From Traditional to Modern African Water Management: Lessons for the Future 3031096622, 9783031096624

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Chrispin Kowenje · Andreas Haarstrick · Timothy Biswick · Gideon Ajeagah · Stephen Ojwach · Oluwatoyin A. Odeku · Gnon Baba   Editors

From Traditional to Modern African Water Management Lessons for the Future

From Traditional to Modern African Water Management

Chrispin Kowenje · Andreas Haarstrick · Timothy Biswick · Gideon Ajeagah · Stephen Ojwach · Oluwatoyin A. Odeku · Gnon Baba Editors

From Traditional to Modern African Water Management Lessons for the Future

Editors Chrispin Kowenje Department of Chemistry Maseno University Maseno, Kenya Timothy Biswick Department of Chemistry University of Malawi Zomba, Malawi Stephen Ojwach College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, School of Chemistry and Physics University of KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Andreas Haarstrick Leichtweiß Institut, Department of Waste and Resource Management Technische Universität Braunschweig Braunschweig, Germany Gideon Ajeagah Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science Université de Yaoundé I Yaounde, Cameroon Oluwatoyin A. Odeku Faculty of Pharmacy University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria

Gnon Baba Department of Chemistry University of Lomé Lomé, Togo

ISBN 978-3-031-09662-4 ISBN 978-3-031-09663-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09663-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Foreword

Water resources in Africa, like any other part of the globe, are under pressure because of the number of natural and anthropogenic factors. A number of efforts have been done, through international/regional initiatives, to help nations to plan, develop and manage water resources and ensure sustainability of water use, build climate resilience and strengthen integrated water resources management. What has been a missing factor in most, if not all, of these initiatives is the exploration of tapping into Africa’s wide range of traditional practices and knowledge systems that have been applied (with success) on the continent to preserve Africa’s natural habitat for centuries. Water resources are transboundary in nature and therefore the management approach must be universal. Water supports fora and fauna as well as lives and livelihoods of vast numbers of people across wide catchment areas and national boundaries. The depletion and degradation of these resources have the potential to adversely affect the ecosystem, social fabrics, political relations and socio-economic development. Access to clean fresh water is critical in addressing sustainable development challenges, which will get worse with the increasing water demands across all social, economic and environmental sectors. The effects of climate change that is putting more pressure on water quality and availability exacerbate the situation. These conditions are increasingly putting businesses, governments, communities and the environment at risk. Scarcity of fresh clean water affects more than 40% of people across the globe with more countries experiencing water stress due to rapid population growth, high urbanisation rates and expansion of agricultural and industrial activities. The dwindling drinking water supplies are negatively affecting all continents where increasing drought and desertification is making the situation worse. Provision of food and nutrition security, of affordable human health and well-being, and of support infrastructure across the environmental as well as social-economic sectors depend on the availability, affordability of and proper management of clean water resources. Ensuring availability and sustainable management of water is inherent in the sixth Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and is closely linked with other SDGs. If SDG 6 is “badly tracked”, this will hinder the progress in realising the rest of UN Agenda v

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2030. Water security is also inherent in one of the priority areas of Africa Agenda 2063s first-ten year’s implementation plan. It is worth noting that issues of water resources management and security are reflected across the six pillars of Africa’s Agenda 2063. In essence, water security and management are issues that cut across a variety of targets of both UN and Africa’s Agenda 2030 and 2063, respectively, as well as other regional and international development agenda. This book, which aims to document, preserve and scientifically interpret the African indigenous knowledge/practices on water resources management, has come out at the opportune moment to offer insight into the relevance of and infuse the traditional knowledge and practices to modern approaches on sustainable water resources management. The book covers a wide range of traditional practices that include: (i) water harvesting; (ii) water transportation; (iii) water storage and conservation; (iv) water treatments; (v) myths and folk stories about water management or conservation; (vi) water resource management systems and (vii) soil-water-forest conservation/management systems sub-topics. The findings in this book, however, demonstrated that the knowledge application is not limited to only these categories. The unique nature of this book resides in the fact that it seeks to preserve the African indigenous practices and knowledge system that has been handed over, undocumented, from generation to generation. This book puts into light the fact that marrying traditional practices with conventional scientific understanding has a potential to shape the future of African’s, and indeed for the rest of the world, water resources management into a sustainable system that is crucial for food and ecological security, political stability and socio-economic development.

Daniel Nyanganyura, Ph.D. Executive Director African Science, Technology and Policy Institute (ASTePI) Pretoria, South Africa

Preface

A safe and sustainable water supply plays an important role in public health and the well-being of society. From ancient times, all global human settlements and major cities developed in places with access to water. According to the UNDP 2016 report, the concerted efforts of national governments, the international community, civil society and the private sector helped achieving the Milennium Development Goals (MDGs) target of halving the proportion of people who lack access to improved sources of water by the year 2015. However, realising the need for a more sustainable path to reduce poverty, in 2015 the United Nations came up with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Of interest is SDG 6, which aims at ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by the year 2030. In the African continent, communities have for centuries practised various traditional and indigenous methods of water resource collection and management suitable for their needs. This book seeks to document these indigenous practices with the aim of providing scientific evidence to support their use in the African continent. Target 6.8 of the SDG 6 reinforces the involvement of local communities in the water resources management. Specifically, SDG item 4 target 4.7 recognises the resilience that springs from and encourages the preservation and dissemination of indigenous and cultural knowledge. The African continent has partially preserved its natural habitat for centuries and this is the knowledge this work seeks to imbue with current scientific understanding. The traditional practices are categorised as: (i) water harvesting, (ii) water transportation, (iii) water storage and conservation, (iv) water treatments, (v) myths and folk stories about water management or conservation, (vi) water resource management systems and (vii) soil-water-forest conservation/management systems sub-topics. Most of the work presented in this book are primary data, collected during the Covid-19 pandemic period of 2020. Interviews, discussions and observations were conducted to gain an understanding of the historical background of the water system, administration and operational rules, informal constraints, resources contribution for the initial investment and their views towards modern development of water systems. This book aims to document, preserve and scientifically interpret the African foreknowledge on water resources management. In line with SDG 15.5, which aims vii

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to protect the biodiversity and natural habitats, this book, therefore, offers insight into the relevance of the traditional knowledge and practices to modern approaches on sustainable water management. Braunschweig, Germany Maseno, Kenya

Andreas Haarstrick Chrispin Kowenje

Acknowledgements “The editors would like to thank the individual chapter contributors for original illustrations and photos and the DAAD and the DAAD-funded Project exceed-Swindon for supporting network meetings in order to realise this book.”

About This Book

The book addresses the situation of water and wastewater management in Africa from present angle, underpinned by selected case studies. The publication of this book will also be the start of a book series that in more detail critically reviews, discusses and analyses the water and wastewater situation and management in different regions and countries worldwide. Further, the book provides a useful resource for scientists, researchers and practitioners dealing with water and wastewater management. The book also takes a comparative look at traditional methods of water management in Africa that have guaranteed water supply for centuries, in many cases integrating sustainability considerations. In line with SDG 15.5, which aims to protect the biodiversity and natural habitats, this book, therefore, offers insight into the relevance of the traditional knowledge and practices to modern approaches on sustainable water management.

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Contents

Part I 1

Sub-Saharan Africa’s Way of Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andreas Haarstrick and Chrispin Kowenje

Part II 2

Introduction 3

Water Harvesting and Detection

Water Harvesting Practices and Consequences in South of Togo: Case of Mission TOVE and KOVIE in Maritime Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dègninou Houndedjihou, Tomkouani Kodom, Ibrahim Tchakala, Limam Moctor Bawa, and Gbandi Djaneye-Boundjou

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Part III Water Storage and Conservation 3

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Traditional Water Conservation Practices in Rural Areas of Tem Land, Togo: Lessons for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mouleika Afoda, Seyf-Laye Alfa Sika Mande, and Gnon Baba

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Traditional Methods of Water Conservation and Management in Bassar and Kabye Land, Togo: Comparative Studies . . . . . . . . . . . Bouwèdèo Toi Bissang, Kwamivi N. Ségbéaya, and Gnon Baba

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Traditional and Modern Methods of Water Conservation in Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Susan Chimbaza, Ephraim Vunain, and Timothy Biswick

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Approaches to Water Conservation in Coastal Communities in Southern Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elliot Haruna Alhassan and Evelyn Nhyiraba Quarshie

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Water Resources Harvesting and Storage Methods in Cameroon: Physico-Chemistry and Health Implication . . . . . . . . . Moussima Yaka Diane Armelle and Gideon Ajeagah

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Part IV Water Treatments 8

Assessment of Treatment Methods Used for the Pollutants Removal from Water in Burkina Faso: Review and Current Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Raymond Kaboré, Yacouba Sanou, and Samuel Paré

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The Use of Plants for Drinking Water Disinfection: Traditional Knowledge, Scientific Validation, Current Challenges and Prospects for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Svitlana L. Nitiéma Yefanova, Jean Claude W. Ouédraogo, Benjamin Ouédraogo, and Yvonne L. Bonzi-Coulibaly

10 Efficiency of Indigenous Water Treatment Methods in Rural Communities in Northern Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Elliot Haruna Alhassan and Samuel Opoku Dandi 11 Traditional Water Purification Methods Among the Luo and Luhya Communities of Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Bowa O. Kwach, Mary A. Oriaro, and Chrispin Kowenje Part V

Myths and Folk Stories about Water Management and Conservation

12 Traditional Beliefs and Healing Potential of the Osun River: Quest for Indigenous Water Management Approaches in Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Michael Olukayode Akinsete and Aderemi Suleiman Ajala 13 Indigenous Knowledge and Practices for Sustainable Water Resources Management: A Case of Luo and Banyala in Kenya . . . . 179 Denis Mutama Masika, George Oduol Anyona, and Edna Aon Kowenje 14 Indigenous Approaches to Domestic Water Catchment Management and Conservation in Southern Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Robert T. Kumah, Takudzwa Mandizvo, Alfred O. Odindo, and Stephen Ojwach 15 From Huts to Shacks: Drawing Lessons from Traditional Resource Management Systems to Inform the Management of Communal Water Projects in Urban Informal Settlements in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Wanjiru R. Gichohi

Contents

Part VI

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Soil-Water-Forest Conservation and Management Systems

16 Water Management and Treatment Practices in the Akparé District Plateau Region of Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Samadou Sanni, Ibrahim Tchakala, Tomkouani Kodom, Limam Moctar Bawa, and Gbandi Djaneye-Boundjou 17 Water Conservation Techniques by Ilukuno, Ikun-Amure, and Ijan Ekiti Communities in Ekiti State, Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Esther O. Akinbobola, Temitayo O. Ajayi, and Oluwatoyin A. Odeku 18 Irrigation Practices in Farming Communities in North Central Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Joseph T. Sunmonu, Temitayo O. Ajayi, and Oluwatoyin A. Odeku 19 Influence of Water Salinity on the Evolution from Traditional to Modern Water Collection Methods in Cameroon’s Coastal Areas: Use of Ciliated Protozoans as Water Quality Indicators . . . . 261 Gideon Ajeagah and Acha Yanick Acha 20 Traditional Methods of Agricultural Water Resource Management in Southern Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Takudzwa Mandizvo, Robert T. Kumah, Stephen Ojwach, and Alfred O. Odindo

About the Editors

Chrispin Kowenje studied Chemistry at BSc and MSc levels from Egerton University—Kenya (1990–1998) and received his doctorate in 2006 in the field of Chemistry of Materials at State University of New York at Binghamton University-USA. Since 2017, he is an Associate Professor of Chemistry at Maseno University. His teaching and research cover manipulating and applying the chemistry of zeolites, clays and other natural materials for waste, domestic and drinking water treatments. He contributes to pollution remedial measures. In addition, Chrispin involves himself in optimising bioenergy especially biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas production processes. Prof. Kowenje has been a chairperson to Africa Future Earth committee (2019–2022), a member of the review board to global Future Earth organisation (2020–2022) and member to Future Talent Council (2020). He has keen interest in how research scientists promote the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals.

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About the Editors

Andreas Haarstrick studied Chemistry at the Technische Universität Braunschweig (1983–1989) and received his doctorate in 1992 in bioengineering. Since 2006, he is the Professor for Bioprocess Engineering at the TU Braunschweig. His teaching and research cover modelling biological and chemical processes in heterogeneous systems, development of models predicting pollutant reduction in and emission behaviour of landfills, growth kinetics at low substrate concentrations under changing environmental conditions, Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) and groundwater management. Since 2012, he is the managing director of the DAAD exceed-Swindon Project dealing with sustainable water management in developing countries. Timothy Biswick studied Chemistry and Mathematics at the University of Malawi (1993–1997) and received his doctorate in Materials Chemistry at the University of Cambridge (2006) specialising in organic-inorganic hybrid materials for various applications. Thereafter, he was a postdoctoral research fellow at the Centre for Intelligent Nano-Bio Materials in Seoul, Korea (2007–2008). Since 2008 he has been working in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Malawi. His teaching covers the general area of inorganic chemistry, and his research is centred on the design and synthesis of inorganic for environmental remediation. He is currently the Coordinator of the DAAD exceed-Swindon project for the Sub Saharan Africa region. Gideon Ajeagah is a Full Professor of Biology, Environment, Sanitation and Aquatic Resource Management. He has a Bachelor of Science in Biological Sciences (University of Yaounde 1), a Master of Science in Water Quality and Environment (University of Yaounde 1) and received a PhD in Hydrobiology and Environmental Engineering from the University of Yaounde 1 (Cameroon). He also holds a DIPES II in Biology from Ens Yaounde. He is a lecturer in Structural and Functional Biology, and international consultant in Sustainable and Ecosystemic Exploitation of Aquatic Resources.

About the Editors

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Stephen Ojwach obtained his BSc Honours (First Class) from the University of Nairobi, MSc from the University of the Western Cape and a PhD from the University of Johannesburg and is currently a Professor of Inorganic Chemistry and a Discipline Academic Leader at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN). Stephen Ojwach is a principal investigator at the DSTNRF Center of Excellence in Catalysis and an C2-NRFrated researcher. Stephen has been a visiting Professor at the University of Lethbridge, Canada, University of RWTH Aachen, Germany, among others. Stephen research focuses on applied Organometallic Chemistry and homogeneous catalysis. Stephen has co-authored about 100 research articles in peer reviewed international journals in the field of Inorganic, Organometallic Chemistry, Catalysis and Environmental Chemistry. Oluwatoyin A. Odeku studied Pharmacy at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria (1984– 1988) and received her doctorate in 1998 from the University of Ibadan. She has been a Professor of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology since 2008 and she is the current Dean of the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches courses in drug formulation and industrial pharmacy. Her research interests include drug delivery, nanotechnology, indigenous excipients development formulation of herbal medicinal products and water and waste management in the pharmaceutical industry. She has been a member of the exceed-swindon network since 2017. She is a registered pharmacist and a Fellow of the Nigerian Academy of Science, West African Postgraduate College of Pharmacists and the West African Research Association.

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About the Editors

Gnon Baba is a Full Professor in organic chemistry and environmental sciences. He obtained his doctorate in University of Rennes 1 in organic chemistry in 1994 and he obtained his state doctorate in 2002 in University of Cocody at Abidjan (Ivory Coast). He was recruited as a teacher-researcher in the University of Lomé in 1996. From November 2007 to September 2018, he was the Dean of the Faculty of Science and Technology of University of Kara. Since 2019 he is the Director of the University Agency of Francophonie (AUF) in Togo. He is the author of over 80 scientific publications and collective works. He is the coordinator of Sub-Saharan Africa EXCEED-SWINDON network in 2019 and 2020 and is President of the West African Water, Environment, Energy and Mines Network (WAWEEMN) of the West African Chemical Society (WACS). Gnon Baba is head of the Laboratory.

Part I

Introduction

Chapter 1

Sub-Saharan Africa’s Way of Water Management Andreas Haarstrick and Chrispin Kowenje

1.1 Introduction From early times to the present Anthropocene world, water has been an important medium for human civilisation in terms of tradition, religion, economy, technology, and society. Many religious communities for ritual purification or baptism use water. In nature and research, water is used both as a solvent and as a transport medium. The proverbial power or effect of water is subject to a certain dualism. On the one hand, when tamed, water presents itself as a life-enhancing medium, providing useful forms of energy and ensuring the survival of entire natural life forms up to and including human civilisations. On the other hand, water can also create hazards, such as floods, tsunamis, storms, and landslides. Likewise, water shortages can be devastating, leading from droughts to famines to climatic changes that, not least, alter and endanger ecological diversity. How we treat and manage our water resources depends on the desires of human society and on each individual. If this is done in a common sense, responsible and sustainable manner, many conflicts in the political, health and economic areas can be avoided. The magic formula is “security through sustainability”. Up to 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water. Then, how is water scarcity possible? Well, one must know that 97.5% of all the water on earth is seawater, which is not suitable for direct human consumption. Here we have to realise that both population numbers and temperatures are steadily rising, which means that the little fresh water available in reservoirs is under severe stress. Another point concerning freshwater is that, according to UNESCO-IHP (2017), about ¾ of all new jobs worldwide are related to water. A. Haarstrick (B) Leichtweiß Institut, Exceed, TU Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany e-mail: [email protected] C. Kowenje Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 C. Kowenje et al. (eds.), From Traditional to Modern African Water Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09663-1_1

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Global freshwater demand is expected to increase by 55% by 2050. Much of the water is still used in agriculture, meaning more than 70% of the Worldwide water reserve. Because of the global population explosion, food production will increase by 69% by 2035. The same increased demand applies to the extraction of water for conversion into electrical energy. This development makes it clear once again, that there will certainly be a global water crisis if intelligent measures for the sustainable use of drinking water resources are not introduced as soon as possible. The former prime minister of Norway, Bruntland, defined sustainability; (i) activities where the needs of the present generation are met without compromising the needs of future generations and (ii) equitable spatially and temporally distribution of the resources. Although the central role that water occupies in sustainable development is recognized, water-related services remain far too low on the scales of public perception and of governmental priorities. As a result, water, which ordinarily should be a common good, often becomes a limiting factor, rather than an enabler to social welfare, economic development, and healthy ecosystems. In 2016, the world embraced the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In the SGDs, unlike in MDGs, the issues of water management were specifically itemized and prioritized in Goals 6 and 14 but with linkages and interactive effects to several other goals. The scientific community, through the Future Earth forum (Future Earth, 2013), intends not to miss the targets again as was the case with MDGs by collapsing the many SDGs into three broad areas of (a) dynamic planet (environment, water quality, etc.) for better understanding of drivers, interactions and processes in water issues, and anticipation of global thresholds and risks, (b) global sustainable development (water management, communications, awareness, etc.) for deeper understanding of ecosystem functions and services, and (c) transformations towards sustainability (waste management, eco-psychology, etc.) for sustainable integration of emerging technologies and economic development pathways in human development. To secure and sustainably manage the water resources, multi-disciplinarily in training is recommended. Arguably, such numerated multilayered challenges facing sustainable water management do not lend themselves to narrow disciplines. Broadly, the experts need to be able to identify pollutants and prevent pollution and contaminations, advocate for good water resource governance, push for green revolution in afforestation and enhancement of carbon credits, develop early warning systems such as the utilization of modern (hydro-) meteorological station data, and integrate indigenous or traditional knowledge into early warning systems. Water security plays a pivotal role in human development and in attainment of the SDGs to an extent that of the 17 SDG goals about 9 are water related nexus. According to Britt Crow-Miller et al. (2016), achieving water security in urban environments is important as cities already shelter more than half of the world’s population and accordingly the highest concentration of socio-economic activities. In addition, the knowledge of renewable energy and clean alternative energy sources is encouraged. Primarily, collaboration among water management players and effective communication of scientific findings are key to offering sound, secure and sustainable water management systems.

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Good water governance and water resource management encompass many elements, but essentially include effective, responsive, and accountable government institutions that respond to change, openness and transparency that provide information to stakeholders and give citizens and communities a voice and role in decisionmaking; this is the framework of an inclusive political and economic system. The importance of having a transparent, universal, and neutral platform for government and citizen groups to mobilise available resources and seek alternative ways to ensure improved water and sanitation management has been demonstrated, as well as the importance of complementing local government support.

1.2 The Sub-Saharan Africa Situation In Sub-Saharan Africa, population, and economic growth, as well as periodic and chronic water scarcity, pose major challenges to Sub-Saharan Africa’s path to development and prosperity. The lack of water management infrastructure, both in terms of storage and supply, as well as in improving drinking water supply and sanitation, are crucial factors responsible for poverty, which is hardly changing. Climate change processes that negatively affect rainfall and temperature trends threaten water availability, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem balance in almost all regions of sub-Saharan Africa. Against this backdrop and the increasing demand for water, there are additional constraints that pose significant challenges to improving water resource management. Lack of human and infrastructural capacity, persistent poverty, discrimination, and inequalities in access to drinking water and sanitation, and inadequate and unsustainable financing of water resource management and services are some of the challenges to sustainable water management. Adapting traditional knowledge to meet today’s water resources management is a major challenge for people all over the world in general and Africa in particular. Over the centuries, dry land dwellers (desertification) in the Northern part of Africa have overcome this challenge through traditional methods of water harvesting and management, which have ensured long-term sustainability of water resources through demand management and adequate resource replenishment. In general, these methodologies despite being effective and cost-efficient are either in decline or have been completely abandoned. Water Challenges are unique in their dependency on relatively scarce available water—this scarcity exists on a gradient ranging from mild in dry sub-humid areas to extreme in hyper-arid areas (or deserts), and adversely impacts the land include all terrestrial regions where the production of crops, forage, wood, and other ecosystem services are limited by water. There are quite profound impacts on how the human societies based in water scarcity areas relate to their environment and balance the tradeoffs in land and water use. Over the millennia, dryland societies thriving in these settings have adopted sustainable and equitable approaches for managing their water as well as other natural resources. Today, water management in arid areas is under a serious paradigm shift in the face of new challenges that pre-empt the proper exploitation of this vital natural resource.

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In semi-arid regions of Africa, where rainfall is scanty, many water management systems were developed to provide irrigation water for agricultural through the centuries ago. To overcome the water scarcity in these regions traditional water management systems were locally developed. These practices traditionally used by local people made the best possible use of the scarce water resources and difficult conditions created by the aridity of the climate. Socio-economic and environmental aspects of these methods are assessed. In this book, it will be discussed why some water management systems are still being applicable. Some of East Africa and much of West Africa fall within the humid tropics, where abundant water resources are available. There too, despite this availability, numerous water-related problems exist. More than half of the African population has neither safe drinking water nor sanitation. As in the drier areas of sub-Saharan Africa, irrigation is largely neglected and a significant potential for expansion of water usage is becoming more preoccupying. The situation in southern Africa is, in many respects, similar to that of North Africa. Water is in limited supply in most countries of the sub-region. Most watersheds are already tapped by large-scale abstraction schemes, and plans are under way to tap the remaining ones. Botswana and Namibia have already reached their internal water-supply limits. The same applies to Zimbabwe, where a water-shortage alarm was issued when the lack of water throughout the country had become critical. Despite a major operation to drill boreholes all over the country, the rural areas, where most of Zimbabwe’s 10 million people live, were badly affected. Crop production was slashed by the failure of the rains in the summer growing season, and energy was in critically short supply because of the lowest rainfall in the river catchment. Water stress is particularly important in South Africa because of the size of its population and economy. Key policy options are similar to those of North Africa and include demand-side management, the decentralization and adaptation to sustainable water management rules. The most important issue to use traditional method is to understand how we can adapt and integrate indigenous water management practices into modern technologies of water resources systems successfully. Since ages, people across different regions of Africa, have experienced either excess or scarce water due to varied rainfall and land topography. Yet, they have managed to irrigate their agricultural fields using localized water harvesting methods. Their traditional communal ways, though less popular, are still in use and more efficient. There are many other methods too that are practiced in various combinations. These methods have been around for hundreds of years, and with a lot of areas suffering from water scarcity, it may be time to revisit some other traditional methods to help innovate new ways of revival. This book explores the possibility of incorporating traditional water management experiences into modern water management. Modern systems are deemed to replace the traditional ones in search of sustainable services. In fact, the dynamism of management, which is influenced by various factors, including technology, climate change, population growth, and education level of the people in charge, requires flexible systems that are adaptable to different situations. However, striving to achieve sustainability by introducing new technologies

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and ignoring the existing local knowledge is of no use to the people who dominantly depend on traditional practices. The communities, which have long-served traditional management systems, are not easily willing to work with the imported techniques if they have not been involved in the development of those systems, or if their social components are interpreted wrongly or even ignored. In such cases, traditional people prefer to remain observers rather than become involved as real participators. In consequence, modern water systems are used while the services are operational, but the communities return to unimproved sources after the services break down. Development of advanced technologies and new approaches to sustain systems is worthwhile to accept; yet blending them with traditional knowledge that exists in target areas can make them more valuable for the intended purpose. Thus, successful management practices should be investigated before introducing new technologies and management styles, since endeavors that ignore the local conditions are unlikely to succeed. The idea of describing traditional knowledge is a cumulative body of knowledge, know-how practices, and representations maintained and developed by peoples with extended histories of interaction with the natural environment. The sustainability of water supply and sanitation has become a special concern of the developing countries and international donors. Since the decade of International Drinking Water and Sanitation (1981–1990), several approaches have been used in the sector to bring in sustainable services. Shifting from top-down to a bottom-up approach, the introduction of participatory approaches, vowing to community participation, provoking community management, and advertising community financing are ways to increase the sustainability of the systems. The fundamental issues that motivate this study are (a) the need for service sustainability of water supply and sanitation, (b) lack of integration of modern management approaches with the local situation, and (c) the disparity of sustainability of the modern and the traditional systems. Various reasons can be mentioned for the failure of modern schemes in the study areas, including financial, environmental, technical, and social aspects.

1.3 The Future of Water-Secure Sub-Saharan Africa—Which Path is the Right One? The question of the right path does not have just one answer or solution. Several factors play a role here, ranging from political, economic, sociological, and technological to ecological and climatic factors. Africa is a large continent with correspondingly diverse climatic, ecological, ethnic, and political differences and traditional ways of life. This, of course, makes it not easy and not always possible to find the right one way or the one right solution to an efficient, sustainable, and secure water supply and management for the future. As diverse as the conditions described are, it is therefore important that the African countries—and here with a special focus on the countries south of the Sahara—find a stable consensus for unified action.

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One thing is obvious: the climate will change, the population will grow, and water scarcity will increase or even worsen. In addition, here, in particular, governments have a responsibility to act collectively. Definitely, there is no more time for long discussions; action must be taken. Not only Africa, but also all other continents are no longer able to preventively cope with the increasing water crisis, but only reactively. The decisive factor is the advancing, unstoppable climate change. The world will not succeed in stopping global warming by plus 1.5 to 2 degrees; huge efforts would have to be made immediately to switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources but there is no longer enough time. This has impressively been stated in the IPCC’s World Climate Report (2021). The far climate impacts will become even more pronounced in the coming decades (IPCC report 2021). But perhaps small local/regional solutions can buffer the worst effects. This may also be the case in sub-Saharan Africa. For this to happen, governments must consistently monitor the situation in their countries—as has happened in the first steps, for example, in Ghana, Kenya, Botswana, and South Africa—and establish regulations and sanctions that will lead to long-term security of water supply. This also includes the continuous improvement of water infrastructure measures and the securing of freshwater resources. This will require financial efforts, which are not always given and therefore several good concepts (also long-term effective) are to be worked out, whose realization is brought on the way over for national budgets and international aid funds. When it comes to the question of costs, a lot can be saved with the idea of reaching the goal with small local/regional projects and relying on technologies that are uncomplicated, robust but easily repairable and based on solid scientific foundations and recent findings. Perhaps a symbiosis with local traditional methods (indigenous knowledge) can create synergy effects that increase the likelihood of success of local/regional projects and are also able to reduce costs.—But once again, governments must act, and this does not mean just drawing up pages of regulations and rules, including sanctions, but action must create realities; water security must become visible. It should also be noted that not only the securing and sustainability of freshwater resources must be an issue, but also the treatment and processing of wastewater for reuse in industry, agriculture, and households. It is mandatory that all concepts for securing the water supply in the future must also include the reuse of treated wastewater. This is so to speak in extended form part of the “water resource management”. The symbiosis with traditional, indigenous knowledge and methods has already been mentioned above. But what can be understood by indigenous knowledge?— Indigenous knowledge or indigenous technical knowledge are facts to those who consider them a way of knowing or viewing the world. Some of it is belief and a lot of it is folk wisdom or common sense. Indigenous knowledge systems are learned ways of knowing and viewing the world. They have evolved from very many years of experience and trial and error problem solving by groups of people working to overcome the challenges they face in their local environments, drawing on the resources available to them.—Part of what we know today indicates that the first anatomically modern humans appeared in the southern part of the African continent. There is ample evidence that sorghum, millet, rice, yam, oil palm, as well as cattle

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were domesticated in the area between the Sahara and the equator about 9000 years ago (Haverkort et al., 2002). Traditionally, water has been managed from and since that time for two main purposes, agriculture, and domestic consumption. Water sources ranged from direct precipitation to water from drains, rivers, streams, and seeps. Underground water sources were also tapped. The water collected in this way was used to meet domestic needs as well as for watering livestock, agriculture, and irrigation. Available literature indicates that more innovative indigenous water management techniques have been developed in climatically arid areas and in mountainous regions of Africa (Reij, 1990). For agricultural purposes, traditional African farmers developed techniques such as building terraces, pit systems, drainage ditches, and small earthen dams to conserve soil and water. Virtually all on-farm water management techniques known about here are examples of low external inputs combined with the use of locally available resources. While retaining water, some of the techniques also provide effective protection against soil erosion and loss of soil fertility. Johda (1990) gives the term “ethno-engineering” to these techniques. This involves the collection and concentration of runoff and rainwater to improve crop production and make it more reliable, which Reij (1988) also describe in their article. In wetter regions, these techniques have been combined as needed with other techniques such as crop rotation, shifting cultivation, mixed cropping, manure application, and protection of nitrogenfixing crops. In countries with rainfall of 500 mm or more, the focus tends to be on in situ moisture conservation techniques. These included agroforestry practices that prevented soil erosion and resulted in sustained retention of moisture in the soil (Olokesusi, 2006). Traditional irrigation systems based on surface water originated in Africa and most of them are based on the shaduf or shadouf system, which originated on the Nile River in Egypt many centuries ago. The technique usually consists of a long, tapered, nearly horizontal pole mounted like a seesaw (New Encyclopedia Britannica Macropaedia, Vol. IX, 1994) and has been modified in different parts of the continent to suit sociocultural and environmental characteristics (Olokesusi, 2006). In most African countries, surface water is considered a common good. All community members have equal rights to access and use water for drinking, washing, livestock, cooking and irrigated agriculture. Rainwater (from roof-tops) collection and micro-catchments like small dams, cisterns, or water holes, for domestic use has always been practiced. Water hygiene plays an essential role here. In many African societies, the household forbids anyone to use their own cup to draw water from the communal water pot. Rather, a vessel is attached to the pot from which all members of the household are expected to draw water into their own drinking vessels. In arid and semi-arid areas, the clay pots used are often buried on the grounds rather than in the rooms to provide a cooling effect. Locally processed shea butter is often added to the bottom of the pots before water collected from roofs, streams, or rivers is poured into the pots. Attempts to disinfect the collected water or keep it potable vary culturally. In southwestern Nigeria, for example, Adenopus breviflorus or tagiri is commonly placed next to the household clay water pot during the dry season to

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ward off evil spirits and “germs” that cause measles. The fruit of Adenopus breviflorus is commonly used in folk medicine in West Africa as a medicinal plant to treat measles, indigestion, and as a wound antiseptic (e.g., umbilical cord wound), while livestock farmers use it to treat Newcastle disease and coccidiosis in various livestock species, especially poultry. The Uhabiri Ossah clan of the Igbo in the Umuahia area of southeastern Nigeria seeks to improve the taste of water for human consumption and achieve a kind of disinfection by exposing the clay water pot to the hot smoke of Uhokiriho seeds. For this purpose, the seeds are thrown into the burning firewood of the traditional cooking stove while the water pot is placed on top (Olokesusi, 2006). In view of climate change, these technologies are a valuable resource, but they need to be adapted to today’s socio-economic and environmental conditions, and this is where modern methods and knowledge come into play. Without question, these “ethno-engineering” techniques form an important starting point for establishing future water management and coping mechanisms that allow for sustainable and climate-adapted improvements in agricultural production, thus also contributing to poverty alleviation. Regulated and sustainability-based access to water also helps to circumvent time and constraints that are important in rural communities. It would also improve personal hygiene and environmental sanitation. These developments also expand livelihood opportunities with positive environmental consequences as well since poverty and environmental degradation are mutually dependent. With respect to future water security and returning to the question of the right way forward for Africa, the answer lies in combining traditional/indigenous (Indigineous Knowledge System IKS) and modern knowledge. Concepts based on this can generate synergistic effects, which are also based by the fact that they consider local/regional situations and socio-economic conditions. This includes decentralized solutions that can be more specific and detailed to local problems and viable sustainable solutions. But as already mentioned above, it still requires some effort and a permanent will. Unfortunately, in many places there are political obstacles and most of the water management concepts are poor. Olokesusi (2006) reports that already at a pan-African conference on water in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in December 2003, inadequate funding and technology were cited as the main obstacle to solving the continent’s water and sanitation problems. An urgent call was made for the integration of new knowledge with IKS. At that time, it was already noted that ICS, while different from Western science-based knowledge systems, have many aspects that complement science. ICS is fundamentally local in factual information; here, science would necessarily have to conduct new studies to obtain the same information that already exists in ICS. Western science has a short-term information base to draw upon, while its indigenous counterpart has the advantage of a very long-term information base to draw upon. In integrating the two knowledge systems, people’s intellectual and traditional resource rights must be fully recognized and respected. Whenever possible, these rights should be documented and patented to the appropriate authorities. In addition, it may be helpful to consider the following (Olokesusi, 2006):

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● Developing a symbiotic relationship by combining the benefits of ICS and Western knowledge systems. ● Stakeholders in the two knowledge systems should develop a partnership through Complementary action plans, participatory action research. ● The principle of co-management should guide the development and management of water resources. The “top-down” governance of science and technology should give way to this reality. This means local beneficiaries and “outside experts” working together and giving equal weight to both types of knowledge. ● Western science stakeholders should seek to verify the veracity of information from ICS stakeholders by assessing the credibility of information sources. ● Upscaling of specific ICSs could be achieved if more attention is paid to methodological approaches and if these are structured. ● For projects, the economic dimension of the approaches should be identified during appraisal. The objective of this book is to explore the good lessons of traditional water management in the different regions of Africa to better enhance the modern technological water management practices, to sustainably activate the hydric equation in the African continent on the one hand and the global water crisis on the other hand.

References Crow-Miller, B., Chang, H., Stoker, P., & Wentz, E. A. (2016). Facilitating collaborative urban water management through university-utility cooperation. Sustainable Cities and Society, 27, 475–483. Future Earth. (2013). Future earth initial design: Report of the transition team. Paris: International Council for Science (ICSU). ISBN 978-0-930357-92-4. Haverkort, B., Millar, D., & Gonese, C. (2002). Knowledge and belief systems in sub-Saharan Africa. In B. Haverkort, K. Van’t Hooft & V. Hiemstra (Eds.), Ancient roots, new shoots: Endogenous development in practice (pp. 137–169). Zed Books. IPCC—Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2021). Sixth Assessment Report. https://www. ipcc.ch Johda, N. S. (1990). Mountain agriculture: The search for sustainability. Journal for Farming Systems Research Extension, 1(1), 55–75. Olokesusi, F. (2006). Survey of indigenous water management and coping mechanisms in Africa: Implications for knowledge and technology policy. African Technology Policy Studies Network, ATPS Special Paper Series No. 25. Reij, C. (1988). Soil and water conservation in Yatenga, Burkina Faso. The greening of aid: Sustainable livelihoods in practice (74–77). Reij, C. (1990). Indigenous soil and water conservation practices in Africa. Paper presented at the Workshop on Conservation in Africa: Indigenous Knowledge and Government Strategies, organized by the Social Science Council of New York, held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 21–27 December 1990. The Lancet—The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Code red for a healthy future, 398(10311), 1619–1662. UNESCO–IHP. (2017). Un world water development report—The international hydrological programme. http://ihp-wins.unesco.org/layers/geonode:unworldwaterdevelopmentreport2

Part II

Water Harvesting and Detection Timothy Biswick

Introduction Water is critical to all socio-economic aspects of human welfare including security, transport, energy and health. It is central to the production and preservation of a host of benefits and services for people and can play a key enabling role in strengthening the resilience of social, economic and environmental systems in the light of rapid and unpredictable changes. However, both naturally occurring conditions and processes and human activities such as climate and geography limit access to this vital resource. In Sub-Saharan Africa, and indeed the rest of the developing world, access to water is limited based on time (during droughts and dry seasons) and space (in arid areas). In addition, as population increases and agricultural and industrial activities intensify, the amount of water required by society escalates. Over centuries, dwellers in areas with spatial or temporal water scarcity have overcome these challenges through several traditional methods of water resources management. Broadly speaking, water resources management refers to the process of planning, developing, and managing water resources, in terms of both water quantity and quality, across all water uses. It includes the institutions, infrastructure, incentives, and information systems that support and guide water management. Various methods of groundwater prospecting/detection, as well as water harvesting, have been used in various communities as a way of improving access to water resources. However, it has been noted that these methodologies despite being effective and cost-efficient are either in decline or have been completely abandoned. This chapter discusses some of the ways rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa have‚ over the years‚ employed to access water for their various needs. It outlines the various types of divination methods used by the Luo communities in Western Kenya T. Biswick University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi

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as a means of prospecting and locating groundwater. These traditional methods are compared with modern methods in terms of success rate, reliability and cost with the aim of exploring ways of adapting and integrating the traditional methods of water prospecting into modern technologies for improved reliability and affordable cost for the rural communities. Additionally, the chapter discusses rainwater harvesting that is practised in rural areas on the outskirts of Lomé in Togo. The quality of the rain harvested water is assessed and compared with alternative sources of water in the area.

Chapter 2

Water Harvesting Practices and Consequences in South of Togo: Case of Mission TOVE and KOVIE in Maritime Region Dègninou Houndedjihou, Tomkouani Kodom , Ibrahim Tchakala, Limam Moctor Bawa, and Gbandi Djaneye-Boundjou

2.1 Introduction In developing countries such as in Sub-Saharan Africa, water shortage is very frequent in rural areas as well as in the cities within a specified water supply infrastructure (Mun & Han, 2012). The drinkable water problem is frequently encountered with a further aggravated situation in rural areas caused by inadequate water supply infrastructures, poverty, poor water governance, and climate variability (Balogun et al., 2016). Unfortunately, during the past decade and because of climate change, many resources became scarce, such as water, and their qualities have deteriorated. So, the need for drinking water leads people in rural areas to the use of surface water, rainwater, run-off water without any pretreatment but at times apply some rudimentary technologies for water supply and rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting can be defined as a deliberate collection of rainwater from a surface known as catchment and its storage in physical structures or within the soil profile (Malesu, 2006). According to Lee et al., (2012), rainwater harvesting can provide good quality water in sufficient quantities in the areas that experience urban stream depletion and water shortages. Despite its potential, this technology is underused in developing countries especially in rural areas and there are only a few organizations involved in this technology for rural communities (Sturm et al., 2009). Some factors such as low seasonal rainfall, quality of housing and construction material, and low household income, make the potential of rainwater harvesting (RWH) not fully exploited in the African countries compared to other regions like South East Asia (Mahmoud et al., 2014). Rainwater quality which is generally known to be good and frequently meet World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, is largely dependent on the path water takes D. Houndedjihou · T. Kodom (B) · I. Tchakala · L. M. Bawa · G. Djaneye-Boundjou Laboratoire d’Hydrologie Appliquée et Environnement, Faculté Des Sciences, Université de Lomé, Lomé, Togo e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 C. Kowenje et al. (eds.), From Traditional to Modern African Water Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09663-1_2

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before it is collected for use, the type of roofing materials used and the frequency of cleaning of the surface. If the purity of water that rains down from the clouds is undoubtedly recognized, the surfaces intercepting the rains can strongly influence its quality and be the main pollution source for water. (Abbasi & Abbasi, 2011). Lee et al., (2012) report that the quality of harvested rainwater is dependent both on the roof type and on environmental conditions. Therefore, physicochemical and microbiological contaminants can be accounted for. The main goal of this study was to investigate practices of water supply and to examine their physicochemical and microbiological quality especially rainwater rain-off, water harvested for consumption and domestic purpose in districts far from Lomé, the capital of Togo, about 40 km.

2.2 Material and Methods 2.2.1 Study Area Togo is located in West Africa and has an area of 56,785 km2 and inhabitants of 6,195,155. Togo remains one of the least developed nations, according to the 2012 Human Development Index. Poverty remains twice as high in rural areas as for urban counterparts; 90% of households in extreme poverty are in remote rural villages (World Bank, 2012). KOVIE and TOVE, very close to each other are located to the north-west of Lomé at about 40 km (Fig. 2.1). The two areas are classified as rural areas with about 11,000 inhabitants each (DGSCN, 2011). Agriculture is the main activity of the inhabitants. The two villages represent one of the principal hot spots of the rice-growing area of the country. Between 1970 and 1980, some rice production companies were installed in these areas but later collapsed. Although in recent years, the Government is making effort to re-develop the rice fields, though around the villages drinking water supply remains problematic. The average annual rainfall in KOVIE and TOVE is around 800 mm with a bimodal regime where March to July and September to November account for the high and the small rainy seasons. So, rooftop rainwater harvesting is possible in KOVIE and TOVE for many households having their house covered by sheet- metal. This research was realised in October 2021 and for the present study, three main activities were done.

2.2.2 Survey Household investigations were performed using a set of questions and photography apparatus. So, 50 households were randomly interviewed in each village. The questions are directed on water supply in the areas, the different sources of water available, the impact of the water used for consumption on their health, their knowledge on

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Fig. 2.1 Map showing KOVIE and TOVE location (Koffi Glé, 2012)

hydric diseases, personal or public latrine disposal in the area. To fulfil random samples in the context of this survey, we used purposeful sampling. So, households spatially distributed are selected to cover the entire study area. Three kinds of participants of this survey were chosen: women, men, and students. All the surveys were performed following the method described by Ahiablame et al. (2012).

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2.2.3 Water Sampling Water used by the target people was sampled, in triplicates, for laboratory analysis using standards water analysis methods. Two kinds of analysis: physicochemical and microbiology were performed. Physicochemical characterizations were performed at “Laboratoired’ hydrologieappliquée et Environnement (LAHE)” and samples were sent to “Laboratoire de microbiologie et de contrôle des denrées alimentaires (LAMICODA)” for microbiology characterizations. Three samples were collected in sterilized bottles for microbiology characterizations: one in the river Zio bordering Kovié (KVR), the second from groundwater obtained by drilling at KOVIE (KVG) and the last in TOVE stored rain-off water (TVRO). Four samples for physicochemical parameters were also collected: river Zio (KVR), KOVIE groundwater (KVG), KOVIE rain-off (KVRO) and TOVE rain-off (TVRO).

2.2.4 Sample Analysis In total, 16 physicochemical parameters were analyzed using standard methods for drinkable water. pH and temperature were measured using Accumet AP110; Electrical conductivity (EC) by Inolab WTW cond.730; NO3 − , NH4 + , SO4 2− , PO4 3− and total iron (Fe) by spectrophotometer using 6705 UV/Vis. Spectrophotometer JENWAY; the turbidity was measured using turbidimeter LOVIBOND serial number 26018; Alkalinity (TAC), Total Hardness (TH), Calcium content (Tca), Magnesium content (TMg2+ ), chloride (Cl− ) and Organic Matter by volumetric method and colour by Platinum/cobalt method. Samples for microbiological characterization were sent to the lab. LAMICODA and four germs (Total Coliform, Thermotolerant Coliforms, Escherichia coli, Fecal Streptococci) were analyzed.

2.3 Results and Discussions 2.3.1 Survey In total, 50 households in each district were surveyed. The participants of this survey are mostly women (80% and 70% respectively for KOVIE and TOVE), (Fig. 2.2). In fact, in most cases, the problem of water shortage or water scarceness is women concern in our country, so water supply in the household is the women affair. The household survey also sought the identification of four main sources of water supply available in these areas: drilling water, rooftop rainwater, rain-off water and water from river Zio (Fig. 2.3). Among the four water sources available, rooftop rainwater and river were the most widely used as water supply systems in the community. 100% of the people investigated were identified as daily users of rainwater from the

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Fig. 2.2 Percentage of the participants questioned in the survey

rooftop in both of the two areas (Fig. 2.4a). However, Ahiablame et al., (2012) only found 14% of the households surveyed used rainwater harvested in a suburban area of Lomé in Togo. The same authors report on bucket-drawn water wells (groundwater) which was the most popular water supply system used in the area of Yokoè in Lomé. The inhabitants of KOVIE and TOVE are mostly agriculture workers and didn’t have a high education background level. So, these people won’t have the same attitude, challenges and understanding of problems associated with drinkable water. Almost all the households surveyed experienced saltiness of the drilled water, which then explains the fact that this water system was not widely used, some few participants (students) do not use water supply sources such as rainwater collected onto the open water pans and surface water (River Zio) for consumption. The percentage of households that used the river as a water supply system in TOVE is relatively low compared to that of KOVIE. This result can be explained by the position of the river to the inhabitants. Rooftop rainwater is the most widely used by the target population, it is also important to point out that rainwater was collected just when it rained and used immediately thereafter in most cases. No facility at the household level is built to stock water for its long period utilization. The behaviour of the population of these areas is correlated to the season. This work was realized in October that correspond to the small rainy season (September to November). During a prolonged dry season or drought, rain-off and rooftop water sources are non-existent. So, groundwater and river (Fig. 2.3b, d) were very useful and become the main water supply sources (Fig. 2.4b) because these sources are least affected by the dry season.

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Fig. 2.3 Sources of water supply available in KOVIE and TOVE: (a) groundwater, (b) rooftop, (c) rain-off, and (d) river

Fig. 2.4 Percentage of the different water supply used by the inhabitants (a) rainy season (b) dry season

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Table 2.1 Physico-chemical characteristics of water samples pH

KVR

KVG

KVRO

TVRO

WHO standard

6,85 ± 0.05

6.50 ± 0.05

6,94 ± 0.05

7,45 ± 0.05

6.5–8.5

EC (µS/cm)

99 ± 0.001

316 ± 0.001 119,1 ± 0.001 98,1 ± 0.001 400

T°C

28,9 ± 0.5

28.3 ± 0.5

29 ± 0.5

29 ± 0.5

–

Turb. (NTU)

26,0 ± 0.22

2 ± 0.22

43,5 ± 0.22

64,0 ± 0.22