Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa: Intersectional Perspectives (Sustainable Development Goals Series) 3031125509, 9783031125508

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Sustainable Development Goals Series

Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa Intersectional Perspectives Edited by Erisher Woyo Hellen Venganai

SDG: 5 Gender Equality

Sustainable Development Goals Series

The Sustainable Development Goals Series is Springer Nature’s inaugural cross-imprint book series that addresses and supports the United Nations’ seventeen Sustainable Development Goals. The series fosters comprehensive research focused on these global targets and endeavours to address some of society’s greatest grand challenges. The SDGs are inherently multidisciplinary, and they bring people working across different fields together and working towards a common goal. In this spirit, the Sustainable Development Goals series is the first at Springer Nature to publish books under both the Springer and Palgrave Macmillan imprints, bringing the strengths of our imprints together. The Sustainable Development Goals Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one subseries based around each of the seventeen respective Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth subseries, “Connecting the Goals,” which serves as a home for volumes addressing multiple goals or studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is guided by an expert Subseries Advisor with years or decades of experience studying and addressing core components of their respective Goal. The SDG Series has a remit as broad as the SDGs themselves, and contributions are welcome from scientists, academics, policymakers, and researchers working in fields related to any of the seventeen goals. If you are interested in contributing a monograph or curated volume to the series, please contact the Publishers: Zachary Romano [Springer; zachary. [email protected]] and Rachael Ballard [Palgrave Macmillan; rachael. [email protected]].

Erisher Woyo  •  Hellen Venganai Editors

Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa Intersectional Perspectives

Editors Erisher Woyo Department of Marketing, Retail and Tourism Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, UK

Hellen Venganai Gender Transformative Sciences Department Women’s University in Africa Harare, Zimbabwe

ISSN 2523-3084     ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic) Sustainable Development Goals Series ISBN 978-3-031-12550-8    ISBN 978-3-031-12551-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: Korndanai Vitthayanukarun/EyeEm This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Acknowledgements

The editors of this book would like to thank all contributors from diverse backgrounds who contributed to this volume. It was not an easy call because of the complexities around intertwining gender, disability and tourism development, which are always challenging to research and analyse. All the contributors to the book are greatly acknowledged. Thanks also go to our Gender studies editor at Palgrave Macmillan, Nina Guttapalle, for believing in this project, starting with the proposal. Your support throughout the project has been tremendous. We also thank Tikoji Rao, the project coordinator for books at Palgrave. We appreciate the emails you have been sending checking on the progress of the manuscript and the coordination you provided. All chapters were blind peer reviewed by two external reviewers. Firstly, we would like to thank the two external reviewers for providing insightful comments and feedback for the proposal and the full book manuscript. Their comments were helpful in shaping the direction and the discourse of the final book manuscript. The chapter reviewers, we cannot thank you enough, given the shorter time frames we asked you to review the chapters. Reviewers from the following institutions are acknowledged: University of Namibia (Namibia), University of Johannesburg (South Africa), University of Stellenbosch (South Africa), University of South Africa (South Africa), University of Cape Town (South Africa), Midlands State University (Zimbabwe), University of Ghana (Ghana), Namibia University of Science and Technology (Namibia), Vaal University of Technology (South Africa), Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische v

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Hochschule Aachen (Germany) and German University of Technology (Oman). Finally, we thank our families and friends for their love and support. Erisher Woyo would like to dedicate this book to his daughter Atipaishe Woyo. To Atipaishe, I say, this book right here is in honour of what I believe you can do—generate knowledge that is helpful in ensuring that women are recognised in an equitable and equal manner. Secondly, I would like to thank my wife (Edith), son (Isheanesu) and daughter (Atipaishe) Woyo for providing sustenance for spiritual enlightenment to continue working towards impactful knowledge production for a prosperous Africa. I would like to thank Hellen Venganai—a sister who is more willing to listen to me, and work towards something meaningful in our quest to generate knowledge. Thank you for co-authoring with me this book—something which started as a small conversation when we wrote the entry on Gender and Tourism in 2021—and further discussion of the entry culminated in this book project. I appreciate the new knowledge that I have gained from you, especially the intersectionality perspectives— which as shared is informing some few articles on tourism and technology. Hellen Venganai would like to thank several people for the success of this book project. Firstly, let me appreciate Erisher Woyo who initiated the idea for this book. Your mentoring spirit made this book project a success. I learnt quite a lot from you. I would also like to say thank you to my family, especially my son Sean for understanding and supporting me during the time I worked on this book project. I would also like to appreciate my colleagues with whom I bounced off ideas to enhance this book project. To friends and other close people who missed my company as I worked on this, I am sure you are proud of me. I thank God for the strength that enabled me to complete this assignment. I wish to also acknowledge the influence of Dr Nahda Shehada, my lecturer and mentor who introduced me to the concept of intersectionality during one of the feminist courses while I was doing my master’s studies. Your contribution in my academic journey is bearing fruits now.

Praise for Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa “This book is a welcome addition to tourism development literature. Through its rich theoretical and empirical contributions by African scholars the book will be of value to academics, decision makers, tourism managers and students alike to reflect on how insights drawn from the intersection of gender and disability can be used to inform sustainable tourism development in Africa.” —Dimitrios Buhalis, Director eTourism Lab, Bournemouth University Business School, Visiting Professor, School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Editor-in-Chief, Tourism Review “This volume adopts a unique perspective to tourism by investigating the intersectionality between gender and disability in Africa where inequality issues are pervasive. Chapters adopt a broad range of perspectives, providing readers with a solid theoretical grounding on gender and disability. The volume is an excellent read for tourism students and researchers all well as those interested in issues on gender inequality and disability in tourism.” —Robin Nunkoo, Associate Professor, University of Mauritius “This seminal edited collection fills the gap in academic scholarship by focusing on the interactions between gender, disability and tourism policy and practice in Africa. Drawing from feminist thought on intersectionality, it examines how gender and disability overlap with other disparities in society to propel systemic ostracisation, structural suppression and everyday segregation within the politics, practice, and praxis of tourism.” —Stella Nyanzi, Scholar of Writers-in-Exile, PEN Zentrum Deutschland

Contents

1 Situating  Gender and Disability in Tourism Scholarship in Africa: An Introduction to Intersectional Perspectives  1 Erisher Woyo and Hellen Venganai Section I Policy Framework for Gender and Disability Transformative Tourism in Africa  31 2 Empowerment  of Women with Disabilities in the Tourism Sector in Zimbabwe: A Review of Policies and Laws 33 Musline Munodawafa and Faith C. Zengeni 3 Gender  Equality and Disability Inclusion in Tourism Employment in Namibia 51 Elsie Vezemburuka Hindjou 4 Gender  and Disability Inclusion Challenges Within Community-Based Tourism in Africa 71 Joy Eghonghon Akahome

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Section II Researching Gender, Disability and Sustainable Tourism Development in Africa  89 5 Gender,  Disability, and Social Identities in Tourism Research in Africa: Bibliometric Insights 91 Mohsin Abdur Rehman, Dhouha Jaziri, and Usman Bashir 6 Tourism  and SDG 5: Reflections on the Nexus Between Gender and Disability in the Hospitality Industry115 Ngoni Courage Shereni 7 Towards  Gender and Disability Inclusive Tourism Development in Zimbabwe: Insights Through Sustainable Development Goals137 Zibanai Zhou

and Tendai Chibaya

Section III Questioning Inclusivity and Diversity in Tourism Development in Africa 155 8 The  Queering of Spaces: A Critical Analysis of How Male Sex Work Is Shaped in the Tourism Industry in Botswana157 Lesedi Mashumba 9 COVID-19,  Informal Tourism Businesses, and the Livelihoods of Women with Disabilities in a Destination with Challenges177 Victoria Marcia Mutambara, Abigail R. Benhura, and Roselyn Kanyemba 10 Barriers  to Women’s Participation in Tourism Consumption in Anglophone Cameroon: An Intersectionality Perspective195 Ndi Loveline

 Contents 

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11 COVID-19,  Gender, Disability, and Experiences: Evidence from Marginalised Groups in Community-Based Ecotourism Projects211 Lovemore Rutendo Chitambara, Godfrey Makandwa, Diet Mupfiga, and Cowen Dziva 12 Understanding  the Experiences of Athletes with Physical Disabilities to Inform Inclusive Sports Tourism Practices231 Molebogeng Simphiwe Motseke and Willy Hannes Engelbrecht Section IV Media, Empowerment and Inclusive Tourism in Africa 257 13 Media  Representation of PWDs and Tourism Development: Role of Ghanaian Media in Enhancing Inclusivity and Gender Equality259 Gifty Appiah-Adjei, Joyce Mensah, and Pricilla Deede Hammond 14 Disability,  Marginalisation, and Inequality: An Appraisal of the Role of the Media in Promoting Inclusive and Sustainable Tourism for Persons with Disabilities285 Hatikanganwi Mapudzi, Itai Zviyita, and Anna-Lucky J. Katulo 15 Role  of Media in Creating Inclusive Gender and Disability Spaces in Tourism311 Wendy Muperi Index335

Notes on Contributors

Joy  Eghonghon  Akahome holds a PhD and is Lecturer in Entrepreneurship and Marketing at Federal University Otuoke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. She has written research articles on customer loyalty, tourism and service quality, and also attended and presented academic conferences in Nigeria, Tanzania, South Africa, Russia and United Kingdom. Gifty Appiah-Adjei  holds a PhD and is a lecturer and a researcher in the Department of Journalism and Media Studies at University of Education, Winneba in Ghana. Her research interest includes media and PWDs, media and gender, ethnic journalism, security of journalists, conflict-­ sensitive reporting and on-the job trauma, and journalism education. She is affiliated to Communication Educators Association of Ghana (CEAG), Journalism Safety Research Network (JSRN), Journalism Education Trauma Research Group (JETREG) and International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR). She is also an honorary member of Media Action Nepal. Usman  Bashir  is a Research Scholar at the Department of Business & Management Sciences, Minhaj Business School, Minhaj University Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan. His research interests include customer experience, service marketing, product development and innovation, and Business models. Abigail R. Benhura  is the Dean of Students and part-time lecturer at the Women’s University in Africa. Abigail holds a PhD and her current research focus extends to the efficacy of social protection programmes for xiii

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gendered, marginalised and at-risk groups such as women, children and people with disabilities. Tendai  Chibaya  holds a PhD and is a lecturer in the Department of Hospitality, Tourism and Culture at Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe. Her research interests are in event tourism management, cultural and heritage tourism, disability tourism and tourism management. Lovemore  Rutendo  Chitambara holds MCom in Tourism and Hospitality Management with the Midlands State University, Zimbabwe, and a BSc degree with the University of Zimbabwe. He is a lecturer in the School of Hospitality, Tourism and Culture at Great Zimbabwe University. Research interests include community-based tourism and sustainable tourism. Cowen Dziva  holds a PhD and is a lecturer at the Julius Nyerere School of Social Sciences at Great Zimbabwe University. Cowen has published book chapters and articles on development practice, inclusion and participation of disadvantaged groups in society. Willy  Hannes  Engelbrecht  holds a PhD and is the Dean of Research and Postgraduate Studies at The Independent Institute of Education (IIE) where he also served in various managerial positions within the Faculty of Commerce. He actively participates in research and has presented a number of papers at both national and international conferences related to Tourism and Education. He contributes towards textbook publications and serves as a member of the editorial board of a local academic scientific journal as well as advisory boards for various institutions of Higher Educational. He also acts as an external examiner, postgraduate supervisor and external reviewer for both national and international academic journals. Pricilla Deede Hammond  is a lecturer and researcher at the University of Education, Winneba (UEW), at the Community Based Rehabilitation and Disability Studies (CBRDS) Unit of the Department of Special Education. Her research interests are healthcare for persons with disabilities, sexual and reproductive health and homeless persons with disabilities. She is a member of the University Teachers’ Association of Ghana (UTAG) and Association of African Universities (AAU). Elsie Vezemburuka Hindjou  is a PhD candidate at the North Eastern Hill University in the Department of Tourism and Hotel Management,

  NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS 

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India. She holds a Bachelor (Honors) in Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Management, and a Master of Science in Tourism and Hospitality Management. Her research interest includes Gastronomic Tourism, Destination Branding, and Sustainable Tourism Development. Dhouha Jaziri  holds a PhD and is a senior lecturer at the University of Sousse, FsegSo, Tunisia. Her research concerns include customer experience, tourism management, customer knowledge management, innovation, digital marketing and customer brand engagement. Roselyn Kanyemba  holds a PhD and is a researcher at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Her research interests include Equal and quality education for females, sexual harassment in higher education, HIV/AIDS and masculinities/femininities and female empowerment. Anna-Lucky  J.  Katulo holds a Bachelor of Communication (Hons) from the Namibia University of Science and Technology. She is an emerging scholar and passionate about equal rights for persons with disabilities. Ndi  Loveline holds a PhD and is a researcher at the University of Yaoundé in Cameroon and an Inspector of Social Affairs in the Ministry of Social Affairs in Cameroon. Her research interests are in patriarchy and gender challenges in Africa, burdens of wedlock children in Cameroon, Ubuntu philosophy, indigenous knowledge and poverty alleviation in Africa. Godfrey Makandwa  holds a PhD and is a lecturer at Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences, and HOD of Tourism and Hospitality Management. His research focuses on female entrepreneurship, rural tourism, community-based tourism, cultural tourism and sustainable development. His papers have been published in international journals and presented at numerous conferences. Hatikanganwi  Mapudzi holds a PhD in Communication from the University of Fort Hare, Postgraduate Diploma in Media Management and the Master of Arts in Journalism and Media Studies, both from Rhodes University. Her research interests lie in the areas of journalism, ICTs and democracy, higher education in the fourth industrial revolution, health communication, indigenous languages as well as gender issues. Lesedi  Mashumba  holds a PhD and is a lecturer at the University of Botswana, and currently the Coordinator of the Bachelor of Arts in

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Criminal Justice programme at the University of Botswana. She is also a Certified Forensic Investigator. Her research interest areas include sex crimes and sex tourism, cybercrime and digital forensics, policing, youth crime and justice. Joyce Mensah  is the Managing Consultant of D’Jewel Law Consult in Accra, Ghana. Her research interests include media law, disability law, media and gender, media and democracy, media ethics, media and free expression, and media reforms. She is affiliated to the Ghana Bar Association (GBA), Communication Educators Association of Ghana (CEAG) and Institute of Directors (IOD). Molebogeng  Simphiwe  Motseke holds a Master of Arts in Health Communication as well as a Bachelor of Arts (Honors) in Corporate and Marketing Communication (cum laude) and a Bachelor of Arts in Corporate and Marketing Communication (cum laude), which were all obtained from the University of the Free State. She works as a Head of Programme for the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at The Independent Institute of Education (IIE) and is a member of numerous academic bodies. She has presented at numerous conferences both locally and internationally. Her research interests include Disability, Universal Design, Rural Development and Health Communication, with a particular focus on increasing accessibility and inclusion for persons with disabilities. Musline Munodawafa  is a Gender Researcher working as a lecturer in the department of Gender and Transformative Sciences at Women’s University in Africa. She is pursuing PhD in Development Studies at Women’s University in Africa. Wendy Muperi  is a seasoned communicator and journalist published in both Zimbabwean and international media. She is primarily interested in social justice, human rights, development and governance. She holds an MSc in Public Policy from Dublin City University, a BSc Honors in Political Science from the University of Zimbabwe and a Diploma in Communication and Journalism from Christian College of Southern Africa. Diet Mupfiga  holds MComm and BComm in Tourism and Hospitality Management degree both from Midlands State University, Zimbabwe. She is a lecturer in the School of Hospitality, Tourism and Culture at Great

  NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS 

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Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe. Her research interests include Sustainable tourism, community-based tourism and cultural tourism. Victoria  Marcia  Mutambara  holds a PhD and is currently a Research Fellow at Health Economics HIV/AIDS Research Division (HEARD), University of KwaZulu-Natal. Her research interests are underpinned by the key thematic areas of gender, human security, migration and sexual reproductive health rights. Mohsin Abdur Rehman  is a doctoral researcher at the Department of Marketing, Management and International Business, Oulu Business School, University of Oulu. His research interests include customer experience, customer journey, service research and phenomenology. His research work has been published in the outlets: International Journal of Bank Marketing, The TQM Journal, Journal of Financial Services Marketing, Quality Assurance in Education, Global Business Review, Services Marketing Quarterly and Journal of Information Science, among others. Ngoni  Courage  Shereni  holds a PhD) and is a faculty member in the Department of Accounting and Finance at Lupane State University in Zimbabwe and a researcher with the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. His research interests are in sustainable tourism, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), climate change, tourism education, disruptive technology, tourism exhibitions, community-based tourism (CBT) and collaborative natural resource management practices. Hellen Venganai  is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Social and Gender Transformative Sciences at the Women’s University in Africa, Zimbabwe. She is the Chairperson for the Gender and Transformative Sciences Department. She holds a PhD in Sociology from Stellenbosch University, South Africa. She also has a Master’s in Development Studies from the Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands, where she specialised in Women, Gender and Development. Her undergraduate degree is in Sociology and Gender Development Studies which she obtained from the Women’s University in Africa, Zimbabwe. She teaches gender-related courses in Development Studies, Child Sensitive Social Policies and Gender Studies. She has expertise in women rightscentred research and has published on various gender issues including Gender Based Violence, sexuality and culture. At a personal level, Dr Venganai is also a gender equality advocate. She also has previous working

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experience in the media, and her media experience and insights were very relevant to this book. Inspired by critical feminist theories, her research interests mainly revolve around the intersections between gender, sexuality, culture, disability and development policies. Erisher  Woyo  is a lecturer at the Manchester Metropolitan University Business School, and an Extraordinary Research Scientist at the Tourism Research in Economic Environs & Society at the North-West University in South Africa. Prior to joining the Manchester Metropolitan University, he was a senior lecturer at the Namibia Business School, University of Namibia. He also taught at the International University of Management, Namibia University of Science and Technology, and Harare Polytechnic. He holds a PhD from North-West University, South Africa. His research interests include higher education and information technologies, and travel behaviour in distressed economies. He serves on the editorial board of the Tourism Review as the Assistant Editor Communications and the Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights. The journals are published by Emerald Publishing. Faith C. Zengeni  is a Sociologist working as a lecturer in the department of Community Studies at Midlands State University. She is pursuing a PhD in Industrial and Economic Sociology at Rhodes University. Her research interests include organisational change, gender and the workplace and child-based social policies. Zibanai  Zhou  is the Head of the Department of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure Sciences at Midlands State University, Zimbabwe. His main research interests span Tourism management, destination marketing, event tourism and community-based tourism. Itai Zviyita  holds Master of Journalism and Media Technology, as well as the Bachelor of Communication (Hons) from the Namibia University of Science and Technology. She also graduated from the Zimbabwe Open University with a BA in Media Studies. Itai is a freelance Public Relations Practitioner and a registered member of Public Relations Institute of Southern Africa (PRISA). An emerging scholar, Itai is passionate about research in journalism studies.

Abbreviations

CBT CEDAW CRPD LGBTQ+ LNOB MMDs PWDs SDGs UN UNWTO WEF WTTC WWDs ZTA

Community-based tourism Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer/questioning, asexual. Leaving no one behind Men with disabilities People with disabilities Sustainable Development Goals United Nations United Nations World Tourism Organisation World Economic Forum World Travel and Tourism Council Women with disabilities Zimbabwe Tourism Authority

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List of Figures

Fig. 3.1

The Intersectionality Model: Gender, Disability and Tourism. Source: Author 66 Fig. 5.1 PRISMA chart for data retrieval. Source: Authors 94 Fig. 5.2 Word cloud. Source: Authors 95 Fig. 5.3 Publication trends. Source: Authors 96 Fig. 5.4 Geographical locations of gender and social identities in tourism research. Source: Authors 97 Fig. 5.5 Research design. Source: Authors 97 Fig. 5.6 Literature clusters based on bibliographic coupling. Source: Authors98 Fig. 14.1 Accessible tourism. (Source: Buhalis and Darcy (2010)) 290

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 6.1 Table 7.1 Table 9.1 Table 11.1 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 13.4 Table 13.5 Table 13.6 Table 15.1

Policies and legal instruments for tourism sector and PWDs in Zimbabwe and year of establishment 40 National documents selected for analysis 55 Overview of empirical studies on gender and disability inclusion challenges within community-based tourism in selected African countries 75 Most influential tourism journals 96 Literature clusters by major theme of study 98 Literature clusters by the purpose of the study 98 Literature clusters by the outcome of the study 99 Future research questions 105 Profile of interviewees 121 Key informant interviewees’ profile 144 Participants’ profile 182 Participants’ demographic aspects 218 Attention through newspaper editions 266 Attention through frequency of stories published 267 Attention through sources 269 Attention through placement of stories 270 Horizontal representation of gender in PWD and tourism stories272 Framing of issues about PWDs 275 Participants’ profile 318

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CHAPTER 1

Situating Gender and Disability in Tourism Scholarship in Africa: An Introduction to Intersectional Perspectives Erisher Woyo

and Hellen Venganai

Introduction Poverty and inequalities remain key challenges in Africa’s development (Folarin & Adeniyi, 2020; Woyo, 2020). Most recent data places Africa as the second most unequal continent in the world (Seery et  al., 2019). Assessing how tourism development is contributing to transformative equality is critical. The notion of transformative equality emphasises real change which should involve removing barriers hindering inclusion and implementing progressive measures aimed at addressing asymmetrical power relations in various areas and sectors based on gender (Degener, 2017). From this E. Woyo (*) Business School, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK e-mail: [email protected] H. Venganai Faculty of Social and Gender Transformative Sciences, Women’s University in Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_1

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perspective, and in the context of tourism development, it is imperative to raise questions about (and implications of) the models of disability that are guiding the legal or policy framework of tourist destinations, how (and if) they have evolved, and whether gender has been integrated into disability policies (Pinto, 2011). Tourism’s economic development in Africa is important due to its contribution to employment creation, poverty reduction and gross domestic product (Ofori et al., 2022; Woyo & Slabbert, 2019). Central to this have been the aspects of gender, disability inclusion and social justice which emanate from human rights approaches to development. This approach to development is increasingly gaining currency in informing developmental policies among countries (Engström et  al., 2022). Consequently, there have been several human rights instruments that have been formulated and are being implemented to respond to societal and economic injustices globally (Engström et al., 2022). Critical to this book is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) aimed at addressing sexism in the context of women’s rights, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) aimed at addressing ableism (Degener, 2017) and framed within disability rights. Prior to the CRPD, policies targeting PWDs were designed from the perspectives of medical and welfare models of disability which respectively constructed PWDs as sick and objects of charity. However, the CRPD, borrowing from the social model of disability, reframed PWDs as rights holders who should enjoy all human rights like any other human being, even though they may require special needs (Engström et  al., 2022; Harnacke, 2013; Pinto, 2011). Series (2020, p. 72) argues that CRPD “enshrines key tenets of contemporary disability scholarship and activism”, thus, making it “the most complex human rights treaty ever drafted” (Conte, 2016, p. 331). Even more significant, CRPD recognises the gendered challenges that could expose women with disabilities (WWD) to more systemic oppression. It specifically spells out the rights of women with disabilities in Article 6 while emphasising equality between men and women with disabilities, thereby facilitating a gendered analysis of disability experiences (Kayess et  al., 2014). This also shows that the Convention has been critical in bringing out strongly the intersectionality perspective (Conte, 2016; Degener, 2017; Quinn, 2016) by recognising in its preamble that persons with disabilities (PWDs) may be subjected to “multiple or aggravated forms of discrimination” (Kirichenko & Król, 2022).

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CEDAW on the other hand, while regarded as the main international instrument providing a benchmark for attaining gender equality in all aspects of life, makes no explicit reference to women with disabilities (Kayess et  al., 2014). Nonetheless, the United Nations’ Agenda 2030 reinforces both conventions through Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that call for governments’ commitment to gender equality (SDG 5) and disability inclusion in addressing poverty (SDG1). Gender, as “the social significance that sex assumes within a given culture” (Butler, 1993, p.  5), is a critical frontier issue in the sociological study of tourism (Cohen & Cohen, 2019; Nunkoo et al., 2020; Woyo & Venganai, 2022) and has been recognised as important in informing tourism development (Nguyen, 2022; Nunkoo et al., 2020). For a long time, tourism has also been identified as a tool for promoting gender equality and empowerment (Gibson, 2001; Nguyen, 2021; Tran & Walter, 2014; Zhang & Zhang, 2021). Some argue that through tourism, the status of women has been positively impacted (Cole, 2018) through employment, income generation, education and improved social status (Alrwajfah et al., 2020; Nguyen, 2022). This is because tourism remains one of the global economic sectors that employ more women (Baum, 2013; Jackman, 2022; UNWTO, 2019), especially in roles that require interpersonal skills (Ramchurjee & Paktin, 2011; UNWTO, 2019). There is, however, an ongoing debate regarding the extent to which tourism has been contributing towards gender inequality and women empowerment in line with Agenda 2030 (Jackman, 2022). While noting that the tourism industry has created economic opportunities for women, others argue that society’s dominant culture still impedes women from obtaining all the benefits linked to tourism (Gil Arroyo et al., 2019), especially in patriarchal African cultures (Musavengane et al., 2019; Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). In essence, the sector has remained highly gendered (Ferguson, 2011; Morgan & Pritchard, 2019; Nunkoo et al., 2020; Woyo & Venganai, 2022), and characterised by gender segregation (Hutchings et  al., 2020) and widening gender inequalities (Ferguson & Alarcon, 2015; Nguyen, 2022; Santero-Sanchez et al., 2015). This is seen in the under-representation of women in leadership positions, gender gaps in job recruitment, remuneration, employee development, entrepreneurship and access to capital and other resources (Cuberes et al., 2019; International Labour Office, 2016; Morsy, 2020; Seguino, 2016; Nguyen, 2022; Zhang & Zhang, 2020). Furthermore, women are oversubscribed in low-level positions and part-time and seasonal employment where their gender roles

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are easily reproduced (Genç, 2018). This suggests a mixture of empowerment and exploitation simultaneously. To make things worse, there is an indication that these existing gender gaps are far from closing (World Economic Forum, 2020) despite global commitments to deal with inequality (Nguyen, 2022). Often these gender inequalities are perpetuated through the influence of the level of development, poor legal framework, flawed macroeconomic policy, trade and religion (Gouda & Potrafke, 2016; Schnabel, 2016; UNWTO, 2019; Wamboye & Seguino, 2015; World Economic Forum, 2020). From this gloomy perspective, there is no doubt that a focus on understanding gender dynamics in tourism is important for advancing SDGs. Women are however not the only group that experience inequalities within tourism. PWDs, just like women, are also faced with several challenges, especially in developing countries, which perpetuate their exclusion in tourism development. PWDs form part of underrepresented populations in society and tourism, in the same way, people of colour and LGBTIQA+ are (Vermiglio et al., 2022). Tourism tends to overlook or ostracise these populations due to their social-economic status, ethnicity, gender, sexuality and ability (Darcy et al., 2020). PWDs are often exposed to excessive levels of poverty and limited access to education, health and labour (De Pascale et al., 2022). Furthermore, PWDs, especially females, are also underrepresented, especially in decision-making and political participation (De Pascale et  al., 2022; UN, 2019; Vermiglio et  al., 2022). Additionally, tourism is known to commodify the beauty and physical attractiveness of female front office employees (Basnyat et  al., 2021). Though it feeds into stereotypical representations of employees in specific tourism departments, this implies that PWDs are unlikely to be unemployed in front office job roles because their physical appearance may not fit into these stereotypes. This lack of inclusivity often results in inequitable treatment and makes them be unheard voices, especially in the tourism supply aspects. However, despite being an underrepresented population, PWDs are also considered to be part of a growing tourism market that makes a significant economic contribution to the wider tourism industry (Benjamin et  al., 2021; Vermiglio et  al., 2022). PWDs are over 1 billion globally, which is 15% of the world’s population (World Health Organization, 2019). In this view, there is a need for more research to generate insights, into how tourism could be sustainably developed to achieve SDG 5 which seeks to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” and

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underscores the importance of overcoming gender and disability-based disparities. Consequently, the need for tourism to be more inclusive and ensure that gender (Scheyvens & Hughes, 2019; Zhang & Zhang, 2020) and disability gaps are addressed cannot be overemphasised. Equality, equity and diversity become relevant principles that can be used to promote the participation and inclusion of the most vulnerable groups of people in a tourism development context. Inclusion is a very critical element for sustainable development and tourism competitiveness of destinations. The normative assumptions of who is a tourist (Cohen, 1974; McCabe, 2005), and who can provide access, or benefit from tourism services (Leiper, 1990), often contribute to how the tourism spaces are or should be configured. These representations find their way into the various media, a theme that was explored in this book. It is uncontested that the media plays a critical role in tourism development either through reaffirming or challenging stereotypical representations of tourism spaces and bodies (Padovani & Ross, 2019). Furthermore, the media, with its agenda-­setting power, can be instrumental in ensuring that the intersection of gender and disability issues is mainstreamed in tourism policy and practice (Peta, 2017; Ytre-Arne, 2019). Doing so is critical in helping policymakers to identify and address how legislative provisions and policies are addressing the inequalities that are experienced by social groups at the intersection of gender and disability in tourism. However, in most instances, the representation or coverage of women and PWDs in tourism promotional materials perpetuate rather than contest their stereotyping, objectification, othering and invisibility (Alderman, 2013; Benjamin et al., 2021; Cloquet et al., 2018; Rydzik et al., 2021; Benjamin et al., 2021). Therefore, policymakers, destination managers and practitioners cannot address marginalised people such as women and PWDs in tourism development through this lack of inclusivity, as this generally worsens their marginalisation and under-representation (Benjamin et al., 2021). This book provides context-specific insights regarding the theorisation, conceptualisation and contextualisation of the intersecting of gender, disability and tourism from several African countries. It is critical to highlight that the empirical research contained in this book was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Like other shocks, the COVID-19 pandemic presented other intersectional dynamics emanating from the preventive measures that were implemented in many countries across the globe. The tourism industry was the most affected economic sector due to lockdowns

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and travel restrictions (Zenker & Kock, 2020). African tourist destinations in particular were severely affected given that they are so dependent on international tourism (Woyo, 2021). The impacts of COVID-19, which were also felt by PWDs, and women pushed these groups of people into further social exclusion as evidenced by some chapters in this book that unravelled how COVID-19 worsened the livelihoods of those found at the intersections of gender and disability. This has been identified to be particularly so for women with disabilities, as they navigated informal tourism activities to feed their families and livelihoods. A discussion of the theoretical frameworks underpinning this book follows below, after which we highlight the state of research around gender and disability within tourism. The chapter ends by providing a synopsis of the remaining chapters contained in this book.

Feminist Theorising of Intersectionality and Agency in Gender and Disability Tourism Research Though feminism has been instrumental in promoting equality and social justice, Figueroa-Domecq et  al. (2020) argue that its application in the critical inquiry of gender (and disability) in tourism literature is relatively new and limited. This is despite observations that “tourism processes are gendered in their construction, presentation, and consumption in multifaceted ways; gendered societies shape gendered tourism practices, which in turn shore up those gendered societies” (Pritchard, 2014, p. 314). This book attempts to address this theoretical gap, by engaging with critical feminist insights that can be used to enhance inclusivity and equality within tourism policy and practice. It is worth noting that critical versions of feminism have become more concerned with multiple identities which “emphasises the diversity of women’s voices, standpoints, and experiences—including those of women with disabilities” (Garland-Thomson, 2005, p. 1560). In the absence of African feminist theorising of gender and disability in a tourism context, we particularly draw inspiration from poststructuralist feminist ideas which are against essentialist and stereotypical representations of gender and other social categories (Brickell, 2006). To further unpack this, we refer to the illuminating contributions from Judith Butler and Chandra Mohanty who critique earlier feminist theorists for socially constructing women as a homogenous category which is universally

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oppressed. Instead, they highlight the diversity and multiplicity of women’s identities and experiences. In Gender Trouble, Butler (1999, p. 19) points out that: [T]he category of “women” is normative and exclusionary and is invoked with the unmarked dimensions of class and racial privilege intact. In other words, the insistence upon the coherence and unity of the category of women has effectively refused the multiplicity of cultural, social, and political intersections in which the concrete array of “women” is constructed.

In her influential essay, Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses, Mohanty (1988, p. 65), like Butler (1999), also problematises the homogenisation of women’s experiences by noting that, “the discursively consensual homogeneity of ‘women’ as a group is mistaken for the historically specific material reality of groups of women”. While universalising the experience of women has been supported by other feminists for political reasons, Mohanty (1988, p.  69) argues that treating women as a unified group “is to deny the specificities of their daily existence” (Mohanty, 1988, p. 69). While both scholars deconstruct the category of women, Butler (1999) goes further to provide a critique of binary constructions of gender which are reduced to hegemonic identities projected only in terms of heterosexual male-female experiences with little attention to non-binary identities. In Bodies that Matter, Butler (1993, p. 93) points to the “normative frameworks of compulsory heterosexuality that operate through the naturalization and reification of heterosexist norms”. This reproduces binaries between what is socially constructed as a ‘normal’ body against one that is supposedly ‘abnormal’. This binary is problematic especially because the “normal” category becomes synonymous with privilege (Garland-­ Thomson, 2005). The effect is the creation of gender hierarchies, and at the very extreme, the erasure of non-conforming identities, which ultimately renders such bodies invisible. When we consider the argument that “the construction of gender operates through exclusionary means” (Butler, 1993, p.  8), heterosexual hegemony thus affects those who do not conform to binary principles as they experience structural oppression and systematically institutionalised inequities (Kunz, 2019). Within the same analytical gaze, we draw some insights from feminist disability perspectives which problematise the normative negative

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stereotyping of PWDs. Garland-Thomson (2005, p.  1557) summarises the feminist disability perspective as one that: [U]nderstands disability as a system of exclusions that stigmatizes human differences. Second, it uncovers communities and identities that the bodies we consider disabled have produced. Third, it reveals discriminatory attitudes and practices directed at those bodies. Fourth, it exposes disability as a social category of analysis. Fifth, it frames disability as an effect of power relations. Feminist disability studies show that disability— similar to race and gender—is a system of representation that marks bodies as subordinate, rather than an essential property of bodies that supposedly have something wrong with them.

Just like poststructuralist feminism, a critical feminist disability approach also challenges the binary representations of ‘normal people’ and PWDs, where the former enjoys the privilege of socially constructed normalcy, while the latter are all pathologised, “collectively imagined as defective and excluded from an equal place in the social order” despite having physical, emotional and mental differences (Garland-Thomson, 2005, p. 1560). It is therefore not only limiting but erroneous to treat gender, sexuality, or disability as simply descriptive categories (i.e., to explain sex and bodily differences) rather than productive because the social construction of these identities has material consequences (Butler, 1993). Contextualising this within tourism research and practice leads to Butler’s (1993, p. 16) question about “what qualifies as a viable body” or which are the bodies that matter? Situating this in the context of rights and exclusions, it becomes imperative to direct attention to the “dismissed voices and misrepresented experiences” (Garland-Thomson (2005, p. 1557)). In this book, we find these critical feminist viewpoints useful in understanding how different identities within the category of women, and other social categories such as PWD and LGBTQ can shape their varied experiences in the tourism field as well as expose the complex workings of gender power relations. We can refer here to discussions about entrepreneurship in tourism and who is constructed normatively as an entrepreneur. According to Figueroa-Domecq et al. (2020), poststructuralist feminists would question the utilisation of gender as a variable as well as the way, and by whom, ‘successful’ entrepreneurship is defined. The same authors observe that men often dominate as successful entrepreneurial role

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models. However, a bigger concern is how inclusiveness in tourism entrepreneurship is perceived within a neoliberal framework. The limitation of this framework is seen in the suggestion that “any individual possesses the potential to generate entrepreneurial success—so long as they acquire the narrowly conceptualised, and essentialised prescribed skill set (for example, networking skills)” (Figueroa-Domecq et al., 2020, p. 3). This represents a very narrow frame of lived experiences of various categories of people which does not take into consideration their geographical or social context as well as their multiple identification categories. Poststructuralist feminist and critical feminist disability approaches, on the other hand, resonate with intersectionality, which is the main analytical framework guiding the chapters in this book. Intersectionality is a concept that draws from critical race and feminist theoretical frames (Colley et al., 2022; Crenshaw, 1989) and has gained momentum since being coined by Kimberle Crenshaw in the 1980s. Not only has it become an important primary analytical tool for theorising identity and oppression within gender studies, but its influence has extended to other disciplines outside feminism, including tourism and hospitality management. Intersectionality refers to “the interaction between gender, race and other categories of difference in individual lives, social practices, institutional arrangements and cultural ideologies and the outcomes of these interactions in terms of power” (Davis, 2008, p. 68). It, therefore, provides “concurrent analyses of multiple, intersecting and interacting sources of subordination or oppression” (Denis, 2008, p. 677), for instance, how aspects of race, class and sexual subordination are intimately intertwined (Crenshaw, 1989). Therefore, an intersectionality framework redirects attention to how gender as an analytical category should be understood in terms of its interaction with other social categories, thus rejecting the overall categorisation of people based on gender (Lumby, 2011). In doing so, it exposes the circumstances in which individuals could be experiencing the effects of their social roles that are often founded on mutually intersecting identities, not from a separative cumulative standing, but as linked and simultaneous intersections (Holvino, 2010). Furthermore, it enables people to recognise various identities and differences among members that could naturally be presumed to be homogeneous. Due to its multifaceted nature, intersectionality has been conceptualised using several different models over the years ranging from Patricia Hill Collins’ “matrix of domination”, Francis Beale’s concept of “double

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jeopardy” to Deborah King’s “multiple jeopardies” (Lutz et  al., 2011, p. 3). One can argue that these conceptualisations did not bring any new insights, but only served to cement the relevance of Crenshaw’s intersectionality ideas. At the centre of the intersectionality, frame is how people positioned at the intersection of disadvantage or marginalisation (for instance, women with disabilities discussed in this book) experience inequalities that are constitutive of multiple social categories and factors which do not operate in isolation (Colley et al., 2022; Desbiolles, 2020). Several possibilities exist for research to apply intersectionality in investigating constructs of gender and disability, in “critical and reflective ways” (Henderson & Gibson, 2013, p. 129) beyond essentialism or simplified reasoning of inequalities (Desbiolles, 2020; Henderson & Gibson, 2013; Mooney, 2018). Past studies in tourism note that applying intersectionality theory is imperative in shifting the way race, gender and other forms of identities are investigated (Kivel & Johnson, 2009). For Lumby (2011, p. 2), the major contribution of intersectionality lies in “destabilizing representation in focused research” which has for long been interested in women’s numerical representation across various sectors as compared to their male counterparts. Intersectionality analysis has led to a shift from feminist research based on quantitative methodology towards qualitative approaches which are said to produce more rich data for better analysis of gender (Lumby, 2011). While the numerical representation of women and men remains important in measuring gender equality, this does not help in providing a deeper understanding of the social factors behind the figures, nor the different experiences among women in their diversity. In view of this, intersectionality can be useful “in further examining the social context of women’s leisure, developing methods to examine oppression and power, discovering new knowledge, and taking action to address social justice and change” (Henderson & Gibson, 2013, p.  129). Nonetheless, the operationalisation of intersectionality remains a challenge in academic research (Choo & Ferree, 2010; Haschemi Yekani & Nowicka, 2022). Haschemi Yekani and Nowicka (2022, p. 2) argue that “many intersectional research designs continue to use gender, race and class in a simplistic manner, and risk failing to address complex and dynamics of relationships between groups as well as multiple differences within them which are at times tacit and hard to name”. This book takes the perspective that research that explores one aspect, say gender, and leaving out disability is not very effective in dealing with multi-pronged challenges that women and PWDs face. Mooney (2018,

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p. 175) argues that doing so means that the research is “seeing one piece of the complex puzzle—the other pieces may be missing”. When this happens, it “creates a form of political essentialism in which only one difference is held to make a difference at any time” (Quinlan & Bates, 2009, p. 49). Swartz (2014) argues that this has been one of the numerous challenges affecting disability research in Africa. PWDs are among the most marginalised groups facing more poverty and social exclusion (Abualghaib et  al., 2019). While PWDs are often represented as a homogenous category, there is a need to pay attention to their gendered differences and experiences to generate nuanced insights that could inform policy development effectively. Existing disability disaggregated data for instance show that statistically there are more women with disabilities (WWDs) than men with disabilities (MWDs), while in some country contexts, “the employment gap for adult men with and without disabilities is twice the gap between adult women with and without disabilities” (Abualghaib et al., 2019, p. 7). Such research data necessitates interventions and policies that specifically target women with disabilities since they experience exclusion at the intersection of disability and gender. Given that previous research has been “reproducing unhelpful stereotypes” (Swartz & Marchetti-Mercer, 2018, p.  482) through the “just-­ extract-­women approach” (Mohamed & Shefer, 2015, p. 7), where gender is synonymously used with the term women (Woyo & Venganai, 2022), we encourage African scholars on gender and disability in tourism to go beyond the just-extract-women approach and the treatment of disability as a homogeneous construct. This is critical in dealing with essentialism, discrimination, biological determinism and stereotypes. Therefore, the use of intersectionality, especially from the interdisciplinary research perspective, could be beneficial for improving insights generated to enrich gender and disability debates in tourism. We argue in this book that interdisciplinary research is critical in helping researchers to be able to capitalise on the distinct features and expertise of the disciplines that are collaborating (Bowleg, 2017; Grzanka et al., 2017; Warner et al., 2016). Drawing from our different disciplines, Erisher Woyo, being from the business and management sciences, and Hellen Venganai, from the gender, development and sociology perspective, we demonstrated our intentionality in applying interdisciplinarity in utilising intersectionality theory in this book project by investigating gender and disability constructs in a tourism context.

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Politically, intersectionality has contributed to informing policy and gender frameworks almost globally (Davis, 2008). We see its influence in several UN conventions which reflect the notion of “intersectional discrimination” (Lutz et al., 2011, p. 7). In recent years, the concept is still being reflected in the leave no-one behind (LNOB) campaign which is central to Agenda 2030. The LNOB perspective is the latest recognition at a global level that there are groups of people who have overlapping disadvantages, and if not analysed properly, could be easily marginalised, and excluded from economic activities (Klasen & Fleurbaey, 2018). This is important global progress and commitment to equity and social justice. Watkins (2014, p.  2250) argues that the implementation of the LNOB should start with the identification of “who is left behind and by how much, and track the rate at which they are catching up”. Developing policies and frameworks to deal with challenges that are identified in studies that employ a monolithic view will result in the risk of further marginalisation because policies will not be effectively developed to deal with these inequalities (Crenshaw, 1991; Haschemi Yekani & Nowicka, 2022). As Mohanty (1988) also notes, development policies do not affect different women in the same way. Similarly, development policies may not affect PWDs uniformly. In contexts where favourable disability policies exist, it is critical to always question whether gender issues were considered in policy formulation (Pinto, 2011). It is also worth noting that PWDs are not heterogeneous only in terms of gender differences, but the nature of their disabilities also varies and shapes their individual experiences. Skarstad (2018), for instance, observes that a person with intellectual disabilities tends to be denied their rights because they are presented as too dependent to have the autonomy to enjoy the rights. Besides the differences in types of disabilities, PWDs may also occupy varying gender identities tied to their sexual orientation which can render them deviants and social outcasts. This sometimes leads to non-participation by PWDs in social and economic activities. However, as Eichhorn et al. (2013, p. 6) argues, “while this [non-participation] act might appear voluntary, it is the failure by service providers to create a fully accessible environment that might have led to the decision”. Therefore, critical feminist disability approaches call for the creation of a more equitable environment that accommodates instead of eliminates disability (Garland-Thomson, 2005). Moving beyond the conceptualisation of intersectional subordination, poststructuralist feminists also raise the notion of agency, especially women’s agency. Women’s agency is considered an important component of

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women’s empowerment (Mishra & Tripathi, 2011). The focus on women’s agency emerged from complex gender debates that troubled “simplistic registers of submission and patriarchy” (Mahmood, 2001, p. 205), a narrative associated with liberal and radical feminist perspectives. Within such paradigms, women are often socially constructed as always oppressed, passive and powerless, thus lacking agency. What constitutes agency is a contentious subject in feminist scholarship. Some define it as “people’s capacity to define their life choices and to pursue their own goals, even in the face of opposition from others” (Kabeer, 1999, p.  438). Others conceptualise agency as “the ability to formulate strategic choices, and to control resources and decisions that affect important life outcomes” (Mishra & Tripathi, 2011, p.  59). In most cases, women’s agency is framed in terms of openly resisting relations of domination. However, poststructuralist feminists argue that agency is “not simply as a synonym for resistance to relations of domination, but a capacity for action that specific relations of subordination create and enable” (Mahmood, 2001, p.  210). This is not to suggest that resistance is not an agency. Rather, poststructuralist feminists point to other dimensions of agency which may include subversion, bargaining, negotiation, manipulation and/or deception (Kabeer, 1999). Whereas liberal feminist perspectives socially construct women as always oppressed and powerless, poststructuralist feminists argue that “women are not mere victims of the production process, because they resist, challenge, and subvert the process at various junctures” (Mohanty, 1988, p. 73). This connects with Foucauldian arguments that power is not only restrictive but also productive. In terms of the social justice agenda, it is therefore critical to also understand how people exercise agency “because it is the human capacity for an agency that drives the processes of structural transformation” (Kabeer, 2021, p. 99). While most of the chapter contributions in this book highlight the marginalisation of women, PWDs and sexual minorities in tourism, a few chapters also engage more with people’s agency, by focusing on how these social categories in some instances redefine or counter the very discourses and practices that seek to regulate them (Butler, 1997) to demonstrate agency and resilience. Mutambara, Benhura and Kanyemba’s chapter, for instance, highlights the challenges faced by women with disabilities in informal tourism during the COVID-19 lockdowns but also highlights how these women exercised agency either by finding alternative sources of income or bribing officials to allow them to continue their businesses

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within a restricted environment. Another chapter that demonstrates the people’s agency was contributed by Mashumba, and it shows how black gay men in sex tourism have to constantly navigate their sex work business between constrained homophobic countries and liberal accommodative contexts. Furthermore, the chapter by Motseke and Engelbrecht also documents the agency exercised by black South African athletes with physical disabilities in advocating for inclusive sports tourism.

Gender, Disability and Tourism in Africa: The State of Knowledge There is a growing amount of interest in research on intersectionality, especially in gender studies (Desbiolles, 2020). The need to be more intentional in knowledge production and the application of the intersectionality theory has been underscored in previous studies (Chan & Henesy, 2018; Moradi & Grzanka, 2017; Warner, 2008). However, its application in tourism contexts has been largely limited, regardless of the growing calls to investigate the intersectionality of inequalities in various spheres of tourism (Henderson & Gibson, 2013; Powers et al., 2020). A search in top journals in tourism and gender such as Journal of Travel Research, Tourism Management, Annals of Tourism Research, Tourism Geographies, Current Issues in Tourism, Gender and Society, Sexualities, Journal of Gender Studies, Feminist Review and Journal of Bisexuality did not show any coverage of research that investigated the intersection of gender and disability in a tourism context in Africa. This suggests that gender and disability in tourism is an area of research that requires more attention to improve theory and practice from an African context. In cases where intersectionality perspectives have been investigated globally, such research applied a more Western-centric focus and narrative (Chambers, 2021; Figueroa-Domecq et  al., 2015). This tends to leave more critical perspectives of people that are marginalised due to their gender and disability, from an African context. The application of intersectionality in contexts that are beyond the West is critical in developing and formulating policies that could be effective and sustainable in dealing with inequalities of marginalised populations (Crenshaw, 1991). Previous studies argue that applying intersectionality in tourism research is critical in expanding the understanding that takes scholars and

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practitioners beyond essentialism or simplified reasoning of inequalities (Desbiolles, 2020; Henderson & Gibson, 2013; Mooney, 2018). As argued earlier, several studies have been framed from research designs that are simplistic and are thus weak in addressing complex and dynamic relations (Haschemi Yekani & Nowicka, 2022, p. 2). This implies that, inasmuch as intersectionality is useful in dealing with the challenges of essentialism, its operationalisation in academic research can be challenging (Choo & Ferree, 2010; Haschemi Yekani & Nowicka, 2022). Disability has been a marginalised area of study in tourism research (see Benjamin et al., 2021), more so, in an African context. However, scholars have begun exploring disability issues within tourism studies (e.g., Aitchison, 2009; Cloquet et  al., 2018; Darcy, 2002; Darcy & Taylor, 2009; Michopoulou et al., 2015; Nyanjom et al., 2018; Richards et al., 2010). Nonetheless, this is still an emerging area of research in the context of Africa (Mohamed & Shefer, 2015), especially in a tourism context where there are a handful of papers to date (Chikuta et al., 2017, 2019, 2021; Makuyana et al., 2020; Naami et al., 2012). Given that the focus of tourism scholarship in Africa is informed from the nature-based tourism perspective (Leonard et al., 2020), the area of disability in nature tourism has generated a few studies that have been published in journals such as Tourism Planning & Development (Chikuta et al., 2019, 2021), Disability & Society (Naami et  al., 2012) and the more regional focused African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure (Chikuta et al., 2017; Makuyana et  al., 2020). These studies, however, do not employ feminist theories, and the intersectionality perspective is missed in framing the theoretical discussion of such research, thus, adding to the existing view of PWDs from a monolithic and homogeneous perspective. The low disability scholarship in Africa has been attributed to various factors including problems of enumerating disability; over-reliance on insider accounts and the problems of representation in small case studies or using individuals to base policy; expectations which ignore the challenges of research in resource-poor environments and the politics of evidence which should be grounded in sound methodology (Swartz, 2014). These challenges often stem from the historical background of PWDs being people that have been excluded or pitied those without disabilities in their societies. While these challenges have been identified in a wider disability research context, we also argue that these challenges could be limiting the generation of research in Africa on the intersection of gender and disability studies in tourism. It is therefore not surprising that

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literature investigating the intersection of these elements is lacking, especially in developing countries in general and Africa in particular (Mohamed & Shefer, 2015) more so in a tourism context. In contexts where studies have investigated the two constructs, such work is criticised mostly for being mistaken as critical gendered analysis, and often fails to acknowledge gendered power dynamics (Emmett & Alant, 2006; Mohamed & Shefer, 2015). The continuous treatment of PWDs as a homogenous group in African tourism scholarship (Chikuta et al., 2017, 2019, 2021; Makuyana et al., 2020) further cements the view that the tourism discourse has largely been concerned with those who are capable of participating compared to those excluded from participating (Smith, 1987). Bramwell and Lane (2008, p. 2) argue that “while more researchers are beginning to look at the equality of tourism outcomes, there is still relatively little research on the wider issues of equity, fairness and social justice in tourism”. The intersections of gender, sexuality and disability also form part of contemporary scholarly debates (Milligan & Neufeldt, 2001; Santinele Martino, 2017), particularly in a predominantly homophobic African context (Mashumba, 2021; Reddy, 2002). Substantial research already shows how those who do not conform to normative sexual identities face marginalisation in development policies which are largely designed within a heteronormative environment (Gunkel, 2009; Mashumba, 2021; Reddy, 2002). The criminalisation of homosexuality in many African countries due to idealised masculinities and the influence of nationalist, cultural and religious discourses means that people who belong to the LGBTQ+ community are not free to openly enjoy the rights to sexuality (Epprecht, 2013; Mashumba, 2021; Nyanzi, 2013). If the marginalisation and policing of LGBTQ+ within sex tourism (or tourism spaces in general) is a concern, even more, worrying is the invisibility of LGBTQ+ PWDs in sex tourism research in Africa. This invisibility stems from the stereotypical representations of PWDs as asexual (Kim, 2011), in need of correction and protection from sexual abuse or exploitation, as embedded in medical models of disability (Ruiz, 2017; Santinele Martino, 2017). Resultantly, PWDs in the LGBTQ+ population suffer double oppression as they are denied their sexual rights because of the effects of intersections of their sexual orientation and disability. In terms of tourism scholarship, this book highlights the voices of African scholars contributing to African discourses and knowledge on gender, disability and tourism as well as positive tourism (Filep et al., 2016).

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The book emerges in a context where much of the fragmented tourism literature, either on gender or on disability in Africa, is Eurocentric and written by non-Africans mainly from Western Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand (Dangi & Jamal, 2016). Discourses that have been championed from a more Western perspective could be missing contextualised African lived realities of gender and disability. Thus, the book contributes towards decolonial scholarship by disrupting the political economy of knowledge production that has been largely Eurocentric. We argue in this book that context is so important, and there is a need to continuously produce knowledge in Africa using indigenous knowledge. We believe the book makes critical contributions to the Afrocentric literature on gender, disability and tourism as it adds an important tessera to the mosaic of international literature that has rarely considered the intersectional aspects of gender, disability and tourism in a unified manner. Most of the studies have investigated these aspects in a monolithic view (Mohamed & Shefer, 2015), specifically in the African tourism scholarship. While certainly of great interest to African tourist destinations and developing countries’ audiences, the discussions about the intersection of gender and disability in tourism are also quite pertinent to international tourist destination contexts. They help to understand the gendered needs of PWDs and generate strategies that enhance their inclusion. Furthermore, this book is among the few studies that have investigated the intersection of gender and disability from an understudied context. The book also departs from a largely essentialist neoliberal understanding of development, to engage with more critical indigenous orientations which bring forth a more nuanced analysis of equity and equality issues which, if addressed, could promote more sustainable and accessible tourism development in Africa. We do not consider this book to be the alpha and omega of African scholarship, but we believe it is a significant leap towards more knowledge creation in these contexts.

Structure of the Book This book is a product of multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary approaches with specific country case studies and empirical insight on how gender and disability in tourism in Africa intersect. The chapters are from a range of qualitative methodological approaches, using mostly case studies as a research design. It encompasses contributions from Botswana, Cameroon, Ghana, Namibia, Nigeria, Tunisia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. These

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chapters tap into the multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary perspectives and conceptual frameworks. This book manuscript can be viewed as a critical reflection on gender and disability challenges in a tourism context in Africa. One of the main arguments of this book is the need to analyse the challenges that women and PWDs face using the intersectionality lenses compared to monolithic views that dominate the investigation of these constructs, especially in mainstream tourism research. The volume analyses the discrimination against women and PWDs focusing on African tourist destinations. The main themes that emerged in this book include: Section 1: Policy Framework for Gender and Disability Transformative Tourism in Africa Considering the necessity of tourism in enhancing social and economic transformation and social justice for marginalised populations, the existence of a supportive legal environment is paramount. This section includes research which provides an analysis of existing laws and policies and how they are (in)sensitive to gender and disability inequalities within a tourism context. In this chapter, Woyo and Venganai demonstrate that although research exists separately on gender and disability, the fact that several studies investigate these constructs separately and from a homogeneous context means there is a need for more research using intersectionality perspectives, more so in the African tourism context. They situate the constructs of gender and disability in African tourism scholarship and show the gaps that exist in such literature. In Chap. 2, Munodawafa and Zengeni critique the tourism policy framework in Zimbabwe in relation to women with disabilities. Furthermore, Hindjou in Chap. 3 offers a critical analysis of Namibian policies and laws to ascertain whether they promote gender equality and disability inclusion in tourism employment. Both chapters reveal various gaps within the laws and policies which are a result of treating gender and disability as unrelated categories. Hence, while gender is mainstreamed in most policies, disability tends to be invisible. Equally, those policies that are attentive to disability issues ignore the gendered dimensions of disability. In Chap. 4 Akahome takes a systematic review of the gendered challenges facing women and persons with disabilities within community-based tourism in Africa. Chapters in this section also raise questions about the conceptual or theoretical models that inform the design and implementation of these policies which have implications on how women and persons with disability may be treated in various

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aspects of tourism. The chapters particularly offer critical insights that invite us to question dominant ideas about gender and disability that are reproduced in tourism and related policies. Section 2: Researching Gender, Disability and Sustainable Development in Africa The chapters in this section are framed within sustainable development discourses which should influence research, development and policy interventions in tourism. Rehman, Jaziri and Bashir in Chap. 5 provide an overview of existing tourism research in the African continent and the extent to which this scholarship reflects the sustainable development agenda as well as intersectionality perspectives. The chapter points to the research gaps which should shape future research. Furthermore, Shereni in Chap. 6 offers reflections on the nexus between gender and disability in the hospitality industry and tracking progress towards attaining gender equality (SDG5) equitably. The chapter engages with narratives from employees with and without disabilities to demonstrate the multiple challenges that women with disabilities face in the hospitality industry due to the intersectional impact of their disability and gender, which poses a threat to the attainment of SDGs including poverty reduction. This is also echoed in Chap. 7 where Zhou and Chibaya show that despite the significant progress that has been made in promoting gender equality through ensuring increased women representation at various levels in the tourism industry, the goal to include persons with disabilities in tourism development remains a mirage. Section 3: Questioning Inclusivity and Diversity in Tourism Development The section brings an array of research that raise questions about inclusivity in tourism from a diverse population perspective. In an African context where nationalist, cultural and religious discourses are used to police homosexuality, Chap. 8 by Lesedi Mashumba on male sex work is a critical contribution to sex tourism research, particularly in an African context. Mashumba explores how male sex workers in Botswana navigate between spaces that restrict or accommodate their sexuality. The chapter also points out the absence of sexuality research that interrogates the experiences and contributions of the LGBIQ+ people with disabilities to tourism development.

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This book was written during the COVID-19 pandemic, and thus investigates the intersection of gender, disability and the pandemic, where most tourist destinations felt the negative impact of the pandemic on their businesses. Chapter 9 by Mutambara, Benhura and Kanyemba illuminates how economic shocks and pandemics can have negative but lasting effects, especially for those who are already structurally marginalised and depend on tourism activities for their livelihoods. From their interactions with women with disabilities, the authors show how COVID-19 worsened the existing economic challenges faced by women with disabilities in the informal tourism businesses. They note how the nature of the disability could further deepen these challenges, in the process highlighting not only the heterogeneity of women (or people) with disabilities but also their lived realities. Furthermore, Mutambara and others focused on women with disabilities are tourism entrepreneurs. Loveline Ndi in Chap. 10 shifts attention to women (including those with disabilities) and their potential role as consumers of tourism services. Ndi’s chapter brings to light how gender norms and responsibilities, within a patriarchal society such as Cameroon, can limit their desire and ability to explore tourism services. Research that interrogates the various forms of tourism was important for this book. It is within this context, that Chap. 11 by Chitambara, Makandwa, Mupfiga and Dziva exposes the exclusion of persons with disabilities, older persons and youth from participating in and benefiting from community-based ecotourism initiatives, especially in the COVID-19 context. Sports tourism is another tourism dimension that is examined in this book. Motseke and Engelbrecht focus on how an understanding of the experiences of black South African athletes with physical disabilities can inform inclusive sport tourism practices in Chap. 12. While their chapter brings to the fore the challenges that these athletes face as they navigate their sports disciplines and competitions, it also engages with their agency by showing how they challenge structural and institutional barriers which are also racialised, in the process reshaping these sporting and tourism spaces in ways that enhance their inclusion. Section 4: Media, Empowerment and Inclusive Tourism The section offers a critical analysis of the role that the media plays or can play in promoting inclusive tourism for the empowerment of marginalised groups in society. Media representation of these marginalised groups in relation to tourism can influence whether and how they can participate.

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The chapters in this section offer an analysis of how the media is contributing to the attainment of SDGs which promote gender equality and inclusivity. Writing from a Ghanaian context, Appiah-Adjei, Mensah and Hammond revealed that Ghanaian newspapers still lag in their coverage of disability and gender equality issues for improved tourism development in Chap. 13. Similar sentiments are expressed in Chap. 14 by Mapudzi, Zviyita and Jennifer where they discussed aspects that the media could do to promote the creation of inclusive tourism spaces. Muperi in Chap. 15 discusses the role of media in creating inclusive gender and disability spaces in Zimbabwean tourism. She also highlights how the absence of disability-diverse newsrooms could explain the invisibility of disability-­ tourism coverage, while gender stereotypes are perpetuated in the coverage of gender equality issues.

Concluding Remarks In conclusion, we underscore the need for an interdisciplinary investigation of the constructs of gender and disability to enrich scientific knowledge production in tourism in Africa and similar contexts. The continued genderand disability-blind tourism industry need to be questioned. Furthermore, the investigation of gender and disability separately is not sustainable, and there is a need for an intersectional approach, that is more interdisciplinary to unpack the complexities that make women, and people with disabilities to be continuously discriminated against. This is critical in dealing with essentialism, discrimination, biological determinism and stereotypes. To this end, the authors suggest learning about gender, development studies, and tourism to assume another point of view and disrupt preconceived orders.

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SECTION I

Policy Framework for Gender and Disability Transformative Tourism in Africa

CHAPTER 2

Empowerment of Women with Disabilities in the Tourism Sector in Zimbabwe: A Review of Policies and Laws Musline Munodawafa and Faith C. Zengeni

Introduction Tourism plays a central role in the attainment of Agenda 2030 including ‘commitments to gender equality, women’s empowerment and the notion leaving no one behind’ (Hall, 2019a, 2019b). Due to its important role in the development of economies, there has been a growing amount of research focusing on various aspects of gender and tourism (Cole, 2018; Dashper et al., 2020; Eger et al., 2021; Mooney, 2020; Pritchard, 2018). However, the tourism industry has long been characterised as ‘exclusionary’ due to a lack of accessibility, particularly for people with disabilities (PWDs) (Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020, p. 1). Previous research shows that

M. Munodawafa (*) Faculty of Social and Gender Transformative Sciences, Women’s University in Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe F. C. Zengeni Sociology, Rhodes University, Rhodes, South Africa © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_2

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tourism facilities and products are often ill-prepared to meet the needs of PWDs (Islambekova, 2021), thus making them inaccessible. While women constitute the greatest portion of tourism labour, there are notable inequalities that women experience within the sector (Alarcon & Mullor, 2018) as tourism remains a gendered sector (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). These inequalities include the ‘feminisation of employment in tourism’ with most of the work performed by women considered an extension of domestic work which is often undervalued (Alarcon & Mullor, 2018, p.  15). Despite a growing focus of research on gender and tourism employment, and with no decrease in inequalities, there is a need for research to investigate the intersecting issues of gender, disability and tourism to develop tourism policies that can not only address gender disparities but also meet the specific needs of women with disabilities (WWDs). Research on tourism and women with disabilities (WWDs) in Zimbabwe and Africa is rather limited. To the best of our knowledge, this chapter is among the few to have investigated the notion of WWDs in a tourism context, and thus forms a firm foundation for building further research, not only in Africa but also in contexts where it is understudied. The empowerment of WWDs in Zimbabwe has been hampered by weak policies that are ‘highly gender insensitive’ (Mapuranga et  al., 2015, p.  3). Other aspects that have been identified to have affected the empowerment of WWDs include lack of access to basic needs, lack of access to sexual and reproductive health rights and gender-based violence (Dobransky & Hargittai, 2020; Lund, 2020). The situation regarding the challenges faced by women in tourism, especially WWDs, could have been worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic (Shakespeare et al., 2021). There is a general lack of studies that applies the intersectionality theory in mainstream tourism and hospitality research (Chambers, 2021; Mooney, 2017). Chambers and Rakic (2018, p. 1) also lament the lack of ‘coverage and theoretical depth to discussions of gender within tourism research’, and this could explain the lack of progress in achieving effective empowerment of women in tourism. This chapter argues that sustainable tourism development cannot be attained in the absence of gender equality and empowerment of all categories of women (Araújo-Vila et al., 2021). To achieve this, there is a need for research grounded in intersectionality ideas to avoid investigating women’s challenges in tourism as being homogeneous.

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The experiences of WWDs are different from non-disabled women because WWDs experience intersecting identities (Brigden & Ahluwalia, 2020) and the development of sustainable policies requires research to unpack the complexities of such inequalities from an intersectional perspective. Therefore, the intersectionality and critical disability theories were used in this study to recognise that exclusion from opportunities and resources is caused by a multiplicity of intersecting and compounding factors such as gender, disability status, race, ethnicity, age, class and nationality (Brigden & Ahluwalia, 2020). Based on this, there is a need for research to examine efforts by the government through the review of policies on WWDs and tourism in Zimbabwe to determine how they have been encouraging the empowerment of WWDs in the tourism sector.

Conceptualising Public Policy for Mainstreaming Gender and Disability Previous tourism research argued that tourism stakeholders should play an active role in the formation of public policy, the development of relevant legislation and the implementation of both policy and legislation (Gabel & Scott, 2011; Lawton et al., 2018). To review policies on gender, disability and tourism, this chapter is guided by the conceptualisation of public policy. The term public policy can be described as the ‘overall framework within which government actions are undertaken to achieve public goals’ (Cochran & Malone, 2014, p. 3). In a tourism context, public policy has been defined as whatever governments choose to do or not to with respect to tourism (Hall & Jenkins, 2004). Public policies are also a reflection of the values that are considered important and assigned the highest priority by society in any given decision-making process (Kraft & Furlong, 2018). This study also adopts the institutional model of public policy which focuses on the government as the ‘ultimate decision-making authority’ (Cochran & Malone, 2014, p. 4). While the ‘government’ may appear to exist as a single unit to the outsider, policy and legislation are devolved to a series of departments or ministries whose task is to look after the interests of its key stakeholder groups (McKercher, 2022). The model emphasises legal instruments such as the constitution and other judicial provisions as being instrumental in the policy formulation process (Anyebe, 2018). Government institutions are critical in providing three important elements of public policy, and these are legitimacy, universality and coercion (Dye, 2013).

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Literature Review Tourism through Gender Lens The patriarchal nature of many societies creates visible wider power imbalances between men and women through the kinds of work opportunities available and the distribution of benefits (Musavengane et  al., 2019). Gender refers to social relations between men and women (Guzura, 2017; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). It is a cross-cutting issue in the tourism industry particularly viewed as being constructed, legitimised, reproduced and reworked, which may affect the identities of tourists, locals and employees as well as gender identity (Jamhawi et  al., 2015). Broadly, the tourism industry remains highly gendered (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). This has been attributed to the existence of gendered societies that often shape gendered tourism policies, which in turn show up as those gendered societies (Musavengane et al., 2019; Pritchard, 2014). Based on this, it is clear that tourism and gender is an area of investigation that requires a deeper understanding of the relationship between the participation of a wide range of social actors, namely researchers, entrepreneurs, employees, tourists, public administration and non-governmental organisations (Pritchard, 2018; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). The review of the literature shows that gender disparities in the tourism industry are abound (Nguyen, 2022). These disparities negatively affect the general well-being of women through other social factors (Azad et al., 2020). This includes an increased workload for women in the ‘normal’ heterosexual household structure, unequal distribution of income among the household members and an absence of power and control over decision-­making at community and higher levels (Hall et al., 2015). The 2030 Agenda for sustainable development provides the global community with an opportunity to work towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address the rights and demands of WWDs as a matter of priority (Browne, 2017). Gender equality is viewed as one of the important sustainable development goals (SDGs) by the United Nations, and this is reflected in SDG 5. The SDG number 8 stresses the need to promote sustained and full productive employment and decent work for all and that tourism has an important role in achieving the commitments of the 2030 Agenda (Araújo-Vila et al., 2021). Based on this, there is a stream of research in Asia (Nassani et  al., 2019; Zhang & Zhang, 2020) that shows that tourism helps to improve gender

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quality. Regardless of this, most women are still being employed in lowpaying tourism jobs and suffer from a discriminating workplace (Carvalho et al., 2019). Women in the hotel, catering and tourism sectors earn less and less frequently occupy managerial posts than men (Hutchings et al., 2020). In countries like the Bahamas and Jamaica, women mainly work in lowerpaid jobs such as clerical and cleaning while men work as hotel and restaurant managers (Obadić, 2016). This fact, therefore, leads to a general fear among women who have the potential of taking up executive management positions to venture into an area where there are few role models to guide them on how to break the glass ceiling in the sector. Kattara (2005) identifies the barriers to women’s advancement in five-­star resorts in Egypt as gender discrimination, relationship at work, lack of mentor support and lack of network access. However, gender stereotypes negatively influence perceptions about women’s ability to hold leadership positions. Attitudes towards female managers have generally been negative as women are expected to adhere to their gender roles (Litwin et  al., 2019; Mkono, 2012; Musavengane et al., 2019). Cultural norms significantly affect women’s empowerment, yet women’s empowerment is a crucial component of sustainable tourism development (Abou-Shouk et al., 2021). These cultural norms thus affect the progression of female managers (Mkono, 2012). Past research has argued therefore for the need to institutionalise tourism policies and structures that are more ‘women-friendly’ (Mkono, 2012; Musavengane et al., 2019). To be effective, such policies need to acknowledge that the oppression of women is not a singular or a binary political relation (Stathis, 2014), but is better understood as constituted by multiple, converging or interwoven systems, supporting the need for investigating these aspects using the intersectional theory. Ferguson and Alarcon (2015) claim that the challenges inherent in gender mainstreaming processes by public policies worldwide are replicated and even exacerbated in the tourism sector. The mere presence of tourism policies will not provide equality by itself, as there are many cultural barriers that women need to overcome (Hutchings et  al., 2020; Ruhet, 2018). This knowledge can contribute to a greater understanding of reality, contributing to the construction of an almost non-existent theoretical and empirical body (Figueroa-Domecq & Segovia-Perez, 2020).

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Critical Disability and Intersectionality Theoretical Perspectives The chapter is guided by critical disability and intersectionality theories. The Critical Disability Theory is rooted in a critique of traditional discourses and assumptions of disability which serve to oppress persons with disabilities and infringe on their human rights (Gillies, 2014). The social construction of disability provides a lens through which society understands and interacts with individuals who behave in ways that are different from the norm (Dray, 2008). Chikuta (2015) notes that while impairment stems from “acts of God” disability is man-made. Thus, disability is not fundamentally a question of medicine or health, nor is it just an issue of sensitivity and comparison; rather it is a question of politics and power (lessness), power over and power to PWDs (Devlin & Pothier, 2006). Due to this, this model maintains that disability is a socially constructed barrier category used to ‘other’ and exclude PWDs leading to their systemic discrimination and oppression (Benjamin et  al., 2021). Benjamin et  al. (2021) states that the social model gives precedence to the importance of politics, empowerment, citizen and choice within the ‘disabled’ community. The theory thus involves scrutinising not bodily or mental impairments but the social norms that define attributes as impairments as well as the social conditions that concentrate stigmatised attributes in particular populations (Schalk, 2017). Violation of rights of PWDs leads to their loss of dignity sending them into more invisibility. Due to these circumstances, the tourism industry remains ‘inaccessible’ to the majority of PWDs (Benjamin et al., 2021). The Critical Disability Theory provides an emancipatory and developing discourse that attempts to transform the circumstances under which PWDs live through critical intersectional analysis (Goodley et al., 2017). The narrative of PWDs could change through the willingness of governments to accord rights, inclusion, monitoring and evaluation of implemented policies, laws and programmes. This chapter also draws from feminist intersectionality theory which argues that women’s lives are characterised by ‘multiple, intersecting systems of oppression’ (Carastathis, 2014, p. 304). Bowleg (2012) asserts that intersectionality as a theoretical framework stresses the importance of analysing multiple interlocking systems as the dynamics differ with individual experiences according to class, race and gender. Intersectionality theory highlights that women are not a homogenous group, and they do not experience gender inequalities in a similar manner (Sigle-Rushton, 2013).

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Crenshaw (1989) denotes that anti-racial and feminist movements would not be effective if they continued to perceive the struggles experienced by women as separate and not interconnected. Since then, intersectionality has been employed in various studies as a theoretical and methodological analytical tool to critically examine how power disparities based on institutionalised or socially constructed categories such as gender, ethnicity, race, class, sexuality, age and disability creates different types of inequalities (Lykke, 2010). While the intersectionality theory has been widely applied in mainstream gender research, its application in tourism research remains, rather limited (Mooney, 2017, 2020). This chapter argues that WWDs experience intersecting forms of oppression due to their gender and disability. However, the main concern for this chapter is unpacking whether existing tourism-related policies and laws in Zimbabwe reflect these intersecting vulnerabilities.

Methodology The study employed a qualitative methodology that followed document analysis to review existing policies and legislative Acts to see how they are enhancing the empowerment of WWDs in Zimbabwe. The selected policies used in this study were the only existing and specific policy documents that at least spoke on disability in Zimbabwe though not paying attention to the different cultural and gendered dynamics that exist within the disability population. Qualitative document analysis establishes that there is congruence between the worldview of the researchers, aims of the research and nature of the documents under analysis (Wood et al., 2020). Bowen (2009) asserts that document analysis draws multiple sources of evidence to seek convergence and corroboration using different data sources. Policy Document Analysis additionally enabled the researchers to understand the context and circumstances in which the analysed policies were created and evaluate whether they were serving their intended purposes. Document or policy analysis is an established and appealing qualitative research method (Cardno, 2018) because there is a lack of obtrusiveness and reactivity (Bowen, 2009). Karppinen and Moe (2012) further indicate that in traditional policy analysis, documents are usually considered primarily as sources. In reviewing selected policies and legal instruments, we followed the document analysis process outlined by Bowen (2009) which starts with skimming. This involved reading through documents and identifying

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Table 2.1  Policies and legal instruments for tourism sector and PWDs in Zimbabwe and year of establishment

Document The National Disability Policy National Tourism Recovery and Growth Strategy National Tourism Policy Tourism Act Disabled Persons Act Constitution of Zimbabwe

Year of establishment 2021 2020 2012 1996 1992 2013

Source: Authors

Tourism Sector documents, Disability specific policies and laws, as well as other laws that have implications on how the tourism industry should be configured (see Table 2.1). The content was then analysed and organised into categories relevant to our subject matter. Through our thematic analysis, themes such as vulnerability, exclusion and others were identified. A final analysis was carried out for certainty of our documents’ relevance to our research problem and purpose. In this review we sought to answer the following questions: • What are the existing tourism empowerment policies and laws to support WWDs in Zimbabwe? • What are the gaps and inconsistencies enshrined within policies and laws for WWDs? and • What are the implications of existing tourism, gender and disability policies for WWDs’ empowerment in Zimbabwe? To answer these questions, disability policies and other legal documents were analysed and these are summarised in Table 2.1.

Findings and Discussion This section presents the findings from the review of policies, programmes and the regulatory framework on WWDs and tourism in Zimbabwe. The findings of the chapter are presented based on the key research questions outlined above.

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Existing Tourism Empowerment Policies and Laws The study showed that the tourism industry in Zimbabwe is guided by the Zimbabwe Tourism Act [Chapter 14:20] 1996, the National Tourism Recovery and Growth Strategy (2020) and the National Tourism Policy (2012). In addition to specific policies within the tourism sector, the study also established that some policies and laws are favourable to the empowerment of WWDs such as the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 20) Act, 2013, Disabled Persons Act [Chapter 17:01] 1992 and the National Disability Policy (2021).

Gaps and Inconsistencies in Each Policy National Disability Policy (2021) A review of the national disability policy shows that it was designed from intersectionality and the social model of disability. The policy recognises the intersectionality of gender and disability which exacerbates the discrimination that WWDs face. Section 3.17.4 of the policy takes into cognisance, the fact that women and girls with disabilities are subject to multiple forms of discrimination. As discussed, intersectionality theory argues that women are not the same and they experience gender inequalities differently (Sigle-Rushton, 2013). The policy also highlights the need to guarantee the full development, advancement and empowerment of women and girls with disabilities. This is in line with critical disability theory which argues that the empowerment WWDs is central to the realisation of their full potential (Devlin & Pothier, 2006). However, the national disability policy does not refer to strategic sectors of the economy such as tourism, which have a critical role to play in the provision of employment opportunities that empower WWDs. Therefore, the national disability policy should have included key sectors such as tourism to provide economic opportunities for WWDs. National Tourism Recovery and Growth Strategy (2020) The National Tourism Recovery and Growth Strategy was initiated in 2020 to formulate strategies aimed at redressing tourism decline due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It further aims at transforming the tourism industry in Zimbabwe to be a five-billion-dollar industry by the year 2025.

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Whilst the strategy addresses concerns such as destination branding and image transformation, product development and digital marketing amongst other issues, the strategy does not address gender and disability concerns. As argued by McKercher (2022), tourism ministries tend to formulate policies that are not inclusive and focus only on product development or marketing. Although the strategy is recent and was developed after the government showed commitment to achieving SDGs, there is still a lack of political will by policymakers in making the industry more inclusive. The strategy does not mention WWDs as having a role to play in the recovery and growth strategy of the tourism sector, neither does the strategy refer to women nor PWDs. This shows the lack of commitment to dealing with women’s discrimination in tourism which could further perpetuate gender disparities in tourism as highlighted by Nguyen (2022). The study argues that national tourism strategies should be inclusive and address gender inequalities. Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 20) Act, 2013 Different sections of the Constitution refer to different aspects of disability and gender equality. Section 22, for example, states that the state will consider the specific necessities of persons living with all forms of disability as a priority in development plans. Section 56 provides the framework for eliminating discrimination based on disability and gender. Lastly, Section 83 notes that the State will take appropriate measures to ensure that PWDs realise their full mental and physical potential through self-reliance, and ability to participate in social, creative or recreational activities. While these provisions are essential to the empowerment of WWDs in the tourism sector, the alignment of the constitution with tourism policies and programmes has been inconsistent. For instance, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) which Zimbabwe ratified, specifically recognises the rights of WWDs, however, the Constitution does not make specific provisions for this doubly marginalised group (Dziva et  al., 2018). It does, however, provide for the empowerment of PWDs in general, which seems to reflect hegemonic assumptions that PWDs are a homogenous group. Nonetheless, the Constitution emphasises principles of gender equality and non-­ discrimination in Section 56. Despite these progressive constitutional provisions, women still occupy low-end jobs in tourism (Woyo & Venganai, 2022).

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National Tourism Policy (2012) Zimbabwe currently does not have an updated national policy on tourism. Though the National Tourism Policy is rather old, it is significant in that, it is the only policy with a strong tourism focus that recognised women as key players in the tourism sector. However, the weakness of the policy is that it does not specifically refer to WWDs which could limit their participation in the tourism sector. Sibanda (2015) mentions that despite the existence of reasonable disability legislative frameworks PWDs are still looked down upon and often marginalised particularly when it comes to employment, including tourism employment (Hutchings et  al., 2020). Since public policies are an indication of the values that are perceived as important and of priority as argued by (Kraft & Furlong, 2018), the absence of an updated policy may indirectly promote gender oppression and disability exclusion in the tourism sector. Zimbabwe Tourism Act [Chapter 14:20] 1996 The purpose of the Tourism Act is to establish the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority (ZTA), outline the appointment and functions of the ZTA board, create a Tourism Fund and state the provisions for the registration of facilities and other matters concerning tourism. A review of the Act shows that it does not address gender and disability concerns, indicating the need for tourism policies to be gender-sensitive and recognise the multiplicity of gender oppression experienced by WWDs (Mkono, 2012; Musavengane et  al., 2019; Stathis, 2014). The Act does not mention women or WWDs in any of the provisions, with implications that WWDs can even be discriminated against from being employed in government departments that are mandated in managing and marketing Zimbabwe as a tourist destination like the ZTA. The Tourism Act is not inclusive and does not make it mandatory for WWDs to be represented in any position, for instance, in the context of the ZTA, which could explain why they remain excluded. Patriarchal ideologies dominant within the Zimbabwean society create unequal power dynamics between women and men, denying women equal opportunities in the workplace (Musavengane et al., 2019), and this is reflected in policies and laws. The Tourism Act is also outdated and needs to be reviewed to be inclusive and sensitive to the needs of PWD and WWDs including creating an enabling environment for them to effectively participate in tourism to support global priorities and goals.

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Disabled Persons Act [Chapter 17:01] 1992 The Disabled Persons Act [Chapter 17:01] is gender neutral as it treats women and men with disabilities as a homogenous group. The Act does not mention women, men or gender concerns. It also does not make a specific reference to WWDs. Section 4 of the Act makes provision for the appointment of the National Disability Board, but does not make the representation of women or WWDs mandatory on the Board. SDG number 5 implores all member states to ensure the rights and demands of women and girls living with disabilities are addressed urgently. Section 7 of the Act provides for PWDs’ access to public premises, services and amenities. Such a provision encourages WWDs access to tourism facilities. Section 9 of the Act prohibits the discrimination of PWDs in employment. As such, WWDs benefit from this provision as they fall under the category of PWDs. SDG 8 requires member states to create decent work for all persons, and the tourism industry has a critical role to play in achieving this goal (Araújo-­ Vila et al., 2021). The Act needs to make specific provisions to address the intersecting drivers of inequalities that WWDs experience as discussed in the intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1989). The Disabled Persons Act must be aligned with international developments contained in the UNCRPD, SDGs 5 and 8.

Conclusion and Implications The findings of this study show that there are gaps in some policies and laws that guide the tourism industry in Zimbabwe, which could contribute to the systemic exclusion of WWDs. Several socio-cultural factors affect WWDs in Zimbabwe, mainly restricted participation due to negative cultural practices (Mudzingwa, 2017), and these seem to be reflected in policy formulation as WWDs continue to be excluded. These findings are agreeable with Nyaruwata and Nyaruwata (2013) who affirm that government policies have prioritised systematic training and support for women in the executive management of the tourism sector. As articulated by the critical disability theory, disability is a category used to systematically exclude PWDs even from empowerment opportunities. The Tourism Act neither mentions women at all, and hence, nor mandates the representation of WWDs in any employment positions in both public and private enterprises. This exclusion could be explained by the women’s cultural gender roles of being caregivers, mothers and wives, which are often perceived to be

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inappropriate for WWD (Nyevero et al., 2014). This results in the exclusion of WWDs, which can be deemed unconstitutional in Zimbabwe. The recent policy level development could provide a basis for increased attention to the discrimination, abuses and poverty that affects women and men with disabilities (SIDA, 2014). Drawing from intersectionality theory, this is yet another display of coinciding factors that further ‘disable’ WWDs. Secondly, the review indicates that while the Constitution of Zimbabwe does have specific sections that cater for women and talks about gender equality, it does not specifically talk about WWDs, thereby not mandating policies and laws for different sectors to specifically include them to deal with their multiple disadvantages. We argue in this chapter that WWDs are secluded from full participation in tourism due to several cultural aspects. For instance, it has been acknowledged in the literature that WWDs are generally secluded from family and community life (Mudzingwa, 2017). The exclusion of WWDs could be due to the cultural practices that make people with disabilities stay indoors and be restricted from interacting with community members, and this thinking could be influencing policymaking. Though in a different context, the findings of this study are consistent with previous research that concluded that the tourism policy framework is gender-blind (Pritchard & Morgan, 2017). Figueroa-Domecq and Segovia-Perez (2020: 251) argue that ‘tourism is an extremely important sector for women’ not only because of employment and entrepreneurship opportunities but also because of the ability to improve women’s wellness and leisure experiences. However, in this study, we found that policymakers do not seem to understand this view, as several policy documents including the National Tourism Policy and National Tourism Recovery and Growth Strategy do not allude to gender and disability at all. Therefore, gender-blind policies become detrimental to the empowerment of WWDs in tourism, as they further promote patriarchalism (Musavengane et al., 2019). Nyevero et  al., 2014 argue that both gender and disability are social constructs embedded within cultural, economic and political factors. The intersectionality of disability, culture and religion increases WWDs vulnerability to gender inequalities such as gender-based violence (Peta, 2017). Furthermore, cultural prejudices on gender and disability marginalise Zimbabwean WWDs in accessing education (Nyevero et al., 2014). Third, the Zimbabwe Tourism Act (1996) and the Disabled Persons Act (1992) are outdated and out of touch with current issues that affect WWDs. There is a need particularly for the Disabled Persons Act to be reviewed in

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line with the 2021 National Disability Policy, and this could facilitate the law to reflect an intersectional perspective and affirm the rights of PWDs. Doing so is critical in developing a tourism industry that is more accessible and inclusive (Benjamin et al., 2021). Currently, the Disabled Persons Act denies WWDs’ agency and the power to articulate their needs because it does not make it mandatory for hospitality and recreational facilities to employ WWDs where possible, and this further marginalises them in tourism employment. The concentration of women in low-skilled and low-paying jobs (Obadić, 2016) reveals a perpetuation of gender stereotypes and inequalities within the sector and could be explained by the policy inconsistencies that were found in this study. Owing to this, WWDs are faced with a further multiplicity of challenges for them to break into the sector due to their circumstances. The failure by policy and lawmakers to realise that WWDs form an even more marginalised group of PWDs have led to their limited participation in tourism employment and national women empowerment programmes. These findings validate The Critical Disability Theory assertion that people are ‘disabled’ by ableism. While this chapter focused on identifying gaps in tourism-related laws and policies from a gender and disability perspective, it is limited in that it did not interrogate the impact of these gaps in practice. Further empirical research could investigate the extent to which the tourism sector practices mirror provisions in the inclusive legal framework for the benefit of WWDs.

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Karppinen, K., & Moe, H. (2012). What we talk about when we talk about document analysis. Trends in communication policy research: New theories, methods and subjects (pp. 177–193). Kattara, H. (2005). Career challenges for female managers in Egyptian hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 17(3), 238–251. Kraft, M. E., & Furlong, F. R. (2018). Public policy analysis: Politics, analysis, and alternatives. Sage Publications, London. Lawton, T. C., Rajwani, T., & Minto, A. (2018). Why trade associations matter: Exploring function, meaning, and influence. Journal of Management Inquiry, 27(1), 5–9. Litwin, A., Ngan, H. F. B., & Atembe, R. (2019). Attitudes towards female managers in Austrian and Macau tourism industry. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 39, 1–8. Lund, E.  M. (2020). Interpersonal violence against people with disabilities: Additional concerns and considerations in the COVID-19 pandemic. Rehabilitation Psychology, 65(3), 199. Lykke, N. (2010). Feminist studies: A guide to intersectional theory, methodology and writing. Routledge. Mapuranga, B., Musodza, B., & Gandari, E. (2015). Empowerment challenges faced by women with disabilities in Zimbabwe. Developing Country Studies, 5(12). McKercher, B. (2022). The politics of tourism: The unsung role of trade associations in tourism policymaking. Tourism Management, 90, 104475. Mkono, M. (2012). Women in hotel management in Zimbabwe: Career ambitions, progression tactics, and career challenges. Tourismos, 7(2), 165–181. Mooney, S. (2017). Intersectionality unwrapped for hospitality and tourism researchers. Critical Tourism Studies Proceedings, 2017(1), 1–12. Mooney, S. K. (2020). Gender research in hospitality and tourism management: Time to change the guard. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(5), 1861–1879. https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJCHM-09-2019-0780 Mudzingwa, N. (2017). Double tragedy for women with disabilities in the Zimbabwean education system. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.42.2431 Musavengane, R., Tantoh, H. B., & Simatele, D. (2019). A comparative analysis of collaborative environmental management of natural resources in SubSaharan Africa: A study of Cameroon and South Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 54(4), 512–532. Nassani, A. A., Aldakhil, A. M., Abro, M. M. Q., Islam, T., & Zaman, K. (2019). The impact of tourism and finance on women empowerment. Journal of Policy Modeling, 41(2), 234–254. Nguyen, C. P. (2022). Tourism and gender (in) equality: Global evidence. Tourism Management Perspectives, 41, 100933.

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Nyaruwata, S., & Nyaruwata, L. T. (2013). Gender equity and executive management in tourism: Challenges in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. African Journal of Business Management, 7(21), 2059–2070. Nyevero, M., Esau, M., Nogget, M., Tawanda, M., & Tavuyanavo, C. (2014). Gender, disability and empowerment in institutions of higher learning in Zimbabwe. Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19(8), 01–07. Obadić, A. (2016). Gender discrimination and pay gap on tourism labor market. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering, 10(3), 812–817. Peta, C. (2017). Gender based violence: A “thorn” in the experiences of sexuality of women with disabilities in Zimbabwe. Sexuality and Disability, 35(3), 371–386. Pritchard, A. (2014). Gender and feminist perspectives in tourism research (pp. 314–324). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Tourism. Pritchard, A. (2018). Predicting the next decade of tourism gender research. Tourism Management Perspectives, 25, 144–146. Pritchard, A., & Morgan, N. (2017). Tourism’s lost leaders: Analysing gender and performance. Annals of Tourism Research, 63, 34–47. Ruhet, G.  E. N. Ç. (2018). The impact of tourism in the reduction of gender ̇ ̇ inequality. Trakya Üniversitesi Iktisadi ve Idari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 7(1), 20–35. Schalk, S. (2017). Critical disability studies as methodology. Laterality, 6(1), 1. Shakespeare, T., Ndagire, F., & Seketi, Q. E. (2021). Triple jeopardy: Disabled people and the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet, 397(10282), 1331–1333. Sibanda, P. (2015). Reviewing the models of disability within the frameworks for the empowerment of people with disabilities in Zimbabwe. Scientific Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 4(11), 217–228. SIDA. (2014). Disability rights in Zimbabwe. Accessed February 26, 2022, from https://cdn.sida.se/app/uploads/2021/05/07125820/rights-­of-­persons-­ with-­disabilities-­zimbabwe.pdf Sigle-Rushton, W. (2013). Intersectionality. In M. Evans & C. Williams (Eds.), Gender: The key concepts. Routledge key guides. Routledge. Stathis, A. (2014). The concept of intersectionality in feminist theory. Philosophy Compass, 9(5), 304–314. Wood, L. M., Sebar, B., & Vecchio, N. (2020). Application of rigour and credibility in qualitative document analysis: Lessons learnt from a case study. The Qualitative Report, 25(2), 456–470. Woyo, E., & Venganai, H. (2022). Gender and Tourism. In D.  Buhalis (Ed.), Encyclopedia of tourism management and marketing. Edward Elgar Publishing. Zhang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Tourism and gender equality: An Asian perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 85, 103067.

CHAPTER 3

Gender Equality and Disability Inclusion in Tourism Employment in Namibia Elsie Vezemburuka Hindjou

Introduction The ever-growing global tourism and hospitality industry is one of the primary drivers of the global economy’s gross domestic product (UNWTO, 2016; WTTC, 2021). In Namibia, the tourism sector is reported to be the fastest-growing industry (MEFT, 2019; Woyo & Amadhila, 2018), generating 11.1% of total employment in Namibia (WTTC, 2021). Furthermore, due to its contribution to employment generation, poverty reduction and rural development in Namibia, it has been identified in several policy documents as strategic for the economy (MEFT, 2019; Woyo, 2020). However, despite tourism’s significant contribution to global and national employment, there are noticeable gender gaps (Alarcón & Mullor, 2018; Hon & Gamor, 2021), and this casts tourism as a gendered industry (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). These gaps are more common among people with disabilities (PwDs) (Köseoglu et al., 2021) and are visibly higher in

E. V. Hindjou (*) Tourism and Hotel Management, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Meghalaya, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_3

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developing and emerging tourist destinations (Morwane et  al., 2021). This disparity is acknowledged in the literature as a critical driver in increasing poverty levels (Banks et  al., 2017), suggesting the need for a more nuanced understanding of the complexity of gender and disability gaps to generate insights that help tourist destinations to meet their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targets. Consequently, most developing destinations have a mammoth task and would need to work harder to alleviate poverty (SDG 1), and promote gender equality (SDG 5) and disability inclusion (SDGs 8, 10, 11). Globally, among the most documented inequalities is in hiring, promotion rates, pay for equal work, training and retraining, credit and access to other productive resources (Bediakon et al., 2022; Strah et al., 2022; UN, 2017). African women and girls with disabilities, in particular, carry multiple burdens of discrimination due to their age, gender and disability (Global Call to Action Against Poverty, 2021), which increase their vulnerability (UN, 2017) in a more patriarchal society (Musavengane et al., 2019; Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). Intersectionality exposes how individuals experience the effects of their social roles (founded on mutually intersecting identities) not as separate or cumulative but as linked and simultaneous intersections (Holvino, 2010). Though the intersectionality perspective of gender, race and work has been documented (Rosette et al., 2018; Trupp & Sunanta, 2017), it is more from a developed country context. The same cannot be said for the intersectionality perspective of gender, disability and tourism, from a developing country context, especially in countries that are considered to be very unequal such as Namibia (Woyo, 2020). While tourism is being used to fight against social inequality and poverty (Jackman, 2021; UNWTO, 2018; Woyo, 2020), efforts have not been consistent in enhancing the inclusion of marginalised people such as PWDs and women (Hon & Gamor, 2021; Köseoglu et al., 2021). This widened poverty and gender inequalities (Woyo & Venganai, 2022), more so during this ongoing COVID-19 pandemic (Henehan, 2020; WTTC, 2021). Therefore, understanding the intersectionality perspectives of gender and disability is essential for tourism managers and policymakers for the following reasons. The hospitality industry often has a high turnover rate, due to its extreme labour intensiveness (Piramanayagam & Seal, 2021). The negativity around tourism even worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, many scholars have suggested that disability inclusiveness is a promising employment strategy in response to the shrinking

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labour force facing the hospitality industry (Hui et al., 2021). This contributes to the business’s social sustainability and expands the financial benefits, as customers prefer disability-friendly hotels (Kuo & Kalargyrou, 2014). Based on this gap, this chapter examines the effectiveness of the national disability and gender equality policies and frameworks in shaping Namibian tourism employment.

Literature Review Tourism Employment: A Gender and Disability Perspective Tourism is one of the greatest creators of inclusive employment because it employs skilled and low-skilled people (UNWTO, 2018). However, despite being the largest contributor to global employment, tourism employment is negatively perceived due to low salaries, long working hours, and segregational and discriminatory practices, especially in terms of gender, ethnicity, age and disability (Hon & Gamor, 2021). Gender inequalities in tourism employment are often seen in hiring, promotion, pay rates, access to training and underrepresentation in decision-making (UN, 2017; UNWTO, 2010). Nonetheless, Zhang and Zhang (2021) put forward that tourism has a significant role in achieving the commitments at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Among the 17 SDGs, SDG5 is aimed at addressing gender equality and empowering all women and girls, while SDG 10 focuses on reducing inequalities within and among countries (UNWTO, 2018). Though studies focusing on the role of tourism development in Namibia on these SDGs exist (Woyo, 2020), such research has focused on understanding the risks that tourism poses for urban environments and its linkages to SDGs. Thus, extant research on tourism development in Namibia has been limited and has yet to investigate the intersectionality perspectives of gender and disability sufficiently. Sustainability in tourism cannot be achieved without decent work, gender equality (Alarcón & Mullor, 2018) and the inclusion of PWDs (Hon & Gamor, 2021). Thus, efforts should be seen among tourism industry stakeholders to address existing gender (Alarcón & Mullor, 2018) and disability (Köseoglu et  al., 2021) inequalities. This is more critical for tourist destinations such as Namibia which are considered to be unequal based on its Gini coefficient (Woyo, 2020). Recent studies seem to be pushing for the involvement of PWDs as tourism producers and

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consumers, although these have largely been from the Asian perspective (Luu, 2022) and European perspective (Happ & Bolla, 2022), with limited focus on Africa (Chikuta & Kabote, 2018). Nonetheless, the tourism sector has before it a colossal responsibility if it intends to promote quality, equality, inclusiveness and fairness in the employment it generates. The core of employment as a benefit of tourism should be decent employment promotion.

Methodology On the one hand, Namibia is ranked 6th in the Global Gender Gap Report of 2021 in terms of bridging the gap between women and men in economic opportunities, educational attainment, health and political empowerment measure (World Economic Forum, 2021). On the other hand, Namibia is considered to be an unequal country (Woyo, 2020). Furthermore, the stigmatisation, discrimination and limited access to employment opportunities for PwDs continue to persist in Namibia (UNV, 2020). These aspects make Namibia an interesting case study of enquiry for the intersectionality of gender and disability in a tourism context. A qualitative approach following a summative content analysis was used in this study. Content analysis is a research technique for making replicas and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use (Krippendorff, 2004). The summative content analysis starts with identifying and quantifying certain words or content in the text to understand the contextual use of the words or content (Shiva et  al., 2021). The terms (codes) identified to determine the promotion of gender equality in the documents were gender, sex, women and/female & men and/male. Similarly, the terms or phrases to determine disability inclusiveness of the documents selected were disability(ies), special needs and vulnerable group(s). Some documents may not have explicitly mentioned disability or gender, but these may have been inferred or implied. Hence, analysing relational terms or phrases was critical. The identified words in the documents were quantified by counting their occurrences and further analysed their context to determine their relation to the chapter’s aim. Content analysis was deemed fit for the study as it leads to an understanding of social reality or phenomenon through interpretation of the reality of verbal or written communicated materials (Shiva et  al., 2021). It is less time-consuming, flexible and, therefore, more

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efficient than other research methods, as it requires data selection instead of data collection (Bowen, 2009; Shiva et al., 2021). The study followed the process of document analysis adapted from Altheide (1996). The steps included setting inclusion criteria for documents, collecting documents (see Table  3.1), articulating key areas of analysis, coding, verification and analysis. The criteria used to select the documents were those national documents crucial for addressing poverty levels and are vital in providing the guiding framework for sustainable tourism growth and development in Namibia. It should be noted that there is a great deal of other national documents that did not make it to the analysis due to the inability to access such documents from the public domain (e.g., National Policy on Disability). Nevertheless, several documents deemed essential and relevant for responding to the study’s aim were reviewed and analysed to establish the extent to which they mainstreamed gender equality and disability inclusion. In total, eight national documents were collected and analysed. For consistency and reliability, the identified words, and phrases were counted five times for each document to verify if the number of occurrences would be the same every time. The researcher quantified and analysed the presence, meanings and relationships of relevant terms and phrases and then made inferences about gender equality promotion and disability inclusion. Each document was rated using a qualitative interval measurement scale. The study adopted the scale that was developed by Chichaya et al. (2018): Table 3.1  National documents selected for analysis Documents selected National Gender Equality Policy [NGEP] National Development Plan 5 [NDP 5] Harambee Prosperity Plan II [HPP II] National Poverty Reduction Action Programme [NPRAP] Namibian Labour Act National Tourism Policy [NTP] National Sustainable Tourism Growth and Development Strategy [NSTGDS] National Strategy on Sustainable Heritage Tourism Development & Employment Creation at Community Level [NSSHTDECCL] Source: Author

Year of adoption 2010 2017 2021 2001 2007 2008 2016 2020

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10—Substantial  =  Promotes gender equality/disability inclusion to a substantial extent. 4—Moderate = moderately promote gender equality/disability inclusion to a modest extent 1—Minimally  =  minimally moderately promote gender equality/disability inclusion only to a negligible extent 0—Not Moderate = does not promote gender equality/disability inclusion The higher the number of occurrences of the identified words and phrases within the relational context of the chapter’s aim, the more inclusive the document was deemed to be, and the fewer the occurrences of words and phrases, the less inclusive and intersectional the document is.

Findings of the Study The findings for each document for its inclusiveness of the two themes, gender equality and disability inclusion, are discussed in this section. Gender Equality and Disability Inclusiveness The Namibian government has shown its commitment to law reform by establishing institutions that facilitate the equality of the sexes to promote gender equality and empowerment of women through its national policies and legislations (GRN, 2004). Furthermore, in response to the continuing challenges, the gender equality line ministry reviewed the 1997 National Gender Policy in 2010. Similarly, the commitment to addressing the needs of PWDs is shown by passing an Act of Parliament, the National Disability Council Act, (No. 26 of 2004) and by the development of the National Policy on Disability of 1997. Additionally, the Namibian government ratified the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CPRD) in 2004 and endorsed the African Decade Plan of Action for Person with Disabilities in 2005. Additionally, the Namibian government is not only committed to filling its parliament seats with women but also committed to quiet a gender revolution through its “zebra system”, that is if a minister is a woman, the deputy will be a man and vice versa (O’Riordan, 2014). Thus, it is argued in this chapter that through inclusive gender and disability policies, there has been sustained progress in bridging the gap between men and women (WEF, 2021), even with tourism employment opportunities.

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Nonetheless, while Namibian policies and legal frameworks are in place, the implementation may not be optimal because of a lack of political will, thus making inclusive tourism development difficult. Despite an impressive gender and disability policy framework, PWDs in Namibia are documented as dissatisfied and frustrated with their livelihood experiences (Haidula, 2016; Sankwasa, 2015). The lack of political will to implement gender and disability policies shows a lack of accountability on part of policymakers, and this derails the achievement of sustainable tourism development which is crucial in helping Namibia achieve her Agenda 2030 targets. Furthermore, this finding shows that cultural dynamics could also be causing policymakers to lack the political will to implement gender and disability policies. For instance, Namibia still perceives disability as a welfare and charity case, than a human rights issue. This is regardless of the country being a signatory of CPRD. Haihambo and Lightfoot (2010) argue that due to socio-cultural dynamics that are rooted in supernatural causes of disability beliefs such as witchcraft, improper sexual relationships with relatives, punishment from God and curse from the ancestors. These perceptions could be negatively influencing the development and formulation of policies that are supportive of PwDs in Namibia. This skewed perception rooted in cultural beliefs could be a valid explanation for how PWDs continue to be discriminated in their participation in economic activities. Additionally, the shame and fear of being judged can lead to families hiding members with disabilities, which will impact the collection of data and also makes policy effectiveness to be limited. Without detailed disability data and knowledge of the challenges faced by PWDs, it is difficult for Namibia to be in a position to effectively implement the disability inclusion framework (Chibaya et al., 2021). Similarly, the tourism sector has shown a limited contribution to intersecting policy and disability in its several tourism policies. This has been argued in previous studies on tourism and sustainability as not being helpful for a tourist destination with so many structural inequalities, most of which were inherited from the apartheid regime (Woyo, 2020), and this can be attributed to the lack of accountability. It appears that the government has not adequately provided the means to be answerable to PWDs (Shumba & Moodley, 2018). Correspondingly, in Namibia, unemployment among PWDs stands at a record 39% compared to the national unemployment rate of 28% (Ikela, 2019). This can lead to a higher rate of poverty and increased dependency, and several risks that were identified in previous research (Woyo, 2020). Increased poverty and dependence

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further marginalise PWDs, and in most cases, women with disabilities, and this further causes inequalities to continue. These findings are consistent with past studies that argued that a lack of inclusivity could impede economic growth and development (Hakura et al., 2016). National Gender Equality Policy National and international legal instruments inform the guiding principles of the policy to promote gender equality, which the Namibian government has written, ratified and signed. This includes inter alia, the National Plan of Action, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Employment Equity Commission, the Affirmative Action (Employment) Act 28 of 1998, and the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development. These instruments provide for non-discrimination based on gender and encourage women’s empowerment in societies. As such, the overarching goal of the National Gender Policy is “to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of both female and male persons in Namibia” (MGECW, 2010, p. 3). The current policy has pushed for the reduction of gender inequalities by highlighting specific objectives for women empowerment, such as reducing and, eventually, eradicating poverty by improving access to and control of productive resources and activities for women. The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender, women, female, men, male and sex) in the policy appear more than 1065 times altogether. This indicates that the policy is to a substantial extent promoting gender equality. The National Planning Commission’s (NPC) Namibia National Human Development Report indicates a narrowed pay gap to 6.4% in 2018 compared to 20% in 2012 (NPC, 2019). However, women’s rights activists argue that the statistics are not an accurate representation of private sector employment (Ngatjiheue & Petersen, 2021). The persistence of a gender pay gap between workers with similar productive characteristics but of different genders suggests that there is still gender discrimination (Ponthieux & Meurs, 2015), whether it is in private or public sector employment, thus continued gender inequalities. The disability inclusion relational terms (disability and vulnerable groups) appear 13 times in the policy. The policy highlights that gender streaming principles and subsequent programmes should recognise the differential impact of interventions on different categories of women based on class, culture, religion, race, disability

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and geographic location (MGECW, 2010). This shows that the policy substantially recognises the intersectionality between gender and other factors such as disability. National Development Plan 5 NDP5, the fifth and current five-year series of development plans aims to empower and free women from gender-based violence. The plan targets mainstreaming gender in all sector policies, programmes and budgets of offices, ministries and agencies (NPC, 2017). The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender and women) in the policy appear 17 times altogether. This indicates that the plan is, to a substantial extent, promoting gender equality. Gender mainstreaming is essential for securing human rights and social justice for women and men while ensuring the effective achievement of other social and economic goals in different development areas (Hosein et al., 2020). Nonetheless, other factors which may influence gender inequalities in such as disability, race and culture should be studied. However, the disability inclusion aspect was found to be promoted only to a negligible extent. The disability inclusion relational term (vulnerable groups) only appears once in the NDP 5. Nonetheless, the plan acknowledges the tourism industry as an essential contributor to employment and poverty reduction (NPC, 2017). Therefore, inclusive tourism can be a tool for narrowing persistent inequalities that are more structural and embedded in Namibia (Woyo, 2020). The analysis of data shows that this document minimally intersects gender and disability, and more is required. Harambee Prosperity Plan II Under its Social Progression pillar, HPP II, a progression of HHP I, focuses on improving the quality of life for all Namibians. The plan is steered by a non-discriminatory principle consistent with its motto of ‘No Namibian Should Feel Left Out’. HPP 2 calls for united hands to build an economy that is inclusive and where growth is shared and social ills such as poverty, corruption, inequality, gender-based violence and others are conjunctively combated (GRN, 2021). The plan further emphasises the war it has waged against gender-based violence both at home and in workplaces, by strengthening safety nets. That is to say, “government and

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private sector workplaces, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are to institutionalise training, policies, guidelines to prevent and respond to GBV (including sexual harassment in the workplace; as part of national GBV Movement)” (GRN, 2021, p.  52). Evidence suggests that gender inequalities increase the risk of violence by men against women and inhibit the ability of those affected to seek protection (WHO, 2009). Conversely, women may suffer the inability to work and loss of wages, due to gender-based violence, leading to a downgrade in livelihoods (WHO, 2013) and eventually resulting in poverty. The HPP II substantially promotes gender equality, as the terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender, women and men) appear 32 times altogether in the relational context. The disability inclusion relational phrase (vulnerable groups) appears seven times in the plan, indicating disability inclusion to a modest extent. Although HPP II, through its social grant and food bank Namibia, has reported zero hunger deaths during 2016–2020 (GRN, 2021), the promotion of independence should not be overlooked. That is to say, PWDs should be enabled to achieve self-­ reliance and feel like valued members of society rather than vulnerable and helpless individuals. Tourism employment and entrepreneurship can be ways in which vulnerable groups such as the youth, PWDs and women can enhance self-reliance and their quality of life. Access to the same opportunities in their physical, social, economic and cultural environment should be availed to PWDs as their peers without disabilities, however considering their different disability needs. Nevertheless, the document is gender and disability intersectional. National Poverty Reduction Action Programme The programme pays special attention to the assessment procedures that maximise the views of women and frameworks and procedures for poverty analysis that are gender-sensitive. Gender-inclusive responses to poverty have been assigned significant importance within the NPRAP. Annually a unique gender-training course will be provided to national, regional and local development practitioners and policymakers. This course teaches participants about the gender dimensions of poverty and provides tools and approaches to incorporating gender issues in the analysis of poverty and the design and assessment of policy, programme and project responses (NPC, 2002 p.  78). Namibia’s effort to eradicate poverty is witnessed through the establishment of the Ministry of Poverty Eradication and

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Social Welfare (MPESW), mandated to lead, and coordinate national efforts to eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities by 2025 (MPESW, 2016). The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender, women, female, men and male) appear 68 times altogether. This indicates that the policy is, to a substantial extent, promoting gender equality. The disability inclusion relational phrases (disability and vulnerable groups) appear 18 times in the plan, showing disability inclusion to a substantial extent. The NPRAP ensures that vulnerable groups such as women, children and PWDs are given priority in poverty reduction programmes and projects. One such programme is financial assistance in the form of a social grant, which helps prevent the neediest from falling further into poverty and deprivation. Additionally, the programme acknowledges that participating in the tourism sector as producers can broaden the income base of poor communities, particularly those in rural areas, thus becoming more resilient and productive. The document was found to be substantially gender and disability intersectional. Namibian Labour Act The Act aims to give effect to the constitutional commitment to promote and maintain the welfare of the people of Namibia. By regulating the conditions of employment of all employees in Namibia without discrimination on any grounds, gender included. The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender, women, female) appear 11 times altogether. This indicates that the policy is, to a modest extent, promoting gender equality. Namibia’s overall gender gap in the workforce currently stands at women 54.5% and men at 62.2%, a gap of 7.7% (ILOSTAT, 2021). In 2014, 29,179 people were employed in the hotel and restaurant industry, of which 67.6 were women, and 32.4 were men (Schade, 2017, p. 2). This shows that Namibia has done well to narrow the gender gap in labour force participation in the tourism sector. However, participation is only part of the picture, because the quality of employment for women also matters (Alarcón & Mullor, 2018). Therefore, it is crucial to understand these employment outcomes for women who participate in the labour force. The Act promotes the disability inclusion aspect to a modest extent, as the relational term (disability) appears four times in the Act. Furthermore, the Act was found to be advocating for non-discriminatory labour

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practices. According to the Labour Act 2007 sub.2 (Nam.), a person must not discriminate in any employment decision directly or indirectly, adopt any requirement or engage in any practice which has the effect of discrimination against any individual on one or more of the following grounds: race, colour or ethnic origin; sex, marital status or family responsibilities; religion, creed or political opinion; social or economic status; degree of physical or mental disability; AIDS or HIV status; or previous, current or future pregnancy. Therefore, the Act was found to be gender and disability intersectional. National Tourism Policy The policy highlights its provision for a framework to mobilise resources and reduce inequalities in gender. In its subsection on Spreading the Benefits of Tourism to formerly disadvantaged Namibians under the Tourism Promotion section, the policy concedes that “tourism development contributes towards alleviating poverty, reducing regional inequities and promoting economic empowerment” (MEFT, 2008 p.  17). The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender, women, men) appear ten times altogether. This indicates that the policy is, to a substantial extent, promoting gender equality. However, the disability inclusion aspect was minimally promoted, as the disability inclusion relational term (vulnerable groups) only appears once in the policy. That is to highlight that the ministry would have to make training more accessible to previously disadvantaged Namibians, especially women and vulnerable groups, through liaison with the relevant stakeholders (MEFT, 2008). The policy recognises that appropriate skills are critical if the local community is to become fully involved in profitable business operation, management and ownership. As such, the NTP helps men and women to develop appropriate skills that help them manage the tourism business (MEFT, 2008). In addition, the improvement and expansion of education infrastructure and physical facilities has led to an exponential growth of 99.8% in the Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) (GRN, 2021). However, these skills development and growth do not indicate the percentage of PWDs who benefited. The document was found to be gender and disability intersectional only to a minimal and negligible extent.

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National Sustainable Tourism Growth and Development Strategy The strategy is centred on transformational economic and social empowerment. Like the NTP, the strategy supports appropriate skills development for both men and women, which equips them to become fully involved in profitable business operation, management and ownership (MEFT, 2016). The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (women and men) appear four times altogether. This indicates that the policy, to a modest extent, promotes gender equality. Through its Sector Skills Plan, the tourism sector focuses on profiling the sector, identifying skills in demand, analysing supply-side education and training, determining skills priorities and putting together an action plan for improving the skills profile of the workforce (NTA, 2015). Acquiring relevant skills is not only pivotal to the labour market; the UNWTO (2010) notes it is crucial for alleviating gender inequalities and disability exclusion. Relevant education and training bring increased opportunities for career ladder climbing, increased earnings, improved working conditions and increased economic empowerment (Chichaya et al., 2018). Therefore, the strategy was rated as moderately promoting gender equality. The same cannot be said about disability inclusion or PWDs, as there is no mention of the selected relational terms anywhere in the strategy. As such, the document was found not to be gender and disability intersectional. National Strategy on Sustainable Heritage Tourism Development & Employment Creation at Community Level The strategy focuses on broadening tourism’s role in social inclusion and accelerating tourism’s role in economic development—through a vibrant, sustainable heritage tourism programme that creates decent jobs at the community level, poverty reduction, sustainable livelihoods and empowerment of women and youth (MEFT, 2020). The terms and phrases selected to determine the promotion of gender equality (gender and women) appear 32 times altogether. This indicates that the policy is substantially promoting gender equality, with its focus being on creating decent employment at the community level. Additionally, one of the strategy’s key aspects for restarting tourism post-COVID-19 is the “upskilling of youth and women empowerment through innovation and

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entrepreneurship for niche segments (new products targeted at special interest tourism)” (MEFT, 2020 p. 44). The strategy promotes disability inclusion to a modest extent, as the relational phrase (vulnerable group) appear six times in the strategy. One of the strategy’s intents is to advocate for and lobby for mainstream employment and decent work and infrastructure development and the empowerment of vulnerable groups to participate in economic activities through skills development for the informal sector, where the most vulnerable are likely to be employed (MEFT, 2020). In its efforts to foster social inclusion, the strategy will establish monitoring systems to measure the sector’s progress by developing viable indicators to measure the achievement of tourism creation of decent work, economic development and advancing inclusive growth. The strategy was found to be gender and disability intersectional.

Conclusion and Implications Based on the findings, the intersectionality of gender, disability and tourism has not been fully applied in the Namibian context. The complexity of multiple exclusions faced by PWDs has been addressed only to a minimal extent in the following analysed documents: National Development Plan 5, National Tourism Policy, and has not been captured in the National Sustainable Tourism Growth and Development Strategy. NDP 5 has captured disability inclusion only by recognising that there is a need for inclusion and expanded coverage for some poor and vulnerable people in terms of social grant assistance. As alluded to earlier, there is a need to promote self-reliance, which can only be achieved by making it possible for PWDs to be involved in economic activities that will foster their financial independence and a sense of self-value. The negligible extent of the disability inclusion in the tourism documents can perhaps be attributed to its minimal attention in the NDPs, despite being the most quoted documents in tourism policies and strategies. The ideals of inclusive development and full participation will not become a reality unless disability-inclusive policies and programmes are readily accepted and effectively implemented (Cobley, 2015). At the society level, there is a need for awareness campaigns and education, which will inform and change the current cultural narrative about the causes of disability and the response towards PWDs in societies. This will also enhance the data collection process on PWDs and the challenges they face, which will aid in resource allocation and

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framework implementation. The study concludes that the medical model of disability informs three documents rated minimal to a negligible extent of disability inclusion. The minimal to no inclusion of PWDs in such key documents is an indication that policymakers view them as less productive and incapable of meaningful contribution. The National Gender Equality Policy, the Harambee Prosperity Plan II, the Labour Act and the National Poverty Reduction Action Plan and National Strategy on Sustainable Heritage Tourism Development and Employment Creation at Community Level have captured the intersectionality of gender and disability. However, what is absent is promoting self-reliance and independent living for PWDs. Tourism employment has been identified as a strategic tool in poverty reduction; as such, can be used to enhance the participation of PWDs in decision-making roles and the production of tourism products. These will improve the quality of life by reducing poverty as a result of exclusion and increasing self-reliance for PWDs. However, all eight documents have captured the aspect of gender equality and women empowerment. Based on the literature, the strides Namibia has made in bridging the gender-based gaps are evident in general employment patterns and also in tourism employment. Nonetheless, one way to capture intersecting points of socially ascribed categories (in this instance, gender and disability) is to take an intersectional approach that renders visible the demographic characteristics of inequalities in a given context (tourism employment) (McBride et  al., 2015). Therefore, if the tourism industry is to be inclusive genuinely, it should substantially capture issues of intersectionality in its sustainability policies, strategies and plans (Fig. 3.1). It should be noted that failure to revise policies and strategies to reflect current intersectional dynamics has implications on global socio-economic sustainability (Haxton, 2015), even more so in developing countries (Khan et al., 2020) such as Namibia. Given that gender inequalities and disability discrimination lead to high poverty levels, a current policy or inclusive strategy is crucial for realising holistic, sustainable development in tourism.

Limitations of the Study and Further Research This study was based on qualitative content analysis of data from national documents, without direct observational evidence, with no backing except that of the researcher. A whole spectrum of key players in inclusive tourism

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Fig. 3.1  The Intersectionality Model: Gender, Disability and Tourism. Source: Author

employment was not considered. Future studies should employ direct observational studies to allow for empirical validation of the results. Further research on the intersectionality concept, including the involvement of principal stakeholders in Namibian inclusive tourism, is necessary.

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CHAPTER 4

Gender and Disability Inclusion Challenges Within Community-Based Tourism in Africa Joy Eghonghon Akahome

Introduction Community-based tourism (CBT) is a form of tourism that focuses on social, and economic development, and exists to manage community resources sustainably (Abd-Elraof et  al., 2018; Musavengane & Woyo, 2022; Vann Pletzen et al., 2021). CBT is carried out to increase tourists’ awareness of the culture of the local people in tourist destinations (Edusei et al., 2015). Through CBT, many residents in a destination have been involved in tourism development (Abd-Elraof et al., 2018; Meela, 2019). Consequently, CBT projects are increasingly being implemented in several destinations in Africa, mainly because they support women’s empowerment (Meela, 2019), thus, showing the significance of tourism development on the continent in reducing gender inequalities and empowering women with disabilities (Adebayo & Jegede, 2014; Ampong, 2018; Park & Ondicho, 2017). J. E. Akahome (*) Entrepreneurship and Marketing, Federal University Otuke, Bayelsa State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_4

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Reducing gender inequalities is imperative for the achievement of the Agenda 2030 targets, especially Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number 5 (Abd-Elraof et al., 2018; Maliva & Mwaipopo, 2018; Marfo, 2015). The achievement of SDG5 is imperative for African tourism destinations in that it will help countries to address aspects that foster the inclusion of women with disabilities. Furthermore, it is imperative in ending violence against women, ensure gender equality in decision-making positions in government and private institutions, and gender equality in the distribution of wealth. Gender-based violence is a global epidemic that affects African women which includes human trafficking, and female genital mutilation (Olofinbiyi, 2021). Due to the interlinkages of SDGs, this chapter argues that the achievement of SDG5 goals by 2030 will result in poverty reduction (SDG 1) (Sebele, 2010; Woyo, 2020). In Africa, results have shown that investment in gender and women’s disability education and economic opportunities is important to achieve the continent’s potential in human capital and realize sustainable economic growth and development (Kinge et al., 2021). However, there is limited literature in Africa focusing on the challenges that women with a disability face in CBT contexts from an intersectional perspective. While more attention to gender and disability tourism is given in developed countries (Woyo & Venganai, 2022), research is yet to sufficiently investigate those who are not participating in tourism from intersectional perspectives. Gender gaps could have been worsened with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the element of building human capital, especially in CBT is lacking in Africa (Woyo & Woyo, 2016; Zhang & Zhang, 2021). Additionally, this chapter argues that while some scholars have explored disability issues in tourism (Aitchison, 2009), the focus has not been on CBT contexts. This is regardless of CBT being an important tool for development in several African societies (UNWTO, 2019). Researchers and international organizations alike have emphasized the relevance of women’s role in sustainable development (Lohani & Aburaida, 2017; Naciti et al., 2021; Spencer & Mnqayi, 2017). However, women remain discriminated against and undervalued globally (Vann Pletzen et al., 2021). Although steps have been taken to achieve the objective of full gender equality, gender inequality remains a challenge, thus affecting the holistic developmental approach that could be useful in helping with poverty reduction, economic and sustainable growth, and development (Taddei, 2020; Woyo, 2020).

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Destinations that are not inclusive in their developmental approach will struggle to achieve sustainable development. Thus, it can be acknowledged that gender equality is the most important indicator of overcoming the discrimination which affects persons with disabilities (Naciti et  al., 2021). Based on this, the chapter analyses the challenges African CBT projects face to develop tourism in a way that is gender and disability inclusive. A critical approach to understanding these aspects is imperative in helping destinations develop CBT projects that are inclusive and sustainable to the groups that suffer from multiple discrimination.

Community-Based Tourism in Africa CBT is used as an alternative or substitute for regular tourism (Sebele, 2010). It is defined as the activity or enterprise whereby the local community participates or engages in their cultural heritage by selling it to tourists in its original form (Musavengane & Woyo, 2022; Timothy, 2002). It is gradually becoming popular in many parts of the developing world because of its approach to include locals in the management of natural resources (Giampiccoli & Mtaphuri, 2012; Silva & McDill, 2004). Therefore, CBT has been embraced by policymakers because of its consideration for the environment and its ability to take into account social and cultural sustainability. Through CBT projects, local members of the community invite tourists to visit and in return, they earn money as entrepreneurs, employers or landowners (Woets, 2014). This has been argued in literature as imperative in improving the living standard of these communities through the reduction of poverty, employment creation (Woyo, 2020), empowerment of communities and the development of self-reliance (Giampiccoli & Mtaphuri, 2012). It is imperative to note that, in the empowerment of these communities, women could play a crucial role in CBT through their participation. The contribution of CBT to economic and social development is widely known in the wider tourism literature (Sebele, 2010, Staritz & Reis, 2013; Parashar, 2014, Lwoga & Mapunda, 2017). Regardless, women in general and women with disabilities, in particular, have a low representation in managerial and leadership positions in tourism due to cultural norms, customs and traditions that prescribe traditional gender roles (Abd-Elraof et  al., 2018; Aghazamani & Hunt, 2017; Vann Pletzen et  al., 2021). While participation in CBT does not guarantee women empowerment (Murgialday et al., 2015), researching the challenges faced by women with

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disabilities is imperative in understanding the gendered impact of CBT projects in Africa. Doing so is crucial in also helping policymakers in designing strategies that make the participation of women with disabilities in CBT projects produce more equality within family relations and access to leadership roles. This would lead to the designing of renewed gender identities that could be crucial for the achievement of Agenda 2030 targets (Tucker, 2007; Pérez Galán & Fuller, 2015). Therefore, this chapter documents the challenges of gender and disability inclusion in African community-based tourism projects.

Methodology This chapter utilized a systematic literature review to establish the challenges faced by women and women with disabilities in CBT in Africa. To achieve this, published research articles were analysed and the researcher also reviewed and described two major CBT projects that have tackled a few of these challenges in Africa. The literature search was done using keywords, such as Gender and disabilities in CBT projects in Africa, Women with disabilities and CBT projects in Africa and Challenges faced by disabled women in Community Based Tourism in Africa. This was done using several databases including Google Scholar and Web of Science. These databases are widely used by tourism and gender researchers (Murgado-­ Armenteros et al., 2015). The publication period limited the publication dates from 2005 to 2022. The first study is from 2007 and several studies were published between 2013 and 2017 (see Table 4.1). This trend is consistent with overall sustainability interest in tourism development in recent years. These years recorded 19 papers focusing on gender and disability in community-based tourism in Africa. Most of the studies used qualitative methodologies to investigate the research questions. These studies were appraised according to quality and relevance to the interest of the review. The evaluation method focused on the extent to which challenges of CBT faced by women were covered, the emphasis on gender, the presence of explanation for gender differences and the methodological soundness. A content analysis was conducted and abstracted into themes. The patterns of themes were explored and reported in the following section.

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Table 4.1  Overview of empirical studies on gender and disability inclusion challenges within community-based tourism in selected African countries Studies

Challenges identified in the study

  1. Nyaruwata and Nyaruwata (2013)   2. Tshabalala and Ezeuduji (2016)   3. Nguyen and Wodon (2012)   4. Christie et al. (2014),   5. Nomnga (2017)   6. Bisschoff and Breedt (2012)   7. Chikuta et al. (2017)   8. Staritz and Reis (2013)   9. Musavengane et al. (2019) 10. Parashar (2014) 11. Lwoga and Mapunda (2017) 12. Adam et al. (2017) 13. Issahaku (2017) 14. Odufuwa (2007) 15. Mensah et al. (2015) 16. Bombom and Abdullahi (2016) 17. Adam et al. (2017) 18. Ibem et al., 2017 19. Oladokun et al. (2014)

 • Lack of tourism opportunities for women due South Africa to the patriarchal system that limits them to participate in tourism activities  • Gender-based violence

 • Sexual harassment in selling their handicrafts, job insecurity and vulnerability to poor working conditions  • Work with little or no pay at all  • Constraints of financial access  • Lack of land, and collateral to acquire loans  • Mobility constraints and gender discrimination

Country(ies)

 • Kenya  • Tanzania  • Mozambique

 • Determinants of travelling in the company of Nigeria and relatives differ by the extent or severity of the Ghana physical disability, travel environment, available modes, distance, the purpose of travel and immobility of disabled people in developing countries   • Employers of labour in Uganda have expressed worries over hiring women and girls with a disability as they complain that they are unable to accommodate their needs despite the 1995 Ugandan constitution which recognized the rights and privileges of people with disabilities and in 2006 a parliamentary law was passed to ensure equal rights and opportunities for people with disabilities

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Findings There are power relations in many contexts that have continued to prevent opportunities for African women (Musavengane et al., 2019). This lack of opportunities has been reported in CBT projects in countries like Cameroon where patriarchy is relatively more entrenched in society (Musavengane et al., 2019; Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). Further analysis shows that the opportunities the women have as immigrants, such as perception of work, access to resources power to make and take decisions and stereotypes, are relatively low and does not seem to promote more inclusive tourism development in CBT projects (Parashar, 2014; Staritz & Reis, 2013). The study revealed several challenges women with disabilities face in community-based tourism projects in Africa in the areas of education, leadership and representation. Lack of Education and Training for Women and PWDs in Africa Education and training of women are important to assist them to secure decent jobs and influence sustainable development. On the one hand, the review of the studies on CBT research in Africa shows that there is little to no quality in the training and education of women and PWDs in Africa (Tshabalala & Ezeuduji, 2016). The lack of education for women in Africa has largely been based on a society which is rooted in a patriarchy where they do not believe in educating the girl child (Musavengane et al., 2019). Through lack of education, women and PWDs are further marginalized. Consequently, their participation in CBT projects and tourism development becomes so limited. On the other hand, this study found that there are, however, successful training programmes that have been established in the Gambia to empower women in tourism through the Institute of Travel and Tourism of the Gambia (ITTOG). The ITTOG was established in 2008 by Dr. Adama Bah, Sheikh Tejan Njang and Helen Wilcockson with the objective to support tourism education and to provide employment opportunities, especially for women and women with disabilities. Furthermore, the ITTOG was established to help reduce poverty through the capacity-building of women and PWDs in tourism development (Nomnga, 2017). Through this, the chapter argues that the education of women in CBT projects is crucial for their effective participation and is an important development metric that could enhance the sustainable livelihoods of women and PWDs in Africa. Doing

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so is imperative for a continent that has several unequal countries and rising levels of poverty (Gyeke-Dako et al., 2022; Woyo, 2020). Many countries in Africa are skills deficient in different areas of tourism (Kraak, 2005; Nguyen & Wodon, 2012; Nielsen & Spenceley, 2011; Shereni, 2020; Woyo, 2013). Despite the existence of these training centres, African women and girls are still unable to participate effectively in tourism development due to intersecting social-economic constraints such as early marriages and financial costs (Christie et  al., 2014). The study found that, while the insights from understanding the gendered challenges of women in CBT contexts are helpful, the weakness of these studies is their inability to apply the intersectionality perspective. There is a need for research to approach the investigation of these challenges from this angle, for a more nuanced understanding of the challenges that women and PWDs face. The Gender-Leadership Challenge in African Tourism African countries in Southern Africa are faced with several challenges that act as barriers for women, especially the cultural bias, the negative traditional role of women in tourism employment, the problem with balancing work and life and no available role model(s) which can ultimately limit the women from the opportunity of reaching a high-levelled managerial position (Staritz & Reis, 2013). The usual stereotype in many African cultures has also led these women in Southern African countries to channel their attention to a domesticated lifestyle, rather than investing in career growth (Bhirugnath-Bhookhun & Kitada, 2017; Kiamba, 2009; Meier & Saavedra, 2009). These challenges further marginalize women’s participation in CBT projects despite being considered an effective empowerment tool in literature. This chapter argues that addressing these underlying causes of gender inequality in Africa could be effectively done through the application of feminist theories such as the intersectional perspective. Through this, researchers will be able to see various challenges than what currently is the case where women with disabilities are treated as homogenous, and so are their challenges. Using the intersectionality theory is critical to unpack the complexity of deeply rooted ideologies, practices, cultures and identities, and the marginalization of women in tourism employment and CBT leadership will continue. Research shows that there is variation concerning women’s employment in tourism, with more than 60% employed in Africa (Hutchings

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et al., 2020). However, it is faulty to consider employment equivalent to empowerment (Murgialday et al., 2015). Furthermore, while women may be available for high-levelled positions as managers and attaining leadership status in the African tourism industry in comparison to other industries (Nyaruwata & Nyaruwata, 2013), fewer women are given this recognition than men (Moswete & Lacey, 2015; Ntanjana et  al., 2018; Nyaruwata & Nyaruwata, 2013) in CBT contexts (Musavengane et  al., 2019). This is consistent with findings that have shown that only 5% of tourism organizations are headed by female managers (Rinaldi & Salerno, 2020). This is mainly attributable to the patriarchal nature of African society and religion. Thus, women are less represented even in leadership positions in CBT contexts. Even in cases where women are employed in leadership positions, research has found that due to traditional factors in some countries concerning the different gender roles and undervaluing of women’s work (Hutchings et al., 2020). These challenges, further affect the gender gaps, and consequently, CBT projects are also not led by women, more still, PWDs. Gender-Based Violence in Community-Based Tourism Gender violence is generally a problem in several African countries (Meer & Schnurr, 2013; Mogende & Ramutsindela, 2022; Waterman et  al., 2021). While gender-based violence could be bidirectional, it often places women and women with disabilities in a victim position, and men, especially able-bodied as the victimizer. Through violence, categorical differences are then framed using social identities such as gender and disability. This situates gender-based violence as a form of injustice and indicates powerlessness on the victims and further pushes victims into inequality and vulnerability. The intersectionality of gender-based violence and CBT is less explored in African literature (see Table 4.1), and there is a need for research to investigate this intersection to unpack the opportunities for tourism in dealing with this form of injustice. Women, including those with disabilities, are denied their human rights and they face other violations of their rights. For example, women with disabilities are more likely to experience domestic violence, and gender-­ based and sexual violence than non-disabled people. This leaves them at risk of poverty, thus implying the failure of destinations to achieve this sustainable development goal. For example, in Nigeria, most women who suffer from gender-based violence in some ethnic or indigenous

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community are forced to exclude themselves on the bases of their gender as well as cultural or disability status (Dimonye et al., 2022). In Nigeria, NGOs such as Disability Rights Advocacy Center (DRAC) assist to tackle violence against women and disabled women through creating awareness, but there is still no practical advocacy work done to promote the implementation of gender and disability-sensitive policies and laws for better social justice outcomes. Chikuta et al. (2017) assessed the travel motives of people with disabilities in Zimbabwe and South Africa. They revealed that people with disabilities were often viewed as weak people who are not supposed to participate in tourism because of their impairment and the tourism group was reluctant to render any form of help to these people. Through this stereotype, PWDs are excluded from tourism projects, as they are often viewed as less helpful. In Uganda, the intersection of gender and disability of women and girls face more discrimination (UN Women, 2018), gender has a relevant role in moulding the expectations and norms of Ugandan society. Uganda is a patriarchal society that adheres to societal norms regarding marriage and childbearing. Marriage has been viewed as a form of security for PWD. It is different when it comes to women with a disability because they must conform to the norms of society. For example, a man with a disability is perceived by society as not being able to afford to pay the bride price, and women with disability are not allowed to be married because they may not be able to indulge in domestic chores to take good care of her children and husband (Rohwerder, 2018). With this present situation, the ILO gave an estimation of over 4 million people who are disabled in Uganda. Their disability disallows them to find jobs while women and girls with disability have a worse situation of more challenges because of their gender. Employers of labour in Uganda have expressed worries over hiring women and girls with a disability as they complain that they are unable to accommodate their needs. However, it is stated in the Ugandan law that women and girls with disability are given legal protection from any form of discrimination. Devries et al. (2014), according to the 1995 Ugandan constitution, recognized the rights and privileges of people with disabilities and in 2006 a parliamentary law was passed to ensure equal rights and opportunities for people with disabilities. The law presented an offer in form of 15% tax incentives to organizations to encourage them in hiring PWD. Despite these laws in place, very few organizations in Uganda have taken advantage of the reduction of tax incentives to hire PWD.

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Learning from Uganda and Ghana’s CBT Initiatives There are many policies and initiatives in African tourism that recognizes the role of women (Ashley & Roe, 2002). These policy frameworks include the “African Union’s Agenda 2063” and “Tourism Action Plan” (Nyaruwata & Nyaruwata, 2013). Regional tourism groupings also have policies in place that seek to promote the role of women in tourism, specifically CBT. For instance, the 2012 Protocol on Tourism of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Sustainable Tourism Master Plan 2013–2023 of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) (Nomnga, 2017). The strategies and plans of national development in several countries emphasize the importance of gender equality. Few countries in East and Southern Africa such as Uganda, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa and Namibia have focused on national gender policies that suggest gender mainstreaming across all sectors that will enhance the development of the female citizens of the country (Christie et al., 2014) including CBT. South Africa has initiated women-friendly initiatives (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2017), such as the Broad-based Black Economic Programme (B-BBEE), that puts in place some targets that focus on women especially in the aspects of owning and controlling enterprises, developing skills and supplies in tourism (UNTWO, 2019), while Kenya’s National Tourism Strategy (UNCTD, 2017) seeks to support women’s tourism initiatives and protect their rights at work. The opportunities to overcome the challenges have been presented in two examples of non-government organization groups that have established community-based tourism in Uganda (Ahebwa, 2013; Boonabaana, 2012; Victurine, 2000) and Ghana (Afenyo-Agbe & Mensah, 2022; Forson, 2022). In the context of Uganda, there is the Uganda Hotel Owners’ Association (UHOA) which was formed as a trade and lobbying organization (Gowreesunkar et al., 2021; UNTWO, 2019). This organization consists of the destination’s hotels, lodges and camps. The chapter found that one of the key successes of UHOA has been in gender equality and affirmative action. Through these initiatives, several women, including those with disabilities, were given leadership positions in the organization (Gowreesunkar et al., 2021). This is a critical step towards ensuring the effective participation of women in CBT projects. Hutchings et  al. (2020) argue that increasing women in management and leadership

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positions are critical for the growth of the tourism industry, and CBT projects in Africa could learn from this case study in Uganda. The review suggests that the association also has workplace policies that protect female workers in the hotel who might face sexual harassment and discrimination (Gowreesunkar et  al., 2021). Protecting women against these injustices is very important for sustainable tourism development and the achievement of SDG 5, not only in Uganda but in several African countries. The Sirigu Women’s Organization for Pottery and Art (SWOPA) is a local NGO in Ghana that has facilitated the CBT project whose literature was analysed in this study. SWOPA assist in raising the standard of living of women and women and girls with disabilities in the Upper East Region of Ghana (Manu & Kuuder, 2012). Melanie Kasise is the daughter of a Sirigu woman who found this NGO in 1997 when she used her skill of pottery to become financially independent (Bonye et al., 2013). Almost 400 Ghanaian women became members and gained some level of training in arts and crafts free of charge (Woets, 2014). Women that benefited from the CBT initiatives included widows, elderly women and women with disabilities, and girls, and this implies the effective application of the intersectionality perspective. The Upper East Region of Ghana where the NGO was established faces a high level of poverty and discrimination, especially from women with disabilities and the organization tries to provide security for these women to be financially stable (UNTWO, 2019). SWOPA has been successful in employing more women to work and gaining recognition from the European Union (Woets, 2014). They have been successful in their achievement of gender equality and women empowerment to create confidence and freedom for women to give their voice for the betterment of the community (Woets, 2014). Another benefit of the NGO is that it has given women the ability to make decisions about their lives in terms of saving for the future (Woets, 2014). However, these women still face challenges in marketing the artefacts that have been produced by SWOPA, while they also face several workloads at their household and community level and miss out on training and meetings (Woets, 2014). The chapter found that these are strong examples of grassroots and local levels to support women’s empowerment through CBT.

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Conclusion This chapter reviewed 19 journal articles that addressed the challenges gender and women with disabilities face within CBT Africa. Although CBT published challenges and opportunities that have not fully been explored in research. This systematic literature review presented some examples of women organizing at the local level to support women’s empowerment through community-based tourism. The challenges presented a table presentation that focused on challenges of gender and disability in tourism, education and training in Africa, gender and leadership in African tourism, and gender-based violence in community-based tourism. A systematic review of existing literature showed gendered challenges for women with disabilities within community-based tourism in Africa. This review has demonstrated the intertwined relationship between gender and women with disabilities and has developed a foundation for future research to build upon. This is crucial because there is still limited research that has explored the intersectionality of gender and disability in tourism research in Africa. Therefore, there is a need for research to begin to explore the challenges and opportunities that could be leveraged by women and PWDs in community-based tourism projects. Future reviews are encouraged to include male/men and LGBTI (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex) groups in the search term to consider studies that investigate the risk experience of tourists who fall in between and on the other end of the gender spectrum and to compare the findings with this review. Other reviews could also carry out qualitative and quantitative analyses to statistically investigate the gender and disability inclusion status of African tourism destinations. Thirdly, there should be an empirical investigation of how gender and disability intersect with other demographic attributes such as age, and cultural backgrounds that can create challenges in African community-based tourism. This is one of the few studies that have systematically reviewed gender and women with disabilities in community-based tourism in general and from a gender perspective in particular. The chapter presented two major examples of NGOs created in Uganda and Ghana to promote community-based tourism for the empowerment of women including those with disabilities. The chapter highlights the need for several tourism policy frameworks and initiatives in Africa to recognize and include the role of women in tourism, such as the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and its Tourism Action Plan, and also to stress the importance of gender equality in African community-based

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tourism. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) should monitor the implementation of policies that call for gender mainstreaming across its member states and develop gender-friendly initiatives to promote gender- and disability-inclusive development. An African national strategy has to be put in place to train, educate, and support women’s ownership, and control of tourism enterprises, and also provide them with resources for productivity and protect their right to work by avoiding gender-­based violence.

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SECTION II

Researching Gender, Disability and Sustainable Tourism Development in Africa

CHAPTER 5

Gender, Disability, and Social Identities in Tourism Research in Africa: Bibliometric Insights Mohsin Abdur Rehman, Dhouha Jaziri, and Usman Bashir

Introduction Developing African countries struggle with gender inclusion in various aspects of life compared to other parts of the world (Kuper et al., 2022). This is despite the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5, calling for gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030. This SDG has attracted research interests globally (Errami et al., 2021; Sen, 2015), and

M. A. Rehman (*) Marketing, Management and International Business, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland D. Jaziri Management and Marketing, University of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia U. Bashir Center for Research and Development, Minhaj University Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_5

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in the context of Africa (Moyo & Dhliwayo, 2019; Susan Solomon et al., 2021). Fundamentally, SDG4 ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all and addresses issues related to inclusivity by eliminating gender disparities in education. African countries offer attractive tourism destinations with innovation and sustainable development (Baporikar, 2022). Consequently, there is a need for African tourism to enable a more equal and inclusive development trajectory because of the role it plays in employment creation (UNWTO, 2019) and the achievement of SDGs, especially poverty alleviation (Woyo, 2020). African tourism employs 69% of women in its labour force (UNWTO, 2019) and is considered to be a critical sector in several countries (Woyo & Slabbert, 2021). However, several challenges are still noticeable, especially regarding gender inequality (Baten et  al., 2021; Casale & Posel, 2021; Joseph et al., 2018). These barriers have a negative impact on tourism development in Africa. With tourism being a critical contributor to the gross domestic product of several African countries (MacFarlane et  al., 2020; Woyo & Slabbert, 2021), through this book chapter, we aim to understand how issues related to gender, disability, and social identities can add value towards sustainable tourism development in African countries. It is highly valuable for social well-being through inclusivity of gender, disability, and social identities in sustainable tourism developments. Reshaping tourism is deeply rooted in gendered phenomena (Pritchard & Morgan, 2000; Xu, 2018). Although gender inclusiveness in tourism research has been discussed most recently (Benjamin et  al., 2021; De Pascale et al., 2022), there is limited focus on the intersectionality of gender and disability inclusion in tourism research from an African perspective. Therefore, the current chapter aims to understand the literature on the intersections of gender and disability inclusion in tourism research in Africa and how these are mediated by other social identities including race and social status. Accordingly, we aim to answer the following research questions with this book chapter: RQ1—What are the bibliometric matrixes (keywords, publication trends, journals, countries, and research designs) of literature on gender and social identities in tourism research in Africa? RQ2—What are the emerging literature clusters of research on gender and social identities in tourism research in Africa?

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The chapter details the bibliometric method, including data collection and analytical procedures that were followed. After the presentation and discussion of the results, the chapter concludes by proposing future research questions along with research methods.

Bibliometric Method Data Collection This chapter aims to review the state-of-the-art literature on gender and social identities in tourism research in Africa, therefore the bibliometric-­ based review method was adopted (Donthu et al., 2021). In recent years, it has become a more commonly used analysis method in several disciplines (Martínez-López et  al., 2018), including tourism and hospitality (Kim & So, 2022; Koseoglu et al., 2016; Michael Hall, 2011). Through this method, researchers are required to consult several databases (Rodríguez-López et al., 2020). In this chapter, the Web of Science database was consulted, as it has been identified in previous research as being the most ideal and main database for conducting bibliometric analysis (Murgado-Armenteros et al., 2015; Zupic & Č ater, 2015) and has been widely used in tourism research (Fu et  al., 2019; Kim & So, 2022; Rodríguez-López et  al., 2020). The Web of Science database was also considered in this study because it is a comprehensive database with more than a billion cited works (Kim & So, 2022). Therefore, data were extracted from the Web of Science database’s core collection based on search phrases presented in Fig.  5.1 without any filter on timeframe to capture more studies to present a more holistic view of gender and social identities in tourism research in Africa. The PRISMA framework was applied in this study and details the overall data retrieval process (Moher et  al., 2011). This framework has also been used in mainstream tourism research (Booth et al., 2020; Papavasileiou & Tzouvanas, 2021). Through this framework, three major steps were followed. The first step was identification, which was achieved by finding all the articles related to the topic (Fig.  5.1). The second step was the screening aspect, which was done to narrow down the search of the articles that were eventually analysed in the study. Document publication type and language were considered at the screening stage, “journal articles” and “English”, respectively. Since we did not use any further criteria for journal articles’ eligibility, we omitted the “eligibility” step of PRISMA,

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Search string in the TOPIC Web of Science Core Collection: “Gender” or “Disability” or “LGBTQ” AND “Tourism” or “Hospitality” AND “Africa*” (n = 78)

Records screened, only English (n = 76)

Records excluded other than English (n = 2)

Records only Articles (n = 73)

Reports excluded other than articles (n = 3)

Included

Screening

Identification

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Final records included for analysis (n = 73)

Fig. 5.1  PRISMA chart for data retrieval. Source: Authors

which yielded 73 journal articles for further bibliometric analysis. The use of the PRISMA framework ensures that the selection and analysis of included papers are transparent, offering a reference point for others in the field (Booth et al., 2020). Data Analysis After the data retrieval process, meta-data were downloaded in two separate files from WOS for further bibliometric and content analyses of the 73 journal articles. The final dataset was subjected to qualitative thematic analysis through various steps. Firstly, we combined the article title, abstracts, and keywords to present a word cloud using NVivo (Fig. 5.2). Secondly, publication trends were also analysed to understand the

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Fig. 5.2  Word cloud. Source: Authors

trajectory of journal articles on gender and disability inclusion in tourism scholarship in Africa (Fig. 5.3). Thirdly, data were also analysed to show the most influential tourism journal outlets used to communicate gender and social identity research in Africa (Table 5.1). Fourthly, data were also analysed to indicate the geographical representation of studies on gender and disability in Africa (Fig. 5.4) and the research designs that currently inform the investigation of these constructs (Fig. 5.5). Finally, literature clusters are presented to understand emerging intellectual structures of gender and social identities inclusion in tourism scholarship in Africa (Fig. 5.6, Tables 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4), using VOS viewer and Microsoft Excel.

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15 13

8 6 3

3

2 1

1

2 1

1

1

2

6

3

2 1

1

Fig. 5.3  Publication trends. Source: Authors Table 5.1  Most influential tourism journals Journal Annals of Tourism Research European Journal of Tourism Hospitality and Recreation International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management International Journal of Tourism Research Journal of Heritage Tourism Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology Journal of Sustainable Tourism Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing Tourism and Hospitality Research Tourism Economics Tourism Geographies Tourism Management Tourism Planning and Development Tourism Recreation Research

Article

Citations

2 1

146 56

1

96

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

98 28 75 92 112 69 40 110 26 86 61 82

Results Word Cloud Figure 5.2 explains the story of the literature review that was conducted in this chapter. It tries to explain the lack of focus on the intersectionality of disability and gender in tourism research within the African context.

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Fig. 5.4  Geographical locations of gender and social identities in tourism research. Source: Authors

Fig. 5.5  Research design. Source: Authors

Gender and disability intersectionality tourism research in the African context is developing in terms of community development, social and cultural research (Scheyvens & van der Watt, 2021), and women empowerment (Mkono et al., 2021), and experiential tourism (Sabir & Pillemer, 2014). This suggests the need for a more comprehensive investigation into the constructs to enhance the insights that could help inform gender and disability-­inclusive policies for sustainable tourism development.

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Cluster 1 (red) = 22 articles Cluster 2 (green) = 19 articles Cluster 3 (blue) = 17 articles

Fig. 5.6  Literature clusters based on bibliographic coupling. Source: Authors Table 5.2  Literature clusters by major theme of study Major themes of study Community and enhancement Gender-specific and equality Perseverance and development Sources and technology

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

2 11 7 2

2 8 9 0

1 10 2 4

Source: Authors

Table 5.3  Literature clusters by the purpose of the study Purpose of study Advancement and migration in tourism Impact on tourism by tourist Social support and programmes Sustainable female tourism and goals

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

2 10 3 7

0 8 2 9

4 10 1 2

Source: Authors

Publication Trends Figure 5.3 shows the publication trends of African scholarship on gender and disability inclusions in 15 leading tourism and hospitality journals (see Table 5.1, 1999–2021). The first journal article in this domain of research

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Table 5.4  Literature clusters by the outcome of the study Outcome of study Female entrepreneurial abilities and vision Social and ecological factors Sustainability and extension in tourism Tools and ways of tourism

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

7 3 10 2

9 2 8 0

2 1 10 4

Source: Authors

was published in 1999 (Floyd & Shinew, 1999) and investigated the convergence and divergence in leisure tourism research in Africa in terms of numerous gender issues including racial and ethnic experiences in community and social groups. The publications linked to gender and social identities research in Africa have been relatively limited which is calling for future research more broadly. Most Influential Journals and Citation Analysis Table 5.1 shows the number of gender and disability inclusion-related articles published in mainstream tourism and hospitality journals since 1999. Interestingly, of the 15 journals, Annals of Tourism Research published 2 of the 73 journal articles, and these publications have been cited 146 times. The remaining tourism journals published only one study each. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change and Tourism Economics received more citations, 112 and 110, respectively. These journals thus appear to have shared the most influential hospitality and tourism research in leading outlets between 1999 and 2021. Geographical Locations Figure 5.4 explains the geographical split of knowledge production on gender and social identities inclusion in tourism research in Africa. The analysis shows that South Africa leads in terms of knowledge creation in Africa (n = 19). This could be due to the presence of strong research infrastructure in the country. This was followed by Nigeria, Ghana, and Uganda, with five studies, respectively. A few papers have also been conducted in Kenya, Namibia and Zimbabwe. In terms of representation, and scholarship on gender and social identities, there is a need for North

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African countries to also investigate the constructs of gender and disability inclusion in tourism research. Figure 5.4 represent the 45 studies where the country of research was explicitly mentioned, while the geographical location of the remaining 28 empirical studies was not clear. Research Design Figure 5.5 summarizes the research design employed in 73 journal articles. Interestingly, most of the studies focused on quantitative research design (n = 40, 55%) followed by qualitative (n = 29, 40%), reviews (n = 2, 3%), mixed-method, and conceptual each one.

Discussion: Literature Clusters We developed literature clusters using bibliographic coupling with all given documents (n = 73). However, 58 journal articles had citation connections with each other and resulted in three major clusters, as shown in Fig.  5.6 (bibliographic coupling) that displays inter-citations of journal articles. We find that cluster 1 represents 22 studies with qualitative as a dominant research design (64%), whereas clusters 2 and 3 consists of 19 and 17 studies with quantitative research design as more prominent, 58% and 71%, respectively. In the next sub-sections, we detail every literature cluster with their respective dominant themes and contribute to understanding theoretical gaps to purpose future research agenda accordingly. Cluster 1: Gender-specific and equality. Cluster 1, denoted by the red colour in Fig.  5.6, consists of 22 studies. These studies investigated gender-­specific and equality-related issues, albeit from a monolithic view. Analysis of these studies revealed several sub-themes evolved from the discussion (Table 5.2). The study found that several tourism destinations in Africa are low-income countries. Due to these conditions, it has been argued that resource-constrained condition causes people to be engaged in sexual relations to support livelihoods (Chant & Evans, 2010). Given that sex tourism in Africa is not so defined, we argue that explaining the intersection of gender and sex from resource-constrained tourism destinations in Africa could bring more insights around such sexual relations (Gross, 2018) and help destination managers in ensuring that tourism development becomes more inclusive. Furthermore, we argue that these studies extend the literature on sustainability in tourism (Table 5.4).

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The analysis of data shows that the term “female beauty labour” is used as a means to generate tourism revenue and national development. It is generally employed by several destinations to attract local brands and foreign investors (Elledge & Faria, 2020). These studies investigated the role of “beauty labour” in attracting international tourists and foreign investment (Elledge & Faria, 2020; Gross, 2018). Consequently, destinations such as Uganda, in East Africa, use beauty labour through its Annual Miss Uganda beauty pageant in which young women exhibit their beautiful and idealized national image. The destination uses this to attract tourists and investors, and this has been argued to be critical for tourism development. While this is critical in ensuring tourism development, doing so promotes patriarchal oppression in a destination (Jeffreys, 2005; Rivers-­ Moore, 2013). Multiple studies investigated the tourism network regarding race and gender (Boone et  al., 2013; Christian, 2016; Hollander, 2021). The exploration of gender and racial properties upgraded and functionalized the social network. These aspects led to further investigation and growing attention to class, race, religion, politics, and gender (Boone et al., 2013; Hollander, 2021). Furthermore, research in African tourism scholarship has also investigated the interrelation between black women as entrepreneurs and social capital (Hikido, 2018). The role of women has been investigated using different aspects and contexts in Africa. For instance, the role of black women as entrepreneurs who started businesses at a small level and made connections with whites to get various social capital (socio-­ economic) has been examined (Hoogenraad, 2021). These studies extended the literature on social class and female entrepreneurial abilities (Hikido, 2018). Tourism literature in Africa is also beginning to investigate some of the aspects that are culturally considered cultural taboos, such as sex tourism. Female sex tourism has been analysed and framed using the problems of gender, race, and ethnicity (Gross, 2018). Results demonstrated that there are more black males that trade sex with white females as the black male needs status and money against necessity, while white women desire sex (Burton & Klemm, 2011). The gendered experience of heritage tourism in Saint Louis, Senegal, has also been investigated (Lo, 2018). This research explains the socio-­ economic factors of residents living at the site impact heritage shape and space, tourists, and experiences. Furthermore, research has also discussed the interrelation between the desire and fear of tourists regarding

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accommodation (Hikido, 2021). It concluded that white Western tourists fear black townships and perceive these places as more dangerous and worse than the white suburbs. To eliminate this tension, black women establish home-based township accommodation (Lorway, 2008). While these studies exist, the intersectionality theory is rarely employed to inform the studies and influence how the findings could be used for policymaking. Therefore, it is crucial to bring intersectionality of gender with race and ethnicity to enhance understanding of gender equity research in tourism and hospitality domains. Cluster 2 Sustainable development by volunteer tourism. Cluster 2, in green colour in Fig. 5.6, consists of 19 studies that investigated aspects of sustainability and development. Further analysis of these 19 studies generated multiple sub-themes (Table 5.2). From these studies, it is important for research to examine the impacts of social and economic variables on local people’s perceptions of volunteer tourism (Ezebilo, 2012; Roques et  al., 2018) as these enhance intersectionality perspectives (Table  5.3). However, fewer studies have discussed feminist aspects and volunteer tourism (Almela & Calvet, 2021; Roques et al., 2018). These studies lack a deeper understanding of such experiences (Almela & Calvet, 2021), which normally exist when the intersectionality perspectives are applied in investigating gender-related issues. Under this research cluster, this study found that several studies explain the feminist aspect, including email politics, hospitality, sexual freedom, postcolonial thinking, sustainable female tourism, and goals (Kimbu et al., 2019; Mkono et al., 2021) (Table 5.3). Though this literature is critical in extending the sustainable tourism research from volunteer participation of tourism activities (Scheyvens & van der Watt, 2021), more research is required to enrich the intersectionality perspectives and the development of more inclusive sustainable tourism policies. The role of gender in shaping entrepreneurial performance and leadership mindset in tourism within the African context is critical. The post-­ structural feminist lens helps to offer flexibility within the tourism context to diversify entrepreneurial leadership practices (Kimbu et al., 2021). This led to many studies explaining the abilities and communication of gender to shape entrepreneurial performance and leadership in a flexible way that can be seen in cluster 2 which dominates sustainable female tourism and goals (Kimbu et al., 2019, 2021) (Table 5.3). The anti-poaching initiative by Zimbabwean women and the impact of socio-economic factors on environmental challenges was also investigated (Mkono et al., 2021).

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Cluster 3 Impartiality of gender and advanced technology in tourism. Cluster 3, presented using the blue colour in Fig. 5.6, consists of 17 studies. These studies focused on addressing gender equality from a technology perspective. Multiple sub-themes emerged from the discussion (Table 5.2) including investigating the risk associated with international tourists in terms of familiarity (celebrities) and novelty (common) (Lepp & Gibson, 2003). Furthermore, studying tourist behaviour in terms of personality traits (sensation seeking) and the perception of risk connected with travelling (Lepp & Gibson, 2008). Specifically, the risk they may face while travelling to some specific world areas ultimately contributed to literature, tools, and ways of tourism (Dayour et al., 2020). The role of the official tourism website in terms of travelling dimensions (motivation and perception) becomes a source of connection with tourists and marketers (Lepp et al., 2014). This literature cluster explains more about the role of websites as a source of motivation for travellers and attraction for marketers (Douglas, 2016; Kruger et al., 2018). However, the concept of gender was not comprehensively interrogated in these studies, and the application of the intersectionality perspectives was also limited. The tourist profile is another dimension that characterized tourism literature (Table 5.4). A study investigates the relationship between tourist destinations and the perception of the memorable tourist experience in developing economies (Tukamushaba et  al., 2016). Few studies in this literature cluster explain how the differences in gender influence tourist perception and memorable experiences regarding tourism destinations (Chung-Herrera & Lankau, 2005; Kruger et  al., 2018; Tukamushaba et al., 2016). Some studies focused on the role of gamification through six predictors in terms of learner and user (Adukaite et al., 2017), while others aimed to address the demographic dimensions of South Africa in terms of a tourist destination by considering the aspects of cost and competitiveness (Fourie et al., 2021). Just like many studies on gender, they also did not apply the intersectionality theory. Furthermore, the aspect of disability is also not intersected with that of gender in understanding tourists’ experiences. Table 5.2 cross-tabulates the literature cluster and the major theme that emerged. We can see those sources and technology in cluster 2 are missing. In cluster 3 mainly, concerning perseverance and development, the major theme needing more focus is community and enhancement. Table 5.3 highlights the tourists as a driving force to promote gender equality and technology tourism research. However, cluster 2 Sustainable

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development by volunteer tourism lacks the ideas around the advancement and migration in tourism. Table 5.4—summarizes the outcomes of 73 journal articles across three literature clusters. In cluster 2, we note that there is a gap to develop research around the tools and ways of tourism. Similarly, social and ecological factors are less researched in gender equality and tourism research.

Agenda for Future Research While it appears that there is increasing interest focusing on the inclusion of disabled people in tourism research (Singh et al., 2021), the intersectionality of gender and disability in African tourism scholarship is rarely addressed. This is regardless of the potential of the people with disabilities (PWD) tourism market (Singh et al., 2021). However, limited knowledge of gender and disability in academia and industry allows only a partial understanding of sustainable tourism development (Tribe et  al., 2015). Table  5.5 provides a summary that could be useful in pointing to the future research questions as well as the proposed methods for future research development in the identified clusters. Gender and disability in tourism research in Africa are needed and could be framed from the phenomenological perspective. Thus, more studies are needed in Africa to investigate gender and disability, sustainable development, and women’s entrepreneurial spirit. This could be critical in uncovering the drivers of sustainable tourism development in Africa. Research on sustainable tourism development in Africa would need to be more granular in its approach. This is critical to understand the essence of tourism experiences and the formulation of frameworks and policies that place gender equality and disability inclusion at the heart of tourism development in Africa (Almela & Calvet, 2021; Roques et al., 2018). Ideally, we propose that future research could develop research around retrospective and prospective views of different generations towards sustainable tourism development and how that could be used to ensure there is gender equality and disability inclusion in African countries. Addressing issues of gender, disability and social identities, leisure, and tourism in Africa is critical, given its potential to open up new opportunities (Floyd & Shinew, 1999). With a number of disability travel poised to increase, there is a need for research in Africa to focus on these to promote social and economic well-being across the African continent. This could be achieved through revisiting the intersectionality of the constructs to

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Table 5.5  Future research questions Cluster

Future research question

Proposed method

Cluster 1: Gender equality and sustainable tourism

• How can women’s empowerment and entrepreneurial spirit in African tourism be more sustainable? • What are the drivers of sustainable tourism in Africa from a gender equality perspective? • What is it like to be a “leisure tourist” in the African tourism ecosystem? • How do generational cohorts play a role in African tourism development? • How can African tourism become more developed through the inclusion of disabled people? • Why does disability inclusion matter in African tourism development?

• A phenomenological study of African women entrepreneurs in tourism using the intersectionality theory. • A survey study to delineate antecedents and consequences of sustainable tourism in Africa through the application of the intersectionality theory. • A phenomenological study of African tourists • A cross-comparative study on the intersection of gender and age, specifically the generations X, Y, and Z from Africa

Cluster 2: Sustainable development by volunteer tourism

Cluster 3: Impartiality of gender and advanced technology in tourism

• A phenomenological study of African disabled people aspiring for “tourism for all” using the intersectionality theory. • An in-depth study based on semi-structured interviews

Source: Authors

mutually construct sustainable tourism development through gender empowerment and equality (Nash, 2008; Shields, 2008). Additional research could also be conducted to understand the role of generational cohorts in Africa and their intersection with gender and disability. Finally, we have outlined the need to understand the role of disability inclusion in developing African tourism. Our bibliometric analysis has adopted an intersectionality perspective at the early stage of choosing keywords and at the final stage of selecting and retaining the articles’ samples. It indicates that gender and disability in African tourism research require more focus to maximize the social and cultural impacts of tourism developments. The clusters that were developed in this chapter could be used in further research to show a multi-intersection level analysis. Thus, gender and disability tourism scholarship that is informed by the

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intersectionality perspective could focus on (1) the intersection of black (race)  ×  entrepreneur (status)  ×  gender; (2) the intersections of gender × race × work status and gender × economic status × sex relationship; and (3) the intersection of gender × risk. While the intersectionality theory is critical in developing new insights, there is a need for future research to be informed by more gender and feminist theories that corroborate the thinking of intersectional perspectives. This would be crucial in generating insights and formulation of strategies aimed at fighting women’s exclusion in development matters (Nash, 2008; Shields, 2008). Foremost, as stated by Shields (2008, p. 307), “Gender is the most pervasive, visible and codified social identity”, such that it remains a fundamental category in the intersectionality theory (Shields, 2008). Through clusters, we have outlined the intersection of social identities: race, nationality, disability, and sexual relationship, with the pivotal category “gender”. These are useful constructs upon which future gender and disability tourism research in Africa could investigate. This is critical and helps in unpacking the complexity of the relationship between gender and the other social identities (Shields, 2008). On that ground, researching multiple axes of women’s oppression is strongly encouraged given the patriarchal and cultural aspects that have been used for centuries to marginalize women and people with disabilities in Africa. The studies should also be connecting these insights with tourism sustainability and development. Doing so will extend the knowledge that has been built by the 73 papers that were analysed in this chapter. The findings of this chapter show that gender × disability intersection revealed the absence of disability inclusion in the bibliometric analysis. Notwithstanding, the intersectionality theory still presents challenges to the used methodological tools. There is an imperative call to review approaches and methods adopted by the theory (Nash, 2008). The study urges future researchers to develop new methodologies and techniques for data collection and analysis. The readiness of new big data sources could also be explored in researching gender and disability in a tourism context in Africa. These methodological approaches would need to be used to support and complement established methods of research, which include surveys, phenomenology, and interviews. Therefore, we need more flexible methods to study the array of social identities’ intersections. In this regard, Table 5.5 underlines the relevance of the phenomenology method to inspect the process of relations among categories. Phenomenology is among contemporary methods embedded directly into

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the ideographic complexity of the identities approach (Smith & Osborn, 2008). In this line, the narration and the practice of individual introspection could present higher levels of in-depth analyses to investigate the complex nature of identity in future research on gender and disability in tourism research.

Conclusion The participation of African women in Tourism presents a breakthrough sociological key to developing the continent. In parallel, exploring and inspecting gender and social identities (race, status, disability) in the African tourism sector have advanced seminal concepts and themes discovered along the bibliometric analysis done by this chapter. The chapter reviewed the literature on gender and social identities in tourism research with a contextual focus on African regions. The bibliometric and content analyses was employed to understand literature streams and propose future research directions and methodological choices according to three principal identified clusters. Findings highlight the pivotal function of sustainable tourism to treat gender-related issues. Hence, gender equality in African tourism plays a crucial role in building successful sustainable tourism. Moreover, African tourism actors must understand factors influencing African people’s perceptions of gender inclusion perspectives. A social strategy with an action plan presenting new policies, and engaging government and various stakeholders is requested to value women and improve their access to tourism resources. It follows a better regulation of sex trade tourism. Likewise, the cluster “sustainability and goals” provides insightful concepts and managerial actions for implementation. Respectively, a refocus on volunteer/voluntourism tourism through a feminist lens is claimed (Almela & Calvet, 2021). In this regard, non-governmental organizations such as women’s organizations and associations in each African country are fundamental stakeholders in promoting voluntourism. In this perspective, journeys are recommended to target the rural African villages involving women and those encouraging African female empowerment through her participation and by enhancing and outlining her entrepreneurial competencies. Equally, the launching of campaigns against sexual exploitation and those against the trivialization of sex tourism is becoming essential in Africa (Kibicho, 2012).

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Limitations and Future Research First, we used bibliometric analysis to understand gender and social identities in tourism research in African literature published in the WOS database. The sample of the research was extracted to understand bibliometrics and the emerging clusters (themes) around gender, as the main social identity in the intersectionality theory, in the case of African tourism research. Hence, other databases, such as Scopus, could enrich the results of actual findings and provide a complete analysis mapping. Second, despite the relevance of disability inclusion as a key social identity to be crossed with gender, as well as its ongoing study in other tourism continents, the present chapter has outlined a major gap in terms of research intersecting gender with disability inclusion in an African tourism context. In this regard, future studies could approach disability according to the social model with an appreciation that disability covers the interaction of an individual (with health conditions) and her/his contextual factors (Domínguez et al., 2013). The inclusion of women experiencing different types of violence within a perspective of sustainable African tourism remains a challenging avenue for future research. Third, the bibliometric analysis has recorded a scarcity of studies focused respectively on entrepreneurship (4%) and tourism employment (11%). Hence, these tourism aspects require future investigation in the context of intersections between gender and disability inclusion in the tourism sector. Additionally, while carefully designed search phrases were used to run the literature search as given in Fig.  5.1 (Gender” or “Disability” or “LGBTQ” AND “Tourism” or “Hospitality” AND Africa*”), future research can bring more related group of keywords to enhance literature review coverage.

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CHAPTER 6

Tourism and SDG 5: Reflections on the Nexus Between Gender and Disability in the Hospitality Industry Ngoni Courage Shereni

Introduction Gender issues have received wide attention in tourism literature (Nguyen, 2022; Woyo & Venganai, 2022) with more emphasis being given to the role of tourism in increasing employment and income for women (Alarcón & Cole, 2019; Ferguson & Alarcón, 2015; Zhang & Zhang, 2020). Despite a growing amount of literature, gender inequality in the hospitality sector is still a major challenge in several destinations (Elhoushy & El-Said, 2020). More so, with gender equality being recognised as important to sustainability (Alarcón & Cole, 2019) the United Nations has listed it among the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) under SDG 5 (Zhang & Zhang, 2020). Gender inequality is mainly attributed to several factors including stereotyping, long working hours, low salaries, insufficient senior female role models, dominant masculine cultures and poor

N. C. Shereni (*) Accounting and Finance, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_6

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working conditions (Elhoushy & El-Said, 2020; Hutchings et al., 2020). These challenges, thus, negatively affect the career growth of women and are compounded in women with disabilities (Kalargyrou et al., 2020). Globally, an estimated 1 billion people have disabilities representing a significant population demographic group (Benjamin et  al., 2021). Disability in working employees includes hearing, seeing, speech, mobility, agility, pain, learning, memory, psychological and developmental (Groschl, 2007). Certainly, PWDs represent a significant number of the world’s labour force (Hui et al., 2021). However, PWDs widely face discrimination in accessing employment and their employment rate is noted to be lower than that of people without disabilities (Bengisu & Balta, 2011; Jurado-Caraballo et al., 2020). Past research also notes that barriers faced by PWDs in the workplace include supervisor or leadership issues, work conflict, non-inclusive organizational culture and attitude of employers and other employees (Vornholt et  al., 2018). These aspects further make PWDs to be marginalised in society, and tourism employment (Doan et al., 2021). Despite growing research on gender and disability in tourism employment (Hui et al., 2021; Hutchings et al., 2020; Kalargyrou et al., 2018; Rochette et  al., 2022; Saksena & McMorrow, 2021; Zhang & Zhang, 2020; Zhou et al., 2022), studies employing intersectional perspectives in investigating gender and disability in hospitality are still limited. The current study, therefore, attempts to close this gap by analysing gender and disability in hospitality employment using intersectional perspectives. Given the role that the hospitality sector plays in contributing to the achievement of SDG 5, there is a need for a comprehensive understanding of how the hospitality industry in Zimbabwe is helping the destination to achieve gender equality (Alarcón & Cole, 2019; Bramwell et al., 2017) and minimize the marginalisation of PWDs in hospitality employment. Studies focusing on the employment of people with disability and the intersectionality of gender and disability issues in the hospitality industry are limited in Zimbabwe. Several studies focusing on tourism and disability in Zimbabwe focused on accessible tourism (Chikuta, 2008; Chikuta et al., 2021; Mangwiro et al., 2018) and gender equality (Mkono, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c; Nyaruwata & Nyaruwata, 2013; Zinyemba, 2013). PWDs are among the minority and underrepresented groups in the workplace; therefore, their perspectives on gender inequality issues are important in the achievement of SDG 5 and also the achievement of other SDGs. The context of this study is the hospitality industry, specifically the

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accommodation sector in Bulawayo, the second biggest city in Zimbabwe. The following sections of this study will look at background literature, methodological considerations, results and discussion and conclusion.

Literature Review Tourism, Gender, Disability and Sustainable Development Goals In September 2015, the United Nations introduced the Agenda 2030 for sustainable development consisting of 17 SDGs (United Nations, 2015). SDGs are seen to be an improvement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), however, the launch of SDGs was criticised for representing a mere rehash of the failed MDGs (Woyo, 2020). Regardless, the aim of SDGs is to achieve what the MDGs did not achieve (Alarcón & Cole, 2019). The role of tourism in the achievement of Agenda 2030 is mentioned in three of the SDGs, that is decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), responsible consumption and production (SDG 12) and life below water (SDG 14) (Haywood et  al., 2020). However, there is no doubt that tourism can contribute to all the 17 SDGs (Siakwah et  al., 2019; UNWTO, 2015). Gender equality has been for a long time recognised as a socio-­economic problem globally (Zhou et al., 2022). Hence, gender equality is featured in SDG 5 accompanied by targets and indicators meant to bridge the gap (Alarcón & Cole, 2019). The focus of SDG 5 is to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls (United Nations, 2015). The targets for SDG 5 include ending discrimination against women and girls, adopting strong policies and legislation for the promotion of gender equality, ensuring equal opportunities for women in leadership positions and undertaking reforms that give women equal access to economic resources (United Nations, 2015). Though research argued that the hospitality sector is a major employer of women, thus contributing toward the achievement of SDG 5 (Eger, 2021), research exploring the efforts of organisations in creating a more equal workplace is rarely discussed in the literature of developing countries (Bramwell & Lane, 2008). Gender is regarded as socially constructed differences in character between men and women (Baig, 2021; Johnson et  al., 2020; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). It reflects roles that society ascribes to men and women and it varies within and across cultures (Sabina & Jucan, 2013; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Research has noted that recruitment in the tourism

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industry is biased along gender lines (Figueroa-Domecq et  al., 2020). Thus, tourism employment has widespread gendered horizontal and vertical segregation (Costa et al., 2017; Hutchings et al., 2020). For example, horizontal segregation is seen as a common challenge where women excel in jobs with low responsibilities whereas men are positioned for jobs with high responsibilities (Carvalho et al., 2019; Hutchings et al., 2020). Even though women have more representation in tourism employment, they are more concentrated in low-paying positions (Eger, 2021), which does very little to deal with challenges of gender equality and reducing inequalities. Thus, the tourism industry remains more male-dominated (Morgan & Pritchard, 2019; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). The glass ceiling concept is often used to highlight the invisible walls women face in getting to higher positions (Je et al., 2020). Glass ceiling refers to the unseen barriers that prohibit women from getting to higher positions despite having the same qualifications, skills and experience as their male counterparts (Hutchings et  al., 2020). Costa et  al. (2017) observe that the main challenges facing women in advancing their careers in the tourism industry are invisible and difficult to locate, thus investigating them using an intersectional perspective could help make the challenges more manageable. It is also important to note that the challenges women face in the work environment are more when the disability element is considered (Kalargyrou et al., 2020). Disability inclusiveness is seen as key in preparing for future changes in the hospitality labour market (Kalargyrou & Volis, 2014). However, the hospitality sector still lacks a comprehensive inclusive policy framework that takes into consideration PWDs (Meacham et al., 2017). In this regard, the inclusion of PWDs is flagged in several SDGs including 1, 4, 8, 11 and 17 (Vornholt et al., 2018), suggesting that the hospitality sector is critical in the achievement of several SDGs (UNWTO and UNDP, 2017). PWDs face numerous challenges in the workplace such as discrimination and negative employers’ attitude (Meacham et al., 2017). In the recruitment process, hotel managers prefer to hire employees that conform to the traditional sense of physical attractiveness over individuals with disabilities (Hui et  al., 2021). Furthermore, there is a general misconception that PWDs perform less than able-bodied individuals (Donnelly & Joseph, 2012), a situation that further segregates PWDs at work. Job requirements of some positions in the hospitality sector such as receptionist, bedroom hands and concierge create perceived barriers to employing people with disabilities (Hui et  al., 2021). Regardless of the

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segregation faced by PWDs in the workplace, research has shown that they are rated as equal to or better performers than people without disabilities and customers have positive attitudes towards employees with disability (Kalargyrou & Volis, 2014). Employing PWDs provides advantages for both employees and employers. On the one hand, employees get access to flexible employment and on the other hand, employers get the opportunity to increase diversity in the workplace (Paez & Arendt, 2014). Hui et al. (2021) highlighted that customers are more likely to choose hospitality establishments that have disability-friendly policies. In this regard, Baum and Hai (2019) emphasised the need for the hospitality industry to adopt recruitment strategies that are cognizant of gender, disability and the minority status of individuals to make the workplace inclusive. Research has shown that gender issues are not stand alone but rather intersect with other forms of inequality (Je et al., 2020). Intersectionality, therefore, forms the basis of this study by examining how gender can overlap with other identities like disability to contribute to the discrimination of women (Bramwell & Lane, 2008). Morgan and Pritchard (2019) argued that intersectionality has been rarely discussed in hospitality research, yet it is critical in understanding concepts that make up the global hospitality industry. Within the context of this chapter, the intersection of gender equality and disability in the workplace flags the multiplicity of challenges faced by women with disabilities (Darcy et al., 2020).

Research Methods This study utilized a qualitative approach to explore gender inequality and disability issues among employees in the hospitality sector, specifically in accommodation establishments. Qualitative research, particularly interviews, used in this study were interactive and allowed probing interviewees further, resulting in a broader understanding of the phenomena under study (Alshenqeeti, 2014). Data were collected from hospitality employees working in the establishments in Zimbabwe’s second largest city— Bulawayo. The city was chosen because it has significant world-class tourist attractions and a vibrant hospitality sector, currently employing residents and non-residents. Purposive sampling was employed in selecting hospitality employees with disabilities and those that have worked closely with people with disabilities. A semi-structured interview guide was designed based on a comprehensive literature review (Alarcón & Cole, 2019; Carvalho et al., 2019;

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Eger, 2021; Ferguson & Alarcón, 2015; Figueroa-Domecq et al., 2020; Hui et  al., 2021; Kalargyrou & Volis, 2014; Kim et  al., 2021; Mkono, 2010a, 2010b; Nyaruwata & Nyaruwata, 2013). The interview guide was piloted with experts, and this helped to refine the questions and to remove questions that were deemed to be insensitive to PWDs. A combination of face-to-face, telephone as well as online interviews on Zoom and WhatsApp platforms were carried out between January and February 2022. Permission was sought from the interviewees to record the interview proceedings. A total of 24 key informants from various accommodation establishments in Bulawayo were interviewed during the data collection process and the interviews generally lasted 20–30  min. Data saturation was reached by the time the researcher interviewed the 19th interviewee. However, the researcher decided to end data collection at the 24th respondent as there was no new information that was emerging. Strauss and Corbin (1990) argued that interviews can be stopped at the data saturation point, which is the point at which no more insights are generated. There were 16 female and 8 male participants in this study and their ages ranged from 22 to 45 years. Fifteen of the respondents were not married whereas nine of them were married. Participants of this study included managers and junior employees. Three of the participants have disabilities and two of them were females. Respondents were given codes to keep their identities anonymous (Table 6.1). Thematic content analysis was used to analyse the interview data following stages suggested by (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The stages involve data familiarization by transcribing the audio files verbatim and reading the interview transcripts repeatedly, generating initial codes, searching for themes by collating the identified codes, reviewing themes, naming themes and finally producing the report (Table 6.1).

Results and Discussion The results from the thematic content analysis process are presented in this section. This is followed by a discussion of the findings in relation to the literature.

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Table 6.1  Profile of interviewees Interviewee code

Gender Age Designation of respondents Marital status

Disability status

Interviewee 1 Interviewee 2 Interviewee 3

Female 38 Male 25 Female 39

General manager Junior employee Chef

Married Single Married

Interviewee 4 Interviewee 5 Interviewee 6 Interviewee 7 Interviewee 8

Female Female Female Female Male

33 41 34 27 30

Single Married Single Single Married

Interviewee 9 Interviewee 10 Interviewee 11 Interviewee 12 Interviewee 13 Interviewee 14

Female Female Male Male Male Male

24 28 38 26 45 25

Receptionist Assistant Manager Front office manager Receptionists Food and beverage manager Intern Waiter Human resource manager Intern Kitchen supervisor Chef

No disabilities No disabilities With disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities

Interviewee 15

Female 22

Bedroom hand

Single

Interviewee 16 Interviewee 17 Interviewee 18 Interviewee 19 Interviewee 20 Interviewee 21

Male Female Female Female Female Female

Married Married Single Single Single Single

Interviewee 22 Interviewee 23 Interviewee 24

Female 38 Female 35 Male 39

Chef Chef Banqueting manager Receptionist Waiter Food and beverage manager Switchboard operator Front office supervisor Supervisor

No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities With disabilities With disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities

Single Single Married

No disabilities No disabilities No disabilities

36 35 35 22 25 29

Single Single Married Single Married Single

Challenges Faced by Women Employed in the Hospitality Sector On challenges faced by women employed in the hospitality sector, six themes were generated: discrimination, sexual harassment, working conditions, limited opportunities for career growth, conflicting work and family responsibilities and the gender pay gap. On discrimination, the interviews revealed that women are not given the same opportunities as their male colleagues. There is a general perception in the hospitality sector that some jobs in departments like banqueting and kitchen as well as

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top management positions cannot be done by women. All this results in women having to put more effort into proving that they are equally capable as men. The implications of “branding” some jobs as not suitable for women is that their employment options become limited, and they find it difficult to advance beyond such positions. A respondent working as a receptionist said the following: in the hospitality sector, there is discrimination and looking down upon women. (Female Interviewee 20)

With regard to sexual harassment, the key informants highlighted that sexual abuse by work colleagues, superiors and guests is a major challenge faced by women employed in the hospitality sector. Issues such as sexism, where women are used as a tool to lure guests, also came out of the interviews. Quite often, feminine beauty and attractiveness are used in the hospitality industry as a criterion on who to employ in positions such as front office receptionist, guest relations personnel or restaurant hostess. This further exposes women to sexual harassment, especially from guests. More so, women that fail to accede to the sexual demands of their superiors may end miss out on promotional opportunities in their organisations. A male interviewee employed as a Food and Beverage manager expressed the following sentiments: Sexual harassment is embodied by the argument that the customer is a king hence overlooking male clients who would sexually harass the front-line female employees…. Also, there is sexism tied to the exploitation of women where you find the good-looking women being used as a tool to lure customers. (Male interviewee 8)

The analysis of data also showed that working conditions in the hospitality sector are characterized by long working hours, shift work and physically demanding jobs. These conditions put a strain on women employees who may find it difficult to cope with the job demands. Because of this, women may end up choosing jobs that are flexible and less demanding such as receptionist, guest relations service and reservationists among others which are in most cases low level and low-paying jobs. This further increases the concentration of women in low positions. One interviewee employed as a Chef highlighted the following:

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The biggest challenge is the working hours. The working hours in the hospitality sector are too long. So female employees tend to lose out on family time. (Female Interviewee 17)

Limited opportunities for career growth also emerged as a major challenge faced by women. Female positions are not given opportunities to get to executive positions and there is a high concentration of men in such positions. A few women get promoted to management positions as preference is given to their male counterparts. This discourages women from applying for jobs in executive positions. Additionally, limiting growth opportunities for women in the hospitality sector further increases the dominance of men in the workplace. One interviewee, a Food and Beverage manager, explained: you find that executive posts are occupied by men. In most hotels, you don’t find women occupying top management positions. (Female Interviewee 21)

Conflicting work and family responsibilities also came out as a challenge. Women were said to have additional societal roles when compared to men. Such roles include fulfilling their duties as mothers and wives. This makes it difficult for women to balance work responsibilities and family responsibilities which may ultimately force them out of hospitality employment. In most African setups, family responsibilities come first for women. In the case where there is a conflict between family roles and work responsibilities, women are more likely to focus on the family. This further makes female employees to be underrepresented in the workplace. A female interviewee who is a receptionist at one of the hotels said that: Normally, female workers have additional societal roles they have to play. For example, being a mother. This becomes a challenge at the workplace because not everyone is going to understand that additional role. (Female interviewee 4)

It was also observed that the gender pay gap exists in some instances. Some women with the same experience and qualifications as males get paid less. This increases the disparity between men and women. It also makes women vulnerable as their economic status in society is greatly affected. When women have a low economic status in society, they became susceptible to abuse and are more likely to be taken advantage of by men. A male respondent working as a Chef highlighted the following:

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on the issue of wages and salaries most women are not at par with their male counterparts. (Male Interviewee 16)

The challenges identified by the key informants create barriers that make it difficult for women to reach their full potential in the workplace. In concurrence with the results of this study, Carvalho et al. (2019) posit that barriers to women’s growth in the hospitality sector include factors such as unequal treatment, long working hours and work-life balance. Additionally, invisible barriers that restrict women from rising to top-level positions in their organizations persist despite having the same skills and experience as their male counterparts (Hutchings et  al., 2020; Je et  al., 2020). These aspects are made worse because Zimbabwe as a tourist destination has been experiencing economic challenges for several decades, including falling incomes and inflation (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020). This makes women employees in tourism to be more disadvantaged and further marginalised. Challenges Faced by PWDs Employed by the Hospitality Sector The interviewees revealed several challenges faced by PWDs. They indicated that PWDs face discrimination from their work colleagues, superiors and guests. There is a perception that PWDs cannot do certain tasks and are less productive as compared to people without disabilities; this results in them being excluded from certain activities in the organization and they are given fewer challenging tasks which are in most cases in the back office of the organisation. This makes the hospitality sector unattractive for PWDs which may lead to them looking for employment in other sectors of the economy. A female Chef with a disability made the following observations: together with women, PWDs are not recognized, they are considered as people who cannot perform normally, they are considered as people who cannot do other duties. (Female Interviewee 3)

It was also observed that some jobs are not structured for PWDs. The key informants highlighted that PWDs are limited to the departments they can work in especially for employees with physical disabilities. Certain positions in the Kitchen, Front Office, Banqueting and Housekeeping departments are more demanding for PWDs. Positions such as waiters

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require one to be constantly moving serving guests. People with physical disabilities may find it difficult to cope under such conditions. This, therefore, limits the employment opportunities for PWDs in the hospitality sector. A General Manager interviewed shared her experience working with PWDs: I once worked with a woman with a hearing impairment. She was unable to work in departments of her choice. She wanted to work in the kitchen as a chef, but she could not work in the kitchen because of her hearing impairment. She was then made to work in the housekeeping department where there is less interaction with people. (Female Interviewee 1)

Also, structurally the hospitality workplace is not designed for PWDs. This relates to the physical structures and the equipment used in the hospitality sector. Some sections in the hospitality sector are not designed to allow PWDs to access. For example, people using wheelchairs are limited to the areas they can access without difficulties. In addition, the equipment used in the hospitality sector like cleaning equipment, telephones, computers and office furniture is not designed for PWDs. This makes it difficult for them to perform effectively in their specific organisations. One Bedroom Hand with a disability expressed the following opinions: Infrastructure at work is not suitable for PWDs. For example, most hotels do not have braille for people who are blind… Some only have stairs and that becomes a problem for people with physical disabilities using wheelchairs. (Female interviewee 15)

Related to the findings of this study, Meacham et  al. (2017) cited that PWDs mention discrimination as a barrier to retaining employment. In addition, Mkono (2010a) argued that in the hospitality industry in Zimbabwe the nature of the job rather than policies restricts the employment of people with disabilities. Hui et  al. (2021) and Vornholt et  al. (2018) further noted that some job requirements in the hospitality sector create barriers that restrict the employment of PWDs. Research by Kalargyrou and Volis (2014) also indicated that hiring PWDs would compel companies to change workplace designs to suit their needs. This supports the assertion that the workplace environment in most hospitality organisations does not support PWDs.

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To link the disability angle to gender equality, the key informants were asked to respond on whether women with disability in the hospitality sector face different challenges as their male counterparts. The respondents observed that both male and female employees face numerous challenges as compared to people without disabilities. It was further noted that women with disabilities face more challenges as compared to men because of their gender and disability status. Further to the challenges faced by PWDs, female employees also face challenges such as sexual harassment, limited growth opportunities and gender discrimination. This, therefore, is a clear indication that women with disabilities face numerous challenges as compared to women without disabilities as well as their male counterparts with disabilities. One General Manager said the following: by the virtue that women are marginalized and adding on a disability element they become more vulnerable, and the challenges faced by PWDs regardless of gender are magnified when they are faced by women. (Female Interviewee 1)

Previous studies have noted that people with disabilities are discriminated against in the workplace as compared to those without disabilities, especially among women with disabilities (Kalargyrou et  al., 2020). Jolley et al. (2018) further indicate that women with disabilities face numerous challenges emanating from their gender, perceived inabilities and low socio-economic status. The intersectionality of gender and disability magnifies discrimination and inequality among women (Mkhize & Mgcotyelwa-­ Ntoni, 2019). The Impacts of COVID-19 on Women with Disabilities in the Hospitality Workplace Three themes emerged on the impacts of COVID-19 on women employees with disability. The first theme is job losses. The majority of people working in the hospitality industry were at risk of losing their jobs due to COVID-19. Women with disabilities were mostly affected because of their disability and gender status. The study established that the general perception in the hospitality industry is that men are better performers than women and also that people without disabilities perform better than PWDs. So this perception informed the decision to lay out women with disabilities first. This was observed by a female Food and Beverage manager:

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Women were among the people that were retrenched first and women with disability were not spared. (Female Interviewee 21)

The second issue relates to salary cuts. A lot of hospitality establishments introduced a policy where people were paid according to the number of days/hours they work. Women with disabilities were not considered to be part of the essential staff, hence most of them were in the bracket of those that were asked to stay at home during the COVID-19 pandemic. This resulted in them receiving salary cuts as they were working fewer hours as disclosed by one Supervisor: During COVID-19 hospitality organisations streamlined their workforce and introduced earn as you work policy. This affected mostly women with disabilities because they were asked to stay at home. (Male Interviewee 24)

Limited employment opportunities also emerged as a challenge faced by women with disabilities during COVID-19. The pandemic resulted in restrictions on international travelling. This had severe impacts on the tourism industry for most countries in the Global South relying on international tourists. Consequently, the accommodation sector recorded prolonged depressed occupancy levels. This limited the capacity for hotels to employ as there were few job opportunities available. The situation is worse for PWDs especially women because preference is first given to people without disabilities. One participant who is a Receptionist pointed out the following sentiments: As a result of COVID-19, hospitality organisations are not employing. This has added a strain to women with disability because the workforce has become smaller. (Female Interviewee 4)

These findings affirm previous studies that have shown that women in the tourism industry were mostly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic mostly due to gender discrimination (Lopes et al., 2021). Gulseven et al. (2020) further revealed that COVID-19 has worsened inequality and discrimination among women, girls and PWDs. This study argues that this was made worse because Zimbabwe as a tourist destination had more structural challenges prior to COVID-19 (Woyo, 2021), and thus women with disabilities were further marginalised.

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Strategies That Can Be Employed by the Hospitality Sector to Contribute to SDG 5 In light of the challenges women face in the hospitality sector, the key informants highlighted some strategies that can be employed to aid in the achievement of SDG 5. Three themes emerged from the interviews, and they are providing equal opportunities for males and females: coming up with a comprehensive policy framework and gender awareness campaigns. On providing equal opportunities for males and females the respondents indicated that women should be promoted based on merit, be given the same promotional opportunities as men, should be considered for employment at top positions, be paid the same salaries as their male counterparts and should be encouraged to apply for certain positions dominated by men. This helps to contribute to the achievement of SDG 5 because it will help to ensure that women are treated equally to men and also that they get the same opportunities as men. When this is practised, issues such as gender pay gap, discrimination and limited opportunities for career growth amongst women are reduced. Encouraging women to apply for leadership positions reduces the dominance of men in executive positions which contributes to indicator 5.5.2 of the SDGs (proportion of women in managerial positions). In this regard a Switchboard operator said: Women should be given the opportunity to occupy top positions like CEOs, Managing Director and General Managers. (Female Interviewee 22)

Some interviewees noted the need for a comprehensive policy framework at both national and company levels to address gender equality issues. The respondents noted that at the organisational level, gender-inclusive policies should be introduced or enforced to protect the rights of women. Also, a strong policy framework is needed at the national level to guide the legislative framework. However, it is important to note that in Zimbabwe, at the national and organizational levels, there exist numerous legal and policy instruments that can be used to fight gender equality. Perhaps what is lacking is their implementation, which, therefore, needs to be emphasised. One General Manager employed at a hotel provided the following recommendations and shared practices by her organisation in this regard: From a national point of view, the government can put in place gender-­sensitive policies…For the hospitality sector in particular the organisations should put in

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place policies that protect women from discrimination and sexual harassment, providing an enabling environment for career growth for women…At the organisation that I work for, there is a policy to employ a large quota of women and a limited quota of men. That policy reflects from lower-level positions right up to the higher-level positions. (Female Interviewee 1)

The key informants also submitted that gender awareness campaigns are needed to make gender equality a top agenda item. The respondents noted that to change the mindset of men, there is a need to raise awareness of the importance of gender equality, do workshops where gender equality is highlighted and even carry out training sessions so that employees have an appreciation of gender equality in the workplace. Challenges faced by women and PWDs can emanate from the fact that other members of the organisation may not be aware of how to deal with this special group. Hence, awareness campaigns may help to raise their plight and inform other employees on how to handle them. For example, one Waiter said: Creating awareness campaigns on the importance of treating both men and women equally in the workplace because most of the issues are because people are not informed on gender equality issues. (Female interviewee 10)

The adoption of the SDGs by the United Nations resulted in a global momentum to ensure that marginalized people, such as PWDs, are included in the global development discourse (Jolley et al., 2018). There is no doubt the achievement of SDG 5 will result in gender equality and empowerment of women (Alarcón & Cole, 2019) including those with disabilities. Although policies exist at the national level and in various organisations in the hospitality sector in Zimbabwe, there is a need to enforce an intersectionality approach to achieve gender equality and disability inclusion, especially for women with disabilities (Nyaruwata & Nyaruwata, 2013; Zinyemba, 2013) to strengthen the contribution by the hospitality sector to the achievement of SDG 5.

Conclusion This study has various theoretical and practical implications. There is generally a paucity of studies focusing on the intersection of gender inequality and disability issues in the hospitality industry. Drawing from the intersectionality theory, this study disaggregates gender and disability issues to

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provide an in-depth understanding of the double jeopardy faced by women with disabilities. The results of this study are important to hospitality practitioners as they provide insights into gender equality issues more so in relation to women with disabilities. This study reveals that gendered discrimination is widespread in the hospitality industry (Mkono, 2010a). Women find it difficult to expand their careers to higher positions because of various structural barriers and the dominance of men (Zinyemba, 2013). These challenges are compounded in women with disabilities because they also have to deal with the general challenges faced by PWDs (Jolley et  al., 2018). Hospitality managers should implement strategies that ensure that the sector contributes to the achievement of SDG 5. The socio-cultural context of Zimbabwean society is widely credited for causing most of the challenges faced by women with disabilities. As observed by Chabaya et  al. (2009), Zimbabwe is a patriarchal society where men are socialized to dominate women; this, therefore, creates structural discrimination practices that hinder women from taking up leadership positions. Also, the religious and cultural beliefs on the cause of disability play an influential role in the way society views PWDs (Mukushi et al., 2019). Traditionally, it is believed that disability is a result of supernatural factors, witchcraft or avenging spirits (Haihambo & Lightfoot, 2010). Therefore, inequality challenges faced by women with disabilities are magnified when patriarchy and traditional perceptions of the causes of disability are brought to the workplace. This study is not without its limitations. Firstly, the focus was on the hospitality sector in Zimbabwe. Future studies can focus on other countries in the global South. This will enable the triangulation of findings from different contexts. Also, this study presents perspectives from employees in the hospitality sector occupying various positions from junior employees to middle management. Future studies can draw insights from executive management to get an insight into their perspective of gender issues among people with disabilities. Executive managers are key decision-­ makers in any organization, therefore their opinions are more likely to affect the thrust taken by an organization toward gender equality and disability inclusion issues.

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CHAPTER 7

Towards Gender and Disability Inclusive Tourism Development in Zimbabwe: Insights Through Sustainable Development Goals Zibanai Zhou

and Tendai Chibaya

Introduction Gender inequality and disability exclusion remain topical issues globally (Fergueroa-Domecq & Segovia-Perez, 2020; Freund & Hernandez-­ Maskivker, 2021; Nunkoo et al., 2020). The discrimination against people with disabilities (PWDs) and gender-based inequality remain a challenge in tourism in several destinations (Kalargyrou et al., 2018; Pough & Eid, 2021). The tourism industry, on the one hand, remains a gendered industry, while on the other hand, it is credited for providing empowerment for women (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). The persistence of gender and Z. Zhou (*) Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected] T. Chibaya Hospitality, Tourism and Culture, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_7

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disability discrimination poses several challenges in achieving the Agenda 2030’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This perpetuation is partly due to the approach in tourism research that has investigated these aspects as detached from each other when an intersectionality approach would have been more useful. Consequently, the double marginalisation experienced by PWDs sometimes remains unnoticed as at times such people are treated as homogeneous and genderless beings (Pough & Eid, 2021). This approach often results in less effective policies and makes it more difficult and complex to unpack the challenges of gender and disability discrimination, in an industry that has been praised for its empowerment programmes (Chbat et  al., 2022; Nakamura, 2020; Shapiro, 2020). Thus, analysing the interplay of such constructs using an intersectional perspective is critical in unpacking its complexities and facilitating the development of policies that help tourist destinations to deal with the challenges of gender and disability inequalities. The study acknowledges a few studies that examined disability issues in Zimbabwe such as Chikuta et  al. (2021), Mangwiro et  al. (2018), and Mugumbate and Nyoni (2014). However, their main weakness has been in investigating the aspect of disability alone, without looking at gender. Governments must embed gender and disability inclusion issues in economic development policy frameworks (Roy & Xiaoling, 2022) as part of strategies to achieve SDGs. The Agenda 2030 consists of 17 SDGs, and the focus of SDG 5 is to achieve gender equality and empower women. In addition, SDGs 8 and 10 aim to promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth and reduce poverty, respectively. Globally, past research shows that women are still facing discrimination in several spheres of life including in family, society, workplace, business, and political positions (Alarcon & Cole, 2019; Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020; Roy & Xiaoling, 2022; Scheyvens & Biddulph, 2018) and access to labour markets, promotions, pay, and freedoms (Carvalho et al., 2018; Mkono, 2012). Some contend that the achievement of SDG 5 would require tourist destinations to reduce the gap between women and men by providing access to resources and opportunities and reducing vulnerability to workplace violence (Alarcon & Cole, 2019). Several governments are active in implementing policies and programmes that ensure the achievement of Agenda 2030 (Scheyvens & Biddulph, 2018), and Zimbabwe is no exception, as its Vision 2030, outlined in its National Development Strategy, is underpinned by a developmental focus (Government of Zimbabwe, 2021).

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Though gender equity and disability inclusion are critical elements tied to attaining Agenda 2030 SDGs (Alarcon & Cole, 2019; Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020), inequalities and discrimination against women persist (Roy & Xiaoling, 2022; Woyo & Venganai, 2022), suggesting that practical solutions to the problem have been limited, and this could be worse for women with disabilities. Despite women being the majority of the workforce in the hospitality sector (Ferguson & Alarcon, 2015), their representation in the technical or managerial leadership of the sector remains insignificant compared to men (Mkono, 2012). Additionally, semi-skilled women tend to work in the most vulnerable jobs such as waiters, cleaners, and receptionists, where they experience poor working conditions, unequal opportunities and ill-treatment, violence, exploitation, stress, and sexual harassment (Blank, 2022; Kalargyrou et  al., 2018; Pough & Eid, 2021). Furthermore, previous research continues to investigate gender in tourism research without intersecting it with disability (Alarcon & Cole, 2019; Eger et al., 2021). The lack of holistic investigation of the intersecting issues of gender and disability may not be helpful for policymakers, and this could be evidenced by the perpetual existence of same-gender challenges identified in most of the previous research (Freund & Hernandez-Maskivker, 2021; Kogovsek & Kogovsek, 2012; Rinaldi & Salerno, 2020; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). While gender inequality is a concerning issue in all economic sectors, it is more pronounced in the tourism industry (Araujo-Vila et  al., 2021; Eger, 2021, Otegui-Carles, 2021). In addition to the normal challenges faced by women, past research shows that women with disabilities often experience more marginalisation in hiring and promotion standards, access to credit and other productive resources, and access to training and retraining in labour markets (Panwar, 2022). Due to some of these challenges, there is a need for research to focus on sustainable and inclusive development and how tourism can be more inclusive of gender and PWD aspects (Araujo-Vila et al., 2021). This is regardless of a growing stream of literature focusing on gender (Mkono, 2012; Mugumbate & Nyoni, 2014; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). It is envisaged that research on the intersectionality of gender and disability inclusion would inform the enactment of appropriate pro-gender equality and disability-inclusive tourism policies that enhance socio-economic transformation. Doing so is critical for an industry considered the largest and fastest in the service sector of the

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global economy (Zhou, 2020), with women constituting most of its workforce (Ferguson & Alarcon, 2015). Zimbabwean tourism has come a long way in promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment at the national level across economic sectors (MWACSMED, 2019). This chapter seeks to examine the progress made towards attaining gender parity and disability inclusion in the tourism industry in Zimbabwe in the past two decades using the period 2002–2022. This period is significant because it saw the reconfiguration of the tourism sector’s corporate boards necessitated by the stepping down of white people due to the land reform process. While studies investigating gender in the tourism context in Zimbabwe exist (Chikuta et al., 2021; Mkono, 2012; Mangwiro et al., 2018; Mkono et al., 2021; Mugumbate & Nyoni, 2014), the focus has been predominantly on empowering women in wildlife conservation, women representation in management positions, and accessibility of tourism facilities for people with disabilities. There is a dearth of information on the intersection of gender and PWDs in the tourism industry, in Zimbabwe. The next section discusses gender and disability inclusion in the wider tourism discourses. The methodology that was adopted is described in the subsequent section. The last section of the chapter discusses the findings of the study and provides a conclusion to the study.

Gender, Disability, and Intersectionality Discourses in Tourism Development Broadly, gender is a complex and fluid concept that sometimes is used to cover aspects such as sex differences, sexuality, gender expression, and gender identity (Eger et al., 2021, Woyo & Venganai, 2022). In several studies, the investigation of gender has been done separately from disability (Araujo-Vila et  al., 2021; Canada & Alarcon, 2018; Freund & Hernandez-Maskivker, 2021; Kogovsek & Kogovsek, 2012; Rinaldi & Salerno, 2020), suggesting that the application of intersectionality is rather limited even in tourism research (Cole, 2017). The intersectionality perspective was introduced in the early 1970s to explain the intersectionality of gender with other social identities like race (Crenshaw, 1989). It refers to ‘the mutually constitutive relations among social identities’ (Shields, 2008, p. 301). This chapter acknowledges that there is no single identity category that satisfactorily describes how individuals respond to their

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social environment. There is a need for viewing gender and disability issues as intersectional and emergent in relation to one another for a more nuanced understanding that could result in developing effective solutions to deal with inequalities. In recent years, the intersection of gender and disability is now beginning to receive academic attention in tourism research through the dominant narrative of ‘double discrimination’, whereby persons with disabilities face discrimination and exclusion on the grounds of both their disability and gender (Pough & Eid, 2021), although this has been from non-African contexts. The creation of an inclusive tourism environment is important to ensure that there is equitable access to resources and opportunities for all (UNWTO, 2018). This is critical if destinations are not to ‘leave anyone behind’, especially women and PWDs. Gender equality is one of the core principles of creating an inclusive tourism environment (Ferguson & Alarcon, 2015). Past research has acknowledged that tourism is an influential key pillar of sustainable development (Adeola et al., 2018; Matiza & Perks, 2022) since it generates jobs and foreign currency and spurs infrastructural development, all of which inspire the preservation of tourism resources. Tourist destinations can use sustainable tourism development to address gender imbalances and disability and thereby inspiring the achievement of inclusive development (Roy & Xiaoling, 2022). Inclusion entails the extent to which individuals feel being a part of an organisation or process (Bernstein et  al., 2020; Huss & MacLachlan, 2016). In most societies, PWDs face overt and covert systemic, structural, and context-dependent barriers, which hinder their participation in processes affecting their lives (Ebuenyi et  al., 2021). The intersectionality approach highlights the effect of the intersection of various identifications and identities, which sometimes favour the production of privilege or conversely reinforce the marginalisation of certain people and communities (Chbat et  al., 2022). This approach offers both societal and individual angles to better understand how society through its institutions structures the lives of individuals and also to discern all the trajectories that arise at the family, workplace, and professional levels (Blank, 2022). The intersectionality of various social locations such as race, age, and sexuality also allows a better understanding of the different power dynamics within the tourism sector labour force (Blank, 2022; Jammaers, 2022; Kosanic et al., 2022).

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Methodology Study Context Zimbabwe is a southern African country whose economy depends on agriculture, mining, and tourism. The tourism sector is dominated by the overseas tourism market (Woyo, 2021). An array of wildlife resources such as the Big Five and attractions like Great Zimbabwe monuments, Victoria Falls, and the Eastern Highlands are the bedrock of the tourism sector Woyo, 2018; Zhou, 2013). Zimbabwe has several top-of-the-range chain hotels and independent hotels, such as African Sun, Rainbow Tourism Group, Cresta Hospitality, Meikles Africa, and Albida Tourism Group (ZNTRGS, 2020). Given the economic significance of tourism in terms of employment creation and foreign currency generation, the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) developed a supportive skilled human resource base. To this effect, higher education in Zimbabwe was liberalised, thus widening women’s access to acquiring degree qualifications in tourism. Prior to this period, only Bulawayo Polytechnic’s School of Hotel and Tourism was providing tourism-related training with a higher national diploma (HND) as the highest qualification (Zhou, 2013). Lastly, Zimbabwe adopted a new Constitution (2013) that emphasised gender equity in all economic sectors. This was further promoted by the National Development Strategy 1 (NDS1) programme that was premised on gender and inclusive economic development, which heightened awareness and the need to have more women in senior management positions, both in the private and public sectors. Equally significant is the 2021 National Disability Policy, which seeks to promote the mainstreaming of disability in all spheres of life. Data Collection and Sample A qualitative approach involving online key informant interviews was employed to investigate progress towards gender and disability inclusive in Zimbabwean tourism. Furthermore, data were collected through online semi-structured interviews in January 2022 through Zoom. Interview informants were drawn from different sectors such as hotels, tour operators, travel agencies, car rentals, and the tourism regulatory body using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Firstly, the researchers were furnished with institutional emails and designations by the human resource

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managers of different tourism organisations. Secondly, based on the list of designations, only people whose job designation was in line with gender and disability inclusion were selected to participate in the study. Thirdly, to ensure that we have a representative sample, we also applied the snowball sampling procedure to invite more study participants. One of the participants who was purposively selected was requested to suggest a potential respondent by furnishing us with their mobile number. After contacting the potential participant, the participant was asked to suggest the next participant. Interview sessions averaged 25 minutes. Past tourism studies have been conducted using samples between 14 and 30 that are considered adequate for scientific analysis in qualitative research (Phelan, 2015; Yap & Ineson, 2009). We settled for 20 key participants representing different sectors (Table 7.1). Informants were asked questions related to the availability of policies and regulations which promote gender equity and disability inclusion in tourism, gender parity and disability inclusion challenges, whether gender and disability influence tourism-sector salary structures, representation of women and people with disabilities in senior management positions, and availability of sexual harassment policies at the workplace. Data from online interviews were recorded verbatim, later transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a systematic technique of identifying, analysing, and constructing patterns of data and classifying them into themes (Clarke & Braun, 2017; Bernard, 2017). A more careful, focused re-reading followed the skimming and revision of the data for pattern recognition within the data. The data were carefully reviewed, analysed, and coded in line with the objectives of the study.

Findings This section presents and discusses the study’s findings. The findings from semi-structured interviews are presented in themes. The summary of themes from interviews are diversity and political will, gender parity and PWD inclusive supportive initiatives, and pay gaps and sexual harassment. Theme 1: Diversity and Political Will Findings showed that gender equality in Zimbabwe’s tourism sector has improved significantly in the past two decades, while disability inclusion lags, hence undermining the achievement of the Agenda 2030 Sustainable

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Table 7.1  Key informant interviewees’ profile Informant Designation

Sector/organisation

Sex Experience

1 2 3 4 5 6

Tourism-sector regulator Hotel Hotel Hotel Hotel Parks and wildlife

M M F M M F

20 years 15 years 12 years 16 years 10 years 12 years

Hospitality Association of Zimbabwe Hospitality Trade Association Academic Academic

F

10 years

F F M

13 years 20 years 15 years

Ministry of Tourism, Climate, Environment and Hospitality Industry Campfire Workers’ union Association of people with disabilities Women in Tourism Association Tour operation Lodge Travel agency Campfire association Meeting and events

M

10 years

M F M

10 years 11 years 12 years

F M M F M M

11 years 15 years 16 years 20 years 19 years 13 years

7 8 9 10

Inspector Human Resource Executive Manager Human Resources Officer Manager Finance and Administration Manager Customer Liaison Officer

12 13 14

Administrator Instructor Head of Department: Curriculum Development Principal Officer: Head of Tourism Policy Formulation Director Committee Member Chairperson

15 16 17 18 19 20

Provincial Secretary Manager Lodge Manager Travel Consultant Regional Chairperson Functions Coordinator

11

Source: Authors

Development Goals 8 and 10. This was evident through the aspect of women’s representation, which was a recurring subtheme in most responses: Women have risen to become managing directors of some tourism organisations in the private sector. This was unheard of in the period soon after independence (Participant 17). Women have scaled the corporate ladder in the tourism sector. The glass ceiling has been broken as we see professional women and people with physical limitations encouragingly taking up executive board positions. Women are excelling at senior management level, and we hope these women would influence the

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decision-making processes to ensure a friendly working environment that accommodates everyone (Participant 5).

The analysis of the narratives also shows that there is political will in ensuring the achievement of gender equality through the appointment of senior officials in government. However, while there is political will to achieve gender equality, it is not intersecting with disability, and this was summed by the following quote from Participant 11: a female tourism minister and a female deputy minister were respectively appointed in 2013 and 2018 to lead the tourism ministry portfolio on the understanding that they would have a head start to champion the gender, disability and inclusivity issues much better.

Several participants also noted a growing political will in creating a tourism ecosystem that supports the participation of women in the value chain at the grassroots level. This is evidenced by the formation of Women in Tourism chapters across the ten administrative provinces of Zimbabwe. The approach to increasing the participation of women through the chapters is informed by the intersection of gender and disability. The responses below illustrate this: Far flung communities are being reached through Women in Tourism chapters outreach programmes and encourages inclusivity (Participant 11). For the first time since independence, the voices of marginalised sections of people are taken on the board courtesy of the Women in Tourism chapter concept (Participant 15).

In the private sector, the achievement of equality has been fronted from being more inclusive organisations, and strategies that are being implemented support more diversity in the workplace. These views were summed up by the following excerpts: In our organisation, we use gender-neutral titles like board chairperson, deputy board chairperson to promote equity among employees (Participant 8). The trend in the tourism sector is that most organisations stopped using gender insensitive language about a decade ago (Participant 16).

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While efforts at organisational level could be applauded, the interventions in most tourism organisations are still not informed by an intersectional perspective. Several of the participants noted that tourism organisations are supporting the career advancement of women through education for their managers. This does contribute not only to SDG 5 but also to SDG 4. The following narratives support the career development strategy in dealing with gender inequalities in Zimbabwe: We pay tuition fees for women and other male managers to improve their educational qualifications as long as they enrol in Zimbabwe (Participant 3). Women can now compete with their male counterparts in all job positions courtesy of the hotel’s deliberate development programme (Participant 9). Every year we have a sponsorship program to support and develop junior managers through further education (Participant 14).

The career advancement of PWDs is not seen as a concern by most tourism organisations, and this further marginalises their participation in the industry. Not only is this a challenge in private sector organisations, but there is also no political will in appointing PWDs to lead the tourism industry from a public sector perspective. This is further reflected by the general lack of facilities in the industry to facilitate their employment. Theme 2: Gender Parity and PWD Inclusive Supportive Initiatives The analysis of data shows that through corporate social responsibility programmes, women, PWDs, and disadvantaged groups like widows and unemployed youths were being sponsored to participate in tourism events. However, this also generated mixed feelings, as the intersection of gender and disability is not currently used to encourage the participation of women in tourism through these sponsorship programmes: These platforms are not friendly to people with disabilities due to lack of appropriate facilities (Participant 7). Participation in tourism symposiums provides participants with an opportunity to network and acquire skills (Participant 14).

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Participants also argued that financial inclusion is very important in ensuring the effective participation of women in tourism. The study noted that participants appreciate efforts that are being put in place to help PWDs, unemployed youth, and women with capital to participate in tourism enterprise: We now have an Empowerment and Women’s bank established solely to assist the financially excluded members of society (Participant 15).

However, though financial inclusion is critical for increasing the participation of women in tourism, the major challenge that was noted in this study is the further lack of intersectionality in the design of these strategic responses, as women continue to be treated homogeneously. This view was summed up by the following quote: Few women mostly those in urban areas have benefited. Lack of information and high illiteracy levels among women in rural areas have prevented them from meaningfully benefiting from these loans (Participant 12).

Theme 3: Pay Gaps and Sexual Harassment Sexual harassment was identified in this study as still widespread in the tourism sector. Additionally, women are still earning less when compared to men, and this implies that Zimbabwean tourism is also very gendered. These aspects of discrimination are summarised with the following quotes: Cases of sexual harassment around issues of promotions and securing of placement for student work-related learning are still being reported in many hotels (Participant 19). Our organisation’s pay structure is informed by the job position and qualification (Participant 13).

Discussion and Conclusion This study examined the progress towards attaining gender equality and disability inclusion in Zimbabwe’s tourism sector. The study generated mixed results concerning the progress that has been made. Firstly, findings showed more significant progress towards gender equality as

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evidenced by more women taking up senior management positions in the tourism sector. By the same line of reasoning, it can be concluded that there is progress towards gender equality and diversity in Zimbabwean tourism. While this finding is not consistent with previous studies such as Freund and Hernandez-Maskivker (2021), Canada and Alarcon (2018), and Rinaldi and Salerno (2020), it could be attributed to the deliberate liberalisation of affirmative action in higher education (Zhou, 2013) coupled with the political will to elevate women in senior management unlike in other countries. This is an important step in redressing gender imbalances in a tourism industry that is being highly gendered (Mkono, 2012; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Generally, Zimbabwean societies still pay little attention to issues of disabilities, while gender seems to have received better attention because of the girl child network education. Culturally, Zimbabwean society shuns disability and regards it as a curse; hence, PWDs are discriminated against. Furthermore, the study found that women are being supported in attaining higher qualifications, which do not only help the destination to achieve SDG 5, but also help in achieving other SDGs including poverty alleviation. The finding is consistent with previous research that concluded that with more universities offering tourism qualifications, women are likely to be more trained (Zhou, 2013). The results also showed that with political will, the inequalities that women experience can be effectively dealt with. Appointment of women in top government positions like ministers is imperative in dealing with stereotypes regarding the competence of women. Traditionally, Zimbabwean society does not have a tourism culture. This partly explains the historical context of underinvestment in hospitality human capital in institutions of higher learning in the early years of independence unlike in other professions like law, accounting, and sciences. From a policy and technical skill perspective, semi-skilled personnel can work in the hospitality sector. Despite this progress towards gender equality at the government level, disability challenges have not been approached with the same effort, and thus, this study concludes that the application of intersectionality of gender and disability is not evident. This is corroborating what was established in previous research in which the intersectionality of these two aspects has been conspicuously absent (Mooney, 2020; Pritchard, 2018; Smith et al., 2021). Secondly, the study established an industry-wide shift towards the use of gender-neutral titles in hotel chain groups and government parastatals as part of diversity. This

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resonates with poststructuralist feminist perspectives that state that the use of such neutral language is progressive and useful in challenging gender inequalities in workplaces (Makarem et  al., 2019; CrowleyHenry & Al Ariss, 2018). Women and PWDs can be given a head start to scale the corporate ladder if supported by higher educational qualifications (Carvalho et al., 2018). Thirdly, the study found that there are efforts to empower women and PWDs in the tourism sector at grassroots level nationally. This approach is a departure from the traditional top-down initiatives that were used by the government to engage with tourism stakeholders because it also applies the intersectionality perspective. This is a huge step towards fulfilling the SDGs’ inclusive goal where every community is represented, thereby correcting the exclusion of women and PWDs (Roth, 2018). Fourthly, the study also found that financial inclusion is critical in dealing with gender and disability discrimination. Though financial initiatives are in place to deal with gender and disability, they are weak in that they are not informed from the intersectionality perspective. This finding reveals the inadequacies of policy initiatives that are enacted without looking at issues from intersecting perspectives. PWDs still face challenges in accessing funding from loan facilities due to bureaucracy, and this is consistent with past studies (Chbat et  al., 2022; Dintwa et  al., 2019; Morris et  al., 2018). While the initiatives are aligned to SDGs and deal with marginalisation, exclusion of women, and PWDs, they are not effective in creating an inclusive tourism ecosystem as PWDs remain excluded because of so many structural factors. PWDs are most vulnerable to neglect by society as they are viewed with superstition and rejection. The treatment of PWDs is closely related to their experiences in social settings which renders PWDs’ capabilities either visible or invisible, and by extension they suffer exclusion in the top echelons of the tourism sector. Tradition and past beliefs still influence present-day practice and treatment of and attitude towards PWDs, hugely contributing to discriminatory practices at workplaces. There is a need for a follow-up programme to assess the effectiveness of these interventions if they are benefiting the intended target people. The establishment of banks was a good initiative; however, the disproportionate access to the loans by the supposed beneficiaries as highlighted by informants is still a concerning issue. Attaining gender equality and disability inclusion requires the cooperation of key stakeholders in ensuring that the aspect of financial inclusion and access to loans is addressed. Patriarchy influences the progression of females in higher posts coupled

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with household accountability. Women still experience conflicts between the demands of the job and family activities. For those in higher posts, when it comes to networking after hours with business counterparts, female married managers would find it difficult to attend the functions because of traditional culture. The Zimbabwean society is strongly patriarchal in a manner that the relationship between men and women is male dominated in several aspects. Patriarchal practices shape and perpetuate gender inequality and strip women and PWDs of opportunities and inclusivity in economic spheres. Furthermore, this study recommends that destination stakeholders must develop necessary sexual harassment policies and appropriate reporting structures to deal with issues of sexual harassment in tourism workspaces. The study’s practical implication to PWDs is that the exclusion of PWDs in the tourism value chain remained a recurrent subtheme throughout the responses; however, for a developing country like Zimbabwe whose economic development strategy has a developmental focus on not leaving anyone behind, it is too serious a concern to be overlooked. The issue becomes more consequential if not managed effectively considering the need to achieve SDGs 5, 8, and 10. This study contributes to the literature in the form of different themes which can be regarded as useful variables in further research. The dominant themes of diversity and political will, gender parity and PWD inclusive initiatives, and equal pay and sexual harassment policies contribute to gender equity and PWD discourse in Zimbabwe. However, this study is not without a limitation. The study was based on a qualitative approach using a purposively selected sample that may not justify the external validity or generalisability of the findings. To this end, rigorous investigation of the progress of gender equity and disability inclusivity at the subsector level is suggested. Future studies should also examine context-specific variables impeding the inclusion of PWDs in tourism enterprise at subsector level in the context of developing countries using document analysis as a different methodology.

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SECTION III

Questioning Inclusivity and Diversity in Tourism Development in Africa

CHAPTER 8

The Queering of Spaces: A Critical Analysis of How Male Sex Work Is Shaped in the Tourism Industry in Botswana Lesedi Mashumba

Introduction The correlation between sex work and sex tourism is very complex, especially in the African context where denial of its existence is entangled with religious disapproval and politicisation (Mashumba, 2021). Male sex work is preferred over ‘prostitution’ as a politer, indiscriminating, emotionally neutral term (Minichiello et al., 2013) and to depict remunerated sexual activities (Kibicho, 2016; Sanchez-Taylor, 2006). It has been defined broadly to include various categories of legal and illegal activities such as stripping, sexual intercourse, pandering, phone sex operations, pornography, and escorting (Cooke & Sontag, 2005). Research shows that male sex work within the contemporary African social, legal, and feminist discourse remains a very controversial issue as it

L. Mashumba (*) Sociology, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_8

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exists as a ‘fuzzy legal’ activity. It is largely prohibited in many African countries, yet continues in many of these countries within a social framework of limited tolerance and constraint (Awondo et al., 2012; Freude & Waites, 2022; Ryan & Kinder, 1996). Several African countries including Botswana still criminalise same-sex marriages. For instance, in Botswana, Sections 149, 154, 155, 156, and 157 of the Penal Code criminalise procuring any person to have an unlawful carnal connection or become a prostitute, living on earnings of prostitution, persistently soliciting for prostitution, and aiding prostitution for gain and brothel-keeping. However, other African contexts like Mozambique have decriminalised such (Freude & Waites, 2022). Sex tourism is very complex and has been defined as tourism for which the main motivation, or at least part of the main aim of the trip, is to consummate or engage in commercial sexual relations, usually by people from rich countries to developing countries (Omondi, 2003; Ryan & Hall, 2001). Kibicho (2016, p. 1) posits that tourism only exposes the ‘creative impulse of sexual desire and drive’ and where ‘the pleasures of the sun, sea, sand, safari, and sex’ have been providing significant incentives for tourists to travel to Africa. Though there are rising homophobic discourses in the context of African countries (Freude & Waites, 2022), research on the queering of spaces and how male sex work is shaped in homophobic tourist destinations remains limited in Africa (Mashumba, 2021). There is a need for research to generate insights on these aspects in African studies of gender, disability, and sexuality (Nyeck & Epprecht, 2013). Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) posit that gender is a primary signifier of power reproduced in everyday social interactions. Therefore, what is perceived as culturally appropriate manhood is one of how gender is constructed. The task of a man, therefore, becomes anti-essentialist and involves men taking on and negotiating their way through the current hegemonic masculinity discourse using strategies that are either complicit or resistant to the hegemonic type. Furthermore, in African queer studies, male sex work, especially the construct of homosexualism, is a Western concept with a complex relationship to expressions of same-sex sexuality (Edwards & Epprecht, 2020), and deconstruction of this is required. Based on this, the objective of this study is to explore how male sex work is practised in Botswana considering the destination’s local dynamics of socio-economic and cultural expectations and the legal positioning of men in society.

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Literature Review Research shows that while sex tourism has been well studied in Thailand and other Asian countries (see IRIN, 2011; Nuttavuthisit, 2007), to date, only a few studies have focused on sex tourism in African countries (Freude & Waites, 2022; Kibicho, 2005, 2016; Mashumba, 2021). African scholarship on sex tourism has predominantly focused on women as sex workers, creating a gap in the literature when it comes to understanding men who provide sexual services, be it to other men or females (Samudzi & Mannell, 2016), especially from the intersectionality perspectives. Quite often, issues such as the rise in MSW lead to moral panics in African settings, as there is strong fear and anxiety that the social order is under threat (Tamale, 2014). This is so because male sex work (MSW) is often confused with homosexuality. Across Africa, there are different types of prohibitions against same-sex sexual activities and ways in which criminal sanctions both rely on and reinforce gender stereotypes (Bond, 2016; Edwards & Epprecht, 2020). Through the intersection of religion, statutory law, and reinterpreted traditional customs, the complexity of African sexualities is often instrumentalised, controlled, and regulated by the patriarchal state (Tamale, 2014). Past research on male sex workers in African countries including Botswana has mostly been focused on their sexual practices and vulnerability to the HIV pandemic (Baral et al., 2015; Mashumba, 2021) and was merely viewed as a subcategory of men who were having sex with other men (MSM) (Baral et al., 2015; Mashumba, 2021). Such conceptualisation discounts their uniqueness as a stand-alone group with peculiar needs and experiences not just as a subcategory of MSM. Other minorities that have been ignored in African tourism scholarship also include transgender people engaging in sex work (Mashumba, 2021) as well as LGBTQ members with disabilities. The argument is that ‘queer’ transgressions are alien to local belief and cultural systems and only exported to Africa from the West by human rights advocacy groups (Edwards & Epprecht, 2020; Freude & Waites, 2022; Tamale, 2014). These arguments have led to increased expressions of homophobia and stigma (Tamale, 2014). Thus, the increased expressions of homophobia in Africa are not only a reaction to the ‘personified’ and ‘visible’ homosexual identity, but also a tool of sexism and an attempt to solidify men’s position in society (Msibi, 2011). Shaming and stigmatising same-sex relations were intended to promote

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and respect sanity, morality, and humanity within African masculinities (Bond, 2016; Tamale, 2014). The deployment of sexuality circulates not only through legal mechanisms but also through state, political, and religious pronouncements that serve to marginalise practices that are outside reproductive citizenship (Foucault, 1978). Similarly, reproductive citizenship in Botswana is expressed in the definition of a ‘normal life’ as being part of heterosexual marriage and having children, at least by your 30s (Mashumba, 2021). Based on this, this study argues that people with bodies that do not align with gender identity and same-sex relations in several African countries, including Botswana, face structural restrictions in their struggle for sexual freedom (Bond, 2016; Mashumba, 2021). Furthermore, these people are also faced with discursive surveillance in the form of media and public ‘criminalisation’ (Bond, 2016; Mashumba, 2021). In the USA, transgender people are protected under federal disability rights laws, which acknowledge medical and sociological evidence that recognises gender dysphoria as profound distress emanating from the prejudice and stereotypes toward transgender people, that is, transphobia, as they are not able to live a life consistent with their gender identity (Levi & Barry, 2021). However, unlike in the USA, Botswana does not offer any protection. Furthermore, despite the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) being praised for being a champion of intersectionality perspectives, Botswana has no disability-specific legislation and is yet to sign or ratify the UNCRPD (Mukhopadhyay & Moswela, 2020). Most governments have also failed to promote policies that facilitate people with disabilities (PWDs) rights to sexual and reproductive services as they are perceived as either hypersexual (Rugoho, 2017) or asexual (Kim, 2011; Milligan & Neufeldt, 2001). Nonetheless, critical disability, gender, and sexuality studies have begun to focus on LGBTQ persons with disabilities, revealing their double marginalisation due to the intersections of their disability and sexual orientation, particularly in environments marked by ableism, homophobia, and sexism (Santinele Martino, 2017). Such studies, however, remain invisible in African scholarship on MSW and sex tourism, especially from the intersectionality perspective. In the LGBTQ context, the intersectionality theory helps us examine how sociocultural processes of heteronormativity, patriarchy, and class oppression construct identity (Hagai et al., 2020). The current study highlights

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the intersectional nature of subjugations faced by LGBTQ people in homophobic spaces in Africa. This chapter argues that the powerful poststructuralist discourse about heterosexual masculinity and heterosexual marriage permeates the everyday lives of male sex workers in Botswana. Hence, in exploring this phenomenon, the chapter addresses four research questions: (1) What services do MSWs provide? (2) How do they manage their identities as sex workers? (3) Do transgender sex workers experience their work any differently? (4) What reforms can be undertaken to improve the MSW industry?

Methodology This qualitative study was informed by the intersectionality framework and the interpretive approach that explored the lived experiences of male sex workers servicing sex tourists in Botswana. This approach provided an opportunity to gather in-depth information from individuals that are often marginalised and seldom heard. Qualitative methods are credited for allowing the collection of rich data to understand how people experience the world (Creswell, 2018). Furthermore, the study employed a phenomenological approach as a research design to better understand the experiences of MSWs. It best portrays the MSWs’ experiences, knowledge, and attitudes, offering an exploratory qualitative design that reinforces an understanding and interpretation of meanings and intentions underlying human interaction (Creswell, 2018; Mashumba, 2021; Van Maanen, 1979). Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted to explore the experiences of 20 male sex workers in the two cities, Gaborone (the capital city) and Kasane (the tourism hub), between November 2018 and February 2019. The semi-structured interviews used open-ended questions that allowed for sufficient structuring of questions to address specific research dimensions and collected rich data as respondents expressed themselves freely instead of following terms defined by the researcher (Creswell, 2018). In addition, the semi-structured interviews encouraged respondents to talk about important issues that allowed the researcher to discover respondents’ meanings and interpretations of experiences (Shiner & Newburn, 1997). Similarly, the face-to-face interviews offered a natural encounter where the interviewer built and maintained rapport with interviewees and observed body language and facial expressions, ensuring that messages were correctly understood and interpreted (Creswell, 2018).

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Ethical considerations were reviewed and approved by the Queensland University of Technology Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) under application number LM03366, and a research permit was sought from the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism, Botswana. Before the interviews, participants were provided with information sheets that outlined the purpose, expectations, rights, and responsibilities of both the researchers and participants, including ensuring anonymity, confidentiality, and opportunity to withdraw from the study at any time. Consent was verbal and explicit. A counsellor was also engaged and availed to respondents who felt distressed during or after interviews. Moreover, the researchers used pseudonyms, altered locations, and removed potential identifying information. These measures ensured that the study complies with ethical conditions as approved. Notes were taken for all the interviews because of the potential for audio recording to breach confidentiality through police subpoena if it were to occur. A research assistant was engaged to help with notetaking, who had a degree in criminal justice and understood the risks. Narrative, thematic, and holistic content analysis of the interview data was carried out to generate major themes from the text (Lieblich et al., 1998). Unlike grounded theory, which is theme driven, holistic content analysis focus on paying significant attention to the respondent’s overall life, hence retaining the temporal dimension of each individual’s story so that the parts within the story are interpreted in relation to other parts of the story and the outcome of the story (Bayer et al., 2014; Lieblich et al., 1998). While this could be criticised for uncertainties around the researcher’s position or beliefs, Bailey (2001, p.169) argues that: education research depends upon a conception of objectivity that is defined in terms of honest inquiry, openness to criticism, and an apologetic pursuit of the truth… Without a strong and ever-present sense of truth-seeking, along with a recognition that the truth is tough to find, inquiry becomes impossible, and academia becomes little more than a forum for political whim and fancy.

The quote is important for this study because while the researcher acknowledges that respondents used explicit language from time to time, censoring it could hide the true meaning of their words. So instead, the researcher spent time with the respondents’ words and tended to the text to construct the critical themes derived from the respondents’ perspectives. Also, narrative analysis ensured that the individual narratives in the

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voluminous rich data obtained were kept intact by following Aristotle’s dictum, ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’. These approaches helped provide a fuller understanding of the narrative and richer linguistic data that shed light on various aspects of legal policy and policing of MSW.  The interview data were organised, sorted, and analysed using NVivo to generate key themes discussed below.

Findings Types of Services Provided The following quotes indicate the various types of sexual services and ethic preferences for the MSWs in Botswana, which vary based on their sexual identities: I provide penetration mostly with females, hand jobs with males, massages, escorting, and I do not mind penetrating men as well… (Take-Two).

This quote gives a snapshot of the types and differences in services that some of the male sex workers provide. Another male sex worker was excited to share this experience below: I got a rimming job offer and can make P5, 000 (U$500) in one night, with all-expense paid in Sandton (South Africa). I also do hand jobs, penetration, kissing, and massages for both men and women (Raymond). My services are for both men and women and range from appetizers like cuddles, and massages, to main courses like blow jobs, and penetration, to a whole weekend or week of escorting, it depends on which package they want (Kubby-III).

These quotes indicate common types of services among male sex workers. They mostly described offering oral sex, which includes having a man’s penis in the mouth, and rimming/muffing, which includes using the tongue on the anal area. Also described were hand jobs, which are when hands are used to play with the sex organ, fisting or fingering, massage, cuddling, escorting and companionship, as well as penetration. However, like in other studies, there was a bit of variation in the types of services provided by each, and earlier studies have attributed these to factors such

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as their sexual orientation than their level of education and age (Minichiello et al., 2001). In their qualitative interview with 36 male sex workers in Mombasa, Okal et al. (2009, p. 49) noted that unemployment and poverty were strongly associated with first sexual encounters with another male to make money and the types of services provided. Crippled by unemployment, debts, poverty, and a high dependency culture on youth, it is not surprising that male sex workers in Botswana preferred services that earned more money (Mashumba, 2021). Preferred Ethnicities and South Africa as a Preferred Place of Business MSWs preferred Arabic and European ethnicities and South Africa (RSA) as a meeting place of business: I get my trips to South Africa fully paid for together with accommodation by blesser-baes from Doha, and they treat me like a Disney princess whenever in RSA for ‘business’. I escort them around and they pay very well (Gimil).

The client in this quote is referred to as a ‘blesser’, which is used to indicate a person in a position to give (bless) and make the sex worker feel appreciated (like a Disney princess). Another respondent remarked that: Some services pay more, others less, it also depends on who the client is or where they are from, but I generally enjoy providing my services to Arabs and Europeans than Africans. The only problem is it is easy to fall in love with some clients, especially if it is like a long service which can take a week or two weeks and they are pampering you from left-right to centre! Who does not want that? (Jordan BW).

Double-O7 made a similar statement stating: I prefer my Arab brothers; they would pay more even with their pencils or chopsticks, and they would want to ‘deliver me,’ and it would feel like nothing is happening. However, I would be happy to negotiate with my cousin from Zimbabwe. Those can destroy you (Double-O7).

While this is accompanied by some sarcastic remarks about the penis size of some clients (their pencils or chopsticks), this indicates a preference for Arab clients. Jordan BW’s quote indicates benefits being attributed to the

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client’s ethnicity, especially in male-to-male sex encounters. This is different from cultural conceptions of large penises even in women-to-men encounters being great. Findings also revealed that male clients were also preferred over female clients, as males paid more, their relationships were more effortless, and it offered the gay, transgender, and bisexual male sex workers an opportunity to explore their sexuality. These quotes, in many ways, indicate the ‘Othering’ of clients according to ethnicity, penis size, and size of rewards. This is where intersectionality is important as it allows us to focus on simultaneity and appreciate the within-group differences (Valentine, 2007). This study, therefore, does not universalise the motives, types of services, clientele preferences, and experiences as it is not representative of the diverse range of male sex workers in Botswana. Ways to Conceal Activity and Protect Identities Clients of male sex workers were attracted in secret ways to keep their identities protected. A few quotes below demonstrate this: Being gay male, we have gay friends who are receptionists who let us know that there is someone who wants to hook up. Even the housekeeping staff or tour guides and receptionists connect us. It’s safer that way (Sissyboy). I use Facebook, WhatsApp, Grindr, and GayRomeo … it is easier, more private, and chats are encrypted. Even when I’m going to meet a client in Mzansi (South Africa) no one will know coz I just tell them I am on a business trip (Montes).

This demonstrates that male sex work has several actors. Various occupations work together to enable the male sex worker an opportunity to meet a client. Social networks also came in handy for male sex workers in keeping their activities concealed. Another MSW remarked: When my social media isn’t producing anything, I go to a pub or nightclub, there are ones that are gay-friendly and you are sure to find something, although you might end up with a local, so I’m always careful. I can’t afford my family to know because our local people talk too much, and Kasane is too small. I always prefer Johannesburg (RSA) (Lovebite).

Chrysanthemum also stated:

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I don’t like locals; I don’t like people sticking their noses in my business and with a foreigner what’s done is done and gone.

Several participants remarked the same about preferring organising and meeting clients in South Africa. This is particularly so because the sociocultural dynamics in Botswana do not allow due for free interactions. As noted in the literature, male sex work in Botswana exist against a semi-­ criminalised, homophobic, and stigmatising background. The transsexual sex worker, like many other male sex workers, also revealed the preference of ‘foreigners’ over local men, to explore her sexuality while getting paid at the same time. Research has previously perpetuated ignorance of the positive motivations for sex work such as love, pleasure, and natural and health benefits inherent in sex work (Knerr & Philpott, 2011), especially for transgender sex workers. Claiming and Rejecting or Doing and Undoing Certain Identities and Associated Behaviours in Different Biographical Times and Contexts This theme was paramount in understanding how identities were managed in different times and spaces. For example, Raymond echoes, I cannot imagine my wife knowing, let alone my daughter. But I am a gay man trapped in patriarchal society’s expectations. I do what I can do as a man at home, but the truth is I am attracted to other men, and sex work gives me the chance to get into no-strings-attached relations to explore my sexuality and earn from it, for my wife and daughter to have the life they want … they just know I work for a European company that requires me to travel to South Africa from time to time - (Raymond).

In this quote, Raymond, who is married and has a daughter, lamented the pain of being gay (homophobia) but having to live up to society’s expectations. Not only does he conceal his sexual orientation to the extent of getting married, but he also hides the fact that he engages in sex work. The researcher also discovered that some participants had ‘fake’ girlfriends to take home during family gatherings to conceal their sexuality, some of whom were their female sex worker friends, stating: I’m taking it to the grave, I hide it well - (Keegan).

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My family can never know, and my girlfriend can never know as well. They disowned me when they found out I was bisexual. We’ve been patching our relationship, now imagine what they could do if they found out I was a sex worker as well… I want to marry her, have children and create a legacy like other men - (Snookie). I was raised in a traditional Christian church. When I started selling my body and found myself sleeping with other men, I completely blocked religion out, I do what I do for family, so I think of the money I am making to take care of them, just money …- (Titanic).

As demonstrated by these quotes above, many other straight, gay, and bisexual male sex workers alluded to the same fact indicating their families or partners had no idea they were engaged in sex work, meaning they ought to remain socially organised to perform and maintain their double identities accordingly. It was, thus, evident in these experiences that their sexual identities and gender were at the forefront, that is, as young Botswana men providing for families.

Discussion The study found that South Africa provides an enabling and safe environment for male sex tourism to occur for people from restrictive environments such as Botswana. This chapter argues that such allows for the free constructions of values, exchanges, and expectations, which cannot be reduced to just monetary exchanges but must consider the complexity of the social relations embedded and the queering of spaces. Hence, as Ahmed’s Queer Phenomenology argues, we must acknowledge how bodies and spaces might orient one another. This is so because in this study many indicated high retention of clients and long-term working relationships. Results show that besides transactional sex, there are shared common experiences, values, motivations, and fractured sexual identities. This, however, challenges the notion of sex tourists being in search of the racialised ‘Other’ as found in past studies on sexuality (Cantú, 2002; Hughes et al., 2010). The study argues that male clients of Arabic backgrounds ‘posing as businessmen’ on a ‘business trip’ to South Africa and engaging in sex tourism with Botswana male sex workers could be in search of the ‘wounded other’. The wounded other in this chapter is

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defined as someone experiencing the deep impacts of restrictions placed on them. This search is currently being caused by the homophobic stance of Botswana as a tourist destination. However, the beauty of the search is that it offers them opportunities to experiment, experience their sexualities, and live a life that matches their sexual predilections even if it is for a short time (a week/days) and less frequent (once or twice a year), in an environment whose socio-legal dynamics are conducive for such (e.g. South Africa). Many MSWs servicing the Arabic clients reported how they would both share sad parts of their worlds and just want to be free from their oppressive backgrounds. Perhaps, this provides some kind of sexual identity reaffirmation as well, with the wounded other, in spaces that give one the freedom to do so. Nash (2013) explored the power of geographical locations in constructing free sexual identities, proposing the concept of ‘queering of spaces’. Queered spaces enable individuals to move away from strict and restrictive environments to a parallel world filled with pleasures and possibilities. Similarly, Binnie and Valentine (1999) explored the relationship between sex, space, and identity and concluded that certain spaces enable re-territorial processes and the visibility of subcultures that resist heteronormativity for individuals in oppressive environments. In addition, both the male sex workers and the clients could be looking for that space that allows them to escape from the stress of persistently experiencing internalised homonegative societal attitudes and institutional barriers that often cause them to be constantly watchful of their behaviour (Meyer, 2003). Using the intersectionality framework, this chapter argues that we ought to acknowledge the various interconnections in social categories like gender and sexuality to interpret how MSW is shaped in Botswana. Traditionally in Botswana, and through rural subsistence economic activities, men had an obligation to live up to the social expectations of manhood, which is deeply tied to their gender role as providers, ownership of land for farming, and ownership of cattle and other livestock, all of which constituted a significant part of the men’s pride and sense of identity (Rakgoasi, 2008). However, modernisation has resulted in a shift from the rural, predominantly agrarian economy to a modern economy; hence, for men to fulfil the societal expectations of manhood, they must either have cattle and land (in rural areas) or obtain a well-paid job (in urban areas), which are legitimate means of providing for one’s family. The absence of these often leads to a sense of loss of power (Rakgoasi, 2008) and thus

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resort to male sex work, in the same way as women are considered prostitutes in similar societies. It is, therefore, clear from the analysis above that while they provide various sexual services to fulfil the male gender provider role, and due to fear of stigmatisation, if discovered, most male sex workers have two ‘identities’ in their lives. The first one is they identify themselves as fathers/ sons/brothers in families. Secondly, they also identify themselves as sexual providers in the sex tourism space, which gives them money for them to perform their gendered societal roles. To achieve this, they use South Africa as a safe place. Doing so demonstrates an intersectionality perspective in action. Participants seemed to successfully engage in processes of identification (with ‘normal’ identities) and disidentification with sex work and same-sex identities. Thus, claiming and rejecting or doing and undoing certain identities and associated behaviours in different biographical times and contexts suggests that homophobia presents complex challenges that could be affecting societies’ well-being. Even men who are not in homophobic societies may not be willing to disclose their sexuality due to the pride that has been embedded in their gender roles. Examining how male sex work manifested in Botswana was therefore paramount to understanding the ‘doing’ or ‘undoing’ of one identity or more by another, forcing them to ‘reject’, ‘discontinue’, or ‘disidentify’ with particular marginalised and stigmatised identities for the more supported, salient, and institutionalised identity position. Other studies have also reported MSWs as compartmentalised to protect themselves as they recognised that the line between same-sex and sex work in their countries was very thin (Bayer et al., 2014; Padilla, 2007). Therefore, this chapter posits that male sex workers are situational entrepreneurs engaging in strategic escapes and returns as well as strategic borrowings and rejections to navigate local dynamics while successfully servicing sex tourists. Eisenmann (2013, p.1) defines entrepreneurship as ‘the pursuit of opportunity beyond resources controlled’, and as highlighted in the literature, high levels of unemployment, dependency ratio, debts, and poverty push males to seek ways to fulfil their gender roles as providers. Both the straight and gay or bisexual MSWs strategically escape the strain that comes with unemployment, underemployment, and a high family dependency rate in their settings, to engage in money-making identities (entrepreneurial behaviour) and return to their setting to sufficiently occupy the provider identity. Botswana continues to be characterised by a system of elite democracy where despite rapid economic growth,

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persistent poverty, unemployment, uneven development, and widening income inequality in households remain potential threats to the stability of its political economy (Mashumba, 2021). The gay, bisexual, and transgender sex workers must strategically borrow and reject to successfully conceal their activity from family and friends and successfully live their double lives. This could be due to the censoring nature of sexuality that often defines our societies and the construction of sexuality research as dirty work (Irvine, 2014). The classification of sexuality as dirty explains why gays, bisexuals, and transgender in this study were not willing to disclose who they are. For the straight male sex workers, they strategically borrow from the gay orbit to engage in same-sex relations, which they reported paid better, and hence borrow the language, behaviours, and actions, as well as the mannerisms and fashion. And as evident, they reject gay sexual identities and practices once they are done. For the gay and bisexual male sex workers, there are times they borrow from heterosexual behaviours and perform normative roles and identities to conceal their real sexual orientation, for example, fake girlfriends or even getting a heterosexual marriage to embrace heterosexual norms in society and fit in. Gay and bisexual male sex workers also outlined the painful childhood experiences which had put them through some traumas they often need to escape from, including childhood sexual abuse, bullying, shaming, and stigma. While this study did not focus on determining causality between such experiences and later involvement in sex work, several epidemiological surveys have described sex work as a coping mechanism for elevated rates of depression (Cochran & Mays, 2000; Jorm et al., 2002) and suicidality (Cochran & Mays, 2000; Jorm et al., 2002). The gay and the bisexual, therefore, escape such traumas and familial rejection, coupled with other strains into the world of sex work where they feel needed and appreciated in payments, travel, and gifts and return with elevated levels of financial freedom among other benefits. The transgender sex worker also experienced the same; hence, it is crucial for future studies to explore the intersectionality of sex work, sexuality, and disability and contribute to a more understanding of sex work in homophobic spaces and sex tourism.

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Conclusion The researcher argues that viewing male sex workers in the tourism industry in Botswana as situational entrepreneurs engaging in strategic escapes and returns as well as strategic borrowings and rejections to navigate local dynamics while successfully servicing sex tourists is fundamental in understanding how the interplay between local, national, and global phenomena is subjectively mediated by the actors. Given these strategies, identities, and practices, we can also situate male sex workers’ ‘bodies’ in Botswana as both consumed and consuming objects entangled in the complexities of representation as sexual service providers to the tourist and as providers for their dependents and their own needs and navigating the multiple sociocultural contexts. Using this framework allows for the local dynamics and influences to be understood, gives space and language to their lived experiences, and sets the stage on which their unique narratives can be understood. Without a framework, MSWs also merely become deviant, isolated, and vulnerable to reactions in the form of stigma and shaming (Michel Foucault, 1978; Judith Butler, 1990; Robert Heasley, 2005) rather than understanding what shapes their behaviours and how they come to embody the effects of moving between these contexts. These strategies of concealment and protection of identities, however, hinder collective action. The movement between their traditional settings and sex work settings deems sex tourism as a ‘liminal’ space, which according to Ryan and Hall (2001) is the place where hosts and guests interact as two sets of ‘liminal’ bodies outside the contexts of their respective everyday lives. Such is temporary and does not benefit collective efforts. In similar work with peasants in a Malaysian village, Scott (1990) maintained that peasants who faced formidable repression engaged in self-protecting compliance while onstage and some resistance following a ‘hidden transcript’ offstage, which in many ways did not help collective action. Similarly, Thomson (2011), in his study in Rwanda, argued that the rural poor voiced their support and compliance with the state policy of national unity on the surface, but behind the scenes, they used various strategies to avoid participation, viewing the state policy as unjust and illegitimate. A key recommendation from this study is for the Botswana Government to amend the legislation to accommodate and regulate sex work for the economy to benefit from sex tourism. This proposal is essential because viewing sex work as an illegitimate profession or occupation can produce devastating consequences, such as not having protections in place for

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those engaged in sex work, particularly those living with disabilities. In addition, gender dysphoria must be recognised as a disability to afford transgender individuals the appropriate protection and healthcare. Researchers must also explore both invisible and underexplored disabilities, providing a more gendered focus to challenge the essentialist homogenisation of the experiences of people living with disabilities in tourism research. Woyo and Slabbert (2021) suggest that since African destinations’ competition is growing, investigating the dimensions influencing destination competitiveness is critical to help sustain competitive advantage; hence, if Botswana male sex workers are in demand, such must be fully explored to understand ways in which their experiences could be improved. There are some limitations to this study and opportunities for further research. The proposed theoretical framework needs to be further explored and developed by future research. The methods used in this study could also be adopted to guide the analysis of future empirical studies on male sex work and sex tourism, especially in Africa, where male sex work exists as an illegal undertaking in many countries. To further the intersectionality approach, future studies can also explore the experiences of LGBTQ persons with disabilities within the African sex tourism context to further enhance our understanding of sexuality and develop a more robust production of sexual knowledge (Irvine, 2014; Lewis, 2005). The additional focus could also be on how sexual acts and bodies are used to deal with the dominance of racist and heteronormative discourses in an African context using data from PWDs.

References Awondo, P., Geschiere, P., & Reid, G. (2012). Homophobic Africa? Toward a more nuanced view. African Studies Review, 55(3), 145–168. Bailey, R. (2001). Overcoming Veriphobia – learning to love truth again. British Journal of Educational Studies, 49(2), 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/ 1467-­8527.t01-­1-­00169 Baral, S.  D., Friedman, M.  R., Geibel, S., Rebe, K., Bozhinov, B., & Diouf, D. (2015). Male sex workers: Practices, contexts, and vulnerabilities for HIV acquisition and transmission. Lancet, 385(9964), 260–273. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0140-­6736(14)60801-­1

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CHAPTER 9

COVID-19, Informal Tourism Businesses, and the Livelihoods of Women with Disabilities in a Destination with Challenges Victoria Marcia Mutambara, Abigail R. Benhura, and Roselyn Kanyemba

Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic brought with it devastating challenges to the global economy, and the tourism sector was the most hard-hit economic sector (Lempinen, 2020). Despite the universal spread of the coronavirus, its effects are not the same across different socio-economic divides. Previous studies argued that different social groups were faced with a differentiated risk of contagion and coped differently (Alfani, 2020; Galasso

V. M. Mutambara (*) • R. Kanyemba Health Economics HIV/AIDS Research Division (HEARD), University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa A. R. Benhura Dean of Students, Women’s University in Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_9

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& Foucault, 2020). COVID-19 is not the first pandemic to have affected the tourism industry but is the first to have affected all tourist destinations, making it a unique black swan (Woyo, 2021). Whilst the pandemic negatively impacted people from different populations due to containment measures (Bernard et al., 2020), the impact was worse on persons with disabilities (PWDs), especially women with disabilities (WWDs) (African, 2020; Poudel & Subedi, 2020). The tourism industry has always been a vehicle for ‘creating jobs and encouraging income-generating activities to benefit local communities in destination areas; and provides various entry points to create self-­ employment in small and medium-sized income-generating activities’ (Ramchurjee, 2011, p. 2). The craft industry is one of the major attractions of domestic tourism. Research has shown that women, including WWDs, dominate the industry because of the low barriers to entry and the flexibility it offers (Naami, 2015). The flexible and often home-based nature of craft production means that women can integrate their economic activities with household duties, allowing them the opportunity to sharpen their skills through experience (Naami, 2015). However, the onset of COVID-19 disrupted WWDs’ livelihoods in the tourism industry. Whilst the pandemic negatively impacted people from different populations (Bernard et al., 2020), the impact was worse on PWDs. Although the PWD population has been the hardest hit by the effects of COVID-19 (Poudel & Subedi, 2020), the impact has not been homogeneous (WEI, 2020). For example, existing literature suggests that WWDs bear the brunt of the economic and social fallout of COVID-19 (WEI, 2020). WWDs experienced many challenges due to lockdown and containment measures. This could be due to WWDs’ pre-existing marginalisation resulting from their impairments and the associated negative and gendered cultural stereotypes characterising the lives of women in society (Poudel & Subedi, 2020). In Zimbabwe, women and girls with disabilities continue to face intersecting forms of discrimination due to their gender, disability, and social and negative cultural norms.1 Although studies have demonstrated how PWDs are more likely to live in poverty (Tinta et al., 2020), and less likely to access employment (Banks et al., 2017), Naami (2015) noted that unemployment rates were sometimes higher for WWDs compared to men with disabilities (MWDs). In the COVID-19 context, UN Women (2020) found that men’s activities returned to pre-crisis levels shortly after preventative measures subsided, whilst the impacts on women’s economic security and livelihoods lasted

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much longer. Therefore, the intersection of disability, gender, and pandemics such as COVID-19 could further exacerbate the vulnerabilities of WWDs in the informal domestic tourism sector. However, empirical studies on the socio-economic impacts of the pandemic on PWDs in general and WWDs remain limited as most research has largely been about biomedical concerns of the pandemic (Hinz & Zubek, 2020). This prompts the need for empirical research on how COVID-19 has impacted WWDs involved in tourism activities, particularly in developing economies. This chapter starts by reviewing the literature to locate the WWDs’ informal domestic tourism within Zimbabwe’s informal economy. In the process, it raises questions about the sustainability of informal domestic tourism during the pandemic. The methodology section then describes both the research approach adopted and the theoretical framework applied. Finally, the chapter discusses the findings and makes recommendations based on these findings.

Literature Review State of the Informal Domestic Tourism Economy Globally and in Zimbabwe Informality is a salient characteristic of daily economic life across much of the Global South, and the term ‘informality’ usually applies to ‘a range of behaviours and practices that are not regulated or controlled by the state or formal institutions, including those related to income generation, service provision and settlements’ (Chen et  al., 2016, p.  336). Arguably, informality is a dimension that is common in all sectors including the domestic tourism sector (Rogerson, 2015), and it is known to be an effective tool for the alleviation of poverty and the creation of a support base for sustainable livelihoods (Mpofu, 2020). Half of the global labour force and 90% of small enterprises in the informal economy are not protected by labour laws and social protection (Schwettmann, 2020). Located within this precarious form of livelihood, women comprise the bulk of the low-­ skilled workforce in informal domestic tourism where they usually specialise in making and trading indigenous craftwork (Naami, 2015). Jones (2010, p. 286) argues that the informal economy in Zimbabwe, also identified as the ‘kukiya-kiya economy’ (making do), was necessitated by the decline in production industries due to rampant corruption, erratic rains, and a dysfunctional ‘formal economy’. Due to these aspects of

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distress (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020), people are forced to engage in informal employment, because they neither have other means of obtaining an income nor do they have savings (Jones, 2010; Dawson, 2021). Therefore, since the beginning of the millennium, the informal sector has become a critical sector in supporting livelihoods in Zimbabwe. Tourism is an industry that is sensitive to disasters and crises (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020) including the current COVID-19 pandemic (Woyo, 2021). Zimbabwe’s situation is even more precarious in that there has been a general decline in the standard of living due to decades of economic decline, high unemployment rates, and governance crises (Njaya, 2014; Woyo & Slabbert, 2020). Zimbabwean tourism has equally suffered a decline due to the contested land reform programme, political unrest, and ensuing economic crises, ultimately affecting the destination’s competitiveness (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020). This chapter argues that the emergence of COVID-19 could also have further affected the informal domestic tourism businesses due to declining tourism demand prior to the pandemic. The majority of WWDs belong to various kinds of informal economy associations such as the Zimbabwe Chamber of Informal Economy Associations (ZCIEA) (a national membership-driven organisation representing Informal Traders Associations of Zimbabwe). 2 However, they have been largely excluded from any stimulus packages that the government and other partner organisations have been providing during the lockdown (Magocha, 2021; Africa Business, 2020). Government efforts to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 have been erratic, small, and insignificant, resulting in most intended beneficiaries not receiving anything (Mashingaidze, 2020). Even before the emergence of coronavirus, the informal businesses in many African cities constantly clashed with city authorities and lawmakers as they often conduct their business in undesignated places (Ndawana, 2018; Toriro & Chirisa, 2021). Mutambisi (2020) examined the regulation of small businesses during COVID-19 and revealed that governments’ first port of call during health pandemics is the regulation of the informal sectors to curb the spread of disease. Therefore, the banning of informal sector businesses during COVID-19 is not a new thing. The informal sector has always been in a precarious position (Chamunogwa & Chakanya (2021). Likewise, the pandemic heralded similar challenges for informal domestic tourism.

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Understanding the Effects of COVID-19 on Women with Disabilities in Tourism Despite WWDs dominating the craft industry, several challenges could be noted regarding their ventures. Past research identified that most of these women have limited access to capital, technology, and resources (Harvey, 2022). These challenges limit their ability to generate more income that is needed to support their livelihoods. There is a slump in demand for craft goods in the tourism industry resulting from the pandemic and loss of income and jobs for tourism workers, whose livelihood depends on consumption-­driven economic activities (Harvey, 2022). The economic consequences of social distancing measures further increased the chasm of inequalities, disadvantaging the already vulnerable populations when compared to pre-pandemic times (Alfani, 2020; Haase, 2020). Due to complexities within social groups (Carastathis, 2014), it can be argued that WWDs in the informal domestic tourism sector were disproportionately affected by the effects of the pandemic. Given the structural challenges that existed in Zimbabwe before COVID-19 (Woyo, 2021; Musavengane et al., 2021), it is critical that research explores the impacts that COVID-19 has on WWDs managing informal tourism business. Whilst gender is often used as a critical lens to comprehend the inequalities that WWDs face, this sole lens risks obscuring how several intersecting oppressions further disadvantage them (Moodley & Graham, 2015). Therefore, this chapter adopted the feminist intersectionality theory to better understand the interconnectedness of multiple and overlapping variables of discrimination predisposing WWDs to different structures of vulnerability, particularly during COVID-19. Crenshaw (1991) argues that a singular level of analysis does not adequately capture the complex combinations of intersecting power differentials, and doing so has detrimental effects. Utilising the intersectional analysis provides this chapter with the platform to acknowledge WWDs’ multiple identities and how these shape their different experiences in domestic tourism businesses.

Methodology Data were collected in Harare and Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, between November 2021 and January 2022. These two areas were selected because they are usually tourist hotspots and experience high levels of tourist traffic as well as attract large numbers of informal traders. Since there is a dearth

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of empirical research that presents the experiences of WWDs in the informal domestic tourism sector during the pandemic, an exploratory design was suitable to use (Saunders et al., 2007). Ten WWDs managing informal tourism businesses were sampled using the snowball sampling technique (see Table 9.1). The researchers identified potential participants who then helped identify additional participants for the study. Data were collected using face-to-face semi-structured interviews in Shona and Ndebele. This was done so that the participants would understand the questions better and provide clear responses. The responses were translated to English by the researchers as they are competent in all the languages that were used to collect the data. The interview guide focused on the following research questions: 1. What are the experiences of WWDs engaging in informal domestic tourism during the COVID-19 pandemic? Table 9.1  Participants’ profile Pseudonyms

Age

Participant 1

53 years Leg-length discrepancy 27 years Hearing impairment 43 years Speech and hearing impairment 48 years Hand disability

Participant 2 Participant 3 Participant 4 Participant 5

Nature of disability Economic activity

Location

Selling 22 years sculptures Batik industry 3 years

Victoria Falls Harare

Selling art and crafts Selling art and crafts Beadwork

9 years

Harare

4 years

Harare

4 years

Victoria Falls Victoria Falls Harare

32 years Hearing impairment Participant 6 39 years Speech impairment Selling art and crafts Participant 7 39 years Visual impairment Selling art and crafts Participant 8 49 years Paraplegic Batik industry Participant 9 40 years Visual impairment Selling art and crafts Participant 10 65 years Paraplegic/speech Selling art impairment and crafts Source: Authors

Length of service in business

6 years 10 years 4 years 3 years 33 years

Harare Victoria Falls Victoria Falls

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2. How has gender-based and disability-related intersectionality impacted WWDs’ informal domestic tourism businesses during the COVID-19 pandemic? 3. What are the coping mechanisms the WWDs have adopted to sustain informal domestic tourism entrepreneurship during the COVID-19 pandemic? All the interviews were recorded and lasted between 20 and 45 minutes each. Each participant was required to give verbal consent before recording, and the participants were also informed about the aim of the research and their right to withdraw from the study at any given point. Participants were assured of confidentiality and their anonymity. These ethical considerations were achieved through using pseudonyms. Data were analysed using an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), which suggests a selection of an inductive research approach. The researchers familiarised themselves with the data from each interview in isolation, noting conceptual comments that were then systematically grouped into related themes, which are presented qualitatively in the next section (Smith et al., 2021).

Findings The results of the study are organised according to the central issues that informed the research questions, namely (1) experiences of WWDs engaging in informal tourism businesses during the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) the impact of COVID-19 on WWDs’ businesses using intersectionality lenses, and (3) the coping mechanisms adopted to sustain informal tourism enterprises during the COVID-19 pandemic. Critical issues of the study are discussed in the following sections. Experiences of WWDs in Informal Tourism Businesses During the COVID-19 Pandemic Due to COVID-19 travel restrictions, tourist destinations like Zimbabwe struggled to retain businesses leading to the rise of unemployment. With falling incomes, WWDs in informal tourism plunged further into poverty. One of the participants said:

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Whilst we were still trying to figure out how we were going to survive, we then heard that they had started destroying most of the places where we used to work. (Participant 5; 32 yrs).

Two weeks into the government’s first lockdown, the local municipal councils and police demolished informal market stalls and street-side trading was banned (Makombe, 2021). This confirmed the unstable tenure of existence in informal workspaces, which threatened the sustainability of the participants’ livelihoods. The narrative exposed the deep instabilities of informal work in cities, particularly for WWDs. It highlights the effects of local government policies and their coordination of crisis management in cities in terms of implementing measures during the pandemic and in planning medium- and long-term actions. With reduced tourism business, it is often difficult for tourism to positively contribute to the eradication of poverty (SDG 1) and the reduction of inequalities within countries (SDG 10). Furthermore, the achievement of SDG 5, by enhancing gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, also becomes challenging. This further widens disparities between WWDs and people without disabilities. This view was shared by a 53-year-old woman who indicated that pre-COVID, she ‘was surviving on selling sculptures’. She labelled her livelihood as ‘foot and mouth’ to illustrate the idea that, unlike others who work in ‘formal employment’ and have a guaranteed monthly salary, she must walk to work daily to earn a living. She also highlighted that even in pre-COVID times, the Zimbabwean economic climate was not particularly favourable for WWDs working in the tourism sector. She said: “Kumashure uko panga patova nemahiccups”, (our sector had already been experiencing problems). You get into debt so that you can be able to cover a few things. By the time you sell your sculpture, you are already using it to clear the debt. (Participant 1;53 years.)

This narrative shows that the pandemic negatively impacted the livelihoods of people in countries that had pre-existing challenges like Zimbabwe (Jones, 2010; Musavengane et al., 2021; Njaya, 2014). It also shows how the intractable economic challenges magnified vulnerabilities for the PWDs and WWDs in particular. Despite the government putting in place a stimulus package that was supposed to help the citizens, the data revealed that the packages that the

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participants received were once off and were not sustainable as they were only helpful at the time they were received: There was a time I got a chance to get 5000 RTGS (USD$33)3 COVID relief. We filled in the forms and most of us got those incentives during the first lockdown. I only got it once. (Participant 1; 53 yrs)

The data also highlighted the gaps that have always existed pre-­COVID-­19 regarding the provision of social protection services for WWDs. Some of the participants indicated that they did not attempt to seek any assistance because since pre-COVID they had always struggled to get any assistance. They suggested that it was perhaps influenced by the nature of their disabilities. A partially deaf participant said: Those with visible vulnerabilities get better assistance than those with invisible disabilities (Participant 7;39 yrs)

Some of the participants also expressed that they had always felt sidelined when it came to receiving social protection services. They felt that even though there were packages directed at WWDs, they did not get a chance to receive them as they were mostly distributed in the urban areas. This highlighted further complexities, which created disparities within the WWDs as a group (Fatima & Azra, 2021): I am talking about getting government funding. Someone who is able-bodied gets help quicker than me. We are always told to join associations; I remember I was part of some of these groups. I left because I was not getting anything. (Participant 1;53 yrs)

The narrative above aligns with the results of a 2021 Afrobarometer survey, which highlighted that most Zimbabweans did not receive any assistance from the government during the pandemic. The survey suggests that there might have been some corrupt officials in the distribution of social protection packages (Ndoma et al., 2021). The data also concurred that there might have been possible corruption, which made it difficult to fairly distribute social protection services among WWDs during the pandemic.

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Socio-Economic Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Informal Domestic Tourism All the participants revealed that they were severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic as tourism globally plummeted. The impacts were significantly felt because Zimbabwe’s informal tourism enterprises mostly sell their products to international travellers. The findings reveal that destinations that rely more on international tourism were negatively affected during the lockdown. This was summed by one of the participants who said: The closure of the airport meant an abrupt end to our livelihoods as international tourists are our main customers. We were reduced to the unemployed status and had no time to come up with an alternative form of livelihood. (Participant 3; 43 yrs)

Consequently, tourist destinations like Zimbabwe would need to do more in terms of diversifying the industry and promoting domestic tourism, which has been neglected for a long time (Woyo, 2021). This is critical in creating and sustaining tourism demand that would support the local enterprises including the informal sector. This view was further supported by Participant 6, who mentioned that: Unlike other informal businesses which relocated to township stalls during lockdowns, ‘zvedu hazvitengeseke ku township’ (our products are not marketable in the townships). (Participant 6; 39 years)

Due to limited mobility, narratives show that the livelihoods of informal traders were severely affected. The interventions used to limit the further spread of the virus resulted in the exclusion and marginalisation of WWDs, in an economy that is currently doing little to promote sustainable livelihoods. This finding is consistent with the conclusions that there has been an uneven development of domestic tourism demand since the beginning of the pandemic (Rogerson and Rogerson, 2021). The views regarding how mobility is impacting informal tourism enterprises are summed by the following excerpt: Before COVID, we had the opportunity to go to tourist places like Vic Falls, and Kariba and did not have to keep a lot of this stuff without it being bought…. (Participant 4;48 yrs)

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Further analysis of the narratives shows that the mobility of WWDs beyond borders also negatively affected the informal tourism enterprises, and this was summed by the following excerpt: Before, we had the opportunity to buy some chemicals that we used in South Africa, but Covid made it difficult for us because we were no longer able to cross to South Africa. (Participant 8;49 yrs)

These results show that the sustainability of informal tourism enterprises is challenging in crises for destinations that overly rely on international tourism. This view has been argued by earlier studies that investigate the impacts of COVID-19 in developing countries (Musavengane et al., 2021; Woyo, 2021). Due to structural challenges and weak domestic demand that existed in the destination, the analysis of the narratives shows that the impacts of COVID-19 are likely to last longer. With weak domestic tourism demand (Makombe, 2021; Woyo, 2021), recovery of informal tourism enterprises that support the livelihoods of WWDs will be difficult, unless international tourism fully resumes. For instance, one of the participants noted that business was bad to a point where they were now getting money just enough to pay daily rentals for their stalls. She said: Before COVID, we took home 200USD on average and 150USD on a bad day. Now we just get 15 USD enough to pay daily rental table charges and nothing else. (Participant 3;43 yrs).

Intersections of Vulnerability The study also revealed that unpaid and care work increased during the pandemic. With limited movement, several of the participants indicated that they took up more responsibility for maintaining the home and carried the extra burden of caregiving functions. This is consistent with the conclusion that mothers were inclined to take up the role of providing learning guidance due to the disruptions in education (Chamunogwa & Chakanya, 2021). This was an added role to the existing traditional roles, which increased women’s burdens. This was summed by one participant who said: When we go to collect the stones for sculpting, I must stay there for a long time so that I come back with stones that are refined and do not have much weight

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because I must hike back. At the same time, I will be having my responsibilities as a mother and wife. (Participant 1; 53 yrs)

This also confirms that tourism, regardless of its contribution toward gender equality and employment, remains a gendered industry (Makandwa et al., 2021; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). On another level, the intersection of gender roles and patriarchal cultural norms compounded their experiences during the pandemic. Persson et al. (2022) concur that sociocultural contexts enable or impede women’s advancement in the tourism sector. These aspects impeded their progress in finding other alternative livelihood activities and ended up depending on their male counterparts and being subjected to patriarchal structures of hegemony. Quite often, women must operate within the existing cultural practices that condition and set boundaries within the tourism entrepreneurship (ibid. 488). This was summarised by Participant 2 who said: Being able to work in this sector is good because it means that the husband would have given you the permission to do that because if the husband does not allow you to work, then that would be difficult. (Participant 2; 27 yrs)

Whilst some of the WWDs indicated that they needed their husbands’ consent to go to work, conversely, those who were single parents revealed that they found it particularly difficult to pursue a sustainable livelihood as they carried all the responsibilities on their own. On another level, a participant highlighted that the fact that she had disabilities meant that she had to put in extra effort to be able to have a sustainable business. She said: As a WWD, you always have to go the extra mile. Also, you may have a good idea but can’t execute it on your own. (Participant 10;65 yrs)

Like any other group of people, WWD is not homogeneous. One of the factors that differentiate them is the nature of one’s disability and the increased risk of poor health outcomes. Whilst the immediate thoughts about the pandemic are easily directed at the socio-economic effects, some of the participants expressed the importance of also viewing disability as a health condition. Two participants indicated that their disability conditions worsened in certain weather conditions, making it difficult for them to work:

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I particularly have a challenge with my disability during winter and I would appreciate any help to ease my job. (Participant 1;53 yrs). Disability comes with health issues. In certain weather conditions, disabilities worsen. Despite this, one can't afford to take a rest (Participant 10; 65 yrs).

WWDs face the same risk of infection from COVID-19 as the rest of the population. However, in most cases, the potential dangers of the virus are worsened when they interact with other factors like health conditions and age. An elderly participant said: I have 2 grandchildren whose disabilities entail that they use diapers and need round the clock care. This is difficult for me as a single parent with a disability. (Participant 10; 65 yrs).

Therefore, these intersections further detract WWDs from pursuing sustainable livelihoods. The virus has also been said to be more severe in elderly people. Age intersects with underlying health conditions and leaves WWDs more at risk of developing serious health complications. These findings are in line with critics of the social model of disability, who argue against the overemphasis of social aspects of disability at the expense of biomedical aspects of disability since they tend to overlap (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013). Agency and Resilience in the Face of Adversity Regardless of several challenges brought by the pandemic, the data reveals some of the resilient activities that WWDs engaged in to maintain sustainable livelihood activities. This confirms that WWDs can be instrumental in shaping the direction of their lives despite being positioned at the ‘neglected points of intersection’ (Carastathis, 2014, p. 308), such as gender and disability. Some of the participants revealed that instead of solely relying on the tourism industry to resume functioning like before, they had to come up with alternative livelihoods. One of the participants indicated that she diversified to poultry farming whilst others resorted to sex work: We lost the whole of 2020. In May 2021, the relaxing of restrictions didn’t help as only local tourists came. These don’t buy as much as international tourists.

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Some had to diversify into other forms of livelihood like poultry keeping or sex work. (Participant 4; 48 yrs.)

Data also showed that some of the participants resorted to bribing officials so that they would be able to continue with their livelihood activities smoothly. This is consistent with earlier studies that investigated the challenges of running businesses embedded in Zimbabwe (Jones, 2010). One of the participants revealed: …it causes challenges for me when I am on the road coming back. I sometimes end up paying bribes to the officials. (Participant 6; 39 yrs).

Regardless of the generalised assumption which purports that disability is constructed and linked with incapability (Bonaccio et al., 2020), the participants had a resilient mentality that they can do many things that able-­ bodied people can do. This was illustrated by the participant who said: The same way able-bodied people are living in the community during COVID is the same way I have been living. (Participant 1;53 yrs)

Some participants revealed that in certain cases, MWDs found it difficult to attract customers, particularly those involved in the Batik business dominated by women. Participants cemented this point: It is not that easy for men especially to be in this type of industry because most of the customers usually come to us as women (Participant 4; 48 yrs).

This narrative dispels one of the most common assumptions in intersectionality studies that MWDs fare relatively better than WWDs (see Moodley and Graham, 2015).

Conclusion and Directions for Further Research The feminist intersectionality theory provides a sound theoretical framework for understanding how COVID-19 reinforced pre-existing vulnerabilities for WWDs. The chapter concludes that the intersectionality approach amplifies the need for applying multiple axes of inequalities during crisis interventions. The study reveals that analysis that treats WWD as a homogeneous category is simplistic and may not reveal vulnerabilities

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that are specific to different kinds of disability. The findings established that the health complications associated with disabilities affected the livelihoods of some WWDs more than others. At the same time, invisible disabilities placed some WWDs in more precarious and marginalised positions in social protection interventions. This chapter also highlights the importance of putting WWDs engaging in informal domestic tourism at the centre of interventions and the design of COVID-19 socio-economic responses. However, the study’s limitations were due to the limited number of WWDs in domestic tourism as the majority are vegetable and airtime vendors. The field of study would benefit immensely if further research can be based on similar larger studies, which are sufficiently suggestive of the major challenges that WWDs have encountered since the advent of the pandemic. Based on research findings in this study, the state should invest in supporting and protecting informal WWD workers in tourism to ensure compliance and commitment to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and the SDGs. There is a need to understand the diverse range of WWDs to make informed and needs-based interventions in times of crisis. This will have a bearing on the inclusion and empowerment of WWDs. Lastly, local authorities should put in place markets with infrastructure that is sustainable to endure the impact of current and future shocks.

Notes 1. https://reliefweb.int/report/zimbabwe/spotlight-­g irls-­a nd-­w omen-­ disabilities-­public-­policies-­are-­also-­our-­business Accessed 14 June 2022. 2. It is made up of the self-employed and informal employees engaged in small unregistered or unincorporated enterprises and undeclared workers. 3. This was the USD equivalent at the rate of USD$1 = 150RTGs.

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CHAPTER 10

Barriers to Women’s Participation in Tourism Consumption in Anglophone Cameroon: An Intersectionality Perspective Ndi Loveline

Introduction Theories of human nature and social needs show that structures of inequality are developed from the evaluation of what people think and do (Wilkinson, 2020). From time immemorial, labour has been gendered and viewed from the complex societies’ age, educational level, and family background (Fluitman & Momo, 2001). This creates a form of stratification system that ranks some individuals and groups more deserving than others (Birkelund, 1992) and could have been the reason why there is perpetual gender discrimination in tourism employment (Hutchings et al., 2020). Cameroon like other developing economies in the world and more specifically in Africa functions largely under patriarchal principles (Musavengane et al., 2019). Patriarchy is a social ideology rooted in the belief systems of Western culture. In these “patriarchal societies and

N. Loveline (*) Social Sciences, University of Yaoundé, Yaoundé, Cameroon © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_10

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cultures, it is either men or institutions created by men that wield the power to determine what is considered ‘natural’ (Pritchard & Morgan, 2000). Over time, these constructed sets of expectations begin to seem ‘natural’ because they are so prevalent and because they go unquestioned” (Voskuil, 1998, p. 5). Past tourism research argued that patriarchy is one of the reasons why women tend to have reduced opportunities in the tourism sector (Hutchings et al., 2020). This is because these cultural values tend to give an upper hand to the values and rights of men. In most patriarchal societies, like Cameroon, the abilities of women are negatively affected by cultural barriers due to men’s dominance (Musavengane et al., 2019; Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). Research in community-based tourism in North-West Cameroon acknowledged that men tend to dominate tourism activities and decision-making processes and occupy important managerial positions (Musavengane et  al., 2019; Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). Thus, patriarchy is acknowledged as a common cultural characteristic in several parts of the country (Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). This often results in the under-representation of women in important tourism activities (Woyo & Venganai, 2022), and there is a need for more research to generate strategies in terms of how women can be empowered, especially from patriarchal societies like Cameroon. Patriarchy is one of the major challenges affecting tourism development, especially in developing countries (Musavengane et  al., 2019). Furthermore, other challenges that have been identified, especially for African tourism, include inaccessibility to certain areas due to poor road networks and infrastructural facilities (Chikuta, 2015; Chikuta et  al., 2019; Woyo, 2018, 2021). With several challenges, it becomes a challenge for destinations to develop sustainable inclusive tourism that caters for people with disabilities. People with disabilities (PWDs) represent a largely underrepresented niche of the tourism market in numerical and economic terms (Benjamin et al., 2021). With about 15% of the world population having at least one disability (World Bank Group, 2016), there is a need for research to investigate the challenges this market faces to inform more inclusive tourism policies. At an international level, inclusion is one of the guiding principles behind the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ratified in September 2015 (Scheyvens & Biddulph, 2018; Woyo, 2020). However, many people, including PWDs, are excluded from development, and the purpose of this chapter is to examine the challenges of inclusive tourism development in an English-speaking region of

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Cameroon, using a social disability perspective. Studies examining these aspects from an intersectional perspective are limited.

Literature Review Accessible Tourism and Intersectionality Perspectives The development of more accessible tourism is at the heart of the developmental agenda (UNWTO, 2018). Past research argues that the best way in developing tourism that is more accessible is to ensure that there are efforts to expand it from the understanding of the intersectionality theory. Intersectionality theory argues that people can experience discrimination based on several different factors at the same time (for instance, gender, sexuality, disability, and ethnicity) and that these interact and even multiply the impacts in significant and complex ways (Crenshaw, 2015). However, the achievement of the universally accessible tourism sector is not without challenges. Despite growing attention among academics and practitioners to make tourism more accessible, especially in developing and emerging destinations (Musavengane & Muzeza, 2021), tourism research still struggles to apply interdisciplinary research methods in dealing with societal vices (Oviedo-­García, 2016). Accessible tourism is one such area of research that has not been researched in a manner that unpacks complexities that are often experienced by people that could be faced with double “jeopardy”. The application of the intersectionality theory in examining the challenges of accessible tourism from a developing country context is generally limited. Accessible tourism is defined as a form of tourism that involves collaborative processes between stakeholders that enable people with access requirements, including mobility, vision, hearing, and cognitive dimensions of access, to function independently and with equity and dignity through the delivery of universally designed tourism products, services, and environments (Darcy et al., 2022). The concern of accessible tourism is more on creating an enabling environment for persons that have permanent and temporary disabilities, seniors, obese, families with young children, and those working in safer and more socially designed environments (Darcy et al., 2022). The consumption of leisure and tourism activities is defined as a fundamental social right in Article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Regardless of accessible tourism being a frequent area of investigation (McKercher & Darcy, 2018), it is yet to

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translate into policies that are designed to accommodate PWDs (Jeanes et  al., 2019). Furthermore, the investigation of disability which treats PWDs as a homogenous population could be the reason why scholars and practitioners are failing to comprehend access issues for PWDs. Past research shows that PWDs still face several difficulties and barriers when travelling to destinations (Bieger & Wittmer, 2006; Veiga et  al., 2017). Some of the challenges that have been identified in these studies include inaccessible transport, accommodation and museums, physical and communication barriers, lack of trained professionals to help PWDs in the travel sector, and lack of information that is required to help travellers in decision-making (Veiga et al., 2017). Apart from structural barriers to tourism for PWDs, attitudes and perceptions constitute barriers to tourism and travelling leisure for such persons due to their limited financial resources to facilitate accessibility to leaving home or domestic residents to areas outside their home. Other barriers identified in the literature include lack of leisure partners or lack of social interaction skills due to limited exposure to diversity. Accessible tourism enables all categories of persons to participate in and enjoy tourism experiences with accessibility, whether related to a physical or social condition. These challenges that are experienced by PWDs often result in a fractured tourism value chain and, thus, affect the overall tourism experience of tourists, thus leading to a considerable amount of frustration and unwillingness to travel (Cloquet et al., 2018). This is because barriers to travelling are multiple and include finances, accommodation, and space hospitality. To have a good touristic travelling, all or most of these resources must be put together and in the absence of one or more, help from others is requested. For the women, social ties such as childcare can be a reason not to travel because of the impossibility to travel with the child or the absence of alternative childminders. For travellers with disabilities, the problem of accessibility along the whole supply chain increases their frustrations, and studies using intersectionality theory could therefore be more helpful in unpacking these complexities. There are growing efforts to encourage accessible tourism development through the increased usage of smart technologies among destinations (Woyo & Ukpabi, 2022). Technologies play an essential role in making destinations and tourism to be more accessible to people (Gretzel & Koo, 2021; Woyo & Nyamandi, 2022). Regardless, accessible tourism, which is also linked to inclusive tourism (Darcy et al., 2022), continues to exclude marginalised populations like women and PWDs. Based on this,

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there is a need for a more holistic approach to tourism research on aspects of disability to make tourism more accessible and inclusive, especially from the patriarchal context of Cameroon, using the intersectionality theory. This is an approach that takes into consideration different aspects of tourism limitations cited above such as the structural, functional, psychological, financial, accommodation, and hospitality perspectives.

Intersection of Gender and Disability in Tourism Gender is a range of societal attributes or established ideas of male and female characteristics, which often limit the roles and responsibilities that women and men can/should occupy (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Females are yet to be globally represented in management roles (Musavengane et  al., 2019; Pritchard & Morgan, 2016). They are over-represented in part-time/casual work and low-paid jobs (Hutchings et al., 2020; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Prior research suggests gender discrimination in tourism employment, specifically in workplace segregation, work/family conflict, and other barriers to career progression (Heilman & Caleo, 2018; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). The continued discrimination of women across economies highlights the need for continuous research to unpack complex aspects that surround their discrimination. This is critical in understanding comprehensively the national cultural barriers that affect women’s accessibility to tourism consumption in a more patriarchal economy like Cameroon. Previous research has underlined gendered labour issues and provided recommendations for organisations to advance gender equality within the tourism and hospitality sector (Je et al., 2022). Acker (2012) investigated gender inequalities in organisations and revealed the persistence of inequality regimes despite organisational changes. Furthermore, Haq (2013) presents the challenges facing women in India due to the intersectionality of gender and other forms of identities impacting their personal and professional lives. This was achieved by exploring the intersection of gender, colour, caste, ethnicity, religion, marital status, and class as sources of discrimination against women in Indian society and workplaces (Haq, 2013). Indian women are marginalised in their access to education and healthcare and compromised in their personal and professional development by being undervalued, underemployed, and under-rewarded (Haq, 2013). Zhou et al. (2022) studied on the phenomenon of discrimination in hospitality

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and tourism services and proposed practical strategies to reduce discrimination to improve equality. Women with disabilities have been described as doubly marginalised on account of their disabilities and their gender attributions (Brown & Moloney, 2019). PWDs with disability are regarded in tourism literature as marginalised and disfranchised groups (Luu, 2021). Past literature shows that women, especially those with disabilities, have been invisible in most decision-making processes. Based on this, examining the intersection of these multiple dimensions is critical in promoting sustainable accessible tourism in more patriarchal societies like Cameroon (Musavengane et al., 2019). Many of these categories create multiple layers of discrimination and social exclusion and are likely to experience double discrimination, which includes gender-based violence, abuse, and marginalisation (Luu, 2021).

Methodology The methodological approach that was used is inductive and qualitative that is followed by action-based research based on the field experiences of the researcher as a counsellor and capacity builder in a multipurpose social welfare support response during the Anglophone and COVID-19 crises in Yaoundé, Cameroon. Data were collected using several methods including participant observations, social inquiries, and in-depth focus group discussions. Data in this study were collected from ten female disabled participants who were internally displaced in the English-speaking tourism zone of Yaoundé, Cameroon. Several sampling techniques were employed. Firstly, an opportunity sampling technique was employed. From an opportunity sample, the researcher further employed a snowballing approach to identify participants. A semi-structured interview schedule was therefore developed drawing upon topics used in measures reported in the literature and revised following a pilot interview. Data collected were analysed using the six steps of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), generating six main themes. The thematic analysis allows flexibility, provides a rich account of phenomena (Braun & Clarke, 2006), and is of particular use within the early stages of research. Interviews were conducted face to face by the author, and after data collection, these interviews were then transcribed, and initial codes were noted. Analysis was therefore conducted across the entire transcript, rather than being structured around individual question areas of the interview

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schedule. Data were reviewed to ensure that no information was duplicated or omitted.

Findings Three themes emerged that indicated several challenges affecting women with disabilities to effectively participate in tourism. The findings show that Cameroon could still be a long way toward developing sustainable and accessible tourism for all, including women at the intersection of disability. This chapter argues for the need to reduce these challenges as a means of achieving a more gender-inclusive and accessible tourism industry, which is necessary for Cameroon to realise its targets for the 2030 Agenda. Theme 1: Traditional Gender Roles as a Barrier to Participation The study found that women with disabilities fall among the marginalised and disadvantaged social groups in the English-speaking region of Cameroon. This is summed up by the following narrative: We feel excluded from important social, economic and political issues, even participation in leisure activities is difficult (Participant 1)

This finding, though new in the context of gender, disability, and tourism in Cameroon, is consistent with previous studies on tourism development. The exclusion of women in tourism development in Cameroon has also been discussed in the past literature (Musavengane et al., 2019; Tantoh & Simatele, 2018). This study found that access to tourism and being in a position to consume tourism services for women with disabilities in Yaoundé generally depend on decisions that are made by men, who in patriarchal societies like Cameroon and several other African countries are considered and acknowledged as “the head of the family unit” and community as a whole. Consequently, women with disabilities specifically experience social exclusion in their quest to consume tourism services, and this exclusion is based on their gendered roles that are assigned by patriarchal men and society. This often results in their continued marginalisation, and sometimes objectification. One of the participants of the study noted:

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There are several perceived risks such as violence from the men, social and economic barriers. The whole notion that the Anglophone women are reduced to a picture of housemates and caretakers [Participant 5].

This narrative shows that not only are women with disabilities living in an environment that marginalises them, but they are also victims of gender-­ based violence. Due to these challenges, it was noted in this study that developing accessible tourism is limited as women with disabilities often cannot participate effectively in tourism due to fear. Through fear of possible backlash, the findings of the study also revealed that women with disabilities in patriarchal societies are further discriminated from tourism employment. Further analysis shows that social exclusion from social networks is rampant, and this can lead to further suppression, as a lack of networks affects the aspects of diversity, which is critical in exchanging empowerment ideas and opportunities. The study also noted that the gender roles of women with disabilities carry moral values that act as hidden barriers to their personal and individual intentions. This appears to be compounding gender discrimination and confirming that tourism is a gendered industry (Pritchard & Morgan, 2016; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). These identities tend to affect the psychic structures of the female from the basic socialisation and create psychological barriers that may be rooted in the feminine mindset and work against achieving sustainable and accessible tourism. These gendered roles and moral values make women with disability to be subdued to masculinity subordination and often fail to enjoy tourism experiences. This is summed up by one participant who mentioned: To avoid further suppression and marginalization, women have to satisfy these obligations to abide by their entourage. One is not allowed to work, not even at a local restaurant to support family, due to the state of my disability (Participant 8).

From childhood, femaleness is perceived with stereotypical perceptions as weaker sex (Plante et al., 2009). These stereotypical views reinforce and perpetuate the dominant world views regarding the intersection of gender and disability, more so in a patriarchal society like Cameroon. Based on the analysis of data, it was found that most of the traditional gender roles that are given to women with disabilities in Cameroon are based on mainly domestic tasks, which do not need a lot of strength or force to perform,

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and this signifies the society’s perceptions of women as being weak. Tasks like catering and nurturing are feminine and believed to be easy because they require little physical force. This could be the reason why women in tourism employment also seem to be over-represented in tasks that supposedly do not require much effort (Hutchings et al., 2020). These aspects further support a gendered tourism industry (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). One of the participants related: They often say, I find my l leisure and joy in performing cooking and serving guests at home. I am often asked to stay at home, and there little no time allocated for touristic travelling because my parents are ashamed that I am disabled. [Participant, 10]

Based on the narrative above, this study found that women with disabilities are often perceived to be always on vacation and enjoying leisure, and thus, there is no need for them to travel to tourist attractions in Cameroon. The gender roles and identities of women with disabilities are used as a justification for making tourism consumption impossible, and policymakers are yet to deal with these challenges in a holistic approach. Tourism is generally considered to be a gendered economic sector. The findings of the study show that due to the gendered roles that are assigned to women with disabilities, most women with disabilities who participated in this study were comfortable with their identities as mothers or housewives. They used these identities to justify their lack of participation in other social, economic, or political activities. One of the participants had this to say: What tourism, I have so many house chores that are tied up and need to be accomplished. [Participant 7]

The above narrative also implies that gendered labour division has not given young women or girls with disabilities the opportunity to create free time for leisure duties, and thus, tourism is inaccessible for them. This chapter argues that tourism could be more inaccessible as women get more family responsibilities. Due to cultural values, it has been observed that women are often reduced to childbearing and performing household duties. The main root of discrimination of women in patriarchal societies is socialisation (Sultana, 2010). Through socialisation, the girl child is made

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to understand certain duties as feminine, and this is even demonstrated when women are tourists, “especially when travelling with children, their tasks often become an extension of their gendered roles at home: caregiver, cleaner, and cook” (Timothy, 2001, p. 240), and this was summed up by one of the participants of the study: During my childhood, I have been trained to assist my mother to cater for the younger ones, while my brother was playing with his friends after gathering some firewood with the father. Even when on holiday, I often care for my little sister because it is assumed to be my role. [Participant 4]

The findings of this study are consistent with past research that concluded that “culture tends to be a primary constraint on women travelling from and within the developing world” (Timothy, 2001, p.  241). Through socialisation, women grow up with an understanding of the gendered roles they should assume. This shows that through socialisation and culture, tourism and leisure consumption become alien to women with disabilities, in Cameroon. This is because women are not tourism and leisure minded (Timothy, 2001). Furthermore, with more focus on these roles, there is less education, which is critical for generating income that should support travel. Tourism is an income-dependent activity (Timothy, 2001; Woyo, 2021), and women with disabilities are greatly affected as they do not earn to support travel. Therefore, travel and tourism consumption become rare for women with disabilities in patriarchal societies. Theme 2: Psychological Constraints The study found that women with disabilities are not able to create time for leisure and tourism consumption. This is attributed to negative self-­ perception, underestimation, and overreliance on welfare. Many women in this community have not pursued academic studies because of societal assumptions that this will undermine their husbands’ authority. Education is a development factor that determines the extent to which women with disabilities can work outside their homes (Timothy, 2001). Without education, and income, supporting travel and tourism consumption among women with disabilities becomes more challenging, given that tourism is income dependent (Woyo, 2021). One participant noted:

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We are afraid to go to school……yes, for the same reason and we are unable to enjoy travel because of the lack of income and certain constraints. [Participant 9]

Patriarchal men do not support women who are studying, and this further creates and compounds psychological challenges. This chapter further notes that men do not often assist with childcare for women to study. This shows that it is difficult for women, especially those with disabilities to work outside their home due to several responsibilities they have including caring for children (Timothy, 2001). This further marginalises women with disabilities from effectively participating in tourism. This was summed up by participants who noted: Once you are a female with disabilities in this community, powerful psychical mechanisms are established to reinforce and reiterate the social and psychological controls over femaleness and thus reduce you from some basic personal and individual rights or freedom. [Participant 2]

Theme 3: Life Preferences Although poverty is common in Cameroon (Sikod, 2001), this study found that women with disabilities are more affected compared to men, thus making it difficult for Cameroon to effectively achieve the SDG 1 target by 2030. Due to many responsibilities, including bearing more children, women’s opportunities to work are rather limited. This view is consistent with past research that argued that women with many children are often employed in informal jobs (Timothy, 2001). Consequently, the main source of revenue in the rural areas of Cameroon is from agricultural activities. Women choose to engage in seasonal crops that are mainly for family subsistence and do not generate adequate income, which is needed to support leisure travel. One of the participants argued: Income generation is mainly the objective of the men who are greatly involved in cash crops and perennial plants such as fruit trees, coffee, cocoa, and large plantations. The men engage in this type of agricultural activity with the hope that, while waiting for the crops to mature, their wives will provide food for the family. [Participant 10]

Further analysis of data showed that in Cameroon’s patriarchal system, women are not allowed to own land, as their role is relegated to that of

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being caretakers. For this reason, they cannot take firm decisions on what to do on their husband’s property without the latter’s authorisation, and this also makes them bystanders in the decision-making process in aspects such as community-based tourism (Musavengane et al., 2019). The wage gap between women and men is very wide due to this practice, and this is consistent with past studies (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Women’s economic powers are weakened in these societies due to other roles that they play that are related to their identities such as pregnancy and childbirth. These multiple identities of women further prevent them from progressing at the same level as men. Further discrimination is perpetuated because these roles require women to take a break due to pregnancy or childcare responsibilities while men in these societies are not burdened. This explains why women would sometimes work part-time jobs in the tourism industry, and these challenges seem to perpetuate gendered inequalities and poverty in societies. Life preferences provide a unique capability to limit and pull down capacities to reinforce, weaken, and perpetuate dominant world views of social disability. These are critical issues which must be mentioned because they stand as motivational factors for the consumption and accessibility of tourism services. Women’s identities and attributions are mostly stereotypical and tie them to important family and community life responsibilities. The intersection of mothering and femininity carries social and cultural expectations that act as barriers to women. The challenges become more pronounced with women that have disabilities. The study found that several women, mostly those with disabilities, feel uncomfortable abandoning or leaving these responsibilities for other duties or leisure. Their perceived commitment to these cultural responsibilities could on the one hand demonstrate their attachment to their culture and family values. On the other hand, the mothering identity limits women to sedentary and domestic activities and accounts for the barrier to diversity and inclusion in tourism activities.

Conclusions This chapter examined the challenges that women face in accessing and consuming tourism services in Cameroon using the intersectionality theory. Several challenges were identified that seem to suggest why discrimination of women exists in society and tourism employment. Accessing and consuming tourism for women in this context are difficult despite various

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efforts to promote women’s empowerment, mainly because the society is patriarchal. The findings of this chapter are crucial in helping policymakers in understanding challenges to accessible tourism using a gendered and disability perspective. The inclusion of women in tourism is a step to a transformative female socio-economic life and empowerment but should be done in a way that addresses deep patriarchal challenges such as those identified in this study. Inclusive models geared toward transformative and accessible tourism that promotes women’s participation are needed to enhance their possibilities to explore the tourism resources around them.

Study Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research This study is limited to the context of the English-speaking region of Cameroon with a strong cultural attachment, and thus, the findings cannot be generalised. Future research may need to compare these findings with other regions in Cameroon and several other African countries. Furthermore, the study was limited in the methods of data collection and data analysis. Specifically, the research which informed this chapter employed qualitative research with a smaller sample size, and future studies may need to take a mixed-method approach to interrogate these challenges.

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CHAPTER 11

COVID-19, Gender, Disability, and Experiences: Evidence from Marginalised Groups in Community-Based Ecotourism Projects Lovemore Rutendo Chitambara, Godfrey Makandwa, Diet Mupfiga, and Cowen Dziva

Introduction The outbreak of the novel COVID-19 pandemic caused an unprecedented global health crisis in all facets of life. The pandemic and the lockdown measures meant to combat its spread affected the performance of the travel and tourism industry (Chamunogwa, 2021). With reference to the

L. R. Chitambara (*) • D. Mupfiga School of Hospitality, Tourism and Culture, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] G. Makandwa Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences, Mutare, Zimbabwe © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_11

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tourism sector in Africa, the pandemic curtailed positive performance recorded over the years due to a sharp decline in international arrivals from 1408 billion in 2018 to 399 million in 2020 (UNWTO, 2021). Faced with a weak international tourism demand, nature-based tourism in Africa was negatively affected (Mudzengi et al., 2022). Though there is a stream of literature that has focused on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on African tourism, it has concentrated on the performance of hospitality organisations (Dube, 2020; Kideghesho et al., 2021) and overlooked the performance of ecotourism organisations located in rural contexts (Mudzengi et al., 2022; Woyo, 2021). Important as the studies have become in revealing people’s vulnerabilities mainly of workers owing to uncertainties caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the existing studies (see Musavengane et al., 2019, 2021) do not provide nuanced experiences of the marginalised groups, especially in the context of ecotourism initiatives. Thus, there is a paucity of studies focusing on the experiences of the wider social groups within host communities, particularly the elderly, women, and people with disabilities (PWDs). Highlighting the experiences of marginalised groups involved in ecotourism, especially women and PWDs is imperative because it helps policymakers to develop strategies that help sustain their livelihoods and subsequent realisation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Lyons et al., 2012). Improved rural livelihoods remain key in aiding the realisation of several SDGs, for instance, SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (zero hunger), and SDG 5 (gender equality). We argue in this chapter that a comprehensive understanding of these aspects is critical in developing sustainable policies that enable communities to meet their basic needs and to be resilient to future crises, including pandemics. The UNWTO Framework Convention on Tourism Ethics under Article 5, paragraph 2 stresses the duty of the tourism sector in general to promote the rights of the most vulnerable groups such as women, indigenous people, and PWDs. This is particularly so concerning the participation of marginalised groups as entrepreneurs and/or part of the workforce that is estimated at 54% in the world (Morgan et al., 2021). Nonetheless, women, for example, are over-represented in informal entrepreneurship initiatives and low-paid work primarily because of gender discrimination at C. Dziva Nehanda Centre for Gender and Cultural Studies, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe

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workplaces (Chamunogwa, 2021). Resultantly, they lack safety nets to cushion themselves against eventualities and are the hardest hit by economic shocks brought by COVID-19 to the tourism industry (Chamunogwa, 2021; Nyabeze & Chikoko, 2021). This shows that tourism is both a curse and a blessing in terms of women’s empowerment and development, and a nuanced intersectional investigation of these constructs is required. Studies seeking to understand how the pandemic intersects with issues of gender and disability, specifically in a tourism context, and how it affects the attainment of SDGs particularly among marginalised groups in communities that survive on ecotourism projects in the Global South remain limited and are needed. Understanding the intersection between gender, disability, and ecotourism in marginalised communities is crucial in estimating the true impacts COVID-19 had on vulnerable people. It also promotes the development of post-pandemic recovery paths and resiliency to future pandemics in the ecotourism sector (Abbas et al., 2021). It is against this background that this study sought to explore the experiences of marginalised groups involved in community-based ecotourism in Nyanga, Zimbabwe during the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter provides policymakers and practitioners with insights on how to promote sustainable ecotourism projects that empower disadvantaged groups and improve their livelihoods. Furthermore, the insights of this research are critical in helping governments to develop developmental policies that are effective in building sustainable COVID-19 response plans. Other sections in this chapter include the literature review, methodological approach, results and discussion, conclusion, limitations of the study, and suggestions for further research.

Literature Review Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Gender, and Disability The SDGs are a set of goals designed to improve the social, economic, and well-being of all while maintaining global and environmental sustainability (Woyo, 2020). SDG goal number 5 is formulated on a strong gender analysis which understands gender inequality to possess social, political, and economic benefits in a society (Esquivel & Sweetman, 2016). These SDGs represent the beginning of a new compact on women’s rights and gender equality that has been universally endorsed by civic society groups and public and private sector bodies (Dhar et  al., 2018). Sustainable

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development in any venture including ecotourism initiatives should also deal with adequate gender equality and full participation by gender in addressing the challenges faced in ecotourism ventures. The SDGs specifically argue for sustainable growth and inclusion, access to inclusive education, inclusive and safe human settlements, equality, and collection and monitoring of SDGs data. Even without direct mention of PWDs, all the other SDGs including SDGs 1 and 2 seek to eliminate poverty and hunger, respectively, and speak to universal human security, which is important to the disabled community. PWDs, women, elderly persons, and youths are marginalised as they often experience a higher rate of poverty and social exclusion and are consistently excluded from accessing education, employment, and healthcare because of stigma (Abualghaib et al., 2019). In pandemic situations, their plight is often exacerbated. The tourism industry was relentlessly affected due to its reliance on people moving across territories (Dube, 2021). The pandemic crippled the tourism and hospitality sector with far-reaching implications for ecotourism businesses and employment levels for the disadvantaged (Dube, 2021). Few studies have focused on the involvement of marginalised groups such as PWDs in ecotourism initiatives during the pandemic period. Cerchiai and Lieberman (2021) noted that PWDs have consistently faced discrimination when working in the leisure industry and when travelling for leisure purposes. However, evidence from Thailand shows that participation of PWDs in ecotourism initiatives has reduced their poverty levels (Suriya & Gruen, 2012). The studies that apply intersectionality perspectives in investigating the role of ecotourism in enhancing the quality of life and the achievement of SDGs in developing countries remain limited and therefore needed (Cole, 2017). Specifically, research on how the pandemic could have affected marginalised communities, for instance, PWDs, in destinations with structural challenges like Zimbabwe is limited. There is a need to develop ecotourism, which is inclusive of different genders and attentive to the needs of persons with disabilities (Jamhawi et al., 2015). Despite this call, research on tourism and gender, especially from the context of distressed destinations like Zimbabwe (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020) has benignly focused on the impact of COVID-19 on women’s entrepreneurship (Dube, 2020). In other contexts, the focus has been on entrepreneurship and female empowerment (Araujo-Vila et al., 2021). While this is good progress in developing insights on gender dimensions of the ecotourism sector with an eye on women (UN, 2021), extant literature is skewed towards women and rarely does it investigate the intersectional

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issues of gender and disability, especially from destinations with structural challenges like Zimbabwe. UNICEF (2017) refers gender to as the roles and responsibilities of men and women. Most studies that focus on gender in the ecotourism sector lack greater inclusiveness in tourism development and the application of the intersectionality perspective (Walter & Tran, 2013; Profeta et al., 2021; UN, 2021). Rozenberg et al. (2020) argue that COVID-19 like previous epidemics affect men and women differently. Women, young people, and migrants were identified in the literature as being the first to lose their sources of livelihood mainly because they are hired mostly in low-level jobs such as housekeeping and cooks (Zarrilli & AydinerAvsar, 2020). The situation is worse for rural women compared to men as they have additional household tasks that are a result of living in a rural context (Bajec, 2020). These trends are even more severe among mono-parental households, the majority of whom are women-led. Single women who do not have partners to help support with family needs during the crisis shoulder a huge burden as they try to care for their families and find alternative sources of income (Wenham et  al., 2020). Such complications contribute to increased anxiety and mental health issues, especially for wage breadwinners (Masomera & Chigwanda, 2020). At the household level, due to the pandemic families have resorted to reducing the number of meals consumed a day to cope with the challenges brought by the pandemic (Malunga, 2021). The pandemic has also negatively impacted men especially those in the ecotourism sector (Mulder, 2020). Due to the loss of livelihoods, men have also taken on household duties; however, this is viewed (by men and women) as helping women with their role. The pandemic has disrupted gains made in poverty reduction, as most ecotourism projects were negatively affected (Morgan et  al., 2021; Musavengane & Kloppers, 2020). Musavengane et al. (2021) noted that people’s livelihoods, especially in rural communities, were drastically affected due to COVID-19, therefore it becomes imperative to document the experiences of the rural people focusing on gender and disability to promote inclusivity in tourism.

Methodology Study Context: Gairezi Ecotourism Project Gairezi Ecotourism Project is situated along the Gairezi River in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe. It was established under the auspices of

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the CAMPFIRE project in the early 1990s to preserve natural resources and create an additional source of income for local communities blessed with tourism resources. The project is run by the Gairezi Development Trust (GDT) which consists of members drawn from Nyamutsapa and Dazi villages in partnership with the Nyanga Downs Fly Fishing Club (NDFFC). Gohori and Merwe (2021) argued that bringing together the two villages helped to improve community cohesion. The project benefits 306 beneficiaries from both villages, of which 6 are PwDs (2 males and 4 females). Apart from being eligible to be elected to the GDT board, the members also benefit from employment opportunities, conservation training programs, and agricultural inputs. Nyanga Rural District Council is the responsible authority for rural land use, conservation, and promotion of sustainable use of the riverine resources. The GDT is responsible for developing and operating the tourism facility in partnership with the NDFFC. Products on offer by the ecotourism facility include fly fishing, white water rafting, mountaineering, picnicking, lodging facilities, and swimming. Intersectionality Theory The study examined the experiences of marginalised groups involved in the Gairezi ecotourism project during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, we investigated whether tourism activities contribute towards poverty alleviation (SDG 1) and the attainment of gender equality and inclusion of PWDs in rural contexts (SDG 5). Research shows that men and women have different experiences in the tourism industry even when faced with the same situations (Je et al., 2020). To have a comprehensive understanding of the circumstances, this research solicited views of both sexes. Intersectionality thinking was applied to understand how social and political identities and attributes of vulnerable groups explain the effects that COVID-19 had on their livelihoods. Intersectionality is primarily concerned with how the exercise of power affects individuals who face multiple social inequalities, and consequently, multiple intertwined and simultaneous experiences of privilege and marginalisation (Cole, 2017; Crenshaw, 1989). Intersectionality is a concept that stresses the interrelatedness of the nature of categories of oppression (Crenshaw, 1989). The categories of discrimination are generally based on gender, race, ethnicity, age, and sexuality (Cole, 2017). These categories are often institutionalised in societies and sometimes considered as being

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the way of life. Through their existence, they tend to construct and shape systems of power that often results in social inequalities that are generally complex and vary with time and space (Cole, 2017; Collins, 2015; Crenshaw, 1989). Past research identified three aspects of intersectionality studies, and these include (1) field of study, (2) analytical strategy, and (3) critical praxis (Cole, 2017). In this chapter, the second aspect of intersectionality is applied. Through an intersectional approach, researchers were able to comprehensively understand the complexity of vulnerable groups’ identities beyond age, gender, and sex. Furthermore, the intersectional theory helped recognise how these variables intersect with other historical social identities such as rurality, poverty, environment, type of employment, and structural problems in Zimbabwe as a tourist destination (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020) and class. These aspects were discussed in line with the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is the reflexivity of this approach, together with a phenomenological research design that allowed the generation of meaningful and deeper insights relating to gender and disability aspects during the COVID-19 pandemic period from multiple perspectives. Design and Data Collection Data were collected from 15 purposively and snowball sampled members of the Gairezi ecotourism project between June and July 2021. Participants were selected based on gender, age (youths and the aged), and disability from the projected register. The researchers purposively selected the marginalised groups, a voice previously neglected in the literature, to capture their experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic period. The researchers made use of the project leadership to first locate the participants and thereafter exploited the social relationships and networks among the participants to recruit more participants. The demographic details of the participants are summarised in Table 11.1. The researchers solicited the participants’ consent, explaining that the data was for research purposes and elements of confidentiality were upheld largely through pseudonyms. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were used to collect rich insights into the phenomenon. Having obtained the list of potential participants, contacts were obtained from the project leadership and the close relations among the members made it easy to obtain contacts for all the

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Table 11.1  Participants’ demographic aspects Pseudonyms and age

Sex

Civil status

Level of education

Chamu (33) Muti (38) Rudo (36) Tonde (50) Chipiwa (44) Pamhi (38) Ruva (83)

Male Male Female Male Female Female (blind) Female

Widowed Married Married Married Divorced Single Widowed

8 11 9 13 7 0 5

Garai (66) Tendai (33) Dzoka (42) Nzombe (38) Nzara (25) Kuda (44)

Male Female Male Male Male Male (handicapped) Male Female

Married Married Married Married Married Married

Certificate Ordinary level Ordinary level Ordinary level Ordinary level Primary level No formal education Certificate Certificate Ordinary level Certificate Certificate Ordinary level

Married Widowed

Certificate Ordinary level

10 4

Nhamo (50) Wedzerai (28)

Number of dependants

8 6 7 9 6 8

participants. The researchers got in touch with the participants and interview dates were scheduled. The participants chose the venue for the interviews, and in all the cases the interviewers were invited to the participants’ homes which further reinforced confidentiality and enabled the participants to express themselves freely. On average, each interview lasted 45  minutes. All interviews were conducted in Shona which is the local language and data were later translated into English and transcribed by the researchers. The collected data were subject to thematic analysis which involved rereading transcriptions and grouping the responses based on age, gender, and disability. The thematic analysis involved familiarising with the gathered data, defining themes, and making interpretations.

Results and Discussions The research findings identified the marginalised groups as including women and youths, people with disabilities, and the elderly.

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Youth and Women’s Vulnerabilities in the Gairezi Project It emerged from this study that women participants at the Gairezi project were hit by the pandemic lockdown as handouts were non-existent due to limited activity at the project. As one woman exclaimed, We used to get donations for food stuff from the project … but now it’s not possible.

Many respondents shared the sentiments that the COVID-19 lockdown reduced business viability and presented limited opportunities for communities, who used to survive from the project. The COVID-19 induced travel restrictions resulting in previous beneficiaries failing to access the donations. In a way, this limited their ability to command basic needs and combat poverty. The plight of women particularly widows and those elderly was that they found it difficult to fend for their families amidst opportunity losses. From this perspective, participants like Ruva, a widow were faced with food shortages. She explained that the lack of donor support and opportunities has forced her to work in other villagers’ fields despite her advanced age in return for food as payment. Women and youth who used to be employed at the ecotourism project before COVID-19 also lost employment due to poor business performance. From this employment, women and youth got allowances that were key in easing their financial burden, particularly the household heads. Chipiwa, a female divorcee and formerly employed as a housekeeper prior to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic said: My wages enabled me to pay my children’s school fees.

In this case, Chipiwa’s income earnings enabled her to provide for her family including investing in her children’s education. This was further buttressed by Chamu, a youth who stated that the ecotourism project improved the community’s livelihood options courtesy of the wages they gained from the low-quality positions and service provision. The research findings are in sync with previous studies that concluded that the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in job losses and women were the hardest hit (Chamunogwa, 2021; Musavengane et al., 2021). With the coming of the pandemic and the subsequent lockdowns, the project was unable to retain employees, hence more people retrenched.

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Garai, a married male stated that: “Only 10 people were employed at the ecotourism project owing to reduced tourist arrivals”. The total number employed during the pandemic period is insignificant considering that the ecotourism project has 306 members. While some men were also affected, participants explained that most jobs affected were those performed by women and the youth, as they were in service provision including cleaning, provision of security, and food preparation, whereas men were in top leadership positions that were retained to run the projects even during the pandemic lockdown. Due to the patriarchal nature of the Zimbabwean society, women are relegated to feminine fields of the economy that were heavily dependent on a thriving tourism sector. As such, Gairezi women members’ sources of employment and livelihoods were largely compromised due to the COVID-19 induced lockdown, something that placed them in a precarious situation when it comes to fending for their families. Upon losing jobs and opportunities from the ecotourism project during the pandemic lockdown, the majority of women were idle and burdened with reproductive roles at home. This view was summed up by Wedzerai: Our daily activities were affected as most of us lost our jobs of selling our crafts as a result of the reduced number of international visitors due to travel restrictions. As women, our duties are now confined to our homes doing daily household chores and looking after our young children.

The findings corroborate with Dziva et al. (2021), who also noted how women have been the primary caregivers for children—assisting minors to go through the introduced virtual lessons during the initial lockdown. Indeed, school closures implied a deeper involvement of women and girls, both in care and education; and many women had to concentrate on work and homeschooling in the same (domestic) space. This is generally because of the patriarchal nature of the society that tends to view women as domestic workers or housewives. As many of these domestic tasks are not remunerated, women have been found wanting when it comes to earning income. These increased domestic roles by women during pandemic lockdown further limited women’s time for perusing other livelihood pursuits. For some women, their vulnerability was worsened by the fear and risk of contracting COVID-19 as they looked after the sick, washing their clothes and feeding the sick often without protective clothing (Dziva et al., 2021; UNFPA, 2017). Thus, the effects of the COVID-19-induced lockdowns

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were further compounded by the community and patriarchal defined roles of women, which further relegate this group to peripheral positions in society, where they found it difficult to access disposable income and basic needs. Resulting from this precarious situation that women and youth found themselves in due to limited employment and business opportunities, some participants, particularly women entrepreneurs anchored that they are in distressed situations that affect even their mental being. This was summed up by Rudo, who stated that: Remember there is a saying which says a hungry man is an angry man, so generally due to reduced income levels the morale is very low in our homes.

Similarly, participants linked their inability to have income and command basic needs with the rise in social vices such as domestic violence and youth delinquency. The findings corroborate with previous studies that link women and youth’s limited resource access to stress, mental health, and increased prostitution among other issues. As young people become idle in society, they resort to drug abuse and criminal activities in a bid to irk a living. Altogether, the social vices engaged in by women and youth often lead to more problems for them including being arrested, developing mental problems, and contracting the deadly HIV/AIDS disease. PWDs and Older Persons’ Vulnerabilities in the Gairezi Project It emerged from this study that the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdowns furthered the exclusion of PWDs from participating in ecotourism. While PWDs were neither employed nor part of the board before COVID-19, they participated by attending meetings of the ecotourism project, where important community resolutions were made. For instance, annual meetings were being held to give all members including PWDs, women, youth, and elderly person feedback relating to the ecotourism project’s performance and challenges faced. While Agovino et al. (2017) tend to downplay this passive participation, by asserting that tourism positively influences the lives of only those that actively participate, PWDs and older persons are reliving how important these endeavours were to their lives. As Garai explained:

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We also used to attend training programs where we were taught the importance of conserving our forests by the elders, but due to COVID-19 everything is now banned.

It was at these training that members got capacitated on project management and leadership skills. With COVID-19, however, such gatherings are banned rendering marginalised groups’ participation largely impossible. Thus, the banning of gatherings was a blow, especially to young persons who benefited from leadership skills because of working and interacting with the more experienced adults to even acquire indigenous knowledge in craft making. Older persons possess indigenous knowledge and cultural experiences (Makandwa et al., 2021) that can enrich the decision-making process of the youths despite their advanced years. In a way, the exclusion of PWDs and elderly community members due to lockdown is against the SDGs framework that seeks to include and afford everyone equal access to participate in tourism activities irrespective of age, sex, ethnicity, disability, and gender (UN, 2015). Before the COVID-19 pandemic, PWDs and elderly women indicated that they complemented their agricultural earnings with the sale of crafts including hats and doormats that were made from tree barks and reeds at the ecotourism project’s reception area. During this time, Pamhi, a disabled crafts entrepreneur explained that her “average monthly earnings from the sale of doormats prior to the outbreak of the pandemic were US$20 and have gone for 6 months without selling even a single item”. The fall in income affected her livelihood, and this has been exacerbated by the structural economic challenges that existed in Zimbabwe before COVID-19, and with low disposable income, domestic tourism promotion did not help as she further said: …tourists visiting the ecotourism project are mostly locals who rarely buy the crafts because of their low disposable income, the few that do so, ask for discounted prices.

This finding is consistent with the conclusions of past studies that noted a weak capacity on the part of domestic tourism to absorb goods and services of host communities in lockdown periods (Musavengane & Kloppers, 2020). Chirisa et al. (2021) further noted that the reduced demand for nature-based tourism products led to job losses and this negatively impacts rural communities as they lack safety nets to cushion themselves against

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disruptions in economic activities. With this limited access to alternative-­ lucrative markets for their products during pandemic lockdowns, the PWDs have been rendered idle and incapacitated to earn a living. One PWD has it that, The problem is that even some of us with skills in craft work has not been able to move around to market our crafts outside the community due to lockdown and the challenges inherent to us, yet when opportunities arise people do not consider us abled. Thus, we were often left out to suffer, and at the messy of our relatives.

Unlike other groups who diversified to other income-generating activities, PWDs found it difficult due to intersecting limitations inherent to themselves and some beyond their control. These factors included the challenges they faced to travel due to uneven terrain, especially for the visually impaired and those with physical disabilities, and the perception and stereotypes that the Gairezi community have towards PWDs. As the above vignette reveals, the Gairezi community view PWDs as charity case, who should not be considered when opportunities arise but rather be looked after by well-wishers and family members. It is based on this damaging model of disability that PWDs were not prioritised in pandemic response and provision of safety nets. With limited access to income support schemes, they were left exposed to insecurity and poverty (Rochette et al., 2021). In the same way as women and youth, the elderly and PWDs lost out on their much needed handouts from the ecotourism project during pandemic lockdowns. Emanating from the charity model that the Gairezi community has, PWDs have been benefiting from handouts from the project for survival. As Pamhi recalled: The NDFFC has been a perennial provider to the needy through extending donations of wheelchairs, clothing, food stuff and farming inputs to PWDs and older persons, and textbooks to surrounding schools

Besides benefiting foodstuffs, PWDs and elderly persons also got assistive devices such as wheelchairs, walking aids, and spectacles that largely assisted them in partaking in community activities. Without these devices many PWDs in need of such were grounded and largely unable to even look for raw materials for their craft work and to work in their fields, thus limiting

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their productivity. The productivity of the elderly and PWDs in agricultural terms was also affected as Gairezi members lost out on the inputs including fertilisers and seeds that they used to benefit before COVID-19. Unlike the able-bodied youth and women CBT members, PWDs and elderly persons’ situation was made precarious because of their inability to diversify to other livelihoods options. The analysis of the narratives shows that some members particularly the youth diversified to other survival means including doing part-time jobs that are not tourism related such as fencing other peoples’ farms and weeding other people’s fields. The situation was better for us the youth compared to other groups as we ended up looking for other menial part-time jobs such fencing other people’s farms to supplement our incomes so that we can survive during the difficult time of COVID-19 pandemic. (Nzara, a youth).

Due to many intersecting factors including the type of disability, the wider inaccessible environment, people’s perception, and limited access to capital, PWDs and elderly persons could not diversify. As such, the pandemic brought about double marginality for PWDs and elderly persons, particularly those who had siblings to look after, as that means more food and income are required (Chamunogwa, 2021). This is explained by the following excerpt: My two children lost their jobs as bar attendants following lockdown restrictions enforced to curb the spread of the pandemic and returned home with their families (Ruva, 83 years old widow).

In rural Zimbabwe, elderly persons often live in multigenerational households, whereby they stay with individuals of different ages, including all their unemployed adult children who may or may not have their children. In these multigenerational households, elderly persons often perform the triple roles of homemaker, caregiver, and income earner. It is this complex situation that was furthered during lockdowns, as remittances were not being provided to elderly persons due to the economic downturn that rocked the world during the lockdown era and resulted from the restrictions placed on people’s movement to send and collect remittances. Thus, COVID-19 compounded with age and poverty places elderly persons in a precarious situation where they found it difficult to look after multigenerational households amid limited remittances and safety nets.

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Conclusion While the COVID-19 pandemic threatens all members of the tourism sector, vulnerable groups in the ecotourism industry are disproportionately impacted due to intersecting factors of rurality, gender and disability, and stereotypes that are reproduced in the COVID-19 pandemic era and response mechanism. The empirical evidence provided in this chapter has confirmed that women, older persons, youth, and PWDs are relegated to the margins of society in the pandemic situation since their employment, access to income, social protection, and above all livelihoods become compromised. Thus, the COVID-19 crisis has exacerbated the already pre-­ existing inequalities in Zimbabwean society based on age, patriarchy, gender, disability, and political class. Resultantly, the potential of affected groups in the ecotourism sector to enjoy better lives and contribute towards sustainable community and national development and subsequently realise SDGs remains compromised. The study argues for the need to develop disability-gender-sensitive policy responses within community-based institutions to empower PWDs, older persons, women, and the youth so that they can cope and command sustainable lives in pandemic situations. More so, ecotourism is further implored to reduce overreliance on international holidaymakers and promote domestic visitation through widespread marketing. Policymakers and ecotourism players need to mainstream marginalised groups’ rights and needs to continuously respond to these groups’ inadequacies and vulnerabilities to shocks and stress and ultimately realise inclusive-sustainable development.

Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Further Research The sample size used in this study was relatively small as the Gairezi ecotourism enterprise was the only case study used to establish the experiences of marginalised groups involved in community-based ecotourism during the COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe. As a result, the findings of this study cannot be generalised to the national context. Further research could be undertaken by incorporating other community-based ecotourism projects across the country to make sure that a representative sample is considered. Additionally, the study calls for empirical future research that aggregates the impact of COVID-19 using data on age, disability, and gender in the ecotourism industry of Zimbabwe and the region for comparative purposes.

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CHAPTER 12

Understanding the Experiences of Athletes with Physical Disabilities to Inform Inclusive Sports Tourism Practices Molebogeng Simphiwe Motseke and Willy Hannes Engelbrecht

Introduction Over 1 billion people in the world live with some form of disability (World Bank, 2021; WHO, 2021). In South Africa, 7.5% of the South African population in the last census reported a form of disability (Statistics South Africa, 2014). Disability, which has been traditionally classified as a M. S. Motseke (*) Research and Postgraduate Studies, The Independent Institute of Education (IIE), Johannesburg, South Africa Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, The Independent Institute of Education (IIE), Johannesburg, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] W. H. Engelbrecht Research and Postgraduate Studies, The Independent Institute of Education (IIE), Johannesburg, South Africa © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_12

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medicalised condition (McConachie et al., 2006), is now being recognised as part of the continuum of human conditions (WHO, 2021). While past studies show that persons with disabilities are generally marginalised and discriminated (Kitchin et al., 2022; Misener & Darcy, 2014), “the societal response to disability has shifted substantially over the past 50 years” (Ginis et al., 2021, p. 443). The United Nations also seeks to ensure the protection of persons with disabilities (PWDs), and their rights and freedoms, and this has been achieved through the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN, 2022). This commitment is further reflected in the Agenda 2030—Sustainable Development Goal 3, which focuses on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages. These interventions are beginning to critically influence the direction of research, especially in the context of sports tourism. Competitive sports for PWDs have grown exponentially over the years (Martin & Whalen, 2014; Blauwet & Willick, 2012). Athletes with physical disabilities are often faced with activity limitations and participation restrictions, which result from their impairments (Kissow, 2015; Shapiro & Martin, 2010). Additionally, society tends to perceive these athletes in terms of their impairments and not their athletic abilities (Cursiol & Barreira, 2021; Misener et al., 2019; Nhamo & Sibanda, 2019). Martin and Whalen (2014) affirm that athletes with physical disabilities are often equated to their disabilities, whilst other qualities go unacknowledged. This explains why their rate of participation in sports remains relatively lower compared to able-bodied counterparts (Ginis et al., 2010). This low participation rate and further marginalisation of athletes with physical disabilities are perpetuated by institutional norms, inaccessibility of physical structures and social attitudes (Cursiol & Barreira, 2021; Goering, 2015; Nhama & Sibanda, 2019). This study, therefore, sought to understand the experiences of athletes with physical disabilities to inform inclusive sports tourism practices.

Literature Review Stereotypical (mis)representations of Athletes with Physical Disabilities Disability is historically understood in terms of the medical model of disability. This model regards disability as a disease and asserts that persons with disabilities (PWDs) ought to be “fixed” and/or “cured” (Retief & Letšosa, 2018). The medical model of disability is riddled with negative

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stereotypes and assumes that persons with disabilities who cannot be cured by medical professionals have limited autonomy and cannot participate in society (Bunbury, 2019). There has, however, been a shift in understanding over the years. The social model of disability understands disability as a socially constructed phenomenon (Retief & Letšosa, 2018) and distinguishes between “impairment” and “disability” (Goering, 2015). This model asserts that persons with impairments are disabled by societal barriers. Anastasiou and Kauffman (2013) affirm that disability is imposed upon persons with impairments through unnecessary isolation and exclusion from full participation in society. The media is vital in shaping society’s beliefs about disability and sport (Rees et al., 2017). Athletes with physical disabilities are often portrayed as “super”, “incredible” or “extra-ordinary” because engaging in sport is portrayed as exceptional when done by PWDs (Silva & Howes, 2022). Ablebodied athletes, on the other hand, are seen as just athletes. This is reflective of society’s low expectations of persons with physical disabilities. Silva and Howe (2022) argue that these low expectations result in the glorification of any achievement, regardless of how insignificant it may be. This glorification is known as the supercrip narrative. This narrative suggests that PWDs overcome their disability through their accomplishments. Athletes with physical disabilities are stereotypically (mis)represented as superheroes who overcome their disabilities by participating in competitive sports (Rees et al., 2017). McGillivary et al. (2021) assert that the (mis)representation that disability can be conquered through hard work underestimates the structural and attitudinal challenges that athletes with physical disabilities face. Silva and Howe (2022) caution that presenting athletes with physical disabilities as extraordinary can communicate that only “super” people can be successful in sport and thus discourage others from participating in sport. Sports Tourism Sports tourism is an activity that is enjoyed by most people across the world, and it includes the attendance of sports events, participation in sports events and viewing of main sports attractions (Bursać et al., 2021; Nopiyanto et al., 2021). However, the experiences of athletes with physical disabilities are not as pleasant as those of their able-bodied counterparts. This is due to the lack of well-designed and supportive sports and tourism-related infrastructure and facilities, which prohibit these athletes from meaningful engagement in sports tourism (Bursać et  al., 2021; Nopiyanto et al., 2021).

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Research on the structural and societal challenges faced by athletes with physical disabilities who participate in competitive sports in South Africa is limited. A study in Zimbabwe, however, reported that poor infrastructure and poor transportation methods discouraged athletes from participating in competitive sports. Nopiyanto et al. (2021) found that sports facilities and infrastructure in Indonesia were not designed and maintained to support athletes with physical disabilities. Studies conducted in European countries reported contrasting findings. These studies found that there is more participation of PWDs in sports mainly due to greater awareness and the effective implementation of legislation (Bursać et al., 2021; Makhov et al., 2015). McGillivray et  al. (2018) expressed concern about sports events not having the required supporting infrastructure for athletes with physical disabilities and emphasised the importance of demolishing the social stereotypes that exist within communities regarding athletes with physical disabilities. Sports can serve as a social catalyst to change the negative attitudes and stereotypical perceptions people have towards athletes with physical disabilities (Hua et al., 2013). There is an increased demand for sports events to rise beyond the minimal standards of facilities by including supporting infrastructure for persons with physical disabilities, not only at the sports facilities but also in the surrounding regions (McGillivray et al., 2018). Intersectionality of Disability, Sports, Race, Gender and Culture South Africa is characterised by racial discrimination, income inequalities and spatial segregation, which stem from the Apartheid laws which prohibited racial groups from mixing (Capobianco, 2015; Abel, 2016; World Bank Group, 2018; Statistics South Africa, 2019). Despite the demise of Apartheid in 1994, inequality continues to plague the development of sports in South Africa (Steenkaamp, 2019). This is reflected in the fact that 22 of the 34 members of the South African team that participated at the 2020 Tokyo Paralympic games were White, whilst 20 of the 34 were male. South African athletes with physical disabilities who are not White are subjected to discrimination based on race and impairment (Rademeyer, 2017). Sports have traditionally been male-dominated, thus subjecting females with physical disabilities who are not White to discrimination based on race, disability and gender (Rademeyer, 2017; Vyas-Doorgapersad & Surujlal, 2018). Discrimination of women with physical disabilities is

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further worsened in rural areas, where cultural beliefs and norms perpetuate patriarchy and misogyny. These women are often subjected to dangerous cultural practices and face multi-layered oppression as a result of the intersectionality of disability, gender and culture (Thabethe, 2022). Thabethe (2022) asserts that this intersectionality keeps women with physical disabilities in rural areas trapped in a vicious cycle of disadvantage and invisibility. Mothers of children born with physical disabilities are often subjected to a life of scorn, shame and guilt (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Motseke, 2019; Thabethe, 2022). Cultural beliefs and norms, and the gendering of disability often result in women being questioned about their ability to birth able-bodied children, whilst men are assumed to be blameless in “transmitting” disability (Thabethe, 2022). Motseke (2019) similarly found that mothers who live in rural areas in South Africa who gave birth to blind children were ostracised by the children’s paternal families and blamed for “bringing blindness” into the family. Such narratives reinforce stigma and discrimination against women with disabilities and thus result in them playing less active roles in their communities, particularly in sports. Methodology This study followed an interpretivist approach and used a qualitative research methodology design to gather data on the lived experiences of athletes with physical disabilities. Qualitative research involves understanding the human experience in specific settings and focuses on the participants’ emotions, behaviours and lived experiences (Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2021). Data were collected between the 1st and 18th of March 2022 through in-depth, semi-structured telephone interviews. Snowball sampling was used. The researchers contacted the first athlete who is acquainted with them. This athlete assisted the researchers in contacting fellow athletes. These athletes engaged with the researchers and put forward other athletes and the process continued until data saturation was reached. Data saturation was reached after ten interviews and no further recruitment was needed. Data saturation is the point at which no new data, nor emerging patterns, are generated from the interviews (Sim et al., 2018). The sample consisted of five female and five male athletes aged between 21 and 35. Their disabilities were either congenital or acquired and were cerebral palsy, diplegia, left hemiplegia, complete blindness, multiple-­ physical disabilities and spina bifida. The athletes participated in various

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sports codes such as goalball, long-distance track running, long-distance road running, boccia, discus, shot put, javelin, table tennis and long jump. The athletes were of African descent and from the Sotho, Tswana and Zulu cultural groups. They all obtained tertiary qualifications. Three of the ten athletes were full-time employed, two were enrolled in learnership programmes, one was completing their tertiary qualification and the rest were actively seeking employment. The duration of the interviews ranged from 45 to 90 min. The interviews were audio-recorded, with permission from the athletes and conducted in the athletes’ language of choice which was either Sesotho or Setswana. This enabled the athletes to freely express themselves and comfortably provide rich data on their lived experiences. The interviews were translated into English by one of the researchers who are conversant in the languages. The interviews were then transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis. The thematic analysis enabled the researchers to identify and develop categories from the data and better understand the phenomena under study (Lehmann et al., 2019). Ethical clearance was obtained from The Independent Institute of Education’s Ethics committee, with reference number R.15625. Findings The themes that emerged from this study, which are discussed below, are (1) challenges experienced by athletes with physical disabilities; (2) how athletes cope with these challenges and (3) strategies for improving the sporting experiences of athletes with physical disabilities. Challenges Experienced by Athletes with Physical Disabilities The findings of this study revealed that the severity of the athlete’s disability had a direct influence on the extent of the challenges they experienced, particularly with regard to accessibility. The athletes who used wheelchairs or walking sticks experienced more challenges than those who walk independently. These challenges included inaccessible facilities, a lack of financial support, and discrimination and abuse. Facilities The athletes faced numerous challenges when making use of lodging facilities, toilet facilities, training facilities and transportation services. Athletes

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who walk independently stated that the lodging facilities were disability-­ friendly, whilst the athletes who use wheelchairs reported the opposite. Athlete 1, who has been participating in para-sports for 15  years, expressed that: Another thing is accommodation. Accommodation! You’d find that a wheelchair user would have to sleep on the 18th floor and have to take the stairs. And then you wonder what the person who made the arrangements for accommodation was thinking!—[27-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has cerebral palsy]

He further explained that the lodging facility only had one elevator which was not sufficient for the number of athletes it had to service. A similar experience was reported by Athlete 8 who stated that: Accommodation is a painful issue. There are only a limited number of rooms that are disability friendly, and you would find that there is a stair or two on the door’s entrance. I can’t enter or leave my room without asking for help from someone. The hand basins are high, and I can’t reach them whilst I am seated in my wheelchair. The taps are also impossible to open.—[27-year-­ old-male who uses a wheelchair and has multiple physical disabilities]

Toilet facilities proved to be a huge challenge for athletes who used wheelchairs. The athletes expressed that the toilets at the lodging facilities and sports grounds were often too narrow, and their wheelchairs would not fit into the cubicles. In the rare cases where the wheelchairs did fit, there was not enough space in the cubicle and the athletes would have to use the toilet with the door open. Athlete 1 explained that: You would find that the toilet is small, and people have to carry you inside and the wheelchair has to stay outside because there is not enough space for it. It is sad because you have to ask people to carry and help you, and it becomes a problem if you have a running stomach.—[27-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has cerebral palsy]

Athlete 10 shared a similar experienced. She expressed that: Yho, using the toilet is a real problem. The door cannot close properly, and I have to do my business with everyone looking. I sometimes hold my pee just to avoid going to the bathroom. It becomes a nightmare when it is that

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time of the month.—[26-year-old female who uses a wheelchair and has spina bifida]

The athletes shared that making use of training facilities was a major challenge. This was particularly true for those athletes who lived in towns outside of the city, as they were required to travel, and at times, for long distances. The athletes also expressed that they struggled to find coaches when they completed their schooling or if they were not a part of the provincial team. Athlete 2, who has won numerous medals for long-distance track and road running, shared that she stopped participating in sports because she struggled to find a suitable guide runner (a person who supports runners with visual impairments when running) when her guide runner retired from sports. Inaccessible transportation services were highlighted as a pressing challenge. The athletes stated that this was a challenge because they would have to be carried on to the bus or taxi because they were unable to walk up the stairs; and that their wheelchairs would then get packed away. Athlete 8 expressed that: We need accessible transport that will allow us to get into the bus or the taxi whilst seated on our wheelchairs without needing to be carried from the wheelchair and being placed on the chair.—[27-year-old-male who uses a wheelchair and has multiple physical disabilities]

He further explained that their greatest challenge of not having access to their wheelchair was that: We would stop at a petrol station and people would get out and go use the loo, buy some things, or merely get fresh air. You, on the other hand, can’t do that because your wheelchair is packed away somewhere. I’m even ashamed to ask to get out because of the hassle it’s going to cause. I don’t want to annoy people and be seen as a burden. Yes, I can send someone to go and buy for me but I’m missing out on the entire experience because whilst they are taking pictures outside, and seeing the place, I am stuck inside. It is a hurtful experience because ‘we tour to explore and I do not get to explore anything.—[27-year-old-male who uses a wheelchair and has multiple physical disabilities]

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Financial Support A lack of financial support was reported as a major challenge by the athletes. All the athletes expressed that they struggled to secure funding to participate in the South African National Para-Sports Championships and—in the case of independent athletes—to pay for the registration, accommodation and transportation fees. The high costs associated with participating in competitive sports were further exacerbated by some athletes’ lack of employment. The athletes reported that they received limited financial support from government and/or athletics associations. The athletes expressed that they were expected to personally pay to participate and represent their province at sports events, which was a significant financial burden for them. Athlete 1 expressed that: Another challenge is that we must pay out of our own pockets when we travel because we do not have sponsors. They wanted R4 000 for our upcoming trip. Imagine now when you only get a social grant, where are you going to find R4 000? The sponsors I find sometimes pay and at other times they don’t. There are no guarantees. If there were guarantees, then it would be easier.—[27-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has cerebral palsy]

The athletes expressed that they struggled to obtain financial support, especially when they requested it in their capacity, as they were met with suspicion and bombarded with questions. Athlete 2 shared that: It’s very nice with a team because it’s easy to get sponsors. People do not believe in an individual. They think that maybe you are trying to scam them.—[34-year-old female who has complete blindness]

Athlete 8 similarly explained that society had very little knowledge and understanding of the para-sports codes and this made it difficult for him to receive financial support. This athlete relayed that: I was at a local radio station a few months ago requesting sponsors. People would ask ‘What is boccia?’ Boccia is an unknown sport, and no company would be willing to fund something that they have no knowledge of. Even when you try to verbally explain the sport, it is difficult because the listener can’t even picture what you are talking about.—[27-year-old-male who uses a wheelchair and has multiple physical disabilities]

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A lack of funding–served as a major discouraging factor from participation at sports events. Athlete 7, for instance, shared that: I didn’t have the money so I couldn’t pay for the championships. My father did not have the money to pay for me. There was no money. Fortunately, the school paid for me because I was still a learner at the school. However, I didn’t participate in 2021 because I didn’t have the money. It was R4 150, and my father did not have money and I had no one to pay for me.— [21-year-old male who has diplegia]

Athlete 3 similarly expressed that he would not have participated, had he not received a sponsorship because he did not have the money. He explained that many persons with disabilities were unemployed and that the athletes were expected to use their disability grant money to pay for their participation, despite the fact that the disability grant money is little, and some persons use their money to feed their siblings and their parents. Athlete 5, who competed at the National Para Table Tennis Championships, frustratedly expressed that: I am a part of the provincial team but then I had to book and pay for my accommodation and find a way to get to the championships, yet I represent the province.—[29-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has spina bifida]

An independent athlete, who was not a part of the provincial team, shared that: You’d find that when you ultimately have the money, then registration is already closed. In other cases, you’d find that you do have the money for registration, but you do not have the money to travel.—Athlete 2 [34-year-­ old female who has complete blindness]

In light of the aforementioned financial challenges, Athlete 4 reasoned that: We should also get sponsored because a lot of talent is going to waste due to a lack of funds. R5 000 is a lot of money. Where will you get it if you are unemployed? You might as well not compete.—[27-year-old female who lives with cerebral palsy]

Another discouraging factor was the fact that the athletes were expected to purchase their own provincial sports attires. This served as a huge

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financial burden for the athletes, and many could only afford to own one set. The athletes expressed that they failed to understand why they needed to buy the attires themselves, whereas they represent the province. Athlete 1 shared that it was discouraging to own only one set because: You’d find that we leave for an entire week and a person only has one tracksuit, one top, one pair of short pants and one pair of long pants. Sometimes it’s a bit difficult for a disabled person to get to the toilet in time. Other people need assistance, and you’d find that the person who needs to assist them is not nearby […] and then the person has an accident. We get to the sleeping venues very late at night and the person needs to wear the very same clothes again tomorrow and it’s a big problem.—[27-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has cerebral palsy]

Discrimination and Abuse The athletes highlighted that another challenge was the fact that athletes who played for the provincial team did not receive the same treatment as those who played for the South African (SA) National team. Those who played for the SA National team were able to make use of the training facilities at no charge, whilst those who played for the provincial team had to pay. The SA National team athletes were also compensated for their achievements, whilst those in the provincial team were not. The athletes also shared that they were only treated with the required respect and dignity only once they had made it into the SA National team. Athlete 3, for instance, explained that: There is a Sports Center, but you have to pay to make use of it. You only get to the gym there for free once you are in the SA team. […] Let’s say you and I are a team, and I gym but you don’t gym because you can’t afford it. That alone is discouraging.—[35-year-old male who has cerebral palsy]

He further expressed that: These challenges do not affect my performance per se, but they demotivate me. I don’t see the value of participating in sports. For instance, we were a group of 5/6 who were looking for sponsorships and most of them are unemployed. You should have heard their complaints. It’s really discouraging.—[35-year-old male who has cerebral palsy]

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Athlete 10 despairingly shared that “we only get treated right when we are a part of the SA team”. The athletes shared that they were also subjected to verbal and physical abuse as the assistants would, at times, get annoyed and carry them roughly or exclaim “I am not your mother!” when they asked for assistance. The athletes shared that some of the assistants were impatient, rude and uncaring. Athlete 9 relayed that: I remember there was this one time when I urgently, needed to go to the loo and there were no assistants in sight. They do that, they can just disappear. [28-year-old female who uses a wheelchair and has cerebral palsy]

Coping with the Challenges Agency refers to an individual’s ability to make choices that are in their best interest; and to participate actively in working with and/or challenging the structures that constrain their lives (Dutta, 2008; Sheik, 2013). The athletes enacted agency in ways that were responsive to their individual needs, which enabled them to thrive in their respective sports codes. The athletes enacted agency and employed various strategies to challenge the numerous structures that constrained their lives and sports tourism pursuits. These strategies included self-determination, making personal financial sacrifices and relying on loved ones. Athlete 3, who has cerebral palsy, shared that he intentionally refused to use a wheelchair because he wanted to challenge himself to walk and do things independently. He stated “Some people thought that ‘this guy won’t be able to do that but I did!’”. Similarly, Athlete 2 shared that: I got injured during this one race. I had already completed 17km and was only 4km away from the finish line. So, I had to push myself. There was no way I was going to just stop there. I had to finish! […] Sometimes for one to win a race, it doesn’t mean that you have to be number 1, 2, 3 or be in the top 10. You become a winner by finishing the race!—[34-year-old female who has complete blindness]

Despite numerous financial challenges, the athletes enacted agency and made personal financial sacrifices. These sacrifices included using money from their disability grants or from the stipends they received from their learnership programmes. Athlete 2 explained that:

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Running comes with a lot of dedication so you’ll just have to make sacrifices and say to yourself ‘Yea, I don’t have much, but I need to be in that race. Let me just sacrifice for me to register or for transport.’ And then you know that when you are there, you will make sure that the sacrifice is worthwhile.—[34-year-old female who has complete blindness]

The athletes also enacted agency in familial networks and relied on their loved ones for physical and financial assistance. Instead of accepting abuse from the assistants, Athlete 1 stated “I usually travel with my mother. She is my assistant”. Athlete 5 similarly shared that, although it was costly, he usually paid someone to use his brother’s car to take him to the championships. Other athletes expressed that they requested and received money from their loved ones to embark on their sports tourism pursuits. The athletes demonstrated that despite the multiple challenges they encountered, they were determined to succeed. Many of the athletes won medals and prizes throughout their sports careers. Some of the athletes, for instance, shared that: I got a bronze medal for discus, a gold medal for long-jump and ranked 4th for shotput. […] I competed in my last National championships in 2019 and I won 3 gold medals and received the Sports Star Award. I collected all those trophies that year!—Athlete 4 [27-year-old female who has cerebral palsy] I got 2 gold medals. I later competed in the table tennis Nationals, and I got a bronze medal. I competed yearly at the Nationals from 2007 to 2012 and I won medals each year. […] In 2017, I competed again in table tennis, and I won 2 bronze medals. This year [2022] I competed in the Provincial Para-­ Championships, and I ranked 4th place.—Athlete 5 [29-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has spina bifida] I have three gold medals and two silver medals. I work towards getting either a gold or a silver medal. I don’t work towards getting a bronze medal. Bronze for me is the same as having not tried. You tried when you get a silver medal, not bronze.—Athlete 7—[21-year-old male who has diplegia]

Athlete 1 who played boccia for 15  years, and has won a gold medal, expressed that boccia was not an easy sport and that it took hard work to win a gold medal in the sport. Athlete 2 who participated in long-distance road running similarly expressed that long-distance running required a lot

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of commitment and shared that she has won silver medals for her participation in half-marathons. Athlete 4 excitedly shared that she participated in the 2017 World Para Athletics Championships in London, where she ranked 4th position for shot put. Several athletes also expressed their desire to qualify for the South African National team and compete internationally. Athlete 5 stated that: It has always been my goal from a very young age to become one of the Para-Olympic players. I aimed to reach that goal by 2020 but unfortunately, things happened, but I’m still working on that dream!—[29-year-old male who uses a wheelchair and has spina bifida]

Strategies for Improving the Sporting Experiences of Athletes with Physical Disabilities The athletes shared recommendations that they believed would help improve the sporting experiences of athletes with physical disabilities. The athletes unanimously identified education as the most important factor and asserted that sports event organisers needed to educate themselves about the various physical disabilities and the needs of the persons with these disabilities. This will help them make more informed decisions and better meet the unique needs of the athletes. Athlete 2 asserted that: They must recognise people with disabilities and understand that although they are disabled, they can still participate in sports. If they don’t recognise, they will still ask questions like “How are you going to do this if you are disabled?” but if they familiarise themselves with those disabilities, they will know that it is possible. They will know what can and can’t be done.— [34-year-old female who has complete blindness]

The athletes stressed the importance of sports event organisers receiving input from persons with physical disabilities when organising sports events. Athlete 1 stated “The problem is that they do not ask people living with disabilities. They just do their own thing”. The athletes also recommended that the various Sports Committees should have a 50/50 representation of Black and White committee members. This will ensure that the needs of all persons are expressed, considering that Black and White South Africans experience different challenges because of the country’s history of inequality.

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The athletes highlighted the importance of continued training and personal development and recommended the establishment of a Para-Sport Academy where they can meet and train regularly, learn from each other’s experiences and have access to learning material on the various sports codes. Some of the athletes expressed that: The Academy can teach us how to handle ourselves as sports professionals and what we should do to progress and grow in our sports codes. The coaches can also be taught how to treat us well.—Athlete 3 [35-year-old male who has cerebral palsy] The 2024 games are around the corner and the more we play, the better we’ll become, and we’ll be able to qualify for the 2024 games and play well.—Athlete 4 [27-year-old female who has cerebral palsy]

Discussion of the Findings This study found that the challenges that athletes with physical disabilities faced resulted from structures that were not accommodating of their physical needs. Goering (2015) reported similar findings and asserted that the greatest challenges that persons with physical disabilities experienced did not result from their bodies, but rather from how they were negatively received in the world. This was reiterated by an athlete in this study who expressed that “People see my disability and not my ability”. Similar to the findings of Bursać et  al. (2021) and Nopiyanto et  al. (2021), this study found that athletes with disabilities were not able to meaningfully engage in sports tourism due to the lack of well-designed and supportive sports and tourism-related infrastructure and facilities. The lack of supportive infrastructure and facilities forces athletes with physical disabilities to creatively reshape these spaces. This, consequently, results in their glorification. (Mis)representing athletes with physical disabilities as “super” places the responsibility of success solely on the individual and does not consider other factors that influence an athlete’s success (Silva & Howe, 2022) such as financial support, accessible facilities and enabling social attitudes. Since 1948, Black South Africans were subjected to exploitative and exclusionary laws and policies and were segregated based on race (World Bank Group, 2018). The Apartheid regime legitimised subalternity and created the conditions of marginalisation that still exist today for Black

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athletes with disabilities. The training and funding that was provided by the country’s sports system to Black athletes were vastly inferior to that which was provided to their White counterparts (Capobianco, 2015). The remnants of the Apartheid regime are evident in present-day South Africa and continue to disadvantage Black athletes with disabilities. A vast majority of Black South Africans continue to live in underserved communities that are located in the poorest regions of the country (Kon & Lackan, 2008; World Bank Group, 2018; Statistics South Africa, 2019). Participants in the study were Black athletes who live far from major cities and suburban areas, where the training facilities are located. This posed a major challenge for the athletes as they would be required to travel to and from the cities and suburban areas, and at times sleepover, to make use of the facilities. This serves as evidence of the crippling effect that the Apartheid era had and continues to have on the lives of Black athletes with disabilities in South Africa. The experiences of athletes who use wheelchairs were further worsened by the fact that they were not able to use public transportation because it could not accommodate their wheelchairs, and those who managed to use public transportation were required to pay extra for their wheelchairs. Some athletes had to either hire a car or use their loved ones’ cars and pay someone to transport them when their loved ones had other commitments. In addition to transportation—and possible accommodation—costs, the athletes also have to pay to make use of the training facilities. The World Bank Group (2018) reported high levels of poverty in areas that were allocated to Black South Africans during the Apartheid era. Unsurprisingly, many of the athletes of this study expressed that they are unemployed and that they can therefore not afford to train for the National Championships as often as they need to. The athletes also have restricted access to the coaches, who are White, as the coaches live in major cities and suburban areas, which are far from where the athletes reside White athletes with disabilities, on the other hand, have easier and regular access to the coaches as, they too, live in major cities and suburban areas. This reiterates the findings of the World Bank Group (2018) that inequality in South Africa is high, persistent and has increased since 1994. The aforementioned factors inevitably have a negative impact on the lives of Black athletes with disabilities and significantly reduce their chances of qualifying for the SA National team. Participants in the study alluded to facing racial discrimination and asserted that White athletes receive better support and treatment from the Sports Committees and that they can

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easily access and make use of the training facilities as they live in close proximity to the facilities. This enables them to perform better than their Black counterparts and qualify for the SA National team. The athletes in the SA National team receive optimal financial support and can make use of the training facilities free of charge. This puts them at a greater advantage and further widens the gap between Black and White athletes with physical disabilities. Moodley and Graham (2015) assert that, in South Africa, disability intersects with gender, age race and culture, and that these factors have a negative impact on the education, employment and income of persons with disabilities—particularly Black women with disabilities. Trani et  al. (2020) similarly reported that stereotypes and negative attitudes towards persons with disabilities reduced their employment opportunities. In line with these assertions, the findings of this study revealed that athletes with physical disabilities indeed were marginalised in terms of employment and income and that this was true for all athletes and not particularly for women. However, it is noteworthy that the female athletes faced two peculiar challenges that did not affect male athletes. The athletes had to temporarily halt participation in competitive sports due to pregnancy-­ related reasons, and wheelchair users had to use their sanitary products in full view of passersby because their wheelchairs would prevent the toilet doors from closing. Contrary to Ahmad et  al’s. (2022) assertion that education enables persons with disabilities to contribute to society through their educational knowledge and skills, this study found that 70% of the athletes were unable to find employment due to society’s negative perceptions about their disabilities, regardless of their tertiary qualifications and abilities. This was true for all athletes, regardless of their gender, which reiterates the premise of the social model of disability that persons with disabilities are disabled by society and not by their impairments. Ahmad et al. (2022) stress the need for the public and private sectors to actively recruit and appoint persons with disabilities in the workplace as they also contribute to the economic and social well-being of a country. Having more persons with disabilities in the workplace will have a significantly positive impact on the economy and the lives of the individuals and their dependents. This will also enable athletes with physical disabilities to financially support their sports ambitions and increase their preparedness and their chances of qualifying for the South African National team. This notion was affirmed by the athletes of this study who are employed. These athletes stated that

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having a stable income enabled them to financially plan for their trips, purchase their sports attires, follow a proper sports diet, have a gym membership and make use of the training facilities regularly—which are things that the unemployed athletes were unable to do. Silva and Howe (2022) assert that negative and limited understandings of disability are reinforced by a lack of positive role models for persons with disabilities. Berger (2009) found that successful athletes served as important role models for younger athletes to emulate. Similarly, this study found that athletes are prominent figures in their communities. Several of the athletes serve on local Sports Committees and are actively involved in their respective communities. Two athletes started soccer teams for able-bodied children which helps remove the children from the streets. Three athletes started Non-Profit Organisations where they coach athletes with physical disabilities. These initiatives are evidence of how sports can serve as a social catalyst to change the negative attitudes and stereotypical perceptions people have towards athletes with physical disabilities. One athlete hopes to one day open a disability-friendly gym where athletes with disabilities can use the facilities free of charge. Many of the athletes aspire to become Para-Olympic players and represent South Africa globally. This emphasises the athletes’ commitment and should serve as a reason for government and professional sports bodies to implement practices that are responsive to and supportive of the unique needs of athletes with physical disabilities. However, despite their achievements, many of the athletes expressed that they were often ridiculed, stared at and had their abilities questioned by both the children and the adults in their communities. Studies conducted in South Africa have found that persons with disabilities are stigmatised, which often stems from society’s failure to celebrate the birth of a child born with a disability (Ngubane-Mokiwa, 2018; Motseke, 2019; Thabethe, 2022). The child’s birth is understood as a curse and/or punishment from God and/or the ancestors for wrongdoings committed by the parents. This meant that children born with disabilities were often neglected, hidden or had very little expected of them. Ngubane-Mokiwa (2018) found that gender played a role in whether children with disabilities would be included or excluded from social events. The researcher expressed that boy children with disabilities were favoured more than girl children with disabilities. Girl children were regarded as unmarriageable based on the assumption that they would not be able to fulfil their wifely duties and efficiently take care of their husbands and children. These social

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practices and gender stereotypes are reflective of the intersectionality of disability, sport, race, gender and culture. Women with physical disabilities are undervalued based on an ill-­ informed assumption that they will not be able to fulfil productive and reproductive roles, as culturally expected. The findings of this study contrastingly found that some of the female athletes were either married or in long-term romantic relationships, while some gave birth to healthy, able-­ bodied children. The stigmatisation of persons with physical disabilities, particularly women, may deter them from partaking in sports or pursuing their sporting ambitions. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities stresses the need for persons with disabilities to be afforded the same rights as able-bodied persons, which includes being involved in decision-­making processes of matters that impact them. Despite this, athletes with physical disabilities continue to have fewer decision-making opportunities than able-bodied athletes. “Nothing for us, without us” was reiterated by all the athletes who participated in this study. This highlights the athletes’ desire for inclusivity in the sports tourism sector. The athletes stressed the need for persons with disabilities to be involved in decision-­ making processes of matters that concern athletes with physical disabilities. One of the athletes who play goalball asserted that she did not encounter many challenges because “the people that are involved with the arrangements are also the ones that are playing and have a disability”. This sentiment was echoed by numerous other athletes who asserted that inclusion in decision-making processes would be beneficial as these persons would have first-hand experience of living with a physical disability and be able to better understand and cater for the needs of the athletes. Athletes with physical disabilities have unique and varying needs. The nature of disability had a direct influence on the needs and experiences of the athletes in this study. The athletes who use wheelchairs experienced the most structural and social challenges, in comparison to the other athletes. This is due to a lack of accessible structures and the perception that they cannot be self-reliant because they make use of a wheelchair. Nhamo and Sibanda (2019) identified the severity of disability as one of the major factors that discouraged athletes from participating in the Zimbabwe Paralympic Games, whilst Moodley & Graham (2015) highlighted the severity of a person’s impairment shaped their poverty outcomes. Similarly, this study found that the athletes who experienced more challenges were more discouraged to continue participating in competitive sports; and that those

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who are employed were those who can walk independently and those whose speech was audible. “Super” representations overemphasise the athletes’ physical differences and portray them as something extraordinary (Silva & Howe, 2022). Berger (2009) found that most professional athletes with disabilities did not want to be reduced to a supercrip stereotype and would rather be recognised for their athletic accomplishments, as is the case with able-­ bodied athletes. Similarly, this study found that many of the athletes regarded themselves as role models and not superheroes. These athletes expressed that they participated in competitive sports because of their passion and love for their respective sports codes, and not as an attempt to overcome their physical disabilities.

Conclusion The assumption that the challenges faced by athletes with physical disabilities can be overcome by individual effort undermines the complexity of disability experiences. The findings of this study emphasise the importance of providing adequate support for athletes with physical disabilities. This study revealed that athletes with physical disabilities are disabled, not by their bodies, but by institutional norms, physical arrangements and negative social attitudes—which are all alterable. In accordance with Article 30 of The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, this study affirms that appropriate measures ought to be taken to ensure that athletes with physical disabilities have (1) access to sporting and tourism venues, (2) access to services from organisers of tourism and sporting activities and (3) an equal opportunity to participate in sporting activities. This can be achieved by increasing accessibility to facilities and providing financial support to athletes with physical disabilities. Contrary to the stereotypical (mis)representations of athletes with physical disabilities, this study found that the athletes did not regard themselves as “super”, or “incredible” or “extra ordinary”. These athletes affirmed that they were merely doing their best, despite the constraints. Certain modes of representation, such as the supercrip narrative, maintain disability as a marginal reality as it reinforces the concept of “them and us”. This study asserts that, when correctly implemented, representational practices can serve as drivers of social change. Additionally, sports can be crucial in changing society’s attitudes towards athletes with physical disabilities in an ableist society.

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This study recommends that work opportunities within local, provincial and national sports associations be made available to athletes with disabilities to create more inclusive spaces. This study also recommends that support be provided to athletes with physical disabilities in the form of financial assistance, continued training and the provision of sports attires. Assistants and coaches should undergo seasonal training on how to work with athletes with physical disabilities to better meet their individual unique needs. Sports event organisers should ensure that they select lodging facilities, toilet facilities and transportation services that are accessible to athletes who use wheelchairs. Government agencies, managers of training and sports facilities as well as owners of lodging facilities and transport services should ensure that necessary structural accommodations are made to increase accessibility for athletes with physical disabilities. Sports event organisers should also include athletes with physical disabilities in decision-­ making processes as this will ensure that legacy mistakes are corrected and demonstrate that sports event organisers are intentional about meeting the needs of athletes with physical disabilities and improving their sporting experiences. The limitations of this study are that (1) the sample of athletes was drawn from only one province in South Africa and (2) all the athletes were Black. A study with representatives from all nine provinces in South Africa and athletes from other racial groups may help provide better insight into whether the experiences of the athletes were unique to the selected province or not, and it may also provide insight on the experiences of athletes from other racial groups.

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Nhamo, E., & Sibanda, P. (2019). Inclusion in sport: an exploration of the participation of people living with disabilities in sport. International Journal of Sport, Exercise and Health Research, 3(1), 5–9. Nopiyanto, Y. E., Sutisyana, A., & Dongoran, M. F. (2021). Sports tourism development strategy for physical disabilities in Bengkulu City. KinestetikL Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Jasmani, 5(4), 674–684. Thabethe, N. (2022). ‘We have no power over perceptions’: the lived experiences of women with disabilities in a rural South African community. Disability and Society, 37(2), 345–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.1976109 Rademeyer, C. (2017). Sport for people with disabilities as factor in reshaping the post-apartheid South African sporting society. Journal of Contemporary History, 42(1). https://doi.org/10.18820/24150509/JCH42.v1.5 Rees, L., Robinson, P., & Shields, N. (2017). Media portrayal of elite athletes with disability – A systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 41, 1–8. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1397775 Retief, M., & Letšosa, R. (2018). Models of disability: A brief overview. HTS Theological Studies, 74(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v74i1.4738 Shapiro, D. R., & Martin, J. J. (2010). Athletic identity, affect, and peer relations in youth athletes with physical disabilities. Disability and Health Journal, 3(2), 79–85. Sheik, Z. (2013). Reviving ‘white elephants’: A culture-centered approach to the African ivory route tourism partnership. Master’s thesis. University of KwaZulu-Natal. Silva, C. F., & Howe, P. D. (2022). Dis/ability sport for “All”: The ultimate dream. In D. Goodwin, & M. Connolly, (Eds.), Reflexivity and change in adaptive physical activity (pp. 175–188). Routledge. London. Sim, J., Saunders, B., Waterfield, J., & Kingstone, T. (2018). Can sample size in qualitative research be determined a priori? International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 21(5), 619–634. Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). (2014). Census 2011: Profile of persons with disabilities in South Africa. Pretoria. https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/ Report-­03-­01-­59/Report-­03-­01-­592011.pdf Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). (2019). Inequality Trends in South Africa A multidimensional diagnostic of inequality. Report No. 03-10-19. Pretoria. Accessed March 25, 2022, from https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/ Report-­03-­10-­19/Report-­03-­10-­192017.pdf Steenkaamp, R. (2019). An exploration of the factors contributing to gender inequality in athletics participation and leadership. http://hdl.handle. net/2263/72692 Master’s dissertation. University of Pretoria. South Africa. The World Bank. (2021). Disability inclusion. Accessed March 25, 2022, from https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disability#1

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SECTION IV

Media, Empowerment and Inclusive Tourism in Africa

CHAPTER 13

Media Representation of PWDs and Tourism Development: Role of Ghanaian Media in Enhancing Inclusivity and Gender Equality Gifty Appiah-Adjei, Joyce Mensah, and Pricilla Deede Hammond

Introduction Many interest groups draw attention to issues of interest by seeking attention from the media (Binderkrantz et  al., 2020). Evidence from media studies establishes the power of the media to draw public attention to and influence perception on issues covered (Baran & Davis, 2012), such as

G. Appiah-Adjei (*) Department of Journalism and Media Studies, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana J. Mensah D’Jewel Law Consult, Accra, Ghana P. D. Hammond Community Based Rehabilitation and Disability Studies Unit, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_13

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politics, education, and gender, among others. Hence, media attention is considered a scarce and coveted resource (Andrews & Caren, 2010) that is critical for promoting development in a country. People with disabilities (PWDs) are acknowledged in literature to be vulnerable and marginalised in several countries, and Ghana is not an exception (Haller et al., 2012). PWDs experience barriers in accessing services, including health, education, employment and transport, and information (Sarmah et al., 2022; WHO, 2021). Thus, media consumption is classified as a service for the elite, as PWDs are rarely covered in the media (Zhang & Haller, 2013). In circumstances where they have been covered, they are often inappropriately represented and often negatively stereotyped (Aspler et  al., 2018; Hadidi & Al Khateeb, 2015). Past research shows that despite favourable legislation to ensure equal opportunity for all, PWDs are still subjected to considerable discrimination and social inequalities (Dovidio et  al., 2011; Rohmer & Louvet, 2018). Due to this, there has been a growing amount of research that focuses on the inability of disability laws in addressing discriminatory challenges (Ocran, 2019), vulnerabilities of PWDs during the COVID-19 pandemic (Naami & Mfoafo-M’Cathy, 2020), disability and political participation (Sackey, 2015), PWDs and household welfare in Ghana (Asuman et al., 2021). Relatively less attention has been paid to discussing disability in a tourism developmental space. Extant literature in Ghana focused on participation challenges of PWDs in tourism (Mensah et al., 2015), obstacles to training and employment opportunities in Technical and Vocational Education and Training TVET and the hospitality industry (Agyei-­ Quartey, 2020), discriminatory challenges against PWDs (Adjei et  al., 2013), and the gender dimensions to such challenges (Ghana Situational Report, 2020). Though studies on PWDs globally and in Ghana abound, there is a dearth of research that investigates the intersection of gender, disability, and how the media enhances inclusivity and equality in a tourism context. Outside Ghana, the extant literature on PWDs in mainstream tourism research has primarily adopted a homogenous approach to investigating PWDs (Sarmah et al., 2022) without considering the intersection of issues in framing the analysis and findings. This study argues that the perception of issues about disability in Ghanaian tourism development significantly depends on how the media cover issues and policies on PWDs. Thus, destination marketing images and stories in the media can profoundly influence public opinion and establish or challenge societal norms (Hahm & Severt, 2018; Littlejohn &

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Foss, 2011; Tasci & Gartner, 2007). Therefore, coverage from the media can change societal misconceptions and present PWDs as individuals that are a part of human diversity and instrumental in tourism development globally and Ghana. Given this background, this chapter seeks to investigate the nature of attention given to issues about PWDs in the tourism context. Positive representation and inclusion of PWDs in social texts, such as the media and promotional materials of tourism destinations, can help ensure social inclusion and tourism development for all (Benjamin et  al., 2021; Devotta et  al., 2013). Therefore, the chapter explicitly explores the role that the Ghanaian media plays to help address issues of gender and disability discrimination and social exclusion confronting Ghana’s tourism industry. This is achieved by analysing the nature of coverage given to PWDs in newspapers, examining gender dimensions to the nature of coverage given, and investigating how newspapers frame PWD issues in tourism development. In this chapter, we reflect on the assumptions of agenda-setting and framing functions of the media. We continue to review the issue of PWDs and discrimination as well as the interplay between PWDs, tourism, and social inclusion. After the review, we examine the suppositions of the concept of intersectionality in the context of PWDs, gender, and socio-cultural factors. We finally return to the discussion of the attention the media give to and the framing of PWD issues in the context of tourism development.

Agenda-Setting and Framing Function of the Media The media can play a critical role in informing and educating the public on the rights of PWDs and pro-inclusion laws. Doing this will enhance destination competitiveness, loyalty, and tourist satisfaction (Mooney & Baum, 2019). This can be done by covering such issues of interest to PWDs in tourism marketing messages. The media have the potential to reach a mass audience quickly and draw attention to issues covered (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011). Issues selected for coverage in the media eventually become issues discussed in the public domain, and repeated coverage of such issues draws public attention to issues (Kwansah-Aidoo, 2005). Increasing publicity about PWD issues in tourism development can be impactful and move destinations towards the effective implementation of disability initiatives. The nature of coverage also influences how the audiences think about such issues (Kwansah-Aidoo, 2005; McCombs et al., 2013, 2014) through the selection, elaboration, and exclusion of issues covered in the media

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(Entman, 1993; Tewksbury & Scheufele, 2019). Media content can generate and propagate both positive and negative images of PWDs, influence how the audiences perceive disabilities (Kamenetsky et  al., 2016), and help deal with challenges, including stereotypes. When the media select and elaborate on the various forms of discrimination and inequalities confronting PWDs due to weaknesses in the legal, regulatory, and policy structures identified (Ocran, 2019), it will cause the audiences to appreciate and understand the challenges PWDs are battling with, hence, develop positive attitudes towards PWDs which is critical for the success of the tourism industry. This justifies the need to investigate media coverage of PWDs in Ghana, hence, the thrust of this chapter.

PWDs and the Issue of Discrimination Globally, a billion individuals are PWDs (WHO, 2021), and 80% are in developing nations (UNDP, 2018). This signifies that PWDs are an important segment of people in the tourism development equation. In Ghana, statistics on PWDs are contentious (Naami & Mfoafo-M’Cathy, 2020) because the Ghana Statistical Service (2014) indicates an estimate of 737,743 PWDs as of 2011, while Human Rights Watch Report (2012) designates the number to be 5 million. PWDs are among the most oppressed groups globally, and Ghana is not an exception (Ocran, 2019). Just like women are faced with gender inequality, PWDs in developing countries are also faced with several challenges, including discrimination and social exclusion (Naami, 2015). PWDs contend with discrimination daily with gender dimensions to these challenges (GSR, 2020). These obstacles prevent PWDs, “especially women and girls with disabilities, from reaching their full potentials” (GSR, 2020, p. i; Partale & Partale, 2021). They are confronted with negative cultural and religious beliefs like disability caused by the wrongdoings of families or witchcraft (Avoke, 2002; Naami & Mfoafo-M’Cathy, 2020). Naami and Mfoafo-M’Cathy (2020) argue that such beliefs persevere though traditional beliefs may be false. Access to training and employment opportunities is another obstacle confronting PWDs (Agyei-Quartey, 2020). For instance, evidence from the 2010 Population Census in Ghana submits that 40.1% out of the total PWDs have never attended school (Agyei-Quartey, 2020). Moreover, only 2% of the total number of PWDs can complete TVET “with a slight difference between males and females, corresponding to 1.7 per cent and 2.3 per cent, respectively”

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(Agyei-­Quartey, 2020, p.  3). This may be why access to employment opportunities is a challenge to PWDs because TVET facilitates and increases their access to employment (Agyei-Quartey, 2020). It may also account for the problem of social exclusion since employment is pivotal to the attainment of decent living standards and participation in societal issues.

PWDs, Tourism, and Social Inclusion Globally, tourism has been identified in the literature as an important means of promoting the social inclusion of PWDs (ILO, 2019; Partale & Partale, 2021; Mensah et al., 2015). This is realised through employment in the hospitality and tourism industry (Agyei-Quartey, 2020) and as consumers of hospitality and tourism services (Benjamin et al., 2021; Mensah et al., 2015). However, despite the impacts and significant contribution to tourism, PWDs remain underrepresented populations in society (Benjamin et  al., 2021). Besides, PWDs often work in seasonal, marginal, menial tourism employment; hence they earn low income and lack job security (Naami, 2015; UN, 2012). Furthermore, the COVID pandemic has worsened the economic vulnerability of PWDs because the virtual work environment may not favour them (Naami & Mfoafo-M’Cathy, 2020). Additionally, past research also shows that PWDs are not adequately represented in tourism marketing, especially the marketing messages which are generally framed by destination marketers using non-disabled people (Alderman, 2013; Cloquet et al., 2018). Previous research underscores that “the lack of inclusiveness disallows for a broader scope to address PWDs in tourism development and results in inequitable treatment of underrepresented groups; they have little voice or ability to convey their needs and interests to disparate tourism service providers” (Benjamin et al., 2021, p. 2). This is further compounded because PWDs remain an under-researched area in mainstream tourism research, “which has been slow to take up issues related to justice and fairness” (Benjamin et al., 2021, p.2). Though several destinations could be implementing disability laws and efforts, the discrimination against PWDs remains in existence (Luu, 2021). They often face prejudice both as tourists and employees (Kim et al., 2016). Furthermore, they are acknowledged to be having accessibility challenges to tourists’ sites and hospitality services. PWDs do not earn much and therefore encounter affordability challenges in their hospitality

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and tourism services consumption. Physical barriers like lack of routes for wheelchairs, unfriendly walkways, and lack of adapted tables, chairs, and toilets at tourist sites and hotels discourage social participation of PWDs. Luu (2021) argues that the effective implementation of disability initiatives and policies is crucial for enhancing destination competitiveness. As one of the sustainable development goals, sustainable employment in tourism would provide opportunities for decent and developmental work for all, including underrepresented groups such as people with disabilities, enabling them to balance work with family and social obligations (Robinson et al., 2019). Based on this, this chapter must investigate the role of media in ensuring the meaningful participation of PWDs in the tourism industry in Ghana. The chapter, however, does not intend to treat PWDs as homogenous and therefore pays attention to intersectionality issues.

Intersectionality of Gender with Socio-cultural Disability Factors Intersectionality is a concept that emerged from black feminism with a focus on highlighting the connection between privilege and oppression (Nash, 2008). It “emphasises the importance of attending to the multiple social structures and processes that intertwine to produce specific social positions and identities” (Anthias, 2012, p.106; Crenshaw, 1989). Consequently, Rydzik et al. (2017) assert that it “constitutes a theoretical tool to analyse women’s experiences of identity and repression and highlights the subjectivity and multidimensionality of their lived experiences” (p. 15). The intersectionality approach ensures attention to the uniqueness of multiple discriminations different groups within a larger group experience due to social categorisations. Thus, it addresses discrimination of intra-group differences than a homogenous consideration of the discrimination against the group. In this chapter, intersectionality offers insights to the researchers on how the media frame and interpret PWD issues on the grounds of gender and socio-cultural factors. It aims to establish whether the media addressed the uniqueness of discrimination against male and female PWDs or reinforced the homogenous ways of discussing discrimination against PWDs. Thus, it enabled the researchers to examine how the coverage of PWD and tourism stories placed the multiple perspectives and needs of male and

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female PWDs at the periphery of social inclusion through the following indicators: frequency of PWD and tourism stories covered, placement prominence of the stories, selection of sources and framing of issues in the stories. This was achieved through the comparison of the PWD and non-­ PWD dichotomy of the indicators.

Methodology A qualitative approach and content analysis design were employed in this study to effectively understand the role of the media in promoting PWDs in tourism development in Ghana. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, the qualitative approach was justified as it helped the researcher to explore the social realities regarding the content that is generated by the two leading state-owned newspapers in Ghana and how they communicated issues about PWDs in their editorial content as a means of promoting inclusive tourism development. Textual analysis was employed to gather data on the nature of attention given to and the framing of issues of PWDs and tourism promotion by the Ghanaian newspapers. Daily Graphic and Ghanaian Times were purposively selected because publicly owned newspapers pay more attention to social concerns than privately owned newspapers (Djankov, 2011). Purposive sampling was used to select news stories on issues about PWDs. A total of 115 news stories from 107 editions of the newspapers were gathered, analysed, and coded. Analysis of data on nature of attention was marked by the following indicators: total number of editions that covered PWD issues, frequency, sources, and placement of PWD stories. The frequency of editions and stories about PWDs establishes the kind of attention the newspapers gave to the issue because it is through repeated coverage that the public attention is drawn to PWD issues. The time frame used to conduct the textual analysis was from December 3, 2020, to December 2, 2022. World Disability Day is marked on December 3 annually, hence the time frame allowed the researcher to examine media coverage of PWD issues a year after the recent celebration of this day in Ghana. Additional data were collected employing in-depth interviews with four journalists consisting of males and females from the selected media organisations. This was done to probe for detailed responses regarding the data that was collected using textual analysis and further provide richer insights on coverage of PWD issues. A purposive sampling strategy was applied to identify information-rich participants (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). As such,

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the participants had to be journalists that cover disability issues and tourism in newspapers in Ghana. The researchers conducted the interviews on February 7, 2022, with each interview lasting approximately 25 minutes. Purposive theoretical sampling was deemed complete when concept saturation had been achieved, thus, when categories and themes were fully developed (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) and when marginal interviews yielded fresh insights (Goulding, 2002). Data from the textual analysis and interviews were thematically analysed following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis steps.

Findings and Discussion Editions of Newspapers and Frequency of News Stories with Coverage of PWD and Tourism Issues To investigate the nature of coverage given to PWD and tourism issues within the period of study, editions with coverage of the issue under investigation and stories in these editions were analysed to establish attention given through frequency of, sources in, and placement of stories. Data presented in Table 13.1 indicate that the newspapers published 624 editions within the one-year study period. Of this number, 87 editions (13.9%) covered only PWD stories, 20 (3.2%) reported only tourism issues, 487 (78%) were without PWD or tourism stories, none of the Table 13.1  Attention through newspaper editions Newspapers Total editions published within the study period, N (%)

Daily Graphic Ghanaian Times Total

Editions with coverage of only PWD issues, N (%)

Editions with coverage of only tourism issues

Editions with coverage on both PWD and tourism-­ related issues

Editions Editions without missing, N coverage of (%) PWD and tourism issues, N (%)

312 (50%)

52 (8.3%)

8 (1.3%)

0 (0%)

231 (37%)

21 (3.3%)

312 (50%)

35 (5.6%)

12 (1.9%)

0(0%)

256 (41%)

10 (1.6%)

624 (100%)

87 (13.9%)

20 (3.2%)

0(0%)

487 (78%)

31 (4.9%)

Source: Field data (2021)

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editions covered both PWD and tourism issues, and 31 (4.9%) were missing. Also, Daily Graphic had 52 (8.3%) editions with only PWD stories and 8 (1.3%) editions with only tourism stories, while Ghanaian Times had 35 editions (5.6%) with only PWDs, and 12 (1.9%) editions covered only tourism stories. None of the newspapers had editions with stories on both PWD and tourism issues within the study period. Furthermore, a total of 21,272 news stories were published in the 87 editions that covered PWDs issues (Table  13.2). Of this number, 93 (0.5%) were only PWD stories, 22 (0.1%) were only tourism stories, and 21,157 (99.4%) were stories without PWD and tourism issues. Daily Graphic and Ghanaian Times dedicated 52 (0.3%) and 37 (0.2%) news stories, respectively, to only PWD issues, 8 (0.04%) and 14 (0.06%) to only tourism stories with 11,947 (56.1%), and 9232 (43.4%) stories without coverage of both PWD and tourism issues. Previous research concluded that regular and repeated coverage are salience cues that draw public attention to issues because regular coverage of an issue in newspapers determines the quality and impact on readers (Baran & Davis, 2012). Findings show that with only PWD stories, Daily Graphic fared better on the edition and story frequency indicators of attention/coverage, whereas Ghanaian Times performed better on the same indicators concerning tourism only issues. However, they generally gave less attention to disability and tourism issues due to inadequate Table 13.2  Attention through frequency of stories published Newspapers

Daily Graphic Ghanaian Times Total

Frequency of stories Frequency of stories, N (%)

Frequency of stories with coverage on only disability issues, N (%)

Frequency of stories with coverage on only tourism issues, N (%)

Frequency of stories with coverage on both PWD and tourism issues, N (%)

Frequency of stories without coverage on both disability and tourism issues, N (%)

12,003 (56.4%) 9269 (43.6%) 21,272 (100%)

56 (0.3%)

8 (0.04%)

0 (0%)

37 (0.2%)

14 (0.06)

0 (0%)

11,939 (56.1%) 9218 (43.3%)

93 (0.5%)

22 (0.1%)

0 (0%)

Source: Field data (2021)

21,157 (99.4%)

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repeated coverage and no attention to disability in a tourism context. A comparison of findings indicates that only 17.1% of total editions published 0.6% of stories about only PWDs and only tourism development within the one-year study period. This poor exposure also indicates that the newspapers did not draw much attention to PWD and tourism issues and entrenched social exclusion of PWDs within the Ghanaian public agenda sphere. This may account for why PWDs suffer societal stereotypes and stigmatisation (Hadidi & Al Khateeb, 2015). This analysis of interview narratives regarding poor coverage of PWD issues and tourism in Ghana shows that journalists and news editors downplay the issues because PWD activities are considered too few and less important to cover. Furthermore, the study reveals an absence of disability and tourism desks in the newsrooms, which perpetuates the discrimination of PWDs and the coverage of their issues in a tourism context. All the participants in this study admitted there were no disability and tourism desks in their organisations; therefore, PWD and tourism issues do not get much focus and coverage. One participant further indicated that: The availability of PWD stories depends on when invitations come or whether a journalist is interested in writing on such issues. However, our paper has no specific pages for PWDs, unlike politics and education, which have desks and are automatically covered in every edition even when there is no invitation (Participant 1).

Three participants also suggested that tourism organisations and disability stakeholders do not often organise newsworthy activities. This shows that the coverage of PWDs in the newsroom is affected by the “bottom line thinking” and the need to have a positive balance sheet. With stories on PWDs and tourism considered less significant and newsworthy, several challenges concerning PWD and inclusion will remain, and this would also mean that the destination’s competitiveness will be affected as these issues are not getting much attention from the newspapers. Attention to PWD and Tourism Issues Through Sources in News and Placement of Stories Individuals who give timely information in news stories are known as sources, and they confer credibility to such stories. Hence, journalists cite only individuals who can provide credible information on issues under

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Table 13.3  Attention through sources Newspapers Frequency of sources in stories N (%) Only PWD stories Total no. of sources, N (%) Daily Graphic Ghanaian Times Total

PWD sources, N (%)

Only tourism stories

Non-PWD sources Elite sources in in only PWD tourism, N stories, N (%) (%)

PWD sources, N (%)

118 (50.6%)

14 (6%)

88 (37.8%)

16 (6.9%)

0 (0%)

115 (49.4%)

23 (9.9%)

64 (27.4%)

28 (12%)

0 (0%)

233 (100%)

37 (15.9%)

152 (65.2%)

44 (18.9%)

0 (0%)

Source: Field data (2021)

coverage because readers can identify with them as providing reliable information in news stories. A total of 233 sources\attributions were cited in the 115 stories about PWDs and tourism issues (Table 13.3). Of the total of 189 (81.1%) sources in the PWD stories, 37 sources (15.9%) were individuals with disabilities, whereas 152 (65.2%) were not. With the tourism stories, all the 44 (18.9%) sources were elite sources. None of the tourism stories had a PWD source. Among the newspapers, Daily Graphic cited 14 (7.4%) PWD sources and 88 (46.6%) abled persons sources in the only PWDs stories, whereas Ghanaian Times had 23 (12.2%) and 64 (33.8%) PWD and non-PWD sources, respectively. None of the only tourism stories cited PWD sources. Further analysis of placement prominence in Table  13.4 established that though the newspapers dedicated 3 (2.6%) PWD stories to the front page, none of the tourism stories enjoyed front-page prominence. Also, three stories (2.6%) had centre spread prominence consisting of 2 tourism stories from Daily Graphic and one PWD story (0.9%) from Ghanaian Times. Also, 3 PWD stories (2.6%) from the newspapers had back-page prominence. Most of the news stories (92.2%) had inside page prominence. Twenty (17.3%) stories on tourism and 86 stories (74.8%) had inside page placement. Ghanaian Times gave one story (0.9%) each to front, centre, and back pages, with 34 (29.5%) inside page stories. Daily Graphic gave 52 stories (45%) inside the placement and two stories (2.1%) on the back page.

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Table 13.4  Attention through placement of stories Placement Total no. of Frequency of stories placement of only of stories PWD story placement for PWD, N (%) Front page Centre spread Back page Inside page Total

3 (2.6%)

3 (2.6%)

3 (2.6%)

1 (0.9%)

3 (2.6%)

3 (2.6%)

106 (92.2%) 115 (100%)

86 (74.8%) 93 (80.9%)

Frequency of Newspapers only tourism Daily graphic Ghanaian times story placement, PWD Tourism PWD Tourism N (%) stories stories stories stories 0 (0%)

2 (1.8%) 0 (0%)

0 (0%)

1 0 (0%) (0.9%) 2 (1.8%) 2 1 0 (0%) (1.8%) (0.9%) 0 (0%) 2 0 (0%) 1 0 (0%) (1.8%) (0.9%) 20 (17.3%) 52 6 34 14 (6%) (45%) (5.2%) (29.5%) 22 (19.1%) 56 8 (7%) 37 14 (48.6%) (32.2%) (12.2%)

Source: Field data (2021)

Findings reveal the discrimination against PWDs in the selection of sources in news stories because 15.9% of sources in the PWD stories were PWDs, while 65.2% were not PWD sources. Though PWDs are more reliable sources to speak to issues about them than other sources, the participants interviewed asserted that most persons appointed to crucial positions in PWD institutions/organisations are not PWDs, hence the skewed reliance on them as sources PWDs. A participant posits that: The credibility of information matters if a story will be published … most of the authoritative sources from the Disability Board and membership are via political appointments. Unfortunately, most of them are not PWDs, and the media have no choice but to depend on them for information (Participant 4).

The significance and prominence of front-page placements have been acknowledged in media research (Okorie & Oyedepo, 2011). However, the analysis of the findings revealed that the newspapers did not give prominence to tourism stories and less prominence to PWD stories because only 5.2% of such stories had front- and back-page prominence. The majority (74.8%) of PWD stories had inside placements, indicating low prominence as inside page stories are considered less newsworthy than the front, back, and centre pages. This again demonstrates that issues of PWDs

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and tourism are downplayed as newspaper organisations are chasing stories that generate more revenue, which marginalises the voice of PWDs in the context of tourism development (Benjamin et al., 2021). The confirmatory analysis of interview narratives shows that only stories associated with political and prominent officials are afforded front-page coverage. This was summed by one participant who said: participant claims that: … unless a very serious or negative issue about PWD occurs or a very prominent person like a minister or key public official is connected to such issue/ event, it will not get much prominence (Participant 3).

So throughout the study period, only the October 8, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times gave front-page prominence to a PWD issue due to the enormous numbers of visual impairments involved. Thus, it was reported that 329,560 Ghanaians had severe visual impairment, with 579,040 also having moderate impairment—a higher prevalence than that of WHO. However, the issue was not directly linked to tourism in Ghana. Analysis of the indicators of attention (Tables 13.1–13.4) shows poor coverage of PWD issues in the context of tourism development. Newspapers are not leading the readers to assign importance to PWD issues through their coverage, which further discriminates PWDs (Baran & Davis, 2012; Kwansah-Aidoo, 2005). Gender Dimensions to the Nature of Coverage The study also seeks to consider horizontal gender representation in the stories. It focused on the gendered representation of the sources used and discussed gender inequalities in the stories. It considered the sex of dominant sources in the stories. Findings (Table 13.5) indicated that out of the 233 sources used in the 115 PWD and tourism stories, 49 (21%) were males, 25 (10.7%) were females, 96 (41.2%) cited both sexes, and 63 (27.1%) were neutral sources (attributions made to organisation/institutions which are PWD and tourism actors). There were no stories that reported the coverage of LGBTQ+. Findings indicated that male sources dominated the news stories more than female sources. Moreover, most of the stories had attributions from both sexes, but the minimisation of female voices still played out because a comparison of the male–female dichotomy shows that lesser stories had female voices as sources. In the coverage of the 2020 National Tourism

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Table 13.5  Horizontal representation of gender in PWD and tourism stories Gender of sources

Frequency of stories, N (%)

Frequency of gender of sources, N (%)

Newspapers and gender representations

Male Female Both sexes Neutral Total

30 (26.1%) 10 (8.7%) 47 (40.9%)

49 (21%) 25 (10.7%) 96 (41.2%)

16 (13.9%) 6 (5.2%) 28 (24.4%)

28 (24.3%) 115 (100%)

63 (27.1%) 233 (100%)

14 (12.2%) 64 (55.7%)

Freq. of PWD Sources cited and tourism in daily stories, N (%) graphic, N (%)

Freq. of PWD and tourism stories, N (%)

Sources cited in Ghanaian times, N (%)

26 (11.2%) 11 (4.7%) 49 (21%)

16 (13.9%) 5 (4.3%) 19 (16.5%)

30 (12.8%) 12 (5.2%) 48 (20.6%)

32 (13.7%) 118 (50.6%)

11 (9.6%) 51 (44.3%)

25 (10.8%) 115 (49.4%)

Source: Field data (2021)

Award in Accra, attributions were made to six individuals consisting of five males and one female, who was the Chairperson for the occasion. This further promotes discrimination against women, as argued in mainstream tourism research (Morgan & Pritchard, 2018; Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Females were the least sources cited in the PWD and tourism stories published, unlike the male sources, and this is because Ghana is a patriarchal society (Amoah-Boampong, 2018). This is in tandem with findings from Global Media Monitoring projects which consistently indicate that women are unlikely to be relied upon as sources or experts on subjects discussed in the media (World Association for Christian Communication, 2010, 2015, 2020). Thus, journalists consider the views of male sources/experts on subjects for discussion as more legitimate than females (Ross & Carter, 2011). Also, an analysis of the 115 PWD and tourism stories revealed that the newspapers were silent on issues of gender inequalities in the tourism industry in Ghana or the need for gender equality and equity among male and female PWDs, as suggested by the Sustainable Development Goals number 5 (SDG). For instance, in the May 24, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic, a story about a female hard of hearing student nurse whom two organisations assisted in enabling her to pursue her education was

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published without consideration of the gender implications and opportunities for access to education. Though tourism can ensure social inclusion (Mensah et  al., 2015; Woyo, 2020; Woyo & Venganai, 2022), stories on tourism within the study period were also silent on PWD issues (September 29 and October 14, 2021, editions of Ghanaian Times), suggesting that the media is playing a less significant role in the development of inclusive tourism in Ghana. These findings indicate that, to an extent, the newspapers did not consider the gender dimensions of the challenges confronting female PWDs in their coverage, thus, perpetuating the double discrimination against female PWDs and inequalities. There is a general lack of attention by the Ghanaian media to amplify female voices in the coverage of critical issues such as PWDs and inclusive tourism development. The confirmatory interviews revealed that the few journalists who write on PWD issues lack access to information on the gendered challenges faced by female PWDs in a tourism context. To further compound this challenge, this study found that journalists in Ghana rarely receive disability reporting training, thus not well-positioned to cover such issues with critical analysis of implications of gender inequalities, social exclusion, and discrimination against female PWDs in a way that positively influences tourism development. So, Participant 2 admits that: We hardly consider or write on gender implications in our reportage because most of us have had no education on gender inequalities among PWDs or any training from our organisation or journalism schools on how to report disability … very few colleagues have been fortunate to be invited by Federation of Disability Organisations for training ….

Regardless of Ghana having several legislative pieces on disability, including the Constitution and the Disability Act, the implementation of disability initiatives to promote inclusive tourism development in Ghana remains poor. This is compounded by the nature of the provisions in the laws and the rights of PWDs, which are considered from the individual and biomedical than social perspectives. It has been cogitated that such definitions are problematic (Barnes, 2010; Davidson, 2010), especially in the Ghanaian context (Ocran, 2019; Sackey, 2015). “The medical definition of disability locates impairment in the individual as someone who lacks the full complement of physical and cognitive elements of true personhood and who must be cured or rehabilitated” (Davidson, 2010,

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p.136). This situation causes journalists to not consider elements like cultural beliefs, practices, norms, and gender stereotypes and how they translate into the intersectionality of gender inequalities and socio-economic challenges and experiences of female PWDs in their reportage. Framing of Dominant Issues About PWDs by the Newspapers Themes that emerged from the analysis of the stories revealed that the stories either looked at PWD issues with the lens of pity (sympathy frame), concerns for addressing PWD challenges (advocacy frame), being equipped with skills (empowerment frame), restoration of their dignity (inclusion frame), stigmatisation (exclusion frame), and superhuman feats (heroic frame). Except for empowerment and heroic frames, the remaining frames are consistent with Ogundola (2013). In his analysis of newspaper framing of disability in Nigeria, Ogundola (2013) discovered that the Daily Newspaper and The Tribune used sympathy frame (dependence on benevolence/donations), epidemic frame (polio as a killer disease that causes disability), institutionalisation frame (exclusion through institutions/ organisations going to segregated homes/centres for PWDs and making donations), advocacy frame (concerns for addressing disability issues), agitation for inclusion frame (call for social inclusion of PWDs), and affirmative action frame (call for reservation of certain spaces for PWDs) to report disability issues. By comparison, the exclusion, sympathy, and advocacy frames affirm Ogundola’s (2013) institutionalisation, advocacy, and sympathy frames. Also, Ogundola’s (2013) agitation for inclusion and affirmative action frames agrees with the inclusion frame. However, the empowerment frame is peculiar to this study just as the epidemic frame is to Ogundola’s (2013) study. Also, sympathy and exclusion frames agree with the assertion that labelling of disability in Ghana is strongly influenced by socio-cultural footings (Avoke, 2002), especially when the media mirror the attitudes and beliefs of the society (Signh, 2017). Stories that did not fall under any of these frames were categorised under the other frame. Data revealed the sympathy frame as the most dominant (34.4%) used in the PWD stories (Table  13.6). This was followed by the empowerment frame (20.4%), advocacy frame (15%), inclusion frame (10.8%), heroic frame (8.6%), and exclusion and other frames (3.4%) each (Table 13.6). For tourism stories, growth and development of tourism were the dominant frame (68.3%) used, followed by nature-based tourism (13.6%), economic benefits (9.1%), and international and other

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Table 13.6  Framing of issues about PWDs Frame

Frequency of frame, N (%) Newspapers Daily Graphic Ghanaian Times

Only PWD stories Sympathy Empowerment Advocacy Inclusion Heroic Exclusion Others Total Only tourism stories Growth and dev. of tourism Nature-based tourism International tourism Economic benefits Other Total

32 (34.4%) 19 (20.4%) 14 (15%) 10 (10.8%) 8 (8.6%) 5 (5.4%) 5 (5.4%) 93 (100%)

20 (21.6%) 14 (15%) 9 (9.7%) 6 (6.4%) 5 (5.4%) 1 (1.1%) 1 (1.1%) 56 (60.3%)

11 (11.8%) 5 (5.4%) 5 (5.4%) 4 (4.3%) 3 (3.2%) 6 (6.4%) 3 (3.2%) 37 (39.7%)

15 (68.3%) 3 (13.6%) 1 (4.5%) 2 (9.1%) 1 (4.5%) 22 (100%)

5 (22.8%) 2 (9.1%) 0 (0%) 1 (4.5%) 1 (4.5%) 8 (40.9%)

10 (45.6%) 1 (4.5%) 1 (4.5%) 1 (4.5%) 0 (0%) 14 (59.1%)

Source: Field data (2021)

frames (4.5%) each. Furthermore, findings showed that the tourism stories had the following frames: growth and development of tourism frame (68.3%), nature-based tourism frame (13.6%), economic benefits frame (9.1%), international tourism and other frames (4.5%) each. Research acknowledges that the frames used in coverage serve as interpretation schemas that enable readers to interpret issues covered by the media (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011). This influences the thinking of readers and causes them to consider issues covered predictably. Therefore, the dominant use of the sympathy frame causes the reader to see PWDs in a helplessness or frailty light which reinforces inappropriate representation and negative stereotypes of PWDs (Hadidi & Al Khateeb, 2015). Stories under the sympathy frame indicated helplessness or frailty of PWDs (October 26, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, p.15) or their dependence on donations (May 24, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic) and benevolence or altruism of people in power (May 12, 2021 edition of Ghanaian Times, p17). Though in a non-tourism context, on October 26, 2021, the Ghanaian Times covered a story of PWDs in Kassena Nankana District who did not

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receive the 3% share of the Common Fund after over a year. It shows the helplessness of the managers of the Disability Fund in the District in carrying out their operational plans. This tends to affect the income of PWDs and by extension income needed for them to enjoy leisure activities. Woyo (2021) argues that tourism income is dependent, and people cannot enjoy tourism without income. Based on this story, it means stakeholders are doing less to enhance the effective participation of PWDs in the domestic tourism of Ghana, as they are denied income. The 3% share is their right based on the law, but when the funds are released depends on the altruism of people in power. Also, the distribution of equipment and tools bought with the Disability Fund to PWDs is made to seem like a favour, and this does not help promote a more inclusive tourism industry where the voices of PWDs are heard and respected. A participant adds that: Often, money from the Disability Fund is used to get tools and equipment for PWDs after skill training to enable them to become economically independent, yet they …. give the tools and equipment out as if they are donating to PWDs (Participant 1).

The empowerment frame was used in stories on skill training or education for the PWDs. Such stories often focused on skills training (July 23, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic, pg. 23) or TVET like soap making, bead making, among others, for income generation (October 7, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, pg. 18). This also confirms earlier findings that marginalised people are employed in menial activities in the tourism industry. The advocacy frame was used to report stories on the need to address concerns of PWDs like appointments into governance (May 1, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, pg. 17) and protection for PWDs (July 8, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic, pg. 13). As acknowledged in tourism research, PWDs are not appointed to leadership positions (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Inclusion framed stories prevented stigmatisation (July 28, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic, pg. 13), and this shows the right direction, and more could be encouraged. The heroic frame presented stories about PWDs achieving extraordinary feats like the qualification for the Paralympic Game in Tokyo (April 19, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic, pg. 77). While this is good coverage, it is based more on being newsworthy and its potential to contribute to the newspaper organisation’s balance sheet. However, such efforts are commendable for building a more inclusive tourism industry. The exclusion frame was used in stories that indicate neglect or being

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kept out (October 28, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, pg. 24), and it is such reporting that further marginalises PWD and makes tourism more of economic activity for the non-­disabled (Benjamin et al., 2021). The other frame refers to stories that did not fit into any of the above frames, like the training of journalists on how to report disability (August 5, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, back page). For the tourism stories, the growth and development frame was used to report stories that focused on what had been done to promote expansion and improvement in the tourism sector (September 29, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, pg. 25), whereas stories with nature-based tourism frame highlighted on natural areas tourists could travel to, conservation of the environment, and improvement of the welfare of local people (November 6, 2021, edition of Daily Graphic, pg. 12). The economic benefit framed stories emphasised the money tourism raked in for the country (November 17, 2021, edition of Ghanaian Times, pg. 4), and the international tourism frame reported international collaborations on tourism (4th August edition of Ghanaian Times, pg. 16). Other frames were used to categorise stories that did not fit under identified frames, such as incorporating tourism studies in pre-tertiary education (August 30, 2021 edition of Daily Graphic, pg. 76). Findings from this study establish how the intersection of socio-cultural elements like patriarchy, gender, and discrimination against PWDs plays out in the coverage given to PWD and tourism issues within the study period. Littlejohn and Foss (2011) assert that the media confirm societal norms by mediating as the window or mirror through which societal happenings are portrayed or challenging the negative status quo to bring about change. In Ghana, socio-cultural norms and beliefs cause many individuals to ignore PWDs consciously or unconsciously or view disability through a deleterious lens; therefore, discrimination, stigmatisation, and negative stereotypes about PWDs abound (Asuman et  al., 2021; Ocran, 2019). The study found that in instances where PWDs are given attention, it is done out of sympathy than consideration of their rights, which also reflects how the society in Ghana has been dealing with PWDs. These undermine the required attention that should be given to PWDs. This study argues that the poor coverage/attention given to the intersection of PWD, and tourism issues are largely based on the dominance of sympathy which Ghanaian media houses use to frame these issues. Through these dynamics, we are argued that socio-cultural aspects could also be worsening the

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discrimination of PWDs and how they have covered issues in the newspapers. This finding implies that social categorisation of and discrimination against PWDs in Ghana cause the media to be ineffective in challenging the negative status quo of discrimination and stigmatisation against PWDs (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011), thus failing to bring about positive social change which is crucial for sustainable development. The findings of the study also revealed a male dominance and minimisation of female voices in the stories on PWD and tourism issues. This finding shows how the newspapers mirror the intersection of gender and patriarchy in their coverage of PWD and tourism issues. The act of public speaking of women is often frowned upon in Ghana because the patriarchal norms consider such acts to be divergent from the traditionally assigned roles of the female gender. This situation automatically gives voice to men and renders women to be voiceless. Female PWDs contend with multiple discriminations because of their gender and disability (GSR, 2020). Thus, at the macro level in Ghana, female PWDs battle the discriminatory challenges from the patriarchal structures, thus, giving rise to a gendered media. At the micro level (within the PWD society), they still contend with gender discrimination due to the patriarchal orientations of some of the male PWDs. This situation necessitates the dedication of unique attention to issues about female PWDs because they are made voiceless at both macro and micro levels. However, findings on the horizontal representation of gender of sources in coverage within the study period show that the newspapers not only failed to give homogenous consideration to the discrimination against PWDs but also failed to address the discrimination of intra-group differences.

Conclusion The chapter notes that PWD stories, especially in the context of tourism development in Ghana, are hardly covered by the print media, and when they do, the issues reported are often misrepresented (Haller, 2010). The poor coverage given to PWD stories implies that the newspapers failed to draw attention to issues about PWDs but gave more attention to other issues that generate more revenue, thus, further amplifying the discrimination against PWDs. Though the state-owned papers are mandated to give voice to the vulnerable through their coverage, the newspapers did not consider PWD issues to merit much attention, hence not dedicating specific pages/desks or giving repeated coverage to their stories. Thus, the

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newspapers led the public to assign importance to other issues than PWD issues through their coverage. This reinforces the socio-cultural practice of neglect and not giving the desired attention to them—even in the areas like politics, education, and health that are constantly covered. Reliance on other sources than PWD sources also indicates less recognition of the newspapers on the ability of PWD sources to speak to issues they have experienced and affect them. Less than ten stories earned front-page placement prominence for a whole year, with other issues repeatedly featuring on prominent pages of the newspapers, further strengthening the argument of poor coverage. Furthermore, in their poor coverage of PWD issues, the newspapers failed to consider the various structures and processes that come together to heighten the discrimination and stigmatisation of female PWDs. Thus, the stories discussed PWD issues in general without attention to the implications of the male–female biases among PWD. Therefore, the newspapers failed to draw attention to the multiple challenges that females with specific disabilities struggle with. As a cognitive structure, frames direct newspaper readers to unconsciously consider issues with a particular lens (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011). So, the frames used in the coverage of PWD issues influence how readers understand such issues. Through empowerment, advocacy and inclusion frames were used to cause readers to think about PWD issues in this light, the dominance of the sympathy frame in coverage reinforces the inaccurate representation of PWD, and negative attitudes towards PWD due to negative stereotypes created about them (Hadidi & Al Khateeb, 2015). In addition, the growth and development of tourism was a dominant frame underscoring an agenda to promote and expand the Ghanaian tourism industry and encourage tourism for all. However, PWDs as subjects and sources were ironically missing in the tourism stories, thereby reinforcing discrimination against them. Findings suggest inadequate attention to PWD and tourism issues, no consideration of dimensions of gender inequalities among PWDs, and dominant use of sympathy frame in coverage by the newspapers. This situation causes journalists to not consider social categorisations and how they translate into discrimination, such as gender inequalities, socio-cultural challenges, and experiences of female PWDs in their reportage. The chapter recommends increased attention to PWD and tourism issues in coverage and the need for journalists to consider dimensions of gender inequalities among these issues in their reportage for the public to appreciate and understand the gendered challenges that PWDs in Ghana contend

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with. Besides, PWD is one of the vulnerable groups in Ghana with a very weak voice in the media. Therefore, journalism institutions, media organisations, and PWD organisations should train journalists on disability reporting and PWD issues to equip journalists with the needed skills in covering PWD issues and giving voice to PWD in the media. PWD organisations should often organise newsworthy events/activities and invite journalists to cover such events/activities. The chapter commences new paths for future scholarly attention to PWD and tourism development in Ghana within a media context. Future research into the links between PWD and tourism in Ghana is recommended because the chapter exposes that this is an unexploited area in the PWD and tourism literature. Also, possible future research into specific groups of PWDs and the specific tourism challenges with gender and social tourism is suggested because findings justify the need to theorise research agenda on issues of PWD and tourism in Ghana. The scope of this study was limited to two publicly owned newspapers. Future research may further extend the scope to cover privately owned newspapers as well as electronic and online media.

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CHAPTER 14

Disability, Marginalisation, and Inequality: An Appraisal of the Role of the Media in Promoting Inclusive and Sustainable Tourism for Persons with Disabilities Hatikanganwi Mapudzi, Itai Zviyita, and Anna-Lucky J. Katulo

Introduction People living with disabilities (PWDs) are often disposed to social exclusion and inequality, which results in their rights and voices being stifled on many fronts, including the mainstream media (Kaur & Saukko, 2022). In the tourism context, the intersection of gender and PWDs often encounter

H. Mapudzi (*) Academic: Communication Science, Management College of South Africa (MANCOSA), Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] I. Zviyita Journalism and Media Technology, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Windhoek, Namibia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_14

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discrimination through several barriers including architectural, communicational, production and consumption of tourism materials, among others (Jamal & Higham, 2021). It is important to note that tourism products and services which are tailor-made for the PWDs are generally more expensive, which aggravates their situation of being discriminated against (Gröschl, 2004; Rubio-Escuderos et al., 2021). Usually, their lives are layered with gender discrimination, rejection, and exclusion. Naturally, they then often respond by withdrawing from social life, thus being deprived of experiencing tourism, like any other human beings. Despite the work already done on media and tourism, there exists a research lacuna on the participation and representation of PWDs in the tourism space (Benjamin et al., 2021). In the context of the above, there seems to be a fundamental need to establish the role of the media in promoting inclusive and sustainable tourism for PWDs in African tourist destinations. Due to the gendered intersectional marginalisation and inequality experienced by PWDs, the necessity for an interrogation of their interconnectedness is exigent for action. It is against this backdrop that we make a conceptual and theoretical intervention in conversation with literature on media and tourism scholarship. As much as our study theorises the intersectionality of gender, disability, marginalisation, inequality, and tourism within the African context, our analysis is placed on the vibrant normative base of advocacy journalism (Flynn, 2013), which seeks to push narratives aimed at changing the status quo by influencing social change for PWDs in a dignified manner. As we assume this analysis, the intention is to unpack how the parity of participation by PWDs is being violated based on their physical and gender status as their source of marginalisation within the tourism space. This ailing issue requires attention in which the media can be used to assume a subjective stance in favour of PWDs and other marginalised persons in a justifiable manner. Makuyana et al. (2020) profiled how PWDs are unrealised as a potentially lucrative tourism market segment in South Africa. The quantitative study revealed that PWDs have the potential to participate in tourism but are unable to, and the role of media seems absent in pushing towards the participation of PWDs. The study however does not point to the barriers to participation by PWDs. Past studies (see, Wickenden A.-L. J. Katulo Journalism and Media Technology, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Windhoek, Namibia Department of Marketing and Logistics, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Windhoek, Namibia

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et al., 2012) noted that females with impairments tend to be marginalised since their childhood, and this even continues during tourism consumption. This intersectional marginalisation faced by PWDs should be picked by the media and help create an inclusive tourism space for such travellers. Hence, the rationale for this chapter is to argue for the advocacy of the media, to take an active role in promoting inclusive tourism. The chapter thus proceeds as follows: we deliberate on disability and discuss PWDs’ participation as tourism producers and consumers, and we analyse the barriers to accessing tourism by PWDs, with the intention to advocate for accessible and inclusive tourism. We further discuss the representation of these marginalised groups, with a view to dispute any myths around them and essentially elevate the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of reducing inequalities. It is also important to expatiate the concepts of accessible and inclusive tourism. Towards the conclusion, we unpack the role of advocacy journalism to promote inclusive tourism, thereby contributing towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Going forward, we call for the inclusive representation of PWDs in the tourism space. In doing so, we propose a sustainable accessible tourism model, which we envisage should serve as a basis for global deliberations and local implementation within the parameters of the SDGs.

Literature Review PWDs as Producers and Consumers of Tourism The dawn of globalisation has enhanced the prominence of sustainable tourism. The year 2017 was declared the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development by the United Nations (Novelli, 2017). The reason was to raise awareness of the contribution of the tourism sector to the economy. In recognition of the importance of the sector, there is increasing segmentation of tourists, to provide services which are specifically relevant to certain categories (Benjamin et al., 2021). Among these categories include the ageing population, as well as PWDs, whose travel needs ought to be barrier free (Benjamin et al., 2021). As reiterated earlier, PWDs are more prone to exclusion and inequality, as it is assumed that they are not interested in tourism (Benjamin et al., 2021; Makuyana et al., 2020). Ironically, they also form a large market for the tourism sector—10% of the world population has a disability (Benjamin et al., 2021; Mcclain-Nhlapo et al., 2018). Unfortunately, this category of the market seems to be marginalised or discouraged from participating in tourism production and consumption.

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Disability is perceived from various perspectives. Davis (2013) points out that the categories of normal and abnormal, able, and disabled are invented and enforced in service of “a certain kind of society”, in service of ideologies. It also refers to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society (the social model). As an alternative to the medical model, they argue it is the society that disables the individual, rather than their impairment, and thereby requires a social solution to reduce barriers and enable participation (Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020). The World Health Organization’s (2002) definition of disability illuminates that it is an umbrella term covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Simplified, disability is any condition that makes it difficult for a person to do certain activities or effectively interact with the world around them, socially and materially. These conditions or impairments, as underlined by the United Nations General Assembly (2006) include cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental physical, sensory, or a combination of multiple factors to the extent that they could hinder the affected persons’ participation within society. Leaning on the scholarly work of the social model of disability, we assert that people with disabilities face numerous limitations as tourism producers and consumers. Although most countries have laws and regulations that protect the rights of PWDs in every aspect of their lives (Özcan, Güçhan Topcu, & Arasli, 2021), including leisure and tourism, this particular group of people still does not enjoy tourism attractions, the reason being that, as reiterated earlier, the social systems are still locking them out of social and economic participation (Davis, 2013; Shakespeare, 2017; Shandra, 2017). The social model of disability recognises that it is not the individual people’s impairment that restricts them from economic participation and social inclusion, but rather the societal attitudes and structures towards PWDs. What makes this model imperative in the discussion is that it highlights that the disability issue is socially constructed and can be solved through providing an enabling environment, the provision of new techniques, as well as the right attitude and behaviour from the wider community. In this view, Communities, organisations, and individuals should view impairment as an expected part of human diversity and accommodate it accordingly. This will result in an enabling environment for people with disability that empowers them to participate in society to the same extent as people without disabilities. (Australian Local Government Association, 2016, p. 3)

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Since accessibility limitations have been taken into consideration as one predominant determinant affecting PWDs’ participation in the tourism sector, either as producers or consumers, the term “accessible tourism” has been endorsed in tourism research. For those following a medical model of disability, it is easier to immediately think of disabled people and things such as audio devices for the blind and ramps for those in wheelchairs. Buhalis and Darcy (2010) address this misconception by highlighting that: Accessible tourism is a form of tourism that involves collaborative processes between stakeholders that enable people with access requirements, including mobility, vision, hearing and cognitive dimensions of access, to function independently and with equity and dignity through the delivery of universally designed tourism products, services and environments.

Stuchlíková and Botlíková (2021) indicate that accessible tourism aims to remove or suppress obstacles that complicate travel for certain groups of customers or discourage them from participating in tourism. In highlighting the importance of removing the barriers hindering people from accessing tourism as equal citizens, White and Childs (2018) posit that: …an ideal model of accessible tourism would see universal design principles applied for all experiences, products and services appropriately meeting and adapting to the needs of all travellers regardless of their abilities…. To offer the absolute best experience in terms of accessible tourism it looks beyond just people with disabilities and can include accommodating for those travelling with children in prams, seniors, careers, people with food intolerances, language difficulties and those temporarily affected by a disability (e.g., broken hand).

Buhalis illustrates what accessibility means in the context of PWDs and tourism production and consumption. Figure 14.1 summarises accessible tourism. Having highlighted the above, and, despite efforts being made towards ensuring accessible and inclusive tourism, we note with concern, some of the barriers still being experienced by PWDs in this regard. We, therefore, expatiate on some of these barriers, with an intention towards barrier-free accessible tourism. The barriers to access tourism and participation by PWDs occur at different levels including attitudinal, economic, and physical (Dodds & Butler, 2010; Mopecha, 2016). Mopecha (2016) further notes that even though government policies in less developed countries

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• Richness of information • Accuracy

Infrastructure

• Inclusion • Trust • Reliability • Access paths Information

ACCESSIBLE TOURISM Information online

Fig. 14.1  Accessible tourism. (Source: Buhalis and Darcy (2010))

acknowledge PWDs textually, the application is still farfetched, thus, such people still face barriers to accessibility, accommodation, social inclusion, finance, inhospitable tourism space, limited information choice, and other facilities, as compared to able-bodied consumers. In the same vein, accessibility is a critical element that influences destination choice (Woyo, 2021). Furthermore, Weaver (2014) recommends a supportive government, peace and a serene environment for a destination to thrive. These, according to Henderson (2006), are critical issues which must be elaborated upon, since they stand out as motivational factors in the consumption and marketing of a destination to consumers. Dodds and Butler (2010) note that sustainable policy implementation faces problems from many barriers, including both private and public sector issues. Furthermore, political power struggles and different values often exist within the policy process, thus increasing the difficulties of implementing a sustainable tourism policy (Dodds & Butler, 2010). In highlighting some of the barriers, Henderson (2006) notes that “a shortage of tourism resources, inadequate infrastructures, obstructionist government and weak or ineffective promotion are still major impediments” (p.88). This notion is supported by Crawford et al. (1991), who

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examined a “hierarchical” order of three constraints that influence leisure participation or non-participation, namely: intrapersonal, interpersonal, and finally, structural constraints. The intrapersonal constraints as defined by Crawford et al. (1991) refer to psychological conditions that are internal to the individual; such as personality factors, attitudes, or more temporary psychological conditions such as depression or mood. Interpersonal constraints arise out of interaction with others such as family members, friends, co-workers, and neighbours. while structural constraints include factors such as the lack of opportunities or the cost of activities that result from external conditions in the environment. The modified model of Turco et  al. (1998) illustrates obstacles concerning attractions (e.g. site inaccessibility), information (e.g. unreliable and faulty information resources about a vacation spot and its accessibility), transport (e.g. difficulty in transferring among flights, inaccessibility of plane restrooms), and lodging (e.g. inaccessible rooms and lavatories, restrictive appliances consisting of lamps and TVs, and the front-table counters that had been too high). In the same way, McKercher et  al. (2003) identified several exogenous limitations that may inhibit tourism for PWDs and these include architectural barriers such as steps, inaccessible washrooms, inaccessible hotel accommodations, and so on; ecological barriers such as uneven footpaths, tree roots, and other exterior obstacles; transportation barriers, especially of the local transport variety including cars, buses, and taxicabs; legal barriers, when rules or regulations prohibit PWDs from bringing the needed equipment with them; communication difficulties, both in the individual’s home and at the destination; attitude barriers, due to negative attitudes from service providers; information barriers, due to inaccuracy of data about site accessibility. The culmination of these constraints, as advanced by Darcy and Daruwalla (1999), is a loss of enjoyment of the tourism experience by PWDs. The barriers described above illustrate the need for the facilitation of appropriate enabling environments and empowering individuals. If not done, PWDs may still experience challenges in accessing tourism. Enabling environments as underscored by Bindu and Devi (2016) “should not just ensure access to all; they must also empower people with access requirements to make informed decisions about whether accessible destination experiences are appropriate for their needs”. Having said this, it is also imperative to dissect the concept of accessible and inclusive tourism in the context of SDGs, as expounded in the section that follows.

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Sustainable Development: Accessible and Inclusive Tourism From the preceding discussion, it is inherent that accessibility is a human rights issue, which has been elevated on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. In September 2015, SDGs were reconceptualised from the then Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), with an emphasis on issues that had long been neglected (Woyo, 2020). Inclusion of all persons, including the PWDs and gender equality are critical targets for Agenda 2030. In this view, tourism can contribute to the implementation of gender equality and inclusion of PWDs in two ways: firstly, by creating employment for them within the sector and secondly, as producers and consumers of tourism products and services (Musavengane et al., 2020; Woyo & Slabbert, 2019, 2020, 2021). With the former, tourism strategies should ensure job creation that benefits all, including women PWDs, on an equal basis, or even giving them preference. Work opportunities should be made available for PWDs, while at the same time, they should also equally produce and consume tourism products and services, including infrastructure. The United Nations General Assembly (2006) highlights the citizenship rights of PWDs and is reinforced by principles which include equality, respect, access, and inclusion—participation in all aspects of cultural life which include tourism, sport, and leisure. Specifically, the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 SDGs present the basis for ensuring a balance among the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainable development (UN, 2006). This is meant to ensure inclusive and equitable societies that foster equal opportunities, human dignity, and rights. What is evident here is that central to the SDGs are the principles of development, equality, and inclusion (Musavengane et al., 2020; Siakwah et al., 2020; Woyo, 2020). This can only be realised if PWDs and other marginalised communities are empowered and given a voice—through accessible, sustainable, and inclusive tourism. Thus, sustainable accessible tourism can be achieved if all relevant stakeholders work collaboratively (Musavengane & Woyo, 2022)—the PWDs, the public and private sector, and most importantly, the media. An important issue raised here concerns the role of the media in promoting sustainable and inclusive tourism among PWDs. In this view, we acknowledge that despite the SDGs being

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made explicit, creating jobs that benefit all, reducing inequalities, and building sustainable cities, among others, there still exist implementation gaps; thus, we bring to the fore, the role of the media into the equation.

The Gender Dimension The discussion in this chapter has thus far expounded on how PWDs navigate the tourism sector. It is however particularly essential to simultaneously unpack the concept of disability with gender. The idea is to unearth the link between disability, gender, and tourism, specifically in the context of Africa as a tourist destination. The concept of gender is a complex one, often thought of as a category of analysis focusing on counting men versus women and deliberately ignoring other differences such as participation, presence, as well as the exercising of rights (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Just like in any other environment, gender-based discrimination is evident in the tourism industry—from the ratio of men and women employed in the industry, the propensity to travel, the nature of jobs performed, wages, working conditions, promotion, as well as social relations (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). Ironically, women, more so those with disabilities, find themselves encountering double discrimination. They are being discriminated against, first as disabled people and second as women, thus making them more disadvantaged. These conditions of exclusion defy the role of women in sustainable development, resulting in them being under-utilised and under-valued (Lohani & Aburaida, 2017; Naciti et al., 2021). Goal 5 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015) advocates the need to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”. Unfortunately, one can argue that this is far from being achieved, especially in a society that treats PWDs “neutrally”. Despite the tourism sector playing several roles in the attainment of SDGs, the industry seems to be an intersection for and a contributor to social inequality (Cole & Morgan, 2010). In supporting this assertion, Carvalho et al. (2019) argue that in fact, the tourism sector is seemingly still reinforcing gender inequalities in lieu of challenging them, and this is where the media could help highlight these perpetual challenges to enhance a more sustainable development pathway. The inequalities manifest in how the industry only provides seasonal and low-skilled employment, while at the same time discriminating tourists based on their income level and other factors. What does this mean for PWDs? They are among the gender categories that perform seasonal and low-skilled employment

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and are often under-represented and marginalised as they cannot afford to pay for tourism (Gillovic & McIntosh, 2020). In addition to the multiple discrimination that PWDs are subjected to, they often find the challenge of inadequate services offered by tourism companies (Taddei, 2020). Those that wish to participate in tourism activities also find themselves being subjected to multiple discrimination as well, particularly in the digital spaces. The uptake of digitisation in the tourism and media industries acts as a double-edged sword in that it has created new opportunities for women with disabilities (through social media platforms) to conveniently engage with relevant stakeholders, while it “provided a platform for new forms of online gendered-specific attacks” (Zviyita & Mapudzi, 2021, p. 11). With its speed and connected networks, the online environment accelerates sophisticated attacks on women with disabilities. While platforms like Facebook Live present the opportunity for engaging directly with the public, the digital tools expose women to real-time harassment, thus increasing the risks. It is no doubt that social media have become an integral part of work within the tourism circles, as they are used to source, create, distribute news, and engage the public. With the implementation of COVID-19 measures to contain the spread of the virus, the tourism fraternity has been forced to engage with stakeholders online. While using the digital platforms to blend their tourism and personal endeavours, women with disabilities risk being exposed to gender-based sexist attacks meant to shame or intimidate them: insults targeting their physical status and personal features. The COVID-19 pandemic brought about the “new normal”, which saw an incremental reliance on digital media in a bid to observe physical distancing. In such scenario, recent studies indicate that women experience online threats such as cyberbullying and trolling, which occurs when the offender incites annoyance or any other adverse emotions, often by posting provocative messages (Yang, 2021; Shin & Choi, 2021; Posetti et  al., 2020). Deviants find social media platforms such as Twitter to encourage ecosystems for trolling and profanity (Rego, 2018). In the same vein, such online behaviours, which lead to the harassment of women, connote a misogynistic variant called “gender trolling”, which is about “patrolling gender boundaries and using insults, hate, and threats of violence and/or rape to ensure that women and girls are either kept out of or play subservient roles in male-dominated arenas” (Mantilla, 2013, p. 568). Golf-Papez and Veer (2017); Sankhwar and Chaturvedi (2018) corroborate that most trolls are males who indulge in anti-social

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behaviour for earnings. They are characterised by aggressive attitudes that seek to trigger violence, shame, and humiliate their targets (Rego, 2018). Leaning on the intersectionality perspective, women living with disabilities find themselves at the intersection of many sources of domination, resulting in misrecognition and misrepresentation in the tourism space. Based on their physical status, sexual orientation, and sometimes race too, women in tourism experience domination differently. The World Travel & Tourism Council (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2014) noted that 66% of the total tourism work done in Australia, France, Germany, South Africa, and Turkey is done by women, thus feminising work in tourism— that it is an economic sector largely dominated and sustained by women (Purcell, 1996). In emphasising the feminisation narrative, the UNWTO and UN Women (2011) acknowledge that tourism is largely a source of employment for women, particularly those in developing countries: Tourism presents a wide range of income-generating opportunities for women in formal and informal employment, and tourism jobs are usually flexible and can be carried out in different places, such as work, community and the home. In addition, tourism creates a wide range of opportunities for women through the complex value chains that it creates in the destination economy, as well as the challenges faced by women in the workplace. Tourism: Women often focus on low-level, low-paid and precarious jobs in the tourism industry. (UNWTO & UN Women, 2011, p. 2)

The assertion presented above is both encouraging and problematic at the same time. There is an acknowledgement that the tourism sector provides employment to women and is perfect for those with family responsibilities as they can participate from home. It however further highlights the precarious situations in which women find themselves while participating in the sector—low-paid informal jobs which seem to be unsustainable.

Theoretical Lenses The discussion in this chapter is underpinned by insights from the Fraserian (1997) social justice theory (SJT), which posits that all human beings, irrespective of their physical, socio-cultural, economic, and political status, must be afforded just treatment—justice in the distribution of economic issues, recognition of cultural concerns, as well as representation. We

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employ the theory to make sense of how human beings must be afforded just treatment in dimensions of distribution of socio-economic issues and recognition of cultural concerns and representation. All this entails the way societies are organised. Fraser conceptualises both redistribution and recognition as two critically discrete models of justice that: …occur in a world of exacerbated material inequality—in income and property ownership; in access to paid work, education, health care and leisure time; but also, more starkly in caloric intake and exposure to environmental toxicity, hence in life expectancy and rates of morbidity and mortality. Material inequality is on the rise in most of the world’s countries. (1997, p. 68)

From the Fraserian approach, there exists 2 broadly perceived, critically discrete comprehension of injustice. The first is socio-economic injustice, which manifests through the exploitation of one’s labour, economic marginalisation, and deprivation of adequate material standard of living. The second kind of injustice is cultural, which is rooted in social patterns of representation, interpretation, and communication. This manifests through “cultural domination, non-recognition and disrespect in everyday life interactions” (Fraser, 1997, p. 71). In a sense, we perceive such symbolic injustices as forms of oppression with a tendency of inflicting grievous wounds on certain groups of people such as PWDs, minority groups, and women. By the same token, Honneth (1992) theorises similar notions about social justice and argues that: We owe our integrity … to the receipt of approval or recognition from other persons. Negative concepts such as ‘insult’ or ‘degradation’ are related to forms of disrespect, to the denial of the recognition. They are used to characterise a form of behaviour that does not represent an injustice solely because it constrains the subjects in their freedom for action or does them harm. Rather, such behaviour is injurious because it impairs these persons in their positive understanding of self—an understanding acquired by intersubjective means. (pp. 188–189)

Honneth’s perspective is concerned about individual dynamics to social justice, whereas Fraser’s is about group dynamics. For Honneth, for an individual to operate as a member of the group dynamics, he or she must be afforded dignity, which manifests itself in other spheres of life. For instance, a well-educated female with disabilities living in a community that discourages the participation of PWDs is likely to feel unrecognised

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and disrespected for both her physical and sexual status, hence dignity is undermined. His angle implies that by recognising only certain economic issues (while neglecting other social issues to do with gender and physical status), societies can run the risk of failing to secure a person’s dignity in all ways, which entails injustice outside the economic sphere. It is against this background that we underscore the similarity of Fraser’s and Honneth’s concerns to social justice, even though their angles tend to differ. They unanimously concur that individuals or certain groups of people cannot participate equally in public as equals, if not accorded dignity and respect (Fraser, 1997; Honneth, 1992, 2004). In the same vein, neither can they have dignity nor respect, if not able to participate in public as equals. Despite the differences between them, both socio-economic and cultural injustices are prevalent and ailing in contemporary societies. They are both embedded in practices that systematically marginalise some groups of people, such as PWDs. For Fraser, although the distinction between socio-­ economic and cultural injustice is analytical feasible, they are entwined to underpin one another dialectically. Her argument is that: Cultural norms that are unfairly biased against some are institutionalised in the state and the economy; meanwhile, economic disadvantage impedes equal participation in the making of culture, in public spheres and everyday life. The result is often a vicious circle of cultural and economic subordination. (Fraser, 1997, p. 72)

For Fraser, to remedy socio-economic injustice, there is a need to assume redistribution of income, reorganising the division of labour and subjecting investment to democratic decision making. All these propositions must be informed by an egalitarian approach. On the other hand, cultural injustice necessitates what she calls “recognition” informed by a bottom-top approach, which seeks to “revalue disrespected identities, the cultural products of maligned groups, and transformation of societal patterns of representation” (Fraser, 1997, p. 73). By and large, the redistributive remedies presume a fundamental conception of recognition. On the contrary, recognition remedies at times presume a basic conception of redistribution. Given these distinctions, Fraser theorises that “recognition claims often take the form of calling attention to, if not performatively creating, the putative specificity of some group, and then of affirming the value of that specificity” (p. 74). While redistribution claims oft call for

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abolishing economic arrangements that underpin group specificity. Consequently, the politics of redistribution and recognition seems to have reciprocally contrary aims in that the former tends to undermine group differentiation, while the latter tends to promote it. Borrowing insights from the Fraserian approach helps us to understand how the recognition and participation of PWDs can be obscured in grand narratives within the tourism sector. This issue is worth articulating in the public domain, in the context of advocacy journalism, to motivate relevant stakeholders that there are certain groups of people in our midst that are living in an undignified state of affairs. Their parity of participation in public is violated and there is a need for action to restore their dignity within socio-economic and political spheres. Considering this, we underline advocacy journalism as it deliberately assumes a subjective position normatively positioned in favour of the minority, voiceless, underprivileged, and oppressed in society.

Way Forward Advocating for Disability Inclusion in Tourism Through the Media In the main, this chapter brings to light both the practical and theoretical implications for several stakeholders. It is a fact that the media, in all their various forms, play a very essential role in influencing public opinion (León et al., 2022). Similarly, how PWDs are portrayed, as well as the frequency with which they are portrayed in the media, directly have an impact on how the wider society perceives them. Despite the presence of some disability-specific media programmes on radio and television stations, oftentimes, PWDs rarely receive the attention that they deserve in the mainstream media (Chand & Uprety, 2022). Rather, when they appear in the media—that is often accompanied by stigma or stereotypes—they often appear as either objects of pity or thus charity cases, a scenario that perpetuates negative perceptions of PWDs (Al-Zoubi & Al-Zoubi, 2022). The point being made here is that PWDs also deserve to be portrayed with dignity and respect, particularly in the media, thereby helping to promote a more inclusive and tolerant society. The media are also expected to facilitate equal representation of wide and heterogeneous groups of people through pluralistic information. The extent to which PWDs can have access to information is a human rights

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issue that cannot be over-emphasised. Leaning on the lens of the intersectionality perspective, we assert that PWDs find themselves at the intersection of many sources of domination, resulting in multi-dimensional discrimination. Intersectionality points to the different forms of inequalities and how they result in unique problems for certain groups of people (Crenshaw, 1991), in this instance, PWDs. In this discussion, we underline the intersectional and disability lenses to understand the discrimination encountered by PWDs in the tourism sector. The point is to highlight how disability as a social location intersects with tourism, thereby creating unique experiences of discrimination. Owing to their physical status, race, civil status, ethnicity, and sexual orientation, PWDs experience domination in a unique way, as compared to the able-bodied. In this way, we are therefore concerned with the pragmatics of social change—we envisage a society: In which everyone, regardless of who they are or where they live, can live violence-­ free, [have] access to safe housing, have their [perspectives] heard, and enjoy freedom from discrimination. (Simpson, 2009, p. 6)

Through praxis, we are advocating for a more egalitarian society by highlighting systems that seem to fail in protecting the traditionally marginalised communities, and systems that seem to ignore the diversity of those in disability communities (Crenshaw, 1991). These principles of intersectionality highlight the importance of consciousness-raising and most importantly, the essence of valuing the lived experiences of others. It is a fact that mainstream journalism remains anchored in the objective model and maintains close ties with hard and advocacy journalism is rather a more acceptable genre that seeks to create an equal and inclusive society, in which every group of people has the right to participate in the media space on an equal basis (Fisher, 2016). Advocacy journalism deliberately assumes a subjective position normatively positioned in favour of the underprivileged, oppressed, and vulnerable in society (Booth & Blake, 2022). It aims to invert the descending order of news gathering, production, and dissemination “through alternative media by offering a voice to those marginalised by the mainstream media” (Atton & Wickenden, 2005, p. 349). Thus, the vibrant normative base of advocacy journalism is about pushing narratives that seek to change the status quo by influencing social change in a corrective way to those that are oppressed. It subjectively takes a gaze into issues of concern from the angle of those who are layered with

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various forms of marginalisation, PWDs included, as opposed to the lens of the law. It is from this assumption that we propose advocacy journalism to offer PWDs the platform to acquire the right to dignity and parity of participation within the tourism space. In this twenty-first century where digital media technologies are at the core of communication, the strength of alternative media lies in its provision of opportunities for the voiceless and PWDs to tell their own stories and reconstruct their identity using diverse languages. With the integration of social media platforms, newsrooms are “redefining how media houses engage with their audiences as well as how audiences relate and respond to the news content” (Mabweazara & Mare, 2021, p. 110). Furthermore, these latest developments enable audiences from the tourism sector to access information at the greatest of ease beyond geographical boundaries, moves that were not possible before the uptake of digitisation in the media space. Past research shows that the media contribute greatly to activating tourist attractions (Ayalew, 2016). Which, without the assistance of media and its support, many places would have remained unexplored as the awareness about the place is very minimal to the foreigners. Nadda, Dadwal, Mulindwa, and Vieira (2015) provide examples of social media tools that can be used to address the issues of accessibility including Facebook, Google+ MySpace, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, and Bloggers. In Bangkok, Thailand, some media programmes have successfully promoted positive images of PWDs, to encourage non-discrimination and equal opportunities for the physically disadvantaged in all aspects of society (International Labour Organisation, 2015). Similarly, media outlets can also promote the visibility of PWDs by raising awareness about their existence, tourism-friendly destinations that they can visit, as well as their tourism products—for those participating in tourism production. The media ought to be at the forefront to tell the PWDs’ stories. For instance, in some tourist destinations like Durban (South Africa), Cape Town (South Africa), and Walvis Bay (Namibia), a common scenario along the beachfront is that of PWDs selling tourism products for survival. Such initiatives deserve the attention of the media. The integration of PWDs in tourism marketing is imperative and it is the role of the media to help them by challenging negative attitudes and wrong assumptions regarding their disabilities. In other words, advocacy efforts by the media can be more effective. For those PWDs intending to travel to tourist destinations, the media can likewise provide all the necessary information—for instance,

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the type of services and facilities offered by certain tourist destinations, the media are often more readily accessible—radio, television, and newspapers. This resonates with Buhalis and Darcy’s (2010) notion of accessible tourism as he emphasises the importance of infrastructure and information, which needs to be rich, accurate and reliable, among other things. Thus, talking about advocacy journalism in this context resonates with the concept of tourism media, which refers to media activities aimed at spreading the culture of tourism, in this case, among the PWDs. Tourism media is broadly perceived as: All the objective, non-personal and unpaid media efforts that have the intended effect, aiming at creating and conveying a message or group of messages to create tourism awareness or attract and promote tourism, to improve the tourist image of a country or region in specific markets and for specific customers, using all media types to stimulate the potential tourists from those markets; locally and internationally, and encourage them to engage in tourism-related activities. i.e., the objective is the demand for tourism in a particular country or region, created by the target audience, and triggered by media. (Esmat & Manal, 2011)

From the above description, the media have an urgent role to stimulate interest in tourism, as well as serving millions of PWDs by availing them with the necessary information. Not only that but they also ought to raise awareness among the tourism business, about the needs of the PWDs. Ultimately, the media should be the liaison between the PWDs and the tourism industry. Tourism media in this case should help to identify the needs of the PWDs, and the problems that they face within the tourism industry, and then inspire the tourism business to solve these problems, for the benefit of all, thus making efforts towards achieving justice, as referred to by Fraser (1997). Having said the above, it should be noted that the media cannot be regarded as totally inclusive if women’s and PWDs’ voices and participation in the tourism space are stifled. For Zviyita and Mapudzi (2021) if certain categories of people in society are still marginalised due to their gender or physical status, it implies that they still have no place in society. The media are the building blocks of democracy, hence, all persons ought to equally have the right of access to tourism activities. It is therefore the mandate of the media to assume a subjective stance, normatively representing the marginalised groups in society (Fisher, 2016). This implies the

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need to look beyond the embedded stereotypes and assist PWDs to cope with the series of challenges aimed at hindering them from participating in the tourism sector. Towards a Sustainable Accessible Tourism Model Arguably, and as evidenced in this discussion, tourism can empower PWDs in many ways. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development frames tourism within Goal 5 (gender equality), Goal 8 (decent work), and Goal 12 (responsible consumption and production), among others. Unfortunately, Figueroa-Domecq et al. (2015) note that tourism studies have largely been surprisingly gender-blind and reluctant in engaging gender-­aware frameworks. Gender mainstreaming has been at the centre of addressing inequalities (Calabrese et al., 2021; Galletta et al., 2022). Gender mainstreaming is simply a strategy involving the integration of all genders into the preparation, design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies, regulatory measures, and spending programs, to promote gender equality (The European Institute for Gender Equality, cited by Vermiglio et al., 2022). Based on the literature reviewed, we call for the media to take an active role in promoting tourism for all, PWDs included. To account for the recognition-redistribution dilemma as noted above, there is a need to go beyond the assumptions of the Fraserian social justice theory. This explains the reason why we bring to the fore a sustainable accessible tourism model, which helps us to understand how PWDs can intensively participate in tourism activities and attain better experiences. It is generally acknowledged that PWDs, just like those without disabilities, have the same passion for tourism. It is against this background that their desire attracts special needs, prompting scholars to propound the model of accessible tourism in the early 1980s (Kasimati & Ioakeimidis, 2019). This tourism model uses all the elements that a tourist product needs. It enables all people, including PWDs, “to function independently and with equality and dignity through the delivery of universally designed tourism products, services and environments” (Darcy & Dickson, 2009, p.7). Accessible tourism is the ongoing endeavour to ensure tourist services and products are accessible to all people, irrespective of their physical status, sexual orientation, age, or any other limitation (Kasimati & Ioakeimidis, 2019). At this point, it is important to note that accessibility is not a mere human rights issue, but also a business opportunity for all tourism service

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providers to embrace all tourists and boost their revenues. It is recognised as one of the significant aspects of the process of work for equalisation for PWDs in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2013), which stipulates that: Accessibility within the context of the United Nations is not only an inherent right of persons with disabilities but a means of ensuring that persons with disabilities can exercise all rights and fundamental freedoms and are empowered to participate fully in society on equal terms with all others. (p. 3)

The Convention’s approach to PWDs is that of viewing them as “subjects” with rights, who are capable of claiming those rights and making decisions for their lives based on their free and informed consent, as well as being active members of society, not as “objects” of charity, medical treatment, and social protection (United Nations CRPD, 2013). Research on PWDs (UNCRPD, 2013) demonstrates that universal approaches alone are not sufficient enough to address horizontal inequalities (such as marginalisation and social exclusion) in the tourism sector, but a synthesis of such, together with inclusive approaches, can yield positive outcomes better than one framework. This explains why accessibility is a necessity of any responsible and sustainable development approach to tourism. As both a human right essential and a business prospect, accessible tourism does not only benefit PWDs, but also benefits all citizenries by engraining accessibility into the socio-economic values of the wider society (Madans and Loeb, 2013). Our contribution to studying the role of the media in promoting inclusive and sustainable tourism for PWDs, therefore, takes it that the approach could contribute to spearheading some aspects of the SDGs on reducing inequalities through the inclusion of PWDs and barrier-free approaches.

Conclusion From the preceding discussion, we highlighted the experiences of PWDs in the tourism industry, particularly the barriers to accessing tourism, either as producers or consumers. As reiterated, we noted that PWDs are often marginalised in many facets of their lives, due to their physical appearances and this social construction by society results in them withdrawing from some aspects of their lives. As an intervention measure, we drew from Fraser’s theory of social justice, highlighting that everyone

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deserves the same space on the planet. From our analysis, we emphasised the role of the media in bringing tourism image to the PWDs, we specifically highlighted that advocacy journalism should take up this space because of its speciality in the field of media, being the voice of the voiceless and the marginalised communities. As tourism media, advocacy journalists should play an important role in spreading tourism knowledge and culture while at the same time raising awareness about disability among citizens and the tourism fraternity, so that the needs and expectations of PWDs are also met. We concluded the discussion by proposing a sustainable and accessible tourism model, with the aim of helping PWDs to creatively participate in tourism activities and enjoy the highest levels of experiences, just like any other citizen.

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CHAPTER 15

Role of Media in Creating Inclusive Gender and Disability Spaces in Tourism Wendy Muperi

Introduction Media is key in communicating priority areas of government as well as the interests of the public in a creative manner (Moutidis & Williams, 2019; Czvetkó et al., 2021). By directly or indirectly influencing human behaviour, either positively or negatively, media can make or break a society (Ytre-Arne, 2019), including the development of tourism in a destination. While the aspects of diversity and inclusion are widely discussed in other disciplines (Moore et al., 2020; Tan, 2019), their integration of gender, disability and tourism using intersectional perspectives remains understudied. Consequently, Haraldsson and Wängnerud (2019) note that while the media is a good measure of the sexism of societies, it also makes society more sexist than it would without it. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2022) states that media is instrumental in remedying societal misconstructions about persons with disabilities (PWDs) by actively contributing to the effective and successful integration

W. Muperi (*) Public Policy, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5_15

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of persons with disabilities in all aspects of societal life. Ytre-Arne (2019) adds that with the media being an indispensable part of everyday life, an imbalance in one will upset the other proving the power of the media in bringing gender and disability to the core of policy and practice in tourism. Despite media being critical in mainstreaming gender and disability (Peta, 2017; UNESCO, 2020), reportage on issues and successes of different genders and PWDs remain rare (Mhiripiri & Midzi, 2021). When they do make it occasionally, it is normally not in relation to mainstreaming gender and disability in tourism (Scarcelli, Krijnen, & Nixon, 2021). As the world races against achieving Agenda 2030, through the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), media scrutiny is important in outlining localised priorities and gauging progress made towards meeting targets (Czvetkó et al., 2021). However, Ye and Zeldes (2020) argue that the PWDs remain underrepresented and misrepresented by media in many countries—even during this era where studies have been showing that they remain a largely untapped market for the tourism sector. Past research argues that media coverage also tends to be skewed in favour of men (Van der Pas & Aaldering, 2020). While the literature on the portrayal of women, more so those with disabilities in tourism is limited, Small (2017) found that coverage was full of stereotypes bordering on racist, sexist and classist discourses, where women of certain body types were used to sell tourism products which do not help countries in ensuring inclusivity and progress towards the achievement of the SDGs, especially SDG 5 and 10. PWDs are rarely covered in the media and when they are included (UN DESA, 2016), they are stereotyped and portrayed as objects of charity or appear as “superheroes” who have done something great that could inspire the abled persons. The reportage even in new media, defined as any media delivered digitally (Cote, 2022; McMullan, 2020), reflects the same trends (Krijnen & Van Bauwel, 2015). Barden (2018) says while there is of growth in the literature investigating disability and media, the focus has been more on the analysis of hashtags, body positivity (Hill, 2022) and use of media during the COVID-19 pandemic (Dobransky & Hargittai, 2021). Media representations have also been investigated in literature with a more focus on Paralympic sport (McGillivray, O’Donnell, McPherson, & Misener, 2021). However, there has been little academic attention given to investigating the intersectional perspectives of gender, disability and tourism, specifically the role of media in creative inclusive tourism, in developing tourist destinations like Zimbabwe. Therefore, there are barely any studies

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which seek to understand gender and disability as intersectional issues in tourism. Several studies focus on either gender or disability in the media (Epprecht & Clark, 2020; Small, 2017; Women’s Coalition of Zimbabwe, 2018). Current research on gender, disability and media, especially new media, has investigated these constructs using mostly the same approach where it is either disability (Bitman, 2022; Dobransky & Hargittai, 2021) or gender (Dinis et al., 2020; Karatsoli & Nathanail, 2020; Svensson et al., 2022). It is from this background that the study seeks to fill a void in literature analysing the role of the media in mainstreaming gender and disability in tourism as intersectional issues.

Literature Conceptualising Gender, Disability, the Media and Intersectionality The advent of digital media has made broad definitions of media hard to come by as researchers focus more on new media and social media which have become synonymous with the twenty-first century (Aichner et  al., 2021). Nevertheless, Strömbäck et al. (2020) define mainstream or traditional media as major channels of information dissemination and mass-­ mediated messages. Media is thus characterised by trained professional journalists serving exclusively as disseminators of news and information including newspapers, magazines, radio and television (Strömbäck et al., 2020). Furthermore, traditional media is characterised by identical messages that are communicated in a one-way route to very large mass audiences, which are assumed to be homogeneous (Apuke, 2016). There has been a reconfiguration of the divide between traditional and new media where the two complement each other as media organisations try to keep up with disruptive technologies that have forced a rethinking of media as a business. It is from this background that this research will conflate new and traditional media (Chiluwa, 2021). Gender is defined as more than being a woman or men but includes acting as such (Morgenroth & Ryan, 2018). Often the term tends to be conflated with the term sex (Woyo & Venganai, 2022). The conflation of these constructs is because of how gender is framed traditionally to mean male or female (Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021). The conflation of gender and sex is contestable, because gender is relationally based on socio-cultural expectations for men and women, and these normally shape societal

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interactions (Venganai, 2019). Meanwhile, definitions of disability are largely drawn from the United Nations (UN) definition which lists conditions associated with disability. Waddington and Priestley (2021) posit that the Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities (CRPD) recognises that PWDs include those “who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments” and cannot enjoy “full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others”. Pini and Maguire-Rosier (2021) citing World Health Organisation defines disability as resulting “from the interaction between individuals with a health condition such as cerebral palsy, down syndrome and depression as well as personal and environmental factors including negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited social support”. The absence of a universally accepted definition specifically by PWDs and interest groups makes it difficult for the media and tourism players to be wholly inclusive (Albrecht et al., 2001; Waddington & Priestley, 2021) and studies that employ an intersectional perspective could be more helpful in dealing with these challenges. In recent years, tourism has grown from being a luxury for the rich to be more of a right that everyone including PWDs should be able to enjoy prompting theorists to come up with definitive models (Kabote et  al., 2019). Consequently, the social model of disability replaced the medical model of disability which equated disability to inability which in many instances resulted in further exclusion. The social model emphasises removing social barriers which disabled PWDs like public attitudes and unfriendly infrastructure to create an environment that includes them by providing accessibility, and opportunities and promoting independence (Oliver, 2013). Owing to how disability, just like gender, intersects with many other identity markers, this study will employ the intersectional model which recognises the importance of making the environment disability-­friendly alongside maintaining some benefits and supports for PWDs who need them (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2013). Intersectionality is a construct that was originally coined by Crenshaw (1989) to describe the overlapping and compounding effects of oppression on black women in society. Through this perspective, there is a need to acknowledge that race and gender oppression co-exist at the nexus of black femaleness (Morris et al., 2022). These intersections create inequalities and experiences and dealing with these inequalities requires tourism stakeholders including the media to have a nuanced understanding. Consequently, intersectionality is critical in investigating analytical

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categories simultaneously, and this is beneficial in that it helps people to have a holistic interpretation (Auer, Sutcliffe, & Lee, 2019). Therefore, this chapter argues that the application of intersectionality results in a more holistic understanding of the content and discursive impact of news narratives about creating inclusive gender and disability spaces in tourism. Doing so is imperative because “intersectionality can draw attention to the journalistic choices which normalise certain identities, thereby reinforcing social hierarchies of difference” (Auer, Sutcliffe, & Lee, 2019, p.  286). Furthermore, it has been argued that applying intersectionality to media studies is critical in helping journalism to avoid (re)producing hierarchies of social difference (Auer et al., 2019). The Role of Media in Tourism Sanyal (2016) argues that the role of the media, both new and old, in tourism is that of a mediator between tourism and society. This shows that media is a critical enabler for tourists’ destinations to deliver tourism products to consumers using a variety of technologies and platforms. Tourists often use the media to learn more about a destination and use that information to influence destination choice (Karatsoli & Nathanail, 2020). Tourism players use the media to make important decisions about where and when to go (Khan et al., 2022). Moreover, social media enables people to share the most significant memories from their travels with a vast audience, an opportunity tourism service providers have been using to promote their products, particularly through social media influencers (Tas, 2022). In addition, the media is also a tool for valuable feedback which can be used to competitively position or reposition tourism industry players (Kim et al., 2013). Furthermore, the media is a key player in ensuring sustainable tourism with the agency to deliver sweeping changes in attitudes and behaviour among the key actors in local, national and global tourism (Sanyal, 2016). Apart from the mainstream media playing an oversight role in the delivery of sustainable tourism, tourism players have also been using social media to build positive environmental attitudes towards their brands (Martínez-­ Navalón et al., 2020). This shows that media is increasingly becoming an indispensable part of tourism activating tourist attractions and meditating on policy issues between tourism and society through coverage that highlights the efforts by players to make tourism accessible as well as gaps in policy and practice (Praveen Kumar, 2014).

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Media Coverage and Portrayal of Gender and Disability in Tourism Literature on the role of media in mainstreaming gender and disability in tourism is limited. A lot of the literature available looks at the use of social media to mainstream either gender or disability (Dinis et  al., 2020; Karatsoli & Nathanail, 2020; Dobransky & Hargittai, 2021; Bitman, 2022; Svensson et al., 2022). Padovani et al. state that while it is commonly accepted that mainstream media is important in mobilising for change in modern-day societies, it however also perpetuates inequalities and discrimination by continuing stereotypes, which does not help tourist destinations in moving towards the achievement of SDG 10 (Woyo, 2020). Additionally, due to the patriarchal nature of our societies, predominantly in developing countries, women are also perceived as being people that are supposed to provide domestic unpaid labour, a situation that pushes them to be subordinated to men (Hentschel et al., 2019). The cycle continues as women in tourism are more likely to be stereotyped and portrayed as smaller, subordinate and dependent on their male counterparts (Rydzik et al., 2021). These aspects have also been investigated as being causes of why women and PWDs are often underpaid (Hentschel et  al., 2019). Consequently, it will take longer for tourism economies to deal with the challenges of the global gender gap (Hazel & Kleyman, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic deepened the exclusion of already marginalised groups with women in middle and low-­income countries losing their jobs (Khan et al., 2022). This further affects the achievement of the SDGs 5 and 10 in several tourist destinations. Investigating the representation of PWDs in media in Zimbabwe during the COVID-19 pandemic, Mhiripiri and Midzi (2021) found that technologies used in relaying information by state broadcasters were not disability friendly as they catered for some disabilities while ignoring others in the coverage and mediums used to share the messages with the public. Furthermore, Hunt and Jaworska (2019) comment that the coverage of British South African athlete Oscar Pistorius reflects that media constructions are located within and contribute to dominant ideological systems of meaning in different national, social and cultural contexts. This creates challenges in dealing with stereotypes, and creating a more inclusive society because the dominant perception for persons with disabilities is that they are perceived as being helpless (Munyi, 2012).

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Methodology Due to the limited nature of studies investigating the role of media in tourism from an intersectional perspective, the study employed an exploratory qualitative research approach to establish the role of media in mainstreaming gender and disability in tourism. The qualitative method was picked as the best approach to help investigate several aspects including the state and type of coverage, factors affecting coverage and the impact of emerging alternatives such as social media. Data were collected from a convenient sample of four participants who were interviewed. The participants included one disability activist, one parliamentarian and two journalists experienced in covering tourism drawn. Participants are from Harare, Bulawayo and Midlands. There is indeed variability in what is suggested as the minimum sample size in qualitative research. While there is a general avoidance of the topic of “how many” interviews “are enough”, several factors were considered critical in settling for the four participants in this study. In the context of this study, how many were not considered to be important, and the focus was on the “quality of data, the scope of the study, the nature of the topic, the amount of useful information obtained from each participant, the use of shadowed data, and the qualitative method and study designed used.” Therefore, the question of “how many” could be a wrong question as this “depends on developing the range of relevant conceptual categories and fully explaining the data.” Based on this, the four participants were justified as relevant for the study at hand. To achieve the aim of the study, it was important that the sample consists of people with disabilities who understand journalism. Data were therefore collected using Microsoft Teams between February and March 2022. The interviews lasted between 30 minutes and 45 minutes for each participant. Due to the semi-structured nature of the interviews, the researcher was able to explore additional points relevant to the discussion. Data were analysed based on the research questions of the study. Codes and translations were used to identify the interviewees (Table 15.1). Three of the four respondents were women and two of the four interviewed had a disability.

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Table 15.1  Participants’ profile Role of the participant

Code

Translation

Journalist Journalist Parliamentarian and PWD Disability activist

IP1 IP2 IP3 IP4

Interview participant 1 Interview participant 2 Interview participant 3 Interview participant 4

Source: Author

Results The study sought to analyse the role of the media in mainstreaming gender and disability in Zimbabwe’s tourism sector and recommend actions that can guide implementors in creating a more inclusive tourism sector. The research found that traditional media remains key in mainstreaming gender and disability in tourism. However, there was consensus that traditional media coverage of gender and disability is poor owing to underfunding, underrepresentation of women and PWDs, limited understanding of gender and disability in tourism as intersectional issues among journalists and lack of political will to promote coverage of gender and disability in tourism. The Role of the Media Respondents affirmed the media’s obligation to provide comprehensive tourism information. The participants noted that the media has a mandate to influence policy and practice in the tourism sector to ensure all users, regardless of their genders and abilities, experience tourism in an enriched and equal way. These views are summed up by the following excerpts: IP1: The media has a moral obligation to highlight gaps and propose interventions to ensure that goods and services provided within the sector cater for all including PWDs and are sensitive to gender issues. IP2: The media influences the way people view and interact with gender, disability, and tourism by capturing stories, videos, and photographs. It should highlight relevant laws and policies in a manner that leads to debate, but it seems to be groping in the dark. No time is taken to dig for information on gender, disability and tourism when coming up with stories occasionally. IP3: Different media channels need to be aware of the possibilities of being user-friendly to diverse disability groups, particularly those with hearing and

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visual impairments. These people may not readily access what is being provided in ordinary mainstream print, pictorial, and audio formats on radio, tv, newspapers, magazines, brochures and other informationals.

The interviewees stated that the information provided by the media should be critical enough to question the sensitivity of tourism products to different groups of users. Further, it was found that the appropriateness and diversity of media products are as beneficial to the country’s development as it is critical in catering for media consumers with different abilities. The quality of media products is mentioned in literature as an important factor in determining the power of the media in influencing policy (Mach et al., 2021). High-quality news is important, not only for its own sake but also for its political implications (Bachmann et al., 2022) and sustainable development depends on quality information. Thus, the respondents argued that tourism consumers know what they want and all the media need to do is spotlight the gaps within the tourism sector. Media Coverage of Disability and Gender Issues in Tourism The participants agreed that gender and disability are nowhere near the priority list of media coverage. Reportages are normally relegated to insignificant sections of bulletins and newspapers as political stories hog the front pages and headlines of bulletins. Participants felt that the coverage was indicative of excessive obsession with politics and a general disinterest in the topics that focus on marginalised groups. The biases have affected how resources are deployed, often to the marginalisation of certain groups including women and PWDs. Limited coverage of gender and disability in tourism was noted to have worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic, where all the focus was mainly on fighting the virus. This was summed up by participants 1P1 and IP3 who said: IP1: Everything comes third to fifth after politics despite even the lessons from COVID-19 which reminded us that health should probably be a priority. Still, there has not been enough shift to create a balance in priorities. IP3: The last two years have been coronavirus times and everything just ground to a halt for everybody else.

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The participants affirm further marginalisation of gender and disability issues, particularly in emergencies. Excluded groups such as PWDs and women were disproportionately affected by COVID-19 widening inequalities in access to basic human rights (D’cruz & Banerjee, 2020; Fisher & Ryan, 2021). Human rights are not well observed in Zimbabwe, and this has affected the destination’s image (Woyo, 2018; Woyo & Slabbert, 2020). One interviewee alluded that there is largely a black-out on coverage of PWDs’ interactions with tourism based on the perception that they do not travel. This participant noted that: IP4: Coverage on disability and gender tourism in Zimbabwe doesn’t exist. This is due to a belief that people with disabilities don’t travel or have no interest to explore tourist places.

This finding is consistent with past research that suggested that tourism in Zimbabwe has not been designed for the local tourist in mind (Woyo, 2021). Furthermore, IP4’s expressions align with conclusions of previous research that argued that media constructions are located within and contribute to dominant ideological systems of meaning in different national, social and cultural contexts (Hunt & Jaworska, 2019). In the Zimbabwean context, society perceives PWDs as a group of people who are incapable of leading normal lives. Therefore, the status quo is reflective of a media that uses the outdated medical model which reduced PWDs as persons unable to enjoy such activities. Another shared view among the respondents was that media reportage of PWDs of different genders was homogenously portraying them as only tourism product users with special needs particularly regarding access to facilities. When it comes to gender, while the majority of employees in the tourism industry are women (Rusike, 2012), media coverage is male-­ biased. There was little effort to analyse how different genders, age groups, backgrounds and other identities are disproportionately impacted by tourism. Even the “all-encompassing” coverage is viewed as “occasional”— where you see a disabled musician and sculptor in the media being praised for contributing to tourism. The interviewees described the reportages to be often demeaning and biased in favour of men and this is summarised by the following narratives: 1P1: I think the products within the tourism sector are exclusionary in themselves. It’s like when you’re poor you do not need those services, it’s a luxury.

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There is a huge gap that the media should fill in representing the whole society, not just the elite but it hasn’t done justice to this. 1P2: Newspapers publish an occasional disabled musician and sculptor that are contributing to tourism. Many are more than visitors or males, they’re owners of tourist attractions and services. These are often gender-biased as men. When you go to hotels and parks, you have a lot of women in many admirable roles. Stereotypes about the disabled and women that they are poor, and victims of society result in less meaningful stories in the media bordering on pity.

Past research has confirmed that without necessary filters, the media can further exclude already excluded groups (Ross, 2019). Woyo (2021) argues that Zimbabwean tourism is exclusionary as it has been developed more with high-paying international tourist in mind. In many instances, PWDs and women make the news if they are sex workers and this further excludes them from tourism, either as consumers or players. The media makes no effort to profile PWDs and women as owners and consumers of tourism products. The portrayal of PWDs as “needy” people found at gates of tourism attraction places singing or doing different entertainment skits with begging bowls in their hands in the Zimbabwean media has strengthened prejudices in tourism along the lines of gender, social class, identity and ability as noted by participants IP2 and IP4: IP2: Disabled people are portrayed as needy people found at gates of tourist attractions places singing or doing different entertainment skits with begging bowls in their hands. Some are portrayed as malcontents even engaged in prostitution. IP4: The media is still stuck on the old charity model where people with disabilities are seen as receivers and not people who can positively contribute to the development of society.

This comes at a time tourism has ceased to be a commodity for the rich to become more of a right that should be accessible to all (Kabote et al., 2019). Lack of Political Will Another recurring theme was the lack of political will to prioritise gender and disability issues consistently to guarantee to ensure equality and equity in the tourism sector. While respondents noted that efforts to facilitate gender and disability mainstreaming in media are nothing new, they were

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concerned that momentum and continuity have been the challenge. These views are summarised by the following narratives: 1P1: Consumers know what they want. Government should make sure that it happens. IP2: The Zimbabwe Tourism Association had a domestic tourism column in the Daily News around 2014 and it spoke partially to issues of gender, disability and tourism. This was not in-depth, but it was something. IP3: I also think there was a time, about five or six years back, when authorities tried to make touring and tourism places accessible to persons with disabilities. Workshops and seminars were organised to that end, then. But it just faded into nothing with time. These are matters that fall on to the doorstep of government. Policies and legislation can be enacted to try to move such initiatives forward. IP4: We all have a story to tell and people with disabilities are part of society whose voices should be heard.

Participants noted that political will to ensure media owners were intentional about strengthening media capacity to report on gender and disability in tourism as intersectional issues. The interviewees added that journalists have not been trained and are not incentivised to see things using gender or disability lenses not only in tourism, but across sectors. Where there was self-will, it is also limited by knowledge as journalists struggle to comprehend particularly disability issues. Participants argued that all involved stakeholders particularly regulators including the Zimbabwe Media Commission must work to ensure that gender and disability are kept in the spotlight as demanded of it by Section 249 of the Zimbabwean Constitution which states that the commission should monitor the media to ensure fairness and diversity of Zimbabwe is reflected. The Zimbabwe National Disability Policy section 3.24.6-8 states that all mass media providers must ensure their coverage is accessible to PWDs have a framework for mainstreaming and all media students and practitioners must be trained on disability-appropriate reporting (National Disability Policy, 2021). The Zimbabwe Gender Commission is mandated to improve the coverage of women in the media through lobbying for more community media houses, female journalists in media leadership and strengthening media capacity to report on gender equality (Gender Policy, 2017). Participant IP4 argued that:

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IP4: The disability culture is very intriguing and carries a lot of diversity because not all disabilities are the same, and so are the backgrounds of PWDs. There is a need for the media to start telling a true story of people with disabilities and their culture. But when you do not fully understand the subject, you are reporting on it’s difficult to answer the rule of journalism.

It is important to note that inasmuch as the media and regulators have not prioritised issues of gender and disability, the current frameworks are rooted in inclusion. Inclusion and diversity are critical in building resilient communities. Lack of political will results in underrepresentation and misrepresentation which consequently lead to the formulation of policies that entrench exclusion and poverty (Lamprell & Braithwaite, 2017). The failure to capture the needs and activities of such significant constituencies slows down development (Tigere & Moyo, 2022) as well as renders their contribution to tourism invisible. Lack of Funding Media performance is tied to funding and researchers have found that governments in developing countries have for long been using the funding to control the media (Dragomir, 2017). Donor relations have been found to consistently influence the work of the media (Scott et al., 2017; Nyarko & Teer-Tomaselli, 2018). The study found that the lack of funding is crippling the effective operation of media institutions specifically their service to the marginalised and excluded communities such as PWDs and women. Some of the participants in the study argued that: IP1: Media organisations in Zimbabwe are poorly funded. The budgets that are there are mainly channelled towards politics. IP2: These issues can be addressed by journalists, and tourism organisations such as the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, Ministry of Women Affairs, Community, Small and Medium Enterprises associations of the disabled. They need to work together to ensure newsrooms are capacitated and well resourced.

Respondents argued that within Zimbabwe’s highly politically polarised context, targeted funding is needed to facilitate gender and disability mainstreaming in tourism. However, they diverged on where the funding needed to be directed. Some argued for the need to capacitate the media through training and availing current data on gender and disability in

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tourism. They posit that it should target training institutions through reviews of journalism training to reflect twenty-first-century thinking of connectedness and inclusiveness. There was a consensus that government must fund surveys and research to collect data on gender and disability across sectors to strengthen media coverage through context-specific evidence. In line with this, IP2 noted: 1P2: Knowledge-the curriculum hasn’t been deliberate about including intersectional issues like that, particularly the two.

Others suggested supporting the creation and capacitation of dedicated desks which focus on the issues of gender and disability as representation is important for any marginalised group. The narrative by IP1 captures the argument: 1P1: Newsrooms should always have dedicated desks that focus on gender, and disability like other beats. Then the issue of funding, not just focuses on politics but also funds disability and gender.

For instance, the UN Women (2020) notes progress towards achieving equality for women and men in mainstream media has stagnated and is even worse for digital media. Underrepresentation often produces misrepresentation and perpetuates marginalisation (Haraldsson, 2021; Shor et al., 2015). Shor et al. (2015) found that an increase in representation of women in news led to an increase in coverage of women across societal sectors. Some interviewees felt that government should invest in creating opportunities for gainful employment for women and PWDs because their absence in coverage means they are not in places that help them gain traction in Zimbabwe’s tourism industry. Others argued that the establishment of dedicated gender and disability desks and targeted recruitment would be the best way to address the shortfalls of the media. The Parameters of Inclusion in Africa’s Media Respondents acknowledged that there has been a lot of effort invested in having indigenous communities, women and girls including PWDs in rural areas represented in the media with some countries doing better than others. However, there was also unanimity that the media in Africa rarely represent or challenge the parameters of inclusion set by national laws on

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behalf of those excluded by laws for instance the LGBTQ+ community. The media’s efforts for inclusion mostly end where the law ends. This was summed up by the following narratives: 1P2: Zimbabwean media is not fully inclusive when reporting minority groups. Some subjects are simply not spoken about. Stories like the LGBTQ+ are simply not talked about, they go unreported. 1P4: There is considerable attention given to rural folk and people with disabilities. The national print and broadcast media give coverage to indigenous people like the San people. However, in Zimbabwe, LGBT is a nonstarter for government-related media.

Social Media as an Alternative Voice for Gender and Disability The emergency of social media has been described as disruptive providing alternatives to marginalised groups. While acknowledging that social media has changed the media landscape, participants were almost unanimous in viewing social media as an extension of traditional media. Disinformation has always been an issue but the advent of social media is believed to have birthed the “era of disinformation” (Tsfati et al., 2020). Interviewees concurred saying that many tourism consumers still rely on traditional media to make or confirm their decisions about travel destinations particularly considering the proliferation of misinformation and fake news on social media. The participants noted that: IP1: The main challenge with social media is most don’t invest in verification. 1P2: Social media does not generate comprehensive stories. 1P3: Social media can never replace traditional mainstream media systems. Worse, with the recent rise of fake news.

However, one respondent held that social media has created an indelible footprint that brings people with disabilities from around the globe to speak on the same issue with one voice using trendy disability #hashtags.

Discussion The media in Zimbabwe operates within a complex environment characterised by political polarisation, and a distressed economy (Woyo & Slabbert, 2020) where journalists’ salaries are considerably below the

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living wage creating room for corruption and cash incentives being used to influence coverage (Radu & Chekera, 2014). Due to political violence, that began since the land reform programme, the respect for human rights in Zimbabwe has generally been weak, and many of the people occupying key offices remain ill-equipped to moderate their cultural and social biases. The low representation of historically marginalised groups and framing of stories is still happening within a contemporary patriarchal order which still deems women as inferior to men (Tshuma et al., 2022) and does not help in promoting sustainable gender development through gender equality and PWD inclusion. The findings indeed point to a mix of socio-economic and cultural factors that have limited the media in effectively playing its role in advancing the mainstreaming of gender and disability in tourism. Zimbabwe has made progress in how people with disabilities are perceived and treated from a period where disability was regarded as a punishment from ancestral spirits for some wrongdoing (Muderedzi et al., 2017). This cultural shift resulted in PWDs being accepted culturally, and the perception that PWDs as dependent people remains strong in Zimbabwe—filtering from family to societal levels including media, thereby affecting attitudes towards investing in environments which enable them to live independent lives. This further affects the sustainable development of accessible tourism.

Conclusion In conclusion, the role of the media in mainstreaming gender and disability in tourism cannot be understated. It is a moral duty and legal responsibility. The study shows that comprehensive, in-depth, objective and incisive multi-media reportage is critical in ensuring that tourism packages cater to the needs of all genders and PWDs. The coverage must go deeper and reflect the intersectional issues affecting tourism service users of different genders and abilities in tourism in a dignified manner. Moreover, the research findings emphasised that these groups are made up of a plurality of social classes, professions, ethnicity and other identities—who interact with tourism products as both users and providers. The media’s responsibility to report objectively and substantively must also be consistent instead of occasional. Representation, consistency and collaboration among tourism players, the affected groups, government departments and the media are also crucial elements to ensure the steady flow of

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data-driven, evidence-based information and oversight on these aspects is critical. To effectively perform its function, the research confirms the need for targeted funding to ensure that the media have sufficient human and capital resources to deploy towards gender and disability mainstreaming coverage.

Limitations of the Study While this study is informing on the role of the media in mainstreaming gender and disability, its findings are specific to Zimbabwe. The sample size was small and the study did not include views of tourism service providers, particularly PWDs of different genders and regulators of the sector. However, the researcher countered by purposefully selecting well-travelled interviewees with a good grasp of the issues as well as the use of relevant secondary sources. Future qualitative studies could also explore a bigger and wider sample drawn from different countries, continents and groups including media policymakers. There is also room to investigate the topic quantitively by analysing the number of media reports, and the portrayal and depth of coverage over a period. Another interesting area of study would be examining promotional media products by tourism providers to understand how gender and disability issues are presented.

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Index

A Abilities of women, 196 Able-bodied, 78, 185, 190, 224, 232, 233, 235, 248–250, 290, 299 Ableism, 2, 46, 160 Abuse, 16, 122, 123, 170, 200, 221, 236, 241–243 Academia, 104, 162 Accessibility, 33, 140, 198, 199, 206, 236, 250, 251, 263, 289–292, 300, 302, 303, 314 Accessible, 12, 46, 62, 197–199, 238, 245, 249, 251, 291, 301, 302, 321, 322 Accessible tourism, 17, 116, 197–202, 207, 287, 289–293, 301–304, 326 See also Inclusive tourism Accommodating, 245, 289 Accommodation, 102, 164, 198, 199, 237, 239, 240, 246, 251, 290, 291 Accommodation establishments, 119, 120

Accommodation sector, 117, 127 Accountability, 57, 150 Achievement of SDG, 72, 81, 92, 116–118, 128–130, 138, 184, 214, 312, 316 Action plan, 63, 107 Activism, 2 Acts of God, 38 Adoption, 129 Advocacy, 79, 159, 274, 276, 279, 287, 300, 304 Advocacy journalism, 286, 287, 298–301, 304 Africa, 1–21, 34, 54, 71–83, 91–108, 158, 159, 161, 172, 195, 212, 293, 324–325 African, 3, 6, 11, 14–19, 52, 72–74, 76–78, 80, 82, 83, 92, 96–98, 102, 104, 105, 107, 108, 123, 157–160, 164, 172, 178, 180, 196, 212, 236, 286 African countries, 5, 16, 75, 77, 78, 81, 91, 92, 104, 107, 142, 158–160, 201, 207

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Woyo, H. Venganai (eds.), Gender, Disability, and Tourism in Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12551-5

335

336 

INDEX

African queer studies, 158 African tourism scholarship, 16–18, 101, 104, 159 African tourist destinations, 6, 17, 18, 286 African Union, 82 Afrocentric, 17 Age, 35, 39, 52, 53, 82, 120, 141, 164, 189, 195, 216–219, 222, 224, 225, 232, 244, 247, 302, 320 Agency, 6–14, 20, 46, 59, 142, 189–190, 242, 243, 251, 315 Agenda 2030, 3, 12, 33, 117, 138, 139, 143, 232, 292, 312 Agenda 2030 targets, 57, 72, 74, 292 Analytical framework, 9 Anglophone Cameroon, 195–207 Apartheid, 57, 234, 245, 246 Asian countries, 159 Asian perspective, 54 Athletes, 14, 20, 231–251, 316 B Bahamas, 37 Bangkok, 300 Barriers, 1, 20, 37, 38, 77, 92, 116, 118, 124, 125, 130, 141, 168, 178, 195–207, 233, 260, 264, 286–291, 303, 314 Beale, Francis, 9 Bibliometric, 91–108 Binary, 7, 8, 37 Black athletes with disabilities, 245–246 Black South African, 14, 20, 245, 246 Black women, 101, 102, 247, 314 Bodies that matter, 8 Botswana, 17, 19, 80, 157–172 Bulawayo, 117, 119, 120, 317 Butler, Judith, 3, 6–8, 13, 171, 289, 290

C Cameroon, 17, 20, 76, 195–197, 199–207 Cape Town, 300 Categories of women, 7, 8, 34, 58 Class, 7, 9, 10, 35, 39, 58, 101, 160, 199, 217, 225, 321, 326 Collins, Patricia Hill, 9, 217 Colonial discourses, 7 Commercial sexual relations, 158 Community-based ecotourism projects, 211–225 Community-based tourism (CBT), 18, 71–83, 196, 206, 224 Constitution, 35, 42, 79, 142, 273 Consumers of tourism, 20, 54, 263, 287–292, 319, 321, 325 Content analysis, 54, 65, 74, 94, 107, 120, 162, 265 Convention, 2, 3, 12, 303 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 2, 3, 58 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability (CPRD), 2, 42, 44, 56, 57, 160, 191, 232, 249, 250, 288, 292, 303, 314 COVID-19, 5, 6, 13, 20, 34, 41, 52, 72, 126–127, 177–191, 200, 211–225, 260, 294, 312, 316, 319, 320 Crenshaw, Kimberle, 9, 10, 12, 14, 38, 44, 140, 181, 197, 216, 217, 264, 299, 314 Criminalisation, 16, 160 Critical disability theory, 35, 38, 41, 44, 46 Critical feminist disability, 8, 9, 12 Critical race, 9 Cultural bias, 77 Cultural norms, 37, 73, 178, 188, 297

 INDEX 

D Daily Graphic, 265, 267, 269, 272, 275–277 Daily Newspaper, 274 Destination competitiveness, 5, 172, 261, 264 Developing countries, 4, 16, 17, 52, 65, 117, 150, 158, 187, 196, 197, 214, 262, 295, 316, 323 Development, 1–4, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 21, 33, 35, 41, 42, 44, 51, 56–60, 62–64, 71–73, 76, 80, 83, 92, 97, 101–104, 106, 129, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, 150, 170, 186, 196, 197, 199, 204, 213, 225, 234, 245, 260, 273, 277, 292, 300, 319, 321, 323, 326 Disability, 1–21, 34, 35, 38–46, 51–66, 71–83, 91–108, 115–130, 137–150, 158–160, 170, 172, 178, 179, 183–185, 188–191, 196–203, 205–207, 211–225, 231–251, 260–269, 273, 274, 277–280, 285–304, 311–327 Disability discrimination, 65, 138, 149, 261 Disability exclusion, 43, 63, 137 Disability inclusion, 2, 3, 18, 51–66, 71–83, 92, 95, 98–100, 104–106, 108, 129, 130, 138–140, 143, 147, 149, 298–302 Disability inclusiveness, 52, 54, 56–58, 118 Disability-inclusive policies, 64, 97 Disability laws, 260, 263 Discrimination, 2, 11, 18, 21, 37, 38, 41, 42, 44, 52, 54, 58, 61, 62, 73, 79, 81, 116–119, 121, 122, 124–130, 137–139, 141, 147, 178, 181, 195, 197, 199, 200, 202, 203, 206, 212, 214, 216,

337

234–236, 241–242, 260–264, 268, 270, 272, 273, 277–279, 286, 293, 294, 299, 316 Document analysis, 39, 55, 150 Domestic tourism, 178–183, 186–187, 191, 222, 276, 322 Double discrimination, 141, 200, 273, 293 Double jeopardy, 9–10, 130, 197 Double oppression, 16 Durban, 300 E East Africa, 101 Economic and social development, 73 Ecotourism, 20, 211–225 Ecotourism projects, 211–225 Egypt, 37 Empowerment of women, 33–46, 56, 63, 82, 129, 184 See also Women empowerment Entrepreneurship, 3, 8, 45, 60, 64, 108, 169, 183, 188, 212, 214 Equality, 2, 5, 6, 16, 17, 37, 54, 56, 74, 100, 105, 145, 200, 214, 260, 292, 302, 321, 324 Equality and social justice, 6 Equal opportunities, 43, 117, 128, 250, 260, 292, 300 Essentialism, 10, 11, 15, 21 Essentialist, 6, 17, 172 Ethnicity, 4, 35, 39, 53, 101, 102, 164–165, 197, 199, 216, 222, 299, 326 Eurocentric, 17 European, 164, 166 European countries, 234 European perspective, 54 Exclusionary laws, 245 Exclusion frame, 274, 276

338 

INDEX

F Female sex tourism, 101 Feminism, 6, 8, 9, 264 Feminist disability perspectives, 7, 8 Feminist discourse, 157 Feminist intersectionality theory, 181, 190 See also Intersectionality theory Feminist scholarship, 7, 13 Feminist theoretical frames, 9 Feminist theory(ies), 15, 77, 106 Front-page placements, 270, 279 G Gender, 1–21, 33–37, 39–46, 51–66, 71–83, 91–108, 115–130, 137–150, 158, 160, 167–169, 172, 178, 179, 181, 183, 189, 195, 197, 199–204, 211–225, 234–235, 247–249, 259–280, 285, 286, 293–295, 297, 301, 302, 311–327 Gender and disability, 1–21, 35, 39–43, 45, 46, 52–54, 56, 57, 59–65, 71–83, 91–108, 115–130, 137–150, 189, 199–200, 202, 213–215, 217, 218, 225, 261, 278, 311–327 Gender and disability gaps, 52 Gender and disability inclusion, 71–83, 92, 95, 98–100, 108, 138–140, 143 Gender awareness campaigns, 128, 129 Gender-based violence, 45, 59, 60, 72, 78–79, 82, 83, 200, 202 Gender disparities, 34, 36, 42, 92 Gendered analysis industry, 36, 51, 137, 148, 188, 202, 203 societies, 6, 36, 169, 206 tourism spaces, 5, 16, 21, 169, 315

Gender equality, 3, 4, 10, 18, 19, 21, 33, 34, 36, 42, 45, 51–66, 72, 73, 80–82, 91, 103, 104, 107, 115–119, 126, 128–130, 138, 140, 141, 143, 145, 147–149, 184, 188, 199, 212–214, 216, 259–280, 292, 293, 302, 322, 326 and empowerment, 3, 4, 34, 53, 56, 91, 117, 129, 138, 293 Gender equity, 102, 139, 142, 143, 150 Gender gaps, 3, 4, 51, 61, 72, 78, 316 Gender identities, 12, 36, 74, 140, 160 Gender inequalities, 3, 4, 38, 41, 42, 45, 46, 52, 53, 58–60, 63, 65, 71, 72, 77, 92, 115, 116, 119, 129, 137–139, 146, 149, 150, 199, 213, 262, 271–274, 279, 293 Gender parity, 140, 143, 146–147, 150 Gender pay gap, 58, 121, 123, 128 Gender roles, 3, 37, 44, 73, 78, 168, 169, 188, 201–204 Gender Trouble, 7 Ghana, 17, 80–82, 99, 260–262, 264–266, 268, 271–274, 276–280 Ghanaian Times, 265, 267, 269, 271, 273, 275–277 Glass ceiling, 37, 118, 144 Gross domestic product, 2, 51, 92 H Hegemonic masculinity discourse, 158 Heroic frame, 274, 276 Heterosexual, 7, 36, 161, 170 Heterosexual marriage, 160, 161, 170 HIV pandemic, 159 Homogeneity, 7

 INDEX 

Homogeneous, 9, 11, 15, 18, 34, 138, 178, 188, 190, 313 Homophobia, 159, 160, 166, 169 Homophobic, 14, 16, 158, 166, 168, 169 Homophobic spaces, 161, 170 tourist destination, 158, 168 Homosexualism, 158 Homosexuality, 16, 19, 159 Human rights, 2, 38, 57, 59, 78, 159, 292, 298, 302, 303, 320, 326 I Impairments, 38, 79, 125, 178, 232–234, 238, 247, 249, 271, 273, 287, 288, 314, 319 Inaccessible, 34, 38, 198, 203, 224, 236, 238, 291, 314 Inclusion frame, 274, 279 Inclusive societies, 299, 316 Inclusive sport tourism, 20 Inclusive tourism, 20–21, 57, 59, 65, 66, 76, 137–150, 196, 198, 265, 273, 276, 287, 289, 291–293, 312, 318 tourism policies, 196 Inclusivity, 4–6, 19, 21, 58, 92, 145, 150, 249, 259–280, 312 Inclusivity and diversity, 19–20 Inclusivity and gender equality, 259–280 Income inequalities, 170, 234 Inequality(ies), 1, 4, 5, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 34, 35, 39, 44, 46, 52, 53, 57–59, 61, 62, 65, 78, 118, 119, 126, 127, 130, 137–139, 141, 148, 181, 184, 190, 195, 199, 206, 216, 217, 225, 234, 244, 246, 260, 262, 273, 285–304, 314, 316, 320 Informal tourism business, 20, 177–191

339

Interdisciplinary research, 11, 197 Intergovernmental Authority on Development, 80 International tourism, 6, 186, 187, 212, 275, 277 Intersecting systems of oppression, 38 Intersection disability and gender, 11, 19, 96, 97 of disadvantage, 10 of gender and disability, 5, 14, 15, 17, 79, 141, 145, 146, 199–200, 202 Intersectionality, 6–15, 18, 34, 35, 38–39, 41, 45, 52, 54, 59, 64–66, 78, 82, 92, 96, 97, 102, 104, 116, 119, 126, 129, 138–141, 147, 148, 161, 165, 168, 170, 172, 183, 190, 199, 216, 217, 234–235, 249, 261, 264–265, 274, 286, 299, 313–315 Intersectionality perspectives, 2, 14, 15, 18, 19, 38–39, 52, 53, 77, 81, 102, 103, 105, 106, 140, 149, 159, 160, 169, 195–207, 214, 215, 295, 299 Intersectionality theory, 10, 11, 14, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 44, 45, 77, 102, 103, 106, 108, 129, 160, 181, 190, 197–199, 206, 216–217 Intersectional perspectives, 1–21, 35, 46, 72, 77, 106, 116, 118, 138, 146, 197, 311, 312, 314, 317 Intersectional theory, 37, 217 Intersections of vulnerability, 187–189 J Jamaica, 37 Johannesburg, 165 Journalism, 273, 280, 315, 317, 323, 324

340 

INDEX

K Kenya, 80, 99 King, Deborah, 10 Kukiya-kiya economy, 179 L Leave no-one behind (LNOB), 12 Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (LGBTQ), 8, 16, 108, 159–161, 172, 271, 325 Lived experiences, 9, 161, 171, 235, 236, 264, 299 Livelihoods, 6, 20, 57, 60, 100, 177–191, 212, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 224, 225 Lockdowns, 5, 13, 178, 180, 184–186, 211, 219–224 M Mainstreaming, 35, 37, 59, 80, 83, 142, 302, 312, 313, 316–318, 321–323, 326, 327 Male sex work, 19, 157–172 Marginalisation, 5, 10, 12, 13, 16, 77, 116, 138, 139, 141, 149, 160, 186, 200–202, 216, 232, 245, 285–304, 319, 320, 324 Marginalised groups, 11, 20, 42, 46, 211–225, 287, 301, 316, 319, 324–326 Matrix of domination, 9 Media, 5, 20–21, 160, 233, 259–280, 285–304, 311–327 Media coverage, 262, 265, 312, 316, 318–321, 324 Media framing, 261–262 Media representation, 20, 259–280, 312 Men, 8, 10, 14, 36, 37, 43, 44, 54, 56, 58–63, 78, 82, 117, 118,

122, 123, 126, 128–130, 138, 139, 147, 150, 158, 159, 163, 166–169, 178, 190, 196, 199, 201, 202, 205, 206, 215, 216, 220, 235, 278, 293, 312, 313, 316, 320, 321, 324, 326 Men with disabilities (MWDs), 11, 44, 178, 190 Midlands, 317 Misconceptions, 118, 261, 289 Mobility, 116, 186, 187, 197, 289 Mohanty, Chandra, 6, 7, 12, 13 Mozambique, 158 Multiple exclusions, 64 Multiple identities, 6, 181, 206 Multiple jeopardies, 10 Multiple social categories, 10 N Namibia, 17, 51–66, 80, 99, 300 National Tourism Policy (NTP), 41, 43, 45, 62–64 New media, 312, 313 Newspapers, 21, 261, 265–280, 301, 313, 319, 321 Nigeria, 17, 78, 79, 99, 274 Non-disabled women, 35 Nyanga, 213 O Oppression, 2, 7, 9, 10, 37–39, 43, 101, 106, 160, 181, 216, 235, 264, 296, 314 P Patriarchal, 3, 20, 36, 43, 52, 78, 79, 101, 106, 130, 150, 159, 166, 188, 195, 196, 199–205, 207, 220, 221, 272, 278, 316, 326

 INDEX 

Patriarchy, 13, 76, 130, 149, 160, 195, 196, 225, 235, 277, 278 People of colour, 4 People with disabilities (PWDs), 19–21, 33, 45, 79, 104, 106, 116, 118, 119, 125, 126, 130, 137, 140, 143, 146, 160, 196, 212, 218, 244, 260, 264, 288, 289, 317, 320–323, 325, 326 Persons with disabilities (PWDs), 2, 18–20, 38, 73, 141, 160, 172, 178, 191, 214, 232, 233, 240, 247–249, 285–304, 311, 312, 316, 322 Physical disabilities, 14, 20, 124, 125, 223, 231–251 Pistorius, Oscar, 316 Policies and laws, 18, 33–46, 79, 245, 318 Policy and gender frameworks, 12 Policy and legislation, 35, 56, 117, 322 Policy framework, 2, 18–19, 45, 57, 80, 82, 118, 128, 138 Policy(ies), 2, 4, 5, 11, 12, 14–16, 18, 19, 33–46, 51, 53, 56–63, 65, 80, 81, 83, 104, 107, 119, 125, 127–129, 138, 143, 148–150, 160, 163, 171, 184, 198, 212, 213, 225, 260, 262, 264, 289, 290, 302, 312, 315, 318, 319, 322, 323 Political will, 42, 57, 143–146, 148, 150, 318, 321–323 Poststructuralist feminist, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 149 Poverty, 1, 3, 4, 11, 52, 55, 57–62, 65, 76–78, 81, 92, 138, 148, 164, 169, 170, 178, 179, 183, 184, 205, 206, 212, 214, 216, 217, 219, 223, 224, 246, 249, 323

341

Poverty reduction, 2, 19, 51, 59–61, 63, 65, 72, 73, 215 Power relations, 1, 8, 76 PRISMA framework, 93, 94 Public policy, 35, 37, 43 PWD sources, 269, 270, 279 PWD stories, 265–272, 274, 275, 278 Q Queering of spaces, 157–172 Queer Phenomenology, 167 R Race, 8–10, 35, 39, 52, 58, 59, 62, 92, 101, 102, 106, 107, 140, 141, 216, 234–235, 242, 243, 245, 247, 249, 295, 299, 312, 314 Racial discrimination, 234, 246 Religion, 4, 45, 58, 62, 78, 101, 159, 167, 199 S Same-sex marriages, 158 Same-sex sexuality, 158 Self-reliance, 42, 60, 64, 65, 73 Senegal, 101 Sensitivity, 38, 319 Sex differences, 140 Sexism, 2, 122, 159, 160, 311 Sexist, 294, 311, 312 Sex tourism, 14, 16, 19, 100, 101, 107, 157–160, 167, 169–172 Sexual harassment, 60, 81, 121, 122, 126, 129, 139, 143, 147, 150 Sexuality, 4, 8, 16, 19, 39, 140, 141, 158–160, 165–170, 172, 197, 216

342 

INDEX

Sexual orientation, 12, 16, 160, 164, 166, 170, 295, 299, 302 Sex workers, 159, 161, 164, 166, 167, 170, 321 Social categories, 6, 8–10, 13, 168 Social disability perspective, 197 Social exclusion, 6, 11, 200–202, 214, 261–263, 268, 273, 285, 303 Social identities, 78, 91–108, 140, 217 Social inclusion, 63, 64, 261, 263–265, 273, 274, 288, 290 Socialisation, 202–204 Social justice, 2, 6, 10, 12, 13, 16, 18, 59, 79, 296, 297, 303 Social justice theory (SJT), 295, 302 Social media, 165, 294, 300, 313, 315–317, 325 Socio-economic impact, 179, 186–187 South Africa, 17, 79, 80, 99, 103, 163–169, 187, 231, 234, 235, 246–248, 251, 286, 295, 300 Southern Africa, 77, 80 Southern African Development Community (SADC), 58, 80, 83 Spatial segregation, 234 Sport, 20, 231–251, 292, 312 Sport tourism, 14, 20, 231–251 Statutory law, 159 Stereotype, 4, 11, 21, 37, 46, 76, 77, 79, 148, 159, 160, 178, 223, 225, 233, 234, 247, 249, 250, 262, 268, 274, 275, 277, 279, 298, 302, 312, 316, 321 Stereotypical representations, 4–6, 16 Stigmatisation, 54, 169, 249, 268, 274, 276–279 Sustainable accessible tourism, 200, 287, 292, 302–303 Sustainable development, 5, 19, 35, 65, 72, 73, 76, 92, 102–104, 117, 141, 213–214, 278, 292–293, 303, 319, 326

Sustainable development goals (SDGs), 3, 4, 19, 21, 36, 42, 44, 52, 53, 72, 78, 81, 91, 92, 115–130, 137–150, 184, 191, 196, 205, 212–216, 222, 225, 232, 264, 272, 287, 291–293, 303, 312, 316 Sustainable ecotourism projects, 213 Sustainable livelihoods, 63, 76, 179, 186, 188, 189 Sustainable tourism policy, 102, 290 Sympathy frame, 274, 275, 279 T Thailand, 159, 214, 300 Thematic analysis, 40, 94, 143, 162, 200, 218, 236, 266 Tourism competitiveness, 5 See also Destination competitiveness Tourism consumption, 195–207, 286, 287, 289 Tourism development, 1–5, 17, 19–21, 34, 37, 53, 55, 57, 62–64, 71, 74, 76, 77, 81, 92, 97, 100, 101, 104–106, 137–150, 196, 198, 201, 215, 259–280, 311 Tourism economic development, 2, 63, 71 Tourism employment, 18, 34, 43, 46, 51–66, 77, 108, 116, 118, 195, 199, 202, 203, 206, 263 Tourism policy, 5, 6, 18, 34, 36, 37, 42, 43, 45, 57, 64, 82, 139, 196 Tourism research, 6–16, 18, 19, 34, 35, 39, 82, 91–108, 138–141, 172, 196, 197, 199, 260, 263, 272, 276, 289 Tourism sector, 33–46, 51, 54, 57, 61, 63, 107, 108, 140–145, 147–149, 177, 179, 181, 182, 184, 188, 196, 197, 212, 220,

 INDEX 

225, 249, 277, 287, 289, 293, 295, 298–300, 302, 303, 312, 318–321 Tourism space(s), 5, 16, 20, 21, 169, 286, 287, 290, 295, 300, 301 Tourism stories, 264–267, 269–272, 274, 275, 277, 279 Tourist destinations, 2, 6, 17, 18, 20, 43, 52, 53, 57, 71, 103, 124, 127, 138, 141, 158, 168, 178, 183, 186, 217, 286, 293, 300, 301, 312, 316 Traditional customs, 159 Traditional media, 313, 318, 325 Transformative equality, 1 The Tribune, 274 Tunisia, 17 U Uganda, 79–82, 99, 101 Under-representation/ underrepresentation, 3, 5, 53, 196, 318, 323, 324 Unemployment, 57, 164, 169, 170, 178, 180, 183 UNICEF, 215 United Nations (UN), 3, 4, 12, 36, 52, 53, 115, 117, 129, 214, 215, 222, 232, 263, 287, 292, 293, 303, 314 United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), 3, 4, 51–53, 63, 72, 92, 117, 118, 141, 197, 212, 295 V Vision 2030, 138 Vulnerability(ies), 39, 40, 45, 52, 78, 138, 159, 179, 181, 184, 185, 187–190, 212, 219–225, 260, 263

343

W Walvis Bay, 300 West, 14, 159 Western, 7, 17, 102, 158, 195 Women, 2, 33–46, 52, 72, 76–77, 91, 115, 121–124, 159, 177–191, 195–207, 212, 219–221, 234, 262, 292, 312 Women empowerment, 3, 13, 33, 37, 46, 58, 63, 65, 71, 73, 81, 82, 97, 140, 207, 213 Women in tourism, 34, 76, 77, 80, 82, 145–147, 201, 203, 207, 295, 316 Women’s participation, 77, 195–207 Women with disabilities (WWDs), 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 13, 18–20, 33–46, 58, 71–74, 76–79, 81, 82, 116, 119, 126–127, 130, 139, 177–191, 200–205, 235, 247, 294 World Disability Day, 265 World Health Organisation (WHO), 4, 60, 231, 232, 260, 262, 271, 288, 314 Y Yaoundé, 200, 201 Youth, 20, 60, 63, 146, 147, 164, 214, 217–225 Z Zebra system, 56 Zimbabwe, 17, 18, 33–46, 79, 80, 99, 116, 117, 119, 124, 125, 127–130, 137–150, 164, 178–181, 183, 184, 186, 190, 213–215, 217, 222, 224, 225, 234, 312, 316, 318, 320, 322–327 Zimbabwe Gender Commission, 322 Zimbabwe Media Commission, 322