Fundamentals of the English language theory: учебное пособие 9965295840

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КАЗАХСКИЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ИМЕНИ АЛЬ-ФАРАБИ

T. T. Джарасова

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE THEORY Учебное пособие

Алматы «Қазақ университеті» 2011 1

ББК 81.2 Д 32 Рекомендовано к изданию Ученым советом филологического факультета и РИСО КазНУ им. аль-Фараби

Рецензенты: доктор филологических наук, профессор Ф.Е. Исмаилова; доктор филологических наук, профессор Ш.И. Нургожина; кандидат педагогических наук, доцент А.К. Садыкова; Ph.D., ст. преподаватель Я.Ч. Тен

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Джарасова Т.Т. Fundamentals of the English language theory: учебное пособие. – Алматы: Қазақ университеті, 2011. – 116 с. ISBN 9965-29-584-0 Пособие составлено на базе теоретической дисциплины «Основы теории изучаемого языка», которая предусматривает комплексное изучение следующих аспектов теории языка: лексикологии и теоретической грамматики. Пособие, включающее краткий курс лекций по теории английского языка, предназначено для студентов филологических факультетов языковых специальностей: «Переводческое дело», «Иностранная филология», «Иностранный язык: два иностранных языка». Учебное пособие содержит вопросы для семинарских занятий, тесты и практический материал с упражнениями и заданиями для самостоятельной работы студентов.

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4602020000-296 027-10 460-(05)-11

ББК 81. 2 © Джарасова Т.Т., 2011. © КазНУ им. аль-Фараби, 2011.

ISBN 9965-29-584-0

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PREFACE

The book “Fundamentals of the English Language Theory” is intended for university students and masters of English department who have taken a practical grammar and linguistics courses. Postgraduates specializing in English and teachers of English may also find it useful. The course “Fundamentals of the English Language Theory” is read for the students of the second and third courses of Philological faculty on special departments: “Foreign Philology”, “Two Foreign Languages” and “Faculty of Translation”. This book includes the brief lectures on Modern English Lexicology and Theoretical Grammar, seminar questions, exercises for practice, materials and tasks for self-study and tests. This manual including the current materials of linguistic and grammar books has the aim to assist the students of foreign language institutes and departments in their study of the fundamentals of Modern English Lexicology and Theoretical Grammar. In preparing this work the author has tried to take into consideration the latest achievements in linguistic science concerned with the vocabulary and grammar of English as it exists and functions at the present time.

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Part 1 LEXICOLOGY as a LINGUISTIC DISCIPLINE

 The Aims and Significance of Lexicology.  The Research Methods.  Links with other Branches of Linguistics.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics – the science of language. The term “lexicology” is composed of two Greek morphemes “lexic” – word, phrase and “logos” which denotes learning, “a department of knowledge”. Thus, the literal meaning of the term “lexicology” is “the science of the word”. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims and methods of scientific research. Its basic task is the study and systematic description of the vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use. Lexicology investigates words, variable word-groups, phraseological units and morphemes which make up words. Distinction is naturally made between General Lexicology and Special Lexicology. General lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German, French, etc.). Our attention will be devoted to the study of Modern English Lexicology which aim is to give a systematic description of the word-stock of Modern English. So Modern English Lexicology investigates the problems of word-structure and wordformation, the semantic structure of English words, the main principles underlying the classification of vocabulary units into various groupings. The research methods used in Lexicology have been closely connected with the general trends in Linguistics. There are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of language material: synchronic (Greek syn — ‘together, with’ and chronos –– ‘time’) and diachronic (Greek dia — ‘through’) approaches. With regard to Special Lexicology the synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time, for instance, at the present time. It is Special Descriptive Lexicology that deals with the vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time. The discipline Modern English Lexicology is therefore a course of Special Descriptive Lexicology which studies the functions of words and their specific structure, its morphological and semantic structures, its object of study being the English vocabulary as it exists at the present time. The modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between the external and the internal structures of the word. By external structure of the word we mean its morphological structure. For example, in the word uncomfortable the following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefix un-, the root comfort and the 4

adjective forming suffix – able. All these morphemes constitute the external (morphological) structure of the word uncomfortable. The internal structure of the word, or its meaning, is commonly referred to the word’s semantic structure. This is certainly the word’s main aspect because a word can serve the purposes of human communication solely due to their meanings. The diachronic approach deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. It is special Historical Lexicology that deals with the evolution of the vocabulary units of a language as time goes by. An English Historical Lexicology would be concerned with the origin of English vocabulary units, their change and development, the linguistic and extra linguistic factors modifying their structure, meaning and usage within the history of the English language. These two approaches should not be contrasted or set one against the other. In fact, they are interconnected and interrelated because every linguistic structure and system exists in a state of constant development. Historical Lexicology is linked with Contrastive and Comparative Lexicology whose aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of two or more languages, and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units of the languages under comparison. Modern English Lexicology is closely connected with other branches of linguistics:  Phonetics, for example, investigates the phonetic structure of a language and is concerned with the study of the outer sound-form of the word i.e. its system of phonemes and intonation patterns.  Grammar is the study of the grammatical structure of a language. It is concerned with various means of expressing grammatical relations between words as well as with patterns after which words are combined into word-groups and sentences.  The History of the English language covers the main events in the historical development of the language: the history of its phonetic structure and spelling, the evolution of its grammatical system, the growth of its vocabulary.  Stylistics studies many problems treated in lexicology, which are concerned with the study of nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and with the research of each style of language, on the other, i.e. with its aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the effect it produces as well as its interrelation with the other styles of language. Modern English Lexicology investigates two main parts: the treatment of the English word as a structure and the treatment of the English vocabulary as a system. The term “vocabulary” is used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words that language possesses. It shows the system of interdependent elements with specific peculiarities of its own, different from other lexical systems. This course of Modern English Lexicology studies the morphological and semantic patterns according to which the elements of this system are built. It points out the distinctive features with the main semantically relevant partial differences between partially similar elements of the vocabulary which can be systematized and 5

this course tries to explain how these vocabulary patterns are conditioned by the structure of the language. Lecture 1. Lexical Units    

Morphological structure of English words. The stem is part of the word. Morphemes. Classification of Morphemes.

The main unit of the lexical system of a language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning is a word. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest basic language unit which can stand alone as a complete utterance. The definition of every basic notion is a very hard task; the definition of a word is one of the most difficult items in linguistics because the word has many different aspects. It has a sound form with a certain arrangement of phonemes; it has its morphological structure with a certain types of morphemes; it may occur in different word-forms and various meanings. A description of the word based on the results of research and carried out by many scientists is presented. The problem of creating a word theory based upon the real understanding of the relationship between word and thought, on the one hand, and language and society, on the other hand, has been discussed for many years. The efforts of many eminent scholars such as V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky, O.S. Ahmanova, I.V. Arnold, R.S. Ginzburg deal with the problem of giving a clear exposition of the word as a basic unit of the language. The main points may be summarized as: “The word is one of the fundamental units of language. It is a dialectical unity of form and content” [25,132]. The word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning and characterized by formal and semantic unity. The formal unity of the word can be best illustrated by comparing a word and a word-group comprising identical constituents. The difference between a blackbird and a black bird is best explained by their relationship with the grammatical system of the language. The word a blackbird possesses a single grammatical structure. In the word-group a black bird each part can acquire grammatical forms of its own: The blackest bird, a black night bird. According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituting a word there are different structural types of words in English: simple, derived, compound, compound-derived. Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many cases the inflexion is zero), e.g. seldom, chairs, longer, dog. Derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inflexion, e.g. acceptable, unemployed, disagreeable. Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, e.g. book-stores, baby-sitters, wait-and-see (policy). 6

Compound-derived words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, e.g. middle-of-the-roaders, job-hopper. When speaking about the structure of words stems also should be mentioned. The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the stem hop can be found in the words: hop, hops, hopped, hopping. The stem hippie can be found in the words: hippie, hippies, hippie’s, hippies’. The stem job-hop can be found in the words: job-hop, job-hops, job-hopped, job-hopping. A word, however, can be divided into smaller sense units - morphemes. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit. The morpheme consists of a class of variants, allomorphs, which are either phonologically or morphologically conditioned. In the word-cluster please, pleasing, pleasant, pleasure the root morpheme is represented by phonemic shapes [pli:z] in please, pleasing and [pleзə] in pleasure and [plez] in pleasant. In such cases we say that the phonemic shapes of the word stand in alternation with each other. These are variants of one morpheme and they are called allomorphs. Morphemes are divided into two large groups:  lexical or root morphemes;  grammatical (functional) morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound.  Free lexical morphemes are roots of words which express the lexical meaning of the word they coincide with the stem of simple words, e.g. dog, book, room, house, ball etc.  Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: prefixes (dis-) disabled, (un-) unnatural, suffixes (-ish) girlish, (-ship) friendship and also blocked (unique) root morphemes, e.g. Fri-day, cran-berry.  Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes can function both as an affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the morphemes (well, half) on the one hand, they are free morphemes because they can exist separately like these: sleep well, half an hour. On the other hand, they are bound in words like wellknown, half-done.  Free grammatical morphemes are function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions (a, an, the, but, and, under, on, in).  Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings), e.g. ( -s) teachers for the Plural of nouns, (-ed) added for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs,( ing) reading for the Present Participle, (-er) hotter for the Comparative degree of adjectives. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. What is Lexicology? The aims of Lexicology. 2. Distinction of Lexicology. 3. The Modern approach of word study. 4. The Methods of Research. 5. Links with other branches of Linguistics 6. Language units. 7. Structural types of words in English. 7

8. The stem of a word. 9. Morphemes. Classification of Morphemes.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Analyze the following lexical units according to their structure. Point out the function of morphemes. Speak about bound morphemes and free morphemes. Point out allomorphs in analyzed words: accompanied, computerize, expressionless, reservation, girl, quickly, management, engaging, agreement, lengthen, clannish, pleasure, pleasant, beautify, workaholic, reconstruction, counterproductive, specialize, rearrange, three-cornered, table, flower-pot, half-eaten, well-done, breadwinner. 2. Make up the new words from the root morphemes system and impress by adding affixes. For example, prove-improve-improvement.

Lecture 2. Word-Building (Word-Formation)  Various Types and Ways of Forming Words.  Productive Ways of Word-building:  Affixation.  Word-composition.  Classifications of compounds.

Various Types and Ways of Forming Words Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. English wordformation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. The main distinction is made between two basic types of word-formation: word-derivation and word-composition. The principal ways of forming words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion. Words consisting of a root and an affix or several affixes are called derived words and this process of word-formation is known as affixation, e.g. establishment (from establish), faceless (from face), attractive (from attract). Conversion is the process of making new words by changing one category of parts of speech from words of another, e.g. a hand – to hand, to make – a maker. Word-composition is the formation of a new word by combining two or more stems which can occur in the language as free forms, e.g. bank-manager, troublemaker, highway, market-leader. There are four main or productive ways of word-building in Modern English: Affixation, Word-Composition, Conversion, Shortening or (Abbreviation). There are also secondary or non-productive ways of word-building: Sound interchange, Stress interchange, Reduplication, Sound Imitation, Blending, Back formation.

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Productive Ways of Word-building. Affixation Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation. Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. (e.g. educate is a verb, education is a noun and music is a noun, musician is also a noun, musical is an adjective). There are different classifications of suffixes: 1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech fall into several groups: a) noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism), b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious); c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize), -fy (satisfy); d) adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (eastward); e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy). 2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote: a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student); b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English); c) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom, kingdom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership, membership), -ati (literati); d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ette (kitchenette), -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling); e) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability). 3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into: a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization); b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish); c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness). 4. Origin of suffixes. From the point of view of their etymology suffixes can be subdivided into two main classes: native and borrowed suffixes: a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly (worker, careful, sleepless, lonely). b) Romanic, such as: -tion, -ent, -able, -eer (relation, absent, comfortable, career). c) Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize. (specialist, socialism, criticize). d) French, such as: -ance, -ence, -ment, -ess, -ous (arrogance, experiment, village, actress, curious). 9

5. Productivity of derivational suffixes. It means the ability of being used to form new, occasional or potential words. They can be the following groups: a) productive, such as : -er, -ize, -ly, -ness (teacher, realize, ugly, coldness). c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length), -hood (childhood). Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) – (over the table), over- (overcome) – (over the door). The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles: Semantic classification. Semantically prefixes can be divided into monosemantic i.e. the prefix has only one meaning, e.g. ex-boxer, ex-boyfriend and polysemantic i.e. the prefix -dis has several meanings: (not) in (disadvantage); reversal or absence of an action or state in words (diseconomy, disaffirm); removal in the word (to disbranch). According to their denotational meaning prefixes fall into: a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as: in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un(unfree), dis- (disconnect), mis- (misname), il- (illegal); b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re(revegetation, rewrite) etc.; c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging). Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- (undressed, overcome, underwear); b) Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re- (inhumane, decentralize, exchange, reappear); c) Greek, such as: hyper- (hyperactive, hypertension) etc. When we analyze such words as: adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as: contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones. There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. afterin the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones. 10

Word-Composition Word-Composition or compounding is one of the productive ways of wordbuilding when a new word is formed by joining two or more stems. Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units that are structurally and semantically based on the relationship between their components through which they are motivated. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon:  The unity of stress where compounds have three stress patterns: a) a high or uniting stress on the first component, e.g. ̀hard-ِِcover, ̀best-ِِseller, ̀catnap, ̀doorway, b) a double stress with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. ̀blood-vessel, ̀washing-machine, c) the third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. ̀snow-̀white, ̀sky-̀blue, ̀arm-̀chair.  Solid or hyphenated spelling, most compounds have two types of spelling written either solidly or with a hyphen, e.g. heartbreak, keyhole, highway, bookshop, father-in-law, part-time, baby-sitter, bank-manager.  The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain. In non idiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e.g., airbus, to download, astrodynamics etc.  Unity of morphological and syntactical functioning are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. «Chatter-boxes» is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically. There are two characteristic features of English compounds: a) both components in English compounds are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. a green-house and a green house. b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road (adj.) off-the-record, up-and-doing, up-and-coming (adj.), down-and-out (n.) etc. The twostem pattern distinguishes English compounds from German ones. Classifications of English Compounds 1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into: a) nouns, such as: baby-moon, table-lamp, table-spoon, bookshop, reading-room; b) adjectives, such as: first-class, power-happy, down-market; dark-blue, red-hot; c) verbs, such as: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck; to broadcast; d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, somewhere, everywhere, nowhere, headfirst; e) prepositions, such as: into, within; f) numerals, such as: fifty-five, twenty-six; g) pronouns, such as: everyone, somebody, someone, nobody, nothing. 11

2. According to the way of components joined together compounds are divided into: a) morphological compounds where components are joined by linking element: vowels «o» or «i» or the consonant «s», e.g. astrospace, handicraft, sportsman; b) syntactical compounds where the components are joined by means of form-word stems with the help of linking elements represented by prepositions or conjunctions, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all, hide-and-seek; do-or-die . 3. According to the structure compounds are subdivided into: a) neutral or compounds proper which are formed by combining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, bedroom, sunflower, girlfriend; b) derivational compounds have affixes in their structure, e.g. ear-minded, newcomer, story-teller, long-legged, blue-eyed; c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshellthin, marry-go-round, singer-songwriter; d) compound-shortened words have a shortened stem in their structure, e.g. Eurodollar, tourmobile, motocross. There are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, compare the letter U standing for upper classes in such combinations as U-pronunciation, U-language and other examples, V-day (victory day), E-Day (entrance day), H-way,(high way) etc. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary? 2. What are the principal productive ways of word-building in English? 3. Affixation. Classification of suffixes. 4. Classification of prefixes. 5. Characteristic features of English compounds. 6. Classifications of compound words.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Analyze the following derived words, point out suffixes and prefixes and classify them from different points of view: non-violent, nourishment, to encourage, inwardly, to accompany, to de-restrict, dispensable, clannishness, to overreach, foundation, childishness, transgressor, reappearance, historic, resistance, wisdom, concentration, self-employed, brinkmanship, inaction, allusion, self-criticism, to computerize, slimming, impatient. 2. Name the ways of forming compound words and write them out in four columns: neutral compounds, derived compounds, compound words consisting of three or more stems, compound-shortened words. Give the translations of these words. note-book, speedometer, son-in-law, high-pitched voice, brain-gain, video-recorder, fair-haired, forget-me-not, snowman, teach-in, back-grounder, water-melon, theatre-goer, well-dressed, bioengineer, to book-hunt, mini-term, to baby-sit, honeymoon, sunflower seed, good-for-nothing, TVshow, do-gooder, skin-head, H-bag, match-breaker, sportsman, V-day, airbus, three-cornered, braindrain, bread-and-butter, bookshop, blood-thirsty, A-day /announcement Day - day of announcing war/. 3. Work with the dictionary. Find twenty compound words and give their classification. 12

Lecture 3. Word-Building Productive Ways of Word-building:  Conversion.  Shortening or (Abbreviation).

CONVERSION Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. The term “conversion” first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet “New English Grammar” in 1891. Conversion is treated differently by different scientists. Professor A.I. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when “one parts of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm” [15, 58], e.g. to form the verb to dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial, dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing). Prof. H. Marchand in his book “The Categories and Types of Present-day English” treats conversion as “a morphological-syntactical wordbuilding” [37, 124 ] because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good paper for my room. (The noun paper is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb paper is the predicate in the sentence). Conversion is highly productive way in the English word-stock. Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged, e.g. nurse – to nurse, hand – to hand, face – to face. The new word made from conversion has a different meaning from that of the word from which it was produced though the two meanings can be associated. The converted word acquires also a new paradigm and a new syntactic function, which are peculiar to its new category as a part of speech, e.g. paper – to paper, work – to work. The main varieties of conversion can be presented as:  Verbalization (the formation of verbs), e.g. to ape (from ape n.);  Substantivation (the formation of nouns), e.g. a private (from private adj.);  Adjectivation (the formation of adjectives), e.g. down adj. (from down adv.);  Adverbalization (the formation of adverbs), e.g. home adv. (from home n.). The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. In the group of verbs made from nouns there are some regular semantic associations. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings. They are indicated in the following list: a) verbs have an instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body, e.g. to eye, to finger, to elbow, to shoulder etc. b) verbs have an instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail, c) verbs can denote an action characteristic of the animal denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to dog, to wolf, to ape, to monkey. 13

d) verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper, e) verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket, f) verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to winter, to week-end . g) verbs can denote the process of taking a meal denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to lunch, to dinner, to supper. The suggested groups do not include all the great variety of verbs made from nouns by conversion. Verbs can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, e.g. to pale, to cool, to clean, to slim etc. Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted nouns can denote: a) instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move, b) process or state e.g. sleep, walk, c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a help, a flirt, a scold, d) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase, e) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a drive, a stop, a walk. Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the singular form and denote momentary actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as: to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim. Shortening (Abbreviation) In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of shortening words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing «fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc. Shortening of words consists in substituting a part for a whole. An abbreviation came from Latin word “brevis”, meaning “short” it is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually the word “abbreviation” can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr. or abbrev. Abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early 14

literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was still normal, but no longer the default. The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation. Generally the three subgroups of abbreviation are regarded: Graphical, Initial and Lexical. Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In these abbreviations Latin words are shortened in the spelling, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form, for example, Latin – a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No – number (numero), p.a. – a year (per annum), d – penny (dinarius), lb – pound (libra), i. e. – that is (id est) etc. Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced “in the afternoon” (post meridiem) and “after death” (post mortem). There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. The graphical abbreviations are words which are shortened into two, three or four letters. We have several semantic groups of them: a) days of the week, e.g. Mon - Monday, Tue – Tuesday, Sat – Saturday; b) names of months, e.g. Apr - April, Aug – August; c) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks – Berkshire; d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala - Alabama, CO – Colorado, Alas – Alaska; e) names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.; f) military ranks, e.g. capt. – captain, col. – colonel, etc. Abbreviation is also achieved by omission of letters from one or more parts of the whole, for example, cdr for commander, doz or dz for dozen, ltd for limited. Scientific degrees: B.A. – Bachelor of Arts, D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For example, “kilometer” is abbreviated as km and not as (k.m). However, “miles per hour” can be shortened by the acronym m.p.h. or, increasingly common, mph. Initial abbreviations are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. (Joint Venture). When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC (British Broadcast Corporation) is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form. Initialisms are the way of making the new words from the initial letters of the word-group, e.g. www (world wide web).

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Initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System), CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory). Acronymy is the formation of a word from initial letters of a word combination. There are two basic types of acronyms in English: a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, NHS (The National Health Service), FDA (The Food and Drug Administration) etc. b) initialisms which are read as ordinary English words, e.g. UNESCO (the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization), SOS, NATO. Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different from the full form of the word. In such cases as fantasy and fancy, fence and defence we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as laboratory and lab, we have different styles. Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a group of words, such as disco (discotheque), expo (exposition), exam (examination) com (computer) and many others. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have aphaeresis, e.g. chute (parachute), phone (telephone), copter (helicopter), net (internet) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Abbreviation does not change the parts-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same parts of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof. is a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev. from to revolve, to tab. from to tabulate etc. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. The characteristic feature of Conversion. 2. Conversion as a way of word-building. 3. Which categories of parts of speech are especially affected by conversion? 4. What are the main causes of shortening? 5. The origin of the word “abbreviation”. 6. The types of abbreviations.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Define the types and cases of Conversion. Explain the meaning of the words. to eye, a find, to slim, to airmail, to toy, to nose, handed, to dog, maker, runner, to pale, to weekend, to cool, to slice, the poor, to dry, to nurse, to lunch, to bottle, to face, to rat, to monkey, to rough, cut, walk, move, to dress, viewer, the blind. 2. Analyze the following abbreviations. Define the types of abbreviations. CD-ROM, aggro /aggression/, AIDS /acquired immunity deficiency syndrome/, Ala / Alabama/ a.s.a.p. /as soon as possible/, IT /information technology/, BC /birth certificate/, burger /hamburger/, 16

CALL /computer-assisted language learning/, CAT /computer-assisted training/, PA /personal assistant/, PS /postscript/, mg /milligram/, UN /United Nations/, PIN /Personal Identification Number/, expo /exposition/, el-hi /elementary and high schools/, fax /facsimile/, G-7 /group of seven: GB, Germany, Japan, France, Canada, Italy, Spain/. 3. Give the full form of the following abbreviations. NATO, UNO, WHO, MP, NASA, UEFA, IQ, FBI, FIFA, VIP, UCAS, UFO. 4. Work with the dictionary. Find twenty abbreviations and analyze them.

Lecture 4. Non-productive ways of Word-building      

Sound interchange. Stress interchange, Reduplication. Sound imitation. Blending. Back formation.

Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form new words which are differentiated due to alternation in the phonemic composition of the root. This process is not active in Modern English but it was productive in Old English. In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. By means of vowel interchange we distinguish different parts of speech: full – to fill, food – to feed, blood – to bleed. In some cases vowel interchange is combined with affixation: long – length, strong – strength, nature – natural. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal position which made it voiced. It has made the distinctive feature of a noun and a verb. There is a long series of verbs and nouns and also some adjectives differing in this way. Observe for example, the opposition of voiced and unvoiced consonants in the following: to advise – advice, to bathe – bath, to live – life, to breathe – breath, to prove – proof etc. There are some particular cases of consonant interchange: [k] – [tj] – to speak – speech, to break –breach; [s ]–[d] – defence – to defend, offence – to offend; [s ]-[t] – evidence – evident, importance – important. Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns. Many English verbs of Latin, French origin are distinguished from the corresponding nouns by the position of stress: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent - to ac`cent, `conflict - to con`flict, `export - to ex`port, `extract to ex`tract, present – to pre’sent etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions. 17

In Reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any changes as in bye-bye or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in pingpong, tip-top, chit-chat. Most words made by reduplication represent informal groups: slang and colloquialisms, e.g. walkie-talkie (a portable radio), riff-raff (the worthless or disreputable element of society). Sound imitation or onomatopoeia is the naming of an action or thing by more or less reproduction of sounds. It is a way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. Semantically, according to the source sound, many onomatopoeic words fall into a few definite groups: a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle; b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, e.g. dogs - bark, cows - moo, frogs – croak, cats – mew or miaow, ducks – quack, bee – buzz; c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc. The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) etc. Blendings are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second component (aphaeresis). As a result we have a compound- shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word «smog» from two synonyms: smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the end, «o» is common for both of them. Another example of combining two words: brunch is a meal you eat in the late morning that combines breakfast and lunch. Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial), magalog (magazine catalogue), sociolite (social elite), fanzine (fan magazine). The new edition of the Macmillan English Dictionary gives the new words building by means of blends: chicklit is combined from two words (chicken and literature) which is used in informal speech with the meaning - (novels written for, about, or by young educated women); the new word uptalk means the tendency to make voice rise at the end of sentences so that statements sound like questions this blend is formed from two words (upper talking). Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Yartseva explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word «beggar» was 18

borrowed into English the final syllable «ar» was pronounced in the same way as the English -er and Englishmen formed the verb «to beg» by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion) to reminisce (from reminiscence), to televise (from television) etc. As we can notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is changed, verbs are formed from nouns. Seminar Questions: Сonsider your answers to the following. 1. What are the types of non-productive way of word-building? 2. What words are made by doubling a stem? 3. What is understood by back-formation? 4. What two ways of word-building are used in blends? 5. What type of word-building is made by imitating different kinds of sounds?

Seminar Tasks: 1. Define the types of non-productive ways of word-building: edutainment, to butle – (butler), riff-raff, to af`fix -`affix, cuckoo, life – to live, to cobble – (cobbler), to con`flict –`conflict, walkie-talkie, cock-adoodle-doo, chi-chi, `contest – con `test, to beg (beggar), bark, brunch, ping-pong, buzz, miaow, to emote (from emotion), slanguist, to clothe – cloth. 2. Guess which words have combined to form the following terms: Interpol, emoticon, netiquette, netizen, technophobe, motel, heliport, slanguage, medicare, slimnastics, sci-fi. 3. Give the complete classification of the following words: rewrite, brunch, music-lover, CD-ROM, baby-sitter, chicklit, blackberry, US, strong – strength, TVprogram, export – to export, a toy – to toy, to do – doer, netizen, telecast (television broadcast), computer – to compute, ping-pong, Ph.D., firmly, internet – net, Str.– Street, smog, marriage, cuckoo, sunflower-seed, V-day, action, blockbuster, draughtsman. 4. Control work on the analysis of language units. Each student gets twenty language units of different types (simple words, derived words, compound words, blends, sound and stress interchange, abbreviation) and analyze them.

Lecture 5. Etymology of English Words  Words of Native Origin.  Borrowings in the English Language.  Classification of Borrowings.

Words of native origin Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how their form and meaning have changed over time. “Etymological theory recognizes that words originate through a limited number of basic mechanisms, the most important of which are borrowings” [4, 110]. 19

The borrowing process is closely connected with historical events and the history of the nation speaking the language. Etymologically, the English vocabulary consists of native words and borrowed or loan words. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the old English period. The term native is used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to British Isles from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes and the native words represent the original stock of this particular language. All words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to very important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs: shall, will, should, would, must, can, may; pronouns: I, you, he, my, his, who, whose; prepositions: in, out, on, under etc. The native words are further subdivided into Indo-European stock and those of common Germanic origin. By the Indo-European element we mean words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which no human communication would be possible. The following classification was given by V.D. Arakin. 1. Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter. 2. Parts of human body: foot, nose, lip, heart. 3. Animals: cow, swine, goose. 4. Plants: tree, corn. 5. Time of day: day, night. 6. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star. 7. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad. 8. The numerals from one to a hundred. 9. Pronouns – personal, demonstrative. The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element. 1. Parts of the human body: head, back, hand, arm, finger, bone. 2. Animals: bear, fox, calf. 3. Plants: oak, fir, grass. 4. Natural phenomena: rain, frost. 5. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer. 6. Human dwellings and furniture: house, room, bench. 7. Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, high, good, old. 8. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, drink, give, make. Borrowings in the English Language Borrowings are taken over from another language and modified in sounding, spelling, and paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English 20

language. According to many linguists, the percentage of borrowings in English is up to 70 %, and 30 % of the words are native. However, according to I.V. Arnold, “although the mixed character of the English vocabulary belongs to word-formation and semantic changes patterned according to the specific features of the English language system. This system absorbed and remodelled the vast majority of loan words according to its own standards, so that it is sometimes difficult to tell an old borrowing from a native word” [25, 96]. Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech ( through books, newspapers, etc.). Oral borrowings took place in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written borrowings have gained importance. Borrowings may be direct or indirect, i.e. through another language. For example, Latin through which many Greek words came into the English language and French by means of which many Latin words were borrowed. In the first century B.C. most of the territory now known to us as Europe was occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent were Germanic tribes, called ‘barbarians’ by arrogant Romans. Theirs was really a rather primitive stage of development, compared with the high civilization of Rome. They were primitive cattle-breeders and knew nothing about land cultivation. Their language contains only Indo-European and Germanic elements. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans, these two opposing peoples came into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new things. They learn how to make butter and cheese and, as there are no words for these products in their tribal languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them. They also borrow the names of some fruits and vegetables such as cherry, pear, plum, pea, beet, and pepper. The word plant is also a Latin borrowing of this period. There were numerous scientific and artistic terms like datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music, of which the words philosophy, phenomenon, method, music were borrowed into English from Latin and had earlier come into Latin from Greek. From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitably left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, take, cast, die, law, husband, window, ill, loose, low, and weak. Some of the words of this group are easily recognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial skcombination, e.g. sky, skill, ski, skirt etc. England became a bilingual country, and the impact of the French language on the English vocabulary is huge. French words penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings:  Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power, empire.  Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.  Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.  Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. 21

 Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this

period: e.g. table, plate, saucer, diner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc. The Renaissance Period in England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science, art, and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome and their languages. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, ballet, matinee, scene, bourgeois, etc. However, they are different from Norman French borrowings in that the former have for a long time been fully adapted to the phonetic system of the English language; the words, as table, plate, courage, chivalry, bear no phonetic traces of their French origin. Contemporary English is a unique mixture of many languages and this mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary. English has proven accommodating to words from many languages, in 17-19 centuries due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, German and other languages. Especially Italian borrowings are famous by its influence in music in all Indo-European languages: libretto, violin, opera, operetta, alarm, piano, tenor, solo, duet, trio, basso. Today the English language contains words from different sources. They have developed naturally over the course of centuries from ancestral languages and they are also borrowed from other languages: Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco, chocolate. Portuguese: albino, palaver, verandah and coconut. German: yacht, dog, landscape. Irish: whiskey, phoney, trousers Japanese: honcho, sushi, kimono and tsunami Russian: taiga, kaftan, sable and sputnik Arabic: mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa and zero. Hindi: karma, khaki. Classification of Borrowings The borrowed words can be classified into the following groups:  phonetic borrowings,  translation loans,  semantic borrowings,  morphemic borrowings. Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then as L.V. Adams describes: “they undergo an assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language” [22, 77]. The structure and the spelling in some cases can be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonemic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed 22

word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonemic borrowings from French; apparatchik, sputnik are phonemic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet, are phonemic borrowings from Italian etc. Translation loans are word-for-word or morpheme-for morpheme translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, “to take the bull by the horns” (Latin), “fair sex” (French), “living space” (German) etc. There are some translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: “pipe of peace”, “pale-faced”; from German “masterpiece”, “homesickness”, “superman”. Semantic borrowings are units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning “to live” for the word “to dwell” which in Old English had the meaning “to wander”. Let’s consider another word the adjective gay was borrowed from French in several meanings at once: “noble of birth”, “bright, shining”. Rather soon it shifted its ground developing the meaning “joyful, high-spirited” in which sense it became a synonym of the native merry and in some time left it far behind in frequency and range of meaning. Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language. For example, we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of wordshybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. goddess, beautiful etc. A person who does not know English but knows French, Italian, Latin or Spanish is certain to recognize a great number of familiar-looking and sounding words when looking through an English book or listening to an English-speaking man. It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive among the world’s languages, contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Seminar Questions:         

What is meant by the native origin of a word? What are the main native elements in English? What conditions stimulate the borrowing process? What are the characteristic features of Scandinavian borrowings? What is the influence of the French language on the English vocabulary? Classification of Borrowings: Phonetic borrowings. Translation loans. Semantic borrowings. Morphemic borrowings.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Divide the following words of native origin into: Anglo-Saxon, Indo-European, Germanic languages: 23

Goose, glad, must, under, head, bone, drink, night, woman, sun, moon, can, will, green, white, see, thick, father, brother, finger, rain, grass, they, four, but, good, oak, room, land, should, would, heart, whose, fir, tree. 2. Find out fifteen borrowings and explain the etymology of these words.

Lecture 6. Semasiology  The Causes of Semantic Changes.  Semantic Structure of English Words.  Semantic Structure of Compounds.

The Causes of Semantic Changes Semasiology is the branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of words, called semantics. The meaning of a word can change in the course of the historical development of language. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called a lexico-semantic wordbuilding. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change. The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic. By extralinguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the speech community, changes in economic and social structure, scientific concepts and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word meaning. For example, the change of the lexical meaning of the noun «pen» was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily «pen» comes back to the Latin word «penna» (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called «a pen». On the other hand causes can be linguistic it means factors acting within the language system. The main form of linguistic cause is discrimination/differentiation of synonyms which can be illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words. The conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other languages one of them may specialize in its meaning, e.g. the noun «tide» in Old English was polysemantic and denoted «time», «season», «hour». When the French words «time», «season», «hour» were borrowed into English they ousted the word «tide» in these meanings. It was specialized and now means “regular movement of sea towards and away from the land”. Semantic Structure of English Words Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner form (its meaning) presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word. It is known that most words convey several concepts and possess the corresponding number of meanings. One and the same word in different syntactical relations can develop different meanings, e.g. the verb treat in sentences: a) He treated my words as a joke. b) The book treats of poetry. 24

c) They treated me to sweets. d) He treats his son cruelly. In all these sentences the verb «treat» has different meanings and we can speak about polysemy. A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and the words having only one meaning are called monosemantic these words are few in number. These are mainly scientific terms. The bulk of English words are polysemantic. The ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. Polysemy is a phenomenon which has an exceptional importance for the description of a language system and for the solution of practical tasks connected with an adequate understanding of the meaning of a word and its use. Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the proximity of notions which they express. For example, the word blanket has the following meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse warm, a covering of any kind (a blanket of snow), covering all or most cases used attributively, e.g. we can say (a blanket insurance policy). The semantic structure of a polysemantic word can be distinguished between two levels of analysis: On the first level the semantic structure is presented by different meaning as the main or primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primary meaning. E.g. in the word face the primary meaning denotes “the front part of the human head”. Connected with the front position the meanings were formed: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card. Connected with the word «face» itself the meanings: expression of the face, outward appearance are formed. The second level of analysis is determined as the semantic components within each separate meaning, where some semantic structures are arranged on different principles. In the following list of meanings of the adjective dull one can hardly find a generalized meaning covering and holding together the rest of the semantic structure. E.g.: Dull, adj. 1. a dull book, a dull film, – uninteresting, boring; 2. a dull pupil – stupid; 3. a dull weather, a dull day, a dull colour – not clear or bright; 4. a dull sound – not loud or distinct; 5. a dull knife – not sharp; 6. dull eyes – seeing badly; 7. dull ears – hearing badly. As you see from this structure the adjective dull with the different nouns forming new word-groups like a chain which are distinguished into separate meanings. In most cases in the semantic development of a word both ways of semantic development are combined. 25

Semantic Structure of Compounds The main interest semantic aspect of compound words is the question of correlation of the separate meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compounds. The semantic structure of compounds can be divided into two groups: a) non-idiomatic compounds; b) idiomatic compounds. The first groups of compounds represent meanings which can be described as the sum of their constituent meanings. (It means that these compounds haven’t changes in their meanings, it is easily to guess.). E.g.: classroom, bedroom, raincoat, nightdress, dancing-hall, changing-room (room in a shop). The compounds which meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent (main) parts are called idiomatic compounds. Idiomatic compounds can be divided into two types: a) partial (non complete) changed meaning; b) total (complete) changed meaning. In the first type of compounds one of the components has changed its meaning. In this type of compound words we see the process of change of meaning. E.g.: a blackboard, a blackbird, lady-killer, chatter-box, blackberries. For example, the compound a blackbird conveys only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features of any compound word. The second type of compounds it is a process of complete change of meaning or the key semantic aspect has been lost. E.g.: a ladybird, tallboy, bluestocking, bluebottle, butter-fingers. A ladybird is not a bird, but insect; tallboy is not a boy, but a piece of furniture; bluestocking is a person who dedicates his life to science, bluebottle – it is not a bottle, it is an insect; butter-fingers is a clumsy person often has accidents, because they are not careful. So, we have regarded three groups of compounds based on different semantic meanings. Seminar Questions: Сonsider your answers to the following. 1. What is understood by “semantics”? Explain the term “polysemy”. 2. What are the causes of semantic changes? 3. What are the levels of analysis in investigating the semantic structure of a word? 4. What is the semantic aspect of compound words? 5. Into what semantic groups can compounds be divided? Seminar Tasks: 1. Explain the different meanings and the different usages, giving Russian equivalents of: Smart, adj. Smart clothes, a smart answer, a smart house, a smart garden, a smart officer, a smart blow, a smart punishment. Stubborn, adj. a stubborn child, a stubborn look, a stubborn horse, a stubborn resistance, a stubborn fighting, a stubborn cough, a stubborn depression. Blank. adj. Blank wall, blank verse, blank sheet, blank form, blank years, blank face, blank look. 26

Root, n. the root of the tooth, the root of the matter, square root, cube root, family roots. Perform, v. to perform one’s duty, to perform an operation, to perform a dance, to perform a play. 2. Arrange the compounds into two groups: a) idiomatic, b) non-idiomatic. Say whether the semantic change within idiomatic compounds is partial or total. Light-hearted, butterfly, flower-pot, backache, water-melon, cabman, blackberry, bluebell, wolfdog, highway, horse-marine, greengrocer, lazy-bones, blacklist, butter-finger, earth-quake, ladykiller, seaman, sun-flower, ladybird, bluecoat, money-box, flower-bed, sunflower-seed, air-kiss, culture-vulture. 3. Work with the dictionary. Find twenty idiomatic compound words (partial and total) and give the translation.

Lecture 7. Homonyms, Synonyms and Antonyms  Homonyms.  Classification of Homonyms.

Homonyms

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling. E.g.: bank, n. – a shore; bank, n. – an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging money. Ball, n. – a sphere, any spherical body; ball, n. – a large dancing party. The term “homonym” is derived from Greek homos – “similar” and onoma – “name”, and thus e[presses the sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning. Homonyms can appear in the language not only as the result of the split of polysemy, but also as the result of leveling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g. «care» from «caru» and «care» from «carian». They can be also formed by means of conversion, e.g. «to slim» from «slim», «to water» from «water». They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem, e.g. «reader» /a person who reads and a book for reading/. Homonyms can also appear in the language accidentally, when two words coincide in their development, e.g. two native words can coincide in their outer aspects: «to bear» from «beran» /to carry/ and «bear» from «bera» /an animal/. A native word and a borrowing can coincide in their outer aspects, e.g. «fair» from Latin «feria» and «fair» from native «fager» /blond/. Two borrowings can coincide, e.g. «base» from the French «base» /Latin basis/ and «base» /low/ from the Latin «bas» /Italian «basso»/. Homonyms can develop through shortening of different words, e.g. «cab» from «cabriolet», «cabbage», «cabin». Classification of Homonyms Homonyms are distinguished into three types: 1. Homonyms proper. 2. Homophones. 27

3. Homographs Homonyms are the same in sound and spelling are traditionally termed homonyms proper. E.g.: match, (n.) – a game, match, (n.) – thing is used for producing fire. Homonyms are the same in sound but different in spelling can be defined as homophones. E.g.: a piece (n.) – peace (n.); cent (n.) – sent (v.); write (v.) – right (adj.). The examples here show that homophones may be belong both to the same and to different categories of parts of speech. Homographs are words with the same spelling but pronounced differently. E.g. bow –[bau]- (v.) – to incline the head or body in salutation; bow – [bəu]- (n.) – a flexible strip of wood for propelling arrows; to lead [li:d ]-(v.) – to conduct on the way, go before to show the way, lead [led ]- (n.) – a heavy, rather soft metal. A more detailed classification was given by I.V. Arnold. She classified only perfect homonyms and suggested four criteria of their classification: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and paradigms. According to these criteria I.V. Arnold pointed out the following groups:  homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms (a typical example or model of a word) and different in their lexical meanings, e.g. a board in the meanings a council and “a thin flat piece of wood”;  homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, different in their lexical meanings and paradigms, e.g. to lie - lied - lied, and to lie - lay - lain;  homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in their basic forms, e.g. light – lights, light – lighter – lightest;  homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic forms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms, e.g. a bit and bit (from “to bite”). SYNONYMS 1. Synonyms. The Dominant Synonym. 2. The Classification System for Synonyms. 3. Antonyms. The Classifications of Antonyms. The Dominant Synonym Synonyms are one of the language’s most important expressive means. The principal function of synonyms is to represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations. Synonyms can be defined as words of the same category parts of speech conveying the same concept and possessing one or more identical denotational meanings but different either in shade of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. 28

E.g.: good-looking, pretty, attractive – adjectives describe a pleasant appearance; to win a victory – to gain a victory; homeland, motherland etc. All synonymic groups have a “central” word whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all synonymic groups. This word is called the dominant synonym. Here are examples of other the dominant synonyms with their groups: to surprise – to astonish – to amaze – to astound; to tremble – to shiver– to shudder– to shake. The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way without any additional information. So, any dominant synonym is a typical basic-vocabulary word, its meaning is broad and generalized, more or less “covers” the meanings of the rest of the synonyms. E.g.: to look instead of to glare, to stare, to peer, to peep. Summing up what has been said the following characteristic features of the dominant synonym can be underlined:  high frequency of usage;  broad combinability, i.e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words;  broad general meaning. Classification of Synonyms Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects. In English there are a lot of synonyms, because there are many borrowings, e.g. hearty (native) – cordial (borrowing); town (native) – city (borrowing). All synonymic groups can be classified into several types. The classification system for synonyms was established by V.V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types of synonyms: 1. Ideographic (words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning), e.g. stool – chair, piece – lump – slice. 2. Stylistic (different in stylistic characteristics). Stylistic synonyms are similar in the denotational aspect of meaning, but different in the connotational aspect. Substituting one stylistic synonym for another result in an inadequate presentation of the situation of communication. The following examples of synonyms are differentiated by stylistic connotations of attendant features. For example, snack, bite, snap all denote a frugal meal taken in a hurry; refreshment is also a light meal; feast is rich or abundant meal. Among stylistic synonyms Prof. Ch. F. Hockett points out a special group of words are called euphemisms. “There are words used to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words, e.g. the late instead of dead. There also phraseological synonyms: to get into a jam – to get into hot water – to get in trouble; phrasal verbs: to look like – to take after, to carry on – to go on – to continue [33, 104]. 3. absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning), e.g.: big – large, homeland – motherland, small – little. In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is frequently used. The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually 29

termed denotative components or denotation. The denotative component expresses the conceptual content of a word. It means that denotation is the central meaning of a word. The terms connotation or connotative components are used to describe more or less full picture of the meaning of a word, to give the additional semantic components. The difference in connotation may be illustrated by the words famous meaning, e.g. the adjective celebrated (with positive meaning) – celebrated scholar, celebrated singer, celebrated artist; the adjective notorious (with negative meaning) – notorious robber, notorious murderer, notorious lady-killer. Synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation, but different in connotative components. The following table of analysis of the numerous synonyms of the verb to look is suggested by G.B. Antrushina. Denotation to look

Connotations

to stare to glare to gaze

steadily, lastingly steadily, lastingly steadily, lastingly

to glance to peep

briefly, in passing steadily, lastingly

to peer

steadily, carefully

Connotations in surprise, curiosity in anger, rage, fury in tenderness, admiration, wonder through an opening or from a concealed location with difficulty or strain

The common denotation shows that, according to the semantic criterion, the words grouped in the above table are synonyms. The connotative components represented on the right side of the table highlight their differentiations. ANTONYMS Antonyms are words belonging to the same category of parts of speech and expressing contrary or contradictory notions. Antonyms, from the Greek anti (opposite) and onoma (name) are word pairs that opposite in meaning, such as hot and cold, fat and skinny. Polysemantic words may have different antonyms depending on the meaning. For example, the adjective dull has the antonyms interesting, amusing, entertaining for its meaning of “deficient in interest”, clever, bright, capable for its meaning of “deficient in intellect” and active for the meaning of “deficient in activity” etc. Antonyms form mostly pairs, not groups like synonyms: above – below, absent – present, alike – different, bad – good. Antonymy is not distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives they are only natural because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted. E.g.: high – low, old – young, wide – narrow, strong – weak etc. 30

Verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number. Here are some of them: to lose – to find, to open – to close, to accept – to reject etc. Nouns are not rich in antonyms, but even so some examples can be given: good – evil, joy – grief, love – hatred, friend – enemy. Antonymic adverbs can be subdivided into two groups: a) adverbs derived from adjectives: warmly – coldly, merrily – sadly, loudly – softly; b) adverbs proper: now – then, here – there, ever – never, up – down. V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups: absolute or root antonyms (late- early, old-young) and derivational antonyms (to please - to displease, expensive - inexpensive). Absolute antonyms can be subdivided into antonyms:  proper where opposition is gradual, it includes several elements characterized by different degrees of the same property, e.g. cold, cool – warm, hot: large – little or small;  complementarity is a binary opposition, it may have only two members, the denial of one member of the opposition implies the assertion of the other, e.g. dead – alive, single – married, male – female.  Converses denote one and the same referent from different points of view, e.g. to sell – to buy, to give – to receive. Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes. E.g.: known – unknown, appear – disappear, prewar – postwar etc. The regular type of derivational antonyms contains negative prefixes: (im-, il-, in-, ir-, un-, dis-, non-), for example, experienced – inexperienced, logical illogical, convenient - inconvenient. Sometimes they are formed by means of suffixes: (-ful and -less).The number of antonyms with the suffixes (-ful and -less) is not very large, and sometimes even if we have a word with one of these suffixes its antonym is formed not by substituting (-ful by - less), e.g. successful – unsuccessful, selfless – selfish. The same is true about antonyms with negative prefixes, e.g. «to man» is not an antonym of the word «to unman», «to disappoint» is not an antonym of the word «to appoint». The difference between derivational and root antonyms is not only in their structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, one of them excludes the other, e.g. active – inactive. Absolute antonyms express contrary notions and can be arranged in a group of more than two members, e.g. the antonyms of the adjective ugly – plain, good-looking, pretty, beautiful. Professor L. Lipka gives the type which he calls: “directional opposition up/down, consequence opposition learn/know, antipodal opposition North/South, East/West”[35, 151] It is based on contrary motion, in opposite directions. The pairs come/go, arrive/depart involve motion in different directions. In the case up/down we have movement from a point P. In the case come/go we have movement from or to the speaker. Professor L. Lipka also points out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets. He gives serially ordered sets, such as “scales (hot, warm, tepid, cool, cold); 31

colour words (black, grey, white); ranks (marshal, general, colonel, major, captain) There are gradable examination marks: excellent, good, average, fair, poor [35, 152]. The type of opposition can be met in qualitative adjectives and their derivatives, e.g. beautiful - ugly, to beautify - to uglify, beauty - ugliness. It can be also met in words denoting feelings and states, e.g. respect - scorn, to respect - to scorn, respectful - scornful, to live - to die, alive - dead, life - death. It can be also met among words denoting direction in space and time, e.g. here - there, up - down, now never, before - after, day - night, early - late etc. If a word is polysemantic it can have several antonyms, e.g. the word bright has the antonyms dim, dull, sad. The Synonyms and Antonyms form an integral part of the English language. Acquaintance with the vocabulary of the English language is a necessity for effective expression either in written or in an oral form. The synonym is a word or a phrase that means the same as another word or a phrase. The antonym is a word or phrase that is opposite in meaning to a particular word or phrase in the same language. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. Which words do we call homonyms? 2. What is the traditional classification of homonyms? 3. What classification was given by I.V. Arnold? 4. Say why synonyms are one of the language’s most important expressive means. 5. What is the dominant synonym? 6. What types of synonyms were defined in V.V. Vinogradov’s classification system? 7. What do the terms denotation and connotation express? 8. To which parts of speech do most antonyms belong? 9. What classification of antonyms is given by V.N. Comissarov? 10. What types of antonyms are defined by L. Lipka?

Seminar Tasks: 1. Classify homonyms into homonyms proper, homographs and homophones. Explain the meanings of these words in English. а row [rou] – a row [rau], a fan – a fan, right (adj.) – right (n.), a piece – peace, bean (n.) – been (v.), a spring – spring (n), a bow [bəu] (n.) – to bow [bau] (v.), to tear [teə]- (v.) – a tear [tiə] (n.), sea (n.) – see (v.), a band – a band, week (n.)– weak (adj.), desert [`dezət]-(n.) – to desert [di`zə:t](v.), flour (n.) – a flower, a mole – a mole. 2. Work with the dictionary. Find fourteen homonyms, explain the meanings of these words in English and give their classification. 3. Point out the synonymic dominant of each group and explain the connotative meanings of the following synonyms: journey – voyage – trip – tour – cruise – travel – hitch-hiking; road – path – way – track – highway; disease – illness – malady – ailment; to be anxious – to worry – to trouble – to bother. 4. Give the several types of synonyms to the following words. Explain their meanings. to walk, to discuss, to love, angry, famous, pretty, snack, alone, vacant, various. 5. Find antonyms for the words given below. Deep, narrow, clever, to reject, strong, bright, sad, to open, big, young. 32

6. Choose the correct prefixes (il-, in-, im-, ir-, un-, mis-, dis-) to the following words: name, responsible, print, manage, legal, human, experienced, important, prove, honest, patient, perfect, liberal, correct, moral, accurate, obedient, pleased, skilled, relevant, stable, regular, reasonable, expensive, capable, formal, patient.

Lecture 8. Euphemisms  Etymology.  The Evolution of Euphemisms.

Etymology The word euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemo, meaning "auspicious/good/fortunate speech/kind" which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eu (ευ), "good/well" + pheme (φήμη) "speech/speaking". The eupheme was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud; etymologically, the eupheme is the opposite of the blaspheme (evil-speaking). The primary example of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as Persephone, Hecate, or Nemesis. Euphemism was itself used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning 'to keep a holy silence' (speaking well by not speaking at all). Euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak, to make it less troublesome for the speaker. It also may be a substitution of a description of something or someone rather than the name, to avoid revealing secret, holy, or sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. Euphemisms and the process of euphemizing have the following characteristics:  A euphemism is an expression substituted for another expression which has acquired a negative connotation.  A euphemism is an expression which is a synonym for a word or phrase of lower status.  A euphemism is an expression deliberately created to raise the status of a concert. When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public relations and politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes, using euphemisms is equated to politeness. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word "cancer") instead of this the descriptive way is used – a mortal disease. The doctors use technical terminology when discussing cancer in front of patients, e.g. c.a. or neopsia, neoplastic process, carcinoma.

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The Evolution of Euphemisms Euphemisms may be formed in a number of ways. Periphrasis or circumlocution is one of the most common — to "speak around" a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas. To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as a swear word) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation. There are number of taboo deformations in English, of which many refer to the infamous four-letter words. In American English, words which are unacceptable on television, such as fuck, may be represented by deformations such as freak — even in children's cartoons. Some subjects are considered personal, sensitive or taboo in English. For this reason, people avoid mentioning them by name and instead use a "euphemism" or humorous expression to refer to them. The word lavatory has naturally produced many euphemisms. Here some of them: powder room, washroom, restroom, ladies’ room, gentlemen’s room. Pregnancy is another topic for delicate using this word. There are some substitutes for the adjective pregnant: an interesting condition, in a delicate condition, in the family way, with a baby coming, with child expecting. The keys to understanding euphemisms are the concepts of avoidance and etiquette. We euphemize when we are avoiding giving offence. As it has been noticed the numbers of euphemisms in the sphere of alcohol are over 2000. Such as cod, fap, sponge, tightwa, fresh etc. Above all euphemisms are used in polite company to avoid the typical speech of power levels of society. This term refers to the substitution of a milder expression for a harsh or unacceptable one. This includes classical euphemisms such as “pass on” for “die”. Euphemisms for death and murder. The English language contains numerous euphemisms related to dying, death, burial, and the people and places which deal with death. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word "death" was to invite death; where to "draw Death's attention" is the ultimate bad fortune — a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English-speaking cultures for precisely this reason. It may be said that one is not dying, but fading quickly because the end is near. People who have died are referred to as having passed away or passed or departed. "Kick the bucket" seems innocuous enough until one considers that such might be fatal if such removes a commonplace stand that prevents a suicidal hanging. Deceased is a euphemism for "dead", and sometimes the deceased is said to have gone to a better place, but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of Heaven. Humorous expressions to refer to death meet your maker: "He's gone to meet his maker." six feet under: "I won't worry about money When I'm six feet under." pushing up daisies: "Last I heard about him, he's pushing up daisies." 34

snuff it: "I've heard that poor old Ernie has snuffed it." popped his clogs: "Harold popped his clogs last year." kick the bucket: "So Joe has finally kicked the bucket." Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. What is the euphemism? 2. The etymology of the word euphemism. 3. The evolution of euphemisms. 4. Euphemisms for death and murder.

Seminar Task: 1. Analyze the following euphemisms. curvy, fluffy, full-figured or heavy-set instead of “fat” lost their lives for “were killed” ill-advised for “very poor or bad” pre-owned vehicles for “used cars” a student being held back a grade level for “having failed or flunked the grade level” sanitation worker (or, sarcastically, sanitation officer or sanitation engineer), or garbologist for “bin man” or “garbage man” alcohol-related, single-car crash for “drunk driver” specific about what one eats for being a picky eater intellectually challenged for “being mentally retarded” adult entertainment for “pornography” legal capital for “stated capital” gender reassignment for “sex change” differently abled for “disabled” chemical dependency for “drug addiction” dual-diagnosed for having both mental illness and drug problems 2. Control work on the analysis of language units. Each student gets ten language units of different types (synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, euphemisms) and analyze them from all points of view which were studied during the seminars.

Lecture 9. Phraseology     

Phraseological Units or Idioms. Principles of Classification. Semantic Classification. Structural Classification. Syntactical Classification.

Phraseological Units or Idioms The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning and 35

compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith «Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups. Idioms are widely used in standard spoken and written English today and can be defined as established and essential speech units with fixed and constant structures. An idiom is a combination of words that has a meaning, that is different from the meanings of the individual words themselves. It is a phrase which does not always follow the normal rules of meaning and grammar. The famous linguist J.S. McMardie says that “many idioms are examples of strong collocations, for example it is difficult to see why spill the beans should mean (to give away secret information).The words and grammar that make up this idiom are almost impossible to change, without changing the meaning” [38, 352]. E.g.: To sit on the fence – can literally mean that one is sitting on a fence. However, the idiomatic meaning of this phrase is “that one is not making a clear choice regarding some issue”. Many idioms are unique and fixed in their grammatical structure. The expression to sit on the fence cannot become “to sit on a fence” or “to sit on the fences”. Phraseological units, or idioms, as they are called by most western scholars, represent the most colourful and expressive part of the language’s vocabulary. It reflects the nation’s customs, facts, traditions of the past history. E.g.: Dark horse – actually not a horse but a person about whom no one knows anything definite and so one is not sure what can be expected from him. It is connected with the British tradition to go horse races and bid as to what horse can win the race. Often the race is won by an unknown horse, hence the expression dark horse. E.g.: A white elephant is not a person but a valuable object which involves great expense or trouble for its owner, out of all proportion to its usefulness or value, and which is also difficult to dispose of. This phrase came from interesting story, when the king Siam presented such elephants to the people whom he wanted to ruin because it was very expensive to have these animals in the household. Principles of Classification The idioms can be classified on the basis of different principles. The traditional and the oldest principle for classification is based on their original content and it might be termed as thematic. On this principle they are classified according to their sources of origin, referring to different spheres of human activity, life of nature, natural phenomena etc. Prof. L.P. Smith distinguishes idioms connected with the sea, agriculture, wild and domestic animals, art, etc. E.g.: in deep waters (in trouble), couch potato (about 36

a man who spends a lot of time watching television), crocodile tears (insincere tears for effect only) etc. English idioms have many colloquial expressions with parts of human body, they are called somatic phrases. E.g.: face to face (person to person), to lose one’s head (panic, lose control), under one’s nose (very close, easily noticed), easy on the eye (pleasant to look at) etc. In modern linguistics, there is considerable confusion about the terminology associated with these word-groups. Most Russian scholars use the term “phraseological unit” which was first introduced by Academician V.V. Vinogradov. There are many phraseological units and the differences between them are also a lot. That’s why it is important to say that phraseological units, or idioms, have different classifications based on their phraseology have been described by many authors. The most comprehensive are the doctoral theses of N.N. Amosova and A.V. Koonin. The detailed groups are given in the books on English idioms by L.P. Smith and W. Ball. The most significant theories advanced for Russian Phraseology are those by V.V. Vinogradov. Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by Academician V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units: phraseological combinations, phraseological unities, phraseological fusions (фразеологические сочетания, единства и сращения). Phraseological combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, i.e. the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meaning of its constituents. E.g.: to have a bite, to be a good hand at smth, bitter truth, swam neck, dog’s life, to skate on thin ice (to take risks) etc. Phraseological unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning i.e. meaning of the unit does not correspond to meanings of its constituent parts. They are motivated units, where the meaning of the whole unit can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical). E.g.: to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), to stick to one’s word (to promise), old salt (experienced sailor), to lose one’s heart to smb (to fall in love). Collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc. Phraseological fusions are word-groups with completely changed meanings, they are not motivated units, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components. These phrases are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages. E.g.: a white feather, to cut somebody dead means (to rudely ignore somebody, to pretend not to know or recognize him), a skeleton in the cupboard (a shameful or dangerous family secret), red tape (bureaucratic methods), to come a cropper (to come to a disaster). 37

Structural Classification of Phraseological Units Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes. Among one-top units he points out three structural types; a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.; b) units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc. c) prepositional – nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, on time, in time, on the point of etc. Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types: a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others. b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc. c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs, back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g. cakes and ale, as busy as a bee. Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups: a) noun-phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g., a dog’s life, a big shot, redbrick university, Green Beret; b) verb-phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the logjam, to rain cats and dogs, to be on the beam, to nose out , to make headlines; 38

c) adjective-phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, safe and sound, as thin as a rail, high and mighty; d) adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream, like a dog with two tails; e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of; f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. Catch me!, Well, I never! Take it easy, etc. In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations, e.g. The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am easy. The classification system of phraseological units suggested by professor A.V. Koonin is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. This classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and subdivided into four classes.  Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the ones with one meaningful word: wear and tear, well and good.  Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the type: to break the ice – the ice is broken, that is, verbal word-groups are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.  Phraseological units include interjectional word-groups.  Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings. These four classes are divided into sub-groups according to the type of structure of the phraseological units. The classification system includes a considerable number of subtypes and gradations and objectively reflects the wealth of types of phraseological units existing in the language. It is based on scientific and modern criteria and represents an earnest attempt to take into account all the relevant aspects of phraseological units and combine them within the borders of one classification system. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. Ways of forming phraseological units. 2. What is the thematic classification of phraseological units? 3. Semantic classification of phraseological units. 4. Structural classification of phraseological units. 5. Syntactical classification of phraseological units. 6. The classification system suggested by professor A.V. Koonin.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Analyze the following phraseological units according to their meanings, structure, syntactical function and the way they are formed. Give Russian equivalents. to get into a jam, to stick your neck out, to be behind scenes, to be under someone’s thumb, to lend someone a hand, to pay through the nose, to jump out of one’s skin, as smart as paint, it’s my cup of tea, to be in the dog house, the green power, Green Berets, to get off one’s back, a home bird, a cat nap, bosom friends, bitter truth, to ride the high horse, to live from hand to mouth, Nuts and bolts, to leap into marriage, to nose out, Berlin wall, to fill in smth., a close mouth catches no flies, rain cats and dogs, to take the bull by the horns, a big bug, to be keen on, a fish out of water, to be green, a black look, from head to foot. 39

2. Complete the following similes. Translate the phraseological units into Russian. A. B. 1. as busy as … a. soot 2. as sharp as … b. a lamb 3. as cold as … c. a mouse 4. as white as … d. ice 5. as bold as … e. a fox 6. as changeable as … f. a razor 7. as greedy as… g. a bird 8. as free as … h. brass 9. as quiet as … i. a cat 10. as black as … j. a pig 11. as blind as … k. ABC 12. cunning as … l. a bat 13. as gentle as … m. chalk 14. as easy as … n. a bee 3. Control tasks for individual work of students. Write English idioms with key words from special categories:  Somatic (parts of the body);  Animals;  Colors;  Time, number. 4. Students choose ten phraseological units from Koonin’s dictionary of phraseological units and a unilingual dictionary of idioms and analyze them in the written form. During the seminar they analyze their phrasological units chosen from dictionaries at the blackboard.

Lecture 10. Differences between the British and the American Variants of English.    

Differences in Pronunciation. Differences in Spelling. Grammar System of American English. Vocabulary Differences.

Differences in Pronunciation The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English which has distinctive features of its own. Sometimes these varieties are called Americanisms and may be defined as words or set expressions peculiar to the English Language. The American variant of the English Language differs from British English in pronunciation, some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary. English gives a broad sound [a:] to words like bath, dance the Americans pronounce these words softly as [ǽ ] like the word flat. The diphthong [ou] exists in both languages, but in English pronunciation the sound is much narrower. Differences in pronunciation of individual words are quite numerous. See the table. 40

Words schedule clerk issue vase lientenant direction

British [ ſedju:l] [kla:k ] [ isſju:] [va:z ] [ leftenent] [ direkſən]

American [skedju:l] [ klə:k] [isju: ] [veiz ] [ lju:tenent] [dairekſən ]

Differences in Spelling There are some differences between British and American usage in spelling. So many words ending in -bre, -tre in Britain (centre, theatre, metre, fibre) are spelled -er in the US (center, theater, meter, fiber). Words ending in -our in Britain (honour, colour, labour) are usually spelled -or in the US (honor, color, labor). Most verbs ending in -ize or -ise are spelled -ize in the US with the exception of a small number of verbs like advertise, devise, surprise having different origin. The words ending in -ce or -se are spelled in American use -se: defense, offense, while in British use they are spelled defence, offence. In British use, words of more than one syllable ending in -l and forming derivative double the l before a vowel: travel – travelling – travelled, cancel – cancelling – cancelled. In American use it is not doubled: travel – traveling – traveled, etc. There is a tendency of simplifying the spelling of some words: speciality for British, specialty for American; plough, judgement they are British and plow, judgment for American. Grammar System of American English The first distinctive feature is the use of the auxiliary verb will in the first person singular and plural of Future Indefinite Tense, in contrast to the British normative shall. The second distinctive feature consists in a tendency to substitute the Past Indefinite Tense for the Present Perfect Tense, especially in oral communication. An American is likely to say I saw this movie where an Englishman will probably say I’ve seen this film. An Englishman says: I’ve lost my key today. Have you seen it? An American says: I lost my key. Did you see it? We can see the differences in following structure: in British English – to have a bath, to have a shower, to have a break in American – to take a bath, to take a shower, to take a break. There are some differences in using irregular verbs. See the table. British English to get – got -got to spill – spilt - spilt to burn – burnt - burnt to spoil –spoilt -spoilt

American English to get – got – gotten to spill – spilled – spilled to burn – burned – burned to spoil – spoiled – spoiled 41

Preposition differences. At the weekend/ at weekends At the front Fill in Get on (with somebody)

On the weekend/ on weekends In the front Fill out Get along (with somebody)

Vocabulary Differences between British and American usage as well as differences in shade of meaning in the common stock of words are also numerous. Americanisms represented by name of objects are called differently in the United States and in England. See the table. British English Chemist’s tin sweets luggage railway autumn bookshop billion milliard

American English Drug store can candy baggage railroad fall bookstore trillion billion

All this brings us to conclusion that the language spoken in the United States is generally identical with that spoken in Great Britain. The grammar systems are fully the same. The American vocabulary is marked by certain peculiarities which are not sufficiently numerous or pronounced to justify the claims that there exists an independent American language. The language spoken in the USA can be regarded as a regional variety of English with its own peculiarities. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. What are the differences in pronunciation? 2. What are the differences in spelling? 3. Grammar System of American English. 4. What are the preposition differences? 5. Differences in vocabulary system in American and British English.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Write the following words according to the British norms of spelling. Woolen, humor, color, check, program, catalog, center, favor, jewelry. 2. Individual work. Find from the dictionaries the British and American English words and explain their differences. 3. Match the words in American English with their British equivalents. 42

American English words: 1. baggage, 2. blow-out, 3.gasoline, 4.round trip 5. line, 6. sidewalk, 7. subway, 8. tag, 9. truck, 10. vacation, 11. wire, 12.yard. British English words: A) holiday, B) telegram, C) garden, D) pavement, E) luggage, F) label, G) petrol, H) underground, I) queue, J) puncture, K) lorry, L) return. American English words: 1. apartment, 2. candy, 3. cookies, 4. drapes, 5. elevator, 6. eraser, 7. faucet, 8. French fries, 9. flashlight, 10.garbage, 11.purse, 12.vest. British English words: A) lift, B) chips, C) handbag, D) undershirt, E) rubber, F) tap, G) sweets, H) biscuits, I) rubbish, J) flat, K) torch, L) curtain.

Lecture 11. Formal and Informal Styles of Speech    

Formal Style of Speech. Informal Style of Speech: Colloquial words. Slang words. Dialect words. English Dialects in Great Britain. The Dialects of the United States.

Formal Styles of Speech It is known that people in different situations of speech communication choose different kinds of words and structures to express their thoughts. The process of speech in each particular case can have a specific expressive means which depends on its stylistic characteristics or on the functional style it represents. The term functional style is determined as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication. Functional style is classified into two groups: Formal and Informal styles of speech. Formal Style is restricted to formal situations. In general, formal words fall into two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a group of learned-words. Professional communication includes special words, such as scientific, professional, trade, court system and other terminological words. Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary: medical, legal, historical, special language of musicians, artists, linguists etc. Learned-words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is a language of poetry and fiction literature. To learned-words also belongs official, bureaucratic language, official letters and documents. Informal Styles of Speech Informal Style of speech is usually used in the circle of family, relatives, friends. Informal Style is relaxed, free-and-easy, familiar speech. It may be informal talk of well-educated people considerably differs from the special language. Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into three types: colloquial, slang and dialect words. 43

Colloquial words are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. The term colloquialism implies that the words called colloquial are limited by their sphere of usage and, if used in a wrong situation (e.g. in a student’s composition, in a conversation with an official acquaintance or with one higher in authority), may produce the impression of impoliteness or even rudeness. E.g. He is a jolly chap = (Он, парень что надо). The stylistically neutral way of putting it is: He is a good (fine) man. How are the kids? = The stylistically neutral way: How are your children? I’m all right = the stylistically neutral way: I feel quite well. I’m feeling down = the stylistically neutral way: I‘m depressed. Slang words are identified and distinguished by contrasting them to standard literary vocabulary. They are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent topics of conversation or discourse. Sometimes slang words sound vulgar, cynical and harsh. For example, the various slang words for money, such as beans, brass, dibs, chink etc. Slang synonyms for the word head are attic, nut, brainpan, rotters. Slang is used by persons of every grade of life, it changes with fashion and taste and sometimes leaves permanent and recognized additions to language. Slang words which have been used in speech for certain period of time, people get accustomed to them and then accepted into literary vocabulary. For example, the following words: donkey, fun, shabby, snob, teenager, trip, guys etc. Slang can be subdivided according to the sphere of usage, into general slang and special slang. General slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group. Special slang is peculiar for some groups: teenagers’ slang, students’ slang, prisoners’ slang, sea slang, slang of the thieves and vagrants, slang of professional gambler etc. Dialect words. A dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar. Local lexical peculiarities are noticeable in specifically dialectal words presenting the local customs, social life and natural conditions. British linguists distinguish dialect from accent, which refers only to pronunciation. Thus, any educated English speaker can use the vocabulary and grammar of Standard English, but different speakers use their own local words for everyday objects or actions, regional accent, or Received pronunciation, which within the U.K. is considered an accent distinguished by class rather than by region. American linguists, however, include pronunciation differences as part of the definition of regional or social dialects. The combination of differences in pronunciation and use of local words may make some English dialects almost unintelligible from one region to another. English Dialects in Great Britain In Great Britain there are five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. The Northern dialect closely resembles the southernmost Scottish dialects. It retains many old Scandinavian words, such as bairn for 44

child, and not only keeps its r's, but often rolls them. The most outstanding version is Geordie, the dialect of the Newcastle area. -er > /æ/, so father > /fædhæ/. /ou/ > /o:'/, so that boat sounds like each letter is pronounced. talk > /ta:k/ work > /work/ book > /bu:k/ my > me me > us our > wor you plural > youse Southern English engages in r-dropping, that is, r's are not pronounced after vowels, unless followed by another vowel. Instead, vowels are lengthened or have an /'/ off-glide, so fire becomes /fai'/, far becomes /fa:/, and so on. One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of the working class of East End London: – initial /h/ is dropped, so house becomes [aus] or even [a:s]. – /th/ and /dh/ become /f/ and /v/ respectively: think > /fingk/, brother > /brœv'/. – [t] between vowels becomes a glottal stop: water > /wo?i/. – diphthongs change, sometimes dramatically: time > /toim/, brave > /braiv/, etc. The Dialects of the United States (with approximate areas): Northern  Northern New England (Maine and New Hampshire)  Boston area (eastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island)  Northeastern (Connecticut, western Massachusetts, Vermont, upstate New York, lower Michigan, northern Illinois.  New York City area (including most of Long Island and northern New Jersey)  North central (upper Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas). Northern midland  Philadelphia area (inc. eastern Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, Delaware, and the Baltimore area).  Pittsburgh area (western Pennsylvania)  Ohio-Plains (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas). Southern midland Appalachia (western Virginia, eastern Kentucky, eastern Tennessee). ArkansasOklahoma. Southern  Virginia (eastern), North Carolina (eastern), South Carolina, Georgia-Florida.  Mississippi-Gulf (including Alabama, Louisiana, western Tennessee, eastern Texas, western Kentucky Western (Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California), western Texas. 45

Dialect peculiarities modify the national language spoken in different parts of country. Today the dialect is practically used to denote the old dialects which are now dying away, and to denote the regional variants, a literary standard with some feature of local dialects. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. In what situations is the formal style of speech used? 2. What are the main kinds of Informal words? 3. Colloquial words. 4. Slang words. 5. Dialect words. 6. What is the difference between Standard English and Dialect words? 7. The five main groups of dialects in Great Britain. 8. The dialects of the United States.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Match the Slang words with Standard English: Slang Standard English 1. pal, mate a. child 2. guy, fellow, bloke b. dismiss 3. kid c. good 4. cops d. isn’t, aren’t 5. buck e. You are cheating (deceive) me 6. quid f. pound 7. broose g. friend 8. down h. man 9. clear off i. police 10. chuck, sling j. alcohol 11. fire, sack k. dollar 12. great l. Thank you 13. Sure m. Be careful! 14. Watch it! n. to throw 15. You’re having me on o. Of course! 16. Ta. p. go away 17. ain’t (isn’t, aren’t, hasn’t, haven’t) r. depressed 2. Compose the following brief situations using formal and informal words. Your style should suit both the subject and the situation. a. A short review on a theatrical production or film. b. A discussion between two teenagers about the same play or film. c. A short formal letter to a professor, in which you tell him that you cannot come to the university and defend your course project. (Explain the reason). d. An informal letter on the same subject to an intimate friend.

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Part II

Lecture 12. Grammar as a linguistic science    

The Aims of the Theoretical Course of Grammar. Two parts of Grammar: Morphology & Syntax. Grammatical Meaning. Grammatical Category. The Notion of Opposition.

1. The Aims of the Theoretical Course of Grammar Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. Language is social by nature; it is inseparably connected with the people who are its creators and users; it grows and develops together with the development of society. Any language cannot exist without words, which are necessary for any language. But words by themselves don't complete the language. Words can be a language only in case when they are organized. It defines their usage and allows a language to have a meaningful character. Language is a unity of its lexical, sound and grammatical structures. The aims of the theoretical course of Grammar are to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, i.e. to scientifically analyze and define its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of utterances out of words in the process of speech making and to give an analysis of English Grammatical structure in the light of general principles of linguistics. The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. In Modern English there is following system of parts of speech: 1. The Noun. 2. The Adjective. 3. The Pronoun. 4. The Adverb. 5. The Numeral. 6. The Verb. 7. The Preposition. 8. The Conjunction. 9. The Interjection. The parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, in form and function. In modern linguistics, parts of speech are described according to three criteria: semantic, formal and functional.  The semantic criterion regards the grammatical forms of the whole class of words (general grammatical meaning). 47

 The formal criterion reveals paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the words, their specific inflectional and derivational features.  The functional criterion concerns the syntactic function of words in the sentences and their combinability. Thus, when we are characterizing any part of speech we have to describe: a) its semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its syntactic peculiarities. All the words of the language can be divided into – notional words which denote things, objects, qualities, notions, etc. and function or grammatical words having no references of their own in the objective reality, most of them are used only as grammatical means to form up utterances. It is commonly recognized that the notional parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, numeral, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. The functional parts of speech are articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions. The division of language units into notional and function words reveals the interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of meaning. In notional words the lexical meaning is predominant. In function words the grammatical meaning dominates over the lexical one. However, in actual speech the border line between notional and function words is not always clear. For example, some verbs can function both as notional and function words: the verb to have (I have a car) is a notional verb; as a modal verb it is a function word: (I have to do it). The verb to look (He looked at me) – notional verb, (He looked tired) it is a function word – link-verb. 2. Two parts of Grammar: Morphology & Syntax Today grammar is considered to be a system of contact connections both of morphemes (as the smallest meaningful units within the word) and sentences (as the largest meaningful units) within the speech complexes. That is why grammar is limited by the spheres of morphemes, words, sentences and speech complexes. There are two main parts of grammar – morphology and syntax. The structure, classification and combinability of word are studied by a branch of linguistics called Morphology. Morphology deals with the internal structure of words, peculiarities of their grammatical categories and their semantics. The morphological system of a language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words. It follows from this that morphology as part of grammatical theory faces the two meaningful units: the morpheme and the word. “The morpheme is not identified otherwise than part of the word; the functions of the morpheme are effected only as the corresponding constituent functions of the word as a whole” [55, 12 ]. For instance, the form of the verbal past tense is built up by means of the grammatical suffix: train-ed, publish-ed, accept-ed etc. The word is the main unit of morphology and the main expressive unit of human language which ensures the thought-forming function of the language. It is also the basic nominative unit of language with the help of which the naming function of language is realized. The grammatical meaning of a word is not defined by its lexical meaning. 48

The lexical meanings of such words as “a table”, “a pen” are different but the grammatical meanings are the same because both of them are nouns of the same number and case. If we take such words as: table – tables, pen – pens, chair – chairs, friend – friends and try to compare them, it will be clear enough that they have different forms. On the right-hand column we can see words with -s at the end. We know that these nouns are in plural forms. Such words table and tables have the different grammatical forms, that means the variants of one and the same word differ by some additional abstract meanings (they have the same root “table'”), but the form table means singular and the form tables – plural. Such abstract meanings of plurality and singularity, which are additional to the main lexical meaning, can be regarded as grammatical categories. Syntax deals with the structure, classification and combinability of sentences. The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a relevant communicative purpose. Any coherent connection of words having an informative destination is effected within the framework of the sentence. Therefore the sentence is the main object of syntax as part of the grammatical theory. 3. Grammatical meaning. Grammatical category The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word, including everything as a thing or object (e.g. table, peace, boy). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unities a whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness. The grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalised grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. The verb is characterized by the system of grammatical categories: tense, aspect, mood, voice, person and number. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities. Some adverbs indicate time or place of an action (yesterday, here, tomorrow). 49

There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words in English belong to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and some modal words. Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form (e.g. singular – plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality. It may be shown with the help of a triangle model: Conceptual reality

Objective reality

Lingual reality

Conceptual category

Objective category Grammatical category

It follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding objective categories. For example, the objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the objective category of quantity finds its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are called referential grammatical categories. However, not all of the grammatical categories have references in the objective reality just a few of them do not correspond to anything in the objective reality. Such categories correlate only with conceptual matters: Conceptual correlate = Lingual correlate They are called significational categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and degree. Speaking about the grammatical category of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does not refer to anything in the objective reality – it expresses the speaker’s attitude to what he says. 4. The Notion of opposition Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms (e.g. the grammatical category of number – singular and plural forms). The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is called opposition – book – books (unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical categories find their realization through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is realized through the opposition singular – plural. 50

Taking all the above mentioned into consideration, we may define the grammatical category as the opposition between two mutually exclusive form-classes (a form-class is a set of words with the same explicit grammatical meaning). Means of realization of grammatical categories may be synthetic (near – nearer) and analytic (beautiful – more beautiful). Transposition and neutralization of morphological forms. In the process of communication grammatical categories may undergo the processes of transposition and neutralization. Transposition is the use of a linguistic unit in an unusual environment or in the function that is not characteristic of it (He is a lion). In the sentence He is coming tomorrow the paradigmatic meaning of the continuous form is reduced and a new meaning appears – that of a future action. Transposition always results in the neutralization of a paradigmatic meaning. Neutralization is the reduction of the opposition to one of its members: custom :: customs – x :: customs; x :: spectacles. Seminar Questions: Consider your answers to the following. 1. The aims of the theoretical course of Grammar. 2. The description of parts of speech according to three criteria. 3. Notional and functional words. 4. The morphological system of a language. 5. Grammatical meanings. 6. Grammatical categories. 7. The notion of opposition.

Lecture 13. The Noun     

General Characteristics. The Category of Number. The Category of Case. The Functions of Nouns in the Sentence. Article Determination.

1. General Characteristics The noun is the central lexical unit of language. The noun as a part of speech has the categorial meaning of “substance or thingness”. It is the main nominative unit of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterised by three criteria: semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical categories) and syntactical (functions, distribution). Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality. According to different principles of classification nouns fall into several subclasses:  according to the type of nomination they may be proper and common;  according to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate where animate nouns in their turn fall into human and non-human. 51

 according to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable which are divided into concrete and abstract. (See the scheme). Mary 1. Proper 2. Animate 3. Countable

cattle 1. Common 2. Animate 3. Uncountable

This set of subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the different principles of classification. Morphological features of the noun. In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into: simple, derived ( stem + affix, affix + stem – thingness); compound ( stem+ stem – armchair ) and composite (the Hague). The noun has morphological categories of number and case. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender. Syntactic features of the noun. The noun can be used in the sentence in all syntactic functions but predicate. Speaking about noun combinability, we can say that it can go into right-hand and left-hand connections with practically all parts of speech. That is why practically all parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners. However, the most common noun determiners are considered to be articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns themselves in the common and genitive case. 2. The Category of Number The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity. The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form, the singular form. The category of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness. The number category is realized only within subclass of countable nouns. The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the notional quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote one object while the plural form may be used to denote one object consisting of several parts. The singular form may denote: a) oneness (individual separate object – a cat); b) generalization (the meaning of the whole class – The cat is a domestic animal); c) indiscreteness (нерасчлененность or uncountableness ) - money, milk, cheese. The plural form may denote: a) the existence of several objects (cats); b) the inner discreteness (внутренняя расчлененность), pluralia tantum, jeans. To sum it up, all nouns may be subdivided into the following groups: the nouns in which the opposition of explicit discreteness/indiscreteness is expressed: cat – cats; the nouns in which this opposition is not expressed explicitly but is revealed by syntactical and lexical correlation in the context. There are two groups here: 52

 Singularia tantum (the Latin term). Nouns are used only in the singular form. They cover different groups of nouns: proper names, abstract nouns, material nouns, collective nouns, e.g. sand, oil, wine, wool, curiosity, progress, knowledge, friendship, happiness.  Pluralia tantum. It covers the names of objects consisting of several parts: names of things, tools or clothes (trousers, scales, shorts, scissors); names of sciences (mathematics, economics, physics); names of diseases (diabetes, measles, rabies); sports and games (billiards, athletics, gymnastics, draughts), etc. The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the suffix -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz ] as presented in the forms: dog — dogs, clock — clocks, box — boxes. If the noun has the ending in letter f – fe, in plural form it is changed into – ves. For example, leaf – leaves, wolf – wolves, wife – wives. There are some exceptions: chiefs, handkerchiefs, roofs, safes. The productive formal mark correlates with the absence of the number suffix in the singular form of the noun. The semantic content of the unmarked form, as has been shown above, enables the grammarians to speak of the zero-suffix of the singular in English. The other, non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are:  vowel interchange in several relict forms, e.g. man — men, woman — women, tooth — teeth, etc.;  the archaic suffix -(e)n supported by phonemic interchange in a couple of other relict forms, e.g. ox – oxen, child – children, cow – kine, brother – brethren;  the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns, e.g. formula – formulae, phenomenon – phenomena, alumnus – alumni, basis – bases, crisis – crises etc.;  in some cases the plural form of the noun is homonymous with the singular form, e.g. sheep, deer, fish, swine, code, species, craft etc. 3. The Category of Case Case expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence (my sister’s coat). The category of case correlates with the objective category of possession. The case category in English is realized through the opposition: The Common Case: The Possessive Case (sister: sister’s). However, in modern linguistics the term “genitive case” is used instead of the “possessive case” because the meanings rendered by the “`s” sign are not only those of possession. The inflexion – “s” is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants, e.g. boy’s, girl’s; [s] after voiceless consonants, e.g. student’s, wife’s; [iz] after sibilants, e.g. price’s, judge’s. The inflexion “s” is added to singular nouns and also to irregular plural nouns, e.g. men’s, children’s, women’s, people’s. A noun in the genitive case generally precedes another noun which is its headword. This may be called the dependent genitive. The relation between the noun in the genitive and its headword may be of two kinds: 53

1. The noun in the genitive case may denote a particular person or thing, as my mother’s room, the man’s voice. This kind of genitive case is called the specifying genitive which may indicate the owner of a thing, the doer of action, the bearer of a state, e.g. my uncle’s car, the minister’s speech, my sister’s illness. The specifying genitive may be replaced if necessary by an of-phrase, e.g. the father of the boys. 2. The noun in the genitive case may refer to a whole class of similar objects. This kind of the genitive case is called the classifying genitive, e.g. sheep’s eyes (which means eyes of a certain kind but not the eyes of a particular sheep), a doctor’s degree, a soldier’s uniform, a doll’s face, an hour’s walk, summer’s day, etc. Sometimes we find the use of elements “s” and “of” together. This is called a double genitive, e.g. He was an old business client of Grandfather’s (one of Grandfather’s clients). She is the sister of my friend’s husband. A noun in the genitive case may be used without a head-word. This is called the independent genitive which is used with nouns denoting trade and relationship or with proper names. It is mainly found in prepositional phrases. e.g. I was in the grocer’s and I heard some women say it. He asked her how she liked living at her daughter’s. I bought some sausages at the butcher’s. 4. The Functions of Nouns in the Sentence The most characteristic substantive functions of the nouns are these of the subject and object in the sentence. Other syntactic functions, i.e. attribute, adverbial, and even predicative are not immediately characteristic of its substantive quality. e.g. Life consists in accepting one’s duty – (subject). You did such splendid work – (direct object). He handed the man his medal – (indirect object). She won’t listen to any advice – (prepositional object). The place was in disorder – (prepositional predicative). They elected him president of the club – (an objective predicative). He was appointed squadron commander – (a subjective predicative). 5. The Article Determination Article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation. A mere semantic observation of the articles in English, i.e. the definite article the and the indefinite article a/an, at once discloses not two, but three meaningful characterisations of the nounal referent achieved by their correlative functioning, namely: one rendered by the definite article, one rendered by the indefinite article, and one rendered by the absence (or non-use) of the article. The article itself is a special type of grammatical auxiliary. Let us examine them separately. The definite article expresses the identification or individualisation of the referent of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality. 54

E.g.: But look at the apple-tree! – But look at this apple-tree! The town lay still in the Indian summer sun. – That town lay still in the Indian summer sun. The water is horribly hot. – This water is horribly hot. It's the girls who are to blame. – It's those girls who are to blame. The indefinite article, as different from the definite article, is commonly interpreted as referring the object denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar objects; in other words, the indefinite article expresses a classifying generalisation of the noun referent, or takes it in a relatively general sense. To prove its relatively generalising functional meaning, we may use the diagnostic insertions of specifyingclassifying phrases into the construction in question; we may also employ the transformation of implicit comparative constructions with the indefinite article into the corresponding explicit comparative constructions. Cf.: We passed a water-mill. – We passed a certain water-mill. It is a very young country, isn't it? – It is a very young kind of country, isn't it? What an arrangement! – What sort of arrangement! This child is a positive nightmare. – This child is positively like a nightmare. The procedure of a classifying contrast employed in practical text-books exposes the generalising nature of the indefinite article most clearly in many cases of its use. E.g.: A door opened in the wall. – A door (not a window) opened in the wall. We saw a flower under the bush. – We saw a flower (not a strawberry) under the bush. As for various uses of nouns without an article, from the semantic point of view they all should be divided into two types. In the first place, there are uses where the articles are deliberately omitted out of stylistic considerations. We see such uses, for instance, in telegraphic speech, in titles and headlines, in various notices. E.g.: Telegram received room reserved for week end. (The text of a telegram). Conference adjourned until further notice. (The text of an announcement). Big red bus rushes food to strikers. (The title of a newspaper article). The purposeful elliptical omission of the article in cases like that is quite obvious, and the omitted articles may easily be restored in the constructions in the simplest "back-directed" refilling procedures. Cf.: The telegram is received, a room is reserved for the week-end. – The conference is adjourned until further notice – A big red bus rushes food to the strikers. Alongside of free elliptical constructions, there are cases of the semantically unspecified non-use of the article in various combinations of fixed type, such as prepositional phrases (on fire, at hand, in debt, etc.), fixed verbal collocations (take place, make use, cast anchor, etc.), descriptive coordinative groups and repetition groups (man and wife, dog and gun, day by day, etc.), and the like. These cases of traditionally fixed absence of the article are quite similar to the cases of traditionally fixed uses of both indefinite and definite articles (cf.: in a hurry, at a loss, have a look, give a start, etc.; in the main, out of the question, on the look-out, etc.). The essential points of the said classification are three in number. First. The meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most general idea of the object denoted. This meaning, which may be called the meaning 55

of "absolute generalisation", can be demonstrated by inserting in the tested construction a chosen generalising modifier (such as in general, in the abstract, at night, in conclusion, on credit). Cf.: Law (in general) begins with the beginning of human society. Steam-engine (in general) introduced for locomotion a couple of centuries ago now has become absolute. Second. The absence of the article before the uncountable noun corresponds to the two kinds of generalisation: both relative and absolute. To decide which of the two meanings is realised in any particular case, the described tests should be carried out alternately. Cf.: John laughed with great bitterness (that sort of bitterness: relative generalisation). The subject of health (in general: absolute generalisation) was carefully avoided by everybody. Coffee (a kind of beverage served at the table: relative generalisation) or tea, please? Coffee (in general: absolute generalisation) stimulates the function of the heart. Third. The absence of the article before the countable noun in the plural, likewise, corresponds to both kinds of generalisation, and the exposition of the meaning in each case can be achieved by the same semantic tests. Cf.: Stars, planets and comets (these kinds of objects: relative generalisation) are different celestial bodies (not terrestrial bodies: relative generalisation). Wars (in general: absolute generalisation) should be eliminated as means of deciding international disputes. The essential grammatical features of the articles exposed in the above considerations and tests leave no room for misinterpretation at the final, generalising stage of analysis. The data obtained show that the English noun, besides the variable categories of number and case, distinguishes also the category of determination expressed by the article paradigm of three grammatical forms: the definite, the indefinite, the zero. The paradigm is generalised for the whole system of the common nouns, being transpositionally outstretched also into the system of proper nouns. Various cases of asymmetry in the realisation of this paradigm (such as the article determination of certain nouns of the types singularia tantum and pluralia tantum), similar to, and in connection with the expression of the category of number, are balanced by suppletive collocations. Cf.: progress — a kind of progress, some progress — the progress; ø news – an item of news – the news, etc. The semi-notional determiners used with nouns in the absence of articles, expose the essential article meanings as in-built in their semantic structure. Thus, the status of the combination of the article with the noun should be defined as basically analytical, the article construction as such being localised by its segmental properties between the free syntactic combination of words (the upper bordering level) and the combination of a grammatical affix with a notional stem in the morphological composition of an indivisible word (the lower bordering level). Seminar Questions: 1. Semantic features of the noun. 2. Morphological features of the noun. 56

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Syntactic features of the noun. The category of number (Singularia tantum and Pluralia tantum). Productive and non-productive forms of number. The category of case. The article determination. Classification of articles.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Define countable and uncountable nouns. Write them into two columns. Wool, air, weather, knife, tooth, work, advice, garden, crisis, mice, peace, ocean, water, sea, meat, passer-by, snow, opinion, rubbish, person, love, coffee, postman, paper (бумага, газета), ship, stamp, information, equipment, luggage, wealth, umbrella, traffic, foot. 2. Give the plural forms for the following nouns and analyze them. Hero, goose, son-in-law, handkerchief, ox, a Chinese, life, match, path, dress, half, mouse, safe, thief, belief, thesis, criterion, datum, cliff, wolf, waitress, proof, kilo, potato, studio, agendum, tattoo, a Japanese, shelf, basis. 3. Write down ten sentences with: zero article, the definite article the with plural or uncountable nouns.

Lecture 14. The Verb 1. The Lexical and Morphological Characteristics of the Verb. 2. The Verb and its Grammatical Categories:  The category of person and number.  The category of tense and aspect.  The category of voice.  The category of mood.

1. The Lexical and Morphological Characteristics of the Verb The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action or state. English verbs may be used as notional words and as structural words. Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent syntactic function in the sentence. Notional verbs possess isolatability, i.e. the ability to make a sentence alone. E.g.: Come! Read! Tell me what happened, said my mother. Their combinability is variable. When verbs are used as structural words or as semi-notional verbs they are hardly isolatable. They may preserve or lose its lexical meaning. These verbs cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence it is always closely connected with some other word. Their combinability is usually bilateral as they serve to connect words in speech. They are comparatively few in number but of very frequent occurrence, and include three peculiar groups:  modal verbs;  link-verbs;  auxiliary verbs. Modal verbs are a special group of verbs which cannot be used without additional words, though they have meaning of their own. Modals are used to express 57

the speaker’s attitude towards the action or state denoted by the infinitive with what they are grammatically associated. According to the meaning modal verbs can be classified into several groups:  verbs expressing obligation, necessity – must, have to, be to, shall, should, ought to;  verbs denoting supposition, ability, possibility, certainty/uncertainty – may (might), can (could), should, ought to, will;  verbs expressing permission, requests, offers, invitations – may (might),will(would), can (could);  verbs denoting willingness – will, would. Modals perform an action denoted by some other verb. In comparison with link verbs which can attach words of different classes, modal verbs can be followed by infinitives only without the particle to (with the exception of ought, to have, to be). Modal verbs have their own syntactical function they are used only as predicates. E.g.: You must stay here. The boy has to get to school. I can swim. Link-verbs are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have lost their meaning and are used in the compound nominal predicate. The common specifying link-verbs fall into two main groups: those that express perceptions and those that express nonperceptional, or "factual" link-verb connection. The main perceptional link-verbs are seem, appear, look, feel, taste; the main factual link-verbs are become, get, grow, remain, keep. E.g.: She felt embarrassed when she saw him. He became a doctor. Auxiliary verbs are used with other verbs to form questions, tenses, negative forms or passive phrases: to be, to do, to have, shall, will, should, would. E.g.: We have arranged to meet in the usual place. Do you take these books? She will go there. They are reading a book. According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:  simple verbs: write, known, love, live;  derived verbs, having affixes: organize, rewrite, magnify, decompose;  compound verbs, consisting of two items: to broadcast, to whitewash;  composite verbs or phrasal verbs made up of a verb with a lexical grammatical word and morpheme attached to it (give up, go away, look up, take off, put on.). There is another classification of verbs based on their combinability with words denoting the subjects and objects of the actions they name. According to this classification English verbs are divided into:  objective verbs, which are mostly associated with two nouns (or noun equivalent) denoting the subject and the object to the action named by the verb.  subjective verbs, which are associated only with nouns (noun-equivalents) denoting the subject of action. In the sentence “She sat up and kissed him fairly” the verb “kissed” is an objective verb, because it is associated with the pronoun “she” denoting the subject of the action of kissing with the pronoun “him” denoting the object of the same action. The verb “sat up” is the subjective verb since it is associated only with the pronoun “she” denoting the subject of the action. 58

In the sentence “You are interfering with him” the verb “are interfering” is also objective because it is associated with the pronoun “him” denoting the object of the action of interfering. But there is some difference between the two verbs “kissing him” and “interfering with him”. The verb “kiss” is associated with the word denoting the object of the action directly, the verb “interfering” is connected with the object word by means of preposition “with”. So, objective verbs that are connected with their object words directly are called transitive verbs, all other verbs, both subjective and objective, are called intransitive. In other words all English verbs fall into two groups:  transitive verbs require an object followed by a noun or pronoun. The object completes the meaning of the verb and in most cases a transitive verb cannot be used without it, e.g. He raised prices on some goods. She laid a book on the table.  intransitive verbs do not require any object, e.g. He lived in a small town. But polysemantic verbs may be transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another. e.g. He has changed his car – (transitive). I was glad to see her she hadn’t changed at all – (intransitive). According to the way on which the Past Indefinite and Participle II are formed, verbs are divided into 3 groups: regular verbs, irregular verbs and mixed verbs. Regular verbs are those which form their past tense and past participle by means of the inflection – d (- ed). Love – loved – loved End – ended – ended Verbs which do not form the past tense and past participle according to that general standard are called irregular, and they are subdivided into the following three classes: consonantal, vocalic and unchangeable. Consonantal verbs are those which form the past tense and the past participle by adding the consonantal inflexion – d (-ed) to the stem with or without a change of the root-vowel. Pay – paid, tell – told. Vocalic verbs are those which form their past tense and past participle by a vowel-change without addition of any consonant, except that the past participle of some of these verbs adds – en (n). To speak – spoke – spoken, to read – read – read. Some verbs do not undergo any change in the past tense and past participle, they are such verbs as to cut – cut – cut. They are called unchangeable. There are some verbs which form the past tense and past participle by combining different roots. The verb “to be” and “to go” are suppletive verbs. To go – went – gone, to be was/were – been. Mixed verbs show a mixture of consonantal and vocalic inflexion. These verbs form the Past indefinite according to regular type and the past participle – according to the irregular type: to show – showed -shown; to sew – sewed – sewn. As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, price and mood.

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2. The Grammatical Categories of the Verbs English verbs are characterized by a great variety of forms which can be divided into two main groups according to the function they perform in the sentence – the Finite forms and Non-Finite forms. The Finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicative forms (личные или предикативные формы). The Non-Finite or non-predicative forms (неличные или непредикативные формы) can have various functions. These forms are often called the Verbals or Verbids. The Finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories: (See the table). The Finite forms The grammatical categories of the verbs. 1. Person and Number 2. Tense and Aspect 3. Voice 4. Mood

Non-Finite forms or Verbals: 1. The Infinitive 2. The Participle 3. The Gerund

2.1 The categories of person and number. There are two numbers in the verb: singular & plural and three persons: first, second and third. The second person singular is not used in Modern English, it has been replaced by the second person plural (you speak). Survivals of that form are found only in poetry and high prose: The only personal inflexion of the verb in Modern English is the inflexion – s (-es) of the third person singular in the present tense of the indicative mood. The verb “to be” has three forms for person and number in the present indefinite: am/is/are; and two forms of the past indefinite; singular “was” and plural “were”. In all other cases only the combination of the verb with the personal pronoun indicates the person and number of the verb. Therefore the personal pronoun is hardly ever dropped in English as it often is in Russian where the inflexion of the verb indicates number and person. 2.2. The categories of Tense and Aspect. The categories of tense and aspect characterize an action from different points of view. The tense of a verb shows the time of the action, while the aspect of a verb deals with the development of the action. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The main divisions of time - present, past and future, are represented in English by the three primary tenses: present, past and future. These three tenses are expressed in two aspect forms: the common and the continuous. The category of aspect shows whether the action is taken in its progress or development ("continuous" aspect) or it is simply stated ("non-continuous" or "common" aspect). The common aspect: She speaks English fluently. He came an 60

hour ago. I will call on you tomorrow. The continuous aspect: He is working at his English. She was writing when I came in. I will be preparing my lessons if you come at seven. But besides these three primary tenses, the English tense system comprises three secondary tenses: the present perfect, the past perfect and the future perfect. All these perfect tenses are also expressed in two aspect forms: the common and the continuous. Thus, there are 16 tense-forms active and 10 tense-forms passive in Modern English. The continuous aspect: I am writing, I have been writing, I was writing, etc. The common aspect: I write, I wrote, I have written, etc. The continuous aspect in English considers an action in its progress, thus corresponding to the Russian imperfective aspect (несовершенный вид). As the continuous aspect gives the subject only a temporary, limited characteristics through an action or state going on at the moment of speaking, it is not used with verbs expressing actions or states of unlimited duration, such as "to love, to hate, to possess, to have, to contain," etc. which characterize the subject in general and therefore require the common aspect: I hate strong coffee. All her friends love the little girl. She has many good qualities. The problem of aspect is controversial in English grammar. One meets with different lines of approach to English aspect, which can be briefly summarized as follows: 1. Aspect is interpreted as a category of semantics rather than that of grammar. 2. Aspect is not recognized at all as a category of Modern English grammar. 3. Aspect is blended with tense and regarded as an inalienable part of the tenseaspect system. 4. Aspect and tense are recognized as two distinct grammatical categories. 2.3. The category of Voice. Voice is the grammatical category of the verb that shows the relation between the subject and the predicate verb in the sentence. There are two voices in English: the Active and the Passive. The Active voice indicates that the subject of the sentence acts, that it is the doer (agent) of an action: He is writing a letter. She gives English lessons. The Passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is acted upon, that it is the recipient of an action: The letter is being written. English lessons are given by her sister. The Passive voice is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense-aspect form and the particle of the notional verb:  the Present Indefinite – is (am, are) done;  the Past Indefinite – was (were) done;  the Future Indefinite – will (shall) be done;  the Present Perfect – has (have) been done;  the Past Perfect – had been done;  the Future Perfect – will (shall) have been done;  the Present Continuous – is (am, are) being done; 61

 the Past Continuous – was (were) being done. The interrogative form is built up by placing the (first) auxiliary verb before the subject of the sentence. E.g.: When was it done? Has the work been done?, etc. The negative form is built up by placing the particle not after the (first) auxiliary verb. E.g.: The work was not done yesterday. The article will not be written tomorrow, etc. Opinions differ as to the voice system of Modern English. Though most linguists (Smirnitsky, Barhudarov, Voronsova among them) recognize only two voices in Modern English, some speak also of the reflexive (возвратный) voice (or neuter-reflexive) expressed with the help of reflexive pronouns. He cut himself while shaving. Besides the three voices mentioned above, B.A. Ilyish finds two more voices in Modern English “the reciprocal (обоюдный) voice expressed with the help of each other, one another and "the neuter" (middle) voice” [67, 25], as in such a sentence as The door opened or The college was filling up. 2.4. The category of Mood. Mood is the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker's point of view. Thus the category of mood expresses modality. There are the following moods in English: 1. Direct moods: Indicative. Imperative. 2. Oblique moods (косвенные): Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II, Suppositional, Conditional. If the speaker considers the fulfillment of the action or state denoted by the predicate as something real, if he makes a statement of an existing fact, the verb is in the indicative mood: He speaks English. If the speaker considers the fulfillment of the action only as something desirable, possible, doubtful, depending on certain circumstances, but not as a matter of fact, the verb is in one of the oblique moods. If he were here he would help us (conditional mood). I suggest that we should go (suppositional mood). The imperative mood expresses commands or request; it urges the person addressed to fulfill an action: Open the window, please! The scholar M. Blokh thinks that the imperative is a variety of the mood of attitudes, i.e. the subjunctive. To prove this he says that “the imperative form displays every property of a form of attitudes, which can easily be shown by means of equivalent transformations” [55,189]. Consider his examples: Be – off! = I demand that you (should) be off. Do as I ask you! = I insist that you (should) do as I ask you. There is no unity of opinion concerning this category of mood in English. Thus, A. D. Smirnitsky, O.S. Akhmanova, M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya find six moods in Modern English. We have just mentioned, B.A. Ilyish, L.P. Vinokurova, V.N. Zhigadlo, A. P. Ivanova, L.L. Iofik find only three moods -indicative, imperative and subjunctive. The latter is subdivided into subjunctive I and subjunctive II. 62

Seminar Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What is the notional verb? What are the structural words? Give three groups of these verbs. What are the objective and subjective verbs? What are the transitive and intransitive verbs? The grammatical categories of the verbs. The categories of person and number. The categories of tense and aspect. The category of voice. The category of mood.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Supply the verbs in brackets in an appropriate tense. 1. The ship (to go) to the north when a storm (to break) out. 2. By this time next year you (to graduate) from the University. 3. When I (to get) to the station, I (to learn) that the bus (to leave) a few minutes before. 4. By the time he is thirty he (to become) a great pianist. 5. We (to walk) for a about two hours when at last we (to see) the road. 6. It (to rain) every day since we (to come) here. 7. I am sure that they (to complete) their work by June. 2. Use modal verbs must or have to in an appropriate form. 1. The buses were all full. I… get a taxi. 2. Tell her that she … be here by six. I insist on it 3. Railway notice: Passengers … cross the line by the footbridge. 4. If you buy that telephone set you … buy a license for it. 5. When I changed my job I … move to another flat. 6. I … do all the typing in my office. 3. Supply the correct mood of the verbs in brackets. 1. I don’t know how to address him. I wish I (to know) his name. 2. I feel as if my head (to be) on fire. 3. If only I (to know) earlier, I (to send) you a telegram. 4. He stared at me as if I (to ask) him something very odd. 5. If we (to be) in London now, we (to go) to Trafalgar Square. 6. If she (to win) a big prize in a lottery she (to give up) her job. 7. If he (to know) it was dangerous he (not come). 4. Write 15 sentences using all the tense forms. 5. Write 10 sentences in the Subjunctive and the Conditional Moods.

Lecture 15. Phrasal Verbs. Non-Finite forms of the Verb     

Phrasal Verbs. Verbals. The Infinitive. The Participle. The Gerund.

1. Phrasal Verbs Phrasal Verbs are made up of a verb and a particle. A particle can be: an adverb such as out or away. For example, go away, go out, put away. Go away – to move or travel away from a person or place, to leave home for a period of time. E.g. If he’s bothering you, tell him to go away. Put away – to put something in the place when you are not using it. E.g. He put the notebook away and stood up. Put away your toys now. A preposition such as on, in, up. 63

To be keen on – like doing something very much, with the great desire. E.g. She is keen on most kinds of art. He is not very keen on doing his hometask. To lie in – to stay in bed in the morning for longer than usually. E.g. We usually lie in on Sunday. To make up – to compose. To bring up – care for children until they are adults. Another differential point mentioned by famous scholar M. Blokh is that “the phrasal verb stems occupy an intermediary position between analytical forms of the verb and syntactic word-combinations. Among such stems two specific constructions should be mentioned” He says that “the first is a combination of the head-verb: have, give, take, and occasionally some others with a noun: the combination has as its equivalent an ordinary verb, Cf.: to have a smoke – to smoke, to give a smile – to smile, to take a stroll – to stroll” [56, 293]. The second is a combination of head-verb with a particle: stand up, go on, give up, get along. There are four main types of phrasal verbs:  Intransitive phrasal verbs have no object. The verb and particle always stay together, e.g. I grew up in the village. To check in – to arrive at a hotel and give your personal details to receptionist. E.g. We were still standing at check in. (to register) Have you checked in yet?  Transitive – separable phrasal verbs have an object and the verb and a particle can split. Object can come in two positions: after the verb or after the particle. When the object is a pronoun (me, it, this, them) it must go between the verb and the particle, and cannot go after the particle. E.g. We cut up all the vegetables into slices. We cut them up into pieces. They picked up all toys. He picked it up.  Transitive – inseparable phrasal verbs take an object and the verb and particle cannot split, where the object must come after the particle. E.g. The baby takes after his mother. He got on the bus. I bumped into your mother at the supermarket.  Prepositional phrasal verbs have two particles and cannot split. For example, to look forward to, to get on with (someone) means to have a friendly relationship with someone, to look up to (someone) means admire and respect someone. Transitive and Intransitive phrasal verbs are always used together in passive form. E.g. The place has been cleaned up. The television had been turned off. The book was laid out and illustrated. The meanings of phrasal verbs are often very different from the meaning of the verb that they are based on. For example, to hold up can mean “to cause a delay” or “to try to rob someone” and these meanings have no connection with the idea of holding something in your hands. Many phrasal verbs are metaphorical, they have transferred meaning. 64

E.g. The dog dug up an old bone. We dug up some interesting facts. E.g. Burglars had broken into their house. She broke into conversation. In each pair, the first phrasal verb has a literal meaning and refers to a physical action, while the second is metaphorical and describes an action that is similar in some way to the first. For example, when someone digs up information, they discover it, and the process seems similar to the way in which dogs find bones. 2. Non-Finite Forms of the Verb or Verbals One of the most striking features of Modern English is the system of the nonfinite forms of the verb. Besides the features common to the English verb as a whole the verbals or non-finite forms of the verb have certain features of their own distinguishing them from the finite forms.  Their lexico-grammatical meaning is of dual nature. The verbal meaning of “action, process” is presented as some kind of “substance” (gerund, infinitive) or “quality” (participle).  They have peculiar morphemes: -ing (gerund and PI), -ed (-d), -en (-n) (P2), to (infinitive).  There is duality in their combinability. They form connections with adverbs, nouns, pronouns (denoting objects of action) like finite verbs, and with finite verbs, like nouns or adverbs. There are also other combinative models typical of verbals.  Their syntactical relations are quite different from those of the finite verb. They are very rarely used as predicates but they are used in almost any other function in the sentence. 2.1 The Infinitive is historically a noun derived from a verb stem. In ME the infinitive with “to” is much commoner than the bare infinitive. In most cases the OE meaning of direction and purpose of “to” was lost, and this preposition “to” has become merely the sign of the infinitive. Although the infinitive was originally a verbal noun, in the course of its development it has acquired some characteristics of the verb and is at present intermediate between verb and noun, due to what the infinitive has some verbcharacteristics (tense, aspect, voice) and some noun-characteristics, which are the syntactical characteristics of a noun (a subject or an object of the sentence). To skate is pleasant (subject). She hopes to finish her work in three days (object). The infinitive is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes the three grammatical categories sharing them with the finite verb, namely, the aspective category of development (continuous in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categorial paradigm of the infinitive of the objective verb includes the following forms: (See the table).

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The infinitive Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous

Active to take to be taking to have taken to have been taking

Passive to be taken to have been taken –– ––

The infinitive paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes four forms. E.g.: to go – to be going, to have gone – to have been going. The continuous and perfect continuous passive can only be used occasionally, with a strong stylistic colouring. But they underlie the corresponding finite verb forms. It is the indefinite infinitive that constitutes the head-form of the verbal paradigm. 2.2 The Participle is intermediate between the verb and the adjective (it is a verbal adjective) and partially between verb and adverb (then it is a verbal adverb). As an adjective the participle is connected with a noun-word in the sentence, either as an attribute or as predicative. A broken cup is lying on the floor (attribute). The cup is broken (predicative). In its attributive or predicative function, the English participle corresponds to the Russian (причастие). The rising sun - (восходящее солнце). But as the English participle (as all ME adjectives) has lost its forms of agreement with the noun with which it is connected, and is no longer formally bound to that noun, it is sometimes attracted by the verb, thus, assuming the force of an adverbial modifier. In such cases it corresponds to the Russian деепричастие. Having finished my lessons I went home. (окончив уроки, я пошел домой). The participle has its own grammatical meaning which is closely connected with the lexical character of the verb. The participle is, in the main, formed from transitive verbs and has passive meaning. E.g.: He had suits, coats, and shirts made to order. It was a question put down by one of the correspondents. When the participle is formed from transitive terminative verbs, it denotes a state resulting from a previously accomplished action. This resultant state is simultaneous with the action expressed by the predicate verb. E.g.: On arriving at the small building on the top of the mountain, she found it locked. Alfred, left alone, stood motionless for some minutes. The participle is formed from transitive durative verb denotes an action, it is simultaneous with the action expressed by the predicate verb. E.g.: Tom was the happy husband, adoring and adored. As a verb, the participle has distinctions of voice and tense. (See the Table). 66

The Participle

Active

Passive

Present Past Perfect

asking –– having asked

being asked asked having been asked

When connected with some noun-word in the sentence, the participle is used as a predicative, an attribute, when connected with a verb, the participle expresses relations of time, of cause, of manner, or attending circumstances. 2.3 The Gerund is a descendant of the OE verbal noun and present participle, hence, its double nature and its noun and verb characteristics. Noun-characteristics: in a sentence it is used as the subject or object (direct or prepositional), an adverbial modifier, an attribute, a part of a compound verbal predicate and a predicative. Reading is my best occupation (subject). She intends leaving tomorrow (direct object). They spoke of organizing a library (prepositional object). In going down town I met my old friend (adv. mod. of time). It is the best way of doing it (attribute). Deciding is acting (predicative). She continued reading (a part of a compound verbal predicate). The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb which, like the infinitive, combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun. Similar to the infinitive, the gerund serves as the verbal name of a process, but its substantive quality is more strongly pronounced than that of the infinitive. Namely, as different from the infinitive, and similar to the noun, the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or its pronominal equivalents (expressing the subject of the verbal process), and it can be used with prepositions. The general combinability of the gerund, like that of the infinitive, is dual, sharing some features with the verb, and some features with the noun. The verb-type combinability of the gerund is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with modifying adverbs; third, with certain semi-functional predicator verbs, but other than modal. Of the noun-type is the combinability of the gerund, first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the prepositional adjunct of various functions; third, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action; fourth, with nouns as the prepositional adjunct of various functions. The gerund, in the corresponding positional patterns, performs the functions of all the types of notional sentence-parts, i.e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. Cf.: Repeating your accusations over and over again doesn't make them more convincing. (Gerund subject position) No wonder he delayed breaking the news to Uncle Jim. (Gerund direct object position) She could 67

not give her mind to pressing wild flowers in Pauline's botany book. (Gerund addressee object position) Joe felt annoyed at being shied by his roommates. (Gerund prepositional object position) You know what luck is? Luck is believing you're lucky. (Gerund predicative position) Fancy the pleasant prospect of listening to all the gossip they've in store for you! (Gerund attributive position) He could not push against the furniture without bringing the whole lot down. (Gerund adverbial of manner position). Seminar Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Phrasal Verbs and their types. What are the Verbals? The Infinitive. The Participle. The Gerund.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Write six sentences with phrasal verbs of movement: get on, drive off, come back, turn round, get away. 2. Write six sentences with phrasal verbs followed by a preposition. phrasal verb preposition run away from keep up with look up at look forward to to put up with to fall in with For example: I’m glad to see that you all fall in with me on this question. 3. Use the participle instead of subordinate clause. 1. She led the girl into the garden that lay at the back of the house. 2. Erik stared at the smoke which was rising from his cigarette. 3. The phone that was ringing for the second time interrupted his thoughts. 4. The girl who was sitting at the desk looked inquiringly at me. 5. Brian looked at the woman who was standing at the bus stop. 4. Use the participles instead of the parts of the sentences, given in italics, where possible. 1. After I had made some inquires I began no doubt his decency. 2. John came and apologized for being late. 3. As Peter came up to the room he heard a groan from within. 4. Mike went to a lecture on Poland that was given by a speaker, who had just returned from there. 5. When Thomas has paid his debt he had only six shillings left in his pocket. 6. Soon the conversation returned to the second applicant who had made a good impression on the manager. 7. Suppose you describe the circumstances that led to the robbery. 8. His nephew looks like a man who is doomed to suffer in silence. 5. Translate the following sentences in which the Infinitive is used as an adverbial modifier of purpose. 1. To fulfill this work one must have all the necessary equipment. 2. To show the results of conflicting views must be suffice (быть достаточными) to prove the complexity of the problem. 5. In order to understand how to use a computer one must fully appreciate its design. 6. In order to estimate the value of the experiment we must consider its results. 7. To be able to forecast the future we must begin by a thorough analysis of the past course of events.

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6. Complete the following sentences using the Infinitive. Make use of the following prompts: to be postponed; to be neglected; to confirm our point of view; to be taking into consideration; to discourage further research; to contribute to the clarification of the problem; to suggest itself for wide discussion; to be valid. 1. The matter is too urgent (чтобы его откладывать). 2. Two examples are enough (для подтверждения нашей позиции). 3. The results of his experiment are too doubtful (чтобы принять их во внимание). 4. The advantages of such an approach are evident enough (чтобы ими пренебрегать). 5. The failure of the project was such serious as for many years (чтобы отказаться от дальнейших исследований). 6. The information available was not sufficient (чтобы она могла внести ясность в решение проблемы). 7. The assumption was reasonable enough (чтобы быть правильным). 8. The subject is fascinating enough (чтобы предлагать ее для широкого обсуждения).

Lecture 16. The Adjective     

Relative and Qualitative Adjectives. The Structural Types of Adjectives. Degrees of Comparison. Substantivization of Adjectives. Syntactic Functions of Adjectives.

The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance. It means that each adjective used in the text presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes, such as its material, colour, dimensions, position, state, and other characteristics both permanent and temporary. 1. Relative and Qualitative adjectives All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance. E.g.: wood — a wooden hut; mathematics — mathematical precision; history — a historical event; table — tabular presentation; colour — coloured postcards; surgery — surgical treatment; the Middle Ages — mediaeval rites. The nature of this "relationship" in adjectives is best revealed by definitional correlations. Cf.: a wooden hut — a hut made of wood; a historical event — an event referring to a certain period of history; surgical treatment — treatment consisting in the implementation of surgery; etc. Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their correlative quantitative measure. The measure of a quality can be estimated as high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or excessive. Cf.: an awkward situation — a very awkward situation; a difficult task — too difficult a task; an enthusiastic reception — rather an enthusiastic reception; a hearty welcome — not a very hearty welcome; etc.

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2. The Structural Types of Adjectives Adjectives, according to the word-building structure, can be divided into: simple, derived and compound.  Simple adjectives have only one stem, e.g. nice, good, small, big.  Derived adjectives are formed with the help of prefixes and suffixes, e.g. unknown, friendly, useful.  Compound adjectives may be subdivided into three groups: compound adjectives with two or more stems and a hyphen between them, e.g. lightblue, well-known, first-class, red-hot.  Compound-derived adjectives are formed by adding the suffix – ed on the second adjectives, e.g. blue-eyed, long-legged, bare-headed, bare-legged.  Compound adjectives with numbers are combined with number and noun. In the compound adjective, the noun is singular even when number is two or more, e.g. a six-month-old baby – a baby who is six months old, a two-week vacation – a vacation for two weeks. 3. Degrees of Comparison The category of adjectival comparison expresses the quantitative characteristic of the quality of a noun referent, i.e. it gives a relative evaluation of the quantity of a quality. The purely relative nature of the categorial semantics of comparison is reflected in its name. The category is constituted by the opposition of the three forms known under the heading of degrees of comparison; the basic form (positive degree), having no features of comparison; the comparative degree form, having the feature of restricted superiority (which limits the comparison to two elements only); the superlative degree form, having the feature of unrestricted superiority. There are two methods of forming the comparative and the superlative degrees. The synthetical forms of comparison in -er and -(e)st coexist with the analytical forms of comparison effected by the auxiliaries more and most. The synthetical forms of comparison are used for one-syllable and two-syllable adjectives, e.g. large-larger - largest, heavy-heavier-heaviest, easy-easier-easiest. The analytical forms of comparison are used for three or more syllables adjectives, e.g. careful - more careful - most careful, difficult - more difficult - most difficult. Some adjectives have two ways of comparison: clever, common, cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, polite, simple, stupid, quiet, pleasant are formed with – er/est or more/most. E.g.: gentle – gentler– the gentlest also as: gentle – more gentle – most gentle. A few adjectives have irregular forms of comparison. (See the table). Positive good bad little

Comparative better worse less

Superlative the best the worst the least 70

much, many far

more farther further

the most the farthest (for distance) the furthest (for time)

near

nearer

the nearest (for distance) the next (for order) e.g. the next door next (for time) e.g. next year.

late

later

old

older elder

the latest (for time) e.g. the latest news the last (for order) e.g. the last room last (for time) e.g. last week. last (for time) e.g. last week. the oldest (for age) the eldest (for seniority, position, used only attributively).

There are some adjectives that, on account of their meaning, do not admit of comparison at all, e.g. perfect, unique, full, empty, square, round, middle, wooden, daily, upper, major, pregnant, junior, senior, medical, dead, left and some others. In particular, scholars point out the following two factors in support of the view that combinations of more/most with the basic form of the adjective are not the analytical expressions of the morphological category of comparison, but free syntactic constructions: first, the more/most-combinations are semantically analogous to combinations of less/least with the adjective which, in the general opinion, are syntactic combinations of notional words; second, the most-combination, unlike the synthetic superlative, can take the indefinite article, expressing not the superlative, but the elative meaning (i.e. a high, not the highest degree of the respective quality). E.g. This is a most interesting book – Это крайне интересная книга. These are most interesting books – Это крайне интересные книги. 4. Substantivization of Adjectives Sometimes adjectives become substantivized. In this case they have the functions of nouns in the sentence and are always preceded by the definite article. Substantivized adjectives may have two meanings: 1). They can indicate a class of persons in a general sense, e.g. the poor = poor people, the dead = dead people. Such adjectives are plural in meaning and take a verb in plural form, e.g. The old receive pensions. The blind are taught in special schools. The young are always romantic, aren’t they? If we wish to denote a single person we must add a noun, e.g. The old man receives a pension. If we wish to refer to a particular group of persons (not the whole class), it is also necessary to add a noun, e.g.: The young are usually intolerant. The young men are fishing. Some adjectives denoting nationalities (e.g. English, French, Chinese) are used in the same way, e.g. The English are great lovers of tea. The Chinese like fishing. 71

2). Substantivized adjectives may also indicate an abstract notion. Then they are singular in meaning and take a singular verb, e.g. The good in him overweighs the bad. My mother never lost her taste for the extravagant. 5. Syntactic Functions of Adjectives Adjectives may serve in the sentence as an attribute, e.g. Do you see the small green boat? I have bought a red pencil. Adjectives used as attributes usually immediately precede the noun. Normally there is no pause between the adjectives and the noun. Such attributes are called close attributes. However, an adjective placed in pre-position to the noun may be separated from it by a pause. Then it becomes a loose attribute, e.g. Clever and tactful, Michael listened to my story. My father, happy and tired, kissed me good-night. There are two main roles an adjective may take in a sentence, and with a few exceptions each adjective is able to take either role just as easily. The first role is to act as a predicative adjective, in which the adjective modifies a preceding noun as a predicate, linked by a verb. 1. a predicative, e.g. Her smile was almost professional. He looked mature, sober and calm. 2. an objective predicative, e.g. I thought him very intelligent. She wore her hair short. 3. a subjunctive predicative, e.g. The door was closed tight. The second role an adjective may take as an attributive adjective in which it modifies a noun by being linked directly to the noun as part of the noun phrase, e.g. I see the small green boat. It was a cold autumn day. It should be noted that most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively, but some, among them those beginning with a-, can be used only as predicatives (e.g. afraid, asleep, along, awake, ashamed and also content, sorry, well, ill, due etc.). Seminar Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Relative and Qualitative adjectives. The structural types of adjectives. Degrees of Comparison. Substantivization of adjectives. Syntactic functions of adjectives.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Give the Comparative and the Superlative forms of adjectives if it is possible. Nice, thick, noisy, dirty, simple, polite, little, late, old, nervous, middle, unique, sweet, shy, dry, well-bred, kind-hearted, real, empty, grey, pregnant, cruel, far, wooden, junior, senior, round, friendly, thin, medical, pleasant, harmful. 2. Write ten sentences with adjectives ending in -ing and –ed. E.g.: (boring/bored, amusing/amused). The film was disappointing. We were disappointed with the film. 3. Write ten sentences using types of comparison: (as…as), (less…than), (not so/as…), (look, smell, like), (such a/an … as), ( most + positive degree = very). E.g. I spent less money than you. She was most helpful. 4. Write twelve adjectives using different structural types. 72

Lecture 17. The Adverb     

The Word-building Structure of Adverbs. The Classification of Adverbs. Position of Adverbs. The Degrees of Comparison. The Syntactic Functions of Adverbs in the Sentence.

1. The Word-building Structure of Adverbs The adverb is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. Adverbs are a miscellaneous class of words having diverse lexical meaning and, differ from each other in their structure. In accord with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple and derived. Simple adverbs are rather few, and nearly all of them display functional semantics, mostly of pronominal character: here, there, now, the, so, quite, how, why, where, when. The typical adverbial affixes in affixal derivation are, the first and foremost, the basic and only productive adverbial suffix – ly (slowly, tiredly, rightly, firstly), and then a couple of others of limited distribution, such as: -ways (sideways, crossways), wise (clockwise), -wards (homewards, seawards, afterwards). Among the adverbs there are also peculiar composite formations and phrasal formations of prepositional, conjunctional and other types: sometimes, nowhere, anyhow, at least, at most, at first, at last, the day after tomorrow, in front, etc. A considerable number of adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ly, e.g. calm – calmly, slow – slowly, happy – happily, careful – carefully, etc. But we cannot form adverbs from adjectives ending in –ly such as daily, friendly, weekly, lonely, timely, lively, silly, etc. Some adverbs, however, have the same form as the corresponding adjective, e.g. He walked very fast. She worked hard. He came late. 2. The Classification of Adverbs Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial. By qualitative adverbs are meant such adverbs which express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities The typical adverbs of this kind are qualitative adverbs in -ly, e.g. The little boy was crying bitterly. He was cruelly punished for it. The adverbs interpreted as quantitative include words of degree. These are specific lexical units of semi-functional nature expressing quality measure, or gradational evaluation of qualities. They may be subdivided into several groups:  The first group is formed by adverbs of high degree. These adverbs are sometimes classed as “intensifiers”: very, quite, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, pretty, much, etc.  The second group includes adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse) 73

also belonging to the broader subclass of intensifiers: too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically.  The third group is formed by adverbs of moderate degree: comparatively, fairly, relatively, rather.  The fourth group is made up of adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, amazingly, etc.  The fifth group includes adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit.  The sixth group is constituted by adverbs of approximate degree: almost, nearly. Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional. The functional adverbs are words of pronominal nature. Besides quantitative adverbs mentioned above, they include adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, consequence. Many of these words are used as syntactic connectives and questionforming functions. Here belong such words as now, here, when, so, thus, why how. As for notional adverbs of more self-dependent nature, they include two basic groups: adverbs of time – today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, recently, seldom, early, late; adverbs of place – homeward, far, eastward, outside, ashore, etc. 3. Position of Adverbs There are three main positions for adverbs which modify a verb:  Front position = before the subject. Most types of adverb can go in front position: connecting adverbs – as a result, similarly, finally; adverbs of time and place – tomorrow, yesterday; comment and view point adverbs – presumably, financially. e.g. The value of the yen has fallen. As a result, Japan faces a crisis. Finally he could stand the noise no longer. Tomorrow the weather will be much cooler. Financially she depends on her parents.  Mid position = between the subject and verb, or immediately after be as a main verb. The following types of adverbs usually go in mid position: adverbs of indefinite frequency – always, never, hardly ever, often, rarely, seldom, usually; degree adverbs – completely, quite, fairly, slightly, too, very much; focus adverbs – just, even. e.g. He always sings when he’s having a shower. I completely forgot her birthday, and I just don’t know how to make it up to her. It’s too hot to stay in this room. She has never been to London. He slightly speaks French. They are hardly ever able to go sightseeing.  End position = after the verb. Adverbs of time, which indicate a definite point or period in time, or a definite frequency, usually go in front or end position. e.g. I went to Paris yesterday – Yesterday I went to Paris. We play tennis twice a week – Twice a week we play tennis. The following adverbs daily, hourly, monthly, weekly etc. only go in end position. e.g. The train leaves Astana station hourly. 74

When there is more than one adverb in end position, the usual order in written English is adverb of manner, place, and then time. e.g. In the accident she was thrown violently against the door. – (manner + place). They left at 3.00 with a great deal of noise. – (time + manner). 4. The Degrees of Comparison The degrees of comparison of adverbs are formed in the same way as those of adjectives. Monosyllabic adverbs and the adverb early form the comparative and the superlative degrees by adding the suffixes -er and -est. e.g. hard-harder-hardest near – nearer – nearest soon – sooner – soonest early – earlier – earliest The degrees of comparison of all other adverbs are formed by placing more and most before them. e.g. clearly – more clearly – most clearly bravely – more bravely – most bravely The following adverbs often, quickly, slowly have two ways of comparison. e.g. often –oftener (more often) – oftenest (most often) quickly – quicker (more quickly) – quickest (most quickly) slowly – slower (more slowly) – slowest (most slowly) A few adverbs have irregular degrees of comparison. e.g. well – better– best badly – worse – worst much, many – more – most little – less – least 5. The Syntactic Functions of Adverbs in the Sentence Adverbs are characterised by a combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers. Adverbs can also refer to whole situations, in this function they are considered under the heading of situation. Adverbs have the function of an adverbial modifier in the sentence. When they modify verbs, they can serve as adverbial modifiers of time, frequency, manner, degree and cause. e.g. He was then only fifteen years old (time). During my walks I occasionally met people I knew (frequency). I went back inside (place). The sun shines brightly (degree). The woman was crying hysterically (manner). I expected him to arrive any time. For that reason I stayed in all day (cause). When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they serve as adverbial modifiers of degree. e.g. I told him that my head felt a little heavy. 75

I am very glad to see you. He speaks French quite well. There are too many mistakes in your dictation. Adverbs of degree can also modify certain kinds of prepositional phrases. e.g. The lived nearly on top of the hill. I am almost through with my work. Seminar Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The word-building structure of adverbs. The classification of adverbs. Position of adverbs. The degrees of comparison. The syntactic functions of adverbs in the sentence.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate adverbs. 1. It’s snowing ... . 2. Your mark is bad. You did the test ... . 3. He came home ..., at one o’clock in the morning. 4. Don’t eat too ... . It’s bad for you. 5. Sarah studies ... to pass her exam. 6. Who gets up ..., has a long day. 7. I slept ... this night and I feel ... this morning. 8. He raised the flag ... on the tower. 9. Open the window ... not to break it.10. Modern trains go ... .11. Speak ..., please. They don’t understand you.12. She sat ... in the corner like a mouse. 13. I can speak German ... . 14. He came closer to hear me ... . (carefully, well, hard, heavily, quickly, late, high, fast, slowly, quietly, badly, early, fluently, clearly). 2. These words fast, hard, late are both adjectives and adverbs. Write six sentences using these words. E.g. Darren is a very fast runner. Darren can run very fast.

Lecture 18. The Numeral  Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals.  Fractional Numerals.

1. Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals Numerals include the categorical meaning of number: cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals. Cardinal numerals indicate number: one, two, twelve, twenty, thirty-three, a hundred, a thousand, etc. The numerals hundred, thousand and million are always preceded by the indefinite article a or the numeral one. The latter is generally used when these numerals are followed by some other numerals, e.g. a hundred but one hundred and twenty-three; a thousand but one thousand seven hundred and thirty. The numerals hundred, thousand, million haven’t the ending “s”, if it is preceded by other numerals, e.g. two hundred cars, four thousand workers, three million people. But these numerals can take the ending “s” if they function as a noun and used with the preposition of. e.g. Hundreds of students were present at the meeting. 76

Thousands of people greeted the famous English singer. Millions of books were sold in the bookstore. Ordinal numerals indicate order, e.g. first, second, fifth, twelfth, eighteenth, two hundredth, three thousandth they are formed by adding the ending -th. Ordinal numerals are used with the definite article – the, e.g. the second month, the sixth door, the twenty-seventh book. Cardinal numerals are used when they indicate the number of house, flat, bus, tram, room, the size of shoes. e.g. The lecture will take place in classroom No.15 (number fifteen). She lives in apartment 10 (apartment ten). He wears size forty shoes I usually take tram No.5 (number five.). Both Cardinal numerals and Ordinal numerals can have certain syntactic functions in the sentence:  a subject – e.g. Two were absent from the lecture. Three of the schoolboys fell ill with scarlet fever.  an object – e.g. How many books did you take from the library? – I took three.  an attribute – e.g. The second lesson begins at eleven o’clock.. The first visitor arrived yesterday. Two men entered the room.  nominal (compound) predicative – e.g. Five times is twenty-five. 2. Fractional Numerals Fractional numerals can be subdivided into Common Fractions and Decimal Fractions. Common Fractions are read in the following way, if the numerals are more than one they take the ending –“s”. e.g. ½ = a (one) half, ⅓ = a (one third), ¼ = a fourth (a quarter), ⅛ = one eighth ⅔ = two thirds, ⅜ = three eighths, ⅝ = five eighths. 1 ½ = one and a half, 2 ⅓= two and a third, 3 ¼ = three and a fourth. The noun takes the singular form if it is followed after the fraction. e.g. ⅔ ton (it is read as two thirds of a ton); ¾ kilometre (it is read as three quarters of a kilometre); ½ ton ( is read as half a ton). The noun takes the plural form if it is connected with mixed number. e.g. 2 ½ tons (it is read as two and a half tons or two tons and a half). 4 ⅓ tons ( it is read as four and a third tons or four tons and a third). In Decimal Fractions all numbers are read separately. e.g. 0, 25 = nought point two five, 2.35 = two point three five. 14.105 = one four (or fourteen) point one nought five. 35.403 = three five (or thirty five) point four nought three. 23.76 tons = two three point seven six tons.

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Per cent is indicated by the following way: 2% = two per cent, 3/8 % = three eighths per cent, 1/2 % = a half per cent, 0.2% = nought point two per cent or nought point two of one per cent. Seminar Questions: 1. Cardinal numerals. 2. Ordinal numerals. 3. Common Fractions. 4. Decimal Fractions.

Lecture 19. The Pronoun         

Pronouns and their Classification. The Personal Pronouns. The Possessive Pronouns. The Reflexive Pronouns. The Reciprocal Pronouns. The Demonstrative Pronouns. The Indefinite Pronouns. The Relative Pronouns. The Interrogative Pronouns.

1. Pronouns and their Classification Pronouns include a miscellaneous group of words which function in the sentence as noun pronouns or as adjective pronouns. Etymologically, the word “pronoun” means “a word used instead of a noun”. Therefore many English grammarians (M. Bryant, A.M. Clark) define the pronoun as a word used instead of a noun only. They consider that “such words as my, your, his which are used in the function of an adjective are not pronouns but adjectives; the words this/these, that/those may be either a pronoun, e.g. Who is this? or an adjective, e.g. this man” [19, 161]. This is a purely functional view of the problem. A pronoun usually refers to something already mentioned in a sentence or piece of text. Pronouns are used instead of nouns and function as simple noun phrases, they are used to prevent repetition of the noun to which they refer. It is difficult to define the meaning of pronouns. Unlike nouns and adjectives, they do not name objects or qualities, but only point to them. In other words, they are devoid of concrete lexical meaning. They have a generalized meaning instead, which becomes clear only in the context or situation. Pronouns fall into the following categories:  Personal: Generally refers to people or animate nouns  Possessive: Shows ownership  Reflexive: Refers back to a noun within the same sentence, often functions as an object  Reciprocal: Shows a “mutuality of action”  Demonstrative: Indicates specificity 78

 Indefinite: Does not refer to a specific referent  Relative: Refers to an antecedent that was previously established. Can initiate a relative clause.  Interrogative: Can be used to begin questions. Various individual pronouns may have different grammatical categories. 2. The Personal Pronouns The Personal pronouns of English can have various forms according to gender, number, person and case. Modern English is a language with very little noun or adjective inflection, to the point where some authors describe it as analytic, but the English system of personal pronouns has preserved most of the inflectional complexity of Old English and Middle English. Personal pronouns fall into singular and plural groups. Singular personal pronouns refer to one person or thing and plural personal pronouns refer to more than one person or thing. The pronouns: I, we, you, he, she are mainly used for persons. The pronouns: I, we, you are indifferent to gender, while he is masculine and she is feminine. The pronoun it is used for animals, concrete things and abstract notions, i.e. it refers to neuter nouns. The pronoun they is used for persons, animals and things and is indifferent to gender. The personal pronouns have the category of case. There are two cases for personal pronouns: the Nominative case and the Objective case. (See the table). The Nominative case I You He She It We They

the Objective case Me You Him Her It Us Them

The forms of the nominative case function in the sentence as subject. e.g. I expect they will laugh at me. He works at a factory. The forms of the objective case function in the sentence as objects. e.g. I met him in the street. (direct object). He gave me some advice. (indirect object). Please, don’t tell anyone about us. (prepositional object). 3. The Possessive Pronouns The Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns in English are often confusing because most of them are very similar in form and one has exactly the same form for both the adjective and the pronoun. 79

Possessive adjectives my your his her its our your (plural) their

Possessive pronouns mine yours his hers --- * ours yours (plural) theirs

Possessive Adjectives serve to modify nouns in the sentence, i.e. they function as adjectives, e.g. The doctor usually came to his office at three o’clock. From my place I could watch the people eating their lunch. The Possessive Pronouns may function as nouns as well. They are used in their absolute forms, e.g. She put her arm through mine. Theirs is a very large family. The grammar requirements for possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns are different, however: Possessive adjectives

Use these with nouns or noun phrases: What's my / your / his / her / its /our / their problem? Jill doesn't have my / your / his / her / our / their home phone number.

Possessive pronouns

Use these alone. Don't use them with nouns or noun phrases: Everyone has problems. What's mine / yours / his / hers / ours / theirs? Joe has everyone's home phone numbers except mine / yours /hers / ours / theirs.

Special Notes: The words its and it's are pronounced the same, but they have different meanings and grammar: its = possessive adjective it's = contraction for it is or it has. Do not use it's for a possessive pronoun. 4. The Reflexive Pronouns The Reflexive Pronouns serve to show that the action performed by the person which is indicated by the subject of the sentence and its object indicate the same person. In this case the reflexive pronouns are weakly stressed. For example in the sentence, “Nick hit himself with a hammer”; “himself” refers back to Nick. 80

Therefore, “Nick hit Nick with a hammer.” Thus, the subject and object of the sentence have the same referent. English uses reflexive pronouns to show “mutuality of action”: A does to B what B does to A. In these cases the reciprocal construction appears in the same clause as its antecedents. The Reflexive Pronouns are formed by adding -self, in the plural -selves to the possessive pronouns in the 1st and 2-d persons and to the objective case of the personal pronouns in the 3-d person. 1-st person 2-d person 3-d person

Singular myself yourself himself herself itself

Plural ourselves yourselves themselves

There is one more reflexive pronoun which is formed from the indefinite pronoun one – oneself.  

5. The Reciprocal Pronouns There are two reciprocal pronouns in English: each other and one another. They show that something is done mutually. Both pronouns are mainly used in the function of an object (direct, indirect or prepositional) in the sentence. e.g. My two aunts bitterly disliked each other. They have known each other for two years. They often see one another. Both pronouns each other and one another can be used when speaking of two persons. However, when more than two persons are meant, only one another is normally used. Both pronouns each other and one another can be used in the genitive case. e.g. They had not met so long that they had forgotten each other’s names. In their letters they made it a rule to inquire after one another’s relatives. 6. The Demonstrative Pronouns The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to show specificity. Note the difference between “Bob was gored by a bull” and “Bob was gored by that bull.” In the first sentence any bull could have been responsible, the image conjured up in the listener’s mind is that of whatever a typical bull is to them. The pronoun “that” in the second sentence has a specific bull as its referent. There are four demonstrative pronouns in English: this, that such, same. They all may be used as noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns. The pronouns this and that have the category of number. Their corresponding plural forms are: these and those. The pronouns this and these refer to what is near in space, time or conception, that, those to what is farther off. e.g. This young man is my brother. I usually work in this room. 81

This is my dictionary and that is yours. These are my magazines and those are yours. The demonstrative pronoun such may mean of this or that kind or indicate degree. Such is followed by the indefinite article before singular countable nouns. e.g. It was such a funny story that everyone laughed. Mary is such a clever girl. Such can be used before the adjective + plural noun or uncountable noun. e.g. I’ve never seen such beautiful flowers! I don’t like such weather. The demonstrative pronoun same means identical. It is always preceded by the definite article. e.g. We do the same exercise. The same students came at the same time. 7. The Indefinite Pronouns The Indefinite Pronouns express various degrees and various kinds of indefiniteness. Indefinite pronouns are the opposite of demonstrative pronouns in that they do not have a specific referent. As such, they do not always bear an antecedent. In fact the only indefinite pronoun to bear an antecedent is “one”; in “That’s the one I saw yesterday”, “one” refers to “that”. The other indefinite pronouns are combinations of “any” or “some” with “body”, “one”, “thing”, or “where”. We find the following subgroups among them:  indefinite pronouns proper – a) some, any, no, none, one; b) somebody, anybody, nobody, someone, anyone, no one, something, anything, nothing.  distributive pronouns – a) all, every, each, other, either, neither, both; b) everybody, everyone, everything;  quantitative pronouns – much, many, little, few, a few, a lot of, a great deal, a great many, etc. The pronoun some usually expresses an indefinite number or amount or indefinite quality. It has several meanings. e.g. My mother gave me some pennies to buy sweets. Some people like strong tea. Some boy wrote a Latin word on the blackboard May I take some cake? When some is used as noun pronoun, it may be singular or plural. It depends on whether some refers to countable or uncountable nouns. e.g. Some of his opinions were hard to accept. Some of the food was packed in waterproof bags 8. The Relative Pronouns The Relative Pronouns in English tend to initiate relative clauses. These pronouns replace other nouns that function as the subject of the relative clause. This subject is identical to that of the object in the first clause as in “Bob hit himself with the hammer that was used to build the barn.” Here we have two clauses that could stand as 82

sentences; “Bob hit himself with the hammer” and “The hammer was used to build the barn.” The relative pronoun “that” replaces “The hammer” in the second clause. Relative pronouns are that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, and why. They are used to join clauses to make a complex sentence. Relative pronouns are used at the beginning of the subordinate clause which gives some specific information about the main clause. e.g. This is the house that Jack built. I don't know the day when Jane marries him. The professor, whom I respect, was tenured. In English the relative pronoun is used in defining (restrictive) relative clauses and can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive. Defining relative clauses (also known as restrictive relative clauses) provide some essential information that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses. Function in the sentence

Reference to People Things / concepts Place Subject who, that which, that Object (that, who, whom)* (which, that)* where Possessive whose whose, of which

Time

Reason

when

why

1. Relative pronoun used as a subject. e.g. This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration. It took me a while to get used to people who eat pop-corn during the movie. 2. Relative pronoun used as an object. As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position. e.g. This is the man (who / that) I wanted to speak to and whose name I'd forgotten. The library didn't have the book (which / that) I wanted. I didn't like the book (which / that) John gave me. This is the house where I lived when I first came to the US. 3. The relative pronoun as a possessive. Whose is required with both animate and inanimate antecedents: it is the only derivative of who which can refer to animates and inanimates: e.g. I know someone whose sister is a nurse. The man whose car I borrowed is very rich. I chose the set whose price was reduced.

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9. The Interrogative Pronouns The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whom, whose, what, which, how much, how many. They are all used in forming questions. The pronoun who asks about persons. It does not distinguish gender or number it may be singular or plural in meaning. Who is the nominative case and it is mainly used as the subject of the sentence. e.g. Who is coming with me? The pronoun whose is a possessive interrogative pronoun. It is used as an adjective pronoun, mostly in the function of an attribute, though occasionally it occurs as a predicative too. e.g. Whose room is it going to be? Whose is the room going to be? In whose car do you prefer to go? (Whose car do you prefer to go in?) The process of the replacement is seen in the use of the forms who/whom. In the modern spoken language sentences with whom are not usually used: they occur with who and the prepositions to, for, with in the sentence final position. For example, Who shall I give it to? Who did you invite with? The pronoun what may be used as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. When it serves as a noun, it asks the things. It may be singular or plural in meaning. e.g. What’s this? What are those strange objects in the distance? About what are you going to ask him? By what do you account for his decision? It should be noted that in the case of a prepositional object it is more usual to place the preposition at the end of the sentence in present-day English. e.g. What are you going to ask him about? What are you laughing at? The pronoun which can be used as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. It is used of persons and things and is invariable in form. We use which, not who or what, in questions before one(s) and of. e.g. Which one of us should tell Jean the news?. Which one do you think I should choose? Which of these drawings was done by you? Which of you would like to go first? The pronouns how much, how many are used noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns. How much asks about the amount of something and is used of or with only uncountable nouns, e.g. How much money do you need? How many asks about the number of persons and things and is used of or with only countable nouns, e.g. How many invitations have been sent out? Seminar Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Pronouns and their classification. The Personal pronouns. The Possessive Pronouns. The Reflexive Pronouns. The Reciprocal Pronouns. The Demonstrative Pronouns. 84

7. The Indefinite Pronouns. 8. The Relative Pronouns. 9. The Interrogative Pronouns.

Seminar Tasks. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Write five sentences with the indefinite pronouns proper. Write five sentences with the indefinite distributive pronouns. Write five sentences with the indefinite quantitative pronouns. Write six sentences with the Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns.

Lecture 20. Syntax      

General Characteristics of Syntax. A Phrase – Basic Syntactical Notion. The Sentence and its Classification. The Principal Parts of the Sentence. The Secondary Parts of the Sentence. The Composite sentence. Compound and Complex sentences.

1. General Characteristics of Syntax The grammatical structure of language comprises two major parts: morphology and syntax. These two areas are obviously interdependent and together they constitute a study of grammar. As prof. M.S. Ignatova mentions: “Morphology deals with paradigmatic and syntagmatic properties of morphological units – morphemes and words. It is concerned with the internal structure of words and their relationship to other words and word forms within the paradigm. It studies morphological categories and their realization” [48, 104]. Syntax, on the other hand, deals with the way words are combined. It is concerned with the external functions of words and their relationship to other words within the linearly ordered units – word-groups, sentences and texts. Syntax studies the way in which the units and their meanings are combined. It also deals with peculiarities of syntactic units, their behaviour in different contexts. Syntactic units may be analysed from different points of view, and accordingly, different syntactic theories exist. Syntax is a part of theoretical grammar and we should speak of two levels of it that of a phrase and that of a sentence. 2. A Phrase – Basic Syntactical Notion There are different definitions of a phrase. Some scientists (L.S Barhudarov, D.A. Shtelling) define it as any syntactical group of words irrespective of their meanings. According to V.V.Vinogradov a phrase is any syntactical group which consists of notional words agreed with each other. At present a phrase is considered to be every combination of two or more words, which are a grammatical unit, but not an analytical form of some word (as will go). The phrase may denote: 85

 a concrete thing (a little winding path);  an action (have a drink);  a quality (so incredibly fine);  a whole situation (disappearance of his wife’s Pekinese dog.) The phrase may consist:  Notional words alone, which have a very clearly pronounced self-dependent nominative destination, e.g. He held a small pickled onion delicately on the end of his fork.  Notional and functional words, e.g. It is to some extent seasonal work.  Only functional words, e.g. so that, out of, up to, such as. It has some characteristics: it is a nominative unit, it is a unit of language, it is part of a sentence, it is not marked intonationally, it is not a communicative unit. A phrase may perform the following functions in a sentence: 1. Subject – To play tennis was his hobby. 2. Predicate – I don’t give much thought to it. 3. Object – I wanted him to be free and happy. 4. Attribute – She was a girl with frightened eyes. 5. Adverbial modifier – He sat and waited, his eyes cast down shyly. There are different relations between the components of a phrase:  Agreement is a syntactical relationship when a subordinate word takes a form of a head word (this pen – these pens).  Government is a relation when a subordinate word is used in the form required by a head word not coinciding with it (find him, invite her).  Predication is the relationship between subject and predicate or a nominal element and a predicative element in predicative constructions. e.g. I asked him to go. (infinitive construction) She does not like the idea of your being called. (gerundial construction). I was shot with terror, but that at least kept the stretcher moving (participial construction 3. The Sentence and its Classification The sentence is a communication unit made up of words in conformity with their combinability and structurally united by intonation and predicativity. It has its own features: it is a unit of speech, it is intonationally marked, it is a predicative unit. Predication is the expression of relation of the sentence to reality. The center of predication is a finite verb. There are different types of sentences. According to the structure the sentences can be divided into: Simple and Composite. Simple sentences are subdivided into: unextended and extended sentences. The unextended sentence can be one-member sentence, e.g. Fire! Come on! or two-member sentence which consists of main parts: subject and predicate. e.g. A month passed. The car stopped. The extended sentence consists of more than two parts including the subject, the predicate, the object, the attribute, adverbial modifiers. 86

e.g. The blue car stopped at the gate (blue – the attribute, at the gate – adverbial modifier). Composite sentences consist of two or several simple sentences and may be divided into: Compound Sentences and Complex Sentences (They will be regarded later). Sentences can be classified according to the purpose of the utterance/sentence. It shows whether the sentence is presented as a statement or a question. They are:  Declarative sentence. It states a fact in the affirmative or negative form. e.g. She was waiting for her husband. I still couldn’t think why I didn’t see her.  Interrogative sentence. An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion. There are four kinds of questions: a). General questions requiring the answer “yes” or “no” and spoken with a rising intonation. (Do you like art?) b). Special questions beginning with an interrogative word spoken with a falling intonation. (Where do you live?) c). Alternative questions indicating choice and spoken with a rising intonation in the first part and a falling intonation in the second part. (Do you live in town or in the country?) d). Disjunctive questions requiring the answer “yes” or “no” and consisting of an affirmative statement followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. The first part is spoken with falling intonation, the second – with rising. (You speak English, don’t you?)  The imperative sentence serves to introduce a person to do something, or it expresses a command, an order, a request or an invitation (Come to the blackboard, please).  The exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. It often begins with what, how and is spoken with a falling intonation (What a lovely day!). 4. The Principal Parts of the Sentence The subject is the principal part of the sentence, it is grammatically independent on the other parts of the sentence and the predicate is usually dependent on it and agrees with the subject in number, person. The subject denotes a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea. Ways of expressing the subject: a noun in the common case; a pronoun (personal, demonstrative, interrogative, negative); substantivized adjective or participle, e.g. The wounded were taken to the hospital; a numeral – cardinal or ordinal, e.g. The two were my sisters. The first and the fourth stood beside him in the water; an infinitive, e.g. To live is to work; a gerund, e.g. Her being French might upset him; a syntactically indivisible group of words, e.g. There is a lot of truth in that. The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence. It expresses an action, state, quality of person or thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent on the subject. It usually contains a finite verb which may express tense, mood, aspect and sometimes person and number. 87

There are two types of predicates according to the structure and meaning: the simple and the compound predicate. The simple predicate is expressed by a finite form of the verb. It generally denotes an action and sometimes a state. e.g. I have been looking for you. He gave Mary the local anaesthesia, when she was brought to the hospital. The compound predicate consists of two types: a finite verb and some other part of speech – a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verbal. The first component expresses the verbal categories of number, person, tense, aspect, voice, aspect. The compound predicate may be nominal and verbal. The compound nominal predicate (CNP). It denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject or the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs, e.g. He is tired. He is a student. The CNP consists of a link verb and a predicative (the nominal part). The link verb expresses grammatical categories and partly lost its original concrete meanings. The most commonly used link verb is to be. Besides we can name such verbs as to appear, get, turn, remain, stand, go, hold, grow, continue, feel, look, prove, run, seem, keep. E.g. He remained silent. He got nervous. The predicative or nominal part is expressed by:  a noun in the common case, sometimes in the possessive case. E.g. She is a pretty child. The book is my sister’s.  adjective – He is very unselfish.  pronoun – It was he (him).  a word of the category of state – I’m afraid I can’t keep this man.  numeral – I’m 45. He is the first to come.  prepositional phrase – The things were outside his experience.  gerund – Her favourite sport is swimming.  infinitive – Her first thought was to go away.  participle II, seldom P I. – She was struck by his appearance. It is distressing to tell him the truth.  adverb – It was enough the way he said it. The compound verbal predicate. It may be of two types according to the meaning of the finite verb: the compound verbal modal predicate CVMP; the compound verbal aspect predicate CVAP E.g. I used to write poetry myself when I was his age. Mixed types of predicate. Besides the CNP, CVAP and the CVMP, there is a type of predicate in which we have elements of 2 types of predicates. Such predicates contain 3 components: 1. The compound modal nominal predicate: Don’t think I mean to be unkind. 2. The compound aspect nominal predicate: I was glad that the doctor had been Chinese, and not American. I continued to be glad for that. 3. The compound modal aspect predicate: I had to begin living all over again. 88

5. The Secondary Parts of the Sentence The object is the secondary part of the speech which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting a noun. There are three kinds of objects in English:  The direct object.  The indirect object.  The prepositional object. The direct object is used after transitive verbs with which it is closely connected as it denotes a person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb. The direct object may be expressed by: the noun, the pronoun, the numeral, the gerund and the infinitive. e.g. I have bought a book – (noun). She met him yesterday – (pronoun). I have read both books. I like the first better than the second – (numeral). I remember reading about it before – (gerund). He asked me to do it – (infinitive). The indirect object denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed. There are also cases when it denotes a thing. e.g. He gave the boy a book. I showed him the letter. The prepositional object is used with a preposition after verbs and adjectives. e.g. We spoke about our work. He lives with the parents. I agree with you. They listened to her sister. He insists on doing it himself. The attribute qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other parts of speech that have nominal characteristics. The attribute can be either in pre-position or in post-position to the word it modifies. It can be expressed in the sentence by: the noun, the adjective, the participle, the numeral, the pronoun, the infinitive and the gerund. e.g. The town library is closed on Sunday – (noun). He wrote an important article yesterday – (adjective). She bought some illustrated magazines – (participle). Two thousand tons of sugar were loaded on their company – (numeral). Some books are lying on the table – (pronoun). He had a great desire to travel – (infinitive). They discussed different methods of teaching foreign languages – (gerund). The Adverbial modifier is the secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb. According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifier of:  time – We shall come tomorrow.  frequency – Though they had never bothered them.  place and direction – I found him in the garden.  manner – He spoke slowly.  degree – He has greatly changed.  cause – I came back because of the rain. 89

 consequence – She is fond of the child to leave it.  purpose – They opened the way for her to come to him. 6. The Composite Sentence The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines and expresses a complicated act of thought. As professor M. Blokh defines: “The composite sentence reflects two or more elementary situational events viewed as making up a unity; the constitutive connections of the events are expressed by the constitutive connections of the predicative lines of the sentence” [56, 159]. In the beginning we regard the main principle of classification of the way in which the parts of a composite sentence (its clauses) are joined together. This may be achieved either by means of special words designed for this function or without the help of such words. In the first case, the method of joining the clauses is synthetic, i.e. conjunctional, and the composite sentence itself may be called synthetic. In the second case the method of joining the clauses is asyndetic, i.e. non-conjunctional and so is the composite sentence itself. There are two types of composite sentences: the compound sentence and the complex sentence. The basic difference between these types of sentences would appear to be clear enough:  in compound sentences, the clauses of which they consist have as it were equal rights, that is none of them is below the other in rank, they are coordinated.  in complex sentences, on the hand, the clauses are not on equal footing, the complex sentence consisting of two clauses only, one of these is the main clause, and the other is a subordinate clause, that is, it stands beneath the main clause in rank. There may be more than one clause and more than one subordinate clause in a complex sentence. The Compound sentence consists of clauses joined together by coordinating conjunctions or without it. These are very few: and, but, or, for, yet, so etc. e.g. He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. As to use of tenses in clauses making up a compound sentence, we should note that there is no general rule of their interdependence. However, in a number of cases we do find interdependence of co-ordinate clauses from this point of view. For instance, in the following compound sentence the tense of the first predicate verb is past perfect and that the second past indefinite. e.g. She had come to meet the Smiths but was half an hour too early. The number of clauses in a compound sentence may of course be greater than two, and in case the conjunctions uniting the clauses may be different: thus the second clause may be joined to the first by one conjunction, while the third is joined to the second by another, and so forth. e.g. Gerald was disappointed, for he had wanted a son, but he nevertheless was pleased enough over his small black-haired daughter.

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The Complex Sentence is a poly predicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which can be linked by two ways:  Synthetically by means of variety conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until; a number of phrases: as soon as, so long as, in order that etc. Besides, a certain number of conjunctive words are used: the relative pronouns and the relative adverbs. e.g. She became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken him. As soon as he saw me, he asked whether the manager had returned from London.  Asyndetically without a conjunctions connective. e.g. I wish you had come earlier. I should like him to call me up. Complex sentences with a subordinate clause can be classified into two groups: Attributive Clauses (Определительные придаточные предложения) and Adverbial Clauses (Обстоятельственные придаточные предложения). Attributive Clauses function in complex sentence as an attribute and they are presented by conjunctions, as the relative pronouns and the relative adverbs: (who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, why). E.g. The man who was here yesterday is a painter. I know the man whom you mean. I have found the book that I was looking for. We remember the day when we first came to London. The vessels which arrived at the port yesterday is very important. Adverbial Clauses are subdivided into the following groups:  Adverbial Clauses of Time are connected in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: when, while, whenever, after, before, till, until, as soon as, since. E.g. When we arrived at the port, the steamer was being loaded with grain. While we were discussing the important items he left the room. After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Astana. I shall stay here until you return.  Adverbial Clauses of Place are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: where, from where, whenever. E.g. I like to spend my holidays where I can skate. Whenever he went, he was welcome. I shall go where my brother lives.  Adverbial Clauses of Cause are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: why, because, as, since, for, now that. E.g. I went away because there was no one there. As there were no porters, we had to carry the luggage ourselves. He walked quickly for he was in a great hurry.  Adverbial Clauses of Manner are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: as, as if, as though, that. E.g. You answer as if you didn’t know this rule. You ought to write as he does. 91

 Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: so that, so, in order that. E.g. The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him. I gave him the textbook in order that he might learn his lessons.  Adverbial Clauses of Condition are usually joined to the principal clause by means of conjunctions: if, unless, in case, on condition (that), supposing/supposing (that), providing/provided (that) – (если, при наличии, при условии), as long as. E.g. If I see him tomorrow, I shall ask him about it. He won’t go there unless he is invited. He will agree to this year’s budget on condition that we drop this foreign business in future. I’ve made provisions in case anything happens to me. We’ll sign the agreement providing that you guarantee the high quality of the goods. Clauses in a complex sentence may be connected with one another more closely and less closely, similar to the parts of a simple sentence. The intensity of connection between the clauses directly reflects the degree of their self-dependence and is therefore an essential characteristic of the complex sentence as a whole. Seminar Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Syntax and its general characteristics. A phrase is a basic syntactical notion. Sentence and its main features. Classification of sentences. The principal parts of the sentence. The secondary parts of the sentence. The Composite sentence. The Compound sentence. The Complex sentence.

Seminar Tasks: 1. Use your own ideas to complete these sentences. 1. We’ll be late unless … 2. I like hot weather as long as … 3. In takes Kate about 20 minutes to drive to work provided … 4. I’ll draw a map for you in case … 5. In case of fire … 6. You should tell the police if … 7. You can borrow the money providing … 8. She stayed at work in order that … 9. Because everything looked different … 10. While you were playing golf, … 2. Choose items from A and from B to complete these sentences in an appropriate way. A When, though, then, at that time, before, by contrast, nevertheless

B The acting was superb. I was still late for work. He began his story. We met each other. The snow began to fall. He was working as a librarian. Cuba has increased production by 35%. 92

The world output of sugar has been in slow decline since 1984. By contrast, Cuba has increased production by 35%. 1. Redford published his first novel in 1968 2. The story told in the film was predictable, 3. He was working in the garden 4. We had lived in the same block of flats for 5 years 5. I got up very early. 6. He waited until the audience was silent. 3. Write ten conditional sentences of Real conditionals and Unreal conditionals. 4. Find ten compound and complex sentences from the literary fiction and give the complete analyses.

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TEST 1. Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies 1. the phonemic shape of words 2. the grammatical system of a language 3. the vocabulary of a language 4. the history of a language 5. the language courses 2. Semasiology is the branch of Lexicology that deals with 1. the source language. 2. the phonemic shape of words 3. the grammatical function of words 4. a positional mobility of words within a sentence 5. the study of word meaning 3. Phraseology studies 1. graphical abbreviations. 2. free word-combinations and stable set phrases 3. synonyms and antonyms 4. lexical homonyms 5. formal style of speech 4. Word-formation is the process of creating 1. lexical homonyms 2. affixal phonemes 3. different kinds of dictionaries 4. root-morphemes 5. new words 5. A morpheme is 1. the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit 2. the basic unit of a language 3. a cliché 4. a collocation 5. a word-group 6. A prefix is 1. an internal structure 2. a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative 3. a common element of words within a word–family 4. an affix placed within the word 5. a derivational morpheme preceding the root 7. A suffix is 1. a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative 2. a derivational morpheme preceding the root 3. a common element of words within a word–family 94

4. an affix placed within the word 5. a connotational meaning 8. Derivational affixes serve 1. to convey grammatical meaning 2. to form different words 3. to create the lexical meaning 4. to form only neologism 5. to study the word meaning 9. Affixation is the formation of words 1. by changing the root 2. by joining two or more stems together 3. by adding word-building affixes to stems 4. by combining parts of two words 5. by adding derivational affixes to stems 10. Conversion is a word-building process in which words are built 1. by combining parts of two words 2. by joining two or more stems together 3. by adding word-building affixes to stems 4. by means of changing the paradigm 5. by changing the affix 11. Affixation, word-composition and conversion are 1. minor types of word-building 2. non-productive ways of word-formation 3. principal and productive ways of forming new words 4. morphosyntactically conditioned combinability of words 5. less known types 12. Homographs are words identical in … 1. spelling, but different in sound and meaning 2. sound-form but different in spelling 3. sound-form but different in meaning 4. meaning but different in spelling 5. sound and spelling 13. Homophones are words identical in … 1. spelling and meaning 2. meaning but different in spelling 3. sound-form but different in spelling 4. sound and in spelling 5. meaning 14. Define the words with native affixes 1. enable, able 2. freedom, wisdom 95

3. serious, dangerous 4. accurate, graduate 5. absent, decent 15. Define the words with the borrowed affixes 1. wisdom, freedom 2. ugly, likely 3. length, truth 4. create, appreciate 5. worker, teacher 16. Define the words with productive affixes 1. length, truth, health 2. careless, miner, feeling 3. childhood, manhood 4. wooden, golden 5. dangerous 17. Define the noun-forming affixes 1. -ly 2. -ful 3. -dom, -ship 4. -less 5. -ish 18. Define the adjective-forming affixes 1. -ness 2. -ship 3. -hood 4. -er 5. -ful, -less 19. Cross out non-productive type of word-building 1. Back-formation 2. Shortening 3. Conversion 4. Affixation 5. Word-compounds 20. What is the productive type of word-building? 1. Sound-imitation 2. Back-formation 3. Reduplication 4. Conversion 5. Blends 21. Define the type of word-building – “conversion” 1. burglar 96

2. ping-pong 3. nurse - to nurse 4. worker 5. dining-room 22. Define the type of word-building – “word-composition” 1. TV-set 2. BBC 3. defence - fence 4. ping-pong 5. babysitter 23. Define the derivational compounds 1. blackbird 2. music-lover 3. tallboy 4. bedroom 5. sunflower 24. Define the neutral compounds 1. tallboy, bedroom 2. blue-eyed 3. new-comer 4. lady-killer 5. golden-haired 25. Define the synonym of the verb “to glare” 1. to glance 2. to amaze 3. to shout 4. to surprise 5. to reply 26. Define the derivational antonyms 1. good – evil 2. love – hate 3. late - early 4. cold – hot 5. animate – inanimate 27. Define the absolute (root) antonyms 1. prewar - postwar 2. friend - enemy 3. known - unknown 4. useful - useless 5. appear – disappear

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28. Define the type of conversion – “animal” 1. to pin, to nail 2. to leg, to face 3. to rat, to fox 4. to maid, to groom 5. to cage, to pocket 29. Define the somatic idiom. 1. a cold fish 2. play with fire 3. kill time 4. jump out one’s skin 5. sick and tired 30. Cross out non-somatc idiom. 1. to stick to one’s word 2. to be good hand at somethig 3. to pay through the nose 4. to live from hand to mouth 5. to keep your head 31. Give the English equivalent for phrase “важная шишка”. 1. a main person 2. a big shot 3. a good man 4. a high bug 5. a big man 32. Give the English equivalent for phrase “целый и невредимый”. 1. high and mighty 2. thin as a rail 3. odds and ends 4. whole and mad 5. safe and sound 33. Give the English equivalent for phrase “закадычный друг”. 1. a good friend 2. an old friend 3. a bosom friend 4. a constant friend 5. a suspicious friend 34. Give the English equivalent for phrase “ходить по лезвию ножа”. 1. to skate on cold ice 2. to skate on thick ice 3. to run on thin ice 4. to skate on thin ice 5. to slide on ice. 98

35. Define the classification of a PU: “phraseological combination”. 1. to ride the high horse 2. bitter truth, dog’s life 3. a bluestocking 4. to lose one’s heart 5. to rain cats and dogs 36. Define the classification of a PU: “phraseological fusion”. 1. to be in a good shape 2. a big bug 3. a home bird 4. to be on the safe side 5. white elephant 37. Define the classification of a PU: “phraseological unities”. 1. a blue stocking 2. a white feather 3. to make a mountain out of a molehill 4. baker’s dozen 5. red tape 38. Define the British English word. 1. baggage 2. gasoline 3. sidewalk 4. lorry 5. subway 39. Define the American English word 1. lift 2. rubbish 3. torch 4. flat 5. candy 40. Define the case of conversion “tool or implement”. 1. to brush 2. to ape 3. to rat 4. to elbow 5. to face 41. Choose the synonym: “to amaze”. 1. to glare 2. to create 3. to look 4. to gaze 5. to astonish 99

42. Define the word of native origin. 1. status, method 2. sky, skirt 3. father, tree 4. enemy, crime 5. alarm, violin 43. Choose the synonym: “to stare”. 1. to flash 2. to gaze 3. to adore 4. to admire 5. to please 44. Define the type of homonyms: “homographs”. 1. rite-right 2. piece-peace 3. see-sea 4. a row – a row 5. a ball – a ball 45. Define the type of homonyms: “homophones”. 1. to tear – tear; 2. to bow – bow; 3. piece – peace; 4. a bank – a bank; 5. desert – to desert 46. Define non-synonymic word. 1. to make 2. to create 3. to produce 4. to astound 5. to fabricate 47. Point out the informal style of speech 1. learned words 2. professional terminology 3. dialect words 4. literary 5. official letter 48. A word having several meanings is called… 1. polysemantic 2. monosemantic 3. polysyllabic 4. polysyllable 5. monosyllabic 100

49. Define the meaning of the adjective – dull as “uninteresting” 1. a dull day; 2. a dull book; 3. a dull girl; 4. a dull colour; 5. dull eyes. 50. Define the total idiomatic compound word 1. blacklist 2. butter-finger 3. money-box 4. highway 5. flower-bed 51. What is a slang word? 1. a man 2. a child 3. good 4. kid 5. pound 52. Choose the correct prefix to the adjectives: experienced, expensive 1. -un 2. -in 3. - im 4. -il 5. - mis 53. Choose the antonym: “friendly”. 1. clever 2. young 3. hostile 4. capable 5. bright. 54. Define the French borrowing word. 1. plant 2. council 3. datum 4. piano 5. tomato 55. The words consist of a root and affix or affixes are called … 1. derivatives 2. productives 3. nucleus 4. contractions 5. shortenings 101

56. Define non-root morphemes or inflections. 1. friend, friendly 2. please, pleasant 3. child, childish 4. teachers, teacher’s 5. active, inactive. 57. Word-groups with a completely changed meaning, they are not motivated the meaning can not be deduced from the meanings of the constituent parts are called… 1. praseological combinations; 2. praseological fusions; 3. praseological unities; 4. praseological word-groups; 5. praseological units 58. Define the idiomatic compounds with partial changed meaning 1. tallboy 2. bluestocking 3. blackberries 4. bluebottle 5. butter-fingers 59. Define the idiomatic compounds with completely changed meaning 1. football 2. chatterbox 3. blackbird 4. trouble-maker 5. ladybird 60. Give the idiomatic phrase to the following definition: “decide to face a problem or difficulty instead of avoiding it”. 1. to take the bull by the horns 2. let the cat out of the bag 3. at a snail’s pace 4. pay through the nose 5. a night owl 61. Define the American English word. 1. tin 2. sweets 3. railway 4. bookshop 5. railroad 62. Define the type of lexical abbreviation – apocope 1. mart (market) 2. bookstore 3. net (internet) 102

4. expo (exposition) 5. phone (telephone) 63. Define the type of lexical abbreviation – aphaeresis 1. copter (helicopter) 2. maths (mathematics) 3. exam (examination) 4. com (computer) 5. fancy (fantasy) 64. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning are called … 1. Morphemic borrowings 2. Phonetic borrowings 3. Semantic borrowings 4. Translation loans 5. Language structure 65. Find acronym of alphabetic reading 1. NATO 2. FIFA 3. VIP 4. NASA 5. UNO

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REFERENCES LEXOCOLOGY 1. Амосова Н. Н. Этимологические основы словарного состава современного английского языка. - М.,1956. 2. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. - Л., 1963. 3. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.И., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка (English Lexicology). - М., 2004. 4. Арнольд И. В. Лексикология современного английского языка. 2-е изд. - М., 1973. 5. Арнольд И. В. Семантическая структура слова в современном английском языке и методика ее исследования. - Л., 1966. 6. Виноградов В.В. Об основных типах фразеологических единиц в русском языке. - М., 1961. 7. Каращук П. М. Словообразование английского языка. - М., 1977. 8. Кунин А. В. Английская фразеология. - М., 1970. 9. Кунин А. В. Фразеология современного английского языка. - М., 1972. 10. Кунин А. В. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. - М., 1998. 11. Медникова Э. М. Значение слова и методы его описания. - М., 1974. 12. Мешков О. Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. - М., 1976. 13. Смирницкий А. И. Лексикология английского языка. - М., 1976. 14. Ступин Л. П. Словари современного английского языка. - Л., 1973. 15. Уфимцева А. А. Слово в лексико-семантической системе языка. - М., 1969. 16. Уфимцева А. А. Типы словесных знаков. - М., 1974. 17. Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка. - Минск, 1992. 18. Швейцер А. Д. Литературный английский язык в США и Англии. - М., 1971. 19. Шмелёв Д. Н. Проблемы семантического анализа лексики. - М., 1973. 20. Adams V. An Introduction to Modern English Word Formation. - L., 1973. 21. Akhmanova O. (ed.) Lexicology: Theory and Method. - M.,1972. 22. Arakin. V. D. Comparative typology of English and Russian languages. Moscow, 2000. 23. Arnold I.V. The English Word. - M., 1973. 24. Bierwisch M. Semantics in New Horizons in Linguistics. - L., 1972. 25. Devlin J. A Diictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms. - Ldn., 1962. 26. Firth J. R. Papers in Linguistics. - L., 1964. 27. Galperin I. R. Stylistics. M., 1971. Garvin P. On Linguistic Method. The Hague, 1964. 28. Ginzburg R., Knidekel S., Mednikova E., Sankin A. Verbal Collocations in Modern English. - M., 1975. 29. Ginzburg R., Knidekel S., Sankin A. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M., 1985. 30. Hockett Ch. F. A. Course in Modern Linguistics. - N. Y., 1970. 31. Lado R. Linguistics across Cultures. The University of Michigan, 1997. 32. Lipka L.M. Synonyms and antonyms of the English language. - M. 1994. 33. Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge University Press, 2005. 104

34. Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation, 2nd ed. Wiesbaden, 2001. 35. McMordie J.S. Pocket English Idioms. Oxford University Press, 2000. 36. Smith L.P. English Idioms. The University of Michigan. 2003. THEORETICAL GRAMMAR 37. Ахманова О.С., Микаэлян Г. Б. Современные синтаксические теории. - М., 1963. 38. Бархударов Л.С. (1) Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. - М., 1966; (2) Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка. - М., 1975. 39. Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. - М., 1973. 40. Блох М.Я. Вопросы изучения грамматического строя языка. - М., 1976. 41. Бурлакова В.В. Основы структуры словосочетания в современном английском языке. - Л., 1975. 42. Гальперин И. Р. Текст как объект лингвистического исследования. - М., 1981. 43. Жигадло В.Я., Иванова И.Я., Иофик Л. Л. Современный английский язык. М., 1966. 44. Иванова И.Я. Вид и время в современном английском языке. - Л., 1961. 45. Иванова И.Я., Бурлакова В.В. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка. - М., 1981. 46. Игнатова М.С. Грамматика современного английского языка (теоретический курс). - Минск, 2001. 47. Кошевая И.Г. Грамматический строй современного английского языка. М., 1988. 48. Лайонз Дж. Введение в теоретическую лингвистику. - М., 1978. 49. Плоткин В.Я. Грамматические системы современного английского языка. Кишинев, 1995. 50. Почепцов Г.Г. Синтагматика английского слова. - Киев, 1976. 51. Слюсарева Я.А. Проблемы функционального синтаксиса современного английского языка. - М., 1981. 52. Akhmanova О. Syntax: Theory and Method. - Moscow, 1972. 53. Blokh. M. Ya. Theoretical grammar of English language. - Moscow, 1983. 54. Blokh. M. Ya. Theoretical fundamentals of grammar. - Moscow, 1986. 55. Bryant M. A. Functional English Grammar. - N.Y., 1975. 56. Close R. A. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. Ldn, 1977. 57. Davydova. I. V. Shapovalova. M. V. Theoretical grammar of English language: Lectures. - Moscow,1998. 58. Dowing A. Locke P. A University Course in English Grammar, 2000. 59. Gaiden G.O. A Grammar of the English Language. - Boston, 1985. 60. Ganshina M.A. Vasilevskaya N. M. English Grammar. - Moscow, 1964. 61. Gordon E.M., Krylova L.P. A Grammar of Present Day English. - M., 2001 62. Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. A Grammar of Contemporary English. Ldn., 1972. 63. Gurevich. V. V. Theoretical grammar of English language. - Moscow, 2001. 64. Hewings M. Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 65. Ilyish B. A. The Structure of Modern English. - M.-L., 1971. 105

66. Iofik L.L., Chakhoyan L.P. Readings in the Theory of English Grammar. Leningrad, 1992. 67. Irtenyeva N.F., Barsova O.M., Blokh M.Y., Shapkin A.P. A Theoretical English Grammar. - Moscow, 1999. 68. Murphy R. T. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 69. Levitski. Yu. A. Grammar of modern English language. - Perm, 1997. 70. Laimits V., Buitkiene J. An Introductory Course in Theoretical English Grammar. - Vilnius, 2003. 71. Khaimovich B. S., Rogovskaya B. I. A Course in English Grammar. - Moscow, 1997. 72. Strang B. Modern English Structure. - Ldn., 2004. 73. Sweet H. A New English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 2003.

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Table 1.

Native English Affixes

Noun-forming suffixes

Adjective-forming suffixes

-er -ness -ing -dom -hood -ship -th -let

teacher, driver, painter, worker loveliness, ugliness, coldness meaning, singing, understanding wisdom, freedom, kingdom manhood, motherhood, neighbourhood mastership, workmanship, leadership health, length, truth booklet, coverlet, islet

-ful -less -y -ish -en -some -like

joyful, sinful, skilful, wonderful sleepless, senseless, harmless tidy, merry, cozy childish, stylish, snobbish silken, golden, wooden handsome, tiresome, burdensome dreamlike, ladylike, cowlike

Verb-forming suffixes

-en

redden, sadden, widen, darken

Adverb- forming suffixes

-ly -wise

hardly, rarely, simply clockwise, otherwise, likewise

Prefixes

bemisunover-

befool, befog misuse, misname unselfish, uncomfortable overdo, overact, overcome

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Table 2.

Borrowed Affixes

Latin

Suffixes -able/-ible -ant/-ent -ate/-ute Prefixes extrapreultradis-

advisable, divisible, curable attendant, student, assistant doctorate, appreciate, contribute extraterritorial, extracurricular pre-school, pre-race ultra-high, ultra-intelligent disable, disagree, dismiss

Suffixes Greek

French

-ist -ism Prefixes antisym-/synSuffixes -age -ance/-ence -ard -ee -ess -ous -ment Prefixes en-/em-

artist, realist materialism, darwinism anti-pollution symmetrical, synthesis wreckage, peerage, marriage perseverance, coherence wizard, drunkard employee, absentee princess, authoress curious, serious, dangerous development, appointment enlist, enable, embed

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Table 3.

Productive Affixes Noun-forming suffixes

-er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance (manager, fighting, sweetness, materialism, impressionist, acquaintance)

Adjective- forming -able, -ic, -ish, -ed, -less, -y ( tolerable, electronic, girlish, learned, jobless, tweedy) suffixes Verb- forming suffixes Adverb- forming suffixes Prefixes

-ize/ise, -ate, -ify (realize, congratulate, falsify)

-ly (equally) un-, re-, dis- (unhappy, rewrite, dislike)

Non-Productive Affixes Noun-forming suffixes

-th, - hood, -ship (length, childhood, scholarship)

Adjective- forming -ful, -ly, -some, -en, -ous (peaceful, sickly, tiresome, suffixes golden, courageous) Verb- forming suffixes Prefixes

-en (strengthen) ab- (abnormal), bi- (biannual)

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Diagram 1.

WORD–FORMATION

Word-Derivation  Affixation  Conversion

Word-Composition

Non-Productive Ways

Productive Ways

1. Affixation.  Prefixation  Suffixation 2. Word-Composition. 3. Conversion. 4. Shortening or Abbreviation.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

110

Sound Interchange. Stress Interchange. Reduplication. Blending. Sound Imitation. Back-Formation.

Diagram 2.

AFFIXATION

Prefixation

Suffixation

Productive Affixes

Non-Productive Affixes

Native Affixes

Borrowed Affixes

111

Diagram 3.

WORD-COMPOSITION

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

     

The Part of Speech Compounds: Compound nouns Compound adjectives Compound pronouns Compound adverbs Compound verbs Compound numerals

The Structural Types of Compounds:  Neutral or Proper Compounds  Derivational Compounds  Compounds of three or more stems  Compound-shortened Words

Semantic Structure of Compounds:  Non-idiomatic compounds  Idiomatic compounds: * Partial changed meaning * Total changed meaning

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KEYS to the TEST 1. 3 2. 5 3. 2 4. 5 5. 1 6. 5 7. 1 8. 2 9. 5 10. 4 11. 3 12. 1 13. 3

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

2 4 2 3 5 1 4 3 5 2 1 1 5

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

2 3 4 1 2 5 3 4 2 5 3 4 5

113

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

1 5 3 2 4 3 4 3 1 2 2 4 2

53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

3 2 1 4 2 3 5 1 5 4 1 2 3

CONTENTS Prefase ........................................................................................................................... 3 Part I. Lexicology as a Linguistic Discipline ............................................................... 4 Lecture 1. Lexical Units ....................................................................................... 6 Lecture 2. Word-Building (Word-Formation)..................................................... 8 Various Types and Ways of Forming Words ....................................................... 8 Productive Ways of Word-building. Affixation ................................................... 9 Word-Composition ............................................................................................... 11 Classifications of English Compounds................................................................. 11 Lecture 3. Word-building. Conversion ................................................................. 13 Shortening (Abbreviation) .................................................................................... 14 Lecture 4. Non-productive ways of Word-building ............................................. 17 Lecture 5. Etymology of English Words. Words of native origin ....................... 19 Borrowings in the English Language ................................................................... 20 Classification of Borrowings ................................................................................ 22 Lecture 6. Semasiology. The causes of Semantic Changes ................................. 24 Semantic Structure of English Words .................................................................. 24 Semantic Structure of Compounds ....................................................................... 26 Lecture 7. Homonyms, Synonyms and Antonyms ............................................... 27 Homonyms............................................................................................................ 27 Classification of Homonyms ................................................................................ 27 Synonyms. The Dominant Synonym ................................................................... 28 Classification of Synonyms .................................................................................. 29 Antonyms.............................................................................................................. 30 Lecture 8. Euphemisms. Etymology .................................................................... 33 The Evolution of Euphemisms ............................................................................. 34 Lecture 9. Phraseology. Phraseological Units or Idioms ..................................... 35 Principles of Classification ................................................................................... 36 Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units.................................................. 37 Structural Classification of Phraseological Units ................................................. 38 Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units ............................................... 38 Lecture 10. Differences between the British and the American Variants of English. Differences in Pronunciation ............................................................. 40 Differences in Pronunciation ................................................................................ 41 Differences in Spelling ......................................................................................... 41 Grammar System of American English................................................................ 41 Lecture 11. Formal and Informal Styles of Speech ............................................. 43 English Dialects in Great Britain .......................................................................... 44 The Dialects of the United States ......................................................................... 45 Part II. Lecture 12. Grammar as a Linguistic science ................................................ 47 The Aims of the Theoretical Course of Grammar ................................................ 47 Two parts of Grammar: Morphology & Syntax .................................................. 48 Grammatical meaning. Grammatical category ..................................................... 49 The Notion of opposition...................................................................................... 50 Lecture 13. The Noun. General Characteristics .................................................. 51 The Category of Number ...................................................................................... 52 The Category of Case ........................................................................................... 53 114

The Functions of Nouns in the Sentence .............................................................. 54 The Article Determination .................................................................................... 54 Lecture 14. The Verb. The lexical and Morphological Characteristics of the Verb ............................................................................................................ 57 The Grammatical Categories of the Verbs ........................................................... 60 Lecture 15. Phrasal Verbs. Non-Finite forms of the Verb .................................. 63 Non-Finite Forms of the Verb or Verbals ............................................................ 65 The Infinitive ............................................................................................... 65 The Participle ............................................................................................... 66 The Gerund .................................................................................................. 67 Lecture 16. The Adjective ................................................................................... 69 Relative and Qualitative adjectives ...................................................................... 69 The Structural Types of Adjectives ...................................................................... 70 Degrees of Comparison ........................................................................................ 70 Substantivization of Adjectives ............................................................................ 71 Syntactic Functions of Adjectives ........................................................................ 72 Lecture 17. The Adverb. The Word-building Structure of Adverbs ................... 73 The Classification of Adverbs .............................................................................. 73 Position of Adverbs .............................................................................................. 74 The Degrees of Comparison ................................................................................. 75 The Syntactic Function of Adverbs in the Sentence ............................................ 75 Lecture 18. The Numeral ..................................................................................... 76 Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals ............................................................................ 78 Fractional Numerals ............................................................................................. 77 Lecture 19. The Pronoun .................................................................................... 78 Pronouns and their Classification ......................................................................... 78 The Personal pronouns ......................................................................................... 79 The Possessive Pronouns ...................................................................................... 79 The Reflexive Pronouns ....................................................................................... 80 The Reciprocal Pronouns ..................................................................................... 81 The Demonstrative Pronouns ............................................................................... 81 The Indefinite Pronouns ....................................................................................... 82 The Relative Pronouns ......................................................................................... 82 The Interrogative Pronouns .................................................................................. 84 Lecture 20. Syntax. General Characteristics of Syntax ........................................ 85 A Phrase – Basic Syntactical notion ..................................................................... 85 The Sentence and its Classification ...................................................................... 86 The Principal Parts of the Sentence ...................................................................... 87 The Secondary Parts of the Sentence ................................................................... 89 The Composite Sentence ...................................................................................... 90 Test ................................................................................................................................ 94 References ..................................................................................................................... 104 Tables and Diagrams ..................................................................................................... 107 Keys to the Test ............................................................................................................. 113

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Учебное издание Джарасова Тойжан Тайбулатовна

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE THEORY Учебное пособие Выпускающий редактор З. Усенова

ИБ № 5001 Подписано в печать 27.01.11. Формат 60х84 1/16. Бумага офсетная. Печать RISO. Объем 7,31 п.л. Тираж 100 экз. Заказ № 007. Издательство «Қазақ университетi» Казахского национального университета им. аль-Фараби. 050040, г. Алматы, пр. аль-Фараби, 71. КазНУ. Отпечатано в типографии издательства «Қазақ университетi». 116