Gender and the Transition to Parenthood: Understanding the A, B, C’s 3031241541, 9783031241543

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Table of contents :
Preface
References
Acknowledgments
Kristin D. Mickelson
Kristen Marcussen
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Transition to Parenthood in the Twenty-First Century
1.1 Transition to Parenthood in the United States
1.2 Our Approach to Understanding Gender and the Transition to Parenthood
1.3 Criteria for Review Inclusion
1.4 Baby Transitions in Marital Exchanges (Baby TIME) Study
1.4.1 Procedure
1.4.2 Attrition Analyses
1.4.3 Measures
1.5 Conclusion
References
Part I: A, B, C’s of the Transition to Parenthood
Chapter 2: Affective Transition to Parenthood
2.1 Peripartum Well-Being
2.2 Hers: Transition to Parenthood and Peripartum Well-Being in Mothers
2.2.1 Depression
2.2.2 Anxiety
2.2.3 Positive Affect
2.3 His: Transition to Parenthood and Peripartum Well-Being in Fathers
2.3.1 Depression
2.3.2 Anxiety
2.3.3 Positive Affect
2.4 Theirs: Transition to Parenthood and Peripartum Well-Being in Couples
2.5 An APIM Approach to Understanding Peripartum Well-Being in First-Time Parents
2.5.1 Baby TIME Study Analyses
2.5.2 Measures
2.5.3 Overview of Analyses
2.5.4 Descriptive Statistics
2.5.5 Multi-level Modeling Results
2.5.6 Discussion
2.5.7 Limitations
2.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Behavioral Transition to Parenthood
3.1 Division of Household Labor and Childcare
3.2 Work-Family Conflict
3.3 Sexual Intimacy
3.4 Hers: Transition to Parenthood and Parenting Behaviors in Mothers
3.4.1 Division of Household Labor
3.4.2 Work-Family Conflict
3.4.3 Sexual Intimacy
3.5 His: Transition to Parenthood and Parenting Behaviors in Fathers
3.5.1 Division of Household Labor
3.5.2 Work-Family Conflict
3.5.3 Sexual Intimacy
3.6 Theirs: Transition to Parenthood and Parenting Behaviors in Couples
3.6.1 Division of Household Labor
3.6.2 Work-Family Conflict
3.6.3 Sexual Intimacy
3.7 An APIM Approach to Understanding Behavioral Transition in First-Time Parents
3.7.1 Baby TIME Study Analyses
3.7.2 Measures
3.7.3 Overview of Analyses
3.7.4 Descriptive Statistics
3.7.5 APIM Serial Mediation Model: Work-Family Conflict
3.7.6 APIM Serial Mediation Model: Childcare Division
3.7.7 Discussion
3.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Cognitive Transition to Parenthood
4.1 Social Cognition and Parenthood
4.1.1 Efficacy
4.1.2 Identity
4.1.3 Stigma
4.2 Hers: Transition to Parenthood and Social Cognition
4.2.1 Efficacy
4.2.2 Identity
4.2.3 Stigma
4.3 To Work or Not to Work: Gender Role Stigma and Relationship Satisfaction Among First-Time Mothers
4.3.1 Baby TIME Study Analyses
4.3.2 Measures
4.3.3 Overview of Analyses
4.3.4 Descriptive Statistics
4.3.5 Gender Role Stigma and Relationship Satisfaction
4.3.6 Dual-Pathway Model of Gender Role Stigma
4.3.7 Discussion
4.3.8 Limitations
4.4 His: Transition to Parenthood and Social Cognition
4.4.1 Efficacy
4.4.2 Identity
4.4.3 Stigma
4.5 Theirs: Transition to Parenthood and Social Cognition
4.5.1 Efficacy
4.5.2 Identity
4.5.3 Stigma
4.6 Conclusion
References
Part II: Limitations and Suggested Directions
Chapter 5: Underrepresented Transitions to Parenthood
5.1 Transition to Parenthood for Same-Sex Parents
5.1.1 Affective Transition to Parenthood for Same-Sex Couples
5.1.2 Behavioral Transition to Parenthood for Same-Sex Couples
5.1.3 Cognitive Transitions to Parenthood for Same-Sex Couples
5.2 Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents
5.2.1 Affective Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents
5.2.2 Behavioral Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents
5.2.3 Cognitive Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents
5.3 Transition to Parenthood for Single Parents
5.3.1 Affective Transition to Single Parenthood
5.3.2 Behavioral Transition to Single Parenthood
5.3.3 Cognitive Transition to Single Parenthood
5.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Gaps and Future Directions
6.1 Affective Transition to Parenthood
6.1.1 Communal Coping and Postpartum Thriving
6.1.2 Baby TIME Study Analyses
6.1.3 Measures
6.1.4 Overview of Analyses
6.1.5 Descriptive Statistics
6.1.6 Cross-Sectional Mediation Model
6.1.7 Longitudinal Mediation Model
6.1.8 Discussion
6.2 Behavioral Transition to Parenthood
6.2.1 Parental Guilt
6.2.2 Remote Work
6.2.3 Parental Soothing
6.3 Cognitive Transition to Parenthood
6.3.1 Parent Identity
6.3.2 Transitional Identities
6.3.3 Multiple Identities
6.3.4 Integrating Identity and Efficacy
6.3.5 Integrating Identity and Stigma
6.4 Underrepresented Parent Populations
6.4.1 Transition to Parenthood for Cohabiting Couples
6.4.2 Planned vs. Unplanned Transition to Parenthood
6.4.3 Transition to Parenthood in Younger, Normed, and Older Couples
6.5 Conclusion
References
Appendices
1.1 Appendix A: Selected Works
1.1.1 Introduction
References
“To Thine Own Self Be True”: Impact of Gender Role and Attitude Mismatch on New Mothers’ Mental Health
Gender Roles
Gender Role Attitudes
Gender Role Attitudes and Social Roles
Discordance Between Gender Role Attitudes and Social Roles
Methods
Participants
Procedure
Measures
Gender Role Attitudes
Mental Health
Analysis Procedures
Results
Gender Role Attitudes and Social Roles
Adjusting of Gender Role Attitudes to Match Social Roles
Discordance of Gender Role Attitudes and Social Roles on New Mothers’ Mental Health
Discussion
Gender Role Attitudes and Social Roles
Mismatch of Gender Attitudes and Social Roles on Health
Limitations and Conclusion
References
Couple-Level Predictors of Perceived Fairness During Pregnancy in First-Time Parents
Introduction
Equity Theory as a Guiding Framework
Perceived Fairness and the Division of Household Labor
Gender Role Ideology and Perceived Fairness
Spousal Support and Perceived Fairness
Spousal Conflict and Perceived Fairness
The Present Study
Method
Measures
Predictors of Perceived Fairness
Overview of Analyses
Results
Household Labor Predictors of Perceived Fairness
Ideologies About Housework Predicting Perceived Fairness
Spousal Support Predictors of Perceived Fairness
Discussion
Couple-Level Predictors of Perceived Fairness
Gender Differences and Perceptions of Fairness for the Spouse
Limitations and Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Personal and Co-parent Predictors of Parenting Efficacy Across the Transition to Parenthood
Parenting Efficacy
The Impact of the Co-parent in Parenting Efficacy
Present Study
Method
Participants
Procedure
Materials
Predictors of Parenting Efficacy
Performance Accomplishment
Emotional Arousal
Verbal Persuasion
Overview of Analyses
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Correlates of Parenting Efficacy
Personal Predictors of Postpartum Parenting Efficacy Development
Co-parent Predictors of Postpartum Parenting Efficacy
Discussion
Personal Predictors of Parenting Efficacy
Co-parent Predictors of Parenting Efficacy
Limitations and Applied Implications
Conclusion
References
1.2 Appendix B: Baby TIME Study Measures
1.2.1 Introduction
Chapter 2
Pregnancy Risk Questions
Baby’s Health Questions
Prenatal Depression (Center for Epidemiologic-Depression Inventory; Radloff, 1977)
Postpartum Depression (Modified Version Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS); Beck & Gable, 2000)
Anxiety (Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90r); Derogatis, 1993)
Positive Affect (Profile of Mood States (POMS); McNair et al., 1971)
Parenting Self-Efficacy (Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks; Coleman & Karraker, 2003)
Daily Stressors (Adapted from Bolger et al., 1989)
Housework and Childcare Hours
Perceived Fairness of Housework and Childcare
Emotional Spousal Support (Adapted from National Comorbidity Survey; Kessler et al., 1994)
Negative Spousal Interactions (UCLA Social Support Inventory; Dunkel-Schetter et al., 1986)
Relationship Satisfaction (Relationship Assessment Scale; Hendrick et al., 1998)
Chapter 3
B.3.1 Spousal Social Allergies (Modified from Romantic Relationship Act Inventory (RRAI); Cunningham et al., 2005)
Work-Family Conflict (Modified from Rice et al. 1992; Voydanoff, 1988)
Sexual Intimacy Satisfaction
Relationship Satisfaction
Chapter 4
Perceived Gender Role Stigma (Adapted from Mickelson, 2001)
Bad Mothering Perception (Osgood et al., 1957)
B.4.3 Perceived Success in Family Life (1 = not at all successful; 5 = very successful)
Relationship Satisfaction
Negative Spousal Interactions
Chapter 6
Communal Parenting
Self-Esteem (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; Rosenberg, 1965)
Parenting Self-Efficacy
Relationship Satisfaction
Postpartum Depression
Emotional Spousal Support
Negative Spousal Interactions
References
Index
Recommend Papers

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Citation preview

Kristin D. Mickelson Kristen Marcussen

Gender and the Transition to Parenthood Understanding the A, B, C’s

Gender and the Transition to Parenthood

Kristin D. Mickelson • Kristen Marcussen

Gender and the Transition to Parenthood Understanding the A, B, C’s

Kristin D. Mickelson School of Social & Behavioral Sciences Arizona State University Glendale, AZ, USA

Kristen Marcussen Department of Sociology and Criminology Kent State University Kent, OH, USA

ISBN 978-3-031-24154-3    ISBN 978-3-031-24155-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24155-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

I have always been interested in gender and how it impacts relationships and health. In graduate school at Carnegie Mellon University in the early 1990s, I wanted to examine gender socialization for my dissertation. However, I was told that would not be wise because it might pigeonhole me as a women’s studies scholar in the eyes of academic psychology and I would not be able to find a job – instead, I was told that I should wait to pursue research on gender issues when I got tenure. How times have changed! Gender studies programs are now commonplace in many universities. While I shifted my focus to social relationships and health as I began my academic career, my interest in gender never faded. Thinking about gender issues has continued to shape my work – from understanding how gender is related to social support provision and receipt and later to how social class impacts low-income women’s mental and physical health. In 2000, when both my spouse and I became first-time parents while still pre-­ tenure at our respective institutions, my interest in gender turned to how it shapes the transition to parenthood. We are both self-professed feminists and have always viewed ourselves as quite egalitarian – splitting much of the housework equitably pre-children. We self-consciously eschewed the traditional naming script for our children – we decided that our first child would have my last name (with his last name as their middle name) and the second child would have his last name (with mine as their middle name). That drew confused looks from our families and friends! We each took parental leave and both reduced our hours spent in the office after Amelia’s birth (our first child). However, gender socialization is an insidious thing; it creeps up on you when you are not looking. Pretty soon, I found myself getting frustrated with how long it took my husband to do the laundry on “his week,” so I told him I would do mine and the kids’ laundry each week (to this day, he still does his own laundry)…but, why did I do the kids’ clothes? Why was I the one who made all the doctors’ appointments? Why was he responsible for taking out the trash and doing the yardwork? How come I was the one who bought the kids’ Christmas and birthday gifts? Why did my husband coach the kids’ sports teams? And, when was it decided that I would be the first to be called by the daycare center if the kids needed to be picked v

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Preface

up early due to illness? We were surprised at how quickly we, “the enlightened feminists,” fell into the “gendered parenting trap.” Sure, we were still egalitarian in many areas of parenting from doing the dishes, cooking, cleaning, changing diapers, and taking turns waking up for night feedings. But, in many areas, we struggled with how willingly he acceded to my maternal gatekeeping, transforming me often into the parent who managed the kids’ lives while he became the caricatured playmate. Naturally, I wanted to understand this trajectory and how we reverted to more traditional gender roles in parenting. Finally, after I received tenure at Kent State University and had my second child (Eli), I decided it was time to pursue my interest by conducting a longitudinal, dyadic study on gender, marriage, and the transition to parenthood (aka, the Baby TIME Study). I enlisted the help of my colleague, Kristen Marcussen, who brings a sociological perspective, which both complements and contrasts my psychological point of view. Together, we developed and designed a four-wave study (third trimester, 1-month, 4-months, and 9-months postpartum) to examine gender differences in risk and protective factors for postpartum adjustment from a dyadic perspective. Our study led us to a number of discoveries on gender and the transition to parenthood – many of which are discussed in this book. Our work fits well into the vast literature on the transition to parenthood, which has been exhaustively studied and written about both in empirical research, theoretical considerations, and popular culture for over six decades. In 1992, when Cowan and Cowan wrote their seminal book – When Partners Become Parents: The Big Life Change for Couples, gender equality was surging in education, the workforce, politics, and culture (Yarrow, 2018). However, at the same time, there was talk of a rising backlash against feminism (Faludi, 1992). In the intervening decades, we have seen women continue to make advances towards equality in most realms with fits, starts, and dramatic reversals  – but the one area where traditional gendered expectations doggedly persist is in parenting. Indeed, much has been made of the gender differences in parenting and during the transition to parenthood – but, surprisingly, the focus often still remains on “her transition.” While fathers have become more involved in parenting, the literature has not yet caught up in terms of understanding “his transition.” Moreover, while more dyadic, couple studies are being conducted, much of this research still takes an individualistic approach to the analyses. A true understanding of “their transition” is lacking. I decided to write this book to address the issues of gender and the transition to parenthood in the past decade and a half. Since 2005, we have seen the largest increase in stay-at-home fathers, as well as more mothers returning to work after childbirth, and more involved co-parenting. But, have these trends translated into real change in the transition to parenthood? That is what I wanted to uncover in writing this book by breaking down the transition into the A,B,C’s (affective, behavioral, and cognitive). Reviewing the existing literature and presenting never-before-­published analyses from our Baby TIME Study, along with a few selected reprints of our research, we hope to provide some insights into how things have changed and, ultimately, remain the same for new parents.

Preface

vii

In writing this book, I sought out my collaborator on the Baby TIME Study, Kristen Marcussen, as a co-author. Kristen is a sociologist whose research focuses on self and identity, stigma, and mental health. As a sociological social psychologist, she was the perfect counterpoint to me as a psychological social psychologist. Her knowledge of identity and her sociological perspective provided valuable insights into the cognitive transition to parenthood and made this a better book. I also enlisted the help of my Social Relationships and Health lab (Victoria Klennert, Tylie Henderson, Karissa Beesley, Albina Letniku, Feroza Mushtari, and Leilani Sherill) and even my son (Eli Tebeau – now a 2nd year student at NYU) in researching the literature, finding citations, formatting, and providing a close proofreading when my eyes could not look at the chapters anymore. Finally, my former graduate students who were instrumental in helping to design and conduct the Baby TIME Study and were co-authors on many of the publications (some included in this book) cannot be left out and should be co-authors on this book just from their sheer volume of effort and work over the years (Dr. Susanne Biehle, Dr. Brian Don, Dr. Alexandra Chong, and Dr. Allyn Gordon). As my family has grown and my husband and I have recently transitioned to empty nesters, my research over the past 20 years on gender, social relationships, and parenthood has also evolved to examining factors related to childbirth outcomes and, most recently, how digital and in-person social connectedness impacts children and parents. The latter interest stemmed from my desire to understand my own teenagers’ use of social media and how it impacted their social relationships. Regardless of the direction my research program takes, when I approach a research question, I am usually seeking to understand how enacting our gender identities in the context of our relationships can have both positive and negative implications for our well-being. Glendale, AZ, USA

Kristin D. Mickelson

References Cowan, C.  P., & Cowan, P.  A. (1992). When partners become parents: The big life change for couples. Basic Books. Faludi, S. (2009). Backlash: The undeclared war against American women. Crown Publishing. Yarrow, A. (2018, June 13). How the ’90s tricked women into thinking they’d gained gender equality. Time. https://time.com/5310256/90s-­gender-­equality-­progress/

Acknowledgments

Kristin D. Mickelson I would like to first thank Kristen Marcussen for her contributions to the book; I asked her to join me in writing this book when I realized that taking it all on by myself was too big a lift. She graciously agreed to co-author the book, and her support and friendship throughout the years is invaluable to me. I want to extend my gratitude to the first-time parents who gave so generously of their time during their transition for our Baby TIME Study – their participation was priceless and we were humbled to be given a window into this precious time. I also want to acknowledge the Ohio Board of Regents who funded the Baby TIME Study through an initiative with Kent State University. I could not have completed this book without the tremendous efforts of my graduate and undergraduate students  – two in particular (Victoria Klennert and Tylie Henderson) took on the editorial duties and never complained when I added to their seemingly endless to-do list. My own children, Amelia and Eli, showed me that parenthood is a life defining and ceaselessly amazing journey. The adults they have blossomed into take my breath away every day. My own parents (Dan and Sandy Mickelson) showed me how to give a child “roots and wings,” and I am forever grateful to them for always having faith in me and encouraging me to this day to believe in myself. Finally, I never thought I had it in me to write a book, and it is only with the love, support, and never-ending belief in me from my husband, Mark Tebeau, that I was able to accomplish this daunting task.

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Acknowledgments

Kristen Marcussen I am grateful to Kristin Mickelson for including me in the Baby TIME project many years ago. It has been such a pleasure to know her as a colleague and as a friend. This book, along with the many publications that are based on the data, is a testament to her intellect, curiosity, and generosity. I feel lucky to have been along for this ride! I am also thankful to the parents who participated in our research, as well as the numerous studies discussed in the book. Parents have a lot on their plates. We are indebted to them for sharing their elusive and valuable “extra time” to help us better understand their experiences as parents, partners, and people. Kristin D. Mickelson Kristen Marcussen

Contents

1

 Transition to Parenthood in the Twenty-­First Century������������������������    1 1.1 Transition to Parenthood in the United States����������������������������������    1 1.2 Our Approach to Understanding Gender and the Transition to Parenthood������������������������������������������������������    3 1.3 Criteria for Review Inclusion������������������������������������������������������������    4 1.4 Baby Transitions in Marital Exchanges (Baby TIME) Study ����������    5 1.4.1 Procedure������������������������������������������������������������������������������    5 1.4.2 Attrition Analyses ����������������������������������������������������������������    7 1.4.3 Measures ������������������������������������������������������������������������������    8 1.5 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    9 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    9

Part I A, B, C’s of the Transition to Parenthood 2

Affective Transition to Parenthood��������������������������������������������������������   13 2.1 Peripartum Well-Being����������������������������������������������������������������������   14 2.2 Hers: Transition to Parenthood and Peripartum Well-­Being in Mothers����������������������������������������������������������������������   16 2.2.1 Depression����������������������������������������������������������������������������   16 2.2.2 Anxiety����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   17 2.2.3 Positive Affect����������������������������������������������������������������������   17 2.3 His: Transition to Parenthood and Peripartum Well-­Being in Fathers ����������������������������������������������������������������������   18 2.3.1 Depression����������������������������������������������������������������������������   18 2.3.2 Anxiety����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   20 2.3.3 Positive Affect����������������������������������������������������������������������   21 2.4 Theirs: Transition to Parenthood and Peripartum Well-­Being in Couples����������������������������������������������������������������������   21 2.5 An APIM Approach to Understanding Peripartum Well-Being in First-Time Parents ����������������������������������������������������   22 2.5.1 Baby TIME Study Analyses��������������������������������������������������   24 xi

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Contents

2.5.2 Measures ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   25 2.5.3 Overview of Analyses ����������������������������������������������������������   27 2.5.4 Descriptive Statistics������������������������������������������������������������   28 2.5.5 Multi-level Modeling Results ����������������������������������������������   32 2.5.6 Discussion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   35 2.5.7 Limitations����������������������������������������������������������������������������   39 2.6 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   40 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   40 3

Behavioral Transition to Parenthood ����������������������������������������������������   49 3.1 Division of Household Labor and Childcare������������������������������������   50 3.2 Work-Family Conflict ����������������������������������������������������������������������   52 3.3 Sexual Intimacy��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53 3.4 Hers: Transition to Parenthood and Parenting Behaviors in Mothers������������������������������������������������������������������������   54 3.4.1 Division of Household Labor������������������������������������������������   54 3.4.2 Work-Family Conflict ����������������������������������������������������������   55 3.4.3 Sexual Intimacy��������������������������������������������������������������������   57 3.5 His: Transition to Parenthood and Parenting Behaviors in Fathers��������������������������������������������������������������������������   58 3.5.1 Division of Household Labor������������������������������������������������   59 3.5.2 Work-Family Conflict ����������������������������������������������������������   60 3.5.3 Sexual Intimacy��������������������������������������������������������������������   61 3.6 Theirs: Transition to Parenthood and Parenting Behaviors in Couples������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 3.6.1 Division of Household Labor������������������������������������������������   62 3.6.2 Work-Family Conflict ����������������������������������������������������������   63 3.6.3 Sexual Intimacy��������������������������������������������������������������������   64 3.7 An APIM Approach to Understanding Behavioral Transition in First-Time Parents ������������������������������������������������������   67 3.7.1 Baby TIME Study Analyses��������������������������������������������������   68 3.7.2 Measures ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69 3.7.3 Overview of Analyses ����������������������������������������������������������   70 3.7.4 Descriptive Statistics������������������������������������������������������������   72 3.7.5 APIM Serial Mediation Model: Work-Family Conflict��������   72 3.7.6 APIM Serial Mediation Model: Childcare Division������������   73 3.7.7 Discussion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   74 3.8 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   75 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   75

4

Cognitive Transition to Parenthood ������������������������������������������������������   85 4.1 Social Cognition and Parenthood������������������������������������������������������   86 4.1.1 Efficacy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86 4.1.2 Identity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86 4.1.3 Stigma ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   87 4.2 Hers: Transition to Parenthood and Social Cognition����������������������   88

Contents

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4.2.1 Efficacy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   88 4.2.2 Identity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   89 4.2.3 Stigma ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   90 4.3 To Work or Not to Work: Gender Role Stigma and Relationship Satisfaction Among First-Time Mothers��������������   91 4.3.1 Baby TIME Study Analyses��������������������������������������������������   93 4.3.2 Measures ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   94 4.3.3 Overview of Analyses ����������������������������������������������������������   96 4.3.4 Descriptive Statistics������������������������������������������������������������   96 4.3.5 Gender Role Stigma and Relationship Satisfaction��������������   97 4.3.6 Dual-Pathway Model of Gender Role Stigma����������������������   97 4.3.7 Discussion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   98 4.3.8 Limitations����������������������������������������������������������������������������  100 4.4 His: Transition to Parenthood and Social Cognition������������������������  102 4.4.1 Efficacy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  102 4.4.2 Identity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  103 4.4.3 Stigma ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  104 4.5 Theirs: Transition to Parenthood and Social Cognition��������������������  106 4.5.1 Efficacy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  106 4.5.2 Identity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  108 4.5.3 Stigma ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  109 4.6 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  110 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  111 Part II Limitations and Suggested Directions 5

Underrepresented Transitions to Parenthood ��������������������������������������  121 5.1 Transition to Parenthood for Same-Sex Parents ������������������������������  121 5.1.1 Affective Transition to Parenthood for Same-Sex Couples����������������������������������������������������������  122 5.1.2 Behavioral Transition to Parenthood for Same-Sex Couples����������������������������������������������������������  124 5.1.3 Cognitive Transitions to Parenthood for Same-Sex Couples����������������������������������������������������������  127 5.2 Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents ��������������������������������  128 5.2.1 Affective Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents��������������������������������������������������������������  129 5.2.2 Behavioral Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents��������������������������������������������������������������  130 5.2.3 Cognitive Transition to Parenthood for Adoptive Parents��������������������������������������������������������������  131 5.3 Transition to Parenthood for Single Parents ������������������������������������  133 5.3.1 Affective Transition to Single Parenthood����������������������������  134 5.3.2 Behavioral Transition to Single Parenthood ������������������������  136 5.3.3 Cognitive Transition to Single Parenthood ��������������������������  136

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Contents

5.4 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  138 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  138 6

 Gaps and Future Directions��������������������������������������������������������������������  145 6.1 Affective Transition to Parenthood ��������������������������������������������������  145 6.1.1 Communal Coping and Postpartum Thriving ����������������������  147 6.1.2 Baby TIME Study Analyses��������������������������������������������������  147 6.1.3 Measures ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  148 6.1.4 Overview of Analyses ����������������������������������������������������������  150 6.1.5 Descriptive Statistics������������������������������������������������������������  150 6.1.6 Cross-Sectional Mediation Model����������������������������������������  151 6.1.7 Longitudinal Mediation Model ��������������������������������������������  152 6.1.8 Discussion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  153 6.2 Behavioral Transition to Parenthood������������������������������������������������  154 6.2.1 Parental Guilt������������������������������������������������������������������������  154 6.2.2 Remote Work������������������������������������������������������������������������  154 6.2.3 Parental Soothing������������������������������������������������������������������  155 6.3 Cognitive Transition to Parenthood��������������������������������������������������  157 6.3.1 Parent Identity����������������������������������������������������������������������  157 6.3.2 Transitional Identities ����������������������������������������������������������  158 6.3.3 Multiple Identities����������������������������������������������������������������  158 6.3.4 Integrating Identity and Efficacy������������������������������������������  160 6.3.5 Integrating Identity and Stigma��������������������������������������������  161 6.4 Underrepresented Parent Populations ����������������������������������������������  162 6.4.1 Transition to Parenthood for Cohabiting Couples����������������  162 6.4.2 Planned vs. Unplanned Transition to Parenthood������������������������������������������������������������������������  167 6.4.3 Transition to Parenthood in Younger, Normed, and Older Couples ������������������������������������������������  168 6.5 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  171 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  171

Appendices��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  179 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  247

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Longitudinal mediation model of maternal and paternal postpartum depression��������������������������������������������������������������������    19 Fig. 3.1 Parents’ child care time, 1965–2011�����������������������������������������������   50 Fig. 3.2 Childcare and household labor division������������������������������������������   51 Fig. 3.3 APIM mediation model of postpartum body and intimacy satisfaction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   66 Fig. 3.4 Serial mediation model of social allergies and relationship satisfaction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73 Fig. 4.1 Intrapersonal pathways of perceived gender role stigma on relationship satisfaction����������������������������������������������������  98 Fig. 4.2 Interpersonal pathways of perceived gender role stigma on relationship satisfaction������������������������������������������������������������������   99 Fig. 4.3 Growth in stay-at-home fathers driven by those caring for family and those unable to find work (Pew Research Center)��������  105 Fig. 4.4 Sex differences in parenting efficacy across time���������������������������  106 Fig. 4.5 Final trimmed model for mothers at 1-month and 4-months postpartum���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  107 Fig. 4.6 Final trimmed model for fathers at 1-month and 4-months postpartum���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  108 Fig. 5.1 Percentage of births to unmarried women by race/ethnicity (1990, 2000, 2020)��������������������������������������������������������������������������  134 Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7

Appraisal and action axes of coping�����������������������������������������������  148 1-month postpartum mediation model��������������������������������������������  151 4-months postpartum mediation model������������������������������������������  152 Longitudinal mediation model��������������������������������������������������������  153 Percentage of soothing reported at each wave��������������������������������  156 Growing share of unmarried parent are cohabiting������������������������  163 Postpartum depression symptoms by age group for fathers and mothers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  170 xv

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Baby TIME Study sample characteristics������������������������������������    6 Table 2.1 Baby and pregnancy-related variables������������������������������������������   26 Table 2.2 Descriptive statistics of major study variables�����������������������������   29 Table 2.3 Fixed effect multilevel modeling results��������������������������������������   30 Table 3.1 Expected and reported division of childcare��������������������������������   55 Table 3.2 Bivariate correlations of major study variables����������������������������   71 Table 3.3 Descriptive statistics of major study variables�����������������������������   72 Table 4.1 Bivariate correlations of major study variables����������������������������   96 Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics of major study variables�����������������������������   97 Table 6.1 Main study variable descriptive statistics�������������������������������������  150 Table 6.2 Correlations between parental soothing and spousal support������  156

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Chapter 1

Transition to Parenthood in the Twenty-­First Century

1.1 Transition to Parenthood in the United States We experience numerous transitions during our life, and becoming a parent is arguably among the most salient; yet, the transition to parenthood has also changed dramatically over the past half-century. First-time parents are approximately 5 years older than their counterparts in the 1980s, with US women today having their first child around 26 years and men around 31 years; and these ages are even higher in large metropolitan US cities and other developed countries where the average age for first-time mothers is 31 years (Bui & Miller, 2018). Furthermore, a significant minority of women choose to never have a child (Tramontana, 2021). Although the rates of US women never giving birth reached a peak in 2006 at 20% and have been steadily declining to 14% in 2016 – they are still higher than the 10% of childless women in 1976 (Livingston et al., 2018). Another dramatic change in parenthood is among LGBTQ individuals. With the US Supreme Court ruling on March 31, 2016, same-sex couples can now adopt in all 50 states; and, over 16% of same-sex couples are raising children (Goldberg & Conron, 2018). Aside from demographic changes, the transition to parenthood has changed in other significant ways. In the 1950s, a woman would spend a week in the hospital after giving birth; today, she can be discharged less than 24 hours after giving birth (Fink, 2011). Most women today return to paid work after childbirth – 58% within 3 months and almost 80% by 12 months (Laughlin, 2011). Compare these figures to the 1960s, where only 14% of new mothers returned to work within 6 months, and this figure increased to only 17% by 12 months (Laughlin, 2011). What about men? Traditionally, fathers were more likely to play with than parent their children (McBride & Mills, 1993). Today, almost one in five stay-at-home parents in the United States are fathers (17%) (Livingston & Parker, 2019). Both mothers and fathers are also spending significantly more time with their children than they did in the mid-1960s. Mothers have nearly doubled their minutes © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. D. Mickelson, K. Marcussen, Gender and the Transition to Parenthood, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24155-0_1

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1  Transition to Parenthood in the Twenty-First Century

from 54 to 104 minutes per day. Fathers have nearly quadrupled their time spent with their kids each day from 16 to 59 minutes (Sani & Treas, 2016). Not that this increased time with children is necessarily viewed as positive. Parents today are often labeled as “helicopter” parents – over-involved, intense, authoritarian – compared with the more permissive, independent parenting of the 1970s and earlier (Faircloth, 2014; Rixon et al., 2019). This current style of parenting closely resembles what Lareau (2011) referred to as concerted cultivation. According to Lareau, this parenting style has been embraced by middle-class parents for decades and is juxtaposed with a natural growth parenting style, which is a less structured approach more common among lower and working-class parents. As inequality has grown over the years, the gap between these two parenting styles has become greater. Not surprisingly, with the increased focus on parenting, there are numerous books for new parents to turn to for advice and help. A simple search for “parenting” in Amazon Books returned over 70,000 results! Academically, the transition to parenthood has also become increasingly popular to study. A Google Scholar search of the term “transition to parenthood” in an article title shows 119 articles from 1980 to 1989 compared to 575 articles between 2010 and 2021. Interestingly, the focus on understanding gender and the transition to parenthood has not witnessed a similar surge. A Google Scholar search for “gender” and “transition to parenthood” in an article title shows no articles from 1980 to1989, only 8 between 1995 and 2009, and just 30 between 2010 and 2021. This is not to imply that the transition to motherhood and fatherhood have not been examined; indeed a Google Scholar search of the phrase “transition to motherhood/fatherhood” in an article title shows that there has been a steady (albeit slow) increase from the 1980s (transition to motherhood, 13 articles; transition to fatherhood, 9 articles) to the past decade (2010–2021) (transition to motherhood, 173 articles; transition to fatherhood, 73 articles). Gender is relatively absent from the study of the transition to parenthood; specifically, comparatively few studies have examined gender differences in the transition to parenthood. Most existing research typically focuses on the experience of the mother or father without comparing and contrasting those experiences. The ever-fluid nature of gender roles demands an updated systematic and academic examination of gender and the transition to parenthood. Although a number of books have been written in the past 25 years on gender and the transition to parenthood, these typically take a couples therapy approach. We believe that an academic examination of gender and the transition to parenthood fills a gap in the literature. This book covers a mix of psychological and sociological studies on the transition to parenthood in early twenty-first-century United States1 and how it has changed in the past three decades. We provide a review of the recent literature (from 2005 to 2022) on gender and the transition to parenthood with a focus on understanding whether changes in gender roles have translated to the transition to parenthood or if individuals are continuing to follow the more traditional role expectations

 Most of our literature review focuses on the United States; however, we review studies from other countries where relevant. 1

1.2  Our Approach to Understanding Gender and the Transition to Parenthood

3

for parenting. With the changing gender role expectations in Western society and the increasing trend toward egalitarian attitudes among younger adults, it is important to understand whether and how these dynamics impact gender and the transition to parenthood.

1.2 Our Approach to Understanding Gender and the Transition to Parenthood Parenthood is a unique life transition for couples because they experience it both individually and jointly. In fact, Cowan et al. (1985) argued parenthood should be viewed from three perspectives in heterosexual couples  – hers, his, and theirs. Research on the individual perspective of becoming a parent is plentiful (especially for mothers). But, how do couples influence each other’s transition to parenthood? Aside from primarily descriptive research on couple comorbidity, where both partners manifest postpartum depression (e.g., Joutsenniemi et al., 2011), the literature is relatively silent on how a couple’s individual and combined factors influence adjustment to parenthood in each partner. Interdependence theory (e.g., Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) argues that individuals in a dyad have a direct (or mutual) influence on each other and experiences of one dyad member can influence both individuals in the couple. In order to analyze dyadic data according to interdependence theory, researchers use an actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) approach where both actor and partner effects are considered on the predictors and outcomes (Kashy & Kenny, 1999; Kenny, 1996). We argue that by taking an APIM approach, we can more fully understand how couples and individuals successfully navigate this important life passage. Furthermore, the transition to parenthood is a lens through which to view gender roles, which are among the most dynamic and pervasive social roles in our lives. Nowhere is the impact of gender more acutely felt or experienced than in the parent role. Although expectations for men and women have shifted dramatically with respect to parenting in the past 30 years, many role expectations remain relatively stable – chief among these: mothers being the primary caregiver. On the other hand, fatherhood has undergone dramatic transformations in the past three decades. Research and lay society now acknowledge that fathers should (and are) taking on a greater role in co-parenting (e.g., Amato, 1998; Pinho et al., 2021). Even so, the focus of academic research on the transition to parenthood remains primarily on the mother’s experience. Readers of this book will discover how the new social representations of fatherhood impact the transition to parenthood not only for men but also for women. By bringing together past and current research, this book tells the story of becoming parents in twenty-first-century America from his, her, and their points of view. The book is divided into two parts. In the first part, we structure the book around the affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of the transition parenthood. This

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1  Transition to Parenthood in the Twenty-First Century

ABC approach is a traditional framework for understanding patterns of behavior and personality (Gruber et al., 2021), and we believe it captures the multifaceted dimensions of the transition to parenthood. Specifically, Chap. 2 covers affect – in other words, the various affective responses to parenthood from prenatal well-being to postpartum depression, anxiety, and positive affect. Chapter 3 covers behavior – in other words, various behaviors related to parenthood from the division of childcare and housework to work-family conflict to sexual intimacy. Chapter 4 covers cognition – in other words, the various cognitive processes and outcomes associated with the transition to parenthood including parenting efficacy, stigma, and identity. In the second part, we discuss limitations in the existing literature and suggested directions. In Chap. 5, we review the limited research on same-sex, adoptive, and single parents during the transition. Chapter 6 concludes with suggestions for future research directions in affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of the transition to parenthood, as well as underrepresented parent populations. Finally, we have two appendices in the book. In Appendix A, we present selected published works from our own research with the Baby TIME Study that highlight each of these A, B, C aspects of the transition. In Appendix B, we provide the actual measures that were used in our Baby TIME Study analyses presented throughout the book.

1.3 Criteria for Review Inclusion Given that a number of books and reviews were published in the 1980s and 2000s (see Belsky & Kelly, 1994; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Michaels & Goldberg, 1988 for examples),2 and because gender roles have undergone dramatic changes in the past 15 years, we concentrate our literature review on gender and the transition to parenthood on studies published since 2005 and utilize older studies only to highlight changes or similarities over time. To be included in our review, the following criteria were applied: published since 2005 (whenever possible); written in English; sample of first-time mothers and/or fathers in the United States, Canada, or Western Europe; utilized quantitative or qualitative (excluding case studies) methods; and focused on the transition to parenthood from prenatal up to 2 years following baby’s birth (with an emphasis on longitudinal studies). We try to only include studies examining those pregnant with their first child because the manifestation and risk factors for postpartum adjustment are substantively different in subsequent (i.e., multiparous) births (Gameiro et al., 2008). Moreover, because one of our primary goals is to understand how new mothers and fathers influence each other’s transition to parenthood, only studies including heterosexual married/cohabiting couples are included in the review for “Their  One more recent book Transition to Parenthood (Roy, Schumm, & Britt, Springer; 2014) is a comprehensive updated review of the literature and findings on the transition to parenthood. While this book covers gender issues in the transition, our book focuses exclusively on this topic and provides a more in-depth understanding of the individual and couple perspectives. 2

1.4  Baby Transitions in Marital Exchanges (Baby TIME) Study

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Transition to Parenthood” section. However, we discuss studies on LGBTQ and the transition to parenthood in Chap. 5 on underrepresented parent populations.

1.4 Baby Transitions in Marital Exchanges (Baby TIME) Study In addition to reviewing existing literature on gender and the transition to parenthood, we also present findings from our own longitudinal study of couples transitioning to parenthood to highlight specific understudied issues. The Baby TIME Study consists of 104 heterosexual couples undergoing the transition to parenthood. Because high-risk and difficult pregnancies can influence the transition to parenthood, couples were screened to ensure only those with relatively low-risk pregnancies were included in the sample. We also sought a homogenous low-risk sample with respect to education and income. In other words, we did not recruit from low-­ income neighborhoods. Our rationale is that because socioeconomic status (SES) is related to postpartum adjustment (e.g., Goyal et al., 2010) and a number of potential predictors (e.g., Grzywacz et al., 2004; Mickelson & Kubzansky, 2003), we did not want to confound potential findings with SES. Rather, we felt it was important to first understand the transition to parenthood for low-risk, nonclinical couples, before proceeding to examine social contextual factors that may moderate these relationships. Couples were either married or cohabiting (91% were married) and on average had been married/cohabiting for about 3 years (M = 3.38; SD = 2.16). All participants were required to speak fluent English and be employed at the time of the first interview in order to be eligible for participation. Recruitment was conducted at local birthing classes (47.6%) and through online message boards (52.4%). The average age for the sample at baseline was 29 years old, with men being older on average than women (men: M = 29.99, SD = 4.77; women: M = 28.06, SD = 3.80; p