 146, 149, 155, 190, 193, 194, 249–252

Lava flows, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 21, 22, 26, 32–45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 54–56, 61, 62, 66, 68, 71–73, 82, 89, 91, 143, 147–149, 190, 193, 249–252 M Maharashtra, 2, 26, 61, 190 Mineral, 3, 6, 13, 15, 25–27, 32, 44–49, 51–55, 57–60, 62, 69, 76, 155, 183–186, 204, 206, 226, 249, 250, 252, 253 P Petrography, 2, 5, 25–60

E Earth, 25, 75, 76, 103, 143–144, 148, 206, 211 Elements, 25, 76, 82–83, 89–146, 148, 211, 225, 252, 253

H Hydrogeology, 190–235

R Reare earth elements (REE), 82, 108, 143, 146, 252 River, 2, 3, 10, 13, 15–17, 20, 26, 28–29, 45, 46, 49, 51–53, 56–60, 62, 66–70, 73, 78, 81, 91, 147, 149, 151, 154, 174, 177, 180–183, 191, 194, 201, 203, 204, 232, 249–251 Rock, 3, 21, 26, 32, 45, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58, 61, 73, 76, 89, 103, 143, 146, 148, 151, 155, 181, 183, 186, 190, 193, 206, 211, 249, 250, 252

L Lava, 2, 5, 9, 21–22, 25, 26, 44, 50, 62, 63, 66, 144, 149, 194, 250, 252, 253

S Sedimentary, 61, 155, 157, 158, 160, 163, 174, 177, 180, 181, 185–187, 190

G Geochemistry, 2, 21, 75–149, 252 Groundwater, 61, 190–232, 234, 235, 251

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 C. B. Pande, Geology, Petrography and Geochemistry of Basaltic Rock in Central India, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30574-0

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256 Sedimentology, 151–187 Stratigraphic, 2, 5, 9, 26, 49, 54, 55, 62–66, 68–72, 76, 81, 82, 143, 149, 250–252 Stratigraphy, 1, 2, 9–21, 54, 55, 61–73, 77, 82, 147, 249–252

Index W Water, 3, 32, 55, 61, 65, 153, 157, 181, 190–206, 208, 209, 211, 224–227, 232–235, 249, 251 World, 200, 234