Frontier Farewell : The 1870s and the End of the Old West [1 ed.] 9780889773639, 9780889773615

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“A great read.”

– Canada’s History Magazine

new edition

FRONTIER FAREWELL

The 1870s and the End of the Old West

Garrett Wilson

with a new foreword by Candace Savage

FRONTIER FAREWELL

new edition

FRONTIER FAREWELL The 1870s and the End of the Old West

GarrETT Wilson

with a new foreword by Candace Savage

Copyright © 2014, 2007 Garrett Wilson All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyrights hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical—without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any request for photocopying, recording, taping or placement in information storage and retrieval systems of any sort shall be directed in writing to Access Copyright. Printed and bound in Canada at Friesens. The text of this book is printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper with earth-friendly vegetable-based inks. Cover and text design: Duncan Campbell, University of Regina Press Indexer: Patricia Furdek Cover image: Tiffany Craigo Back cover image: Sergeant Kay’s Royal Engineers Survey Camp on North Antler Creek, 1873. Library and Archives Canada C73303 Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Wilson, Garrett, 1932-, author           Frontier farewell : the 1870s and the end of the Old West / Garrett Wilson ; with a new introduction by Candace Savage.—New edition.  Reprint with new introduction. Originally published: Regina : University       of Regina, Canadian Plains Research Center, 2007. Includes bibliographical references and index. Issued in print and electronic formats. ISBN 978-0-88977-361-5 (pbk.).—ISBN 978-0-88977-363-9 (pdf).— ISBN 978-0-88977-362-2 (html)             1. Northwest, Canadian—History--1870-1905.  2. West (U.S.)— History—1860-1890.  3. Great Plains—History—19th century.  I. Savage, Candace, 1949-, writer of introduction  II. Title.   FC3217.W45 2014 978’.02 C2014-906063-7 C2014-906064-5 10   9   8   7   6   5   4   3   2   1 University of Regina Press, University of Regina Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, S4S 0A2 tel: (306) 585-4758  fax: (306) 585-4699 web: www.uofrpress.ca

The University of Regina Press acknowledges the support of the Creative Industry Growth and Sustainability program, made possible through funding provided to the Saskatchewan Arts Board by the Government of Saskatchewan through the Ministry of Parks, Culture, and Sport. We also acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund and the support of the Canada Council for the Arts for our publishing program.   

 

 

For Lesley, Taralyne

& Kevin

Contents

Foreword to the 2014 Edition..................................................................ix Foreword to the 2007 Edition..................................................................xi Preface.................................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgments..................................................................................xix A Note on Terminology.........................................................................xxi Map of the Old West.................................................................. xxiv–xxv 1. Between the Rivers..................................................................................1 2. The “Medicine Line”.............................................................................15 3. The Era of Expansion........................................................................... 25 4. Confederation Comes West................................................................ 39 5. The Crisis in Red River........................................................................ 59 6. The Birth of Manitoba......................................................................... 65 7. Twin Scourges: Smallpox and War.................................................... 77 8. The Métis...............................................................................................103 9. The Battle of the Grand Coteau........................................................123 10. The End of the Red River Hunt........................................................ 133 11. “So Long as the Sun Shines”..............................................................145 12. The Boundary Survey.........................................................................185 13. By Section, Township and Range.................................................... 203 14. The North-West Mounted Police....................................................209 15. The Buffalo...........................................................................................249 16. The Road to Little Big Horn..............................................................281 17. The Events of 1876–77........................................................................299 18. Canada Versus the United States......................................................339 19. Fire and Starvation..............................................................................371 20. Surrender..............................................................................................403 21. 1881: The End of the Old West.......................................................... 419 22. Epilogue: After Events....................................................................... 435 Endnotes............................................................................................... 449 Bibliography.......................................................................................... 483 Chronology............................................................................................497 Index...................................................................................................... 503

Foreword to the 2014 Edition

T

hey say, “Don’t judge a book by its cover,” and here is a case in point. There is so much more on offer in Garrett Wilson’s Frontier Farewell than first meets the eye. The account you are about to read is warm and engaging, but under that charming exterior, it is made of tougher stuff. This is a book that packs a punch. In these pages, Regina lawyer and author Garrett Wilson chronicles the final, tortured phase of the buffalo ecosystem on the North American plains. If there were a Richter-style ranking for ecological and humanitarian disasters, that cataclysmic transition would be off the scale. An entire world was lost in the space of a generation: 30,000,000 buffalo gone. The impact of that upheaval can be measured by the ton, as the weight of baled hides and bleached bone hauled away by the trainload in the late nineteenth century. It can be estimated by the thousands of buffalo-dependent people who were lost to disease and malnutrition during the Great Hunger. Even today, the aftermath of the trauma can be sensed in the stories of survivors of residential schools and other racist sequellae. Although the buffalo prairie has vanished, never to be experienced again, the aftershocks from its destruction are still being felt. In a very real way, the end of the Old West marked the birth of the present. What Garrett Wilson offers us in these pages is a kind of creation story. This, he tells us, is how the two great transcontinental nations of North America—a mare usque ad mare, from sea to shining sea—came into being. It’s a story we think we know. First came the explorers, Radisson and Groseilliers, Lewis and Clark: we learned this in grade five. The fur traders were next and then, a while later, there was that little mix-up when John Wayne had to ride to the rescue and put the tribesmen in their place. Finally, when all the fuss

x    foreword to the 2014 edition

was over, along came grandma in her poke bonnet, perched on the seat of a covered wagon, rolling in to take possession of an untouched, “virgin” land. Wilson plays to our expectations by opening his origin story with a character we think we’ve seen before. Glass in hand, a weathered old-timer rises from his place at dinner, proposes a toast to the vanished days of the Wild West—falters—and subsides into a boozy heap under the table. We recognize him at once: he’s the dopey sidekick from a thousand tv westerns. But Wilson wastes no time in anchoring this anecdote in time and place. Turns out that the old codger was a real flesh-and-blood person and a friend of Wilson’s own father. That’s how close the lost world of the Old West really is, just a generation or two beyond our grasp. As an early recruit to the North-West Mounted Police, James H. ( Jimmy) Thomson had witnessed the turmoil of the 1870s at first hand. His wife, Alice—born Iha Wastewin, Good Laughing Woman— was Lakota, and her family had been among the thousands of refugees who fled north from the wrath of the United States military after the Battle of the Little Big Horn. The Lakota had come to Canada in the late 1870s looking for humanitarian aid and peace. The truth about what they received instead is one of the chapters that makes this book both important and incendiary. As American historian Bernard Devoto once noted, “No frontier is marked between the Western landscape and a country of fable.” It is this metaphorical final frontier—the borderland between what we’d like to believe and what we can know for sure—that Garrett Wilson sets out to explore and map as fully as possible. Always, he is looking for stories, small events that he can set into the frame of his main narrative to enliven his telling with vitality and surprise. (What fun, for instance, to learn that an engraved lead plate placed out in the middle of nowhere by a French grandee in 1742, claiming the plains for France, was uncovered 170 years later by a fourteen-year-old named Charlotte Johnson.) But even deeper than Wilson’s love of stories is his passion for evidence. Garrett Wilson brings to this work a fierce, forensic intelligence and a determination to leave no book unopened, no archive unsearched, no document unread, if it might help him understand how the old order of the West was shattered so that a new one could be put in its place. What he has discovered is revealed in these pages without fear or favour. Although we cannot change what happened, we can open ourselves to the truth. The stories we tell about the past can change the future. Candace Savage, April 2014

Foreword to the 2007 Edition

T

his book tells the story of the canadian west from the first explorers in the 18th century to the year the Sioux chief, Sitting Bull, surrendered to the Americans and the Blackfoot chief, Crowfoot, led his starving people back to Canada, both in 1881, and which Garrett Wilson designates as “the end of the Old West.” The story of these early days of the settlement of the Canadian West is here in its entirety—treaties and agreements, disagreements and controversies, ignoble motives and noble ones, along with dates, short biographies of the famous and the not-so-famous, births and deaths, letters, reports, speeches and anecdotes, and all the details in between. Wilson has pursued not just the familiar narrative, but wherever written histories have faltered, he has sought information, no matter how buried or obscure, and filled in the gaps, so that the reader cannot fail to be surprised at and also riveted by this original and fascinating, richer and more complete version of our history. The story he has so carefully documented here is not merely the story of Euro­peans, nor of the First Nations people, but of how their lives and their needs and desires worked together and against each other at each turn in Western history, ending, tragically and shamefully with the impoverishment and dispossession of the first people of the West, even as the European settlement was made possible and would soon burgeon and prosper. Gracefully written, fully and meticulously researched, and above all, original in its presentation of a history we thought we knew, this book will illuminate the viewpoint of both professional historians and lay-readers alike. It is an invaluable, as well as unique, addition to the literature of the West. Sharon Butala, July 2007

Preface

“B

uffalo!” The old horseman struggled to his feet and boldly began his toast with glass held high, his weather-worn visage conspicuous in the room full of young men. Then “buffalo,” this time more quietly. Then, after a long pause, “buffalo,” almost in a whisper. With that, the toastmaker slid under the table and was heard from no more. The glass, still clutched in the gnarled fingers of his outstretched hand, was the last feature to disappear from the view of the other guests, some startled, some bemused. The host of the gathering, Inspector Richards, the Officer Commanding the Royal North-West Mounted Police1 detachment at Wood Mountain, Saskatchewan, was offended at the breach of decorum. Rising, he was about to take action when another member of the Force alertly spoke into his ear. “Sir. His service number was 387.” That number told the oc that his over-refreshed guest had been one of the very early members of the Force, enlisting not long after its formation in 1873. The oc nodded in understanding, resumed his seat, and the incident passed. The toastmaker slept quietly and undisturbed beneath the table. That was my father’s introduction to Jimmy Thomson. It was New Year’s, 1913, in the mess hall of the Wood Mountain post in those historic hills just 40 km (25 mi) north of the United States boundary. The previous season the railway had entered the region and the community of Limerick had been established 48 km (30 mi) to the north. In welcome, the Officer Commanding had invited a few businessmen from the new village to

xiv   preface

join the detachment’s mess dinner. Late 1912 was an open winter with little snow and my father was one of an intrepid carload of bachelor pioneers who responded eagerly and negotiated their way down the Old Pole Trail, the line that in 1887 carried the telegraph from Moose Jaw to the Wood Mountain post and then became a settlers’ road. As a boy in the 1940s, I often accompanied my Irish immigrant father on his travels as a financial and insurance agent through what he lovingly called “The South Country,” that area of Saskatchewan lying between the Canadian Pacific Railway mainline and the American border. This was the world “Irish Charlie” had chosen for his life after several early years in North Dakota, Manitoba, mid-Saskatchewan and a homestead north of Saskatoon. Our trips frequently took us through Wood Mountain—two Wood Mountains, in fact. There was the village that grew where it had been placed by the railway that arrived in 1928, and the “Old Post,” the tiny settlement 6.5 km (4 mi) further south, on the north slope of the uplands where the North-West Mounted Police had maintained a detachment after their 1874 incursion into what was then the North-West Territories. The Old Post was a magical place. There were trees, then rare on the plains. And a creek, spring fed, with water flowing all summer. And a ford across that creek. Where the tires actually slopped through gravel and water and the current quickly filled in the ruts and carried away the small curtains of mud, turning it all clean and clear again in a moment. To a boy born and raised in the dustbowl, the sparkling water of that ford was a fascination. But just further south were two features that seldom failed to provoke the story-teller in my father, the site (then barren) of the old nwmp quarters2 and, high on a hill, a gravesite. That 1913 New Year’s dinner had been long, with many toasts. It was well on towards the end of the evening when Jimmy Thomson, a local rancher, stood to present his toast to the buffalo that once had sheltered in the coulees of the Wood Mountain uplands. Jimmy Thomson’s adobe-chinked log home was just a few hundred metres south of the site of the Old Post. During his travels in those early years, Irish Charlie would often overnight on the floor of the Thomson living room; hotels arrived only after 1928 with the new town of Wood Mountain. When he took his discharge from the nwmp, Jimmy married a Native girl, Mary Thomson, a Lakota, one of the few American Sioux who fled to Canada after Little Big Horn in 1876 and never did return. Her people were finally granted a reserve at Wood Mountain in 1910. A quiet, gentle woman, it was Mary’s custom to withdraw from the presence of visiting whites.

preface   xv

After that inauspicious meeting in 1913, my father became a good friend of the Thomsons, and so it was that when Jimmy died in March 1923, Mary Thomson sought his help to provide a funeral in the way of the white people. A preacher was located and transported down to the Old Post and a service conducted in the room where Irish Charlie had so often spread his bedroll. To honour Jimmy’s wish that he be buried on the hill overlooking his home, his pallbearers struggled up the steep slope to the crest over which the dawn had for so many years slipped down to awaken the old pioneer. But it was done, and there Jimmy rests today, looking down upon both his home and the now-restored Old Post, beneath a headstone that reads: 387 ex-corporal james h. thompson n. w. m. p. 3rd march, 1923 age 68 The “P” in Thompson was an error incurred when the Royal Canadian Mounted Police erected the headstone years after Jimmy’s death. Beside Jimmy lies his wife whose much more modest marker records her name, “mary thomson,” and only her birth date: 1864. She was a girl of 12 at the Little Big Horn. Other members of the family lie nearby. The Thomson house continues in use. For a few years it did service as a Red Cross hospital, and then reverted to a residence and is still the home of local ranchers. James Harkin Thomson had been an Easterner. He joined the North-West Mounted Police in Ottawa and was promptly sent out west with a troop of other recruits up the Missouri River via the steamboat Red Cloud. He took his oath of service on the dock when they arrived at Fort Benton, Montana Territory, on June 9, 1879, and then moved 160 miles north to Fort Walsh, 175 miles due west of the Wood Mountain post. Jimmy made corporal in April 1883, but left the Force when his term of service expired in July 1884 and was discharged at the new headquarters in Regina. Jimmy had the idea of promoting a Wild West show but quickly gave up that notion and, in August 1884, applied for a land grant. He received a Police Bounty Land Warrant and established a small horse ranch next to the Wood Mountain Post. And he married. Jimmy’s Lakota wife, Iha Wastewin, or Good Laughing Woman, became Alice Mary Thomson. They raised a family of 11 children, all of whom were given both Lakota and English names and taught the Lakota traditions and language. Mary, an excellent horsewoman, raised and tamed the Thomson

xvi   preface

stock. Their home became the centre of the community, serving as post office and school. Jimmy Thomson never quite left the Wood Mountain nwmp Post. When the telegraph line arrived in 1887, he was appointed a special c­ onstable and served the detachment as operator. When the telephone came, Jimmy ran the exchange. Fluent in Native dialects, he was the Post interpreter, and also its guide, scout, horse wrangler, carpenter and caretaker. Acting as caretaker during a temporary closing of the Post, over a severe cold spell Jimmy gave shelter in the nwmp stables to a passing horse trader and his herd and was embarrassed when it was later learned that the trader was a thief and his horses stolen. Jimmy Thomson was with the nwmp when one of their major concerns was the presence in Canada of those several thousand Sioux seeking refuge from the American army after the near-destruction of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under General Custer at Little Big Horn, in June 1876. During the five years Sitting Bull and his people remained in Canada, they were involved with the Wood Mountain Post more than any other detachment. nwmp officers from Wood Mountain were present in July 1881, when Sitting Bull finally crossed back over the border and surrendered. During his visits at the Thomson home, my father listened to many stories from those historic times, first-hand accounts from a participant. Naturally, as we drove together through the countryside where many of those dramatic events had played out, those stories were relayed to me, stories of Sitting Bull, of buffalo, of the North-West Mounted Police, of the early Métis settlers, and of Jean-Louis Légaré, the local trader who had assisted Sitting Bull in his return to the United States. I heard none of this in my Limerick school rooms just 48 km (30 mi) north. In fact, I doubt that my teachers were even aware of the drama that had unfolded in our neighbourhood, and so recently, at least in usual historical terms. Some years ago I came across an extraordinary statement in the 1879 Annual Report of the then Indian Commissioner, Edgar Dewdney. There had been a prairie fire in that fall of 1879, Dewdney said, that raged all the way from Wood Mountain to the Rocky Mountains. Wildfires on the plains were common events, and often they ran for many miles, but a fire of this magnitude was unheard of. More remarkable, this fire had not been caused by accident, or by lightning, the usual case, but had been deliberately set. Even that was not unknown, but this fire had been started at not just one location but at a

preface   xvii

number of pre-determined sites along the 49th Parallel, the border between the North-West Territories and the United States. Dewdney speculated that the motive behind the fire was to destroy the grass—the grazing—so as to deter the buffalo herds from migrating into Canada from Montana Territory. That in turn would deprive the Indians north of the border of their food source. Why starve the Indians in Canada? Well, a large group of those Indians were the American Sioux who had fled across the border after the defeat of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer at Little Big Horn. Sitting Bull, their famous leader, was prominent among the Sioux who had taken refuge in Canada. The American Army was patrolling just below the border, waiting to take the Sioux into custody and corral them on reserves. But who would stoop to mass starvation as a tactic, even in those harsh times? That was a question that drew me ever-deeper into the history of that period. The answer was elusive, but in my search I found that the 1870s, the first decade of the prairies in Canada, was a fascinating time and that much of its story had never been told. Immediately following their transfer from the Hudson’s Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada, the Canadian plains and their helpless occupants were swept by winds of change, relentless and incredibly swift. In little more than 10 short years, the vast prairies were converted from a great commons that was home to all, to a neatly surveyed system of land titles designed for the individual ownership of thousands of immigrant homesteaders. These pages carry the story of those tumultuous times, with as much attention to the injustices, misery and suffering inflicted upon the first inhabitants of the West as my research would support. If it is true that history is written by the victors, it was totally true in the case of the western plains in the 1800s, for the uprooted and displaced peoples of those plains had no written language with which to record their agonies. The Sioux were the victors at Little Big Horn, but they were portrayed as the villains by those who first wrote the history of that tragic event. Not until more than 100 years later did the real truth begin to emerge and finally expose why the American Army attacked a peaceful village of Plains Indians, and that it did so unlawfully and without provocation. After 1870 the western frontier faded away, and with it the entire way of life of the Plains Indians, for centuries totally dependent upon the buffalo. As the vast herds were slaughtered, the peoples of the prairies faced sudden starvation and misery. Their only hope of survival was the mercy of new nation

xviii   preface

states centred in faraway Ottawa and Washington, mercy that came only at a price—the surrender of their homelands. This is an account of the agony of those times. Garrett Wilson Regina, Saskatchewan July 2007

Acknowledgments

M

y friend dr. george baxter advises from experience that one should never choose as a subject for a thesis a topic that one finds particularly interesting—one becomes so engrossed in the research that it becomes difficult to put it aside and turn to the writing. Same problem with this book. I found that delving into the history of the Great Plains quickly became an addictive pleasure, so much so that this project consumed many more years than first planned. Adding to my pleasure on the research trail were the unique facilities and accommodating personnel of the many repositories of the history of the West, several of which are worth a visit even without research as an excuse. Particular mention must go to the National Archives of Canada, Ottawa; Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul; State Historical Society of North Dakota, Bismarck; Montana Historical Society, Helena; Manitoba Archives, Winnipeg; Saskatchewan Archives, Regina; Alberta Archives, Edmonton; and the Glenbow Museum, Calgary. Sharon Maier of the barely rescued Prairie History Room at the Regina Public Library was very generous with her assistance. Much, perhaps most, of the extensive research behind these pages was carried out by Rob Nestor, to whom I am deeply indebted. Rob, then the Librarian at the First Nations University of Canada, Regina campus, and a lecturer at both the University of Regina and the First Nations University of Canada, not only served up marvelous research, but also provided sound interpretation and editorial advice. He deserves a great deal of credit for the final product. A few of the usual suspects lurk in the background. Aydon Charlton and Dave Margoshes once again have given me valuable literary criticism and

xx   acknowledgments

direction. Henrica van Lieburg once more contributed vital translations. Marian Hebb, of Toronto, has for more than twenty years provided sound legal and editorial guidance. Bill Armstrong again assisted, this time with archival research. Much gratitude goes to sister, Sheila McMullan, for reading and critiquing early drafts and for non-flagging encouragement. Joann Decorby Blaise kindly arranged for me to review the correspondence of her distinguished ancestor, Father Jules Decorby, omi, who ministered to the people of the Canadian prairies from 1867 to 1913. Professor Bill Waiser of Saskatoon generously found time to review the manuscript and share his expertise. Paul Taylor, an original Saskatchewanite and former British Columbia Deputy Minister of Finance, supplied detail on the current state of the 1870 Ottawa/bc Pacific rail agreement. Finally, my sincere appreciation goes to Brian Mlazgar and his staff at Canadian Plains Research Center whose professionalism transformed a rough manuscript into a polished work. The reception of the first edition of Frontier Farewell has been very gratifying, receiving extremely positive reviews and personal accolades. And it sold so well that it fell out of print. Canadian Plains Research Center Press is now the University of Regina Press, with Bruce Walsh as director and publisher. I am more than appreciative that Bruce and his staff have given Frontier Farewell a second life with this new, updated edition, which also includes a fine new map that provides important context for the events and places in the book.

A Note on Terminology

A

lthough the word indian as applied to the aboriginal inhabitants of North America has fallen somewhat into disfavour, so that some writers now prefer Amerindian, I have chosen to continue the more common usage, if only for simplicity. Plains Indian is employed somewhat casually to describe all the horse-mounted buffalo-hunting tribes who ranged the Great Plains. Because it originated as a pejorative, and also because it is seen as too embracing, the word Sioux also carries disapproval, Dakota being the more acceptable term. There are three main linguistic divisions, Dakota, Nakota and Lakota, spoken, respectively, by groups known as the Santee, Yankton and Teton, each group in turn consisting of numerous individual bands or tribes. The Tetons, the most westerly, alone divided into seven councils. Crazy Horse, for example, was of the Oglala and Sitting Bull was of the Hunkpapa. Again, for simplicity, Sioux has been employed to refer to all. Similarly, the term Blackfoot is used collectively to refer to not only the Blackfoot people proper, but also those of the Blackfoot Confederacy, which included the Blood, the Sarcee, and the Peigan. As well, Ojibwa and Saulteaux refer to one common people. And no attempt has been made to distinguish between the Plains Cree, Woodland Cree or Swampy Cree. In the early years of the Red River Settlement, the terms Half-Breed and Métis carried separate definitions. Half-Breed designated mixed-blood descendants of Indian and Scottish or English parentage, while Métis referred

xxii    a note on terminology

to those of French descent. Métis is now the accepted term for all and is the term employed in the Constitution Act, 1982. Prior to 1870, “North-Western Territory” referred to the area outside Rupert’s Land but still administered by the Hudson’s Bay Company, mostly consisting of the lands that drained into the Arctic Ocean rather than Hudson Bay. After the 1870 transfer of both regions to Canada, they became (minus the new province of Manitoba) “The North-West Territory,” a name that has since evolved into the “Northwest Territories.”

map of the old west ( Selected Locations and Geographical Features)

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