From Sunlight to Electricity : A Practical Handbook on Solar Photovoltaic Applications [3 ed.] 9788179936023, 9788179935736

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SUNLIGHT To ELECTRICITY A Practical Handbook on Solar Photovoltaic Applications

Suneel Deambi

The Energy and Resources Institute

From

SUNLIGHT To ELECTRICITY

From

SUNLIGHT To ELECTRICITY A Practical Handbook on Solar Photovoltaic Application

Third Edition

Suneel Deambi

The Energy and Resources Institute

© The Energy and Resources Institute, 2015 First edition 2003 First reprint 2003 Second reprint 2006 Second edition 2008 First reprint 2009 Second reprint 2010 Third reprint 2011 Fourth reprint 2012 Fifth reprint 2013 Third edition 2015

ISBN 978-81-7993-573-6

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. All export rights for this book vest exclusively with The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI). Unauthorized export is a violation of terms of sale and is subject to legal action.

Suggested citation Deambi, Suneel. 2015. From Sunlight to Electricity (3rd Edn). New Delhi: TERI

Published by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) TERI Press Tel. 2468 2100 or 4150 4900 Darbari Seth Block Fax 2468 2144 or 2468 2145 IHC Complex, Lodhi Road India +91 • Delhi (0)11 New Delhi – 110 003 E-mail [email protected] India Website www.teriin.org Bookstore https://bookstore.teri.res.in

Printed in India

Preface

Energy remains pivotal in meeting human needs worldwide. The situation still remains grim as around 1.3 billion people have unreliable or no access to electricity. As a general trend, energy and electricity consumption are likely to increase over the next 25 years across the world. Most of this increase is expected to take place in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. According to the United Nations (UN), by 2035, energy consumption will increase by 35%, which will in turn increase the energy sector’s water consumption by 85%. The UN General Assembly vide its resolution 67/215 declared the decade 2014−24 as the decade of “Sustainable Energy for All”. It highlights the growing importance of improving energy efficiency, besides increasing the share of renewable energy and cleaner and energy-efficient technologies. Another milestone initiative launched by UN in 2011 was “Sustainable Energy for All Initiative”. It hopes to achieve three interlinked objectives by 2030, which include (1) ensuring universal access to modern energy services, (2) doubling the rate of improvement in energy efficiency, and (3) doubling the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. Among the renewable energy technologies, solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is filled with a lot of promises to make energy available right from milliwatt to megawatt capacity range today. Photovoltaic technology has now successfully transcended the often repeated bogey of being very costly and unreliable. The modern-day PV systems are far less expensive and highly reliable towards meeting various end-use applications, such as lighting, water pumping, battery charging (for multiple purposes) and off-grid power generation. From just a modest start of lighting up a handheld torch/lantern, today’s megawatt scale PV grid-connected power plants are the superb additions to this globally acceptable sunrise technology. The Indian PV programme has also marched from strength to strength in several ways, bringing in its fold a whole spectrum of curious technology believers. Capacity building initiative has emerged as one of the clearly identified requirements

Preface

vi  

From Sunlight to Electricity

under the well acclaimed “Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission”. The book brings together information on several diverse aspects of growing interest to the readers. It lays down a basic understanding of technology, operating principles, system design considerations, component engineering and assembly, maintenance, and, importantly, the costing of complete systems. The book is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 gives a bird’s eye view of the global PV programme from several key considerations in the backdrop of key achievements so far. Chapter 2 presents an easy glimpse into different components of PV systems and their associated functioning. Chapter 3 showcases both traditional and modern-day PV applications of PV systems, a proof enough of the expanding frontiers of PV technology worldwide. Of special significance in this domain is the fast emergence of PV grid-connected power plants of megawatt capacity. Chapter 4 highlights the key system design considerations of both the site-specific and the production capability, specific nature together with the expected performance levels under the actual field operating conditions. This chapter also features the manual- and software-based system simulation procedures by including selective specific examples. Chapter 5 covers the costing considerations of various systems in both component-wise and system integrated manners. Chapter 6 touches upon the installation and maintenance procedures cum requirements, along with the desirable range of tools and test procedures. Chapter 7 takes up the different facets of Indian PV programme from several key considerations, such as technology availability, manufacturing capabilities, industry strength, programme implementation, and existing constraints. The concluding Chapter 8 deals with the country-specific scenarios of PV programme along with the planned targets and present-day achievements. The book contains four annexures which provide a summary outlook on (1) solar PV standard, (2) list of financing institutions in solar PV, (3) state nodal agencies for renewable energy, (4) state electricity regulatory commissions/departments, (5) major EPC players for megawatt-scale installations, and (6) programme financing agencies. In totality, the book takes an easy to understand route of familiarizing all those with the immense power of PV technology—a truly sunrise phenomenon of rich dividends for the rural and urban populace.

Acknowledgements

I thankfully acknowledge the support of the full spectrum of stakeholders involved in the wholesome development of Solar Photovoltaic (PV) programme in the country. In the absence of their support, it would have proved to be a daunting task for me to bring up this thoroughly revised/updated edition. Furthermore, it goes to their full credit that our PV programme is poised to leapfrog into one of the major power generation sources in the foreseeable future. I owe my deep sense of gratitude to TERI Press, which motivated me to work on this book from a fresh perspective. I would like to thank TERI Press for shaping up this book in its present form. Finally, I would like to dedicate this book to the cherished memory of my late mother Smt Raj Dulari Deambi. She, despite being terminally ill, always encouraged me to work during the course of preparation of this book.

Contents

Preface Acknowledgements

v vii

1. Overview of solar photovoltaic programme worldwide

1

Introduction The onset of new generation technologies The bigger renewable energy statement Growing photovoltaics installed capacities Off-grid photovoltaics application Photovoltaics: country perspective Other photovoltaics markets Policy support The sunny march

1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5

2. Components of photovoltaic systems

7



Introduction Silicon wafer Solar cells Solar module Thin film cells Concentrator cells Other technologies Comparative evaluation of crystalline and thin films Expected market share of PV module technology in 2014 Balance of system Blocking diode Other components

7 8 9 11 13 14 16 16 18 18 22 22

Contents

x  

From Sunlight to Electricity

3. Applications of photovoltaic systems

23



Introduction Lighting systems Solar water pumping application Solar power for refrigeration Photovoltaics for telecommunications Large industrial facilities for captive use Large commercial facilities Solar power for warning signs Off-grid and captive power plants Underlying operation PV grid system with battery backup PV grid system (without battery storage) PV–diesel hybrid power system PV–wind hybrid systems

23 23 26 29 31 33 33 34 34 35 36 36 38 39

4. Designing a solar pv system

41



41 42 43 44 47 48 48 49 52



Introduction Factors influencing performance Solar radiation in India Key considerations for system design Guidelines on life expectancy of key solar components Criteria for a good quality Pv system Designing a PV system with battery backup PV system designing Determining the battery bank Assumptive key battery determinants for an energy storage battery Case studies – sampled system sizing calculations Designing a water pumping system Overall system design for water pumping supply System sizing procedure for a grid-connected PV system Case-specific examples

53 54 59 63 63 64



PVsyst Retscreen PV-watts Homer Conclusion

xi   68 68 69 70 70

5. Costing of solar photovoltaic systems

71



71 73 73 75 75 77 77 80 81 82 83

Introduction Segmented cost approach Visible challenges Solar module pricing in India Cost estimates of a selective few PV systems Component-wise cost of PV rooftop systems Financial and fiscal incentives for rooftop systems Point-specific analysis of PV pricing differences Cost estimates of MW-scale PV power plants Cerc benchmark for 1 MW PV power plant Financial aspects of projects

6. Installation and maintenance of photovoltaic systems

85



85 86 87 87 88 89 90 92 93 94 98

Introduction Understanding the solar energy measurement Working principle of a solar cell Idea of a solar cell grouping Key components of a solar power system Commonly used categories of PV systems System installation Selection of the component location System component interconnections Maintenance requirements Routine care of the electronic components

Contents

From Sunlight to Electricity

Contents

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From Sunlight to Electricity

7. Overview of solar photovoltaic programme in India

Introduction Historical perspective Key achievements of PV programme Production pattern of solar cells and modules in India PV installed system base Proposed cost goal for PV PV market development programme in India Key PV market segments PV marketing models Successfully adopted PV marketing mechanisms Recent PV programme initiatives State solar policies and achievements Commulative grid-connected solar PV installation State-wise distribution of PV installations Scheme for development of solar parks and ultra-mega power projects Solar powered agricultural pump sets programme Development of canal projects The road ahead Databank of potential sites from climatic data perspective Quality control Building-centric focus of PV installations

101 101 102 103 104 105 106 106 107 107 107 109 113 115 115 116 117 117 118 118 118 118

8. International photovoltaic programme 121

Global PV programme PV country programmes

Annexure I Solar PV standards Annexure II List of financing institutions in solar PV Annexure III State nodal agencies for renewable energy

121 125

137 139 141

xiii  

Annexure IV List of state electricity regulatory commissions

149

Index About the Author

151 159

Contents

From Sunlight to Electricity

Chapter

I

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme worldwide Introduction The sun is situated at an astronomically long distance from the earth, which is inhabited by more than 7 billion people. The distance will not decrease in physical terms, but whether we can live together equitably on a healthy planet will largely depend on the choices and decisions we make at present. One such choice is the large-scale utilization of solar energy which is currently receiving more attention than ever before. After all, it powers many end-use applications such as lighting, water pumping, telecommunication, off-grid and on-grid power generation, and refrigeration for remotely located households and communities. This was clearly not the case when two great minds, Peter F. Varadi and his partner Joseph Lindmayer, developed solar technology for use in space. In the process, they also founded the world’s first terrestrial solar company, Solarex, in 1973. The famous Bell Laboratories discovered, as early as 1953, the significance of silicon as a semiconductor of immense value. The radio transmitter of the space satellite Vanguard I, launched in 1958, was powered by two batteries—one conventional and the other a silicon solar battery. Incidentally, the conventional battery got depleted just after 20 days, but the silicon solar battery continued to work; it was never depleted. The satellite did not last for more than six years but it helped establish the value of solar technology for space applications. This marked the beginning of solar energy utilization for mankind’s benefit. Today, the world’s best companies are vying to set up enhanced solar power capacities; be it in the name of “greening” the planet or for meeting their captive power needs. The oil industry contributed extensively during the formative years of this industry. Without financial input from the oil industry, it would not have been possible to set up the first terrestrial solar cell and module factories.

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme worldwide

2  

From Sunlight to Electricity

According to a leading scientist in the field of photovoltaics (PV), Dr Wolfgang Palz, the next major advance of PV would be in terms of electric independence of houses and stores from the utility. German utilities, for instance, are encouraging rooftop owners to purchase battery storage systems so that they can become more independent of the grid and receive less disruptive power supply. This transformed the existing problem into a significant opportunity of sorts. The largest German utility, Rheinisch Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk AG (RWE), sensed a huge market opportunity for storage systems in the country for over a million homes and farms equipped with PV systems on their roofs. India is also home to millions of solar systems that meet diverse energy needs in residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sectors.

The onset of new generation technologies Scientists were thrilled when they discovered that incident sunlight can be converted directly into electricity. This seemingly simple but inherently complex process involves the capture of photons in semiconductor materials such as silicon. The photons are then excited into excitons—bound state of an electron and hole. The resultant current is captured via electrodes. It was a path-breaking discovery of far-reaching significance, making use of solar radiation, be it indoors or outdoors. In 2014, four chemists from the University of California have developed a method by which one photon generates a pair of excited states rather than just one. This is known as singlet fission; it helps boost solar cell efficiency by as much as 30%. This is referred to as thirdgeneration solar power. Several other cell design configurations such as organic cell, dye sensitized cell, and quantum dot cell are expected to revolutionize the art of cell or module fabrication in future. Global warming and energy security concerns have made solar energy conversion an important subject, from the society’s point of view. Indeed, more efficient solar cells would lead to wider use of this clean energy source, that is, freely flowing solar energy.

The bigger renewable energy statement Today, solar energy and wind energy are among the fastest growing energy sources in the world. In fact, renewable energy is accountable for providing jobs to 6 million people globally and triggering an annual

From Sunlight to Electricity

3  

Growing photovoltaics installed capacities A new installed solar PV capacity of 38.4 GW was added worldwide in 2013, up from 30 GW in 2012. This enhanced the global cumulative installed capacity to 138.9 GW. The world’s sum total PV capacity at the end of 2009 was more than 23 GW, which rose up to 40.3 GW in 2010. At the end of 2011, it increased up to 70.5 GW, and then up to 100 GW in 2012. The year 2013 was a historic year as compared to the two previous years, where the installed capacity hovered only slightly. For the first time in more than a decade, the European PV market was no longer the top regional PV market in the world. Asia edged past Europe in a dramatic way, representing about 56% of the world market in 2013. Rapid growth in the non-European markets kept global PV development on a rising trajectory and, thus, largely compensated for the slowdown in the European market. Today, solar PV remains the third most important renewable energy source, next only to hydro and wind power, in terms of globally installed capacity. Solar PV was among the two most installed sources of electricity in the European Union; wind energy surged past solar PV by some hundreds of megawatt. Solar PV now covers 3% of electricity demand and 6% of peak electricity demand in Europe. As the share of PV in the electricity mix goes up, grid and market integration challenges are gaining importance.

Off-grid photovoltaics application Solar PV technology is fully capable of meeting power needs in the milliwatt to megawatt range. The off-grid and on-grid market segments are driving PV power utilization in varying proportions. Off-grid systems, as the name indicates, came into being to meet electricity needs in remote areas. In India, for example, penetration of off-grid systems has

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme worldwide

investment of about 250 billion dollars worldwide. Renewables, especially solar, can significantly lessen the dependence on energy imports and contribute to urgently needed electricity demand globally. Renewables are the cornerstone and foundation of a sustainable energy future. The need of the hour is to promote enabling policies and further develop a broad range of renewable energy technologies and applications in all sectors, including agricultural applications, heating and cooling, water desalination, industrial applications, and transport.

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme worldwide

4  

From Sunlight to Electricity

been far and wide. This is in a sharp contrast to Europe where offgrid systems account for less than 1% of the installed PV capacity. The share of off-grid systems in the USA was equivalent to about 10% of the overall market in 2009, and it has been on a steady decline since then. In Australia and South Korea, dozens of megawatt of off-grid capacity are deployed every year. In totality, the PV market has grown over the past decade at a remarkable rate. It is currently on the path of becoming a major source of power generation for the world.

Photovoltaics: country perspective The top five countries in the PV arena today include China, Germany, Japan, the USA, and UK. China emerged as the top market in 2013 with 11.8 GW, of which 500 MW originated from off-grid systems. This is followed by Japan and the USA, with 6.9 GW and 4.8 GW installations, respectively. Europe managed to add 11 GW in 2013, as compared to 17.7 GW in 2012 and more than 22.4 GW in 2011. Germany emerged as the top European market with 3.3 GW followed by the UK (1.5 GW), Italy (1.4 GW), Romania (1.1 GW), and Greece (1.04 GW). It was for the first time since 2003 that Europe lost its leadership position to Asia in terms of new installations. Several European markets that performed well previously went down in 2013 as a direct consequence of political decisions to slash PV incentives. Outside Europe, several markets continued to grow at a reasonable pace, including India with 1115 MW, Korea 442 MW, Thailand 337 MW, and Canada with 444 MW. In totality, China and Japan occupy the first two places in the global market. In other regions of the world, interest in PV has not yet transformed into significant market development.

Other photovoltaics markets As per the trends, the Middle East and Africa (MEA) region is expected to witness a massive growth in solar PV demand in the coming years. Year-on-year growth in the market during 2014 was approximately 20%–25%, and the MEA region is set to become one of the key markets in the world during 2014–18. Prior to 2013, small-scale off-grid PV systems accounted for maximum market demand. However, there was a significant increase in the on-grid capacity in 2013, and it stands at 1000 MW.

From Sunlight to Electricity

5  

The use of solar PV technology is increasing each day. The PV markets in Europe and around the world continued to make quick progress towards competitiveness in the electricity sector in 2013. Decreases in PV technology price and rise in electricity prices have helped drive momentum towards “dynamic grid parity”. Indeed, PV is a policy-driven market in most countries. The political support has been on a decline in Europe and this affected markets in several countries such as Germany, Belgium, France, Spain, and Italy. In contrast, implementation of new feed-in-tariff policies has led to a dramatic increase of markets in countries such as China and Japan. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) has put on-grid MW-scale PV market on the forefront. It is a classic example as to how an innovative policy measure can open new vistas in a market sensitive technology area. Following many years of growth and innovation, the PV industry is again going through a challenging period, because of shifting market dynamics and a different geographical focus.

The sunny march Solar PV technology is set to become a leading energy source across the world. The onus lies on each one of us to make proper use of solar PV systems as far as possible. Doing so will assure a cleaner tomorrow and enhanced energy security for countries across the different continents.

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme worldwide

Policy support

Chapter

II

Components of photovoltaic systems Introduction The term ‘photovoltaic’ (PV) is a combination of two words—photo, meaning light, and voltaic, meaning electricity. PV technology refers to the hardware that converts incident sunlight into usable electricity. At the core of PV technology is a semiconductor material that undergoes an electronic process to release electrons. These negatively charged particles form the basis of electricity production. The device that does this simple but inherently complex function is known as solar cell. Solar PV systems are similar to other electrical power generating systems. The only exception is that the equipment used in solar PV systems is a variant of those used in conventional electromechanical generating systems. However, the basic principles of operation and interfacing remain the same as in other electrical systems. The equipment has to comply with the applicable codes and standards. A PV module is the power producing part of a solar PV system. A number of modules joined together form a PV array that produces power when exposed to sunlight. However, a number of other components are needed to properly conduct, control, convert, distribute, and, more importantly, store the energy produced by the array. The choiced use of the components depends on the functional and operational needs of the user. The major components may include a battery bank, charge controller, DC to AC power inverter, and specified electrical load (for the appliances). In addition, it may have an assembly of system hardware, including wiring, overcurrent, surge protection, and disconnect devices among other power processing equipment. Figure 1 shows the basic diagram of a PV system and the interrelationship between its individual components. The greater the intensity of sunlight, the greater will be the flow of electricity. As such, a PV system does not need bright sunlight to operate; it can produce electricity on cloudy days too. It is important to note that solar PV system does not produce power like a solar thermal system. In a solar thermal system, solar rays are used for generating

Components of photovoltaic systems

8  

From Sunlight to Electricity

heat for water heating in homes or hot air to dry crops. In totality, solar energy utilization can take place via solar PV and solar thermal technology. The following are a few key advantages of PV technology that drives a PV system: The fuel, in this case, sunshine, is absolutely free and available everywhere. The system is soundless and produces no harmful emissions or polluting gases. There are no moving parts to wear out, break down or replace. Only a routine maintenance is required for system upkeep. The system capacity can be increased and installed quickly.

Silicon wafer Silicon is the basic material for the entire PV industry. It is the second most abundantly available material in the earth’s crust, and has been studied for more than six decades. The primary source of silicon is quartzite, found in ordinary sand. A lot of energy is needed to make a pure silicon wafer, which is processed into a solar cell. The manufacturing process of silicon wafers (very thin slices of silicon) is briefly described below.

Preparation of crucibles:  Silica crucibles are coated with an

anti-adhesion material to prevent molten silicon from adhering to them. Once the coating is complete, the crucibles are baked for 24 h at high temperature in a kiln.

Preparation of polysilicon:  The recycled polysilicon feedstock from previous growth as well as newly purchased stock is cleaned (that is, sand blasted and etched). It is then characterized for resistivity and conductivity type. The target resistivity of the first 10 mixtures and the amount of dopant needed are automatically calculated by the system.

Loading of the crucibles:  The crucibles are manually loaded by an operator with utmost care, without scratching the coating.

Growth of ingot:  A furnace known as the directional solidification system is used for melting up to 450 kg of silicon in a crucible and grows a multi-crystalline ingot. The size of the ingot and its cycle time

From Sunlight to Electricity

varies from one case to another.

Sectioning the ingot:  A wire saw is used to cut the ingot into blocks, known as bricks, of suitable size.

Cropping the bricks:  The top and bottom of the bricks are removed with a wire saw. The top piece is discarded as it contains contaminants and the bottom is recycled (used for the next growth run). The yield loss due to wafer breakage is reduced by polishing the brick surfaces prior to sawing.

Wafering the ingot:  The silicon bricks are glued to a glass carrier

beam, which is mounted in a wire saw. A wire saw generally has four cutting tables, each populated with two bricks.

Cleaning the wafer:  Wafer cleaning comprises a pre-clean step

and a final cleaning step. In the pre-clean step, the cut wafers, still glued to the glass carrier beam, are cleaned from most of the slurry using a hot ultrasonic detergent bath and rinsed in deionized water. The final steps include alkaline cleaning and optional acidic cleaning. The wafer leaves the system as a dry cleaned piece.

Characterization of wafer:  The wafers are finally tested for proper thickness, thickness variation, resistivity, and other parameters; they are then sorted into stacks.

Solar cells The most important part of a PV system is the solar cell, which collects sunlight. These form the basic building blocks of the modules, which ultimately run the PV. Solar cells are usually made either from crystalline silicon (sliced from ingots or castings) or from growth ribbons.

Crystalline silicon and growth ribbons Solar cell production is mostly based on crystalline silicon. Solar modules can also be produced as thin films that are deposited in thin layers on a low-cost backing. The thin film technology offers several advantages: low material consumption, low weight, and smooth appearance. It also

Components of photovoltaic systems

9  

Components of photovoltaic systems

10  

From Sunlight to Electricity

has the benefit of being widely available and well-understood. In contrast, crystalline silicon cells use technology similar to that developed for the electronics industry. Solar to electric conversion efficiencies of more than 20% have been achieved with these cells in a mass production set-up. In other words, about 20% of incoming solar insolation can be converted into electricity. Silicon wafers are the basis for crystalline silicon cells. Thinner wafers naturally mean use of lesser silicon per solar cell, thereby lowering costs. The average thickness of a wafer has come down to less than 0.18 mm in 2014 from 0.32 mm in 2003. Concurrently, the average efficiency has gone up from 14% to more than 16%. Unfortunately, a good amount of valuable silicon is lost as sawing slurry. Ribbon sheet technology represents an alternative approach to this problem. In this technology, sawing loss is avoided by producing thin crystalline silicon layers using techniques such as pulling thin layers from the melt or melting powdered silicon into a substrate. The following are the key steps in the manufacture of PV cell for commercial use:

Inspection of wafer:  Multi-crystalline wafers meeting specified characteristics are unpacked and tested for basic properties such as resistivity and continuity.

Etching and texturing:  Cutting silicon into wafer leaves the

surface covered with cutting slurry. The surface is also damaged due to the action of the wire saw. The wafers are cleaned in a hot solution of sodium hydroxide, which removes surface contamination and other impurities.

Phosphorus dopping and emitter diffusion:  The etched

texturized wafer is transported through a furnace, where phosphorus is diffused into the silicon wafer to provide the emitter or P–N junction in common terms.

Phosphorus glass etching and emitter isolation:  During

the diffusion process, an oxide is formed on the surface of the wafer. It is removed in a wet bench containing acid.

Rear side passivation:  Rear side passivation is obtained using

From Sunlight to Electricity

aluminium oxide (Al2O3) passivation layer in combination with silicon nitride (SiNx). The improved passivation of the rear side of the cell as compared to conventional cell structure results in lower carrier recombination, thus improving the cell performance.

Front side passivation:  An anti-reflection coating is applied on the front side of the cell in a plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD) reactor by applying plasma of ammonia and silane, which forms silicon nitride. The cell acquires passivation property and anti-reflective property by this method.

Annealing of the cell:  In order to create charge separation between the interface of SiNx and Al2O3, the cell is processed through a heat chamber after the passivation process.

Laser action:  Lasers are used to drill holes to create contact area for the aluminium paste with silver.

Screen printing:  The solar cells are passed through a screen printer. Here, a silver paste is used for printing the fine grid of metal contacts on the front side and aluminium paste on the rear side of the cell.

Drying and firing:  The screen printed cells are passed through

a high temperature furnace in a controlled manner so as to embed the contacts into its body.

Cell sorting, transferring, and storing:  The solar cells are

finally cleaned and air-dried. They are then automatically tested for their electrical characteristics and then sorted on the basis of the properties.

Solar module The power output of a single solar cell is too low to operate most electrical devices. Almost, all single junction cells produce a voltage of 0.5–0.6 V, regardless of their surface area. This voltage remains fairly constant with changing light intensity. However, the current in a cell is almost directly proportional to light intensity and its size. Therefore, many cells are

Components of photovoltaic systems

11  

Components of photovoltaic systems

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From Sunlight to Electricity

connected in series to increase the voltage. Several series of cells can also be interconnected in parallel to increase the power output. Solar cells are extremely fragile. To protect them from damage, they are hermetically sealed between a top layer of glass or clear plastic, and a bottom layer of plastic or a combination of plastic and metal. In addition, an outer frame is attached to increase the strength. This whole package is called a PV module. At the back of the module, a junction box is provided to extract electricity. Depending upon the load and battery requirements, the modules are connected in series/parallel combinations and mounted on a metallic frame. Such aggregates of PV modules form a PV array. In general, crystalline silicon modules are robust, reliable, and weatherproof. A few of the processes involved in the production of a solar module are expounded below.

Tabbing  / Stringing Tabbing / stringing is carried out automatically by an auto tabber or a stringer machine. Both sides of a solar cell are soldered or tabbed simultaneously with induction soldering. Typically, for a 60 cell module, 60 cells are connected in series. This is called a string or row. The strings are inspected properly before placing on a glass with ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA).

Bussing In bussing, the strings (rows) are interconnected to one another in series.

Lay-up material preparation and glass cleaning In this process, the EVA film and backsheet are cut into the required size and the toughened glass is cleaned as per specifications.

Lay-up / Pre-laminate preparation The solar cells are prepared as a lay-up or sandwich, with the support of other materials to ensure a long operating life. The lay-up consists (from top-to-bottom) of toughened glass, EVA film, solar cell string, another layer of EVA, and a backsheet.

Lamination Lamination is one of the most important processes in the module production sequence. The pre-laminate is placed in the laminator and subjected to a series of vacuum and heating steps, which seals it from destructive environmental elements.

Frame assembly The anodized pre-cut aluminium frame is used for covering the foam tape glued glass edges. The aluminium frames are pressed together from all sides.

Junction / Terminal-box fixing The junction box with pre-assembled diodes and cable with connectors are glued on the back of solar module with the help of room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) silicone sealant. Finally, the output terminals are inserted in the junction box to crimp them.

Quality assurance The modules of a finished nature are inspected both from mechanical and visual considerations before packing. Table 1 lists the conversion efficiencies of typical crystalline silicon modules.

Thin film cells As mentioned above, pure silicon is a very expensive material. So, continuous efforts are on to produce cells with very little or no quantity of expensive silicon. This type of cell technology is usually known as thin film technology. Thin film solar modules are constructed by depositing extremely thin layers of photosensitive materials on to a low-cost backing. Typical inexpensive substrates used for the purpose are made of glass, stainless steel, and plastic. This generally results in lower production Table 1  Typical crystalline silicon module efficiencies (in production) Technology

International (%)

Single-crystal silicon module

15–20.4

14–17

13–16

13–16

Multi-crystalline silicon module

Indian (%)

Components of photovoltaic systems

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From Sunlight to Electricity

Components of photovoltaic systems

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From Sunlight to Electricity

costs as compared to material-intensive crystalline technology. At present, three types of thin film modules are commercially available: 1. Amorphous silicon (a-Si) 2. Cadmium telluride (CdTe) 3. Copper–indium–diselenide (CIS) All the three types of modules have active layers in the thickness range of less than a few microns. They are quite suitable for large-scale production, which allows for higher automation once a specific production volume is attained. In addition, an integrated approach is possible in module construction. Furthermore, the process is less labour intensive than the assembly of crystalline modules in which individual cells have to be connected individually. Table 1 shows the crystalline silicon module efficiencies. Table 2 shows the most widely used solar cell / module technology, at present, along with their key attributes.

Concentrator cells Concentrator cells work by focusing light on to a small area using an optic concentrator such as fresnel lens. The light concentrating ratio can be up to a high of 1000x. The area can then be equipped with a material made from III–V compound semiconductors (such as multi-junction gallium arsenide). These semiconductors offer efficiencies of 30%, with laboratory scale efficiencies of 40%. The concentrated PV (CPV) is an emerging market with two main tracks—either high concentration (where the concentration > 300 suns) or low-to-medium concentration (where the concentration is 2 ~ 300 suns). The module efficiencies with high concentration PV (HCPV) already exceed 30%. In order to optimize the benefits of CPV, the technology needs high direct normal irradiation (DNI). This is available only within a limited geographical range. According to some market estimates, CPV, especially HCPV, may touch around 1000 MW of production capacity by 2017. Concentrator systems have certain advantages also, which are listed here: They normally cannot make use of diffused sunlight. They must always be directed exactly towards the sun with the help of a tracking system.

Table 2  Most widely used solar cell / module technology and key attributes Cell technology

Typical module efficiency (%)

Best research cell efficiency (%)

Area reTypical quirement lifespan per kWp (years) (m2)

Temperature Other inforresistance mation

Monocrystalline silicon

15–20

25.0

6–9

25

Performance drops by 10%–15% at high temperatures

Oldest and most widely used cell technology

Poly13–16 crystalline silicon

20.4

8–9

25

Less temperature resistant than monocrystalline silicon

Less silicon waste in production process

Amorphous silicon

6–8

13.4

13–20

10–25

Tolerates extreme heat

Cadmium telluride

9–11

18.7

11–13

—

Relatively low impact on performance

20.4

9–11

—

—

Tends to degrade faster than crystalline silicon-based module and availability is low in the market. Tends to degrade faster than crystalline silicon-based module and availability is low in the market. Tends to degrade faster than crystalline silicon-based module and availability is low in the market.

Copper– 10–12 indium– diselenide

Components of photovoltaic systems

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From Sunlight to Electricity

Components of photovoltaic systems

16  

From Sunlight to Electricity

Other technologies Some new PV technologies are emerging such as organic photovoltaics (OPV). Though the production capacity of OPV technology is not much, it is expected to see a gradual growth which at present is not much. Also, OPV modules have low solar-to-electric conversion efficiency, which may take a longer time—till 2017 or beyond—to capture some market share. Table 3 presents the highest values of laboratory scale solar-to-electric conversion efficiencies attained by different cell materials within the best-known research and development centres worldwide. Table 4 shows the best efficiency levels attained by Indian laboratories for different semiconducting materials.

Comparative evaluation of crystalline and thin films The solar PV industry experienced a temporary shortage of silicon between 2004 and 2008. Thereafter, the cost of wafer-based silicon solar cells fell very quickly. In 2012, their market share came close to 90% and now they are the mainstay of PV technology. At present, the module efficiency range is 15%–20% for monocrystalline silicon modules and 13%–16% for polycrystalline modules. The sizeable production capacity increases for both these technologies was followed by the capacity expansions needed for polysilicon raw materials. For example, thin film module production crossed 100 MW for the first time in 2005. The compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of thin film module production exceeded that of the overall industry. The market share of thin-film products increased from 6% in 2005 to about 10% in 2007 and 16%–20% in 2009. However, since then, the share of thin films has been slowly decreasing. This happened as the new production lines mostly did not include wafer based silicon. Today, most of the thinfilm companies are silicon based and use either amorphous silicon or an amorphous/microcrystalline silicon structure. Few companies are engaged in the use of Cu (In, Ga) (Se, S)2 as absorber material for their thin-film solar modules and still fewer companies use CdTe, dye or other materials to fabricate solar modules. Till some years back, industry had huge growth expectations for thin film technologies. However, the competing market price of crystal-

Table 3

Highest values of laboratory scale efficiencies of different cell materials

solar-to-electric

Efficiency (%)

conversion

Cell technology

Area (cm2)

Group

Single-crystal silicon (monocrystalline silicon)

4.00

24.7

University of New South Wales

Multi-crystalline silicon (polycrystalline silicon)

1.00

20.3

FhG-ISE

a-Si (single junction)

1.00

12.7

Sanyo

a-Si (triple junction)

0.27

13.5

USSC

a-Si/mc-Si (nc-Si)

1.20

10.1

Kaneka

CdTe

1.00

17.3

First Solar Inc.

CIGS

1.00

19.6

NREL

Silicon films

4.01

16.6

Stuttgart University

GaAs (500×)

0.40

40.7

Spectrolab Inc.

Si/GaAs (20×)

0.40

42.8

Delaware University

Dye

1.00

11.0

Sharp

Organic

1.00

10.0

Mitsubishi

mmc-Si – microcrystalline silicon; nc-Si – nanocrystalline silicon; FhG-ISE – Fraunhofer Institut für Solare

Energiesysteme; GaAs – gallium arsenide; NREL – National Renewable Energy Laboratory; USSC – United Solar Systems Corp.

Table 4

Best efficiency levels attained by Indian laboratories for different semiconducting materials

Cell technology Single-crystal silicon (monocrystalline silicon)

Area (cm2)

Efficiency (%)

Group

64.00

19.7

Central Electronics Ltd

100.00

16.8

Tata Power Solar (earlier Tata BP)

a-Si (single junction)

1.00

12.0

IACS

a-Si (multi-junction)

1.00

11.5

IACS

a-Si/µc-Si (nc-Si)

1.00

9.00

IACS

CdTe

1.00

12.0

NPL

CIGS

0.41

13.0

IISC

Silicon films

0.98

8.7

Multi-crystalline silicon (polycrystalline silicon)

Jadavpur

IACS – Indian Association for Cultivation of Science; NPL – Natural Physical Laboratory; IISC – Indian Institute of Sciences

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Components of photovoltaic systems

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From Sunlight to Electricity

line silicon has somewhat slowed the development of this technology. Nevertheless, thin film technology is still expected to grow, though only at a slower rate. The thin film market share is expected to stabilize over the next five years or so.

Expected market share of PV module technology in 2014 Cumulative PV Module production touched a high of around 50 GW globally. Polycrystalline Silicon cell technology modules dominated rest of the available PV technologies yet again in 2014. P-type multi-crystalline silicon accounted for as much as 67% share of all the modules produced in 2014. The share of monocrystalline silicon stood at around 24% in 2014 down from 29.6% in 2013. Thin film PV technology share continued to decline from a market share of 9.4% in 2013 to 8.9% in 2014. The top two thin film producers—First Solar Inc. and Solar Frontiers are expected to produce almost 85% of the thin film modules in 2014.

Balance of system All system components other than PV module are termed balance of system(BoS). The most critical component of BoS is the battery. It is used when the system is operated during non-sunshine hours or if the loads operate on DC. The other components generally include the charge controller, inverter, support structure, and wiring and cabling.

Battery A battery is the most common type of storage device in solar PV systems. Batteries store the electrical energy generated by the modules during the day. The stored energy can then be supplied to electrical loads as per the actual need. For example, lighting load is needed at night while water pumping load is mostly a daytime requirement. A battery also makes the charge available during periods of cloudy weather. Other than these reasons, a battery is used to operate the PV array close to its maximum power point and to power electrical loads at stable voltages. It also supplies surge currents to electrical loads and inverters. In most cases, a battery charge controller is used in such systems. The main pur-

From Sunlight to Electricity

pose of a charge controller is to protect the battery from overcharge and deep discharge conditions. A battery requires DC for charging. The electricity generated from solar cells is also DC, which can be easily stored in the battery without involving any intermediary process. The battery capacity is generally expressed in terms of voltage (V) and ampere-hour (Ah); for example, a 12 V battery at 80 Ah. For solar applications, a battery should be capable of discharging hundreds or even thousands of times. This is why a solar battery is commonly known as a deep-cycle battery. The battery is recharged to 100% capacity during the charging phase of each cycle. A cycle is described as an interval that includes one period of charging and discharging. However, the battery must not be completely discharged (that is, below 80%) during each cycle. If a charge controller is not included in the system, oversized loads or excessive use can drain the battery’s charge to the point where it can get damaged and has to be replaced. Similarly, the controller regulates overcharging of the battery, which can be damaged during times of low, no use, or long periods of full sunshine hours.

Energy storage technologies available today: at a glance It is possible to store energy in a number of ways—chemical, mechanical, electrical, and thermal. Energy storage technologies are categorized on the basis of form of energy and storage medium. At present, electrochemical storage is the most common and the most successfully commercialized form of energy storage in the market. The medium used for electrochemical storage is the electrolyte. Electrolytes can be fragmented into positive and negative ions using electricity. These can then be combined to produce an electric current in a reversible process. The battery is the best example of this kind of energy storage; the lead–acid battery being the most common. Widely used lead–acid battery includes the following: Nickel–cadmium and nickel family Nickel–metal hydride Sodium–sulphur Lithium-ion Zinc–air Iron–air

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Components of photovoltaic systems

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Lead–acid batteries are further classified into flooded and dry cell types. In most domestic or large-scale applications of PV systems, flooded lead–acid batteries are used. Dry cell batteries are used in portable lighting systems such as solar lanterns. Table 5 lists the advantages and disadvantages of sealed batteries usually used in low-power devices like solar lanterns. The following are the critical performance parameters for PV batteries: Storage capacity Charging and discharging efficiency Self-discharge Capability to operate in different states of charging modes Operation and maintenance procedures The battery efficiency for most PV applications is 85%. Depending upon the load size, one or more batteries may be required. Such an aggregate of batteries is called a battery bank. It may be designed at 24 V, 48 V or 96 V in the case of small power plants. The lifespan of a battery mainly depends on battery usage and maintenance.

Charge controller A charge controller, as the name suggests, is a device used to control the amount of charge flowing in and out of a battery. The battery is connected to the PV array through a charge controller. A charge controller is a solid-state electronic component, which controls the electricity generated by a solar module. It acts like a voltage regulator and is placed between the PV module and the battery. The primary function of a charge controller in a stand-alone PV system is to manage the rate and amount of charging of the battery. Thus, it protects the battery from overcharging or deep discharging. Absence of charge controllers may shorten battery life and decrease load availability. Table 5  Advantages and disadvantages of sealed batteries Advantage

Disadvantage

No maintenance

More expensive than other battery types

Spill-proof

More accurate charging control needed

Most appropriate for solar systems that operate for long periods, without any maintenance

Short life, usually at high temperatures

From Sunlight to Electricity

Solar charge controllers are specified by a system voltage they are designed to operate and the maximum electrical charge they can safely handle. The system voltage is normally 12 V, 24 V or occasionally 48 V. The maximum current is determined by the number and size of the modules. A single module would need a charge controller of 4–6 A, while larger arrays may need charge controllers of 40 A or even more.

Pulse width modulation controller A charge controller is usually connected between the charging source and the battery. The pulse width modulation (PWM) used in all modern charge controllers uses three stages of operation to give the most charging possible for the day. (i) Bulk  Bulk is the first stage, where the maximum power available from the charging source is fed to the battery until it reaches a preset voltage. (ii) Absorption  Absorption is the second stage, where the maximum battery voltage is held by reducing the charge current just enough to not exceed the target voltage. The reduced current is achieved via high-speed on-and-off pulsing, where the controlling on-time versus off-time of each pulse determines the average charge current. During this stage of charging, there is some bubbling or gassing of the battery electrolyte which is necessary to maintain the health of flooded batteries. (iii) Float  Float is the third and last stage, where the battery voltage is reduced after charging is complete. This avoids excessive evaporation of battery water and benefits battery life. When sealed, maintenance-free, Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM), or gel-type batteries are used, voltage set-points are lowered to prevent gassing of the battery.

Inverter Photovoltaics systems work more efficiently with DC loads, as there are no conversion efficiency losses. However, certain applications or AC loads can also be operated with solar electricity, using an inverter. An inverter is an electronic component that converts DC power generated by a solar array into AC compatible with the local distribution network. DC has a current flow in one direction only, while AC rapidly switches the direction of current flow back and forth. In a typical PV system, an

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inverter is placed after the batteries and before the loads. It should be placed reasonably close to the battery bank but not inside the battery enclosure to avoid problems, such as overheating. There are different types of inverters available for use with solar power applications. Inverters are produced in different ranges of power categories, from a few hundred watts to the widely used range of few kilowatt peak (kWp). There are inverters designed for large-scale solar power systems of 1 MW and more, which are at present mainly used in the fast-emerging megawatt scale PV power plants. The power plant can be a single unit of 1 MW or individual units of 250 kW or 500 kW capacity. The two most common types of inverters are modified sine wave and sine wave types. Modified sine wave-based inverters are cheaper in comparison to pure sine wave inverters. The latter is generally used for grid-interfaced applications. The main function of an inverter is to transform the low-voltage DC generated by the solar module into mains voltage AC.

Blocking diode A blocking diode is yet another type of charge controller device. It acts as a check valve to prevent discharge of batteries (reverse flow of current to the solar cells) through PV module during the night or during insufficient sunlight.

Other components Other components of a PV system include electrical connecting and physical mounting equipment. Electrical connecting equipment generally comprises electrical wires and cables connecting PV modules, batteries, inverters, and loads. The physical mounting equipment comprises metallic frames, nuts, bolts, and clamps, which are used either for rooftop mounting of modules or for ground-based installation.

Chapter

III

Applications of photovoltaic systems Introduction Mobile telephony revolution has spread worldwide over the past few decades. Solar product application is not a new phenomenon in itself; the solar calculator has been around since the 1970s. What is new is the grid connected nature of photovoltaic (PV) technology. This technology is making waves worldwide mainly due to its low system cost and elimination of battery storage. It does not, however, diminish the role of off-grid PV systems. These systems meet various end-use applications such as lighting, water pumping, telecommunication, and battery charging for multiple needs in much bigger numbers than ever before. Five application segments exist in the PV sector today. (i) Consumer products such as watches, calculators, car ventilators, window ventilators, and lanterns. (ii) Off-grid systems for residential use such as solar home lighting systems and street lighting systems. These are also known as standalone systems. (iii) Off-grid industrial power systems such as those used for water management, lighting, and telecommunications. (iv) Small capacity grid connected PV systems such as those that can be integrated in roofs (that is, rooftop systems) and outer walls of a building or in noise barriers along highways. Building integrated PV is one of the fastest upcoming applications. (v) Megawatt-scale PV grid power plants such as large-sized solar farms and others directly connected to a locally available grid. Table 1 summarizes these five commercially available segments in terms of accompanying PV power capacities.

Lighting systems Lighting is one of the oldest worldwide applications of solar PV technology. Solar powered lighting systems are successfully operating

Applications of photovoltaic systems

24   Table 1

From Sunlight to Electricity

Commercially available application segments within the PV sector (in terms of accompanying PV power capacities)

Market segment

PV capacity

Major end uses

Very low power consumer products

20 V). Connect the multimeter leads to the positive and negative cable

From Sunlight to Electricity

from the solar module. Record the voltage and note the general sky condition (that is, whether the sky is clear, a bit cloudy, or fully cloudy). Normally, the open circuit voltage may range between 17 V and 21 V. However, it can be slightly lower than this for areas experiencing high temperatures. In case there is no voltage, check the voltage directly at the module terminal. If the voltage is fine at the module terminal, then the cable is defective.

Short circuit current As mentioned above, solar module has a positive and a negative terminal. Short circuit current, as the name suggests, is the current when positive and negative terminals of the solar module are shorted. Similar to the open circuit voltage recording condition, the module should be exposed to good sunshine during its actual measurement. Follow these easy steps for the measurement of short circuit current: To begin with, first disconnect the solar module from the charge controller. Set the digital multimeter to DC current range of 20 A or 10 A, whichever is available. Connect the leads of the multimeter to the positive and negative cable from the solar module. Record the value of the short circuit current as also the general condition of sky at that particular moment. If there is no current, then check the current at the module terminals directly. In case the voltage is appropriate at the module terminal, it means the cable may be defective.

Battery charging current The battery charging current is of an added significance. It is the current flowing from the solar module to the battery when the two terminals are connected. This value too is to be recorded as and when a good amount of sunshine falls on the solar module. This current depends on the state of battery and the power produced by a solar module, for

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instance, when the battery already reaches a full charged stage. In that case, there will not be a flow of visible current. Following simple steps are useful for the measurement of battery charging current: Take out the positive connection of the solar module to the charge controller. Keep the negative cable in a connected state. Set the digital multimeter to DC current value of 20 A or 10 A, whichever is available at the time of actual measurement. Connect the multimeter lead to the positive cable and black lead to the solar positive terminal of the controller. Record the current value and also the sky condition at the time of measurement.

Battery voltage The battery voltage gives a fairly good idea about the state of charge in a battery. It is the terminal voltage of a battery when (i) no load is connected and (ii) solar module is also not connected. Try to follow these steps: Wipe the terminals of the battery with a wet cloth. Ensure that there is no sulphation. Disconnect the battery MCB/fusebox, if available, or simply disconnect the solar module cables from the charge controller. Set the multimeter to DC voltage of 20 V. Connect the leads of the multimeter to the positive and negative terminals of the battery. Record the value of battery voltage and the existing sky condition at the time of actual measurement.

Topping up the battery Generally, solar PV end-use applications like lighting use several battery types. These may range from technology, make, cell capacity, charge–discharge efficiency and, most importantly, the cycle life. The term ‘topping up need’ refers to the use of distilled water in case of tubular plate low-maintenance-type batteries. There is no such need in the case of sealed maintenance-free batteries. Try following steps to maintain the tubular battery in a healthy condition:

From Sunlight to Electricity

Open the air vent plug of the battery and peep inside. Fill it up with distilled water about an inch above the plate (that is, if the acid is below the battery plate). In case there is enough acid, do not fill it with water. It may simply come out and decrease the battery capacity. After topping up, clean the battery terminals and close the air vent caps. Remember not to use tap water or mineral water for topping up the battery.

Measuring specific gravity In simple words, specific gravity is measured to determine the amount of acid and water present in a battery. In reality, the acid turns into water during discharging. This water changes back into acid while the charging is on. This means that when more water is present, the specific gravity is generally less. As such, it is possible to know whether the battery is charged by measuring the specific gravity. The following steps help in measuring the same: Take out the air vent plugs of the battery Press the hydrometer so as to drive out the air Now insert the hydrometer in the battery acid Release the hydrometer and make a note of the reading

Checking load appliances A simple stand-alone PV system may have a few CFLs attached to it along with a fan or a small TV set. It is essential to take care of these components and ensure that they are in a good working condition. Try to check the voltage at the load terminals of each such appliance. Determine whether there is any large voltage drop from battery to these load points. The voltage drop should generally range 3%–4%. In case it is more than that for cabling to the load, it means it is due for replacement.

Routine care of Bos The BoS other than the battery and load points generally include mounting structures, cables, and connectors. These types of components do not last long as compared to the solar module. Thus, there is a need

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to keep a close watch on them for any kind of defects that may arise with time. Following few points are essential in this regard: Mounting structures, also known as the support structures, are exposed to the effects of outdoor weather, that is, the harsh atmosphere, throughout the year. As these structures are made up of the metallic components, they need a fresh coat of red oxide every two or three years. The idea is to stop rusting of the structures. Likewise, all the connectors need to be fully checked and any connector/lugs which are either loose or rusted are to be tightened or changed accordingly.

Routine care of the electronic components Electronic units/sub-units are generally known as the heart of a PV system. These mainly include charge controller, inverter/converter, and other electronic components. Table 3 lists the troubleshooting tips for taking care of the electronic components of a PV system. The following steps are vital: Check if all the displays and indicators are working properly Check for any abnormal type of noise levels in the units Table 3  Troubleshooting tips for taking care of the electronic components of a PV system System component

Reason(s)

Possible solution

Module voltage is only about 0.5 V

It may be due to wrong polarity of the bypass diode

Detach the module and connect the bypass diode with correct polarity

Current of module is low as against its enough operating voltage

In case of modules numbering more than one, check the connections properly

Identify the improper connection for immediate rectification

Battery is not receiving any current from the solar module

If the battery is in a fully charged state, then the charge current will be less Solar module is kept in the shade Battery happens to be dead Overuse by a customer

No action is really needed Check if the module remains shaded. If so, cut a tree branch, for example, to remove such shade Check the battery for any damage Avoid the use of the system for a few days at least Contd...

Table 3  Contd... System component

Reason(s)

Possible solution

Battery state of charge is low

The battery is not in a charged condition

Avoid using the battery for some time

Voltage may be too low Few luminaries out of many are not working

Lamp may have burnt Ballast could be defective Presence of loose connection Switch is not working properly

Replace the defective parts, including the switches

No load is working

Fuse of the charge controller may be blown Load connection to the controller is either loose or open

Simply replace the fuse and rectify the connection

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Chapter

VII

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme in India Introduction The solar photovoltaic (PV) market is growing worldwide. New programmes oriented towards building a cleaner environment are being framed with some generous support from different governments, including that of India. As per the available market estimates, total PV installations all over the world in this year may total up to 45 GW. Consequently, the manufacturers will have to add new capacity so as to keep up with an increasing demand. However, it could be a major challenge as ramping up production comes with a heavy price tag. The cost and lag time to production could have a negative impact on a growing demand of the solar PV supply chain. The prices of installed solar PV systems and those of modules have reduced by more than 50% in the last three years. Simultaneously, the number of uncompetitive PV cell manufacturers has slipped from 250 in 2010 to 150 in 2013, as per a market report by NPD Solar Buzz. At present, it is essential to find innovative ways to increase production without spending billions of dollars on new factories. Industry sources feel that a way forward is to leverage new technologies and make steady improvements in the supply chain. This may offer potential to reduce the production cost of solar wafers by more than 50%. According to International Photovoltaic Equipment Association (IPVEA), the global PV industry is suffering a loss of $400–500 million annually mainly due to the lack of supply chain optimization and the loss could touch a high of $1 billion by 2018. The PV programme in India has successfully transitioned from a purely subsidy-driven demonstration programme to a market-driven perspective. The above-mentioned considerations are equally relevant to the Indian PV industry, which made its modest beginnings several decades back.

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Historical perspective Use of solar cells for space applications began in the late 1950s. A few national laboratories in India too were engaged in research and development(R&D) on solar cells for a similar purpose till 1975. It was only in 1975 that the Department of Science and Technology (DST) launched a national programme on terrestrial use of solar. Within this ambit, an integrated approach was evolved for the following purposes: • R&D • Manufacture • Deployment and demonstration • Education and training To realize this multi-pronged objective, it was decided to actively involve national research laboratories, academic institutions, and the public sector electronics company Central Electronics Ltd (CEL). CEL was entrusted with the task of product development, while others got involved with scientific research on solar cells and material development. From 1975 to 1981, various organizations, such as the DST, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), and the Department of Electronics (DoE), offered the much needed support for the Indian solar PV programme. This was followed by setting up of Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) under the administrative control of the DST and later by a full-fledged Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982, now renamed as Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). Central Electronics Ltd began with the processing of 38 mm diameter hyper-pure silicon wafers using vacuum metallization technique as early as in 1978. Thereafter, CEL developed an in-house process know-how to develop 100 mm diameter P–N junction solar cells using low-cost processes, such as texturization and screen-printed silver metallization. Around the same time, one more public sector company—Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL)—set up an almost identical technological-cum-production base. The cell efficiencies reached 12%–13% in the production set-up with satisfactory yields, at both CEL and BHEL. The annual production of solar cells and modules by CEL was 1 MWp (megawatt peak) during 1990–91. There were very few manufacturers of cells and modules in the country around that time. Yet another public sector enterprise Rajasthan Electronics and Instruments Ltd (REIL)was just producing modules based on technical know-how transferred to it by CEL.

103  

Crystalline silicon is still regarded as the most suitable material for solar cell fabrication. The key to a low-cost single or polycrystalline silicon material is a low-cost but adequately pure polysilicon feedstock. The early PV cells were made from electronic grade polysilicon priced at around $60–70 in the international market. A major breakthrough was achieved in 1986 when a 25 tonnes per annum (TPA) plant for producing polysilicon was established at Metkem Silicon Ltd. It followed the silicon tetrachloride route based on the technology developed at the Indian Institute of Sciences (IISc), Bangalore. Metkem silicon also set up facilities for growth of single crystalline silicon ingots and slicing these to produce wafers. Siltronics India Ltd and Super Semiconductors Pvt. Ltd were two more indigenous manufacturers of single crystal silicon wafers in the country. The total single crystal production capacity in 1988 was around 12 TPA. It is pertinent to mention here that earlier nearly, all the requirement of silicon wafers for PV production was import dependent. During the decade of 1981–91, substantial indigenous capability was built with regard to silicon material, cells, modules, and systems. A variety of PV systems were developed and deployed in the field for the purpose of demonstration and for field testing and evaluation. More than 40,000 PV systems, ranging from lighting units to village-based power plants, were put up in almost all the states and union territories. In fact, such a demonstration programme came to be known as one of the largest PV deployment programmes worldwide. The estimated turnover of the Indian PV industry was about ` 500 million in 1990–91, with about 20 small-scale units engaged mainly in the supply and installation of PV systems. Almost 30% of the total PV activity in the country had attained commercial status during 1990–91. The price of PV modules in India was much more than the price of international modules, mainly on account of higher input costs, duties, and tax structure. The government administered price for modules deployed under the demonstration programme was fixed at ` 225 per peak watt and slightly more for the open market programmes.

Key achievements of PV programme Several academic and research institutions have contributed to the growth of solar PV cell/module technology in different ways. A large number of R&D projects were initiated with varying degrees of

Overview of solar photovoltaic programme in India

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Overview of solar photovoltaic programme in India

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success which helped to achieve the best possible device efficiencies. Crystalline silicon solar cells (single, multi, and ribbon), thin film solar cells (silicon, amorphous silicon, multi-crystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium diselenide), and concentrator solar cells (silicon and gallium arsenide) have been the most well-researched materials. Dye, organic, and nanomaterial cell types are among the recent materials which have a lot of potential for the industry. Table 1 presents the best obtained record for solar cell efficiencies in India. Commercially available single crystal modules in India are 14%–17% efficient as against 15%–20.4% at the international level. Likewise, multi-crystalline silicon modules indigenously made are slightly less efficient (13%–16%). Similar modules produced overseas have solar to electric conversion efficiency ranging 13%–16%. Largescale manufacturing of thin film solar cells based on amorphous silicon has not taken place yet. Polycrystalline thin film cells based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide are on the same footing, still being confined to selective R&D efforts.

Production pattern of solar cells and modules in India Solar cells and module production in India made steady progress since its inception in late 1980s. Table 2 gives a year-wise break-up of the production in megawatt during the period 2000–11. Table 1  Record for solar cell efficiencies in India Technology Single crystal

Area (cm2)

Efficiency (%)

Group

64.00

19.7

CEL

100.00

16.8

Tata BP

Amorphous silicon single junction

1.00

12.0

IACS

Amorphous silicon multi-junction

1.00

11.5

IACS

A-Si/microcrystallinesilicon (mc-Si)

1.00

9.0

IACS

Cadmium telluride

1.00

12.0

NPL

CIGS

0.41

13.0

IISC

Si films

0.98

8.7

Jadavpur University

Dye sensitized

1.00

9.5

Amrita

Organic cells

1.00

6.2

NPL

Multi-crystal

Source  Compiled from Annual Reports of MNRE

Table 2  Production pattern of solar cells and modules in India (2000–11) Year

Solar cells (MW)

Solar modules (MW)

2001–02

20

20

2002–03

22

23

2003–04

25

36

2004–05

32

45

2005–06

37

65

2006–07

45

80

2007–08

110

135

2008–09

175

240

2009–10

240

300

2010–11

320

600

Source   Compiled from Annual Reports of MNRE

It is evident that market for solar cells and modules has been showing an upward trend over the years. However, these values are far less than the production figures actually attained by major Chinese companies on an individual basis. India that was once perceived to be a major manufacturing hub for cells and modules is still waiting for that perfect opportunity. At present, more than 80 companies exist with an installed capacity to produce more than 1.8 GW modules. Likewise, about 15 companies have a combined cell manufacturing capacity of more than 700 MW. Glass, ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA) and Tedlar which used to the be import-dependent components for module production till a few years back are now being produced within the country. A selective few companies are also engaged in production of grid power inverters. Industry sources believe that the production capacity of cells and modules could touch a high of 4–5 GW by 2020.

PV installed system base Lighting (portable, indoor, and outdoor) and water pumping and multipurpose battery charging units are amongst the oldest PV applications. A total of 53,00,000 systems with an aggregated megawatt capacity base of 2600 MW are installed across different geographical regions in the country. Table 3 gives an insight into the market share of various enduse applications as on 30 September 2012.

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Overview of solar photovoltaic programme in India

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Table 3  Market share of various end-use applications (as on 30 September 2012) Application

Installed capacity (MW)

Lights

90

Water pumps

14

Off-grid plants

62

Railways

55

Telecom

65

Grid-connected plants

1,044

International projects

1,000

Others

270

Soure  MNRE

Proposed cost goal for PV The Indian programme has successfully charted its course despite facing criticism from several quarters. On numerous occasions, a selective few groups of professionals had nearly written off this promising technology. However, a large number of stakeholders spearheaded by the MNRE have been enthusiastic about it. It is proposed to have module availability per peak watt of less than ` 30 and balance of system cost per watt of under ` 25. The objective is to achieve per unit cost of electricity generation ranging ` 4–6 by 2017.

PV market development programme in India The MNRE is the apex organization in India for policy-making, planning, promotion, and coordination of the different aspects of renewable energy. In the initial stages, it placed various field-level programmes to showcase the usefulness of PV technology and thereby a number of products and systems. Further impetus was given to the programme by setting up state nodal agencies for renewable energy, along with direct marketing solar shops in various states across the country. Despite running one of the largest PV demonstration programmes in the world, it was still not an easy task to sell the PV systems. Taking an early note of this vexing problem, the MNRE set up Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) in 1987, which was delegated with the responsibility to commercialize PV technology in 1993–94.

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Key PV market segments There are several PV products and systems available in the market today. Lighting products constitute the bulk of the need-based products in sizeable market demand. In essence, there are four potential types of markets for PV systems. They are (i) government, (ii) government driven, (iii) private leasing, and (iv) direct sales (on the open market). PV products have gained increased field performance reliability, a definite improvement over the products delivered under the early phase of the PV demonstration programme. The resultant effect was that private markets began to take shape, which needed reasonably worked out incentive structures. PV manufacturing capability, too, was reinforced through a series of measures undertaken by IREDA.

PV marketing models There are different ways in which PV systems are sold in the market. IREDA makes use of intermediaries to offer loans to the consumers within the ambit of the following four finance models: (i) The cooperative model uses rental and leasing mechanisms. (ii) The corporate model uses hire-purchase and leasing mechanisms. (iii) The NGO model uses a combination of rental, hire-purchase, and leasing mechanisms. (iv) The dealer model uses direct sales to the user. A significant objective of the above-mentioned models is to enable a cross section of users to get PV systems from local suppliers at an affordable price which can be paid back in easy installments.

Successfully adopted PV marketing mechanisms PV systems are expensive, but that does not mean using the medium of subsidy alone to sell such systems. A number of innovative marketing approaches have been devised for the purpose. The following are regarded as the most suitable techniques to take PV systems to those who cannot afford them.

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Setting up credit sales In this case, loans were offered for buying the solar home systems. Most of such sales are now credit based, and the customers are at liberty to pay for these systems over 3–5 years. The idea is to keep the monthly loan installment below the amount spent by these poor category people on traditional methods of lighting like a kerosene oil lamp.

Quick and reliable after-sales services Strong dealer networks have been created, which focus on timely after-sales service. Technicians, who are now specially trained for the purpose, undertake regular visits to the customer’s premises as per a well-coordinated activity schedule. In quite a few cases, a trained member of the user community does the routine maintenance of the systems.

Working in tandem with the grassroots level organizations There are a sizeable number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), rural cooperatives, and self-help groups involved in community development at the grassroots level. Those supplying the systems in the manner described above often seek their support and cooperation for the following purposes: • System installation • Marketing • Awareness generation • Interfacing with potential customers • Possible financing of the systems (in some cases)

Customizing systems Solar systems are typically not off-the-shelf products. Each user can have a requirement that is at variance from the rest. The technicians are now fully equipped to study the site specifics and offer a suitable system choice. For example, one light may be installed in a manner such that it lights up part of an adjoining room too.

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Efforts at income generation It is quite logical to find ways and means to create some extra income via the use of solar home systems. The income thus generated can then be used to pay back the loan installment. A good example would be the purchase of a solar system by a roadside vendor. He/she then enjoys extended hours of product sales under the cool white light of a solar lamp.

Approach for enhanced market penetration There is a wide cross section of views on how to enhance the market penetration of solar PV systems in the country. While many would like economies of scale to come into the picture, others express the following views: (i) Enhance R&D spending to achieve efficiency improvements not only in cells and modules but also in total system. (ii) Catalyse the growth of energy servicing companies (ESCs) which can reach out on different fronts to rural and urban areas alike. (iii) Encourage grameen banks to function as intermediaries for microfinancing, that is, facilitating micro-financing for the purchase of PV products and systems. (iv) Carve out well-defined roles for cooperatives and NGOs so as to promote PV in rural and semi-rural areas. (v) Increase the participation of corporate bodies and have them act as intermediaries in the leasing and hire purchase of PV systems for a large number of consumers. (vi) Put in place concessional loan schemes so as to expand the potential customer base. (vii) Work out favourable fiscal incentives to bring down the long-term costs of PV products. (viii) Ensure sustained, intense, and regular interaction amongst all stakeholders through all possible ways and means.

Recent PV programme initiatives The Government of India has embarked on several major PV schemes and programmes focusing on its large-scale deployment across the country. The underlying rationale is to utilize the abundantally available

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solar energy in the country. A brief description of some of the major PV programmes kick-started by the government is given next.

Development of solar cities programme India has a vast number of villages and cities. These cities use conventional power in large amounts for a diverse range of end-use applications. Simultaneously, diesel generators are rampantly used during frequent power cuts. Taking a cue from these constraints, MNRE kick-started a programme named ‘Development of Solar Cities’ in February 2008. The programme was last modified in January 2014 for its implementation during the 12th Five-year Plan. The programme aims for minimum 10% reduction in projected demand of conventional energy at the end of five years. This is to be achieved through a combination of energyefficiency measures and enhancing supply from renewable energy sources in the city. Under this programme, 60 cities or towns are proposed to be supported for development as ‘Solar/Green Cities’. At least one city in each state to a maximum of seven cities within a state will be supported. The selected city/cities will also be supported by the MNRE. Such cities should have a population of 5–50 lakh. Special category states including the northeastern states are given relaxation in this regard.

Underlying objectives A specific goal of this programme is to promote the utilization of renewable energy in urban areas by supporting the municipal corporations for preparation and implementation of a roadmap to develop their cities as solar cities. Some of the significant objectives of the programme are as follows: • To enable/empower urban local governments to address energy challenges and prepare a master plan, including assessment of current energy situation, future demand, and action plans • To build capacity of the urban local bodies and generate awareness among all sections of the civil society • To involve various stakeholders in the planning process • To oversee the implementation of sustainable energy options via public−private partnerships At present, about 46 cities have been sanctioned, and out of which master plan of 39 cities has been finalized. The pilot project on

grid-interactive rooftop small PV power plant project is successfully implemented in Chandigarh model solar city. This has demonstrated the feasibility of small grid-connected solar PV rooftop in the country. So far, cumulative 6.25 MW has been sanctioned/approved in the solar city programme (1.74 MW) and rooftop programme (4.51 MW), including 3.21 MWp in the year 2013–14 for Chandigarh. The gridconnected rooftop projects are being implemented by MNRE, Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), and state agencies via regular schemes of MNRE and also under the purview of National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF). So far, 43 MWp equivalent grid-connected solar rooftop projects have been sanctioned to 28 solar cities under various programmes.

Jawaharlal Nehru National solar mission The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) is one of the major global initiatives in promotion of solar energy technologies announced by the Government of India under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). This mission aims to achieve grid tariff parity by 2022 via large-scale utilization and rapid diffusion and deployment of solar technologies across the country for cost reduction, intensive R&D, and promoting local manufacturing and supporting infrastructure. The roadmap for achieving the distinct objectives of National Solar Mission (NSM) by 2022 is given in Table 4.

Jnnsm strategy The mission devised a strategic plan to attain its objectives with graduated deployment. The underlying goal is to nucleate critical Table 4  Roadmap for achieving the objectives of National Solar Mission Application segment

Target for Phase I (2010–13)

Cumulative target for Phase II (2013–17)

Cumulative target for Phase III (2017–22)

Grid solar power including rooftop and distribution grid-connected plants

1,000 MW 100 MW

4,000 MW 10,000 MW

20,000 MW

Off-grid solar applications

200 MW

1,000 MW

2,000 MW

Solar collectors

7 million m

Source  MNRE

2

15 million m

2

20 million m2

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mass till the costs come down and subsequently scale up some of the following factors: • Consultative process to finalize the guidelines • Enabling policy and regulatory framework • Supporting utility-scale power generation • Expanding off-grid applications • Accelerating R&D • Enhancing domestic manufacturing base

Fiscal incentives The Government of India has provided following fiscal incentives to encourage the large-scale market penetration of solar PV technologies across the country: • 100% foreign direct investment • Zero customs and excise duties on solar cells, modules, and many raw materials and grid power projects • 5% customs and excise duty on many raw materials and components • Tax holiday for setting up units in backward and specified areas and also grid power projects • 80% accelerated depreciation in the first year to certain capital investments • Grant for carrying out R&D and technology validation projects

Key outcome of jnnsm Phase I Under the first phase of JNNSM, about 500 MW of solar PV capacity was auctioned to companies using reverse bidding mechanism. This meant that the selection of such companies which quoted the least feed-intariff. As solar power is more expensive than conventional power, in Phase I the costly solar power was bundled with cheaper unallocated coal power from the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and sold to the distribution companies at a lower price. Accordingly, Phase I of the NSM got a huge response from the private sector. The average tariff quoted was 25%–43% lower (see Table 5) than the benchmark tariff of the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission. As of July 2013, 445 MW of solar PV was commissioned.

Table 5  Tariffs of PV in JNNSM, Phase I Batch Number

CERC benchmark tariff (`/kWh)

Lowest qualified tariff (`/kWh)

Average quoted tariff (`/kWh)

Reduction

I

17.81

10.85

12.16

31.72%

II

15.39

7.49

8.77

43.01%

Source  NVVN

Phase I of JNNSM mandated domestic content requirement (DCR) which meant that developers had to buy locally manufactured modules if the project was designed around crystalline silicon cell technology. However, this rule was not applied to projects with thin film technology due to less competition and experience in the use of this sophisticated technology. Hence, the developers took a strong liking for cheaper thin film module options procured from outside India. Thus, about 50% of the projects during Batch I of the mission made use of thin film modules. Incidentally this figure touched a high of 70% in Batch II which affected the domestic solar PV manufacturers severely.

State solar policies and achievements India receives a good amount of solar energy. Gujarat and Rajasthan, in particular, are widely regarded as the best ‘sun soaked’ regions with potential for large-scale deployment of solar farms. Gujarat has emerged as the leader in solar installations, but expansion of solar sector in the state has been lately subdued due to high feed-in-tariffs committed to earlier projects. Other states had ambitious targets for solar deployment but are facing problems due to financial constraints along with policy uncertainties. They are also finding it difficult to sustain solar policies as their power utilities are in a poor financial condition. Table 6 lists the solar policy initiatives, the targets set, and actual realization of the grid-connected PV power projects as on 31 January 2014. Table 6

State-wise solar policy initiatives, targets set, and achievements of grid-connected PV power projects

State

Year of solar policy announcement

Tariff

Target (MW)

Installed capacity (MW)

Gujarat

2009

Feed-in-tariff fixed by GERC

500–3,000 by 2014

860.40 Contd...

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Table 6  Contd... State

Year of solar policy announcement

Tariff

Target (MW)

Installed capacity (MW)

Rajasthan

2011

Tariff-based competitive bidding process

600 MW by 2017

666.75 (493.50 under JNNSM)

Madhya Pradesh

2012

Tariff-based competitive process/ reverse bidding process

200

195.32

Uttar Pradesh

2013

Tariff-based competitive process/ reverse bidding process

500

17.38

Karnataka

2011

Tariff-based competitive process/ reverse bidding process

200 MW by 2016

31

Andhra Pradesh

2012

Tariff-based competitive process/ reverse bidding process

1,000

92.90

Tamil Nadu

2012

Tariff-based competitive process/ reverse bidding process

3,000 MW by 2015

31.82

West Bengal

2012

No details available

100 by 2017

7.05

Chhattisgarh

2012

No allocation process announced

500–1,000 by 2017

5.10

Odisha

2011

Tariff-based competitive process/ reverse bidding process

25

15.50

Source  Compiled from various solar policy documents of state governments

Commulative grid-connected solar PV installation Table 7 presets the grid capacity additions through solar PV by virtue of both Central Goverment and State Goverment policy instruments. Quite clearly, the maximum PV plant capacity is the direct outcome of state policies.

State-wise distribution of PV installations Rajasthan and Gujarat have emerged as the favourite destinations for setting up the megawatt capacity plants. The states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andra Pradesh have also received suitable PV installations across the country (as on 31 March 2014). The domestic star PV installations touched the 2.6 GW mark by the end of financial year 2014 with ~1.1 GW of projects being organized during the financial year 2013−14. Table 8 shows the installation capacity of MW scale PV power plants in different states of India till 2014. Table 7  Grid capacity additons through solar PV Policy measure

Capacity installed (MW) as on 31 March 2014

JNNSM

517

State policies

1,298

Rooftop PV small solar pair generation programme/geneartion-based incentive

92

Renewable energy certificate (REC) mechanism

507

Other Projects

260

Table 8  State-wise distribution of PV Installations (as on 31 March 2014) State

Installed capacity (MW)

Gujarat

920

Rajasthan

736

Madhya Pradesh

347

Maharashtra

274

Andra Pradesh

142

Tamil Nadu

92

Odisha

32 Contd...

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Table 8  Contd... State

Installed capacity (MW)

Uttar Pradesh

21

Jharkhand

16

Haryana

10

Others

42

Scheme for development of solar parks and ultra-mega power projects Recently, the MNRE announced the setting up of ultra-mega power projects in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir. Ultra-mega power project is a single power project with capacity of more than 500 MW. These projects may be set up in some of the solar parks. A solar power park is basically a large chunk of land which is to be developed for setting up of a number of solar power projects. In this, the solar power developers will be provided land which is free from statutory clearances with common infrastructure facility, such as water, transmission lines, roads, drainage, communication networking, and so on. Budgetary allocation of about ` 500 crores has been made for the specified purpose. Table 9 lists the states which have requested (the MNRE) for setting up solar parks and ultra-mega power projects with varying capacities of PV power. Table 9  List of states aiming to set up solar parks and ultra-mega power projects State

Capacity of solar power plant (MW)

Location of the identified land

Approximate land

Gujarat

750

Taluka-VAV, district Banaskantha

1,407 ha

Madhya Pradesh

750 + 750

District Reva (MoU) signed on 10 October 2014

1,400 ha 1,400 ha under identification

Andhra Pradesh

2,500

District Anantpur– Kadapa and Kurnool, MoU signed on 13 September 2014

13,900 acres

Telangana

1,000

District Mehboob Nagar

5,000 acres Contd...

Table 9  Contd... State

Capacity of solar power plant (MW)

Location of the identified land

Approximate land

Karnataka

1,000

Mulwar, Bijapur

3,000 acres

Uttar Pradesh

250

District Jalaun

570.6 ha

Meghalaya

50

University of Science and Technology, Guwahati

250 acres

Jammu and Kashmir

7,500

Leh and Kargil

Land identified, but issue of transmission

Punjab

1,000

Land identified

–

Rajasthan

700

Land identified

1,400 ha

Tamil Nadu

500

Location not stated

Land under identification

Odisha

1,000

Location not stated

–

Source  Compiled from various documents of central and state governments

The rationale of investing in big plants is to reduce the cost of solar PV power from the existing ` 7–8/kWh to about ` 5/kWh over the next 7–10 years.

Solar powered agricultural pump sets programme This scheme aims to set up solar powered agricultural pump sets and water pumping stations for energizing around one lakh water pumps across the country. About ` 400 crore has been allocated for this programme, which also hopes to save the costly diesel fuel.

Development of canal projects This project aims to develop 1 MW equivalent of solar power projects on the banks of canals. The underlying idea is to conserve water by creating a canopy-like structure on the canal with the help of solar modules. This way water will be saved from evaporation, similar to what has been achieved in the case of Narmada Canal Project in Gujarat. A sum of ` 100 crore is set aside for this innovative solar power project development.

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The road ahead Being abundantly blessed with solar energy, India has to take a definite advantage of this resource availability. To realize this end, it is important to have an innovative policy framework oriented towards long-term development of solar energy with a few considerations. First, the role of solar energy in meeting the twin challenges of energy security and energy access must be defined in clear terms. Accordingly, a roadmap needs to be prepared to define ways and means to (i) reduce costs, (ii) widen the base of solar installations,(iii) lay down specific guidelines to achieve the goal of result-oriented R&D capability, and (iv) lower cost of manufacturing and minimum dependence on imports.

Databank of potential sites from climatic data perspective For a power generation facility, solar energy is the freely flowing fuel. This makes it imperative to have reliable and accurate radiation data for a large number of potential solar sites in the country. It is not sufficient to have only a weather monitoring data when a solar farm is being set-up. A long-term availability of solar radiation data is crucial to evaluate the suitability of a particular site for project bankability purposes. The MNRE has been continuously striving to strengthen the data resource availability.

Quality control Currently, all types of solar products intended to meet the off-grid and on-grid requirements are flooding the Indian PV market. This includes a good number of cheaply imported products which find ways across the multiple customer segments. As such, it is very important to exercise quality control checks on the solar products through regular inspections and field performance evaluation checks by accredited organizations and experts.

Building-centric focus of PV installations Solar PV module placement, especially for large-scale power generation projects, places a huge demand on land area availability. Thus, maximum possible emphasis must be given to install modules on buildings and

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existing structures, such as canals or dams. The rooftop installations and building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) type installations should be preferred over the land area use. Wherever large tracts of land are taken for PV farming, care should be taken to benefit the local population in whatever way possible. This helps to instill a sense of belonging for the solar facility from a variety of end-use considerations.

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Chapter

VIII

International photovoltaic programme Global PV programme There is a heightened focus on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other pollutants. This has led to the growth of global solar photovoltaic (PV) market from several key considerations. The solar power market is expected to grow manifold due to the presence of some favourable legislation along with a requirement to increase energy self-sufficiency and security. At present, the sales volume of solar PV is mainly concentrated in the Asia-Pacific region. However, there is a genuine upward growth trend within other PV markets as well. As per the available estimates from some leading companies such as Solar Buzz, Nangent, and so on, the PV market earned $ 59.84 billion revenue in 2013 and the estimates are expected to double by $137.02 billion in 2020. Thus, solar PV is steadily but surely becoming a highgrowth mainstream energy source in the emerging markets. The global demand for solar PV in 2014 is spearheaded by the AsiaPacific. This will account for as much as 46% of the annual installed solar PV capacity. The top four countries, that is, China, Japan, India, and Australia will continue their market dominance in terms of driving the regional PV demand. The Asian manufacturers are now eyeing the value chain integration and technical efficiencies due to the falling costs of solar modules. They are also aiming to make their products distinctive and unique from the rest of the suppliers in the marketplace. The European market segment is yet another favourable contributor to the PV market growth demand. The market is continuing to maintain its upward trend. The German million rooftop PV programme was the much talked about programme in 2006. It was the first European country to provide incentives, such as the feed-in-tariffs (FiTs) to push the market growth of solar PV power. The market installed capacity has expanded quickly, thus leading from the front. Countries like Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the

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United Kingdom are envisaging deploying more than 75 GW of solar PV capacity by 2020. Importantly, in 2013, the sum total PV capacity worldwide was 137 GW. Further, in Europe, the price of solar PV systems has demonstrated a sharper reduction mainly due to less FiTs along with speculations on further subsidy cuts within the core solar power market segment. Apart from that, the European member states are obligated to the Kyoto Protocol, which is designed to reduce the GHG emissions. Thus, it has also driven the solar power market in Europe. Simultaneously, the United States has attained the status of a rewarding destination mainly due to quick reduction in the price of solar PV systems. The imports from China have come down mainly on account of the imposition of anti-dumping and illegal subsidy tariffs on imports. In holistic terms, the following few incentive schemes are catalysing the development of global solar power market: • FiTs • Subsidies • Tax rebates on use of renewable energy for power generation • Green energy certificates These types of incentive schemes continue to be quite heterogeneous, thus making solar PV market penetration rates vary widely, based on local and regional policies. It is presumed that suitable policy measures will push forward the market in the forecast period (that is, 2020). Environmental policies, and especially upgrades or modifications of the electricity grid especially, will have a significant influence on electricity prices for final consumers. This will then determine the extent of solar power intake. The solar PV programme of today is also confronted with the following visible limitations: • Solar power is an intermittent source of power • True potential of solar power market has been suppressed, to some extent, by the high installation and maintenance cost of solar PV systems • Low return on the investment made • Increasing competitive pressures from less expensive renewable energy technologies, such as wind power • Strong dependence on government support which has hindered market development, at times, due to sudden withdrawal of some subsidy or incentive • No clear visible path for making investment decisions in a few cases

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The global solar PV market is steadily rising. In 2013, China and Japan became the world’s two largest PV markets and the investment levels continue to grow. The solar investment in China moved up to US$ 12.12 billion during the quarter which marked a 63% increase over a year before. The Chinese solar market represented about 22% of all new clean energy investments during the third quarter of 2014. Such a high level of investment is making up for the depressed European solar markets. Inspite of China’s plans to move to a distributed PV market, investments were led by significant project finance deals in both the nations. The investments in US solar PVs are also growing in the nation’s utility scale market although the growth is uneven. According to the available market estimates, US$1.26 billion in financing was deployed for projects above 1 MW in the third quarter. The solar PV industry today is seen as one of the fastest growing industries worldwide. It basically comprises a long value chain, ranging from raw materials to PV system installations on one side to the maintenance requirements on the other. Till date, significant focus has been laid on the solar cell and module manufacturers. However, there is also an upstream industry dealing with materials, polysilicon production, wafer production, and equipment manufacturing. This goes hand in hand with the downstream industry involving inverters, balance of system components, system design, and development, including project development, financing, installations, and essentially their integration into existing or future electricity infrastructure besides the plant operators and operation and management (O&M) services, and so on. More than 350 companies are involved in solar cell production worldwide with a number of new entrants chipping in from time to time. The PV global market recorded a growth of 10% in terms of solar cell production so as to reach around 38.5 GW. Similarly, the market segment of the installed systems moved up by nearly 30% to touch 30 GW approximately. This figure primarily relates to the grid connected PV market. Incidentally, a large number of PV companies filed for insolvency, or they scaled back or cancelled their expansion projects. However, several new companies, notably the large semiconductor or energy based, entered the PV arena. As per the available indications, the existing situation of over-capacities in the solar cell segment shall

International photovoltaic programme

Global solar market

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continue at least until 2015. It is also the time when the global PV market may zoom up to more than 50 GW of new installations annually. Crystalline silicon continues to be the workhorse of the global PV industry. The silicon scarcity of a temporary nature occurred during 2004–08 following which the silicon prices fell significantly, thus resulting in the fast declining cost of a silicon wafer-based PV solar cells. In 2012, their market share was close to 90%. Commercially available solar to electric module efficiencies ranged from 12% to 21%. Out of which, monocrystalline (or single crystal) modules exhibit efficiencies between 14% and 21% under the actual production setup. In contrast, polycrystalline modules, also known as multi-crystalline silicon modules, offer solar to electric efficiencies of 12%–18%. Quite significant production capacity increase for both these technologies was accompanied by the capacity expansions needed for the polysilicon raw materials. The rival competing technology, better known as the thin films, achieved a production volume of more than 100 MW for the very first time in 2005. From 2005 to 2009, the compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of the thin film solar module production exceeded that of the overall industry. This helped to take up the market share of thin film products from 6% in 2005 to 10% in 2007 and from 16% to 20% in 2009. However, since then the thin film share has been slowly falling as the ramp up of new production lines did not follow that of the overall industry. In terms of industry participation, majority of thin film companies are silicon based and use either amorphous silicon or an amorphous/micro-crystalline silicon structure. There are fewer companies which use copper, indium, gallium, selenide, and diselenide as the absorber material for their thin film solar modules. Still fewer companies make use of cadmium telluride (CdTe) or dye and similar other materials. At a time when polysilicon as a feedstock material was selling very costly, concentrator PV (CPV) technology came into being. CPV is a fast emerging technology on which about 60 companies are still concentrating. Over 50% of the companies are based in United States (primarily in California) or Europe (mostly in Spain). The key elements of a CPV system include cells, optical elements, and tracking devices. Experts believe that CPV technology or programme is just at the beginning of an industry learning curve. There is enough market potential for technical and cost improvement.

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United States of America, Europe, Asia, and Africa constitute the four major segments of the solar PV programme. A brief description of selective few country programmes is presented next.

Australia The total installed capacity of grid-connected PV systems in Australia is around 2.45 GW. The PV systems accounted for around 36% of all the new electricity generated capacity installed. During 2011–12, gridconnected residential systems dominated the market. The average PV system price for a grid-connected PV system dropped from 6 AUD in 2010 to 3.10 AUD in early 2013. In 2012, PV systems in the country produced nearly 2.37 GWh or about 1% of total electricity. Renewable energy sources made a contribution of about 13.34% to the total supply. This share is expected to go up to 20% by 2020 with market forecast for 2013 being 750 MW. Incidentally, Australia managed to make a PV capacity addition of 2 GW within two years. It is interesting to note here that around 10% of residential buildings are having a PV system now. The prime driver behind this key achievement includes the government’s Renewable Energy Target (RET) and FiT in some selective states and territories.

Africa Solar energy resource happens to be richer in the African region as compared to Central Europe. On an average basis, solar modules are capable of generating twice the electricity in Africa. However, a majority of solar systems in use, within Africa, are of a low capacity. This clearly implies a high potential PV market waiting to be tapped in the region. In 2011, Algeria’s Ministry of Energy and Mines released the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Programme, as per which the share of renewable energy (RE) for power generation is targeted at about 40% of domestic demand by 2030. The plan anticipates around 800 MW of installations until 2020 and a total of 1.8 GW by 2030. As per the available estimates, about 5 MW of small decentralized systems were installed at the end of 2012 alongside the planned installations of about 20 MW.

International photovoltaic programme

PV country programmes

International photovoltaic programme

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Ghana had a few thousand solar home systems and a few off-grid systems providing an estimated PV installed capacity of 5 MW. The Parliament of Ghana passed the Renewable Energy Bill which envisages enhancing the contribution of RE, especially solar, wind, mini-hydro, and waste, to energy in the national energy supply mix. The underlying rationale is also for mitigation of climate change. The bill sets a goal of RE constituting 10% of national energy generation by 2020. The Volta River Authority of Ghana commissioned its first solar plant of 2 MW capacity at Navrongo and it aims to realize a total capacity of 14 MW by 2014. Kenya introduced the FiTs for electricity from RE sources in 2008. However, solar power inclusion in the scheme of things happened only in 2010 when the tariffs were revised. Despite that just a modest capacity of 560 kW could be connected to the grid in 2011. The majority of 14 MW of PV systems were off-grid in nature. Current estimates of the PV market in Kenya puts average annual sales of home systems at 20,000–30,000 as against the solar lantern numbers of 80,000. The solar PV plan in Morocco was introduced in November 2009 to set up around 2000 MW of solar power by 2020. Prior to this, the National Office of Electricity had announced a smaller programme for grid-connected distributed solar PV electricity target of 150 MW capacity. The sum total PV installed capacity stood at 20 MW under the ambit of Global Rural Electrification Programme framework in average plant sizes of 1–2 MW each.

Bangladesh The solar home system programme has been hugely successful in Bangladesh. The Infrastructure Development Company Ltd of Bangladesh (IDCOL) kick-started its solar energy programme to encourage the market dissemination of these solar home systems in the remote areas of the country. Several bilateral and multilateral aid organizations such as the World Bank, Global Environment Facility (GEF), Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (KfW), German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), and Asian Development Bank (ADB) provided liberal support which helped to deploy more than two million solar home systems till April 2013. ADB provided the much needed impetus for setting up PV system installations to the tune of 500 MW under the broad-based framework of Asian Solar Energy Initiative.

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The sum total installed PV capacity increased to 2694 MW due to the new PV system installations of 882 MW in 2012 alone. Solar PV power resulted in 14% of residential consumption or equivalent to 2.8% of the country’s total electricity needs. In the case of systems smaller than 250 kWp, the tariff was brought down from 0.23 EUR/kWh to 0.21 EUR/kWh and for larger systems, the tariff was reduced from 0.15 EUR/kWh to 0.09 EUR/kWh for the systems installed prior to 2013. Simultaneously, the period for which the green certificates could be claimed was shortened from 20 years to 10 years. With effect from 1 January 2013, the right to receive the green certificates depends on the duration of the amortization period. In the case of PV, it is 15 years in the first half of 2013 and the net metering scheme for the systems below 10 kW continued. The value of green certificates in the Brussels region, as a case-specific example, is EUR 65 and for PV systems there is a multiplier of 2.2. Additionally, for systems under 5 kWp, there is a possibility of net metering as long as the generated electricity does not exceed the consumer’s own electricity demand.

China The solar PV programme in China has leapfrogged to new heights in several ways. In 2012, the market recorded a growth of 3.7 GW, thus taking the aggregated installed capacity to about 7 GW. Out of this, around 3.3 GW capacity was grid-connected. This marks a whopping increase of 600% as compared to the low achievements in 2010. The National Energy Administration (NEA) earmarked an ambitious target of 10 GW of new PV installations for 2013. The corresponding target for 2015 has been increased to 41 GW by the designated authority. There is a growing optimism to take this target to 100 GW by 2020. As per the 12th Five-year Plan, adopted in March 2011, China is keen to bring down its carbon footprint to enhance its energy efficiency. The percentage target reduction of carbon emissions is about 17% with about 16% less energy consumption per unit of gross domestic product (GDP). The cumulative investment in the power sector, under the 12th Five-year Plan, is expected to touch US$ 803 billion, with US$ 416 billion allocated share to power generation and US$ 386 billion for new transmission lines. As per the document released by the Chinese Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the target

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is to produce a minimum of 50,000 tonnes of polysilicon or 5000 MW equivalent of solar cell or module production. It also aims at a cost reduction in the PV derived electricity to 0.8 CNY/kWh by 2015 and further down to 0.06 CNY/kWh by 2020. The National Energy Authority has set a new goal for RE to supply about 11.4% of the total energy mix by 2015. This means the renewable power generation capacity has to increase to 424 GW with solar power capacity at 41 GW. China aims to add a total of 160 GW of new RE capacity during the period 2011–15 at an estimated plan outlay of CNY 1.8 trillion or EUR 222 billion.

Canada The total installed PV capacity in Canada moved up to about 830 MW in 2012. The Canadian market witnessed equivalent capacity additions of 268 MW for two consecutive years (2011–12). Such a development came about owing to the introduction of a FiT in the province of Ontario and was enabled by Green Energy and Green Economy Act 2009. On the federal level, there is only an accelerated capital cost allowance under the IT regulations. On a provincial level though, nine Canadian provinces have net metering rules. Therein, solar PV happens to be one among several eligible technologies. Sales tax exemptions and RE funds are available within two provinces; microgrid regulations and minimum purchase prices each exist in one province. The FiTs were set rolling in 2009 much in accordance with the system size/type. The energy ministry announced an annual cap of 150 MW in 2013 for the small FiT regime and 50 MW for the micro-FiT regime for the next four years. This implies that systems larger than 500 kW are no longer qualified for the FiT.

Denmark The country installed a PV system capacity of about 378 MW in 2012. This was facilitated in part by the introduction of net metering system and high electricity prices of 0.295 EUR/kWh. In view of this development, the regime was altered in 2012. In this, full net metering is possible only within 1 h of electricity being produced. In 2013, the excess electricity exported to the grid was reimbursed at 0.174 EUR/kWh. To take into account the decreasing PV system prices, this rate will decrease to 0.157 EUR/kWh in 2014 and about 0.174 EUR/kWh in 2015. It is estimated that at the end of the decade, the rate will be lowered to about 0.080 EUR/kWh.

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During 2012, the cumulative installed PV capacity touched 4 GW, primarily due to installation of 1.08 GW of new PV systems in the country. Out of this, about 300 MW is located in the French Overseas Departments. New PV installations in mainland France accounted for more than one-third of the total new electricity production capacity commissioned in 2012. Of the total capacity, residential systems of less than 3 kWp capacity represent 16% or 0.64 GW systems. The percentage contribution of systems up to 250 kW is around 40% or 1.6 GW and systems in excess of 250 kWp attract a share of 44% or roughly 1.76 GW. Incidentally, there are three different support schemes in operation to promote solar PV use. For systems up to 100 kWp, FiT is installed, which involves allocation of 200 MW for the residential and 200 MW for the commercial applications. In the case of rooftop systems, between 100 and 250 kWp, a simplified call for tender, based on a volume of 120 MW for the year 2013, is allowed for. There is an additional call for tender with a volume of 400 MW for systems (large rooftop and ground mounted systems) exceeding the 250 kWp capacity. Following a tendered requirement in 2012, the average electricity sale price, as proposed by the bidders, fell from 229 EUR/MWh during the first round to 194 EUR/MWh in the fourth one. Subsequent to this, in 2013, new FiTs were released which are expected to be adjusted every three months.

Germany The million rooftop PV programme in Germany was hailed as a successful programme for several years. There was marginal increase in the PV capacity from 7.5 GW to 7.6 GW in 2013. Here, the market growth is directly correlated to the introduction of Renewable Energy Sources Act in 2000. The law introduced a guaranteed FiT for the electricity generated from solar PV systems for 20 years with a fixed built-in annual decrease. This was adjusted over time to reflect the rapid growth of the market and corresponding price reductions. However, the quick market growth required some additional adjustments. Further until 2008, only estimates of installed capacity existed, thus bringing in a need to set up a plant registrar on 1 January 2009. The German market showed remarkable performance across 2012 with peaks of 1.2 GW in March, 1.8 GW in June, and 1 GW in September. The total

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installed capacity stood at around 32.7 GW by the end of 2012. With effect from May 2012, the FiT has been adjusted on a monthly basis, much in accordance with the actual installation of the previous quarter. In July 2013, per unit cost of PV derived electricity stood at about 0.151 EUR. Incidentally, this is now well below the electricity rate that the consumers are paying, that is, 0.287 EUR/kWh. Due to this, the selfconsumption of PV systems has turned out to be more attractive, apart from creating new possibilities for local storage.

Greece In several countries, FiTs have been introduced to enhance the market outreach of solar PV systems. Greece is no exception as it introduced a generous FiT scheme in 2009. The initial years witnessed a subdued market growth until it accelerated in 2011 and 2012. During 2012, PV system capacity equivalent to 687 MW was deployed for various end-use applications. This was almost 1.5 times the capacity of 439 MW realized by the end of 2011. The aggregated PV capacity had exceeded 2 GW by April 2013. Further, the Greek Ministry of Environment, Energy, and Climate Change made an announcement related to retroactive changes in the FiT for system larger than 100 kWp accompanied by new tariffs for all the systems, as on 1 June 2013.

Indonesia Indonesia too has installed solar home systems in particular to benefit the rural population. Around 20 MW equivalent of PV systems were installed especially for rural electrification purpose by the end of 2011. A unique feature of the PV programme is that its development, including that for the other RE sources, is regulated in the context of National Energy Policy by a Presidential Regulation of 2006. As per this regulation, about 11% of the national primary energy mix in 2025 should mature through RE sources. Out of this, contribution of PV alone has been fixed at 100 MW. In 2013, Indonesia declared a new policy to promote solar energy utilization via auction mechanism.

Israel Solar thermal energy systems, notably solar water heating systems, are abundant in Israel. However, as against this, solar PV systems are also widespread. In 2008, FiT was installed in the country. In 2012, the grid

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Italy The sum total PV system capacity reached 16.4 GW with an installation capacity of 3.5 GW maturing towards the end of 2012. The Italian Council of Ministers approved the Fifth Energy Bill on 5 July 2012, as per which the new half-yearly reductions in tariff were set. The annual expenditure limit for new installations was enhanced from EUR 500 million to EUR 700 million. Besides, a new requirement to ensure the registration of systems exceeding the capacity of 12 kWp was put in place. In Italy, the national grid operator is known as TERNA, and according to whom electricity from PV systems totalled 18.8 TWh during the first seven months of 2013. This is equivalent to around 7.3% of the total electricity available in the country.

Japan Solar PV development in Japan has witnessed several highs and lows since the programme took shape several decades back. In 2012, the PV market in the country saw sizeable growth in terms of enhancement of its domestic shipments to 2.47 GW. The sum total capacity moved up by about 1.7 GW to touch a high of 6.6 GW by the end of 2012. Further, under a newly devised feed-in-tariff scheme initiated in 2012, more than 20.9 GW of PV capacity had received approval by May 2013. The market perspective for Japan is headed for a major gain and envisaged to be between 6.9 and 9.4 GW. It would be apt to focus on the reworking of country’s energy strategy in the backdrop of nuclear power plant accident at Fukushima in March 2011. The officially set target for PV power capacity is 28 GW by 2020. In 2012, Ministry for Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI) came up with an overdue plan document to reform the power market. A pivotal objective of the plan is to enhance the renewable power supply from 11% in 2011 to 25% in 2020 and subsequently to 35% by 2030. Among the PV market application segments, residential rooftop

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connected PV market witnessed about 60 MW of freshly connected capacity. The underlying driver behind the solar energy development is the idea of achieving energy security. Plans are afoot to put in place a PV capacity of 1000 MW towards the end of 2014. In 2012, a PV capacity of 215 was installed. The approved FiT is strongly dependent on the system size of the market segment and thus has individual caps.

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systems occupied as much as 95% of the market share until 2010. However, in 2011, high capacity ground mounted systems, besides the rooftop systems in use, for commercial and industrial segments accounted for nearly 20% of the market share. With effect from 1 April 2013, the tariff for commercial installations (total generated power) in excess of 10 kWp is 36 JPY/kWh for 20 years and for residential applications (surplus power), that is, for units smaller than 10 kWp, is fixed at 38 JPY/kWh for a period of 10 years.

Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) is one of the high potential PV applications. Malaysia undertook the BIPV technology application oriented project in 2000. A sum total capacity of around 1 MW of grid-connected PV systems was realized towards the end of 2009. The Government of Malaysia adopted a policy on green technology in July 2009 to encourage and promote the use of RE for future sustainable development. It is expected that about 1 GW of power capacity will come from the use of RE, including solar PV, by 2015. The RE-specific FiTs were made available by the Malaysian Parliament in 2011 with a pivotal objective to deploy 1.25 GW of RE capacity by 2020, out of which a PV target capacity was fixed at 125 MW. The 2013 tariffs set up by the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) were between 0.782 and 1.555 MRY/kWh, in accordance with the type and size. Under the newly implemented tariff scheme, a PV capacity of 28.92 MW has been successfully installed as against an approved capacity of 141.58 MW. A unique feature of the PV country programme is that several leading PV companies, such as First Solar (USA), Hanwa Q Cells (Korea/ Germany), Sun Power (USA) and more recently Panasonic (Japan), have set up their PV cell/module production facilities of more than 3.8 GW capacity in Malaysia.

Philippines In Philippines, solar PV systems have been in use for many years. A beginning was made with the enactment of Renewable Energy Law in December 2008, under which the country would double the energy derived from RE sources within a period of 10 years. The new RE roadmap was laid out in June 2011, as per which the contribution of renewables could be as high as 50% by 2030.

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Spain Solar PV programme in Spain has transitioned from an early use of small capacity systems to large-sized ones. It is ranked third in Europe, in terms of the total cumulative installed capacity of around 4.2 GW. A majority of the PV systems were installed in 2008, at a time when the country was the biggest market with a PV system capacity of about 2.7 GW. This denotes double the increase in the expected capacity. The Government of Spain introduced a limit of 500 MW on annual installations, following which a revised decree set significantly lower FiTs for the new systems. Further, around 66% of the new systems had to be rooftop mounted systems. As a result of these changes, there was a drastic fall in the number of new installations. However, in 2012, new system installations with a capacity of 194 MW took the cumulative capacity to 4.5 GW. In terms of electricity generation, during 2012, PV systems contributed a share of 7.8 TW or equivalent to 2.9% of the country’s demand. In January 2012, the government passed the Royal Decree, according to which the remuneration pre-assignment procedures for new RE capacity was suspended. The subsequent effect was that around 550 MW of planned solar PV installations got altered.

Switzerland The total PV system capacity reached around 411 MW due to the addition of 200 MW worth of PV systems in 2012. With respect to turnkey installations, the prices dropped by more than 40% in the same year. Such a cost reduction led to three times decrease in the FiT.

South Korea Solar PV products, especially consumer products, are regarded as the pivot of Korean market. In 2012, around 250 MW of new PV systems

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In the beginning of 2011, the energy regulator known as National Renewable Energy Board (NREB) recommended a target of 100 MW of solar installations. This capacity was supposed to be installed within the next three years. To realize this key objective, a FiT of 17.95 PHP/kWh was suggested to be paid from January 2012 onwards. Subsequently, the Energy Regulatory Commission lowered the tariff to 9.68 PHP/kWh, keeping in view the reduced cost of the PV systems. Towards the end of 2012, nearly 2 MW of the 20 MW of installed PV systems were gridconnected.

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were installed in South Korea, thus taking the sum total capacity to about 981 MW. The earlier feed-in-tariff incentive has been replaced by the Renewable Portfolio Standard(RPS) since January 2012. Under this, the RPS quota was earmarked at 450 MW for 2013 so as to take it to 1.2 GW in 2016. The new RPS programme incentivizes the power companies with a minimum of 500 MW of power capacity to enhance their RE mix from at least 2% in 2012 to 10% by 2022.

Taiwan A total capacity of 194 MW was installed between 2009 and 2012 , taking the total capacity to 222 MW. The FiTs during the first half of 2013 for rooftop systems were 8.4 TWD/kWh for system sizes up to 10 kW and 7.54 TWD/kWh for the system capacities between 10 and 100 kW and 7.12 TWD/kWh for sizes between 100 and 500 kW and 6.33 TWD/kWh for systems with a capacity in excess of 500 kW. The installation targets for 2013 were enhanced twice, which now stands at 175 MW. This is in tune with the New Million Solar Rooftop programme with a target installation capacity of 610 MW by 2015 and 3.1 GW by 2030. As per the Taiwan Legislative Yuan, the objective is to enhance the country’s RE generation capacity by 6.5 GW to a total of 10 GW within the next 20 years. RE technologies of all types including solar are expected to contribute to the intended target of 9952 MW by 2025.

Thailand In early 2009, Thailand proposed a 15-year Renewable Energy Development Plan (REDP) with an earmarked target to enhance the RE share to 20% of the final energy consumption in 2022. There are several tax incentives available, for instance, a feed-in premium or added tariff for solar PV electricity systems for a period of 10 years. The National Energy Policy Commission of Thailand accorded approval to FiTs for rooftops and community-owned ground solar plants, in addition to the already existing adder scheme, in July 2013. The capacity of grid-connected PV systems equalled about 360 MW at the end of 2012, out of which 210 MW matured in the same year. Further, several major projects of varying capacities were at different stages of implementation at the beginning of 2013.

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During 2010, a new type of FiT scheme was incorporated in the United Kingdom. This paved the way for installation of nearly 55 MW of PV capacity in 2010 and to more than 1000 MW in 2012. This dramatic increase was the consequence of a fast track review of large-scale projects by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) in February 2011. A similar rush of sorts was witnessed to meet the deadline of 12 December 2011, when the DECC planned to bring down the residential tariff by about 55%. Subsequently, the tariffs marked a change in April 2012 and the average reductions were 44%–55% for systems smaller than 50 kWp and between 0% and 32% for systems with capacity exceeding 50 kWp. Further reduction of 3.5% for systems smaller than 50 kWp was made leaving the tariff same for larger systems. The larger systems had a possibility of obtaining the Renewable Obligation Certificates. In totality, the aggregated PV capacity stood at 1.8 GW by the end of 2012.

United States of America (Usa) The United States achieved an aggregated PV capacity of 7.7 GW at the end of 2012 due to the newly installed PV capacity of 3.3 GW. Out of this, the dominant share of 7.2 MW was for the grid connected segment alone. Yet again, the utility-based PV installations more than doubled, as compared to 2011. Thus, 1.7 GW capacity turned out as the largest segment in 2012. The top nine states, that is, California, Arizona, New Jersey, Nevada, North Carolina, Hawaii, Maryland, Texas, and New York together held a US market share of about 88%. For 2013, the estimated market growth was about 30%. Further, PV projects based on power purchase agreements (PPAs) with a cumulative capacity of 10.5 GW are already under contract. Moreover, over 3 GW of these projects are already financed and under construction. In sum, the pipeline project capacity stands at around 22 GW. Importantly, several state and federal policies and programmes have been initiated so far to develop the green energy markets. These comprise direct legislative mandates and financial incentives such as tax credits.

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I

Annexure

Solar PV standards

Solar PV modules are exposed to the moods of nature on a year-round basis. The amount of dust/dirt, air temperature, wind speed, and humidity has one effect or the other on the power producing part, that is, the solar cells. Solar cells and modules are routinely tested under a sun simulator under the controlled conditions of solar insolation and temperature. Such conditions are commonly known as Standard Test Conditions (STC). However, during the exposure of modules to an outdoor environment, STC conditions may or may not be met. In totality, PV modules used in solar systems/power plants must be warranted for their output peak watt capacity. This should not be less than 90% at the end of 10 years and 80% at the end of 25 years. PV industry has adopted various test qualification standards for modules and associated balance of system (BoS) as per Table 1. Table 1  Various test qualification standards for modules and associated BoS System component

Applicable standard

Standard description

Solar modules

IEC 1215/IS1 4286 (Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial) IEC 61646/Equivalent IS (under development) Thin Film Terrestrial Concentrator Module-IEC 62108 IEC 61730 Part-I IEC 61730 Part-II or equivalent IS (under development) IEC 61701/IS 6170

PV modules must conform to the latest edition of any of the following: IEC/equivalent BIS Standards for PV module design qualifications/type approval For requirements related to construction For requirements related to testing, safety qualifications For requirements related to the use of modules in highly corrosive areas (that is, coastal) so as to qualify for salt mist corrosion testing

BoS item/ components Contd...

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Table 1  Contd... System component

Applicable standard

Standard description

Charge controllers/PPT units

IEC 6008-2 (1, 2, 14, 30)

Environmental testing

Power conditioners/ inverters, including MPPT and protections

IEC 183/IS 61683 IEC 6008-2(1, 2, 14, 30)

Efficiency of measurement Environmental testing

Storage batteries

As per BIS standards

Cables

EC 60227/IS 694 IEC 60502/IS 1554 (Part I and II)

Switches/ circuit breakers/ connectors

IEC 60947 (Part I, II, and III) IS 60947 (Part I, II, and III) EN 50521

General test and measuring method PVC insulated cables for working voltage up to and including 1,100 V and ultraviolet resistant for outdoor installations General requirements Connector safety (AC/DC)

Junction boxes/ enclosures for inverters/charge controllers/ luminaires

Table 2  List of MNRE accredited test centres for off-grid solar PV programme Name of test centre

Location

National Institute of Solar Energy

Gwal Pahari, Gurgaon (Haryana)

Electronics Regional Test laboratory

Delhi/Kolkata

Electronics Test and Development Centre

Bengaluru

Central Power Research Centre

Bengaluru

Underwriter’s Laboratory

Bengaluru

TUV Rheinland

Gurgaon

Intertek

Gujarat

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II

List of financing institutions in solar PV Solar PV programme in India has made a huge transition from being just a small capacity market to a full-fledged megawatt capacity transformation. There are a wide range of both private and public sector institutions which are now playing a pivotal role in enhancing bankability and cumulative development of solar PV market in India. Table 1 summarizes the available sources of financing under two main categories, that is, at strategic and project levels: Table 1  Sources of financing at strategic and project levels Non-banking financial Institutions

Infrastructure Development Finance Company Infrastructure Debt Funds (IIFC, L&T Infra) Rural Electrification Corporation

Non-financial support Institutions

National Institute of Solar Energy Solar Energy Corporation of India Indian Banks Association Bureau of Energy Efficiency

Indian public sector (non-bank) financial intermediaries

Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Reserve Bank of India Life Insurance Corporation of India

Multilateral funding agencies

Asian Development Bank World Bank International Finance Corporation Clean Technology Fund Green Climate Fund

Indian banks

State Bank of India/State Bank of Patiala Indian Overseas Bank/Bank of Baroda/Union Bank of India ICICI Bank/IDBI/Vijaya Bank/Yes Bank

International financing investors

Goldman Sachs Apollo Management Contd...

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Table 1  Contd... Overseas funding

KfW Germany Export-Import Bank of India International Finance Corporation Overseas Private Investment Corporation (US)

Other sources

Private Debt (domestic and foreign) Venture Capital Corporate Debt/Public Markets The early stage investors

Fiscal support

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (payment guarantees) Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (feedin-tariffs) Solar Energy Corporation of India NVVN/NTPC (bundled short-term PPAs and PSAs)

Source  Council on Energy, Environment, and Water

Annexure

III

State nodal agencies for renewable energy The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is an apex central organization responsible for wholesome promotion of Renewable Energy (RE) programme in the country. It formulates policy, planning, and programme implementation measures which are in turn carried out through the nodal agencies for renewable energy set up in each state. These nodal agencies have served as the backbone of the RE programme deployment within the purview of both central and state government schemes. Traditional role of the nodal agencies is in terms of procuring tender-based supplies of RE products and systems, besides undertaking field inspections of installed systems. These agencies also have a pivotal role in the facilitation of different clearances needed for RE projects. The state nodal agencies in totaility are expected to act like single window clearance agencies facilitating the approvals needed from various departments of the state government, especially in case of large capacity projects. However, project developers are usually seen to pursue such time-consuming clearances related process on their own. The following is the list of state nodal agencies in India (Source: National Institute of Wind Energy). Andaman and Nicobar Islands Andaman and Nicobar Administration Electricity Department Office of the Executive Engineer NRSE Division, Prothrapur Port Blair – 744 105 Phone: 03192 – 250577 Fax: 03192 – 250930 ANDHRA PRADESH Non-Conventional Energy Development Corporation of Andhra Pradesh 5-8-207/2, Pisgah Complex Nampally

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Hyderabad – 500 001 Phone: 040 – 2320 2391/23203638/23203376 Fax: 040 – 23201666/23203692 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://www.nedcap.gov.in/index.html Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Energy Development Agency Urja Bhavan, Tadar Tang Marg, Post Box No. 141 Itanagar – 791111 Phone: 0360 – 2211160 Fax: 0360 – 2214426 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://www.apeda.co.in/home ASSAM Assam Energy Development Agency and Assam Science Technology and Environment Council Bigyan Bhawan, ABC, G S Road Guwahati – 781 005 Phone: 0361 – 22464619 / 2464621 Fax: 0361 – 2464617 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://www.assamrenewable.org BIHAR Bihar Renewable Energy Development Agency 1st Floor, Sone Bhawan Birchand Patel Marg Patna – 800 001 Phone: 0612 – 2233572 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 0612 – 2228734 Website: http://energy.bih.nic.in/main.htm Chandigarh Chandigarh Administration Additional Town Hall Building 2nd Floor, Sector 17 C Chandigarh – 160017 Phone: 0172 – 2745502 / 2744235 Fax: 0172 – 2740005 Website: http://chandigarh.gov.in

CHHATTISGARH Chhattisgarh State Renewable Energy Development Agency D-2 and D-3, Shreeram Nagar Vidhan Sabha Road Raipur – 492 007 Phone: 0771 – 2284639 / 2284635 Fax: 0771 – 4268389 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://www.credacg.org Dadra and Nagar Haveli Administration of Dadra and Nagar Haveli Silvassa – 396230 Phone: 0260 – 642070 Website: http://dnh.nic.in DELHI EE and REM Centre Delhi Transco Limited 2nd Floor, SLDC Building, Minto Road New Delhi – 110002 Phone: 011 – 23234994 Fax: 011 – 23231886 Website: http://www.delhitransco.gov.in Goa Goa Energy Development Agency DST and E Building, 1st Floor Saligo Plateau Goa – 403 511 TeleFax: 0832 – 2407194 E-mail: [email protected] GUJARAT Gujarat Energy Development Agency 4th Floor, Block No. 11 and 12 Udyog Bhawan, Sector 11 Gandhinagar Gujarat – 382 017 Phone: 079 – 23247086 / 23247089 Fax: 079 – 23247097 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.geda.org.in

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HARYANA Haryana Renewal Energy Development Agency SCO 48, Sector 26 Chandigarh – 160 019 Phone: 0172 – 2790918 / 2791917 Fax: 0172 – 2790928 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Website: http://www.hareda.gov.in HIMACHAL PRADESH Himachal Pradesh Energy Development Agency Block No. 8/A, SDA Complex Kasumpati Shimla – 171 009 Phone: 0177 – 2621430 Fax: 0177 – 2622365 Website: http://himurja.nic.in JAMMU AND KASHMIR Jammu and Kashmir Energy Development Agency 12 BC Road, Rahari Jammu – 180 001 Phone: 0191 – 2586015 / 2546495 Fax: 0191 – 2546495 Jammu Kashmir Energy Development Agency S and T Department Dhar Villa, Raj Bagh Srinagar – 190 008 TeleFax: 0194 – 2312507 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://jakeda.nic.in JHARKHAND Jharkhand Renewable Energy Development Agency Plot No. 328/B, Road No. 4, Ashok Nagar Ranchi – 834 002 Phone: 0651 – 2246970 Fax: 0651 – 2240665 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.jreda.com KARNATAKA Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Agency Limited 19, Major General A D Loganadan INA Cross, Queen’s Road

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Bengaluru – 560 052 Phone: 080 – 2282221/2208109/2207851 Fax: 080 2257399 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.indiabuildinginfo.com/virtual-clean/kredl kredl.htm KERALA Agency for Non-Conventional Energy and Rural Technology PMG - Law College Road Thiruvananthapuram – 695 003 Phone: 0471 – 2338077/2333124/2334122/2331803 Fax: 0471 – 2329853 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.anert.gov.in LAKSHADWEEP Administration of Union Territory of Lakshadweep Department of Electricity Kavarathi – 682 555 Phone: 04896 – 262127 Fax: 04896 – 262936/262140 Website: http://lakpower.nic.in LEH - LADAKH Ladakh Renewable Energy Development Agency Dak Bungalow Leh, Ladakh – 194101 Phone: 01982 – 255733/252010 MADHYA PRADESH Madhya Pradesh Urja Vikas Nigam Limited Urja Bhavan, Link Road No. 2 Shivaji Nagar Bhopal – 462016 Phone: 0755 – 2553595/2556566/2767276 Fax: 0755 – 2553122 / 2558417 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.mprenewable.nic.in MAHARASHTRA Maharashtra Energy Development Agency MHADA Commercial Complex 2nd Floor, Yerwada Pune – 411 006

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Phone: 020 – 26614393/26614403/26615031 Fax: 020 – 26615031 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.mahaurja.com MANIPUR Manipur Renewable Energy Development Agency Science and Technology Complex SAI Road, Takyelpat Imphal – 795 001 Phone: 0385 – 2222685/2453685 Fax: 0385 – 2224930/2442685 MEGHALAYA Meghalaya Non-Conventional and Rural Energy Development Agency Lower Lachaumiere Near BSF Camp (Mawpat) Shillong – 793 012 TeleFax: 0364 – 2537343 Fax: 0364 – 2533343 Website: http://mnreda.gov.in MIZORAM Zoram Energy Development Agency ZEDA Building, Above 132 kV Substation Zuangtui (PO), Zemabawk Aizawl Mizoram – 796 017 Phone: 0389 – 2350664/2350665 Fax: 0389 – 2350664 Website: http://zeda.mizoram.gov.in NAGALAND Nagaland Renewable Energy Development Agency C/o Directorate of Rural Development Nagaland Secretariat Kohima Nagaland – 797 001 TeleFax: 0370 – 2271190 ODISHA Orissa Renewable Energy Development Agency S/59, Mancheswar Industrial Estate Bhubaneswar – 751 010 Phone: 0674 – 2580660 / 2580258 / 2580558

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Fax: 0674 – 2586368 Website: http://www.oredaorissa.com PUDUCHERRY Renewable Energy Agency, Puducherry Managing Director, REAP Renewable Energy Agency, Bungalow No. 2, AFT Premises, Cuddalore Main Road, Mudaliarpet Puducherry – 605011 Phone: 0413 – 2354319 E-mail: [email protected] PUNJAB Punjab Energy Development Agency Solar Passive Complex Plot No. 1 and 2, Sector 33 D Chandigarh – 160 034 Phone: 0172 – 2663328/2663382 Fax: 0172 – 2662865 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://punjabgovt.nic.in/industry/PEDA.htm RAJASTHAN Rajasthan Renewable Energy Corporation Limited E-166, Yudhister Marg, ‘C’ Scheme Jaipur – 302 001 Phone: 0141 – 2225859/2221650/2229055 Fax: 0141 – 2226028 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.rrecl.com TAMIL NADU Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency EVK Sampath Maaligai, 5th Floor, 66/67 College Road Chennai – 600 006 Phone: 044 – 28222973/28236592/28212249 Fax: 044 – 28222971 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.teda.gov.in TELANGANA Telangana State Agency Chief Engineer, Room No. 611, A Block, SLDC of the State of Telangana (TSSLDC), TSTRANSCO, Vidyut Soudha, Khairtabad

State nodal agencies for renewable energy

From Sunlight to Electricity

State nodal agencies for renewable energy

148   Hyderabad – 500082 Phone: 040 – 44811105 E-mail: [email protected] TRIPURA Tripura Renewable Energy Development Agency 2nd Floor, Vigyan Bhawan, Pandit Nehru Complex Gorkhabasti, Agartala Tripura – 799006 Phone: 03821 – 225900/2326139 TeleFax: 03821 – 225900 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://treda.nic.in UTTAR PRADESH Non-Conventional Energy Development Agency Vibhuti Khand, Gomti Nagar Lucknow – 226 010 Phone: 0522 – 2720876/2720894 Fax: 0522 – 2720779/2720829 Website: http://neda.up.nic.in UTTARAKHAND Uttarakhand Renewable Energy Development Agency Energy Park Campus, Industrial Area, Patel Nagar Dehradun – 248001 Phone: 0135 – 2521387 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.ureda.nic.in WEST BENGAL West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency Bikalpa Shakti Bhavan Plot No. J-1/10, EP and GP Block R, Sector 5 Salt Lake, Electronics Complex Kolkata – 700 091 Phone: 033 – 23575038/23575348 Fax: 033 – 23575347/23575037 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.wbreda.org

From Sunlight to Electricity

Annexure

IV

List of state electricity regulatory commissions Electricity is a concurrent subject in India on which both the central and state governments can legislate. Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has the power to regulate centrally owned generating companies having composite scheme for generation and sale of electricity in more than one state. In the states, the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) have the powers to regulate intra-state generation, transmission, and distribution. SERCs are to be guided by the principles of tariff determination specified by the CERC. The SERCs determine the tariff for generation, supply, transmission, wheeling of electricity, wholesale, bulk, or retail within the state. They also regulate the electricity purchase and procurement process of distribution licensees. Following is the list of various SERCs in India. Affiliation

Website

Central Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.cercind.org

Assam Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.aerc.nic.in

Andhra Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.ercap.org

Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.dercind.org

Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.gercin.org

Himachal Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.hperc.nic.in

Haryana Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.herc.nic.in

Karnataka Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.kerc.org

Madhya Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.mperc.org

Orissa Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.orierc.org

Rajasthan Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.rerc.gov.in

Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.tnerc.org

Uttar Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.uperc.org

West Bengal Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.wberc.org Contd...

List of state electricity regulatory commissions

150  

From Sunlight to Electricity

Contd... Affiliation

Website

Chhattisgarh State Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.cserc.gov.in

State Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.erckerala.org

Meghalaya State Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.mserc.gov.in

Uttarakhand Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.uerc.gov.in

Jammu and Kashmir Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.jkserc.nic.in

Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.mercindia.org.in

Bihar Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.berc.gov.in

Jharkhand State Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.jserc.org

Telangana State Electricity Regulatory Commission

www.tserc.gov.in

Joint Electricity Regulatory Commission • Chandigarh • Goa • Andaman and Nicobar Islands • Lakshadweep • Dadra and Nagar Haveli • Puducherry

www.jercuts.gov.in

Index

A AC submersible, 26, 28

Cadmium telluride (CdTe), 14, 15, 46, 49, 85, 104, 124

Amorphous silicon (a–Si), 14–16, 46, 49, 85, 104, 124

Captive power generation, 1, 33, 34

B

for commercial buildings, 33

Balance of system (BoS), 18, 37, 71, 77, 80, 89, 98, 103, 123, 137 components of, 18–19 routine care of, 98 Battery bank, 7, 20, 22, 32, 34–36, 39, 51, 52, 58, 60, 90 and battery number, 52–53 and load profiling, 50–51 determination of, 52 Battery charging current, 95, 96 steps for measurement of, 96 Battery efficiency, 20, 53–54

Captive/rooftop PV systems, 33 scope assessment of, 33–34 Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), 82, 83t, 112, 113, 140, 149 benchmark for 1 MW solar PV power plant, 82–83 Central Electronics Ltd (CEL), 17, 44, 102, 104 CFL (compact fluorescent lamp), 24–27, 54–56, 58, 86 lantern, 25 performance specifications of, 25t

calculations of, 53–55

specifications for, 27t

PV applications, 20 Battery-based grid-tied system, 36, 37

Charge controller, 7, 18–22, 35, 36, 41, 51, 55, 56, 59, 62, 89, 93–96, 98, 99, 138

merits and demerits of, 36

function of, 20

representative data for, 37t

primary role of, 89

Bell Laboratories, 1

Chinese solar market, 123

Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL), 102

Cold chain programme, 30

Battery voltage, 21, 48, 51, 89, 96

Blocking diode, 22 Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 71 C Cable sizing, 51

Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE), 102 Concentrator PV (CPV) technology, 14, 124 advantages of, 14–15 key elements of, 124

Index

152   Copper–indium–diselenide 14, 15

From Sunlight to Electricity

(CIS),

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), 102 Crystalline silicon modules, 9–10, 12–18, 25, 27, 28, 46, 47, 49, 65, 75–77, 81–85, 103, 104, 113, 124, 137 efficiencies of, 14t project cost for, 83 and growth ribbons, 9–10 temperature coefficient values of, 46 and thin film, comparative evaluation of, 16–17, 124 see also Thin films tehnology D DC energy output, 65 calculation of, 65 DC floating pump, 26, 28 DC refrigerators, 29 efficiency of, 29–30 DC submersible pump, 26, 28 DC surface suction pump, 26, 28

Direct-coupled system, 35 Directional solidifica­tion system, 8 Dry cell batteries, 20 Dye sensitized cell, 2 E Energy storage technologies, 19–20 categorized, 19 F Flood­ed lead-acid batteries, 20 G German million rooftop PV programme, 121 Global PV industry, 71, 101, 124 loss in, 101 Global solar photovoltaic market, 121–124 growth in, 123 incentive schemes for, 122 key considerations of, 121 limitations of, 122 share of crystalline silicon in, 124

DC system losses, 65

share of thin film technology in, 124

calculation of, 65

Global warming, 2

Deficiency of Power Supply Probability (DPSP), 39

Greenhouse gas (GHG), 32, 69, 121

Department of Electronics (DoE), 102

Grid powered 28–29

Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES), 102 Derating, dust, 65 manufacturing tolerance, 64 module summary, 65 temperature, 65 Diesel generators, 33, 38, 75, 110

Grid interactive system, 73, 111 pumping

systems,

problem of, 28 Grid-connected (Grid-tied) PV system, 34, 36, 37, 63, 69, 90, 125, 132, 134 power projects in India, 113t–114t system sizing procedure for, 63–64

energy yield from, 64

state nodal agencies for, 141–142

parameters of, 63 GTM Research, 73

solar cell efficiencies in, 104t

H

solar cells and module production in, 104, 105t

HOMER, 67, 70 Hybrid PV–diesel system, 31, 32, 34, 38–39, 90 see also PV Hybrid diesel system advantages of, 32 Hybrid solar and grid powered refrigeration, 30–31 I

solar parks schemes in, 116 –117 state solar policies and achievements, 113–114 solar radiation in, 43–44 ultra-mega power projects in, 116 Indian Institute of Sciences (IISc), Bangalore, 103

India, canal projects, 117–118 key achievements of, 103–104

Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA), 106, 107

PV installations in,

Indoor lighting systems, 24

future schemes of, 116–117

focus

of,

International Energy Agency (IEA), 47

financing institutions 139–140

in,

guidelines on solar components, 48t

Building-centric 118–119

grid-connected, 115 recent initiatives, 109–110 state-wise distribution of, 115–116, 115t–116t system base in, 105–106

historical perspective, 102–103

PV marketing in, 106–109

International Photovoltaic Equipment Association (IPVEA), 101 Inverter, 7, 18, 21–22, 25, 27, 35–39, 41, 42, 48, 55, 56, 58, 59, 63, 64– 66, 69, 75–77, 79–81, 90, 98, 105, 123, 138 AC system losses of, 66 efficiency of, 66

development programme in, 106–107

main function of, 22

key segments of, 107

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM), 5, 75, 77, 82, 111–115

and market development, 106–107 mechanisms in, 108–109 models of, 107 renewable energy (RE) programme in, 141–142

modified, 22

first phase of, 112–113 outcome of, 112–113 tariffs of PV in, 112–113 fiscal incentives to, 112 strategy of, 111–112

Index

153  

From Sunlight to Electricity

Index

154  

From Sunlight to Electricity

L

N

Lead-acid battery, 19, 25, 50, 88, 90

Narmada Canal Project, 117

classified, 20

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 111

performance parameters for, 20 types of, 19 LED (Light emitting diode), 24–28, 54–56, 58, 94 lantern, performance specifications of, 25t Lift and head, 60 basic explanation, 60

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 17, 47, 67–69 National Solar Mission (NSM), 5, 75, 81, 111 roadmap for, 111t National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), 112

estimation of, 60

Nickel–cadmium batteries, 31

Lindmayer, Joseph, 1

O

Long-term field reliability, 47

Off-grid industrial power systems, 23

M

Off-grid PV system, 3, 4, 23, 34, 50, 53, 76, 89, 123

Maximum power point tracker (MPPT), 35, 42, 46, 47, 138

and battery storage, 53

Megawatt-scale PV grid power plants, 23

and captive power plants, 34

Metkem Silicon Ltd, 103

reasons to use, 35

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), 70, 75, 77, 78, 102, 106, 110, 111, 116, 118, 138, 141

Organic photovoltaics (OPV), 16

subsidy offered by, 78 key features of, 78t Mobile telephony, 23, 32, 76 Module mismatch effects, 46 Monocrystalline modules , 16, 124 efficiency range of, 16 vs. multi-crystalline modules, 124 Moore’s law, 71 Multi-megawatt-scale PV power plants, 63 MW-scale power plants, 81 cost estimates of, 81–82

for industrial power, 23

Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), 81 P Palz, Dr Wolfgang, 2 Performance ratio, 63, 66, 67 calculation of, 66–67 Photovoltaics (PV), 2–4, 16, 21, 31, 132 country’s perspective of, 4 growth in installed capacities, 3–4 markets of, 4 policy support to, 5 market prices 1977–2013, 72f off-grid application of, 3–4

pricing differences, reasons for, 80–81

Philippines, 132–133

for telecommunications, 31–32

Spain, 133

scope assessment of, 31–32

South Korea, 134 Switzerland, 133

the word explained, 7

Taiwan, 134

Polycrystalline Silicon cell technology, 18

Thailand, 134

efficiency range of, 16

United States of America, 135

Polysilicon, 8, 16, 73, 74, 103, 123, 124 128 preparation of, 8 Pulse width modulation controller, 21 stages of operation, 21 PV array, 7, 12, 18, 20, 29, 32, 35–37, 46, 50, 51, 53, 57, 58, 60, 63–67, 69 and energy yield, 66

United Kingdom, 134 PV-diesel hybrid power system, 31–32, 34, 38–39, 90 see also Hybrid PV-diesel system advantages of, 32, 38 features of, 39 PV grid system, with battery backup, 36–37 without battery storage, 37–38 merits and demerits of, 38

parameters affecting output of, 63

per MW cost of, 82

PV-biomass hybrid system, 90

PV power plant, 80

PV country programmes, in

cost of each component in, 80t

Africa, 125–126

PV system/technology,



applications of, 23–39

Australia, 125

Bangladesh, 126–127 Belgium, 127 Canada, 128 China, 127–128 Denmark, 128 France, 129 Germany, 129–130 Greece, 130 Indonesia, 130 Israel, 130–131

PV-micro-hybrid system, 90

expected 18–19

market

share

of,

grid connected nature of, 28 key advantages of, 8 other components of, 22 simulation procedures, 67–68 simulation software for, 67t–68t sizing calculations for, 54–58 PVsyst, 67, 68 PV-watts, 69

Italy, 131

PV-wind hybrid systems, 39–40

Japan, 131–132

Q

Malaysia, 131–132

Quantum dot cell, 2

Index

155  

From Sunlight to Electricity

Index

156   R Rajasthan Electronics and Instruments Ltd (REIL), 102

From Sunlight to Electricity

Solar energy, 1–2, 8, 26, 34, 39, 41, 42, 44, 50, 68, 73–75, 83, 85–86, 90, 110–113, 118, 125, 130, 131

RETScreen, 43, 67t, 68–69

applications for thermal energy, 85

Rheinisch Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk AG (RWE), 2

measurement, 86–87

Reserve day, 52, 53, 5

S Sealed batteries, 20 advantages and disadvantages of, 20t Short circuit current, 47, 95 measurement of, 95 Silica crucibles, 8 Silicon solar battery, 1 Silicon wafer, 8, 10, 102, 103, 124 manufacturing process of, 8–9 Siltronics India Ltd, 103 Sine wave-based inverters, 22, 25, 27 Solar Buzz, 74, 101, 121 Solar cell, 1, 2, 7–16, 19, 22, 44, 49, 71, 85–87, 102–105, 112, 123, 124, 128, 137

future challenges for, 73–74 storage of, 50 utilization of, 1–2, 8, 26, 85, 130 Solar home lighting system, 23, 24, 26, 70, 92 LED-based, 27 comparative rating of, 27t Solar insolation, 10, 25, 27, 42–44, 46, 50, 55, 60, 62, 137 measurement of, 44 Solar lantern, 20, 24, 25, 75, 126 Solar module, 9, 11–13, 16, 20, 22, 25–28, 30, 37–39, 41, 44–49, 53, 56–59, 64, 65, 71, 73–77, 79–81, 85, 87–99, 105, 117, 121, 124, 125, 137 main types of, 49–50

efficiencies in India, 104t

pricing in India, 75–76, 76t

grouping, 87

production of, 12–13

key attributes of, 15t

Solar operated refrigerator, 29–30

key steps in the manufacturing of, 10–11

capacity across the world, 71

and module production, 104, 105t

technology for, 30–31

working principle of, 87 Solar charge controllers, 21

in India, 101–119 Solar powered agricultural pump sets programme, 117

Solar cities programme, 110

Solar photovoltaic (PV) programme in India,

objectives of, 110–111

estimated turnover of, 103

Solar electricity, 21, 85, 86

historical perspective, 102–103

benefits of, 85

Solar photovoltaic (PV) system, 3–5– 7, 8, 13, 16, 18, 23, 26, 29, 31–34,

and the current flow, 86–87

38, 39, 41, 42, 47, 54, 57, 64, 66, 71–79, 82, 89, 90, 93, 94, 96, 101–103, 109, 111–115, 117, 118, 121–134, 137–140 battery, 96–97 measuring the specific gravity of, 97 topping up of, 96–97 components of, 7 costing of, 71–84 criteria for, 48 degradation in, 47 demand in 2014, 73, 74f, 121 designing of, 41–70 with battery backup, 48–49

types of, 89–90 warranties for, 81t Solar power system, 22, 33–34, 88 key components of, 88 for large industrial use, 33–34 Solar powered lighting systems, 23–24 attributes of, 24 two types of, 24 Solar powered warning signs, 34 applications of, 34 Solar PV powered mobile telephony system, 31–32 technical specifications of, 32t

key considerations of, 44–45

Solar radiation, 2, 26, 27, 39, 42–45, 48, 57, 63, 64, 84, 118

step-by-step procedure for designing, 49–51

basic measurement of, 44

factors influencing performance of, 42 growth in installed capacity of, 3 installation of, 90, 91t–92t key trends for, 74 long-term field reliability of, 47 maintenance requirements of, 94–95 mismatch losses in, 46

in India, 43–44 see also India sources of data used, 43t Solar rooftop system, 76, 77, 79 accelerated depreciation on, 77–78 component-wise cost of, 77, 77t, 80t cost reduction assessment for, 79t

parametric check for, 94–99

financial and fiscal incentives for, 77–78

rooftop installations, 23, 33, 48, 63, 75–80, 85, 88, 111, 115, 119, 121, 129, 132–134

savings from capital subsidy on, 79

and solar radiation data, 42–43 standards of, 137–138

Solar street lighting system, 23, 24, 26, 70, 92

system components of, 92–94

CFL-based, 27t

temperature coefficient in, 46

LED-based, 28t

tilt angle of, 45, 45t

Solar thermal system, 7

troubleshooting tips for, 98t

solar water pumping system, 26– 29, 59

tax savings from, 78t

Index

157  

From Sunlight to Electricity

Index

158  

From Sunlight to Electricity

application, 26–27

rural centre, 56–57

designing of, 59–62

Thin films technology, 9, 13, 16, 18, 82, 84, 113 124

key components of, 59 lift and head requirements of, 60

advantages of, 84

reasons of use, 26

types of, 14

technical specifications of, 29

Third-generation solar power, 2

types of, 26–27

Tubular battery, 97

vertical lift components for, 60

Typical voltage levels, 51

for village water supply, 61–63

U

Solarex, 1

project cost for, 83

Solar-to-electric conversion efficiencies, 17t

United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 30

Solar–wind composite power inverter, 39

US Ex-lm Bank, 81

Stand-alone PV systems, 20, 35, 36, 97

growth of, 123

State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs), 149–150 list of, 149–150 Super Semiconductors Pvt. Ltd, 103 Swanson effect, 71 System sizing, 52, 54, 57, 63, 68, 70

for a girls’ polytechnic, 57–58, 58t

for household appliances, 55–56, 55t

US solar PV market, 122–123 status of, 122 V Vaccine refrigeration, 30 Vanguard I, 1 Varadi, Peter F., 1 Village water supply, 61–64 size and water demand determination, 61–62 system design for, 63–64

procedure for agrid-connected PV system, 63–64

Watt–hour concept, 87

for renewable energy technologies, 68

World Health Organization (WHO), 30

for a multi-skill development

Wind energy, 2, 3, 39, 90

About the Author

Suneel Deambi possesses around 25 years of practical experience in diverse aspects of PV technology. He has undertaken a large number of studies/projects dealing with policy, planning, technology, financing, marketing, programme implementation, socio-economic impact, and capacity building aspects on behalf of both national and international organisations. He is a prolific writer on energy–environment and science in society issues.

From

SUNLIGHT To ELECTRICITY A Practical Handbook on Solar Photovoltaic Applications

Third Edition

Suneel Deambi The third edition of From Sunlight to Electricity: a practical handbook on solar photovoltaic applications brings in the latest information about photovoltaic sector in India, designs and applications of specific devices and related benefits, finance, and policies. This edition of the book gives readers an understanding of the photovoltaic technology programme in India, the issues therein, and its future directions.   The information has been presented in a format that is easy to understand and apply. In this third edition, the author has included topics such as “global development in PV system”, “installation and maintenance of PV systems”, and “application of PV systems for other households”.

ISBN 978-81-7993-573-6

The Energy and Resources Institute

9 788179 935736