From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition, Second Edition [2 ed.] 9781630815455, 9781630815431

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From Engineer to Manager Mastering the Transition Second Edition

For a complete listing of titles in the Artech House Technology Management and Professional Development Library turn to the back of this book.

From Engineer to Manager Mastering the Transition Second Edition

B. Michael Aucoin

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover design by John Gomes ISBN 13: 978-1-63081-543-1 © 2018 ARTECH HOUSE 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062

All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.   All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For Michelle, the companion I always dreamed of, and for Martin, Camille, and Celeste, for making it all worthwhile. With love

Contents Preface Introduction Mastering Relationships Seeing the Big Picture Getting Things Done Communicating Effectively Using Assets Wisely Taking It to the Next Level

xix xxiii xxiv xxiv xxv xxvi xxvi xxvi

1  Beginning the Journey

1

Takeaways Playing a Team Sport Describing the Transition Becoming More Social Soft Skills Are Actually Hard Skills Embracing the New Rules and the New Role Success Principles for the Transition References Selected Bibliography

1 2 4 5 6 6 7 8 8

Principle 1: Mastering Relationships

9

2  Business Is About People Takeaways Encountering New Challenges in the Transition It Is Not About Technology Relationships Define Business

11 11 12 13 14

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The Lengthy List of Credits Your Network The People You Supervise Your Supervisor Management and Executives Sponsors Functional Managers Customers/Clients Vendors and Contractors Other Stakeholders Community Loved Ones Selected Bibliography

3  Why Are People So Difficult? Takeaways Individuality and Personality Types A System for Personality Styles Human Idiosyncrasies People Are Focused on Themselves People Want to Avoid Looking Bad There Is Comfort in Numbers Communication Is Challenging We Act the Role We Are Imperfect References Selected Bibliography

4  Get Motivated! Takeaways Modeling Motivation The Hawthorne Studies Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy X, Y, and Z Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Five Intrinsic Motivators References Selected Bibliography

5  The Paradox of Control Takeaways Share Ownership Delegate Effectively Exercise Influence: Control in Collaboration Work with the System Maintain Control Over Yourself Reference Selected Bibliography

14 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 18 18

19 19 20 21 24 24 25 25 26 26 26 27 28

29 29 30 30 31 32 34 35 37 37

39 39 41 42 43 44 45 45 46

Contents

6  Everything Depends on the Customer Takeaways Developing a Customer Orientation Understanding My Customers Who Are My Customers? What Are the Characteristics of My Customers? What Are the Needs Behind the Needs? Customers and the Technology Adoption Life Cycle The Good, the Bad, and the Mediocre Your Brand Communicates Trustworthiness Developing Loyalty Impressing Customers Be Genuine Walk a Mile in Their Shoes Go for the WOW! Go for the Human Touch It’s All About the Experience Transforming the Customer Relationship Innovating the Relationship References Selected Bibliography

7  Leading with Confidence Takeaways Dispel the Myths and Become a Leader Myth #1: Leadership Is Only for Great People Myth #2: Leaders Are Born, Not Made Myth #3: Leaders Must Be Charismatic Myth #4: Leadership Is About Dramatic or Major Changes Myth #5: Leaders Tell Followers What to Do Leading Through Change Step 1: Identify the Problem Step 2: Craft a Vision That Resonates and Inspires Step 3: Allow the Group to Own the Vision Step 4: Develop and Ensure Harmony in the Plan for Action Step 5: Change the System Growing as a Leader Lead Yourself Work Your Way Up Tell a Story References Selected Bibliography

8  Conflict is Inevitable; Get Over It Takeaways Have the Right Attitude About Conflict Conflict of Ideas Conflict of Emotion Responses to Conflict

ix

47 47 48 49 49 50 50 51 52 53 53 54 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 58

59 59 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 63 63 64 65 66 66 66 67 68 69 70

71 71 73 73 74 75

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Taking Responsibility for My Part and the Solution Tools for Conflict Resolution Procedural Tools Substantive Process Tools References Selected Bibliography

9  It’s a Team Sport Takeaways Your Experience with Teams Balancing Tensions Stages of Teams Team Contract Integration of Differing Perspectives Collaborating Across Miles and Cultures Virtual Teams Multinational and Cross-Cultural Teams References Selected Bibliography

76 78 79 80 82 82

83 83 84 85 85 88 89 89 90 90 92 93

10  The Joy of Politics

95

Takeaways Myths About Politics Myth #1: All Politics Are Dirty Myth #2: Some Organizations Are Political and Some Are Not Myth #3: To Play Politics, You Have to Kiss Up a Lot Myth #4: I Should Not Need to Play Politics Myth #5: I Must Abandon My Ethical Principles to Play Politics Approaches to Politics Foundations of Political Play Alliances Homework and Groundwork Focus on the Relationship The Hidden Organization Sources of Power Becoming an Effective Practitioner Avoiding Missteps Reference Selected Bibliography

95 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 99 99 100 101 101 103 103 104 105 105

11  Managing Up, Down, and All Around Takeaways Strategic Alignment Collaboration with Your Boss A Problem Boss A Great Boss Collaboration with Peers

107 107 109 110 111 113 114

Contents Matrix Organization Selected Bibliography

xi 114 115

Principle 2: Seeing the Big Picture

117

12  Now You’re in Business

119

Takeaways The Ins and Outs of a Business Fuel for the Organization Investment: Priming the Pump Debt: Paying to Use Money Equity: Ownership for Investment Budgeting: Where Is the Fuel Used? Keeping Score Financial Statements Cash Flow Key Metrics Opportunity Costs Financial Management for Projects Maintaining the Fuel Supply Sharing Financial Information Reference Selected Bibliography

119 121 121 122 122 123 124 124 124 125 125 125 126 126 128 129 129

13  Seeing the System in Your Organization

131

Takeaways My Place in the System A Complex Adaptive System Visualizing and Collaborating on Organizational Processes References Selected Bibliography

131 132 133 136 139 140

14  Planning: Journey into the Unknown Takeaways Themes for Good Planning and Execution Strategic and Tactical Planning Systematic Experimentation: Observation and Adjustment Hitting the Box and Then the Details Seeing and Feeling the Destination References Selected Bibliography

15  Putting the Pieces Together Takeaways Find All the Pieces Envision the Solutions Place the Corners and Sides

141 141 143 144 145 146 147 148 148

149 149 150 151 152

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Prominent Themes: The Significant Few Experimentation Is Required Filling in the Organizational Puzzle Communicate to Integrate The Finish Line Selected Bibliography

153 154 154 155 155 156

16  Embracing Opportunities

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Takeaways Missed Opportunities Resisting Change Fear of Failure Sitting on a Lead Fighting Fires Attitudes Toward Opportunity Organizational Culture Take a Risk, But Do Not Be Risky Creative Thinking Making Opportunity a Reality References Selected Bibliography

157 159 159 159 160 160 161 162 162 163 163 165 165

Principle 3: Getting Things Done

167

17  Outcome Depends on Process

169

Takeaways Outcome Goals and Process Goals Understanding and Improving Organizational Systems Singular, First Time, and Habitual Activities Innovating Organizational Processes Selected Bibliography

18  From Chaos to Order: The Project Takeaways What Is a Project? Need for Formality Experimenting with Projects Get a Life (Cycle) Project Planning Planning Well The Process of Planning Identifying and Estimating All Work Packages Sequencing the Work Resource Loading Risk Management Formalizing the Contract Being Agile Scope Creep

169 170 171 174 174 176

177 177 178 179 179 180 181 181 182 183 184 184 186 186 186 187

Contents

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Controlling the Project Financial Management for Projects Other Keys to Project Success Communication Is Crucial Tracking Issues Limited Authority References Selected Bibliography

187 188 190 190 190 190 191 191

19  Delegating Takeaways Success Factors for Delegation Demonstrating Respect Problem Areas in Effective Delegation Reference Selected Bibliography

20  Meeting Management Takeaways Establishing Effective Beliefs Reinvent the Meeting Meeting Norms Processes for Healthy Participation and Outcomes Agenda Virtual Meetings Culture and Pushback References Selected Bibliography

21  Decision Making Takeaways Fish or Cut Bait! Understanding the Decision Context Importance of Process Decision Approaches Indecisiveness Be Creative Experiment Getting Emotional about Decisions References Selected Bibliography

22  Hitting from the Rough: When Things Go Wrong Takeaways Introduction to Risk Organizational Barriers Denial and Fear of Negativity Concern with Distraction and Inefficiency

193 193 195 197 198 199 199

201 201 203 204 204 205 206 207 207 208 208

209 209 209 210 211 212 213 213 214 214 215 216

217 217 218 219 219 219

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Lack of Time or Low Priority Concern for Blame Elements of Risk Management Risk Identification Risk Evaluation Risk Strategies Risk Management Actions Planning for Surprises: Training and Improvisation Crisis Management References Selected Bibliography

219 220 220 220 221 223 224 225 225 226 226

Principle 4: Communicating Effectively

227

23  Communicating with Purpose

229

Takeaways Challenging What We Think We Understand Presence and Active Participation Emotional Intelligence Negotiation Dissent and Argumentation Agreement—Including Agreement to Disagree Action References Selected Bibliography

229 230 231 232 233 235 236 236 237 237

24  The Communication Clearinghouse (You) Takeaways Components of Communication Encoding Corruption from the Channel Decoding Emotional Content Nonverbal Communication The Recipient Is the Customer Qualities of Communication Types Improving Communication Listen! Utilize Redundancy Remember Feedback Check the Emotions Be Proactive Be Simple, Direct, and Clear Study the Audience Demonstrate Care Be Interesting Include a Human Touch

239 239 240 242 242 242 242 243 244 245 245 245 245 246 246 246 246 246 247 247 247

Contents Practice! The Payoff of Preparation Selected Bibliography

25  Make Your Point Effectively

xv 247 247 248

249

Takeaways Making Your Point: The Building Blocks Appreciate the Audience Establish Mind Share What Is the Sound Bite for Your Message? Write Headings for Scanning Deliver Simply and Clearly Edit Ruthlessly! Be Direct and Lively Use Signposts Use Repetition Prompt the Change Be Interesting Be Human What Is the Story? References Selected Bibliography

249 251 251 252 252 253 253 253 253 254 254 254 256 256 257 259 259

Principle 5: Using Assets Wisely

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26  The Balancing Act: Managing Tradeoffs

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Takeaways The Core Tradeoffs The Value Point Statements of Belief and Purpose Where the Rubber Meets the Road References Selected Bibliography

27  Time Is on Your Side Takeaways Attitudes Toward Time Priorities and Payoffs Identification of Current Priorities: The Time Log The Trip Plan Reflection: Converting Priorities and Objectives into Action A Simple Program for Success Issues in Priority Management Procrastination Live a Pareto Life Depend on Others Just Say “No”

263 264 265 265 267 271 271

273 273 274 274 275 275 276 277 279 279 280 280 280

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To Focus, Be Unavailable Master the Environment Allow Time for the Unexpected Focus on Habits Challenge Your Assumptions and Be Creative Time Hacks Play, Rest, and Balance Reference Selected Bibliography

280 280 281 281 281 281 281 282 282

28  Work Those Assets!

283

Takeaways The Function of Resources Playing Politics with Resources Alignment with the Agenda Starting Out Be a Skillful Player Knowledge Management Budgets Maintain Integrity Attracting Great People Relationships Selected Bibliography

283 285 286 286 287 287 288 289 290 290 290 291

29  You’ve Got Talent!

293

Takeaways Career Progression Think Like an Engineer … and More Servant Leadership Training and Coaching Mentoring Succession Planning References Selected Bibliography

293 294 295 296 296 297 297 299 299

30  Mobilizing the Troops

301

Takeaways What Promotes Motivation? Motivation and Meaning The Red, White, and Blue Out The Motivation to Work Group Motivation Battle the Bureaucracy Job Security A Healthy and Fun Environment Creative and Valuable Play References Selected Bibliography

301 302 303 304 305 306 308 309 309 310 311 311

Contents

31  Playing the Part Takeaways You: The Brand Your New Peer Group Acting the Part The Individual/Role Relationship Wearing the “Uniform” Mind Your Manners Selected Bibliography

32  Charity Begins at Home Takeaways Conquering Stress Mastering the Physiology Just Say No … Maybe Take Care of Your Body Take Care of Life Outside Work Care for the Team … Carefully Care for the Heart and Soul Perspective and Priorities Calm Confidence References Selected Bibliography

xvii

313 313 314 316 316 317 318 319 319

321 321 323 326 326 328 328 328 329 330 331 332 332

Principle 6: Taking It to the Next Level

333

33  It Is Only Natural: Faster, Better, Cheaper

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Takeaways Resolving the Dilemma Change Must Be for the Better Pushing the Envelope Prudently The Blessing and Curse of Specialization Find the Bottleneck Constraints Management Other Approaches Systems Thinking References Selected Bibliography

34  High-Performance Teams: Can You Stand the Fun? Takeaways Groups That Achieve Following the Vision Removing Unnecessary Rules and Micromanagement Play with a Purpose The Most Important Person Skunk Works: Made for the High-Performance Team

335 336 337 338 339 339 340 342 345 346 346

349 349 350 351 351 352 353 354

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Nurturing Greatness References Selected Bibliography

35  Tending the Garden: Growing as a Manager Takeaways The Six Principles Mastering Relationships Seeing the Big Picture Getting Things Done Communicating Effectively Using Assets Wisely Taking It to the Next Level Keeping Our Brains Engaged The Lure of the Silver Bullet Humanizing a Business: What Is Old Is New Become a Better Person, Become a Better Manager Reference

355 357 357

359 359 360 360 361 361 362 362 363 363 364 365 367 368

About the Author

369

Index

371

Preface In the first edition of From Engineer to Manager, I wrote that the book had been over twenty years in the making. Some time has passed since that first edition, essentially making this second edition over thirty-five years in the making. That is not to imply I am a slow writer; rather, it was about thirtyfive years ago in my first professional job in industry that I recognized the need for this book. I also realized I would have much more to learn before I should begin writing it. This is a book about the transition from engineering to management and leadership roles. In my own transition, I discovered I was unprepared for it; there was much I needed to know about the workplace but was not taught in school. Most engineers enter and spend the majority of their careers in supervisory positions. They, too, are often ill-equipped, and they find their transition frustrating. It does not have to be this way, because the roles of management and leadership can be wonderful and rewarding; indeed, I have found that in management and leadership, one finds the fulfillment of engineering. One can learn the hard way by personal experience and experimentation, or one can learn from the experiences of others. In this book, I wanted to share my observations with readers to help promote and accelerate their success through the transition to greater responsibility in supervisory roles. I have written about things that, in retrospect, I wish I had done. As with any other professional discipline, the practice of engineering management and leadership evolves, but much stays the same. All first edition chapters have been updated and streamlined, and this second edition builds on the solid foundation of the first. Eleven chapters have been added,

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covering important topics that include working in teams, meeting management, and your personal brand. Emphasis on the theme of leadership has been added at relevant points in the book. Many readers will be engineers entering management, but the text has applications for others as well. It can be valuable for entry-level engineers, for experienced engineering managers, and for students. It could also be useful as a text for a university course or professional short course. The specific technical material is limited, so professionals in other fields could also gain much from the material as they transition to management in their professions. The book is written with a practical style that integrates important foundational concepts with measures that can be applied immediately. Considerable use of examples and metaphors are used. These draw on a diverse set of influences from the Beatles to ancient Pacific voyagers. While many management books are written as a series of recipes or prescriptions, this one is not. Such a style may give valuable direction in the short run for specific situations, but it can set a trap. Prescriptive approaches can be ineffective or even foolhardy in many instances. Because management and leadership is practiced in a context of ambiguity, one needs to understand principles to be on target with actions. This book presents many such principles that are well within the grasp of engineers. As in your study of engineering, this content is intended to help you learn how to think like an engineering manager/leader. It can take years for any manager, engineering or otherwise, to become truly proficient in positions of increasing responsibility. This book aims to help you hit the 80% mark of topics that you will generally need to know, providing breadth but not necessarily depth. It does not address administrative tasks to any degree, largely because these will be unique to each organization. Adapt and supplement what is here to your own particular needs. The book is written in a manner so that chapters can generally stand alone if one needs quick research on a specific topic; nevertheless, the various elements that make up managerial practice are all integrated and synergistic. It is to the reader’s benefit to progress through the book’s content in sequence. Many people helped make it possible for me to create both editions of this book. Thank you to the team at Artech House, particularly David Michelson and Emma Hobart, for their interest in the book concept and for being patient through its completion. Thanks also to Erin K. Casey for help with editing. I would like to thank my wife, Michelle, for her enduring love and support—without her patience and encouragement, I would never have finished this book. I also want to thank our children Martin, Camille, and Ce-

Preface

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leste for their love and encouragement and for celebrating each milestone with me. Thanks as well go to my parents and grandparents, and to Michelle’s, for giving us so much. I wish to thank all the individuals with whom I have worked in my career who have, in ways large or small, contributed to the rewarding experiences I have had. A special thanks goes to Dr. B. Don Russell of Texas A&M University, and Dr. Dennis Arthur Conners of Gonzaga University, who have been mentors and friends. Finally, thanks to my family and friends near and far, those still present and those who have passed on. All of you mean much to me, and you are always in my heart and in my work. Material that supplements the content of the book is available at http:// www.engr2mgr.com. We invite you to visit that site for worksheets, templates, and other resources.

Introduction It is often said that a person doesn’t quit a job but rather quits a manager. I almost quit the profession of engineering for good over my first supervisor in my first full-time engineering job in industry. I was very disillusioned by the organizational dysfunctions I had witnessed. In the aftermath of that experience, I was struck by the realization that engineers are not sufficiently prepared for many realities of organizational life. I stayed in engineering, and over time, I became committed to finding a better way to collaborate in the workplace. The important role of engineering manager was central to my interest because it is the definitive role in the career of most engineers. The book begins with an orientation to the transition from engineer to manager/leader and the challenges it presents to the engineer. The chapters are organized around six principles that promote success for the transition and for the practice of management and leadership. These are as follows:  Mastering relationships;  Seeing the big picture;  Getting things done;  Communicating effectively;  Using assets wisely;  Taking it to the next level. By way of introduction, next is a summary of these six principles.

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Mastering Relationships The single highest priority for an engineering manager, and the most significant part of that role, is the successful management of relationships. What you will or will not accomplish is largely determined by the health of interactions in the workplace. For that reason, we say that everything about a business depends on people. Everything accomplished in an organization is the work of individuals in collaboration for the purpose of serving other people. The organization can only remain in existence if customers are served and satisfied. There are, however, challenges that may occur because some people may seem difficult or difficult to understand. Conflicts can occur, and organizational politics may seem off-putting; nevertheless, the engineering manager can master relationships and accomplish much in the organization. Managers become proficient at workplace relationships by  Concentrating on issues involving people because these are the most critical for success;  Accommodating different personalities and idiosyncrasies in people;  Enhancing motivation and work results by allowing associates to accept control and self-determination of their work;  Organizing activities to value and serve customers;  Learning how to lead associates effectively;  Valuing healthy conflict and resolving destructive conflict;  Discovering processes and tools for outstanding work in teams;  Recognizing the importance of politics and playing the political game well;  Enhancing the work of your team by complementary leadership of superiors and peers.

Seeing the Big Picture An engineer may concentrate on a narrow area of technical work, but a manager must see and act on a more expansive level. Many pieces must be integrated and work together to make a successful organization, all oriented toward ensuring the organization is financially sound.

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In an uncertain business world, it can be challenging to plan and move forward. Success requires that an engineering manager visualize the organizational system both as it is and where it it should go. He or she must help organize pieces of the picture even if the picture is fuzzy. Working with the big picture means the engineering manager  Recognizes that the objective of every organization is financial health, so work must fulfill revenue or profit goals;  Sees the system in the organization;  Develops effective plans even in uncertain environments;  Learns to incorporate the needs of varied constituencies when solving problems and achieving objectives;  Identifies and exploits opportunities.

Getting Things Done Stated simply, an organization fulfills its mission by getting things done— more specifically, getting the right things done. Engineering managers must get things done through the teams they lead and often in the context of projects. Healthy processes, including good meeting management and decision-making practices, enable teams and organizations to accomplish much. Managers get things done by  Focusing on implementing good processes to achieve desired outcomes;  Achieving success on projects by practicing effective project management skills;  Getting more done by effective delegating;  Accomplishing objectives at meetings while also making them rewarding and enjoyable;  Following good team processes for making decisions;  Avoiding and overcoming adversity through effective risk management practices.

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Communicating Effectively A great deal of a manager’s time is spent in communication. More importantly, the success of the manager’s work is determined overwhelmingly by the extent and effectiveness of that communication. Proficiency in communication is perhaps the most important management competence. Yet it is just as important that the manager promotes and supports good communication among those he or she supervises. To communicate effectively, a manager must  Endeavor to promote understanding, agreement, and action;  Become an efficient clearinghouse for information among team members;  Learn and practice good interpersonal communications proficiency, particularly the ability to make messages simple and clear.

Using Assets Wisely It is through the exploitation of resources or assets that an organization serves its constituents. When assets are used effectively, the organization thrives. Managers can use assets wisely by  Using resources of the organization in a manner that generates revenue and is consistent with its core beliefs;  Managing priorities effectively and thereby managing time effectively;  Acting on the recognition that the talent of employees is the organization’s most valuable resource;  Cultivating enthusiasm and motivation in associates;  Being aware of one’s personal brand and ensuring it is consistent with the role of manager;  Caring for their own well-being and motivation

Taking It to the Next Level Organizations cannot rest on their laurels. They are expected to continually improve and innovate; accordingly, engineering managers must constantly progress in their management and leadership skills, and in particular, elicit

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greatness in their teams. In the midst of many management fads, innovation in management often comes about through a return to basics. Managers can take their work to the next level by  Following prudent approaches to innovation by looking for constraints to success;  Facilitating overachievement and greatness among team members;  Returning often to the fundamentals of management. The effective practice of engineering management and engineering leadership are important to organizations and to the world. The journey from engineering into management/leadership is a worthwhile one and worthy of an engineer’s interest. It is time to begin the journey.

CHAPTER

1

Beginning the Journey We pray for a tree and we are given a seed. —Reverend Minh Phan

Takeaways  Most engineers spend the majority of their careers in positions of management and leadership.  The skills needed for mastery of these roles follow basic principles that can be readily mastered.  Contrary to stereotype, engineers are uniquely qualified to be outstanding managers and leaders. The meeting with my supervisor went off the rails quickly. Three weeks into my first professional position as an engineer—with a major global company, no less—I opened our private meeting by saying, “We have a breakdown in communications.” The meeting was my attempt to correct a number of instances in which he had overruled my recommendations and instead set forth unrealistic feature and schedule targets. To my opening, he replied, “No, we don’t.” Although momentarily caught off guard by his absurd response, I countered, “Yes, we do!” After his next “No, we don’t,” I crowed, “You’re proving my point!” But he did not budge, asserting there was no communications breakdown. In

1

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

his opinion, I was simply weak, immature, and lazy. This interaction had no hope of going anywhere, so I made a quick exit. In the subsequent weeks, I came to see similar and bizarre practices elsewhere in the work group. Superiors proclaimed miraculous feature and schedule goals as objective reality, while engineers and programmers became beat-up zombies in a strange alternate universe. It wasn’t until ten years later that I learned the origin of this madness. A recruiter had told the division’s managers they would be promoted based on the optimism and boldness of their project projections. With a fairly short promotion cycle, it was possible that managers would not be held accountable for failure to meet the objectives no matter how audacious. My tenure lasted nine months, but only in survival mode amidst the chaos and dysfunction. I felt demoralized and faced a serious and very early career crisis. Two thoughts stood out among the wreckage: (1) engineers are unprepared for this, and (2) success in engineering depends far more on how people collaborate than on technology or technical prowess. The distasteful experience planted in me seeds of curiosity to understand effective collaboration, and how engineers could step into roles that would steer it in a positive way. You are reading the tree from which one of those seeds grew.

Playing a Team Sport Engineers benefit from substantial advanced education, and all of it is necessary to practice the discipline; nevertheless, graduate engineers suffer in organizations because they typically have had little education and few experiences in how to collaborate well. This is not a criticism, nor am I saying engineers do not play well with others. Effective collaboration is a skill, as is the effective organization of collaboration. Without proper knowledge, practices, tools, and support, organizational outcomes are left to chance. As it is practiced in organizations, engineering is a decidedly team sport. Student engineers, however, are judged individually and rarely exposed to work in teams. When classes do require teamwork, students are given little or no guidance on effective team behaviors. Most students dread group assignments because of the common dysfunctions with groups that lack effective processes. A recent University of Phoenix survey demonstrates that this dread carries over to the workplace, with 95% of people recognizing teams as important to the success of their organizations, but 76% prefering to work alone [1]. We engineers are trained to see problems and their solutions through a technological lens. As important and as powerful as that perspective is, it is nonetheless only part of the picture. Sometimes the technology piece is the least important or the last one in the puzzle. Hear me: this does not in

Playing a Team Sport

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any way discount engineers or their work; it gives it perspective. The underpinnings of success or failure of engineering projects and technologies have relatively little to do with technical issues, or even the management of tasks. Their outcomes result overwhelmingly from “people issues”: how well individuals interact, how well they communicate, how they reach decisions about what to do, how they act upon those decisions, and how they negotiate conflict. Engineers are given little, if any, preparation in “people issues,” and it is to their detriment. Here’s the rub: As Hoschette shows in The Engineer’s Career Guide, the majority of engineers will spend most of their careers in some supervisory or management position [2]. These are roles that demand the mastery of people issues. Figure 1.1 offers an example of the first part of the typical career of an engineer. This figure generally shows the following progression over time: technical specialist, supervisor, manager, and executive. What is striking in this figure is the significant shift in the types of skills needed in various positions. While the need for technical expertise never goes away, it becomes a far lesser part of the job. One can also characterize this career progression as a shift in emphasis from individual contributor to greater and greater levels of responsibility for the work of others. The deficit in interpersonal skills may not immediately cause a problem for an entry-level engineer because he or she typically works heavily on technical matters. Such work is nevertheless usually done in the context of a team. Employers expect engineers to work well in teams right after graduation. This typical engineer’s first promotion occurs about three to five years after graduation, and it is into a team leader position with supervisory responsibilities. Here the need for good interpersonal skills begins to matter

Figure 1.1  Example distribution of skills needed in an engineering career. (After: [2], p. 20).

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

significantly. While many organizations concurrently provide some appropriate training and/or mentoring in management and leadership at this point, many do not. A poor engineer may feel left to sink or swim. Subsequent promotions come, and by about ten to fifteen years after graduation, the skills required of our typical engineer are overwhelmingly oriented to management and leadership. One could characterize this career progression by saying engineers are hired for their technical skills and for dormant management and leadership skills. To restate, technical competency is the entry ticket into technical leadership. This progression makes sense for three reasons: (1) obviously, employers need engineers with good technical skills for projects, product development, operations, or other applications, (2) technical knowledge rapidly becomes obsolete (therefore requiring a substantial ongoing effort to maintain currency) while management and leadership competencies change more slowly, and (3) usually it is only engineers who have the knowledge to lead the work of other engineers and the ability to earn their respect. In this regard, the career progression of engineers makes perfect sense. What is missing, however, is a solid means to support the transition to management and leadership.

Describing the Transition One cannot separate engineering from management and leadership; the three exist as a triad. When we wear the hat of technologist, we focus on things. The managerial hat requires concern for tasks and resources. The leadership hat makes use of influence to bring about desired change. Managers/leaders in technological organizations have three corresponding and synergistic areas of competency: technical, administrative, and interpersonal. Technical competency is straightforward for the engineer, but as a manager, he or she must develop a broader view of the scope of technical work and must allow subordinates to take more control of the technical work and decisions. Administrative elements of management include organizing and planning work, and they involve the integration of diverse needs and constraints in the organization. Administrative skills are also relatively straightforward for the engineer to master, but they set a trap. The trap is that managers may come to view work as a succession of tasks to be done. They may view the supervision of others solely as planning and policing of tasks. The interpersonal skill set is often the trickiest for the engineer, but it is the most critical facet of the transition; it is the shift from the management of things and tasks to the leadership of people. While the skills in these three areas are different, they are complementary, and all well within reach of engineers. Consider the following

Becoming More Social

5

observation from Colin Funk, a friend who is on the leadership development faculty at the Banff Centre in Canada. Colin has observed that of all the different individuals who go through their arts-based leadership programs, the ones who “get” leadership the most are engineers! While Colin’s background is in theatre, he articulates this key perspective: When engineers see that organizations are systems, their deep systems knowledge suddenly makes management and leadership familiar. To further underscore the truth that engineers can manage and lead with the best of them, let’s turn to Harvard Business Review, which publishes an annual ranking of the top one hundred CEOs in the world. In a recent listing [3], twenty-nine of these top CEOs had MBA degrees (no surprise there). But a greater number, thirty-two, of this cream of the crop had engineering degrees! One could say with considerable justification that engineers are uniquely qualified to be outstanding managers and leaders.

Becoming More Social What are we to make, then, of the caricature of the engineer as a socially inept nerd? Caricatures gain currency for a reason, and indeed many engineers fit the stereotype. Physical and engineering systems are often deterministic; they can often be reduced to solutions through explicit equations or dependable relationships. Engineers who are accustomed to working toward unambiguous solutions are often befuddled by the behavior of associates. Issues with relationships are often fuzzy and subject to perspective and interpretation. As engineers we may often be blissfully unaware of our poor social skills, an ignorance that often only changes the hard way. In college, I briefly dated a young woman who perceived that I expected her to act less emotionally and more logically. As she emphatically stated, she was not a computer. In the same job that I described at the beginning of this chapter, there was an important meeting with an industry advisory group. I wore my only suit, one with a rather busy and bright plaid pattern. One associate gave me some gentle ribbing, then educated me on proper attire for an important business meeting. The following weekend I bought a solid dark navy suit. Of course, I could have argued that my associates and clients should concentrate on my ideas and not fuss over my appearance. But this attitude ignores an undeniable fact of human behavior: People do judge others by their appearance. An important part of the transition, therefore, is for the engineer to become more social and socially aware. The most critical aspect of the transition is to shift from being a good manager of things to becoming a good manager of relationships.

6

From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Soft Skills Are Actually Hard Skills “People skills” are often called “soft skills” to differentiate them from “hard” relationships in science. While this is true, that does not mean workplace interactions are completely unpredictable or fuzzy. Effective patterns of collaboration follow principles, and we cover them in this book. While soft skills initially may appear difficult, they can be readily mastered. My saying that soft skills are actually hard refers to the growing developments in gaining a quantitative understanding of collaboration. If you’re skeptical, consider the article “How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management” [4]. The subtitle gave away the punch line: “It’s All about the Data.” Google crunched massive amounts of internal data to identify beneficial management behaviors. If you want hard data to appreciate management, stay tuned to the field of analytics.

Embracing the New Rules and the New Role Another important element of the transition is that the engineer must be willing to learn and play by the rules required of managers. Ultimately, managers are judged according to how well they contribute to the financial well being or profit of the business; this is the existential objective of the organization. The executive management of the organization translates this overall strategy into specific projects and operations that are important for fulfillment of the strategy. They then expect engineering managers to meet the success criteria for these projects and operations. While the success criteria will often contain technology targets, more often the predominant measure for success or failure is meeting financial and scheduling targets. Engineers and other technical professionals are notorious for causing projects to be late or over budget because they seek additional technical functionality or elegance. Such an excuse will not be accepted from an engineering manager. It may be challenging enough to navigate this shift in priorities as an individual, but the engineering manager is responsible for getting work done through others. He or she must be able to motivate subordinates and peers to likewise meet the tradeoffs among technology functions, schedule, and cost in keeping with the objectives of the organization and its clients. The new rules require that the engineering manager lead others to work together to make the business a financial success. Engineers commonly resist the roles of management and leadership in the belief that they are contrary to the engineering identity. The engineer may even fear losing his or her soul. Such resistance stems in large part from misunderstanding the roles of management and leadership. We will

Success Principles for the Transition

7

cover this topic in more detail, but suffice it to say for now that this misunderstanding is fueled by an outdated mental model of a manager/leader as someone who tells others what to do and is charismatic and decisive. Because many engineers are introverted and egalitarian, the resistance to the new role is understandable. Here’s the good news: Effective management and leadership is very different from this outdated model, and very good managers and leaders come in a spectrum of styles, including traits that are very much within the engineering identity.

Success Principles for the Transition In this book, we focus on six fundamental principles that, if followed, will substantially improve the success and satisfaction of your transition to management. These principles are as follows:  Mastering relationships;  Seeing the big picture;  Getting things done;  Communicating effectively;  Using assets wisely;  Taking it to the next level. We endeavor in this book to help you quickly gain the insights and skills you need to successfully navigate the transition from engineer to manager/ leader. Although often frustrating, the role of manager/leader is immensely gratifying. There is a deep reward that comes from leading a team of professionals to accomplish a worthy objective—one that is valuable to the organization and its customers. Perhaps the greatest reward is the satisfaction that comes with conquering the many obstacles to success that arise when people come together in the workplace and collaborate productively. Mastery of these principles and the successful application of them is a goal that can be readily achieved. It is well within reach of mere mortal engineers. There is a deep yearning in humans to work together effectively to accomplish great things. The effective transition from engineer to manager will help you experience the profound rewards that come when that longing is satisfied. The journey into management unfolds before you. To make the most of the journey, I encourage you to use a powerful tool that propelled your development as an engineer: your curiosity. Be curious about people and

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

what helps them engage with work and collaborate well. I think you’ll find it is a rich thread upon which to pull; it is a thread with no end.

References [1] UOPX News, “University of Phoenix Survey Reveals Nearly Seven-in-Ten Workers Have Been Part of Dysfunctional Teams,” University of Phoenix, January 16, 2013, http://www.phoenix.edu/news/releases/2013/01/universityof-phoenix-survey-reveals-nearly-seven-in-ten-workers-have-been-part-ofdysfunctional-teams.html. [2] Hoschette, J. A., The Engineer’s Career Guide, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010. [3] McGinn, D, “The Best-Performing CEOs in the World 2017,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 95, No. 6, pp. 66–77. November, 2017. [4] Garvin, D., “How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 91, No. 12, pp. 74–82. December, 2013.

Selected Bibliography Berson, B. R. and D.E. Benner, Career Success in Engineering: A Guide for Students and New Professionals, Chicago: Kaplan, 2007. Fasano, A., �Engineer Your Own Success: 7 Key Elements to Creating an Extraordinary Engineering Career, Wiley-IEEE, 2011. Madhavan, G., Applied Minds: How Engineers Think, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2015.

Principle 1: Mastering Relationships Everything about a business depends on people. Work is done by and through the organization’s employees, and profit is made only if customers are satisfied with the business’ products or services. The successful management of relationships is the single highest priority for the engineering manager because the health of interactions will largely influence what you will or will not accomplish. But people can be idiosyncratic and� difficult to understand; we may encounter conflict with others. The prospect of playing organizational politics may seem distasteful and intimidating. With appropriate attitudes and application, however, the engineering manager can become proficient at managing relationships and therefore accomplish much in the organization. In Chapters 2–11, we will see that managers master relationships by …  Concentrating on issues involving people because these are the most critical for success;  Accommodating different personalities and idiosyncrasies in people;  Enhancing motivation and work results by allowing associates to accept control and self-determination of their work;  Organizing activities to value and serve customers;  Learning how to lead associates effectively;  Valuing healthy conflict and resolving destructive conflict;  Discovering processes and tools for outstanding work in teams;

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

 Recognizing the importance of politics and playing the political game well;  Enhancing the work of your team by complementary leadership of superiors and peers.

CHAPTER

2

Business Is About People The most important single ingredient in the formula of success is knowing how to get along with people. —Theodore Roosevelt

Takeaways  The engineering manager must move from a focus on technology to a focus on relationships.  Each of us has an important network of relationships.  Success in the transition depends on nurturing relationships in this network. You may have heard various slogans or quotes, like the one above, about the importance of people for a business. It is easy to nod your head and let them fly right by. But they are true—very true. To the engineer, it may seem that business is about having the best technology. To the MBA, it may seem that business is about products, markets, or finance. To the computer programmer, business is about writing great application software. As important as these are, they are all secondary to the fundamental fact that people, both inside and outside your organization, must be satisfied to make any aspect of a business successful, whatever the business. Engineers often miss this essential truth of business, sadly, to

11

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

their detriment. As unfortunate as this is, it is far more detrimental for the engineering manager to miss this truth. Do not let this happen to you! It is beneficial, if not a prerequisite, to work in a team prior to becoming a manager. Working in a team helps one appreciate interdependencies with others, a quality that is a major underpinning of effective management. The truly lucky engineer has had a supervisor or mentor who appreciates the central importance of people to a business. Most engineers struggle with learning and applying the skills that they need to be successful as managers; however, many engineers do successfully make the transition. They capitalize on their technical expertise but learn to be proficient in the world of interactions with associates. Engineers who became CEOs of their organizations include Virginia Rometty of IBM, Sundar Pachai of Google, Jeff Bezos of Amazon, and Mary Barra of General Motors. There are many managerial positions in which technical skills apply and are indeed critical. But even in these situations, technical skills often take a secondary position to the need to master a variety of people skills. For example, consider the Manhattan Project—the development of the atomic bomb—during World War II. The renowned physicist Robert Oppenheimer was one of the project’s leaders. His technical expertise was certainly important to the project’s success, yet it was his ability to effectively lead and motivate the team of scientific superstars that came to be recognized as a critical reason for the endeavor’s success. One seemingly minor point demonstrates Oppenheimer’s appreciation of the human dimensions of work, and the particular challenges of this unique project. Oppenheimer was instrumental in locating the project team in Los Alamos, New Mexico, an area he had visited for years. While isolation was clearly important for the project’s security, he also recognized that developing a weapon of mass destruction would weigh heavily on the souls of the scientists. Time spent gazing in the distance on the beautiful and spacious New Mexico landscape would help team members work out the moral implications of their work. If you learn nothing else from this book, remember this: the success of the engineer’s transition to management is mostly governed by the ability to work successfully with people. Burn this into your brain; it will serve you in almost every situation.

Encountering New Challenges in the Transition Suppose you are a mechanical engineer and you work for a company that designs engine components for automakers. For the past couple of years, you have done a good job at designing these components, and your primary focus has been on issues such as materials, dimensions, and manufacturability.

It Is Not About Technology

13

You likely spent much of your time with your head down solving technical performance and manufacturing issues. Recently, you were promoted to manager of the design group. Now your concerns are vastly different: getting your group to meet the aggressive schedule for a final engine block design, convincing your supervisor to invest in the expensive new computer-aided design package that will improve productivity, and resolving an impasse between the IT group at Nissan and your own IT group over design file sharing. Many engineers turned managers would continue to view these problems solely from a technical perspective. These issues, however, tend to have common themes: communications, leadership, motivation, focus, organization, decisionmaking, influence, and problem solving. These issues primarily concern people—how people accomplish things and how they get along and work together on a common agenda. But all these issues, and more like them, play a dramatic role in your success, your livelihood, and your happiness.

It Is Not About Technology Ralph Waldo Emerson once said, “Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a path to your door.” His words capture the elitism about technology often resident in the engineering community, a belief that success is defined by having the best technology. But the marketplace is littered with great technologies that never garnered the market share that matched their technical quality. Of course technology is important, but the point to be made here is that it is people who make the decisions about the technology. Previously, I was heavily involved in a breakthrough technology in electric power. As engineers, our team members thought we would succeed because we had developed leading-edge technology. After four years of research and development and securing a license for production with a major manufacturing and marketing company, it seemed like our technology was poised for success. In fact, the customers in the market for the product were far from ready for the technology, and even resisted it outright. It took several more years of development, this time with heavy customer involvement, to finally develop a product customers accepted. If you have read this far, you may be feeling your engineering skills have suddenly become obsolete. They are still valuable, and you will continue to use them, but you will need to acquire new skills that augment and guide your technical skills. The good news is that your existing engineering skill set makes you uniquely capable of quickly developing the new skills. It is appropriate and good to be an engineer who highly values technology, because good technology is an important asset. But please, also recog-

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

nize the importance of people and look for ways to meet their needs and interests. Do not forget the technology, but be sure to put people first.

Relationships Define Business Every product, every technology, every application came about from the thoughts, decisions, and efforts of people—they are the ones who control the technology, the money, and everything else. And in case you have not noticed by now, many of the people who are making those decisions are not engineers—they do not necessarily value the same things engineers do. These people are the customers who buy (or do not buy) what you are selling. They are the team members who do the work or do not. They are the bosses who give you kudos or give you grief. They are the people who can make life easier for you or harder. They are the people who can achieve greatness or fail miserably. Just to make life interesting, it is often the very same people who go both ways. The strength of your relationships with these people will go a long way toward determining whether they bring you happiness or give you a headache. By the way, take a look in the mirror, for just as the people around you play their parts in your drama, you have a role to play in their lives. Appreciate and cherish this interdependency—it is how and why things get done.

The Lengthy List of Credits Look around at every product you touch—it is the result of hours upon hours of thought and sweat by countless people. Consider that cup of java from Starbucks. It would make your head spin to think about how many people it took to make that satisfying jolt of caffeine possible for you. Your latte was served by a hard-working barista who prepares from a repertoire of drinks for you and dozens of other people just like you. A farmer somewhere milked the cows that provided the cream for your coffee. Perhaps the sugar originated in a sugarcane field in south Louisiana much like the one my grandfather once owned. There are people at the power company who supplied the electricity for the shop and provided the light for you to see the menu board. Would you like a muffin with your coffee? Someone got up early to mix a batter and bake that tasty treat for you. There is also the driver who delivered coffee beans from the warehouse to the stores and the people who make those attractive mugs they sell in Starbucks, too. Go even further. Someone had to transport the coffee beans from halfway around the world. And please do not forget that farmer

Your Network

15

in Kenya living on the edge of poverty whose very existence depends on selling coffee beans. If your cup of coffee were a major Hollywood movie, it would have a list of credits a mile long! It is a good thing all of these people had you in mind when they came up with a way to interact and work together toward that moment when you close your eyes and breathe deeply over the steaming cup that serves to jump-start your day. Each of these people could have chosen to focus, perhaps selfishly, on something other than your moment of aroma-laden satisfaction. The baristas who took your order and filled it serve as the representatives of all the individuals and systems that made your transaction possible. These one or two individuals have a very outsized role in your satisfaction, don’t they? No matter how expertly the rest of the supply system has worked, a surly, stressed, or incompetent barista can ruin the experience. Similarly, a solutions-oriented employee can not only salvage a bad situation but can also enhance your loyalty. Now take a look at your life, your work. Can you see all the people who are involved, intimately or distantly, in what you are doing? They all have a stake in your efforts. They all influence your efforts, for better or worse, and many of them can approve or disapprove of your work. And, just as with the barista, each one of us has an outsized role in the lives of the people around us. It is wise to get to know them better and to develop a genuine heart of service toward each of them.

Your Network Who are the people in your universe? Most engineer-managers have a network of relationships with individuals in the following roles. The People You Supervise You depend on your team members to complete the work for which you are responsible. It is vitally important that you take care of them and spend considerable time with them on a regular basis, and that you communicate appropriate and relevant information with them. In addition to guiding their work, you will be very influential in their professional development and growth. Please take this responsibility to heart and view it as an honor. It is said that people don’t quit their jobs; they quit their bosses. To this group, that means you! Never pass up an opportunity to praise your team members and to let your supervisor and management know about

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

your great team. Advocate for them and protect them from as much of the petty organizational drama as you can. And please be sure the people you supervise learn what you now know about the importance of the people in their networks. Your Supervisor Your direct supervisor is likely to be the person most influential in your personal success and progress in the organization. You will need to devote considerable attention to this relationship, although you may not necessarily spend a lot of time with your supervisor. If you are blessed with a good supervisor, savor the experience and learn much from it. Following in the footsteps of such a person is a great way to ramp your management career. On the other hand, if your supervisor is less than effective in leading you, it is important that you learn to lead him or her; otherwise, it will be difficult for you to be effective, and your career progress may stall. We will address the important topic of managing up in Chapter 11. Management and Executives This category includes persons directly above your supervisor up to the top position in the organization. Ultimately, your work must follow the business objectives and strategy of your organization, so it is important that you and your supervisor correctly interpret these objectives as they apply to your work. Be able to directly tie your actions and decisions and those of your team to the organization’s strategy. Being known by and visible in a positive manner to your management is also very valuable to your career. Just be sure you do so in such a way that your supervisor is involved in the process. As you do with your team members, provide compliments about your supervisor to your contacts in management. Sponsors A sponsor in an organization has ownership of a product, project, or program. This person may or may not be your supervisor and may be related laterally to your supervisor in the organization. If you are part of the sponsor’s endeavor, you will also need to pay attention to that person’s needs. Functional Managers Is the head of human resources important to you? What about the director of marketing? Depending on the structure of your organization and your responsibilities, you may have a significant need to interact with various

Your Network

17

individuals who manage functions of the organization. Often these individuals make decisions that can dramatically affect your work or your team. Customers/Clients Ultimately, your work must be approved and valued by your customers. Do whatever you can to build positive and open relationships with your customers, starting as early as you can. The better you understand the needs of your customers, both inside and outside the organization, and the closer you interact with them, the fewer headaches you will have. Vendors and Contractors Many of us depend upon people outside the firm but who directly impact our work. Delivery of products or services by vendors can often make or break deadlines. Many contractors are so embedded in our projects that they are often more important than company employees. Do not arbitrarily ignore certain individuals simply because they work for different employers. Other Stakeholders The term stakeholder applies to anyone who may influence or have a stake in the outcome of your work. From time to time, you may need the assistance or approval of other individuals who do not necessarily fit into any of the previous categories; for example, a vendor with whom you have a good relationship may be able to expedite delivery of key test equipment to meet your critical deadline. Community As John Donne wrote, “No man is an island.” The same is true of organizations. Although responsibilities at work can seem to consume all your time, it is always helpful and rewarding to get involved in the community beyond the office, even if it is in a small way. The word community here can be interpreted in many ways, including a local civic group or a professional organization. The time you invest can often benefit your work through the network you develop, but the benefits often occur in ways that are completely unexpected. If, for example, you volunteer at an event to promote the involvement of girls in STEM careers, you may work alongside another volunteer who happens to be an executive in an organization. A brief chat with her may lead to a conference-speaking invitation.

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Loved Ones While you are developing your managerial skills and accomplishing great things at work, do not forget the people away from work who make it all worthwhile. As you can see, there are a lot of people who can affect your work and your happiness. They can help make your life pleasant or miserable. Get to know them, their needs, their perceptions, and their values. Doing so will make a tremendous difference in your work and in your life. While you are at it, encourage your team members to likewise recognize the importance of their own networks. Your success as an engineer in transition to management depends overwhelmingly on skillfully interacting with your extensive and growing network of associates. You have now passed a significant hurdle in your transition. You now know the fundamental truth for working effectively in organizations: business is about people. It may even start to seem a bit simple: just get along with these important people in my network, and things will go well. What could go wrong? Well, there is much that can go wrong and does go wrong! But you can avoid much trauma in relationships with preparation and skill.

Selected Bibliography Biederman, P. W. and W.G. Bennis, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration, Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 1997. Pfeffer, J., The Human Equation: Building Profits by Putting People First, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1998. Umlas, J., The Power of Acknowledgement, New York: International Institute for Learning, 2006. Willingham, R., The People Principle, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.

CHAPTER

3

Why Are People So Difficult? Politics would be a helluva good business if it weren’t for the [expletive deleted] people. —Richard Nixon

Takeaways  The people we encounter are capable of greatness, but they can also cause us irritation.  Understanding that people have different personality types allows us to appreciate and accommodate our differences.  Understanding and appreciating human individuality—as well as human foibles and idiosyncrasies—helps the engineering manager avoid unrealistic expectations of themselves and others. As an engineer, chances are you are familiar with the frustrations of writing computer programs. As vexing as C++ may be, at least the language has rules that are explicitly followed. This is not the case with human beings. No doubt by this time in your life, you have encountered frustrations with people who did not meet your expectations—perhaps they did not follow through on a commitment. Maybe they broke a trust or did something decidedly evil. Possibly, in spite of your best efforts, a valued relationship fell apart. In Chapter 2, we said business is about people. But if that is the case, why do people sometimes seem to make things so difficult?

19

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Human beings are incredibly gifted, generous, thoughtful, and capable of amazing feats. On the other hand, people can be petty, irritating, undependable, and capable of ruining your day. Often it is the same people who manage to show both faces, depending on the day. This dichotomy is part of what makes us humans exceptionally fascinating and ultimately wonderful. Look in the mirror, and you will see someone just like this. While humans are sometimes unpredictable and complex, there are some common threads to behavior. This chapter is not a cynical, one-sided exposition of all the faults human beings can exhibit; rather, it is an attempt to clearly state some of the idiosyncrasies of human beings and how they become pitfalls that commonly await the engineer in transition to management. Of course, we also want to suggest some methods to help you avoid these traps. In what ways are we human beings prone to misunderstand one another? One challenging area is personality differences among people. We will start by looking at a useful way of describing patterns of thought and styles of interaction and how they can create conflict and strength in an organization. We will then talk about some behavior patterns of people that make it challenging for us to get along at times. We will conclude with a principle to guide effective and healthy relationships.

Individuality and Personality Types While each person is a unique individual, behaviorists have aggregated groups of individuals together according to similar personality patterns— an aggregation that is helpful for understanding oneself and understanding others. Personality types should be considered as preferential or dominant in an individual. Having a particular personality type does not mean you exhibit this type exclusively, nor does it mean you can never change. Many people exhibit different personality types according to their environment. Over time, our personality type may change, or we may consciously choose to behave differently. Our preferred personality type does not preordain us to do anything. One can consider a predominant personality type somewhat like the dominant hand with which we write. We can write with the nondominant hand, but it may be awkward, and we are very aware of that awkwardness. With practice, we can become more comfortable with writing with the nondominant hand. We can similarly experience and exhibit thinking and behavior in nondominant areas of our personality. The next thing to remember about personality types is that they are neutral: there are no good types and no bad types. Each type tends to have

A System for Personality Styles

21

certain advantages and disadvantages that are mostly situational. For this reason, it is beneficial to have the ability to operate in a different behavior pattern as the situation warrants. And it is a good reason to value the varied personality gifts and talents resident in your team at work. The final general comment is that it is very helpful to understand and appreciate personality types in relationships whether personal or business. Your chances for success as an engineering manager are enhanced dramatically by your ability to appreciate the thoughts and actions of your associates and adapt to them. Many times, conflict between people is rooted in the fact that they see and interact with the world through different filters. By valuing the differences among people, you will go a long way toward avoiding unnecessary conflict, and you will be able to more readily achieve agreement, consensus, and even unity.

A System for Personality Styles There are several different popular systems or frameworks for understanding personality types. One widely accepted behavioral framework is the DiSC model, the origins of which date back nearly a century. A common version of this model that is applied in the workplace is Everything DiSC1. The basic model consists of four personality styles: dominance, influence, steadiness, and conscientiousness (although different flavors may offer slightly different terms for some letters of the acronym). While every individual has a blend of these styles, typically one, two, or three styles stand out among the four. Table 3.1 summarizes the four DiSC styles [1]. Table 3.2 provides a representation of DiSC as it might appear in quadrant form. This table also demonstrates how combinations of the styles share certain characteristics of two dimensions of behavior: activity and acceptance. The styles in the top half are active styles, and they are characterized

Table 3.1 DiSC Styles Dominance—An active and questioning style; people with this style are direct, forceful, and outspoken. Influence—An active and accepting style; people with this style are outgoing, enthusiastic, and lively. Steadiness—A thoughtful and accepting style; people with this style are gentle, accommodating and patient. Conscientiousness—A thoughtful and questioning style; people with this style are analytical, reserved, and precise. After: [1].

1. DiSC and Everything DiSC are registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Table 3.2 DiSC Styles According to Two Dimensions of Behavior

Level of Active Activity

Level of Acceptance Questioning Accepting Dominance Influence

Thoughful Conscientiousness

Steadiness

After: [1].

by assertiveness, bold action, and a fast pace. In contrast, the bottom half styles are thoughtful, with a moderate pace that is methodical and careful. Left and right halves correspond to level of acceptance. The left half is questioning: it is skeptical, challenging, and focused on logic. The right half is accepting, focused on people, empathy, and agreement. The true significance of personality assessment becomes apparent when people interact with one another, because personality differences can be a source of conflict in relationships, or they can lead to rich collaboration. To begin to see these effects, it is worthwhile to consider a variation on DiSC that has been applied to leadership styles. Table 3.3 provides eight leadership styles that have been mapped into corresponding combinations of DiSC styles [2]. As we will cover in Chapter 7, there are a wide range of valid leadership styles, and this table demonstrates this perspective. If one accepts that the styles in this table also apply to fairly mundane daily interactions, it is possible to observe them in our interactions with others. On the first vacation my wife and I took together, I made the travel arrangements. I prefer adapting to situations as they come along—I might be considered to have a Pioneering style in this regard. I was happy with Table 3.3 DiSC Styles According to Eight Dimensions of Leadership Model Leadership Style Pioneering Energizing Affirming Inclusive Humble Deliberate Resolute Commanding After: [2].

Corresponding DiSC style(s) Dominance, Influence Influence Influence, Steadiness Steadiness Steadiness, Conscientiousness Conscientiousness Conscientiousness, Dominance Dominance

A System for Personality Styles

23

waiting until we arrived at our destination to find lodging, wanting to see what was available to ensure a pleasant place to stay—this was well before the availability of lodging reviews on the internet. Unfortunately, all the motels were sold out when we arrived. We wasted much of our short stay looking in vain for a motel room, and eventually stayed many miles away from our destination at a cheesy dive. Now, that might not have been so bad if my wife had also had a Pioneering style; instead, her preference was to have definite plans made in advance. (She might be considered to have a Resolute or Deliberate style.) As a result, we not only spent a lot of time looking for a motel room, we also spent a lot of time in conflict about it. After learning about personality styles several years later, I discovered that she values having a set plan, and she discovered that I value some flexibility. We now understand and appreciate each other, and our vacations are much happier for it. Let us look at an example of personality differences on the job during a downturn in business when layoffs are contemplated to cut costs. One can imagine the management meetings in which layoffs were discussed. Individuals who exhibit a Dominance style argue that layoffs are necessary to ensure the viability of the organization over the long term. Those who exhibit an Inclusive style state their concerns for the devastating effects of layoffs on employees and their families. And both groups are right. We will talk more about conflict in Chapter 8. For now, let us recognize that conflict is sometimes inevitable because of personality differences. Conflict does not necessarily have to be a bad thing, and the ability to lead a group of diverse personalities to a consensus decision and plan is an important management skill to develop. There is great value in having diverse personality types on your team. People with Pioneering skills are super in creative brainstorming sessions, but they have a hard time with the world of specific facts. If there is a sensitive issue troubling your team, you would be glad to have an individual with an Affirming style on whom to call for help. A job that involves safety needs the attention to procedures and detail that a person with a Deliberate style offers. Consultants who offer assessments, resources, and guidance in the work dimensions of personality preferences can work within the context of teams. As the story with our vacation demonstrates, problems can arise when we do not understand how personality differences affect interactions, or we do not know how to effectively accommodate them. It makes a world of difference in teamwork when a team member with a Commanding style adapts his or her discussion of a matter in terms that value another’s Humble style. It is a good day indeed when these two individuals can discover both common ground and synergy when integrating their two perspectives.

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Because of the spectrum of issues any organization must address, it is fair to say that it benefits from having people with styles that cover the entire DiSC landscape. With that said, the environment for a given business may demand a particular style; for example, the personality of a regulated utility is in many cases the embodiment of Steadiness simply because that is what its business requires. Can you start to see the value of understanding and appreciating personality differences among people? Capturing that value starts with knowing and respecting that there are differences, accepting that they are natural and neutral, and then choosing to consciously use them in a beneficial way. There are other systems of personality types in addition to DiSC. These include the Myers Briggs Type Indicator or MBTI2 [3], Strengthsfinder or CliftonStrengths [4], the Hermann Brain Dominance Instrument or HBDI3 [5], the Keirsey Temperament Sorter [6], the Enneagram [7], and Kolbe [8]. It is often helpful to look into more than one of these systems to better understand the complete range of behaviors in a personality type. Personality typing is a fascinating subject, and one that can greatly promote your personal growth and effectiveness of your relationships. In addition to learning about yourself and your personality style, it is helpful to gain some skill in recognizing styles in other people and accommodating your interactions accordingly. For example, [9] describes a way to do this for DiSC.

Human Idiosyncrasies While understanding personality types will help you in many ways with the effectiveness of your relationships, being attentive to several other behaviors can further help in your interactions. These behaviors (or idiosyncrasies) do not apply in every situation to all people, but they are true enough of the time to cause challenges for organizations. I will not be so bold as to imply that I can sum up human nature in the course of a few pages; however, several of the behavior patterns that are challenging at work can be traced to several sources, including the following six: People Are Focused on Themselves Most people go through their days focused on what they want to accomplish and on their thoughts and feelings. Often, people are tuned out to the needs and interests of others. Attention spans are short, and there are lots

2. Myers Briggs and MBTI are registered trademarks of The Myers & Briggs Foundation. 3. HBDI is a registered trademark of Hermann Global, LLC.

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of demands on time. This preoccupation with self is perfectly normal, but it can seem like a problem to you if you are expecting something different. If people are going to invest their time or money in something, it is only natural that they want to see some benefit from it. They may consciously or unconsciously ask the familiar question, “What’s in it for me?” but not in a cynical or overtly selfish sense. When you request something of an associate, your request is more likely to be granted if he or she can see a personal benefit. Important tasks or decisions are often accomplished only after each of the parties involved has achieved some benefit—it is how things get done. Listen to people and read them. When you can see things from their perspective and adapt your interests to accommodate theirs, you will go a long way toward achieving your own objectives. People Want to Avoid Looking Bad One of the more powerful motivators in the workplace is the desire to avoid looking bad. Troubling news about a late project is often withheld from management or clients because no one wants to be punished for being the messenger. Executives may keep the troops in the dark about brewing trouble. The troops, in fact, have an uncanny ability to sense trouble, and rumors about its nature spread like wildfire. Recent developments in neuroscience explain our reluctance to look bad, and the answer is in evolution. Humans have survived by being attuned to potential danger. Our brains have a bias toward focusing on hazards. Millennia ago, the physical threat from a saber-toothed cat triggered the fight-or-flight reaction; however, the responsible portion of the brain does not differentiate between a physical threat and one that is social. Social standing is important to humans, and when we perceive that our social survival may be threatened, we may automatically react in a self-protective manner. One can overcome this automatic response through recognition and by accessing the higher-order thinking areas of the brain. This process allows us to recognize that being grounded in the truth serves everyone in the long run. There Is Comfort in Numbers People in organizations often follow the herd, even if it is objectively foolish to do so. This phenomenon is called groupthink. We tend to discount our own intuition when it differs from the position of the herd—surely the herd must know what is best. At their worst, organizations actively squelch viewpoints that differ from the party line. The Space Shuttle Challenger

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accident stands as one of the most chilling examples of an organization refusing to listen to the lone voice of reason. It is always helpful to seek the truth and to listen to informal conversations. Often, more truth is spoken one-on-one around the water fountain than with the whole team together in the conference room. Communication Is Challenging We are surrounded by information and data, but understanding one another is difficult to accomplish. People do not implicitly know what I want or need. They cannot read my mind, nor am I capable of reading theirs. People may not have heard what I said, or they may have misunderstood it. I may have intended a comment to be funny, when it was received as an insult. A benign phrase or gesture in my culture may be vulgar to someone from a different culture. Effective communication is fostered by empathy, by attentive listening, and by giving and being receptive to feedback. We will investigate good communication techniques in Chapters 23–25. We Act the Role In a Stanford University research project in 1971[10], college students were randomly assigned to be either prisoners or guards in a makeshift prison. Disturbingly, many subjects became so engrossed in the roles that they exhibited unhealthy behaviors: “prisoners” grew passive, and “guards” became sadistic. The scheduled two-week experiment was discontinued after six days because of the troubling progression. Many people tend to assume the prototypical characteristics of the roles they fill. Corporate spokespersons never say anything negative in public about the business; their role is to show its best side. When a colleague expresses a viewpoint that seems at odds with their character, it may be they are simply playing the role. We Are Imperfect Despite the best of intentions, human beings make mistakes, and people fail to live up to their potential. In a fast-paced business, we may focus excessively on faults and mistakes. Expecting perfection from oneself or one’s associates is naïve, if not foolish. Healthy organizations are realistic in their expectations of their staff members, and they accept human limitations with a sense of forgiveness. Do not set yourself and your associates up for failure by expecting perfection.

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While forgiveness is healthy, being too tolerant of poor behavior is dangerous. Some people repeatedly do things that are knowingly wrong and try to justify or protect themselves. A percentage of the population is composed of toxic people—individuals who are downright incompetent, untrustworthy, vindictive, or negative. Trust your intuition to know which people are trouble. Avoid them if you can, and if you cannot, neutralize their effect on you. Let’s make one more critical point about our personality differences and human foibles. Accumulated stress can have a significant negative effect on personality problems. What are otherwise manageable shortcomings can turn seemingly toxic and intolerable when nerves are frayed. Try to maintain perspective and identify the ultimate source of the trouble rather than unnecessarily turning someone else into a scapegoat. It is probably no accident that the great religions of the world have some variation of one axiom as a cornerstone of the faith. In Christianity, it is known as the Golden Rule: “Treat other people the way you would like for them to treat you.” One can find a similar teaching in Islam, Judaism, and other major religions. We all want to be appreciated as unique individuals with powerful and valuable talents, ingenuity, and perspectives. People are not machines. Each individual brings a valid perspective to the workplace. This makes business and life interesting, albeit challenging. You will be well ahead of the game if you recognize these truths and appreciate them, even if you do not fully succeed. Accomplishing this helps keep expectations of one another in perspective. The key is to respect people and cut them some slack for being unique, idiosyncratic, sometimes prone to making mistakes, and having their own agenda—just as you would hope they would cut you some slack for the very same reasons. Do this, and you are well down the road to being a good engineering manager.

References [1] John Wiley & Sons, “DiSC® Theory,” Everything Disc, 2018, http://www.everythingdisc.com/DiSC-Theory.aspx. [2] Sugerman, J., M. Scullard, and E. Wilhelm, The 8 Dimensions of Leadership: DiSC® Strategies for Becoming a Better Leader, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2011. [3] Myers, I. B. and P. B. Myers, Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Types, Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black, 1995.

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[4] Rath, T., ��Strengthsfinder 2.0, New York: Gallup Press, 2007. [5] Hermann, N. and A. Hermann-Nehdi, The Whole Brain Business Book: Unlocking the Power of Whole Brain Thinking in Organizations, Teams, and Individuals, Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015. [6] Keirsey, D., Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence, Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis, 1998. [7] Berghoef, K. and M. Bell, The Modern Enneagram: Discover Who You Are and Who You Can Be, Berkeley, CA: Althea Press, 2017. [8] Kolbe, K., Conative Connection: Uncovering the Link Between Who You Are and How You Perform, Beverly, MA: Kolbe, 1997. [9] Rosenberg, M. and D. Silvert, Taking Flight!: Master the DISC Styles to Transform Your Career, Your Relationships… Your Life, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2012. [10] Zimbardo, P. G., “The Stanford Prison Experiment: A Simulation Study on the Psychology of Imprisonment,” 2018, http://www.prisonexp.org.

Selected Bibliography Brinkman, R. and R. Kirschner, Dealing With People You Can’t Stand: How to Bring Out the Best in People at Their Worst, New York: McGraw Hill, 2012. Halvorson, H. G. and E. T. Higgins, Focus: Use Different Ways of Seeing the World for Success and Influence, New York: Penguin, 2013. Kroeger, O., J. M. Thuesen, and H. Rutledge, Type Talk at Work: How the 16 Personality Types Determine Your Success on the Job,New York: Dell, 2002. Rosenberg, M., �The Chameleon: Life-Changing Wisdom for Anyone Who Has a Personality or Knows Someone Who Does, Take Flight Media, 2017.

CHAPTER

4

Get Motivated! If you want to build a ship, don’t drum up people to collect wood and don’t assign them tasks and work, but rather teach them to yearn for the endless immensity of the sea —Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

Takeaways  Motivation is an important topic for managers; mental models help us to understand it.  Promoting healthy intrinsic factors will promote our own motivation and that of team members.  Endeavor to facilitate five intrinsic motivators: a sense of meaningfulness, a sense of choice, a sense of competence, a sense of progress, and the ability to innovate. With respect to your work or studies, what gets you out of bed and going in the morning? Is it the paycheck? Is it the degree that hovers somewhere over the horizon or perhaps the opportunity to score an A? More to the point, is that all that motivates you? In reality, you could get paid for many different kinds of work, and if you are an engineering student, there are probably easier ways to get a degree or an A. Chances are there are more substantive reasons for the path you have chosen and for leaving the comfort of your bed to take on the challenges of the day. Now think about other people whom

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you know and the countless people in scores of workplaces—do you believe that they, too, have something more in mind than a paycheck or a grade? Let’s explore motivation together. As an engineering manager, much of your effectiveness will depend on what you believe about what motivates you and those you encounter. Your knowledge of and attitudes about motivation will drive your words and actions, and your team will respond accordingly. When motivation is promoted with solid knowledge and skill, great things can result; conversely, poor understanding of motivation or lackluster application of good knowledge will typically lead to mediocrity. Understanding motivation starts with looking at our fundamental beliefs about ourselves and others, and the place to start is our overall approach. When one explores motivation, it is far better to ask, “What motivates people?” than to ask, “How can I motivate others?” The latter question is a trap that far too many managers fall for because it implies a desire to control others. When it comes to motivation, we are far better off by respecting the autonomy of others.

Modeling Motivation We use the term mental models to describe how our minds explain our experiences and the world around us. Mental models reflect our beliefs; they identify what we believe to be true. Engineers use models quite often to represent various systems, and a mental model can be considered in a similar way. Mental models are powerful in management and leadership because they facilitate examination and reflection on our beliefs. They enable us to consider various ways to explain human behavior and to choose models that work most effectively. With regard to what motivates you and others, what is your mental model? In exploring this topic, it is worthwhile to identify some touch points in the evolution of understanding of motivation. Understanding of motivation in an individual often corresponds to this evolution. Our exploration will help you decide which models to make your own.

The Hawthorne Studies The early twentieth century saw the growth of the modern factory and its production lines. Scientific management was in vogue, and with it a very simplified notion of motivation. Central to the nature of factories was the belief that managers performed the thinking in an organization and workers only implemented instructions from them. For this mental model, workers were considered to be only components of the production line. Considerations about worker motivation were limited to determination of

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cause and effect—which environmental factors could be adjusted to stimulate the effect of increased productivity. The intent of research in the early 1920s at the Western Electric Hawthorne plant was to demonstrate that an increase in illumination levels on a factory production line would lead directly to improved productivity. But the results were puzzling. Whatever was done within reason to illumination levels (increase, diminish, or keep constant), productivity improved. The researchers finally reached a startling conclusion. What motivated the workers to be productive was the fact that someone was interested in their work and with improving their working conditions! This unexpected result became known as the Hawthorne effect: the observation that our behavior changes and productivity increases at work with an awareness that important persons are taking interest in us and want to improve our environment. The mental model of motivation evolved to recognize the complexity of human motivation. The reality is far more wonderful than the hoped-for quick fix through factory illumination. To this day, it is still challenging for many managers and organizations to grasp and act on the implications of the Hawthorne Studies. Organizations crave predictability. Managers anxiously search for the deterministic key that controls the door to employee productivity. The Hawthorne Studies were the first modern insight into the nuances of motivation, but there were more to come.

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Psychologist Abraham Maslow observed that people have a hierarchy of personal needs. As in Figure 4.1, at the lowest level in the hierarchy, we have physiological needs, such as food, air, and water, without which we could not live. If our fundamental needs for survival are met, our attention turns to the next level in the hierarchy: shelter, bodily comfort, and security from harm. The third successive level addresses needs for interaction with others in relationships and belonging through friendship, community, and love. As our needs are met at each level, our focus naturally shifts to meet needs at more advanced levels in the hierarchy. At the highest levels of Maslow’s needs hierarchy are human needs for finding meaning in life: achievement and recognition by peers and superiors, contributing, making a difference, and fulfilling one’s aspirations. While there are many ways to seek meaning and express oneself, many people do so through work. If you have ever experienced the rush of completing a challenging and rewarding engineering project, you know exactly what Maslow was talking about!

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Figure 4.1  Maslow’s needs hierarchy.

Maslow’s hierarchy does not capture the entirety of human motivation, but it is nevertheless simple enough to offer a helpful framework for appreciating many situations.

X, Y, and Z Let us focus more closely on motivation at work. Building on the growing appreciation for the human element in work, Douglas McGregor proposed two contrasting models for the supervision of people, Theory X and Theory Y, which reflect fundamental beliefs about attitudes toward work. These concepts are summarized in Table 4.1. The Theory X model of supervision is based on the premise that people have an inherent dislike of work, and they must be coerced to work. It further holds that people want to avoid responsibility, so they seek explicit direction in supervision. These beliefs lead to a system of command and control, the traditional hierarchical approach to supervision. The Theory X style includes the threat of punishment to ensure conformity with the supervisor’s directions.

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Table 4.1 Theory X and Theory Y Models of Supervision Theory X Overall assumption People dislike work and avoid it if possible. Motivation People only work when threatened or bribed (carrot and stick). Aspiration Individuals seek security and do not aspire to much. Level of direction People want to be directed.

Responsibilty

Problem-solving skill Application Relevant to Supervision style

Theory Y People value work as a natural part of their lives. People will work when the work is motivating.

Individuals seek to learn and grow in competence. People can exercise selfdirection and self-control in a manner that is consistent with organizational goals. People shun responsibility. Under the right conditions, people naturally seek responsibility. Workers depend on superiors to People are creative and have solve problems. the ability to innovate and solve problems. Shop or production workers. Knowledge workers. Large scale operations for Management of professionals. efficiency and standardization. Authoritarian. Participatory.

While the Theory X model was appropriate in some circumstances, it was counterproductive in far more settings, and it did not accurately describe how most people behaved. Not only do we humans eventually resent being ordered around by the Theory X supervisor, we are motivated in the core of our beings to work when the effort gives us a vehicle to accomplish our higher needs. The Theory Y management style presumes that, for most people, work is an important part of existence and self-expression; it is as natural as play. When teams are competent and motivated, the role of the supervisor, then, is to facilitate. The supervisor helps those supervised to accomplish the objectives of the organization by framing them according to the personal objectives of the team members. Coercion is not necessary, only channeling. There are still many situations in which Theory X is the best approach— military combat and associated training are obvious examples. It is no time for a private to question or refuse the orders of a commander when bullets are flying; however, even the military now accepts the value of Theory Y management in appropriate settings. Both Theory X and Theory Y are directed toward the accomplishment of objectives. Where they differ is that Theory Y incorporates the premise that everyone on the team is responsible for the motivation, creativity, and

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effort needed to accomplish the objectives. Theory X teams tend to do no more than they are told and sometimes try to get away with less. Theory Y teams tend to do whatever it takes to meet objectives, and often choose to go above and beyond the call of duty. The vast majority of people who read this book will be in work situations that call for the Theory Y style of management. Unfortunately, there are still a number of Theory X types around, those who are deliberately so and those who do not know better. To be effective as an engineering manager, you must avoid the tendency to be a Theory X manager. You must develop the Y mindset. Let us also acknowledge that you may hear of Theory Z. This theory, postulated by William Ouchi, adapts characteristics of management of Japanese companies to the American culture. Theory Z espouses lifetime employment, shared ownership and responsibility in outcomes, and diversity of experiences for employees. Theory Z has not gained as much recognition as Theory Y, perhaps because it is challenging to implement in practice, particularly the emphasis on lifetime employment; nevertheless, many of its features are compatible with Theory Y concepts.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation In his study of motivation, Frederick Herzberg differentiated extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. A motivator is intrinsic if it is part of the work itself; it is extrinsic if it is related to, but not part of, the work. Extrinsic motivators include bonuses, free workplace meals, and a childcare center. To a biomedical engineer, an intrinsic motivator might be the opportunity to improve mobility for patients with more advanced prosthetics. Herzberg found intrinsic factors provided the strongest motivation. Recently, brain imaging confirmed intrinsically motivated activities activate reward areas of the brain. Extrinsic factors are, at best, weak motivators. More importantly, their absence when they are expected can be a strong de-motivator. Consider salary as an extrinsic motivator. Professional athletes who are paid millions of dollars do not improve performance when they negotiate a more lucrative contract. But learning that a peer at another company earns significantly more than I do might substantially diminish the motivation for my job. Yet when intrinsic motivation is present, it can overcome distasteful extrinsic factors. The topic of intrinsic/extrinsic motivators can really get interesting and complicated. For example, one study found that people generally see themselves as motivated by intrinsic factors, while they believe others respond to

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extrinsic factors [1]! In other words, I want to find meaning in my work, but believe that you only respond to rewards and threats. Be careful to reflect on what you really want to believe about the motivation of others and follow through with a good and appropriate mental model. For the manager, and indeed for anyone who works, finding intrinsic motivators in work is a paramount endeavor. Luckily, they are close at hand.

Five Intrinsic Motivators To complete our exploration of motivational models, we now identify specific intrinsic motivators. Dan Pink, in his excellent book Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, comments that behavioral scientists, including the ones identified above, have gotten a good handle on beneficial motivation, but business largely still approaches motivation as command and control. Pink identifies these three factors as supporting intrinsic motivation: autonomy, mastery, and purpose [2]. It it is helpful to expand his three factors into five. These are: a sense of meaningfulness, a sense of choice, a sense of competence, a sense of progress, and the ability to innovate [3,4]. When one or more of these factors is missing, work can feel quite frustrating. When all five are present, our work becomes a joy. These five motivators are particularly important when working in a team. As managers, we need to do our best to act in these five factors in our own work and help our team members do the same. Throughout the book, we will be touching upon topics and techniques for approaching work in a way that promotes these intrinsic motivators. For now, let us introduce and summarize these five motivators. For each of these we will highlight upcoming treatment of them while understanding that the thrust of the entire book supports these motivators. Finding meaning in our work is important in itself, but also because extrinsic factors can never make up for the absence of meaning. “Meaningfulness” can be as deep or not so deep as is relevant to you. Consider this gem from Mike Rowe, the longtime host of the Dirty Jobs show: Never follow your passion, but by all means bring it with you. “Follow your passion” is the worst advice you can give someone… Exhibit A: our 200 dirty jobs—Rene the fish gutter, or the guy who makes flowerpots out of cow shit. Once they found a thing they could make a living from, they figured out how to get great at it and how to love it. If you bring your passion with you, you can apply it to anything that makes sense. If you follow it, you’re going to be miserable until X, Y, Z happens, which might be never [5].

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In short, one can find meaning in almost any situation. It is often right under our noses and makes an appearance when we choose to be passionate about the task at hand. And that passion is contagious. We will talk more about motivation and meaningfulness in many places, but particularly in Chapters 30 and 34. Generally, people chafe in situations where they perceive there are no choices or that they are forced down a path. It is stifling to work for a superior who directs and micromanages every move. As with meaningfulness, there is always another choice to be made, even if it is only the choice on how to react. Better still to approach interactions with others in a way that allows both of you to have choices. Choice is a key constituent of autonomy, and among other places it will be touched upon in Chapters 5, 21, and 26. Let’s assume you and everyone around you are competent in the skills appropriate for the organization. The competence most relevant to our discussion is the skill in collaboration as a team. It is tragic that a relative few teams excel in this area—most are average or mediocre. The good news is that team skill competence is not that hard to achieve, and we will come back to this topic in Chapter 9. As a consultant who has worked with improving dysfunctional teams, I have been struck by the stress and frustration people exhibit when they are stuck and making no progress toward a goal. As with competence, our relevant perspective here is progress in collaboration. Principle 3 and its associated chapters focus on Getting Things Done. The ability to innovate, including how we collaborate, is important because we are wired for improvement, accomplishment, and growth. If you and your team experience extended frustration, this is often a sign of expected progress that has been stymied. See Chapter 16 for a great example of how to use creative thinking to get a team unstuck, as well as Chapters 33–34 for more about innovating. This suite of five intrinsic motivators offers a nice summation to our exploration of the mental models of motivation. Remember that a mental model is not reality but a representation of reality that facilitates reflection, understanding, insight, then action. Also remember that healthy motivation is not “given” to anyone by a superior. As first made apparent in the Hawthorne Studies, human motivation can be complex, intriguing, and wonderful. Above all, attend to your own motivation. When you are genuinely motivated and passionate about your work, the effect is contagious. This often means acting even when we don’t feel like it. Helpful models of motivation provide some simple frameworks with which we can act as managers to motivate ourselves and help those around us find their own motivation and even passion.

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References [1] Heath, C., “On the Social Psychology of Agency Relationships: Lay Theories of Motivation Overemphasize Extrinsic Incentives,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 78, pp. 25–62, 1999. [2] Pink, D. H., Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, New York: Riverhead Books, 2009. [3] Thomas, K., Intrinsic Motivation at Work: What Really Drives Employee Engagement, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2009. [4] Keller, S. and M. Meaney, “High-Performing Teams: A Timeless Leadership Topic,” McKinsey Quarterly, Vol. 3, 2017, pp. 81–87. [5] Bradley, J., “Mike Rowe, Working-Class Hero,” Outside, 2009, https://www. outsideonline.com/1870701/mike-rowe-working-class-hero.

Selected Bibliography Deci, E. L. and R. Flaste, Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation, New York: Penguin, 1995. Elliot, A. J., C. S. Dweck, and D. S. Yeager (eds.), Handbook of Competence and Motivation: Theory and Application, Second Edition, New York: Guilford Press, 2017. Fowler, S., Why Motivating People Doesn’t Work… and What Does, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2014. Krech, G., The Art of Taking Action: Lessons from Japanese Psychology, Monkton, VT: ToDo Institute, 2014. Maxwell, J. C., How Successful People Think, New York: Center Street, 2009.

CHAPTER

5

The Paradox of Control Inventing the future requires giving up control. No one with a compelling purpose and a great vision knows how it will be achieved. One has to be willing to follow an unknown path, allowing the road to take you where it will. Surprise, serendipity, uncertainty, and the unexpected are guaranteed on the way to the future. —George Land

Takeaways  A manager can only achieve desired outcomes by letting go of control.  The concept of “control” changes from directing activities to allowing solutions to emerge.  One “controls” a human system by establishing conditions that promote healthy intrinsic motivators to flourish. In Chapters 2 and 3, we looked at some ways in which you depend on a network of people and the fact that you may perceive that some of them are challenging to work with simply because they are unique and human. Now I am going to ask you to trust them. Trust them because your success depends on it. And if you do not trust them, you will drive yourself and the others in your organization crazy. As a new manager, you will have far more responsibility. You will be ultimately responsible for far more work than you can perform on your own. If you try to do it all yourself, or try to keep it all under your thumb,

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you will fail miserably. So you must rely on others, notably the people you supervise, to accomplish your objectives. There is a critical aspect to supervision and collaboration, and that is control. You can try to retain direct control over the work you delegate, but please do not; in fact, you will only retain control if you let it go. Please do not think you have been suckered into a New Age book on how to Attain Oneness with the Entire Universe. Releasing control may be a path to such an outcome, and if you try it and achieve it, more power to you. But relinquishing control has a much more concrete benefit for the purposes of this discussion. Engineers learn they can develop deterministic solutions to directly control physical and mechanical systems. The processes that control people and organizational systems, however, are tenuous, and when they do work, they sometimes approach magic … or just dumb luck. As we have already seen, people can be complex and unpredictable in their motivations and behaviors, so do not think you are going to control your organization through direct command-and-control methods. You are going to have to control it through relinquishing control, but in such a way that ultimately produces the outcome you want. In this way, you retain control. Are you getting dizzy yet? The keys to achieving the outcomes that you desire are as follows:  Share ownership.  Delegate effectively.  Exercise influence.  Work with the system.  Maintain control over yourself. To begin to appreciate the paradox of control, think back to the five intrinsic motivators from Chapter 4: meaningfulness, choice, competence, progress, and the ability to innovate. Maintaining tight control over—and in particular micromanaging—the work of others really damages their intrinsic motivation. Tight control drives out your charge’s ability to choose, and in a sense communicates you believe that he or she is incompetent. Can it be no surprise that the assignment loses meaning? Yet you cannot abdicate responsibility for the work your team performs. Maintaining control while letting go of control starts with shared ownership.

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Share Ownership As a budding engineering manager, you must learn to depend on your team to do their work. As an enlightened manager, you will not order your team around, but you can structure the work and task environment to accomplish the intended outcome. I must take steps to enable team members to understand, internalize, and believe in objectives that meet the needs of the organization. When team members understand and agree on the objectives, they can work out the details of how to accomplish those objectives. To do this, you need for your team members to take their share of ownership of the objectives and the work. This technique means that, as a manager, I structure the task and work environment so the obvious outcome is a cohesive team that has alignment with the organization’s needs. Perhaps most importantly, the team needs to understand the “why” behind their work. Consider the truism that “people do not argue with their own data.” To restate this concept, I am much more likely to internalize a belief, appreciate a perspective, or acquire a skill if I experience it for myself as opposed to simply being told about it. In the past decade, the television series Undercover Boss has appeared in respective versions in numerous countries. In each episode, a top executive in a company works in various entry-level positions in such a way that he or she avoids recognition. Invariably, the boss comes away with a new appreciation for the contributions of individuals in these positions and the challenges of their work environments. Subsequently, the executive will often change policies or supply needed resources to these employees. Chances are, requests for such improvements would not have had the same effect as experiencing the need for them first-hand. It is easy to neglect or ignore other people’s data, but when an executive feels the pain personally, change will be implemented because there is no argument with such data. Seeing—or in this case, experiencing—is believing! Let us look at a simple example for encouraging ownership of an outcome in the workplace: Suppose my team is responsible for developing a new e-commerce website. As manager, I could direct their activities and tell them exactly what to do, drawing on my own experience and expertise. That approach may or may not meet the organization’s ultimate objective for an attractive, robust site. Perhaps a better way is to encourage the team members to visit, use, and experience similar sites as end users. They can experience themselves what is good and what is bad in other implementations, then incorporate what they learn into the design process for building the specific system needed by the organization. In this way, as a manager, I have helped foster ownership in the team members and created an experience that will ultimately provide the best implementation. I did so without directing their specific work tasks.

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But many rookie engineering managers will do the opposite: They will micromanage. They were promoted because they are great engineers and think their role in management is to develop clones of themselves. Such micromanagement will surely de-motivate team members, and to reiterate, it may not result in the best product. While micromanaging is unhealthy, it is inappropriate and unwise for a manager to let an employee proceed for lengthy periods without knowledge of his work. With timely reviews, a manager can identify situations where a team member may be off-target. When reviews are conducted regularly, it is relatively easy to avoid major errors. Engineering work in particular requires well-defined and enforced interfaces among the deliverables. While it is important for you as manager to make certain that interfaces are observed, it is equally important that team members have rich communication among themselves to identify discrepancies and highlight problem areas that may need your attention. In the Theory X world, the manager keeps the lion’s share of responsibility and directs how work is done. The Theory Y approach means responsibility is shared among you and your team members, albeit in different ways; for example, on a project, all team members are responsible for all outcomes, not only their own. An employee who sees a problem in an area for which he or she was not tasked is nevertheless expected to speak up or take action as appropriate. This is the essence of shared ownership.

Delegate Effectively As a manager, you must delegate work to be personally productive and to attain the objectives of the organization. We demonstrated that your delegation should not take the approach of dictating specific orders to people regarding the work to be done. How, then, should you approach delegation? People work best and accomplish the most when they take ownership of a problem and are free to be creative to develop their own solutions. You will get much better results and productivity if your charges are given a lot of latitude. That may sound intimidating, and it should. You cannot let them get too far off track. The best way to guarantee the outcome you need is to invest time with your people up front, at the start of their task. The analogy to engineering might be being heavily involved with setting specifications but giving plenty of latitude in the specifics of design and construction. Taking the time to plan tasks with your team will reap great rewards down the road. First, you and your team must be clear and in agreement on the problem they will solve and the scope of their work. If you can get clarity and agreement here, you have won a major part of the battle. It helps if your

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subordinates can see the importance of their work to the organization so they can develop an emotional involvement in the outcome. Try to identify one or two critical success factors. These are the guiding lights for your mission, and they give your team a structure for the decision making they will do. A critical success factor for a job represents an important feature or consideration, particularly as they involve the end user. For a consumer electronics product, for example, the critical success factors may be ease of use and low cost. Critical success factors are important because they help appropriately guide team members in the many decisions they will make about their work. Next, let them exercise their creative powers to develop ways to solve the problem. In framing the solution, make sure you and your team understand what success will look like, both internally in your organization and externally, say, with the customer. If you find you must inject your direction to the task, it is always better to frame the message in either a question or in the third person, as in, “Our organization needs A” or “The customer requires B.” This approach avoids the potential appearance that you have suddenly become a Theory X type. Help them choose the best solution and give them your formal agreement and approval when it is decided. Follow up from time to time to make sure the work that is implemented continues to be in keeping with the appropriate objectives. Finally, avoid any temptation to veto or override their hard work at the last minute. Few things are as demoralizing to a team as having a superior arbitrarily reject the sweat and creativity of the team members when much of their time has been invested. Next time, they will be reluctant to devote themselves to the cause. Effective delegation will enable your team members to develop much more ownership and energy than if you tell them exactly what to do. There will be more about delegation in Chapter 19.

Exercise Influence: Control in Collaboration In addition to subordinates, you will be collaborating with your peers and superiors in developing solutions to your business needs. Here again, you need to release control of the solution path. In general, you will have less control over this group than with subordinates, so you must become even more adept at facilitation. The key words here are influence and leadership, subjects we will cover in more depth in Chapters 7, 10, and 11. For now, let us touch on the concept of influence.

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Influence may be considered as change in behavior of others by indirect means, or in contrast to the direct control associated with organizational position. The indirect part of this definition means those who are influenced maintain their choice and control; they choose to change behavior because of the influence. Have you made a purchase decision because a trusted friend gave a glowing recommendation? That’s influence. Most of the effect you have on and through others in your organization will occur because of your influence. The degree to which you can positively influence others will depend on many factors, including the strength of your observations and arguments, your relationship with them, and congruence with their values and objectives. This process is augmented by the ability to read people and situations effectively and respond appropriately. This ability commonly includes what is known as emotional intelligence (to be covered in Chapter 23), and it is a skill you can develop over time. In short, you can wield considerable influence when your vision and suggestions resonate with others; they change behavior by choice, not by direct control.

Work with the System In Chapter 13, we will go into more depth on the topic of seeing your organization as a system, and indeed that is what it is. Engineers may have an advantage over others in that they are quite schooled in systems. The key is to recognize that human systems are different from most physical systems that may be more familiar to the engineer. An organization, as a human system, is complex and self-organizing. Be very clear about this mental model and its characteristics. Whereas an engineer may command considerable control over an engineered system, such an approach with a human system is often counterproductive. Here again, the theme is to achieve control by letting go of control. The best way to illustrate this point is a great allegory by Dave Snowden [1]: a children’s birthday party. Many parents obsess about party plans in grand detail. During the party, activities must adhere to schedule. Parents get frustrated because it takes a lot of effort to control spirited kids. The children feel frustrated because their sense of play, choice, and self-organization is continually squelched. This model for having a party is based on satisfying the parents’ wishes. Snowden suggests an alternative approach that starts with clarity on the objective: Everyone should have fun. One can readily tell by smiles and laughter when this objective is met, but prior to the party, no one could predict in anything more than generalities how this might occur. Parents can offer certain activities or prompts such as games to start the interactions that the children will self-organize according to their own schedule. While parents must set and enforce boundaries (e.g., no fighting)

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they can otherwise relax and enjoy themselves while keeping gentle watch over play. Such a party is likely to be a smashing success. Paradoxically, loosening control has enabled the parents to have much better ultimate control over the outcome. One can say such a model of managing a complex human system allows order to emerge rather than to attempt to force a pre-ordained conception of order. Trying to force an outcome almost certainly dooms its chances. It takes away the opportunity for the other individuals involved to experience appropriate autonomy and competence. Wise and skillful operation on the system permits healthy intrinsic motivators to come alive. One could say this principle is an example of using influence at the system level. What is true for children is perhaps doubly true for the adults in your workplace. In our world of business, people will bristle and balk when micromanaged and given directives. A more effective form of management is to concentrate on putting the ingredients in place to allow solutions to emerge from the team as a whole.

Maintain Control Over Yourself At the end of the day, the only person I really can control is myself, and there my control is total. Embracing and acting on this reality means I take ownership of my thoughts, beliefs, words, actions, and reactions. Sometimes, taking charge of myself seems like a lot of work—it is far more tempting to insist that others change to suit my wishes. But focusing on how to improve myself and my connections with others is the way to true and healthy power. It is also very freeing. With a sense of balance, I am less affected by organizational drama; therefore, I can have more emotional energy to influence organizational events in a positive direction. The truth is, you are really not in control of any organization. It is also true that you work with people who are capable of impressive accomplishments when there is a worthwhile objective and when healthy intrinsic motivators are present. As a manager, your job is to ensure the conditions are present for that outcome to emerge. The results will likely be far better than you could have ever predicted and dictated. Congratulations! You have achieved control by letting it go.

Reference [1] Snowden, D. J., “Multi-Ontology Sense Making: A New Simplicity in Decision Making,” Journal of Innovation in Health Informatics, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2005, pp. 45–53.

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Selected Bibliography Heine, S., White Collar Zen: Using Zen Principles to Overcome Obstacles and Achieve Your Career Goals, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Kawasaki, G., Enchantment: The Art of Changing Hearts, Minds, and Actions, London: Penguin, 2011. Terez, T., 22 Keys to Creating a Meaningful Workplace, Holbrook, MA: Adams Media, 2000.

CHAPTER

6

Everything Depends on the Customer It is not the employer who pays the wages. Employers only handle the money. It is the customer who pays the wages. —Henry Ford

Takeaways  Customers and their needs are paramount to a business.  Genuine interest in understanding customers will illuminate the development of products and services.  One should go beyond merely meeting requirements to transforming the customer relationship. No matter what the product or service offered, a business depends on customers. They are the lifeblood of a business. It is a truism that customers are responsible for 100% of the revenue of a business. When customers do not buy, the business suffers. So here is another truism to burn into your brain: Everything depends on the customer. Unfortunately, this basic truth of commerce is lost on many people. Perhaps they are blissfully unaware of the need for attention to customers, or perhaps they think it takes little effort to entice a customer to buy something. Inattention to customers can really hurt you, however. In a competitive marketplace, it is easy for customers to switch from one provider to another. Whether you work in a for-profit organization, a non-profit, a

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government, or some variation of these, you have customers, and your customers can quit you. Even if you are in a support role, and it is only others in your firm who use your deliverables, you still have customers; in such a case, they are called internal customers! Engineers are often oblivious to customers. They may be enamored with technical elegance, perhaps unconsciously thinking purchasers are technical geeks as well. Features and functionality take precedence over schedule, cost, and ease of use. The majority of people, however, do not care about a technically sophisticated design. They want to turn something on and have it work easily and intuitively. They want it to be cheap, and they want to have it now. But even more than that, they want the procurement, ownership, and use of the product to bring a good experience. As a fledgling engineering manager, you will likely have more contact with customers and their needs than when your focus was only on technical matters; in fact, everyone working in an organization, manager or not, should be focused on the customer. While you may not work in a marketing or sales function, engineering managers must often interface and collaborate with individuals in those functions. You need to understand and appreciate their perspectives to effectively interact with them. It is wise for engineers to regularly team with salespeople on customer calls to observe how products and services are really used. Your customers are people, and we have devoted Chapters 2–11 to the principle that your business and your success are dependent on your attentiveness to the needs of people. Whereas you may be developing technology, do not forget that it is people who will use it and make decisions about it. By starting with a genuine attitude of interest in and service to your customers, systematic attention to your relationship with them, and innovation in that relationship, you can develop a reputation for exceptional customer care.

Developing a Customer Orientation The vast majority of people and businesses look out at the world with the attitude of “Here we are. We’re ready to sell you something.” They would do much better to reverse this approach and see their businesses as their existing and potential customers do. This is a radical shift in attitude, but taking this approach will do marvels for your business. To be good at customer orientation requires you to be objective, dispassionate, and even critical of your business. It is a change in attitude that many people close to a business are unable to accomplish. If this is the case, you might want to ask for help from other people who can be objective.

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One can develop a customer orientation by systematically gathering information about the customer, developing a long-term relationship with the customer, and organizing and innovating to provide what the customer needs and wants. Beyond this level of interest in the customer, a truly great customer orientation means caring for your customers as human beings. Customers are all different, all unique, and it is to your benefit if you can allow customers to tailor what you offer to their specific interests. But don’t get carried away with options, because too many can easily overwhelm. While all customers are unique, not all customers are equally valuable to you. Generally a relatively small percentage of customers provide the majority of revenue. You do not have unlimited time or resources, so you should devote your attention to this significant few. It is important to listen and respond to customer concerns and complaints and never attempt to justify poor service. If you were to complain to a provider, would you appreciate the reply, “That’s not my job?” Customers do not expect perfect service, but they do expect companies to take action on legitimate complaints. On the other hand, there are a few toxic customers whose only objective is to find fault. The toxic customer can never be placated, and many businesses have no qualms about letting their business walk away; however, unless you are higher in management, that is likely not your call to make. Thankfully, the vast majority of your customers are honest, decent people who have needs and are willing to consider what you have to offer. They are also willing to invest their hard-earned dollars in your product or service if it meets their needs at a fair price. But do not assume that once you make the sale, your work is over. You cannot really begin to serve your customers until you first understand them.

Understanding My Customers If I better understand my customers, I can better serve their needs. To do so, I must answer some critical questions. Who Are My Customers? For external customers, my product or service (my offering, in marketing jargon) will not appeal to everyone. Who are the people most likely to purchase or use it? Be realistic about your market, and try to be as specific as possible in describing your customer base. If your product has different flavors, try this exercise with each variation. What you have now done is identify what marketing people call market segments. This information

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helps focus your attention on the market segments that are most attractive rather than wasting energy chasing customers who are unlikely to be interested. If you only have internal customers, the process will be similar but not as involved, and your customers will lilkely be predetermined by someone else; nevertheless, it is valuable to clearly identify who you are supplying. What Are the Characteristics of My Customers? How would you characterize external customers in each segment? Some research may be needed to answer this question. What are their jobs like, and what factors or forces influence them? Where do they go for information about products or services like mine? Who in their organization makes the purchase decision, and who uses the product? (These are often different people with different interests and motivations.) How do they prioritize their interests: quality/features, low price, or speed/schedule? This is a good place to differentiate features and cost. Some retailers have tried to convince us they can deliver high quality with low cost. Do not believe it; we cannot have it both ways! Sometimes an analogy helps to describe your customers: Do they act like BMW owners or Hyundai owners? As part of your discovery process, you will find that some customers value low cost and will break with you as soon as they find a better deal elsewhere. Other customers value long-term relationships and are less likely to chase the absolute best deal. Think about which kind of vendor you want to be and which type of customer you value. Structure your operation accordingly. In the same analysis, think about what is unique about your offering compared with that of the competition. By articulating your uniqueness and your customers’ characteristics, you can do much to help meet their needs. Again, for internal customers, the process is similar. But because the customer base is essentially captive, there is less information to gather. The more you understand your internal customers, however, the better you can meet their needs. What Are the Needs Behind the Needs? As you look more deeply at your customers, you will likely uncover the emotions that drive their use and purchase decisions for products and services. You may uncover some “ulterior motive” for their interest in your offering. For some, the real value of what you sell is the time they save; for others, it may be peace of mind. What are the defining issues that drive the

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needs of your customers? Look beyond features to see what it is that your offering really does for them. Customers and the Technology Adoption Life Cycle Organizations, particularly those in technology markets, can better serve their external customers by understanding how they map into the technology adoption life cycle. This life cycle is a term that describes the various stages of the market of a technology over its lifetime. Different types of customers are attracted to the technology and its incarnations at each stage of the life cycle. A depiction of the technology life cycle is provided in Figure 6.1. The customers attracted to a technology just as it is introduced are called innovators, and they may represent only a small percentage of the market. Innovators are technologists; they enjoy new technology, even if all the bugs are not worked out. They revel in the opportunity to be on the cutting edge and are usually willing to pay more to be the first with the technology. Innovators are very important to your organization. It is their willingness to take a risk on you, their tolerance of your failings, and their feedback that will enable you to fine-tune your technology to make it widely accepted. The next group you will need to attract consists of the early adopters. While these people like new technology, their interest is not in the technology but in the benefits it can provide. Early adopters are opinion leaders, so the conversion of this group is also critical to the success of your technology. This group may give you the best clues about how to build your market.

Figure 6.1  Technology adoption life cycle: relative market size for each customer group. (After: [1].)

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Be aware that what appeals to the early adopters will possibly not appeal to customers who come later. There will likely need to be considerable changes in the design, structure, price, and support for your technology to attract later customers. Geoffrey Moore offers the concept of a chasm that vendors must cross to successfully transition a technology or product concept from the early adopter market to a larger market [1]. The next group provides the overwhelmingly largest segment of the market—where you can recover the investment in your technology. This group is divided into the early majority and the late majority, and together they may comprise two-thirds of your total customer base. This segment values practicality, ease of use, low cost, and perhaps faddish appeal. Such customers wait until a technology is well established before considering a purchase. You need to be very cognizant of your design at this stage so it is easy to use and has plenty of support. If you do a good job with this customer segment, your organization’s investment in the technology can be handsomely returned. The final customers to consider are the laggards, individuals who are highly resistant to new technology. They may only buy a new technology when they have little or no choice or if it is unobtrusively or unknowingly embedded in some other product. It is generally not worth devoting much attention to this group. It is important to understand that products tend to travel through the technology adoption lifecyle faster than ever, so there can be relatively short durations for some of its phases. It is worthwhile to be consciously considering how to adapt for later phases of the lifecycle while still in early development. Agile project management approaches and other related innovations, to be explored in Chapters 18 and 33, can be helpful in this regard.

The Good, the Bad, and the Mediocre In myriad ways, a business communicates the degree to which it cares (or does not) about its customers. How many times have you called a company and reached an automated recording that intones, “Your call is important to us,” only to wait on hold for five, ten, or fifteen minutes or longer? What does this wait say about the importance of your call? While irritating, such experiences have become so ubiquitous that they are accepted as the best that can be expected. We all experience a spectrum of service as customers of businesses. No doubt each of you reading this book has had some exemplary experiences and some horror stories. Most of the time, we encounter the mediocre middle: a place populated by customer experiences that are tolerable and forgettable because they are expected.

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Where do you want to be as a professional, and where do you want your organization to be? Of course, you do not want to provide bad experiences for your customers. But do you want to be merely mediocre? You want your customers to feel that your business is exemplary in its care for them; you want them to develop trust in you and to be loyal.

Your Brand Communicates Trustworthiness Branding is the identity of your business and its offerings; it is what these represent in the minds of customers. Your brand is what distinguishes your product, service, or business from competitors in the marketplace, and without it, you are simply selling a “me too” commodity. But it is not some mind trick that marketers play. Ultimately, what you deliver over time determines your brand, not what appears in a clever advertisement. It is what customers trust you to do and to be for them. You will have a brand, whether you choose to develop and nurture it consciously or not. Do you want to be trusted and dependable to be and deliver what customers expect? Understand your brand and how what you are working on fits it. There will be more about branding in Chapter 31.

Developing Loyalty Many businesses see a transaction with a customer as a singular event, and when the sale is over, so is the relationship until the customer decides to return. Those businesses that recognize a customer transaction as part of a long-term relationship are far ahead of the game. It is also beneficial to set up a process for the customer to gain some tangible benefit from investing in the relationship. Customer loyalty has a huge payoff for a business. In The Loyalty Effect, Frederick Reichheld estimates that a 5% improvement in the retention of customers leads to a 25 to 95% improvement in profits [2]. Most of the marketing investment in customers is needed to attract them to buy the first time. Thereafter, relatively little investment is needed for repeat business. Customer retention should not be viewed as a program to be addressed by a few people in the marketing department. To be successful at customer loyalty, a company must organize the entire business around customer service. Robinson and Etherington reveal a little-appreciated secret: Customers want to be loyal [3]. Why? A customer must also invest time and effort and take risks to search for a new provider. Once a customer finds the right fit, he or she would much prefer to avoid going elsewhere. Your job is to make it easy and more desirable for them to stay, or better yet, to make it where they could not conceive of going elsewhere. Loyalty is the easy way,

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and you already know customers want easy. More than anything else, loyalty is an emotional bond developed between the customer and company based on a history of good experiences. Good products and services merely form the ticket of entry; it is the overall experience that makes all the difference. Customers develop an expectation of what the experience will be, based upon their options. You must meet those expectations, but if you really want to develop loyalty, the key is to not just satisfy expectations but to impress customers.

Impressing Customers If you have internalized care and concern for your customers, gathered information on them, and adapted your technology to their profiles, you are ready to step up to the next level, the practice of impressing customers. When you can become adept at pleasing your customers, you will earn their all-important allegiance. Here are some suggestions to do just that: Be Genuine In all your interactions with your customers, make sure you are genuine in your interest and care for them. The actions and steps we discussed in this chapter will help your business, but that should not be the driving theme in serving the customer. If you are not genuine with your customers, they will recognize it and will be put off. For example, when you make regular contact with a client as part of a long-term relationship, do not use that interaction as an overt attempt to sell something. It is fine to provide them with news about some new company product or service that might be in their area of interest, but be considerate. Generally, external customers expect salespeople to sell and engineers to provide assistance; it may be perceived negatively when an engineer tries to sell in such a situation. Even better, send the client some information, perhaps an article, that you think would interest them or help their business. When you do so, explain the relevance to the customer’s situation, and even offer an opinion. If done well, you will be remembered the next time they are ready to buy. Walk a Mile in Their Shoes A major component of an effective customer orientation is living the customer experience. Do not depend on generic surveys or wait until a customer tells you what you need to know. You need to anticipate how

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customers will respond to their experience with your organization. You also need to innovate the customer experience to keep those customers and to stay ahead of your competition. Living the customer experience means entering the role of a customer and realistically experiencing the products and services of your organization. How can you, in your job, live your customers’ experience? Go for the WOW! A big way to stand out with your customers is to create what Tom Peters calls a WOW! experience [4]. Such experiences do not necessarily have to be a knock-their-socks-off, greatest time a customer has ever had, but they have great impact simply because there is so much mediocrity in the marketplace. In other words, almost any genuine effort on your part can cause a customer to say, “WOW!” because engineers are so good at technical innovation, they are also eminently capable of innovating the customer experience. In the rest of this chapter, you will find three stories that demonstrate such innovation in small and large ways. Go for the Human Touch As an engineering manager, you no doubt work for an organization in which technology is the dominant product or service. As necessary and important as it is for you to have superior technical solutions, if you really want customer loyalty, go for the human touch. When business becomes personalized, a very strong bond can be formed between the business and its customers. In one project management short course I taught, the audience was composed of IT professionals. The course went well, and their evaluations of the course content and delivery were all excellent. But it was not the content or the presentation that generated the most significant response in the evaluations. The meeting planner, Sheri, had brought in home-baked goodies in the afternoon each day of the course. She did not get paid extra for doing this, and outside food was actually against the rules of the meeting facility. But Sheri knew how much a piece of melt-in-your-mouth, warm coffee cake could make people smile. In one of the evaluations, a participant wrote, “It’s nice to know that someone cares about our needs.” One may think businesses with a heavy technology emphasis have few opportunities to pay attention to the human side of their customers. Do not fall into this trap! Look for opportunities in your business to go for the human touch.

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It’s All About the Experience In his TEDx talk, Doug Dietz tells about his pride and excitement over the first opportunity to see customers use his new cutting-edge product [5]. Dietz was principal designer on a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine for GE Healthcare. While the MRI worked well as expected, his pride quickly turned to deep distress. Children at the imaging facility were in utter fear as they saw scary warning posters on the wall and contemplated having to remain perfectly still in a claustrophobic industrial donut that made loud, jackhammer-like sounds. Most had to be sedated for there to be any hope of a usable image. Unable to offer comfort during the procedure, parents huddled in worry, wondering how their children would get through the scan alone. Humbled and chastened by his observations, he went back to work, this time with a cross-disciplinary team that knew how to create experiences children would find safe, inviting, and fun. Little could be done to change the imaging equipment, but important kid-friendly changes were made to the moving table. Most importantly, they re-imagined the room according to a child’s imagination: a jungle adventure, a pirate island, and a cable car adventure. The changes worked: The number of needed sedations and preparation times both dropped dramatically. One girl enjoyed it so much she asked her mother if she could return to the room the next day. I invite you to watch the Dietz presentation. (See the link at the end of the chapter.) His deeply moving story has a message for us all in how we approach our work.

Transforming the Customer Relationship The Holy Grail of customer service is to have customers who are so enamored with your business that they rave about you to their friends and acquaintances. A great example of this can be found in a story from Michael Gerber [6]. By chance, Gerber stays at a country inn in California one night, and he is transformed by the experience. The facility and setting were nice, but what impressed him so much was the way he was treated. After checking in, he brought his bags to his room and had dinner at the restaurant. He ordered and sipped an after-dinner brandy at the restaurant and then returned to his room. When he entered, he noticed someone had lit a warm, cozy fire in the fireplace and had left another brandy on his nightstand. Gerber goes on to recount several other instances in which the staff surprised him with their attentiveness to his interests. They asked, they listened, they observed,

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and they cared. Most of all, they anticipated situations and used them as opportunities to surprise him. Gerber was overwhelmed by the experience. Being a management consultant, he visited the hotel manager to find out how they achieved such a superlative customer experience. He learned that the owner makes sure all employees internalize the understanding that people in general are not getting their needs met for community, for being valued, and even for feeling “pampered.” By offering these for their guests, the staff can so please customers that they rave about the experience. The inn sets up processes and systems whereby they can fulfill delivering on care for the customers. One can even envision employees of the inn giggling to themselves as they watch and wait in the background for opportunities to surprise guests in clever ways. One of the students in the total quality management class I taught read this story and said that he never really understood customer service until then. The story transformed him too. Your customers have needs that go beyond technology. How can you be creative and innovative about showing that you care for them?

Innovating the Relationship Developing a strong relationship with your customers is perhaps the ultimate achievement for a business, but it does not come automatically. Just as it is necessary to innovate with technology, it is also important to innovate how you interact with customers. Whether your customers are external or internal, engineering managers who appreciate the customer orientation have unique opportunities in organizations to profoundly influence relationships with customers for the better. Facilitating better service for customers through an organization involves leadership, and we will now turn our attention to how you can nurture your ability to lead.

References [1] Moore, G. A., Crossing the Chasm: Marketing and Selling High-Tech Products to Mainstream Customers, New York: HarperBusiness, 2014. [2] Reichheld, F. F., The Loyalty Effect: The Hidden Force Behind Growth, Profits, and Lasting Value, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2001. [3] Robinson, S. and L. Etherington, Customer Loyalty: A Guide for Time Travelers, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. [4] Peters, T., The Pursuit of WOW!, New York: Vintage Books, 2010.

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[5] Dietz, D., “Transforming Healthcare for Children and Their Families,” YouTube, May 19, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jajduxPD6H4. [6] Gerber, M., The E-Myth Revisited: Why Most Small Businesses Don’t Work and What to Do About It, New York: HarperBusiness, 2009.

Selected Bibliography Gitomer, J., Customer Satisfaction Is Worthless, Customer Loyalty Is Priceless: How to Make Customers Love You, Keep Them Coming Back, and Tell Everyone They Know, Austin, TX: Bard Press, 2011. Goetsch, D. L. and S. Davis, Quality Management for Organizational Excellence: Introduction to Total Quality, Eighth Edition, Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2015. Heath, C. and D. Heath, The Power of Moments: Why Certain Experiences Have Extraordinary Impact, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017. Treacy, M. and F. Wiersema, The Discipline of Market Leaders: Choose Your Customers, Narrow Your Focus, Dominate Your Market, New York: Perseus Books, 1995.�

CHAPTER

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Leading with Confidence The boss drives his men; the leader coaches them. The boss depends upon authority, the leader on good will. The boss inspires fear; the leader inspires enthusiasm. The boss says, “I”; the leader, “we.” The boss fixes the blame for the breakdown; the leader fixes the breakdown. The boss says, “Go”; the leader says, “Let’s go!” —H. Gordon Selfridge

Takeaways  A number of myths discourage engineers from entering needed leadership roles.  Leadership can and should be exercised as appropriate throughout an organization.  People will readily embrace a vision that resonates with them. Organizations are always in need of leaders at all levels. This fact has never been so true, and that is great news for the engineer in transition to management. One of the best ways to increase your value to your organization (or on the open market) is to exercise leadership. The quotation by Selfridge captures the essence of leadership and the difference between leadership and supervision. It is critical that engineers moving up to management understand this difference and learn to exercise leadership skills.

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In considering the subject of leadership, it is important to note that many common beliefs about leadership miss the mark. Leadership can sometimes manifest itself in unexpected ways. Before we identify and discuss misconceptions about leadership, consider the following story about a reluctant leader. It is from the early adulthood of Harry S. Truman [1]. As President of the United States, Truman exhibited a no-nonsense style that earned him the nickname, “Give ’Em Hell, Harry.” Yet even leaders who appear confident and resolute do not always start out that way. Truman served in the U.S. Army in World War I. His first command assignment was over an artillery unit that had gained a bad reputation for being composed of wild men. None of the previous officers could control the group. The most recent commander had been well liked by the men, and they were angered when he was relieved of his command. After learning Truman would take over, there was talk about causing trouble and even mutiny. Truman was short and wore glasses, so the men considered him an easy target. He recalled, “I was never so scared in my life, not even later when we were under fire.” As Truman arrived, the men stood at attention in their ranks, perceptibly angry. He reviewed the troops, walking up and down the lines about three times without saying a word. Continuing to look at them, he spoke only one word—”Dismissed.” Amazingly, the men felt they had been given a blessing. By demonstrating respect for them, he earned their respect. Truman took care of his men, and the group worked to become one of the best units in the regiment, in large part because of his leadership. Since when does one practice being a good leader through almost complete silence? After the war, Truman and these men sustained lifelong friendships. Leadership can sometimes manifest itself in unexpected ways and produce unanticipated results.

Dispel the Myths and Become a Leader While leadership skills are crucial for the engineering manager, many readers may say, “But I’m not a leader.” Perhaps this is your current belief, but you can grow into one! Five major myths cause people to hold back from taking on leadership roles, or cause them to exercise leadership inappropriately. Thankfully, these misconceptions are readily overcome.

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Myth #1: Leadership Is Only for Great People Many engineers subscribe to the great man theory of leadership that was introduced by Thomas Carlyle in the nineteenth century. This view holds that leaders occupy positions at the top of a hierarchy, and they are charismatic, intelligent, and wise individuals who are proficient with politics. It is the belief that a few people are leaders, and the majority of people are followers. Engineers resist leadership roles because this model seems contrary to the egalitarian, team-based practice of engineering [2]. This model does not reflect life in a healthy organization; instead, think of leadership as a continuum. There are many different ways, big and small, to exercise leadership and different degrees of leadership. We all lead some of the time and follow at other times, and there are always abundant opportunities for just about anyone to exercise leadership in almost any situation. Curiously, when the terms leader and leadership are left out of a conversation, engineers readily identify behaviors among their superiors that promote good collaboration [2]. In other words, engineers know good leadership skills when they are observed; it is the terminology and the model that need updating. Myth #2: Leaders Are Born, Not Made The second big distortion about leadership is that leaders are born, not made. While genetics may predispose one to feel more comfortable in “public” leadership roles, the fact is that leadership is a skill that can be learned and practiced. Myth #3: Leaders Must Be Charismatic This myth is a big part of the first one. Culturally, many of us are enamored with the charismatic leader. Leaders, in fact, come in all shapes, sizes, and personality types. Some of the most effective leaders are people who are downright introverted. This is not to say that charisma does not count for anything—usually the people who are in the more “public” leadership positions can be more effective when they exhibit attractive, charismatic personality traits. Myth #4: Leadership Is About Dramatic or Major Changes Certainly, there are many instances where dramatic actions are necessary or appropriate. There are times when leading the troops into the pivotal battle of a war must be done. It is far more common for leadership to involve the mundane, and it is for precisely that reason that leadership is within reach of everyone.

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Unfortunately, these first four misconceptions result in the vast majority of people believing they are not leaders. Perhaps they truly think this way, or maybe it is just a way to make excuses and say, “I really don’t want to be a leader.” To excel at engineering management, you need to believe in your ability to lead and, more importantly, to help your associates believe in their ability to lead. The remaining leadership myth involves the manner in which leadership is exercised. Myth #5: Leaders Tell Followers What to Do While this model is necessary in some situations, it is almost entirely useless in today’s business world. It is unfortunate that many people in management positions still believe in this model because they want to exert control over others. This style is one that cannot be maintained for long, because most people will not follow orders blindly, and there are too many opportunities for them to work elsewhere. I will hedge slightly and say it is still necessary in many situations for a leader to make decisions after consulting and including relevant individuals. This approach is relevant to some decision-making contexts, as discussed in Chapter 21. But take note, such decisions incorporate the advice of others. Overwhelmingly, leadership is exercised through influence, not by telling people what to do; furthermore, as we will cover later in this chapter, self-change is perhaps a more effective way to exercise leadership than issuing directions.

Leading Through Change So what is leadership all about? Leadership is the catalyst to bring about beneficial change and, in the process, to help other people involved to own and accomplish the change. Implicit in the exercise of leadership is change. While people and organizations are continually in need of change and improvement, people are often uncomfortable with change and may openly resist it. The major function of a leader is to facilitate the process of change from the status quo toward something that is better. Leadership as a mechanism of change involves a five-part process; however, resist any urge to overanalyze the steps. Leadership flows very naturally once those involved see the value of the change, get to participate proactively in it, and influence the outcome. The key to success at leadership is to help people see the benefits and to take ownership of the change. Before delving into the remainder of the chapter, it is important to note that leadership is exercised in a cultural context. The concepts presented

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here would be more applicable in Western cultures. In many cultures, some of the concepts may not mesh with cultural expectations of a leader. These considerations may be relevant depending on where one is working or if one is working in a team whose membership is cross-cultural. In their article, “To Lead, Create a Shared Vision,” Kouzes and Posner present the five steps involved in leadership [3]. Step 1: Identify the Problem Look around, and you can readily see things that need to be done or need to be changed. The process of leadership starts with someone speaking up and saying, “Here is a problem that needs to be solved,” or “Here is a task that needs to be done.” And many times, the problem is one that everyone recognizes but no one wants to state in public (i.e., the “elephant in the room).” Step 2: Craft a Vision That Resonates and Inspires If all you do is identify the problem, and you do it frequently, you will get a reputation as a complainer. What is needed is a solution or, better yet, several potential solutions. But in reality, the specific solutions come later. First, there must be a vision. If we are trying to make improvements, how will we know where to go? It takes a picture of the finished product to motivate and organize people to get there. Vision is the ability to see what is not there, to see what should be done to improve things. A vision is meaningless if it does not motivate anyone. Why should anyone else buy into a vision? Alignment is the ability to translate the vision into values that others will internalize and own—a vision that will resonate with the entire team. The good news is that core values, such as being successful and pleasing customers, are universal, and your team members will typically jump at the opportunity to follow such values when they are allowed to do so. This is a good place to distinguish between vision and a goal. Goals are worthy accomplishments to work toward, but they can be as uninteresting as “get the report out by Friday.” Often we use goals as a means to persuade ourselves to do things we do not really want to do. A vision, on the other hand, transcends the mundane and unpleasant and calls out to the soul. A vision draws people into the plan by choice, not by threat. The challenge for the engineer in transition is to see the future in an aspirational way. This does not require that one become a preacher; rather, it involves the ability to express the plan in a manner that enthuses people. Remember the story of Doug Dietz and the MRI machine in the previous chapter. Their team had a vision of children engaged in imaginative

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journeys. It just so happened that these journeys would take place in a room with imaging equipment. Understandably, your work does not involve child’s play, but there is a complementary, more serious side of vision, and that is passion. When a team is zealous about fulfilling their vision, they can overcome incredible obstacles to achieve the vision. Use your imagination and encourage your colleagues to do the same! Instead of talking about a product in terms of cold technical specifications, invite people to describe how the user will benefit personally from it. In the case of the MRI team, understanding the change from the tears of scared children to smiles and laughter is a vision that is inviting enough to motivate any professional. Step 3: Allow the Group to Own the Vision Chapter 4 encouraged you to retain control by letting go of control, and this chapter encourages you to let go of the “great leader” myth. Here is the perfect opportunity to do both: Allow the group to own the vision and the details to accomplish it. Put another way, if you do not, their hearts will likely never be in the endeavor, and your project will suffer for it. We are back to talking in paradoxes. The individual in the leadership role is typically the one who originates and initially develops the vision of a place in the future. But this vision has little power if it is not anchored in present-day aspirations of the team. A leader must be able to comfortably understand both and integrate them. When the vision meshes with the aspirations of team members, they will enthusiastically sign on and give themselves to the endeavor. “They want to hear how their dreams will come true and their hopes will be fulfilled” [4]. A leader should avoid the temptation to say, “Here is what I want to do. Here is my vision; now follow me.” The titular group leader often initiates the vision, but not always. Invite your associates to participate in crafting the vision, and that promotes their ownership. It may change your version of the vision somewhat because others may view the situation differently. But do you want a group of robots following your direction grudgingly, or do you want to accomplish great things? Achievement is facilitated when all who are involved can help to shape the vision. In this way, they may embrace the leadership role without realizing they have done so. As an enlightened manager, you know leadership exists on a continuum, and sometimes you will lead, and sometimes you will follow. The group leader, however, must not let go of the vision entirely. The leader often knows more about the big picture and all the factors that influence success or failure, so she cannot let go of that aspect of the process. The

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key is to make sure the entire group understands the big picture. You can have a major influence on the outcome of the vision through the process of framing the problem and framing potential solutions so that everyone understands the big picture. In a previous job, our team had the task of bringing a redesigned product to market for a client. It seemed that everyone on the team, engineers and marketers alike, wanted to extend the study of the product and not make any decisions. What should have been a three-month project stretched to more than a year. When we began the project, the client had no competitors. By the time we had finished, several competitive products had been released. In the big picture, time-to-market was a critical success factor. Our excessive study had caused the client to lose a great window of opportunity for market advantage. Step 4: Develop and Ensure Harmony in the Plan for Action Ask ten people how to achieve a vision, and you are likely to get ten different answers, which is a good thing. Unless you want chaos, there must be some harmony in how a vision is accomplished. This is perhaps the most tedious aspect of leadership—facilitating the team to work out the details of achieving the vision, yet this step is critical if there is any hope of accomplishing the vision. The activity of implementing the steps needed to attain the vision is called mobilization. If you have done well with the vision and alignment, accomplishing the tasks will be relatively easy. Be sure to monitor progress so the endeavor does not stray from the vision; otherwise, try to let the team members work out the details as much as possible without your intrusion. Your colleagues are intelligent and skilled professionals, and they will be far more motivated to fill in details if you do not micromanage this process. At the same time, the details must all integrate in a way that is complementary to the big picture. There is a concept in the military called the commander’s intent, and it has relevance to this topic. This term refers to the vision or end state of an operation, but it also has the connotation of guidance for troops in the absence of the leader. In other words, it is the answer to the question, “Given the situation, what would the leader do if he or she were here?” The answer is the commander’s intent, and it guides colleagues in their detailed decisions without micromanagement. Storlie provides the following historical example of the commander’s intent [5]. The Allied D-Day invasion in 1944 was planned and rehearsed in great detail, a necessity given the substantial number of soldiers involved from multiple nations. Yet chaos often happens when we actually try to

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execute detailed plans. Among other unplanned events, paratroopers landed in the wrong places. Thousands of soldiers from different units mixed together during the night, and one can readily imagine how confusion and disaster might result. Perhaps surprisingly, within a short time, these ad hoc groups coalesced and fought off fierce enemy resistance. They had internalized and acted upon the commander’s intent for the mission: to establish a beachhead. They quickly adapted and collaborated to establish command, roles, and positions. In all this improvisation, they followed and fulfilled the commander’s intent. Step 5: Change the System If you really seek permanent change in an organization, look to incorporate the change into a system. Organizations develop inertia; simply crafting a vision or talking about change accomplishes little. But if change becomes automatic and permanent, it is difficult to return to old ways. A major component of leadership is to orchestrate systems that enable people in the organization to perform well and to make the vision become reality. When organizations have good systems, it is much easier for individuals to achieve great things. We will have more on this topic in Chapter 13.

Growing as a Leader While it is beneficial to understand these components of leadership, understanding leadership theory does not make one a leader. Improvement in leadership skills comes almost entirely through practice. You never know ahead of time whether you are going to be successful on any given occasion. Try to avoid mistakes, but understand that you will make them. If you start small, you can generally limit many of your mistakes to inconsequential outcomes. To grow in leadership skills, try the following approaches: Lead Yourself The author Ken Kesey said, “You don’t lead by pointing and telling people some place to go. You lead by going to that place and making a case.” One cannot lead others without self-leadership. If you endeavor to lead others through change, you must be willing to change yourself. I would go so far as to say the most critical component of leadership is self-change. It is perhaps the most commonly overlooked aspect of change, perhaps because it is so much more tempting to focus on changing others.

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As a preview to talking about the organization as a system in Chapter 13, every one of us is a component of an organizational system. It is a truism of systems that by changing any component, the entire system changes. It is also true that the only person I have absolute control over is myself; while I can influence others, I have little control over them. If I want to accomplish change in my organization, the most powerful leverage point is myself. Any change in my organization, large or small, better involve a change in me as well. We all have areas we can improve upon or change—try implementing some changes in your attitudes, skills, and activities. Going through this exercise will help you understand the stages and emotions involved in change so you can genuinely help your team to change when it is appropriate. Before I began as an instructor for corporate training for a client, the client required that I complete the course as a student. While this step was necessary to learn the course content, it was equally important that I experience the course process as a student. Doing so enabled me to become a much more proficient leader of change as an instructor because I was personally aware of the experiences of the participants. Work Your Way Up Look for small things in which to lead change on a team level—these opportunities are all around us; for example, people in the workplace are almost universally dissatisfied with meetings. If you take initiative to improve meetings, you are likely to get a lot of support. In a previous job, our administrative assistant took the initiative to solve a problem with team conference calls, even though the problem had little impact on her. She took it upon herself to get outboard microphones for a speakerphone so remote call participants could hear clearly. People who show such initiative and assertiveness are highly valuable to their organizations. Look around for those often-unpleasant tasks that need to be done. We will have more about meeting management in Chapter 20. Taking the initiative to solve problems on a few occasions will get the attention of your associates. You will come to be known as a doer, which is a synonym for leader, and you will be looked upon to lead in more meaningful endeavors. If you can accomplish a few successful change opportunities, it is time to start exercising your abilities to draw other people into leadership roles; otherwise, they will start depending on you to always be the leader, thus allowing them to stay in the more comfortable position of being a follower.

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Tell a Story This is a good time to reflect on your past experiences of leadership and change and draw on them through stories. What is often needed to help others commit to change is for them to see the path emotionally. It can be remarkably helpful for them to hear metaphors of how change was previously accomplished, particularly if they participated in the prior change. Stories demonstrate that opportunities for leadership often do not come in neat little packages that lend themselves to a step-by-step approach. Leadership lessons sometimes arise when we are not looking for them, and some of the most impactful ones come from surprising places. Here are two such stories: Several years ago, my office fielded a team in an amateur recreational volleyball league, and I got to be the coach (only because I was the senior employee). Our team was mediocre, which was fine, but in one particular match, we had opened a commanding 12–3 lead in the deciding game of a three-game match. Perhaps we became overly confident, but the other team staged a fierce comeback and took the lead at 13–12. Since a score of 15 would win, we were now in big trouble. Our team was visibly shaken, and as coach I knew I had to do something … but what? The only insight I could draw on was the memory of scores of basketball games I had watched where a coach would call time out when his or her team was getting whipped. I motioned to the official for time and walked to huddle with my team, but I did not have a clue as to what to say. The team members all looked at me for wisdom, and for a few uncomfortable moments I stared blankly back at them. I finally blurted out, “I don’t have anything wise to say—I just called time out because I got tired of them scoring points!” Everyone burst out laughing—that is all it took to break the mood. Then someone said, “Hey, we can win this—we just need to relax.” To a person, the rest of the team agreed. We scored the next three points and won! This is a trivial and mundane example. But if I can stumble into doing something of value as a leader, anyone can! At the same time, please understand, we did not win the game because I was a gifted leader. We won the game because one of the team members offered a vision that resonated with us all and inspired us to do what it took to accomplish the vision. This is the key to leadership and leadership stories. The focus should be on we, not me. Or as nineteenth-century British educator Benjamin Jowett said, “The way to get things done is not to mind who gets the credit for doing them.” [6] The second story includes both minor and serious matters and will take some setup. I live in the community where Texas A&M University is located. It originated as a military school. Although it dropped the requirement

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to be in its Corps of Cadets over fifty years ago, about 5% of the student body still joins this program. Leadership development is a key element of membership in the Corps. Near the end of every football season, Texas A&M students built a massive bonfire constructed of thousands of logs in a structure that towered over fifty feet and looked like a tiered wedding cake. This story takes place in 1999. While under construction, the bonfire collapsed and killed twelve. Our community reeled in grief, and the university scheduled a memorial service two days later. At the time, our son participated in Cub Scouts, and I was one of the adult leaders. Every year we would have a uniform inspection presided over by two members of the Cadets. The Cubs always shaped up when these college students arrived dressed in their military-like uniforms. That year I coordinated the participation of the Cadets in the inspection. Given that our Cub meeting was scheduled at the same time as the university memorial service, I fully expected the Cadets to attend the service and not our inspection; nevertheless, arriving early, here came two eighteen-year old Cadets, and while their uniforms were perfect, they looked awful. Neither had slept in over seventy-two hours, and both had known individuals who had died. Fully shocked at their arrival, I thanked the Cadets for coming but implored them to go and be with their friends at the memorial. One responded humbly, “Sir, we made a commitment to be here, and we always honor our commitments.” They performed a professional uniform inspection of the Cubs who were suitably impressed with these important-looking young men, but it was only the parents who understood the impact of what had just transpired. It never fails to bring a tear to my eye when I tell this story—it is the most impactful example of leadership I have ever witnessed. In the mundane, a uniform inspection for Cub Scouts, we witnessed an exemplary act of integrity. Individuals who can lead effectively are always in demand, and in your transition to management, you will be expected to know how to lead. While there are many myths about leadership, the truth is that anyone can lead effectively. We are all called to leadership; the world needs the leader within you.

References [1] Miller, M., Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman, New York: Berkley Publishing, 1973.

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[2] Rottmann, C., R. Sacks, and D. Reeve, “Engineering Leadership: Grounding Leadership Theory in Engineers’ Professional Identities,” Leadership, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2015, pp. 351–373. [3] Conger, J. A., “Leadership,” The Technology Management Handbook, pp. 7-94–796, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999. [4] Kouzes, J. M. and B. Posner, “To Lead, Create a Shared Vision,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 87, No. 1, 2009, p. 21. [5] Storlie, C., “Manage Uncertainty with Commander’s Intent,” Harvard Business Review Online, November 3, 2010, https://hbr.org/2010/11/ dont-play-golf-in-a-football-g. [6] Jowett, B., “The way to get things done is not to mind who gets the credit for doing them.” Quotes, https://www.quotes.net/quote/6146.

Selected Bibliography Bennis, W. G., On Becoming a Leader, New York: Perseus Books, 2009. Harvard Business Review, HBR’s 10 Must Reads on Leadership, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2011. Heath, C. and D. Heath, Switch: How to Change Things When Change Is Hard, New York: Currency, 2010. Kouzes, J. M. and B. Posner, The Leadership Challenge: How to Make Extraordinary Things Happen in Organizations, Fifth Edition, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2012. Lencioni, P., The Advantage: Why Organizational Health Trumps Everything Else in Business, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2012. Maxwell, J. C., Developing the Leader Within You, Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2005. Tichy, N., The Leadership Engine: How Winning Companies Build Leaders at Every Level, New York: HarperBusiness, 2009. Useem, M., The Leadership Moment: Nine True Stories of Triumph and Disaster and Their Lessons for Us All, New York: Times Books, 1999.

CHAPTER

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Conflict is Inevitable; Get Over It Why can’t we all just get along? —Rodney King

Takeaways  It is important to develop the right attitude about conflict.  Conflict of ideas is healthy and should be promoted. Conflict of emotions can become destructive and must be managed.  Conflict management and resolution are skills that can be developed and supported with tools. It would be nice if we all got along. If you hang around with people long enough, you will eventually get into conflict with some of them. Conflict is inevitable, but why is that? Conflict may also be uncomfortable. It is potentially destructive, but does it serve any useful purpose? Should we avoid conflict, tolerate it, or approach it in some other manner? How can we prevent conflicts from becoming destructive? Conflict is the collision of concepts or people, and it results from our differences as human beings. As we have seen, personality differences among people can lead to conflict. At work, my pie-in-the-sky musings may irritate a person who wishes to identify concrete action steps to address an issue.

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There are many other factors that cause individuals to see things from different perspectives. Different backgrounds, various stages of our lives or our careers, or dissimilar agendas, for example. It is only natural that different people arrive at different points of view. What we have said so far about conflict is neutral—our differing viewpoints are neither good nor bad, but the attitude we have about those differences and how we address them will determine whether conflict is benign, beneficial, or destructive. Almost every engineer who has worked in some form of production environment has encountered a natural conflict with people in their marketing department. Marketing personnel excel at determining and delivering what pleases customers. Engineers, for their part, are great at technical innovation. Put them together, though, and a clash of ideas and agendas often occurs. When our engineering team designed a microcomputer-based industrial product as a contractor for GE, the size of the unit became a major issue. At the start of the project, GE told us to try to fit the parts into a standard enclosure about the size of toaster. If that was not possible, we could use a larger standard package. About a third of the way through the project, we determined that the smaller package was not feasible, and we conveyed this information to GE. Their marketing people responded that we had to find a way to make it work because the larger package was not acceptable to the market. Extensive and sometimes heated discussions went nowhere. Our engineers sneered that even if all the components were melted into a single solid mass, it still would not fit into the smaller package. Furthermore, it certainly would not dissipate the heat generated by the components. The marketers held their ground and, in the end, we grudgingly had to invent a solution. For several weeks, our engineers worked bitterly. One night, our packaging engineer vented his frustration by creating a dozen minuscule “prototypes”—small matchboxes with tiny printed front panels—as a parody of GE’s insistence on a technically impossible implementation. When he handed them out the next morning, we all had a kneeslapping laugh at GE’s expense. It was a clever mockery of the unattainable task we had been given. His angry lampoon had a totally unexpected outcome—it broke the team’s sour mood. We got back to work with a new attitude that enabled us, within a short time, to solve the packaging and heat dilemma. Both sides of the packaging conflict had legitimate viewpoints and positions—that is how it often goes with conflict. How, then, can people work out these differences? It all starts with attitude.

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Have the Right Attitude About Conflict Until I became a young adult, I always avoided conflict, if at all possible—it was uncomfortable. If I found myself in conflict with someone, I would often give in just so the problem could be resolved. All that time, I believed conflict was a bad thing. There are many people in the world who hold that belief, typically to their detriment. I eventually entered a serious relationship with my wife-to-be, and it took some time for me to learn how to handle and settle conflicts. We got to where appropriate expression and resolution of conflict cleared the air, and we emerged from it with a stronger relationship. I came to see that conflict is not just inevitable; it is often beneficial. I learned that expression and resolution of conflict are skills that can be learned and exercised. In an organization, conflict is beneficial when expressed appropriately and resolved effectively. The visible absence of conflict is usually a sign of an unhealthy workplace. When there is “groupthink,” no one expresses an observation or opinion that is contrary to the “truth” that the group has adopted. Such conformity is very dangerous and can lead to total denial of the real truth, often with disastrous consequences. Diversity, even a conflict of viewpoints and opinions, is necessary and healthy for any organization. In many cases, it is helpful to task one or more team members to argue contrarian positions. Doing so will not only solidify the consensus that is ultimately achieved, it also will make the final product more robust (more about this in Chapter 21). What is your attitude toward conflict?

Conflict of Ideas Conflict in the workplace can be divided into two types: conflict of ideas and conflict based on emotion. Conflicts typically begin with differences that are based on ideas or information, but if unresolved, they can progress to conflicts based on emotion. Conflict of ideas can occur based on differences in perspectives, preferences, or expectations. These conflicts are factual in nature—they are simply statements of information, including opinions, without particular emotion attached to them. Conflict of perspectives often involves the nature of our work, such as our organization’s products or services. We each may have different ideas or opinions on the best implementation of our organization’s work. The conflict over packaging I mentioned earlier was initially a conflict of perspective. Personality types can certainly cause conflict. But a conflict in preferences goes beyond personality differences. How do I like to work? What

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interactions are personally motivating or irritating? Suppose you and I work together. You are a morning person, but I hit my stride at mid- to late afternoon. You try to schedule a brainstorming meeting at 8 a.m.; I object and suggest 3 p.m. For us to work together effectively, we need to work out a solution that recognizes our strengths and weaknesses. A third manifestation of a conflict of ideas arises because collaboration occurs in the context of expectations: We depend on one another for various things. The category of expectations includes norms of behavior—formal or informal rules of conduct that are considered important by most members of a group. If you expect something of me, and I fail to deliver, it may cause conflict. Unspoken expectations can be a particularly troublesome area for groups. While conflict of expectations is a conflict of ideas, it can very easily escalate because of the emotions of disappointment and anger that often accompany a failed social commitment, even an unspoken one. Explicit expression of expectations is an important element of teamwork, and we will address this in Chapter 10. Do not underestimate the importance of resolving issues of preferences and expectations when organizing or managing your work team.

Conflict of Emotion Conflicts based on ideas often start unassumingly. Depending on the circumstances, many, if not most, conflicts can be readily resolved with some discussion, clarification, further information, or brief negotiation. Many other conflicts are relatively insignificant and not worth our attention. Occasionally, a particular conflict will strike a raw nerve. This may occur when you and I fall into repetitive patterns of interaction that are ineffective, or when we reach a difficult impasse. It may occur if I believe you have no respect for my wishes. Perhaps some driver cut me off in traffic this morning, and I have been waiting ever since to take it out on someone. Remember, too, that individuals under stress can often bristle over any perceived provocation. Whatever the source, at this point, the conflict can engage our anger or resentment—it can reach the passionate stage for one or both of the parties. Our team’s packaging conflict exhibited characteristics of the passionate stage. Passion in a conflict indicates that one or both of the parties feel strongly about what they are not getting. Your expression of passion lets me know this issue is important to you and may increase my willingness to reach a solution with you. I may also feel just as passionately about my position. The conflict reaches a critical point: If not resolved, it can enter the destructive stage, with damaging thoughts, words, and deeds.

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In the destructive stage, the conflict becomes less about the specific issue and more about the other person and how intolerable he or she is. In the destructive stage, the conflict is out of control. I do not care to resolve the matter to our mutual satisfaction; I only care to win, and it would feel good to hurt you in the process. The relationship risks destruction when my goal is to hurt you and to make you lose. If you totally ignore or reject my ideas or preferences, particularly if done in ridicule or condescension, it is an affront to me personally. Our conflict can lead to name-calling, retaliation, and even termination of the relationship. When conflicts enter this stage, it often takes considerable work to repair the relationship. Significant attention must be given to the damaged and hateful emotions. It is necessary for each of the parties to forgive the other, a step that many people are unwilling to take.

Responses to Conflict As an individual in any walk of life, it is important to develop good skills for responding to conflict. As an engineer in transition to management, it is even more important that you sharpen these skills. You will be involved in more numerous and far-reaching conflicts personally, and you will be called upon to facilitate the resolution of conflicts between others. To improve your skills, let us look at five general ways in which people respond to conflict. The first type of response is avoidance or denial, the one I practiced for much of my youth. The avoidance response stems from a belief that conflict is bad, and the hope that conflict will go away if left unattended. Avoidance and denial have undesirable consequences: I have to avoid people, and work and life become less fulfilling. To deny conflict is often only to postpone its emergence, possibly making it worse when it does emerge. Passive-aggressive behavior is a close sibling to denial. In one of my earlier jobs, two managers with adjoining offices never spoke to one another except when necessary in a meeting. Each would time their comings and goings so as not to pass the other. Apparently, in the past, they’d had a major unresolved conflict. Each was cordial, and there was never any outward appearance of a problem, but avoidance was their way of expressing the total lack of respect each had for the other. Such passive-aggressive behavior gives the skilled practitioner the added benefit of appearing to be above the fray. The quote at the start of this chapter is an excellent example of smoothing: the attempt to cover or minimize differences. Smoothing is also based on the premise that conflict is bad, and it discounts the importance of one’s ideas or preferences. While smoothing can initially seem noble and

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enlightened, it is merely expedient and solves nothing. Smoothing is a common manifestation of groupthink. A commonly damaging response to conflict is the forcing approach, often exhibited in the context of a superior imposing a solution to end the conflict of subordinates. Such a response is taken for the sake of expediency, but the conflict often returns because it is not truly resolved. People fall too easily into resentment for this response to be effective. It is often tempting for parents weary of sibling conflict to impose a solution. When her two young sons would fight, one friend would put them face-to-face inside a single large T-shirt. That clever trick quickly brought peace, if not resolution. A better, though still potentially flawed, approach is compromise. Whether or not a compromise is effective depends on the motivation and specific outcome of the terms of compromise. Many people invoke compromise to dilute conflict by spreading the pain. Each party gets part of what they want and part of what they do not want, yet one or both parties may resent the outcome. Resolution is the only response that finally settles a conflict. This is where the ultimate best outcome occurs. Sometimes the best outcome is a compromise. Sometimes one party gets his or her way, and sometimes an entirely different outcome is chosen. Resolution is a state marked by the belief by both parties that the best outcome has taken place or by an obvious appearance to outsiders of the outcome being “right” or “just.” There is a sense of closure. True resolution on matters of importance can sometimes take much effort, but it is sweet indeed when it is achieved.

Taking Responsibility for My Part and the Solution Perhaps the most important step I can take with regard to conflict management and resolution is to own my part in it. As mentioned in Chapter 7 with regard to leadership, each of us is an element in a larger organizational system. I both influence and am influenced by the whole. A foundational principle of effective teamwork is that every member takes responsibility for outcomes and for his or her role in achieving them. If I am involved in a conflict, I have a role in its existence and where it goes from here. One powerful concept for embracing responsibility and taking action comes from the brilliant Chris Argyris [1, 2]: it is the ladder of inference. Because we are wired for survival, including social survival, we seek to defend our positions in conflict. Our brains are continually inferring meaning to observations and events, and in conflict, these inferences generally deflect responsibility away toward others. When each party to a conflict does this, it is easy to see that a stalemate, or worse, will result.

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Consider inferences as rungs on a ladder, as depicted in Figure 8.1. The lowest rung concerns observable data or events (e.g., all the words that were said in a meeting). The second rung involves my selection of certain data to highlight, such as particular words said by one individual in the meeting. Necessarily, I am excluding some of the data. For the third rung, I attribute meanings to the highlighted data. I infer intention to the specific words said by that person. The next higher rung concerns my inferences about causality—what has led this person to say those specific things in the meeting—and whether I judge the causes to be positive or negative ones. At the highest rung of the ladder, I decide how to respond. Note that much of what happens in this process are things that I infer of the other person, not necessarily their meanings, intentions, and causes. My internal processing often happens unconsciously and quickly. After our son graduated from college, he moved across the country for work, and communication with him became less frequent. What had been almost daily interaction became extended periods during which he neither initiated communication nor responded to ours. Upon our request, communication improved for a while, but then became even more infrequent. Over time, I felt hurt and angry. One day, in a moment of insight, I connected this interaction and conflict with the ladder of inference that I had recently learned. That insight turned out to be a solid breakthrough for both this issue and in other conflicts.

Figure 8.1  Ladder of inference.

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Here is how I had climbed the ladder of inference: Over a period of months, we had communication through phone calls, texts, and one visit (data). In my mind, it seemed important that there were periods during which he did not communicate (selection). I inferred that our son had grown emotionally distant (meaning). I also inferred it was his intention to do so because I had become less relevant to him, or because he was selfish, or both (causation). I climbed the ladder and inferred negative judgments on these developments: my value as a father had diminished. For myself, I further inferred a loss of direction and value associated with aging. I considered potential responses that included expressing anger toward him or a passive-aggressive approach of withdrawal and not initiating communication. Back to my moment of insight. The key with the ladder is to test the validity of my inferences. In the light of day, my inferences hit me squarely between the eyes. Realistically, I knew that our son attributed none of those meanings; they were entirely mine, and that realization completely diffused my anger and hurt. But more powerfully, I recognized that even in the unlikely event that he really wanted emotional distance, my value as a person was not diminished. I was able to talk to him openly about this without any hint of accusation; in fact, the downturn in communication had happened because he had less time as a working adult and had almost no cell phone coverage where he lived and worked. Notice that taking ownership of my inferences helps me assume others are acting with good or neutral intentions. The ladder of inference is a powerful tool for taking ownership and for personal development. To fully appreciate the power of the concept, read the Argyris reference, but for more accessible exercises, read Schwarz [2].

Tools for Conflict Resolution The majority of conflicts you will encounter in the workplace are those at the substantive stage of ideas, preferences, and expectations. Most of these conflicts are relatively benign and can be readily resolved to satisfaction through good communication and effective group process. Even with conflicts that escalate to the passionate stage, process is often the best tool to bring resolution. If you find that a conflict has reached the destructive stage, it may be appropriate to engage a third party to facilitate the outcome. Not surprisingly, the facilitator will also likely rely on process to bring about resolution. A process is simply a series of agreed-upon actions or steps to bring about a desirable outcome. Restated, it is a set of rules or framework for interaction between or among individuals. Process tools can be procedural

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to establish order and predictability in our interactions, or they can be substantive to help us reach collective decisions when we interact. Substantive tools often provide a means for clearly elucidating issues or stimulating creativity in a manner that speeds decisions or resolution. When participants trust the process, they are more likely to feel good about an outcome.

Procedural Tools A procedural process often expresses rules of behavior that enable people to believe their preferences and ideas will be valued and incorporated in the outcome. In many cases, the conflict results from or is exacerbated by an ineffective group process. What is needed is a shift in process to channel the conflict toward resolution rather than for it to simply go below the surface and worsen or for it to travel in tangential directions that lead nowhere. The following is an example of a procedural process that was quickly cobbled together to head off a conflict of ideas that, once initiated, quickly escalated to a passionate stage and threatened to progress to the destructive stage. During a weekly staff meeting, a coworker, whom I will call Peter, suggested a change in a company policy. Immediately, several other staff members criticized the suggestion. Peter attempted to speak again, but was denied. After Peter’s third attempt at talking, it was suggested that the matter be discussed in a separate meeting two days later. Peter agreed, but indicated the follow-up meeting would be a “battle” in which the participants would “have it out.” Within five minutes, this conflict had progressed from the information stage through the passion stage and was clearly heading into the destructive stage. The intensity of emotion was puzzling. I suggested that Peter route an e-mail with his suggestion and several policy alternatives to consider. To head off trouble, we planned the meeting carefully, with a specific process that would allow a fair expression of different viewpoints. The participants agreed to the following agenda: 1. The meeting would be limited to one hour. 2. For the first fifteen minutes, Peter would present four policy options and recommend one. While he spoke, only questions for information or clarification would be allowed. 3. Opinions could be offered in the following fifteen minutes, with each person allotted three minutes in roundtable fashion with no interruptions.

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4. Participants could openly discuss the policy for the next fifteen minutes. 5. In the final fifteen minutes, Peter would attempt to form a consensus policy. Surprisingly, the meeting proceeded civilly and concluded in forty minutes with complete consensus! Peter’s suggestion was actually quite similar to the policy desired by those who originally spoke out against him. They reacted to what they thought he would say, not what he was really going to say. See what could happen with the ladder of inference? An effective group procedure channels interactions toward healthy expression of ideas. It places solid boundaries that discourage harmful emotions from turning outward. We engage in procedural process all the time whether we think about it or not and whether the process is effective or not. Our interactions can be much more effective and pleasing if we think about, discuss, and agree on a good framework for our interactions.

Substantive Process Tools Professional ethics can be an extremely sticky subject, but we must discuss and ultimately reach collective decisions on what is right and wrong. An excellent tool for this endeavor is line drawing [3] as provided by Harris, Pritchard, and Rabins. Here is an example of how to use it: A relative once received a pair of tickets to a professional football game as a gift from a vendor. Let’s say that the tickets would have otherwise cost the relative $200. Should he have accepted the gift? At the extreme, such gifts can be construed as bribery: a vendor attempts to favorably influence an employee to perhaps win a valuable order. But are all vendor gifts necessarily bribes? Most people would agree that relatively inexpensive gifts have too little value to change behavior and so would not constitute a bribe. At what value does a gift become a bribe? We are now ready to apply the tool of line drawing. We construct a series of scenarios as possible ethical situations to consider. Each scenario represents a different expression of our ethical variable, in this case, the value of the gift. See Table 8.1 for an example of how we can build such scenarios for our gift policy example. Most people would agree that a vendor gift worth $10,000 is ethical trouble, and most would also agree that a gift worth one dollar is perfectly acceptable. So we focus our attention on the middle elements. Through discussion, it often becomes amazingly clear where to draw the line. Many

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Table 8.1 Scenarios for Line-Drawing Example: Vendor Gift Policy Employee receives Employee Employee gift valued at receives gift receives gift $10,000. valued at $1,000. valued at $100.

Employee receives gift valued at $10.

Employee receives gift valued at $1.

organizations decide on an acceptable gift value limit of about twenty-five dollars. A tool such as line drawing is a wonderful substantive process tool for resolving a conflict over ideas in the arena of professional ethics. Similar tools exist for a wide variety of workplace needs for decision making or for facilitating conflict resolution over ideas or preferences. The majority of process tools are amazingly simple in their commonsense approaches to solving problems. A grab bag of tools is a great resource for managers. We will go in depth with one such tool in Chapter 9. A wholesome approach to conflict includes the attitude that diverse ideas are inevitable and healthy. It is beneficial to allow for and nurture the expression of various viewpoints, preferences, and expectations. It is also important to provide for appropriate processes to keep conflicts from escalating to the destructive stage. Conflicts come in all shapes and sizes, and it pays to be selective about which ones deserve your attention. Many issues are minor—they are not worth significant time or energy to achieve some elusive state of true resolution. In a similar way, do not expect to get everything you want in the resolution of a conflict. Consider which outcomes are most important to you and seek those. In most cases, upon reflection, you will find you value the relationship with the other person more than some of the other things you initially wanted. True conflict resolution is not so much about giving up something; rather, it is about change, including personal change. You will often find you are truly on the road to resolution when you or the other party experiences a breakthrough in viewpoint, perhaps an epiphany. Resolution becomes less about sacrificing something valuable and more about moving toward something even more valuable. Resolution is about growth, improvement, and a willingness to see the world through different eyes. It takes a degree of maturity for individuals and organizations to come to terms with conflict and use it as a means for growth and improvement. Conflict is inevitable; get over it … and grow through it!

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References [1] Argyris, C., Knowledge for Action: A Guide to Overcoming Barriers to Organizational Change, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993. [2] Schwarz, R., A. Davidson, P. Carlson, and S. McKinney, The Skilled Facilitator Fieldbook: Tips, Tools, and Tested Methods for Consultants, Facilitators, Managers, Trainers, and Coaches, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005. [3] Harris, C. E. Jr., M. S. Pritchard, and M. J. Rabins, Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases, Belmsont, CA: Wadsworth, 2000.

Selected Bibliography Bolton, D. G. and R. Bolton, People Styles at Work … and Beyond: Making Bad Relationships Good and Good Relationships Better, New York: American Management Association, 2009. Cloke, K. and J. Goldsmith, Resolving Conflicts at Work: Ten Strategies for Everyone on the Job, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011. Evans, S. and S. Suib Cohen, Hot Buttons: How to Resolve Conflict and Cool Everyone Down, New York: HarperCollins, 2001. Foster, J. and M. Joy, The Schmuck in My Office: How to Deal Effectively with Difficult People at Work, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017. Levine, S., Getting to Resolution: Turning Conflict into Collaboration. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2009.

CHAPTER

9

It’s a Team Sport Finding good players is easy. Getting them to play as a team is another story. —Casey Stengel

Takeaways  Effective work in a team involves skill that many have not been taught but can be readily learned and practiced.  A team contract is a great tool that facilitates the important step of agreeing on team norms.  The work of a team requires integration of individual talents and perspectives. Consider a certain employer with the following work environment: you and your coworkers are guided by constant expert direction and support with approximately one mentor for every two workers. You practice and train for about ten hours for every hour of actual work. There is another group of workers whose job is simply to test your skills before your live work period. This vignette generally describes your workplace if you are a player with the National Football League (NFL). Each team has fifty-three players on the squad, and there are on the order of twenty-five coaches, assistant coaches, and trainers, not counting other more minor support and administrative personnel. Each team has a separate practice squad that pretends to be the next opponent to approximate coming game scenarios. A game takes

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three or four hours, and the rest of the week is spent in practice, training, and studying film. Do you work for an employer who takes team development so seriously? Just posing the question begs laughter. Of course not! We readily accept this paradigm of extensive training and team support for sports, while the opposite is true for the professional workplace. Once during a presentation, I asked how much practice the audience engaged in for their work. One woman said, “In the thirty seconds it takes to walk from my office to a meeting.” Her comment brought the laughter that comes with resonance, but it all too quickly turned to uncomfortable silence. It was a pointed but disturbing comment on something very ironic: Our organizations depend on effective teams but do little to support their effectiveness. While it is unlikely we will reach NFL levels of team development, is there more we can do? Thankfully, the answer is a resounding YES!

Your Experience with Teams In Chapter 1, we mentioned the University of Phoenix survey that found 95% of people viewed teams as important to their employer, but 76% would rather work alone. How did we arrive at such a place? First, let’s be clear about the differences between a group and a team in the workplace. A group is a collection of individuals who report to a common superior. Their work may be related, but it is largely done individually. To the extent there is coordination, it is the superior who has the responsibility for it. Each individual is responsible for his or her own work, but not for what others in the group may do. The work of team members, in contrast, is highly integrated. They report to a common superior, but they are responsible to each other for outcomes. We say that each team member must take full responsibility for the team deliverables. This background helps explain the coolness that many people feel toward work in teams. In school, performance is overwhelmingly judged individually. There is the occasional group project, and teachers often do not provide guidance to groups on how to work together effectively. Most work in college is again judged individually; however, an engineering program will generally have a team-based senior design project that lasts for one or two semesters, so the group effort is more extensive. But engineering faculty members may offer little guidance or support to student teams on how to collaborate. What has been your experience with teams in school and college? Did you groan when you learned about a group assignment? Most teams descend into predictable dysfunctions. There is often a freeloader who does

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little helpful work. Perhaps one or two individuals carry the lion’s share of the load. Sometimes one person tries to force decisions in his or her preferred direction. Missed meetings and meandering direction lead to lastminute heroic effort to meet the deadline for the final deliverable. The entire experience leaves members cynical about teams. We don’t leave teams behind after graduation; teams are how engineering work is accomplished in the workplace. But this style extends beyond engineering. A recent survey of work design by Deloitte shows a growing trend toward organizing work in cross-disciplinary teams [1]. You would ideally learn good team behaviors by the time you start your first job in engineering, but that may not be the case. As an engineering manager, you had absolutely better give your teams the support they need to excel. The good news is that one does not need to be blessed with the rare and elusive dream team to have a great team experience. Being responsible for team outcomes is not onerous when a group functions well; in fact, teamwork becomes highly energizing and engaging. Simple principles, practices, and tools will enable just about any collection of individuals to become proficient at good team behaviors.

Balancing Tensions Work in teams, and certainly the leadership of teams, requires a sense of balance between contradictory tensions, a concept called dialectics. There must be resolution between having individual goals and group goals, between structure and spontaneity, and between group similarities and differences. This list is not exhaustive. As Engleberg and Wynn emphasize, effective groups approach this matter with a both/and strategy; the personal goals of each member are balanced with the team’s overall goals [2]. We recognize that success depends on making sense of competing tensions so both are satisfied.

Stages of Teams One of the frameworks for promoting effectiveness in teams is to understand the stages through which they progress. Tuckman’s time-tested model describes four stages, later expanded to a fifth: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning [3]. In the forming stage, team members come together for the first time. There will likely be introductions and get-acquainted talk. Even if members know each other and have worked together before, this effort is unique and new, so the team must go through forming for this work. There should be a team kickoff meeting to provide a formal demarcation for the birth of the

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team. The kickoff is especially important for a team that will execute a project. Here there will be the presentation and discussion of the overall objectives, team assignments, and processes. The formation stage is much more than a social get-together. If done well, it sets the direction and tone for the work to come. The forming stage is typically marked by the cordiality and tentativeness that usually accompanies the beginning of work relationships. The secret to a successful forming stage is to channel matters in the direction of the norming stage. In the forming stage, cordiality and tentativeness set up possible conflicts in the storming stage. Some group members will want to get to work, and more assertive individuals may go in directions as they determine appropriate; such a development signifies that the group has entered the storming stage. Prevalent niceness and avoidance of conflict may mean divergent views do not get aired regarding the nature and direction of the work and effective ways of collaborating. So the storming stage is interesting primarily for what it should not become. Ineffective teams typically get stuck in a storming stage that lacks direction and cohesion. Conflicts and the familiar dysfunctions that were previously mentioned can start to brew. Most often there is lack of knowledge on how to develop team norms, and there are unclear or shifting objectives. The team may be eager to work on something, anything, to feel a sense of progress. For a while, busyness feels like something worthwhile is happening, but milestones are missed and irritation grows. In a healthy team, the storming stage is a time to get started identifying issues that need to be settled. It is important for leadership to be exercised in this stage. What really needs to be settled brings us to norming, perhaps the most important and most often neglected stage in the life cycle of a team. The key to a great team experience in performing is to quickly and effectively get to and through the norming stage. This is the stage where we agree on the rules of our engagement. Going back to our football team, imagine if there were no rulebook or playbook and perhaps even only a vague understanding of player positions on the field. The result would be utter chaos. All of those elements, and more, provide the substance of norms for a football team and indeed for the sport. Norms are the rules of our interactions. It is a way of describing the expectations we have of each other and ourselves. We made the point earlier in the book that everyone is unique and with different perspectives. The area of expectations is one of those areas of diversity. What often goes wrong in teams is that the expectations are never expressed. We never agree on a common set of expectations, and each of us has a different preferred or habitual way of doing dozens of things. When another team member

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depends on me for something, and I do not meet his or her expectations, we have a problem, possibly a serious one. Yet not knowing the expectation makes it hard for me to meet it. Many people assume peers should act according to their standards of how to act on a team, but the reality is that there are many standards. “The purpose of discussing your team’s rules isn’t to determine the one right way of running a team; It’s to agree on the one consistent way you’ll run this particular team” [4]. Can you see why it is so important to agree on rules of engagement for your team? The intent of the norming stage is to articulate and agree on the one consistent set of rules and processes according to which our team will work. Norming answers a number of related questions: What are we trying to accomplish? How will we communicate? How often will we meet? How will we make decisions? How will we measure progress? What is important to us regarding this work? How can we ensure that everyone participates fairly? What do we do about conflict? This is not an exhaustive list, and there may be many particulars in each category. The list includes both task norms (what we will do), and process norms (how we will work together). Above, we stated that in a team, all members take full responsibility for outcomes. Make sure you allow that thought to sink in and permeate your attitude about working on a team. When all members take responsibility, the quality of work and the quality of the experience improves dramatically. This is an expectation that must be expressed, agreed on, and internalized in the norming stage and reinforced thereafter. In my work with dysfunctional teams, a common complaint is a lack of trust among members. While it is stated as a lack of trust in another person, I came to recognize that it is really a lack of trust in the process by which individuals interacted. When I have a process that I can trust, and when I have commitments from other team members that they will honor the process, our expectations align. Done well, norms take care of a lot of the irritations that often plague teams, allowing them to focus on doing important and interesting things. The performing stage is self-explanatory. Let us emphasize again that to perform well, a team must do well at norming. To take that concept even further, we can only perform when we are clear about what we are doing, how we will collaborate to do it, and why we are doing it. It is also worth considering the quality of performance. Do we want to barely accomplish objectives, perhaps with a heroic effort to finish on time? Alternatively, is it preferable to surpass objectives, perhaps innovate some aspect of the work and have a deeply meaningful experience along the way? If you wish for the latter, you can only achieve it by norming well. Have I convinced you yet of the importance of norming?

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Finally, after the performing stage, we have the adjourning. The intent of this stage is about celebrating the work of the team and capturing knowledge and lessons learned. In addition to domain knowledge, make sure to also capture learnings about the collaboration process. That knowledge is extremely valuable to the individuals and to the organization.

Team Contract We enter into contracts to express agreement and commitment. When prepared well, a contract explicitly articulates agreed-on expectations and consequences for failure to follow through on commitments. A contract reduces the likelihood of ambiguity and misunderstanding. Developing a contract with your team is a best practice for wiring the success of your collaboration A team contract is a living document that captures the agreements we make among ourselves for our work together. What is important is not the piece of paper; rather, the document captures commitments we make and on which we fully intend to follow through. The team contract embodies a social infrastructure on which we can rely and which enables us to perform. There is no “right” team contract; every one will be unique according to the needs of the particular team. Nevertheless, according to Shapiro, you will likely want it to cover four beneficial areas: task and process goals, team member roles, norms of conduct, and accountability [4]. While members need to capture a range of detailed expectations, the team contract should also be aspirational to capture ideals. I encourage your team to aspire to greatness, not only in the tasks and deliverables but also in the richness of your collaboration. Having such an aspirational expectation will be a stretch for many people. But do you merely want an average or mediocre project, or do you want to excel? A great team experience leads to exemplary accomplishments and feels immensely rewarding. I have found that good team contracts cause each of us to stretch and change habitual and unproductive dynamics in a way that channels effectiveness. A healthy team process makes it possible to both bring out the perspectives of the shy individual and to soften the intensity of the dominant personality. The execution of the team contract is an important milestone, one that should be celebrated. A contract signing party is in order. This event signifies we have successfully executed the norming stage. This does not imply the stage is fully completed on one pass; that is why I have noted that the team contract is a living document. On a regular basis over the course of the project (e.g., weekly), the members should revisit their norms to see if any changes or corrections are warranted. We only really know norms are working when we actually use and test them.

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Integration of Differing Perspectives In an integrative form, workplace teams must manage and resolve a variety of tensions. Among these is the set of perspectives that each of us brings to a team. Every individual brings a unique combination of origin, history, knowledge, skill, and outlook. How we view and approach this fact can have a significant effect on the outcome of the team experience. At a high level, this matter involves our beliefs about diversity, or the homogeneity— heterogeneity tension. We need some similarities among team members to be able to function, but we also need differences to be effective and develop robust solutions. All of us have preferences and biases in how we work, and they can be subtle and unconscious. The key question is to what extent will we allow them to drive our organizations. Minority participation in engineering lags significantly behind the relevant composition in the population. The skew is even greater for women in engineering. As an engineering manager, you will have greater authority and influence over decisions that can affect the participation of underrepresented groups, including your teams. Perhaps more importantly, you can model and enforce behaviors that ensure all team members are professional equals. Be aware of subtle messages or actions that may discount the participation of some individuals or denigrate them. If you belong to a traditionally underrepresented group, I encourage you to act with confidence. In my experience, and regardless of the particulars, individuals are accepted and valued when they act skillfully and comfortably in a role. Other issues may arise when different generations are represented on a team. It is incumbent on both the young and the more experienced to respect and value the knowledge, perspectives, and contributions of those who come from another generation. Speaking to my age peers as someone with more than a few miles on my odometer, I say it is important to stay curious and young at heart. Whatever the year, whatever our age, we live in exciting and hopeful times. There are countless interesting and professionally fun things to do, and equally fascinating team members with whom we can collaborate.

Collaborating Across Miles and Cultures As more business is done globally, there are a growing number of geographically dispersed teams. Team members are often located in different countries, and they come from different cultures. As challenging as communication can sometimes be with a colocated and homogeneous team, adding in cultural and geographical differences can raise substantial other challenges.

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The common solution is to be much more aware of these issues and to take deliberate additional steps to communicate well. Virtual Teams The richest form of communication takes place in person when we can observe visual and auditory cues. Some of this information transfer is lost with virtual teams, and the extent depends on the mode of communication (e.g., text or video). Perhaps you have experienced a serious misunderstanding over intentions or feelings in a communication via text message or email. Unless great care is used in crafting such communications, a sender’s intent can appear ambiguous to the recipient. Remember what was said about the ladder of inference? It doesn’t take long for an ambiguity to grow into a significant problem. In accordance with the use of a team contract, I encourage each team to agree on its own communication methods and timing, but within the requirements and standards for their organizations. With virtual teams, it is a best practice to meet in person as often as feasible, but certainly at the team kickoff and at least once a year. Communicate often, and use the richest medium (e.g., video) when possible. It is beneficial to use multiple methods of communication and shared tools and platforms. We want the experience to be as close as possible to being there to promote understanding and belonging. Respect the fact that team members may be scattered across time zones, and some individuals may even be on the other side of the world. Accommodate their schedules and circadian rhythms so team members in one location are not always meeting in the middle of their night. On a virtual team, when some members are colocated, particularly at a company headquarters, those stationed elsewhere can feel like second-class citizens. Be mindful of the effects of such facts. If you have the home field advantage, then call into the team meeting instead of attending in person. If you are located away from the bulk of the team, act more assertively. Multinational and Cross-Cultural Teams Challenges with teams dispersed across countries and cultures stem from language and cultural norms. A team must have a common language or languages to function. Those who communicate in their first language can have an advantage and an easier time than others who operate in a second or third language. It is a sign of respect and deference when individuals learn how to communicate in the first language of other team members. Among the factors that helped the Houston Astros win the 2017 baseball World Series was one that did not involve athletic skill or even strategy.

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It was the elusive and ambiguous term chemistry. The team had a diverse makeup with a number of players from Hispanic countries and cultures. As evidence of team chemistry, third baseman Alex Bregman worked diligently to learn Spanish so he could communicate fluently with all teammates [5]. As team leader, will you take steps so that you and all other team members find commonality in language? Differences among cultures can sometimes be as challenging as differences among languages. Hofstede [6] defined culture as “collective mental programming.” Culture can be associated with country of origin, but even within a country there are regional effects. Various industries and companies have recognizable cultures, as do different professions. Because it involves collective programming, once immersed in a culture, we tend to act accordingly. Growing up in a culture heightens this effect. We assume it unconsciously, and we typically keep it until we either consciously decide to change or enter a different culture. Hofstede identified several dimensions of culture, and among them here are two examples of how they might affect a cross-cultural team: individualism/collectivism, and high/low power distance. The individualism/ collectivism dimension concerns the tightness of connection of members of a society. Individualist cultures have considerable freedom and loose connections, while in collectivist cultures the ties among individuals are strong. With individualist cultures, people focus on their own interests and those of the immediate family. In contrast, collectivist cultures exhibit larger “in groups”; for example, extended families that include cousins and grandparents. The term power distance refers to how evenly power is distributed in a group and the extent to which individuals who have little power accept unequal power distribution in the group. In low-power distance countries, there is consultation among different levels in a hierarchy, and it is accepted that subordinates can disagree with or even challenge a leader. In other words, there is relatively little difference in power between the highest and lowest levels in the organization. In high-power difference cultures, subordinates defer to leaders. It is expected that leaders make all decisions without consultation. The United States and many other Western countries evidence lowpower distance and are more individualistic. On the other hand, many Asian, African, and Latin American countries are characterized by highpower distance and collectivism. If your team is composed of individuals from multiple cultures, there may be different expectations about power difference. Some individuals may have little to offer during discussions. Perhaps they are introverted, but it may also be a sign of a preference for highpower distance and strong deference to the team leader. A member from an

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individualist culture may feel comfortable in offering an objective critique of the work of other team members, while someone from a collectivist culture may consider the critique to be criticism and defend all team members against it. Be cautious about making assumptions about particular countries or cultures. Hofstede Insights [7] offers a great online resource that illuminates power distance characteristics across cultures. The cultural aspects of a team can be an important area to master. We encourage you to explore cultural dimensions further. It can sometimes be enough to make an engineering manager run straight to the laboratory just to operate a piece of equipment for some simplicity! If you find yourself entertaining such feelings, just breathe—it’s all normal and inevitable. After breathing, reengage your curiosity to better understand the dynamics of your team and how they can be enhanced to become more effective. Humans are complex and fascinating, and our interactions are brimming with rich nuances that are waiting to be discovered and valued. When we do so, we are able to integrate the talents of individuals into a team that can accomplish what they could not do separately, and perhaps even achieve something great. We treat each other professionally, showing respect, deference, and balance. We do not hold unrealistic expectations of associates to act far differently than who they are, nor do we caricature them according to what we think they may represent. The potential benefits are well worth the effort to be conscious and deliberate about how we nurture the team and give it the social infrastructure to succeed.

References [1] “Global Human Capital Trends 2016: The New Organization: Different by Design,” Deloitte University Press, 2016, https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/ Deloitte/global/Documents/HumanCapital/gx-dup-global-human-capitaltrends-2016.pdf. [2] Engleberg, I. N. and D. R. Wynn, Working in Groups, Sixth Edition, Boston: Pearson, 2013. [3] Tuckman, B., “Developmental Sequence in Small Groups,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 63, No. 6, 1965, pp. 384–99. Reprinted with permission in ��Group Facilitation, Spring 2001. [4] Shapiro, M., HBR Guide to Leading Teams, Boston: Harvard Business School, 2015, p. 47. [5] Diamond, J., “The Chemistry Experiment Behind the Astros Winning the World Series,” The Wall Street Journal, November 2, 2017.

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[6] Hofstede, G., “The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories,” Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1983, pp.75–89. [7] Hofstede Insights, Compare Countries, 2018, http://www.hofstedeinsights. com/product/compare-countries/.

Selected Bibliography Brinkman, U. and O. van Weerdenburg, Intercultural Readiness: Four Competencies for Working across Cultures, London: Palgrave McMillan, 2014. Griffith, B. A., and E. B. Dunham, Working in Teams: Moving from High Potential to High Performance,Los Angeles: Sage, 2014. Lepsinger, R., and D. DeRosa, Virtual Team Success: A Practical Guide for Working and Leading from a Distance, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010. McDonald, K. How to Work with and Lead People Not Like You: Practical Solutions for Today’s Diverse Workplace, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2017. Pokras, S. Working in Teams: A Team Member Guidebook, Menlo Park, CA: Crisp Publications, 2002.

CHAPTER

10 The Joy of Politics Being in power is like being a lady. If you have to tell people you are, you aren’t. —Lady Margaret Thatcher

Takeaways  Political play is an inevitable ingredient of organizational life.  It is important to play politics proficiently for the benefit of our projects, our team members, and for our organization.  A number of myths hinder or discourage people from taking actions that would promote their power. If you care about your career, your job satisfaction, your projects, and the people you supervise, you will need access to the power in your organization. You will need to understand, appreciate, and become adept at playing politics, because politics are about power. In an organization, it is how things get done, how decisions are made, and how obstacles are overcome. Office politics can seem distasteful to many people. If the thought of politics makes you uncomfortable, and you choose not to play, then be prepared for detrimental effects on the work and people that are important to you. Before you swear off politics altogether, please at least read through this chapter—you may see politics in a new light. You may actually come to enjoy the political game! As an engineer entering management, you will encounter many more situations in which your political savvy will be needed. By developing a

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healthy attitude toward politics and learning to play the game well, you will dramatically improve your job satisfaction, your productivity, and your effectiveness as well as your chances for career success. Just as importantly, you will significantly lessen many of the headaches and irritants that come with the territory. Office politics can be described as a “subtle and informal methods of gaining any type of power or advantage” [1]. Playing politics means taking actions outside of the formal processes or channels of the organization. This definition does not necessarily imply political activities are illegal or immoral, although on occasion they may be. On the contrary, the majority of office political activities are positive, and they are the natural result of human interaction. Because humans can be complex, we cannot, nor would we want to, separate our business decisions from our emotions and opinions. Office politics results from this reality. Many would like to believe in an ideal world in which organizational decisions were based only on seemingly objective and “fair” criteria. But when you buy any product, is that how you make a purchase decision? Probably not. You likely consider things like your experience with brands, recommendations from friends, and product placement. Are you being “fair” to the other options you passed over? To be successful in business, you absolutely need talent, hard work, good job performance, and a share of good breaks. But as the world is and always has been constituted, you need one more vital ingredient to get your share of organizational goodies: political savvy or the ability to practice sensible and ethical office politics. It is entirely instinctive and beneficial that people make decisions for political reasons in an organizational setting. Suppose Jim Brooks, the CEO of a company, must choose between two middle managers, Jenny and Carla, to head a new regional operation. Let us assume the two candidates have similar technical and managerial qualifications. For the past three years, Jenny has participated in the voluntary company service project for Habitat for Humanity held one Saturday each year. Mr. Brooks thinks highly of this organization and initiated this service project himself. Carla has not yet participated. It would be reasonable for Mr. Brooks to choose Jenny for the new position if all other considerations were equivalent. Management of the new regional operation is a challenging position, one that would require proficient political skills. The fact that Jenny is willing to forego one Saturday to serve the less fortunate in the community is evidence that she has an important managerial skill: the ability to help others improve themselves

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and their lives. While Carla may be an equally giving person, Mr. Brooks can make his decision based only on the information available. Playing politics is not a substitute for doing good work. Being competent, motivated, and committed to the interests of your organization are all prerequisites for political efforts. In the jobs where I succeeded at politics, it was principally because I was competent at my work and believed in my organization. What I did was never in any way cynical. On the contrary, it was precisely how I was able to help important causes and the individuals associated with them. In two of my jobs, I played the game poorly, mostly because I could not support the criteria used to judge success. My position in these organizations languished, and it was not long before I left each of those groups. Building on a base of competence and alignment with your organization, playing politics well involves using the power of the organization to advance your causes because your causes also advance the objectives of those in power. It also involves helping those who need your assistance. In so doing, you will grow in power yourself. Without regard to any connotations associated with governmental office, we will explore the subject of work politics by uncovering myths about politics, recognizing and appreciating the foundations of political play, and highlighting ways to play the political game well.

Myths About Politics Several myths hinder our understanding of and appreciation for politics. Let us look at these myths and correct them to help improve our effectiveness in politics. Myth #1: All Politics Are Dirty Many people view politics with contempt, and in some cases, it is appropriate to hold this view. Unfortunately, the occurrence of dirty politics in a few situations leads some to generalize that all politics are bad. Because of this misconception, many people develop such an aversion that they fail to see the value of politics and fail to reap their benefits. Myth #2: Some Organizations Are Political and Some Are Not As with conflict, political behavior is a natural manifestation of human interaction. Every organization has political play in progress, but organizations may differ in the degree to which politics exhibit healthy or destructive qualities.

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Myth #3: To Play Politics, You Have to Kiss Up a Lot There is a grain of truth in this myth in that playing politics does involve giving deference to some people, but always kissing up is a sure way to play the political game poorly. Leaders soon grow weary of sycophants; those who always grovel for the boss lose the respect of peers. To be a savvy political player means maintaining one’s integrity and respectability. Myth #4: I Should Not Need to Play Politics As engineers, we may have developed the belief that our jobs should be judged only according to the technical merit of our work. We may carry a similar belief with us into management. While doing good work is necessary for success, many times the greatest rewards do not necessarily go to those who do the best work, but to those who play the political game well. It is important to both do good work and play the game well. Myth #5: I Must Abandon My Ethical Principles to Play Politics It is not only possible to play politics and still be principled and ethical, it is essential. To play politics well, you must be clear about right and wrong and what you are willing to do and not do in pursuit of your goals.

Approaches to Politics As with conflict, there are several different approaches to politics, some more helpful than others. Here are different ways people respond to issues of office politics:  A cynic believes politics are bad and deliberately avoids any actions that could be considered political in nature. Cynics often inadvertently remove themselves from the power structure of the organization, and they may be ostracized because of their negativism.  An innocent is unaware of the political nature of organizations or is uninterested in political actions. Those in power usually treat innocents benevolently because they offer no threat.  An opportunist is obsessed with playing the political game for personal gain and advancement. He or she is good-natured and stops short of inflicting harm on anyone.  A cutthroat is an opportunist with a willingness to hurt other people to advance. Such people are dangerous to an organization.

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 A practitioner recognizes the value of learning and playing the political game but is not compelled by it nor uses it to hurt others. Practitioners are the most successful in the long run.

Foundations of Political Play Political activity involves the recognition of and the actions associated with the exercise of power in an organization. In any organization, some people have more power than others. In any organization, those who have less power would often like to have more power. To gain more power, they try to align themselves with those who have power. Our work world is permeated with competition for resources, time, customers, and rewards, and this fact forms a major reason for the existence of politics in organizations. While this simple existence of competition is neutral, we can either compete fairly and for good purposes, or unfairly in order to damage people. Do not assume the exercise of power is a zero-sum game with clear winners and losers. Power used well leads to outcomes that are good for all the organization. Whether politics are beneficial or destructive is determined by the way in which power is exercised and the way in which we align ourselves with the powerful. If I wish good things for myself and for my team, I must be prepared to compete on our behalf.

Alliances One of the key ingredients of political play is planning and organizing alliances to give your projects and interests the best opportunities for success. Everyone in an organization, including the CEO, needs the support of others to accomplish an agenda. By gaining allies among people with power and enlisting their support, you can advance your causes. How do you gain the support of those with power? Recall from Chapter 3 that people are focused on themselves. When you can show how your cause benefits theirs, they are much more likely to support you. Making the argument for their support is often rather straightforward. If your boss is expected to increase sales this year, demonstrate how adding resources to your project will allow you to finish ahead of schedule and then forecast the increased revenue that an early finish will provide. Just because people are focused on themselves, do not assume their objective is more money or more power. Remember this caveat about motivation from Chapter 4: I believe I am motivated by intrinsic factors while I believe others are motivated by extrinsic factors. Be sure to understand what really motivates them.

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A complementary effort is needed to avoid provoking the ire of powerful people. Such people can thwart you if they perceive they might lose through the advancement of your agenda. While political play is certainly used for advancement, people also seek guarantees that actions taken by others will not be harmful. Your powers of persuasion and influence can perhaps demonstrate that what you are proposing will benefit them. At the very least, listen to and express an interest in accommodating their concerns. Unless they are pathological, most people respond well to a genuine overture, and they will respect you for it. The wrath of powerful people is often incited when they perceive you discount their power or do not recognize their interests. Offer some respect, and it will serve you well. For similar reasons, you never want to surprise someone with bad news or cause him or her to lose respect in a public meeting. It will be too tempting for them to use their power to hurt you in return. Deliver bad news in private so the recipient has time to digest it and prepare a public response. You would want the same courtesy from someone else. Our work in an organization is inexorably linked to and affects many others. Can you see how others would be interested in what you are doing and how it would affect them?

Homework and Groundwork To play politics well, two major initial ingredients are required: homework and groundwork. You need to understand the power structure in your organization and the interests of those who hold power so you can package your agenda to accommodate theirs and take steps to assist them in meeting their objectives. Groundwork is necessary because you must build support informally or in private before you take steps formally and in public. Consider the following situation: Next month, your division head will accept proposals on projects to be funded for the following fiscal year. You have a great idea to offer, and you intend to submit a proposal. Several peers in your division will likely do so as well. You do not want to just work on your own and then walk into the meeting with your proposal. To increase your likelihood of receiving funding, start with some homework. Can you determine how many projects will be funded and how much money is available? What are the current “hot buttons” for the organization? What criteria will be used for selection, and who will make the selection? Who else intends to submit a proposal, and what are they suggesting? After your homework comes the groundwork. Visit with the people who will influence the outcome to be sure you understand their selection criteria. What are their problems and needs? Can you team with any of your peers and submit a joint proposal? A team proposal is often judged

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favorably. Look at how you can leverage resources from elsewhere and show the payoff of your project. If someone is unwilling to support or join your efforts, at least try to reach an understanding that they will not thwart you. Prior to the meeting, test your ideas, build alliances privately, and make sure your proposal meets or exceeds the success criteria for the projects. When you enter the public meeting next month, you want to make it easy and obvious for your division head to award your project.

Focus on the Relationship Many people approach political opportunities as discrete transactions and try to balance each one fairly as a negotiation. It may be tempting to approach political activity from a selfish perspective and concentrate on what I want, grudgingly providing favors when pressed to do so. I once encountered an overt opportunist, and he actually used the term quid pro quo when bartering for me to return a favor. I never had anything more to do with him after that request. Political behavior naturally requires give and take, but explicitly asking what you will receive in return for providing a favor may be perceived as unbecoming. The best political players focus on the long-term relationships instead of trying to optimize political transactions. As with interactions in any relationship, political interactions tend to balance naturally over time. If not, it is time to change the relationship or move on. To be perceived as a welcome political player, portray a sense of poise. Do not always come around with your hand out; be willing to provide favors with no strings attached. In a related way, it is important to spend time with your associates with no agenda. Such effort strengthens these relationships and builds trust. Expert political play requires good relationships with associates, those with and without power. Demonstrate that you are poised and trustworthy, and people will be drawn to develop alliances with you.

The Hidden Organization While an organization may have a formal organizational chart with a defined hierarchy, every organization also has a hidden and informal power structure that may be based on various criteria. A formal organizational chart may have a structure as in Figure 10.1. Here, power flows from the top down through the organization. In reality, the power structure is more complex and resembles a web, as in Figure 10.2. In this figure, the CEO position is shown as the bold oval; particularly strong and powerful relationships are

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Figure 10.1  Formal, hierarchical power structure of a typical organization.

Figure 10.2  Informal, web-like power structure of an organization.

shown with bold lines, while weak relationships are shown with dashed lines. The formal executive management stills holds the most power, but others throughout the organization wield considerable power as well. An engineer with several decades of experience may be given nearly as much deference as the individual who has been CEO for only three months. Many people with military experience recognize that noncommissioned personnel in charge of procurement hold enormous power over their units. To play politics well, you must understand this hidden organization and the powerful who inhabit it. Also understand where you fit in the informal organization to act with appropriate deference to those who are higher in status.

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Sources of Power People can derive power from several sources in an organization. Obviously, occupying a supervisory role conveys power through the ability to hire, promote, reward, punish, and fire others. Those in the organization who specify or approve budgets, the allocation of personnel, or other resources, also hold power, because these resources are necessary to perform work. Information often conveys much power in an organization, particularly to those who are privy to “inside” information. Various other people in the organization may be accorded power for reasons such as their age, experience, expertise, or other factors. Finally, ideas also hold power in an organization. As we mentioned in Chapter 7, a vision that fires the enthusiasm of the group can provide an amazing source of energy. As Victor Hugo said, “An invasion of armies can be resisted, but not an idea whose time has come.”

Becoming an Effective Practitioner To be a political practitioner means always being a student. As noted above, before undertaking any serious political activities, take time to do homework and groundwork. Identify individuals who seem successful at the political game and determine what actions have contributed to their success. It is also worthwhile to note any actions that have been punished by the system to avoid similar mistakes. A mentor with considerable experience in the organization can help you understand the political landscape. But realize that sustaining a mentoring relationship also depends on your doing something to help your mentor. Pay attention to the stated and hidden objectives of your department, your superior, your division director, and the company as a whole. While these should all align, there may be subtle differences. Perhaps the key objective this quarter is to cut costs—organize your work accordingly. After time spent in observation, you are ready to spread your political wings. Take a look at your current projects or tasks. Who in your organization could help your work be more successful? Are there obstacles or major decision points on the horizon? It might be worth a visit with key players to “grease the skids.” Do you have something to offer, including your time, to help a superior meet her agenda? Volunteering to help is a great way to develop your network and increase your visibility. For related ideas, go back and review Chapter 7—taking leadership to solve problems that are important to your superiors will substantially help your own interests.

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Is there some bad news associated with one of your projects—news that has been kept under wraps? You should inform those who might be affected by it, and the sooner the better—in private, of course. You should always try to make your boss look good; doing so will help you immensely. On the other hand, if your boss is incompetent, you have more important things to worry about—like getting assigned to a new boss. Lastly, know your limits as to what you will and will not do for the sake of political gain. Successful practitioners of politics are ethical people, and they do not get dirty for the sake of political gain. Stooping to unethical or mean behavior always comes back to haunt you.

Avoiding Missteps Being an effective practitioner is as much about making good political moves as it is avoiding political blunders. Here are a few common political missteps that can get you in trouble. Information is a source of power, and gossip is often its most powerful form. While it is great to be connected to the grapevine, resist spreading rumors and criticizing people behind their backs. You never know when your words will be repeated to someone in power who is disturbed by candid remarks you thought were shared in confidence. Act and speak as if every conversation were being recorded. If your boss is incompetent or thwarts what you know to be right, you may be tempted to make an “end run,” to go around your boss for results from higher in the organization. It is a tough call to make because your boss can retaliate, but sometimes the end run is appropriate. Be certain you have a political ally, perhaps your mentor, who is more powerful than your boss. Often, an appropriate alternative is to make your move carefully in writing and copy your boss so that the move is done openly. Early in my career, I had a get-acquainted meeting with a new department director—the superior to my boss. It was an innocent meeting, but I had not informed my boss of it prior to the meeting. When he happened to see me visiting with the director, my boss was upset. I learned through that mistake to be careful with any perception of the end run. Romantic relationships at the office can complicate or wreck your career. Many organizations have policies against office romances, even when they are done in the open and are aboveboard. I would not want to discourage anyone from finding true and lasting love, but use caution. A failed office romance can make life difficult for you both. Avoid the temptation to deny truth and promote fantasy, whether done to gain an advantage or to protect yourself. The truth will catch up with you, and then you will be known as someone who will fabricate lies. Some

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organizations are so dominated by opportunistic and cutthroat politicians that work becomes an alternative universe full of lies and deceit. If this describes your surroundings, you may want to move elsewhere—there are many decent organizations for which you can work. At the end of the day, you must look yourself in the mirror. Would you sell your soul for political gain? Would you mislead yourself and others and create lies in the hope of personal advancement or personal protection? It is never worth it, and a proficient practitioner of politics does not agree to such a bargain. Becoming adept at playing politics is important to your success as an engineering manager. Are you in charge of a project that is close to your heart? What about the people who work for you? They, too, depend on you and your proficiency at playing the political game. In my experience, few organizations exhibit repulsive political behavior. The good news is that while all organizations are political, most are fairly benign, if occasionally quirky, with their politics. It is possible to enjoy the game of office politics and to play it effectively. Doing so can reduce your level of stress and increase your satisfaction with your work. People who are adroit practitioners of politics do so with confidence, graciousness, composure, benevolence, and class. Most of the time their moves are unobtrusive, but they are not afraid to act decisively in their power when they encounter a bully. As a manager, politics will play a significant role in your work. Consider this as a positive development in your career. As you grow in responsibility and authority, you have more encounters with people who hold power. Your influence and your power will grow too. While this development will benefit you individually, I hope you also come to realize the deep satisfaction that results from using your political power wisely to bring about great things to benefit many people.

Reference [1] DuBrin, A. J., Winning Office Politics, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990, p. 1.

Selected Bibliography King, P., Conversation Tactics: Workplace Strategies (Book 4) – Win Office Politics, Disarm Difficult Coworkers, Get Ahead & Rise to the Top, �Plain Key Media, 2016.

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition McIntyre, M. G., Winning at Office Politics: How to Achieve Your Goals and Increase Your Influence at Work, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005. Reardon, K. K., The Secret Handshake: Mastering the Politics of the Business Inner Circle, New York: Doubleday, 2000. Rust, D., Workplace Poker: Are You Playing the Game, or Just Getting Played?, New York: HarperBusiness, 2016.�

CHAPTER

11 Managing Up, Down, and All Around Even the frankest and bravest of subordinates do not talk with their boss the same way they talk with colleagues. —Robert Greenleaf

Takeaways  You will need to guide interactions with many individuals above and around you in your organization, most notably your superior.  These interactions should be grounded in the strategic direction of the organization and how your specific responsibilities relate to it.  Your interactions will be based primarily on influence, particularly in a matrix organization. While the title of this chapter is meant to be eye-catching, one needs to be careful with applying its intent. In Chapter 9, we focused on managing your team, meaning your immediate team. Now I will suggest you consider a larger team to which you also belong, but one that is very much related to the first. This second team encompasses many more individuals in your organization who are directly or indirectly involved in the efforts of your team and hence your own efforts. This larger team includes your superiors and certain of your peers. Part of your job is guiding them in a way that complements and supports what your team needs, and vice versa. One might say you are managing in 360 degrees.

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Your projects and other assignments likely originate above you in the hierarchy and will presumably flow to you through the individual to whom you report. Projects come with sponsors who may be located above you diagonally in the company structure. Others located at various places in the organization could help or hinder your efforts; for example, a team leader in manufacturing may be your peer in the hierarchy but could be particularly relevant to the success of one of your projects. One of the themes we proposed in Chapter 9 was that each individual team member takes full responsibility for the team deliverables and outcomes. What applies to your immediate team also applies to your extended team. You need to be responsible for and attend to any action that will bring about successful outcomes. That is really what “managing” means. But here we need to address the eye-catching title above and the different connotations of managing for your two types of teams. Managing subordinates is quite different from managing superiors and peers. If you manage up and all around the same way you manage your subordinates, you may find yourself in a spot of trouble. In the context of superiors and peers, think of management as synonymous with lots of communication, influence, collaboration, and participative decision making. Whereas with a subordinate there is latitude for providing direction and guidance, such an approach with superiors and peers will likely be judged inappropriate. You have much influence over the agendas your subordinates follow. With peers and superiors, you must appreciate that their agendas may be different and seemingly in conflict with what you need. Finally, your peers, and especially your superiors, are very busy people. Keep your interactions succinct, to the point, in accord with strategy, and leading into action. To be effective in your position, you will need resources, decisions, support, and guidance from potentially many others in your organization. These inputs are far too important to your work and your happiness to leave them to chance. Perhaps others in the hierarchy should be attentive to your needs, but don’t count on it. And don’t approach this effort as one that is centered on your project and your team. Your work must be aligned with the strategic direction of the organization, so what you are really after is accomplishing that which helps your superiors and peers accomplish their work. Managing superiors and peers is about action and progress toward objectives—it is the exercise of initiative and leadership. In its absence, your work can potentially fall behind or deviate from what superiors expect. As with themes from Chapters 5 and 7, it is less about attempting to control them, but much more about changing your own behavior. Every relation-

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ship is like a dance involving two partners. Either partner can change the dance, and in so doing change how the other dances. Managing in 360 degrees may initially seem daunting, especially if you are new to the role of management. As with any other new endeavor, it will take time to become skilled, so give yourself room to experiment, make mistakes, and grow. Ultimately, you will likely find your collaborative interactions around the organization to be rewarding. It all starts with alignment.

Strategic Alignment We will talk more in depth about your organization’s strategy in Chapter 14. Do you know and understand the company’s strategic direction and the reasons for it? If not, you should. Strategy is used to guide the direction of the organization, and it should also guide the numerous decisions, large and small, that its employees make. Along with mission and vision, it is, or should be, the common thread that connects the various activities and people in the organization. Mission is the reason your organization exists, vision is where it is going, and the strategic plan is the road map to get there. Your role and your duties must align with all three. More to the point of this chapter, strategic direction should be the foundation of collaboration with others, whether it is your superiors, subordinates, or peers. When there is alignment of objectives, coordination becomes much easier and rewarding, and you are less likely to be at cross purposes with colleagues. Often our immediate needs place us down in the weeds with details. Of course, details must be addressed and settled, but we should regularly make sure what we are doing in the weeds is consistent with the bigger picture. Knowing your company’s strategic plan is one thing; being happy with and committed to it is another. At companies I visit for consulting or training engagements, I find it both sad and troubling to hear cynical comments about the organization’s strategy. I perceive this comes about for two main reasons: (1) unless one is in an executive position, it is easy to be insulated from the market and competitive environment that has led to the strategy, and (2) dynamic and constantly accelerating changes in the environment necessitate changes in strategy to come often. Those in middle and lower levels of the organization often second guess strategic decisions. It is easy (and correct) to place responsibility on the disconnect with executives for not communicating the reasons for the strategy. Don’t wait on them to do so. Make it your responsibility to not only internalize the strategy but also see the forces that led to it. In other words, make your organization’s strategy your own and be able to explain and defend it. Why? Because to be effective in collaboration, you will need to do just that with those cynical

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people in your own organization when you encounter them. Consider that an executive may state the importance of maximizing shareholder value. This phrase is meaningful to investors and to stock analysts, but it may be perplexing to engineers on your team. Maximizing shareholder value means the business is following a strategy to ensure investors get the best possible returns. Why would that matter? As we will discuss in Chapter 12, investment is one of the sources of funds for projects, the ones you and your team may be working on. Pleasing investors by maximizing their returns makes it possible for there to be interesting and rewarding work.

Collaboration with Your Boss For most people, the relationship with your superior is the most important one at work. You may recall the adage I mentioned earlier: People don’t quit their jobs; they quit their bosses. This truth was confirmed by a recent Gallup poll which found that about half of employees left a job to escape a manager. This finding suggests that either there are a lot of bad bosses around or that people are not getting what they want from their supervisors. Your direct superior is the person who has the greatest influence on your success and happiness, therefore it is critical that you take steps to nurture that relationship. One of the most important pieces of nurturing this relationship is understanding your superior as a person and the role the person inhabits. Your boss has certain responsibilities, and there are associated expectations placed on him or her. What are they? Where do you and your projects fit into the big picture of your supervisor’s role? Respect the fact that this role is important and quite possibly stressful. You are doing this homework in part to relieve stress on both of you. As you study the individual, you will find someone with strengths, weaknesses, idiosyncrasies, and even flaws. How do these characteristics support or hinder his or her role? Your effort here is not to judge, but to understand and use this knowledge to plan your interactions. As the next part of this effort, perform some self-examination. What are your own strengths, weaknesses, idiosyncrasies, and yes, flaws. One aspect of analytics in professional athletics considers how the composition of the remaining team affects a given player’s performance at any given time. You are essentially doing such an analysis here, although you will be “in the game” with your boss for an indefinite period. The intent is to get a good handle on how well the two of you mesh together and where you may need to focus your attention. Much of what you are doing here is observing and paying attention, using your emotional intelligence, which will be addressed in Chapter 23.

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Does your boss communicate proactively? Great! If not, you will have to redouble your efforts in this department. Does he seem stressed by too much on his plate? Demonstrate how he can offload some of the work to you and ensure that it gets done well and on time. Ultimately, you hope to use your strengths to complement his and to be aware of and lessen the impact of weaknesses in both of you. With your supervisor, your goal is to communicate often and substantively. Unless you are blessed with a great boss, this communication will largely fall to your initiative. Really understand his expectations of you. The techniques of presence and active participation in Chapter 23 will help you in this endeavor. You will also need to ask how the expectations of you fit into what is expected of him. Where possible, ask for documents or other resources that outline strategic direction or a project portfolio so that you can have alignment with them. On occasion, a superior will be mistaken on the direction for your work, and that is something that needs to be settled, diplomatically of course. Much of your regular communication will involve ongoing projects. In these communications, demonstrate that you have summarized facts, simplified issues, provided options, and given recommendations as appropriate. Consider also how your recommendations will make your boss look good. You want to take steps to minimize the amount of work she must do and to streamline your time together. You are far more likely to have a good experience with your superior if you take responsibility for making it one. Doing so provides you with a feeling of power. Over time, you will get the sense that you are using your influence to guide the relationship in a meaningful and beneficial direction. Your guidance should benefit you both and be rewarding to both.

A Problem Boss It is certainly possible you may be assigned to a superior who is in one respect or another incompetent, a poor match for the role, or even toxic. The first two of these are preferable to the third because you can take steps to overcome deficiencies. This is particularly true if the individual is benign or good-natured. He or she may even appreciate you pitching in to make up for a weak spot. On the other hand, a boss that is defensive or paranoid about a deficiency will be problematic. In all things, you must proceed gently and diplomatically so as to always respect and bolster his or her social status. Two resources, while not directly related to the topic, give guidance on how to make sense of many problem bosses. When our oldest child was an infant, he did not sleep very well, meaning his parents did not sleep well.

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I happened upon a book that helped enormously, and its message was one I carried into the workplace. While I have long since forgotten the title of the book and its author, the message was that when kids drive you crazy, it is often because they are going through or struggling with a developmental step; accordingly, what they really need is calm guidance and reassurance through the transition. In short, they need an adult. In our case, his restless night reflected anxiety over sleeping apart from his parents. What ended up working over time was a reassuring and soothing routine. While sleep deprivation tends to bring out the selfish child in a parent, understanding that it was a transitional phase helped us parents tremendously so that we could avoid either acting out in anger or by postponing for him the temporarily challenging transition of learning to sleep alone. I came across the second resource while working on a master’s degree in organizational leadership; it was a paper with the intriguing title of “The Functions of Dysfunction: Implications for Organizational Diagnosis and Change” and authored by William A. Kahn. Its premise was that organizational dysfunctions actually serve functional purposes. What appears to be irrational behavior has a rational purpose beneath the surface. The paper reported on the staff of a residential treatment center for at-risk boys with emotional and behavioral problems. Staff members exhibited toward each other various acting-out behaviors that threatened the effectiveness of the organization. The breakthrough that Kahn reported involved the emotional difficulty of the staff’s work. Workers experienced strong emotions that included sadness, guilt, anger, fear, anxiety, and hopelessness concerning their difficult work with the troubled residents. Staff members had to suppress these strong emotions while working with the kids. But strong emotions need an outlet, so staff acted out these emotions in other ways. When workers were able to regularly talk out their emotions in an appropriate setting, the acting out diminished, and organizational performance improved. My point in mentioning these two resources is to reconsider how you view the “problem” presented by your problem boss. It is absolutely to be expected that we initially perceive someone’s irritating behavior as his or her flaw to be corrected. I am suggesting you mitigate your judgment of the behavior a bit and see it more as potentially the rational outcome of factors and associated emotions that may not be initially apparent to you or even to the boss. I have found it uncanny how strong emotions can drive all sorts of seemingly dysfunctional behaviors in myself and in others. None of this is to suggest you should ignore or discount poor behavior, especially what is destructive, unethical, or abusive behavior. My point is, through study, be the adult and help guide your interactions with the boss in a healthy direction. Again, this must be done in a respectful and sensitive manner. In the best case, your calm and steady confidence will really lead to

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a change for the better; it will certainly help you feel more in control. Even in the worst case, with no real change, you can still hold your head high knowing you tried to bring about worthwhile outcomes. But remember, in any relationship, you should not expect to change the other person—that strategy is likely to be resisted. By changing yourself, you will change the dynamic, and in so doing, the problem boss may choose to change. If your boss is truly toxic and potentially out of control, there may be little hope for a reasonable path forward. You will have to use your judgment and your organization’s HR policies and resources for guidance. If you see damaging behaviors, so do others, and you will probably find allies who can take action. Always be aware of the possibility that the toxic person is politically well connected and can retaliate. If your situation is insufferable, you can potentially ask to be transferred to another position and perhaps consider changing employers. Life is too short to tolerate a toxic workplace. But life also calls us to more than passive complaints about the behavior of a boss; it calls us to be the adult, and in so doing offers the potential for beneficial change in the organization.

A Great Boss Hopefully you will get the opportunity to work for one or more great bosses in your career. Perhaps the defining characteristic that makes a boss great is that he or she brings out the best in their charges. Two considerations should guide the relationship with your boss and guide your approach to your work while under his or her supervision: The first is to make the most of this rich learning and development opportunity. Whenever you encounter a master in an arena in which you are an apprentice, that is the perfect time to pay attention, take notes, and model his or her thinking, attitudes, and behaviors. Perhaps best of all, your boss has likely already built a solid network and will be promoting you to it. It is as if someone has sent you to an outstanding university and is paying you for the privilege. With such a privilege comes responsibility, and while you are the apprentice, the responsibility is to learn well and to practice what you learn. The second consideration concerns the practice part, and it is to avoid the natural temptation to coast. While a great boss will probably challenge you to grow, he or she will probably also not be pushy about it. Because this boss is masterful and has good people skills, work can seem easier than with a boss who is not so skilled. It may be tempting to coast while times are good. Resist this urge, however, and give it your best.

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Collaboration with Peers For this discussion, I use the term “peer” somewhat loosely to refer to individuals who are roughly at your level in the organizational hierarchy. They include other engineering managers, but they also include individuals in other functions such as marketing, manufacturing, graphic design, and others. In some cases, you may be assigned to a cross-functional team with diverse members. In other cases, peers may work on different assignments that seemingly compete with yours for resources. Your interactions with most peers will be far less involved than with your boss and your subordinates, but you will work closely with certain peers. Much of what we have said regarding the relationship with your superior also applies to your peers: Be proactive in communication, keep sight of how your work and theirs complements the big picture of strategy, orient your efforts to solutions, and be creative in problem solving and decision making. It is worthwhile to address the subject of silos as it relates to peers and others who are in different functional units. One often uses the term “silos” to describe poor communication and collaboration among functional units in an organization. The mental image tells the story: A silo is made of an impermeable wall of metal or concrete. When organizational silos are present, units insulate and protect themselves against interference from other units. All decisions are made at the top of the silo, and collaboration among subordinates is strictly metered. The prevalence of silos in an organization suggests that turf and resources are being guarded. This arrangement stifles collaboration, innovation, and agility.

Matrix Organization As we will discuss in Chapter 18, many businesses that perform projects organize their structure as a matrix. In this arrangement, employees report to a functional manager for administrative purposes, but when assigned to a project, they will report to the relevant project manager for that project. If you are a project manager in such an arrangement, you may have little or much power depending on the organization. If it is the former, your interactions with functional managers will be largely based on how well you can influence decisions. Such skills are important, for example, when there are conflicting needs for one of the members of your project team. While you report to a superior, when you are also a project manager, you likewise report to the project sponsor, the individual who commissioned your project. As with your superior, you will need to really nurture your relationship with the sponsor and initiate communication often. Because

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you are likely to be lower in the hierarchy than a functional manager, you will need the sponsor to settle any conflicts with others that involve your project. As is the theme with the other collaborations in this chapter, your “home base” on all matters involving project resources is strategic alignment along with creative problem solving. Such an approach tends to counteract turf battles and the effects of silos. Your project is presumably important to the organization, or it would not have been commissioned. Make sure you understand its strategic importance and can articulate it in conversations and negotiations with others. Better yet, be passionate about the project and what it will do for the organization. People naturally want to support or be part of a winning effort. Listen to the counterpart in the matter and respect the position; their interests are also presumably important to the company. Be prepared to engage in creative problem solving—you are better off with a win-win outcome where possible. If a matter has to be escalated to the sponsor for resolution, make your case according to the importance of the outcome for the organizational strategy. If the sponsor or someone higher chooses otherwise, honor the decision and make the best of it. It is often tough for such individuals to have to choose between or among projects that all benefit the company. This is a good place to emphasize the benefit of keeping your project on track for schedule and budget. Ideally the project resources, including the team, are protected over the duration of the project, as are the respective resources on other projects. If your project runs late, it may be difficult to get the people you need to finish the effort. An important attitude in being a competent and effective manager/ leader is refusing to make excuses, be passive, or be a victim. You cannot be effective in your role as an engineering manager and simultaneously remain a passive victim. Do not wait on others to give you the information, guidance, or decisions you need. Seek them out on a regular and timely basis. Understand them, their roles, their aggravations, and their constraints, and give them the benefit of the doubt. You are all there to do great things and enjoy collaborating.

Selected Bibliography Gabarro, J. J. and J. P. Kotter, “Managing Your Boss,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 7., No. 3, 1993: pp. 150–157. Harvard Business Review, HBR Guide to Managing Up and Across, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2013.

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition Hayashi, S. K., Conversations That Get Results and Inspire Collaboration: Engage Your Team, Your Peers, and Your Manager to Take Action, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013. Tulgan, B., It’s OK to Manage Your Boss: The Step-by-Step Program for Making the Best of Your Most Important Relationship at Work, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010.�

Principle 2: Seeing the Big Picture A successful business is composed of numerous interrelated pieces that must work together. While an engineer often concentrates on a narrow area of technical work, a manager must think and act globally to accommodate and integrate diverse interests and considerations. It may be tough for the engineer to accept that the essential objective of a business is to generate a profit, but this motive must be embraced for success as a manager. It can also be challenging to develop plans and a coherent direction in an uncertain business world. �To be successful, the engineering manager must visualize the big picture, articulate the overall objectives, and organize pieces of the picture even if information is scarce. In Chapters 12–16, we will learn that to see the big picture, the manager …  Recognizes that the objective of every organization is financial health, so work must fulfill revenue or profit goals;  Sees the system in the organization;  Develops effective plans even in uncertain environments;  Learns to incorporate the needs of varied constituencies when solving problems and achieving objectives;  Identifies and exploits opportunities.

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12 Now You’re in Business Money talks … but all mine ever says is good-bye. —Anonymous

Takeaways  Money is the fuel that sustains a business and the means by which score on the health of the business is kept.  It is important to understand and be able to communicate about financial matters of your firm.  Take the attitude that you are CEO of your areas of responsibility and coowner of your organization. Imagine yourself as a Neanderthal. As you and the other cave dwellers sit around the community fire, no doubt much of the conversation is about food. You may plan for the next hunt for wooly mammoth. You may be slapping high-fives over this morning’s saber-toothed cat kill. Perhaps Grog is bragging about being named Hunter of the Month for scoring the most kills. There was a good reason for the prehistoric preoccupation with food. One could not satisfy a case of the late-night munchies with a quick trip to McDonald’s. Food took much effort and coordination to obtain it. The very survival of every person in the tribe was in constant peril and dependent entirely on the availability of food and the skill of the hunters.

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Modern organizations are in many ways similar to groups of these hunter-gatherers, but the focus is on money—for a good reason. Without money, business organizations would not be able to start or offer products or services valued by customers. Without compensation for their efforts, people would not work. Money is both the fuel that drives the organization and the measure by which score is kept. While we will focus on money in this chapter, consider that the related resources of time and labor are relevant to creating the value upon which a business serves its customers. People who run companies know there are really only two critical factors in a for-profit business. One is to make a profit, and the other is to generate cash. As long as you do those two things, your company is going to be okay even if you make mistakes along the way, as you inevitably will. If you work for a government or non-profit organization, you still must ensure expenses do not exceed revenue for a relevant period of time. For the remainder of the chapter, we will focus on for-profit organizations, but remember that related concerns apply in government and non-profits. Even if you work at a government or non-profit, you must often consider constituencies that include for-profits and understand their concerns. Those simple rules apply to every business, yet at most companies, people are never told that the survival of the company depends on doing those two things. People are told what to do in an eight-hour workday, but no one tells them how to make money and generate cash. As with corporate politics, one may fall into cynicism about this preoccupation with money. As a fledgling manager, you are now in business— you must be comfortable with wearing the hat of a business owner. You are expected to be knowledgeable and conversant about money and what it means to an organization. You will also be held responsible for your share of the financial life of the organization. Most businesses keep their employees in the dark about the financial life and health of the organization. This is unfortunate because businesses that educate employees about accounting and financial management while keeping them updated on financial performance usually find their businesses to be more robust and successful. Because many engineers study engineering economics in college, we will not cover this topic and the time value of money. Portions of this chapter may seem somewhat basic or trivial. However, the subjects are covered because in my experience in a number of organizations, the majority of people are not familiar with financial performance, nor do they appreciate its importance and relevance to their jobs. We will investigate ways in which money is important to an organization, where it comes from, and how to use it effectively. So grab another slice of mastodon leg, sit around the fire, and let us talk money.

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The Ins and Outs of a Business An engineering model can help us understand the basic nature of a business as depicted in Figure 12.1. The business provides a valued function, but the function comes at a cost—the input of resources that are not free. These resources may include labor, but they can often be reduced to an economic value. Such resources fuel the business. Take away these resources, and the business cannot operate. If the business consumes more in resources than it generates in value, it will eventually exhaust its source of fuel and will need to be changed or closed. Systems do not magically appear out of nowhere. Effort and development are needed to turn concepts into workable and efficient implementations; likewise, to come into fruition, business enterprises also go through a similar design-and-development phase before they (hopefully) reach the stage of effectiveness. A substantial application of resources is often needed to take a business from the concept stage to a viable operation. The ultimate resource for a business is money, which can then be used to buy other resources. Various indices of money also function as a barometer on whether a business is a valued function or a troublesome sinkhole. Money, therefore, is both the fuel that enables a business to function and the measure by which the business is judged.

Fuel for the Organization If money is the fuel that powers an organization, what is the source of this fuel? Obviously, products and services sold by the business to its customers generate revenue. For a mature business, one hopes the revenue outpaces the costs of operating the business so that the business can be self-sufficient. For a business to be profitable, it has to provide something valued by customers, and what it offers to customers has to be priced properly. When looking at your business, understand the total cost of providing your

Figure 12.1  Input/output representation of a business.

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products or services to be sure your prices are set appropriately so there can be sufficient profit.

Investment: Priming the Pump A company consumes resources long before it reaches self-sufficiency. In a similar manner, the introduction of new products or expansion into new markets will require resources that are not immediately profitable. In addition to revenue from customers, the most significant other source of fuel is investment, of which there are two kinds: debt and equity. Investment is the act of putting money to work and gaining a reward for its work in the form of interest or return on investment. People with money to invest have many options of where to put their money (e.g., in a savings account in a bank). Traditionally, business investments offer the opportunity for a better return or higher rate of interest than a bank deposit, but with greater risk. The investor expects his or her money to grow when investing in the business; otherwise, that money will be invested elsewhere. To attract such investment, the business must appeal to the investor. If the business is mature, one can examine its track record to determine the historical return on investment. For a new business, the investor must evaluate other factors, such as the business concept, the technology involved, and the skills of the executive team. Investors generally understand there is risk associated with investing in a business. Whereas a savings account in a bank is often insured by a government agency, there is no such insurance with a business investment— the investor may lose part or all of the investment. To justify this increased risk, an investor expects a considerably higher rate of return on a business investment than with a bank deposit. The concept of investment and return is also applied to individual projects or ventures within a business. The executive management of a business decides how to allocate financial resources—which operations or projects to fund. It also regularly takes stock of how well its investments are doing in the various projects and operations.

Debt: Paying to Use Money When a company uses debt to raise money, it is borrowing money now with a promise to pay it back at a later time with interest. Just as you or I may sign a loan for a house from the bank, various sources will loan money to a corporation to fund its business operations. Many people have the misconception that any business can get a loan from a bank. For a bank to approve a loan, the business must offer

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collateral—something of tangible value such as real estate or equipment. If the business is unable to repay the loan, the bank can seize the collateral and sell it to recover its loan. In some instances, the bank may provide the loan based on a guarantee from a principal in the business to use his or her personal assets for collateral. A company can also issue debt in the form of a corporate bond, a loan to the company that may be provided by other institutions or by individuals. Corporate bonds are not tied to collateral, so if the company falters, the investor may lose his money. Such corporate debt carries a higher risk and should justify a higher rate of return. To help investors evaluate the risk involved, investment rating services grade the quality or safety of the investment based on the company’s performance and the perceived ability to repay the debt. A company with an excellent rating can pay its investors a lower interest rate—and keep more money for its operations—than a company with a poor rating. For this reason, such ratings are taken very seriously by businesses.

Equity: Ownership for Investment Equity in the form of stock is the sharing of ownership in the organization in return for investment. Equity is used to raise money when funds cannot be acquired otherwise, such as for a start-up company. It is also a means to raise very large amounts of money for major businesses that are expanding. Stocks of large businesses are typically traded in public stock markets while stocks of small- to medium-size businesses are traded only in private transactions. For companies listed on a stock exchange, the price of a stock is a direct indicator of the perception of the value of the business, and it affects the money available to the business. For this reason, directors of a company take their stock price quite seriously, sometimes going to great lengths to please both shareholders and professional market analysts. For publicly traded stock, investors have become increasingly impatient with lagging performance. In such companies, there is often pressure to quickly generate profit from new products or services. There is little tolerance for patience. Again, resist the temptation for cynicism over these dynamics; they result simply from the market realities for such companies. The “market value” of a private firm can be derived by a valuation expert or from software platforms that apply such expertise. Such valuations are important when a business is to be sold or acquired. But because valuations reflect the health of a business, they also can guide directors of any private firm on where to shore up deficiencies.

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Budgeting: Where Is the Fuel Used? Budgeting is how an organization determines its needs for fuel and how the fuel is allocated. Many organizations complete a budget process in advance of a given fiscal period to estimate funds that will be needed. These estimates are very important for the organization to make sure that it has the necessary funds when and where they are needed. There is often a considerable amount of time, say six months, from when the funding needs for operations are determined to when the investment is actually available. Businesses typically have more places to spend money than there is money to go around. Remember in Chapter 10 when we talked about being a good political player? One of the ways in which you can exercise your political skills is in your budget recommendations to the executive management for future projects or operations. The director will put her money somewhere—your job will be to play politics well and persuade her that your causes deserve the choice for investment.

Keeping Score Now that we have seen the ways in which money fuels a business, let us look at how businesses keep score with it. Indices of money are used as measures of the value or the success of a business operation. Financial Statements Businesses use various standard financial statements to determine overall performance and the performance of divisions within the company. Your accounting department prepares these statements according to accepted accounting practices. One of the most widely used is some form of the income statement. It shows the revenues received for the business and the expenses associated with the operation over a given period of time. Income statements will likely also be prepared for each division or unit, including yours. It is to your advantage to pay attention to it because consistently underperforming operations will be expected to improve, or they will be reorganized or discontinued. One hopes for the income statement to not only show a profit, but also sufficient profit compared with other potential uses of funds. You may also encounter a statement called the sources and uses of capital. It shows over a period of time the origins of the firm’s money and how the money was used. This statement is useful for quickly seeing how well operations are supporting the business as compared with investments.

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Cash Flow For most businesses, products or services are provided before the customer actually pays cash. While waiting to be paid, often thirty to ninety days, a company must pay its obligations, including payroll. The business must make sure it has sufficient cash at any given time to meet its obligations, a function known as managing cash flow. A cash balance statement can be used to help illuminate upcoming cash needs and expected cash receipts to enable the business to successfully manage cash and avoid borrowing money. Key Metrics The concept of key metrics implies certain measures of the business operation quickly reveal the health of the business. These metrics vary considerably among businesses. For one organization, new orders may be critical; for another, the size of inventory is important; and for a third, the size of repeat orders from existing customers is very telling. It often takes some reflection, discussion, and wisdom to identify such key metrics, but they are very useful to an organization and worth the effort.

Opportunity Costs Many people focus on what happens when they spend money, but there is often a cost associated with failing to spend money when we could have done so. We commonly encounter opportunity costs in new product development, and here is a simple example: Suppose my software development firm will take four months to complete and deliver a new product at a cost of $50,000 per month over the development period. We estimate the product will provide sales of $100,000 per month when it is done. During the project, it becomes clear we will complete the development two months late. Over those two months, we will lose $200,000 in revenue. If we are able to do so, we could consider spending more money to make sure the schedule does not slip. Suppose we could double the resources on the project, then we would meet the original schedule. What a great investment: spend another $100,000 and make $200,000! When hearing bad news of a delayed project completion, many people in an organization focus on hand wringing or placing blame. Obviously, it is important to know what went wrong on the project and to keep it from happening again. It is also important to recognize when spending additional resources can make a big difference. For many organizations, the cost of late completion of a project is huge—it is often a no-brainer to invest more to

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complete the project sooner. Of course, any good idea can go too far. Do not throw money at a poorly run project and believe that it will turn into gold!

Financial Management for Projects For many engineers making the transition to management, their first serious encounter with financial management comes with managing projects. We will talk about project management in considerable depth in Chapter 18 and the related subject of risk management in Chapter 22. For now, we will address general financial considerations for projects. A project is a microcosm of a business, and much of what we have said about the financial life of a business will also apply to a project. While an organization is an ongoing entity, a project is an activity that has a beginning and end. A project consumes resources, so it needs a source of fuel. As with a business, a financial scorecard is kept to confirm the project is performing properly. Funds allocated to the project by the company represent an investment. The investment should generate a sufficient return on the investment to be worthwhile; otherwise, the money will be invested in some other project. Prior to the start of a project, resources must be earmarked for application to the project. The project manager and other key individuals will likely be involved in estimating the project’s proposed budget. There is often pressure at this stage to be optimistic in budgeting, but it is important to be realistic. Budget estimates can be developed through a variety of means, including prior experience, consultation with experts, research on industry metrics, and history with similar projects. Many organizations set aside additional funds associated with the project for unforeseen events, and these are known as contingency funds and management funds. When a project and its budget are approved, the scorekeeping begins. On a regular cycle, the status of the work and key financial metrics on a project will be reported.

Maintaining the Fuel Supply Now let us discuss how to make sure you can always rely on a good supply of monetary fuel. The fact that you can be paid to work is likely because someone believed in your business and took a risk to invest their money in it. Be thankful for and cognizant of such people—they are an important constituency to please. Happy investors are likely to invest more of their money in your organization.

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Some of the toughest times I have encountered in organizations occurred because we had neglected to develop new business during good times and suffered from that neglect later. Many organizations only seek business when it is needed, but one should never stop looking for revenue or funding for projects. As U.S. President John F. Kennedy said in a State of the Union address to Congress, “The time to repair the roof is when the sun is shining.” It may take a long time to build new business with a client. Your organization must constantly develop leads for new customers and generate repeat business from existing customers. As an engineering manager, you are probably responsible for projects or operations, and you are dependent on funding. To ensure your projects continue to have support without interruptions or reductions, resolve to work on an ongoing basis to secure funding as far into the future as is appropriate. Resolve, as well, to be a good steward of your resources. You may be concerned about overcommitting your resources. That issue is important and should be carefully addressed. It may be possible, however, for you to arrange for some background work that is available for slack periods. When I worked in marketing for a small engineering consulting practice, the firm’s traditional income profile over time looked like either feast or famine—hard on the staff and hard on cash flow. I concentrated on submitting proposals for U.S. federal research targeted for small businesses, and we were awarded several contracts. These contracts were wonderful— the work could be deferred for months at a time without threat to the project. We smoothed the roller-coaster ride into a comfortable train ride, an achievement that was very beneficial for the organization. The advice from a parent or other trusted adult to save for a rainy day also applies to your business. Rain eventually finds us all, and businesses that have maintained a healthy cash position can ride through the hard times more confidently than those that continually operate too close to the edge. You can make yourself very valuable to your organization by becoming someone who is successful at landing new business for the company. You may, however, feel your position is far removed from sales, and you could not personally bring revenue into the company. I urge you to think creatively about ways you can generate business. You may be able to find alternative sources of revenue to leverage your existing offerings in an unconventional way. With your technical expertise, you may be a great resource to the marketing department for calling existing customers to encourage repeat business. If you earn a reputation for bringing revenue into the company, you will really gain the attention of your management.

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Sharing Financial Information Before we conclude the subject of money, many organizations experience significant benefits from sharing financial information openly within the company. Stack and Burlingham call this process of open sharing of financial information open-book management [1]; it works because everyone on the staff takes ownership of the organization’s success. It is important that the company’s leaders take steps to educate the staff on accounting and financial management and then regularly and openly share financial performance reports with everyone. Employees take a much more active role once they fully appreciate that their jobs directly depend on and directly contribute to the financial health of the business. It is good to take the perspective that you are the CEO of the operation for which you are responsible, and likewise you are co-owner of the organization for which you work. Financially stable organizations are pleasant and upbeat places to work, with considerably less stress and trauma than in companies where survival is in jeopardy. In 1999 and 2000, I worked for a start-up internet company. When we began, the dot-com boom was in full swing, but soon the bottom dropped out of the market. In less than a few months, the mood of the company changed dramatically from one of euphoria to one of despair. The stress level of the staff went off the chart. There is no substitute for financial health in an organization. Real cash in hand from a customer is far more valuable than all the potential income in the world. Ours and many other internet organizations learned that a business cannot survive without profit and without cash flow. Your knowledge about and good stewardship of money will help your career inside and help build your network outside your organization. Yet after reading this chapter, you may think that one must be obsessive about money to succeed. This is not the case, and, as with politics, it is important to keep money in perspective in an organization. Certainly, money is the lifeblood of an organization, but good relationships with people are more important than money. There are many times when it will be tempting to do something in the interest of saving money, but if it is detrimental to the staff, the action might be a mistake. Be careful about the message you send in the financial decisions made by your company. Money can buy a lot of things for an organization, and it can enable your organization to accomplish great things, but never forget that there are some things money cannot buy.

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Reference [1] Stack, J. and B. Burlingham, The Great Game of Business: The Only Sensible Way to Run a Company, Expanded and Updated Edition. New York: Crown, 2013.

Selected Bibliography Berman, K., J. Knight, and J. Case, Financial Intelligence, Revised Edition: A Manager’s Guide to Knowing What the Numbers Really Mean, Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2013. Case, J., The Open-Book Experience: Lessons from Over 100 Companies Who Successfully Transformed Themselves, Cambridge, MA: Perseus, 1999. Charan, R., What the CEO Wants You to Know: How Your Company Really Works, Expanded and Updated Edition, New York: Crown, 2017. Crabtree, G. and B. B. Harzog, Simple Numbers, Straight Talk, Big Profits!: 4 Keys to Unlock Your Business Potential, Austin, TX: Greenleaf Book Group Press, 2011. Levit, A., They Don’t Teach Corporate in College: A Twenty-Something’s Guide to the Business World, Third Edition, Pompton Plains, NJ: Career Press, 2014. Pink, D., To Sell Is Human: The Surprising Truth about Moving Others, New York: Riverhead Books, 2012. Stack, J. and B. Burlingham, The Great Game of Business: The Only Sensible Way to Run a Company, Expanded and Updated Edition. New York: Crown, 2013. �

CHAPTER

13 Seeing the System in Your Organization Systems thinking is a discipline for seeing wholes. It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing “patterns of change” rather than static “snapshots.” —Peter Senge

Takeaways  It is important to have an accurate mental model of an organization.  An organization can best be described as a complex adaptive system that is self-organizing and in which solutions emerge through interactions.  Systems thinking tools help us to diagnose issues in organizations as well as to identify good points to leverage solutions. As an engineer, you have substantial knowledge about and experience with systems. Some engineers even go deeply into this topic and become systems engineers. We are able to see, understand, analyze, create, and improve elements that both stand apart and interact in a complementary way that together accomplishes a common objective. We can also do all these with the interactions among these elements of a system in what we call a process. The general belief among engineers and non-engineers alike is that an engineering background does not lend itself to the soft skills of management and leadership. For years I held such a belief, thinking the “hard” skills of science and engineering were substantially different from the “soft” skills of management and leadership. I could not have been more wrong!

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This ability to think in systems is one of the greatest skills of an engineer. Such thinking is typically related to physical or engineered applications, such as the travel of a satellite or the operation of a petrochemical facility. It may come as a pleasant surprise to many engineers that social beings (people) and their interactions form social systems for which we can apply systems thinking. Looked upon in this way, the systems thinking skill set becomes a valuable bridge for the engineer who wishes to understand and manage the workings of an organization. This bridge makes management and leadership more familiar. Rather than resisting management and leadership as something outside the domain of engineering, one can now understand that an engineer brings many outstanding qualities into them; indeed, we have already seen that engineers make some of the best leaders. This chapter is about how to take the best advantage of your engineering skill set as you transition to management and leadership. As you would with a physical or engineered system, let us characterize an organizational system, because it is not quite like those physical systems with which you are most familiar.

My Place in the System Engineers do a lot of modeling of components, physical systems, and processes. The vast majority of such models follow deterministic principles and physical laws. Because they do, engineers can make designs that are predictable, repeatable, and reliable. We have previously mentioned mental models. One could apply them to deterministic work, and one could also make use of physical or software models of them as well. If we are to consider an organization as a system, and especially coming from an engineering background, we had best give thought to the model we use to characterize the system. Social systems don’t necessarily lend themselves to physical models. Here we really are talking about a mental model of an organization and its participants. A significant part of the transition bridge for an engineer is seeing an organization as a system and himself or herself as an effective actor within that system. The mental models that one ascribes to an organization and to oneself are critical. A fundamental truth of any system is that a change in any component necessarily causes a change in the entire system. Each of us really only has one complete locus of control, the self, and luckily changing myself necessarily changes my organizational system. Let me emphasize this point: If you want to change your organizational system, change yourself. This self-change can take different forms. Start with examining your beliefs and inferences and be willing to change them. There are many such opportunities scattered throughout this book.

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Try making small behavioral improvements that are repetitive and consistent. You may be surprised to observe the substantial impact of even small changes. You will likely find, as I have, that doing so often makes other, more external, changes more powerful and lasting. Typically, this step will lead to dramatic changes in your interactions with your colleagues, and that will make all the difference in your team and your organization. Leadership begins at home, so to speak. Taking responsibility is an important corollary to this principle. Any outcome that affects the system affects me. There is a huge difference between talking responsibility and taking it. Many teams and organizations talk about responsibility but are composed of members who readily shun what they believe does not apply to them. As with our discussion of team outcomes in Chapter 9, I must choose to be responsible for all the outcomes of the organization. Of course, I am not suggesting taking responsibility for the roles of my colleagues; rather, my point is to never say, “That’s not my job.” As we said near the end of Chapter 12, it is helpful to conceive of myself as CEO of an organization. I have tasks for which I have sole control and responsibility. My work is related to the work of many others, and I have influence over what they do by what I say and do.

A Complex Adaptive System To begin considering the organization as a system, let us use the internet for the purposes of an analogy. The internet has revolutionized global life and unleashed amazing creativity that has led to valuable innovations and advancements across a wide spectrum of activities. At a fundamental level, the internet is a vast physical network in which there are certain protocols for fast and reliable communications. To restate, there is a physical infrastructure as well as something we might call a social infrastructure. The social infrastructure consists of our communications protocols; it embodies the expectations we have for communicating on the physical infrastructure. Suppose those who had created the internet had made it proprietary and had dictated and directed every activity that could ever be undertaken on it? Do you think that approach would have resulted in the revolutionary developments that we now enjoy? The internet has been such a monumental success because it offers an infrastructure or platform upon which many parties can collaborate and innovate. This analogy provides an important lesson to the engineering manager/leader for how to think of an organization as a system, and for what leadership means in an organization.

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Considering an organization as a system is establishing a mental model of it, and one might envision multiple models of the organization depending on the context. For work in an engineering team, what is most relevant is not the domain of engineering work (e.g., designing a foundation), but the process and norms by which engineers collaborate with others. The model we choose should faithfully represent the complexity and dynamism of organizations. Understanding that much of the experience engineers have gained is with deterministic systems, it would be folly to view an organization as such a system. Organizations and the humans in them do not follow completely predictable patterns. An attempt at explicit direction leads to resistance or outright rebellion in many instances. A key piece of seeing an organization as a system is to let go of the automatic association of determinism and systems. A far better and more accurate model of an organization is to view it as a complex adaptive system. This complex and self-organizing system most closely matches the context in which most engineering leaders must work. According to Snowden and Boone, such environments are categorized by change and unpredictability, ambiguous situations, competing ideas, a need for creativity and innovation, and no right answers [1]. Doesn’t that sound like engineering work in an organization? �Leadership in such an environment is characterized by influence and a focus on relationships; change and innovation occur by emergence and sense making in the midst of uncertainty. Let’s unpack these concepts. A complex adaptive system (CAS) is composed of interrelated components that work together toward a common objective. We call these components agents, meaning they have agency, or the ability to act and choose how to act. Right there, this feature makes such a system different from a deterministic system. In the deterministic system, components are unable to act in any way other than their inherent characteristics. A clock acts reliably and consistently according to its design; it cannot act in any other way. On the other hand, the interactions among agents cannot be predicted with specificity. Agents act individually but also as a unified whole that learns from experience and adjusts to its environment. An orderly model of collaboration is attractive because it seemingly can be understood and controlled, but in reality, no one can exert complete control over an organization. To a greater or lesser degree, organizations are self-organizing. In the Great Leader model of an orderly organization, leadership proceeds in a deliberate, top-down manner, and we assign to certain individuals the title of leader. But in a CAS, leadership can occur from any interaction. Instead of being exercised by only a few individuals, leadership emerges throughout the organization as positive influence and innovation

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directed towards improved outcomes. The term emergence means solutions and innovations “bubble up” from agents; managers do not explicitly direct them. Again, think about the operation of the internet; great innovations emerged—a central authority did not direct them. Change and innovation often result from creative tension, a rich term used by Peter Senge [2]. When we visualize the difference between our present reality and the goals we have at some future time, we experience tension. How will we get there? Do we have what it takes? Is it worth the effort? What if we fail? Are these even the right goals? The only way to begin to resolve this tension is to get creative, not only in the context of innovation, but also in the context of generating and bringing solutions to life. One need not deliberately try to establish this creative tension. Most of the time, it comes from observing or questioning. As much as anything, creative tension results when we allow ourselves to step out of the mental ruts we all toil within to see our present reality and future possibilities. In an organization, creative tension stimulates innovation. As the organization innovates, it reorders itself and evolves with its environment. A complex adaptive system is incredibly resilient. “A system that can evolve can survive almost any change, by changing itself” [3]. It goes without saying that many of us work in an environment of ongoing and even accelerating change. Organizations that embrace and adapt to such changes will thrive. To promote the emergence of innovative solutions, the role of a leader in a CAS is to be a catalyst for creative tension and change. Such a leader encourages a rich environment for the organization to flourish. Note that we have now highlighted an important point. In the conventional, hierarchical model, a leader gives directions. Three thought leaders who have extensively explored healthy organizations, Peter Senge, Otto Scharmer, and Darcy Winslow, assert that the better model is for a leader to focus on a healthy social infrastructure that fosters rich collaboration, especially through organizational processes [4]. The team norming processes we discussed in Chapter 9 are excellent examples of such social infrastructure that promotes collaboration. The creation of a healthy social infrastructure in an organization is analogous to the formation of the internet as a platform for applications and communications that were initiated by others. Sense making is another such process. It is the meaning that we derive among multiple possible explanations of our observations so we can develop a response. The earlier analogy of the kids’ birthday party provides a great example of sense making. This complex adaptive system model of an organization may seem slippery and challenging to get one’s mind around, yet it fits with the theme from Chapter 4: Control over human organizations is exercised by letting go of control, influencing creative tension, and then allowing patterns to

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emerge. The internet produced such dramatic advancements in large part because there was no tight control over what could be done with it, as long as the basic infrastructure agreements were followed. Remember that a fundamental ingredient of the CAS is the collection of agents: components that are paradoxically both independent and interdependent. Each is knowledgeable and creative, and with the right conditions, capable of profound motivation, grit, and resilience. Dramatic advancements were made possible by the establishment of the internet because it created the right conditions for rich collaboration and innovation. It your organization, your job is to similarly create the right conditions. The place to start is with yourself. For the fledgling engineering leader, the objective is to facilitate the natural inclination of engineering professionals to collaborate and not work against it. Understanding and embracing the model of an organization as a complex adaptive system may be one of the most valuable tools for an engineer to become a good organizational leader.

Visualizing and Collaborating on Organizational Processes In much of our daily life, including that in an organization, we tend to focus on events and responding to them. While this attention is necessary, it can also be shortsighted when certain events tend to repeat. Systems thinking in an organizational context helps us discern factors that lead to events. This approach helps us see the big picture that is challenging to grasp when we are continually fighting fires. A way to picture this concept is the simple pyramid provided in Figure 13.1, and it represents what might be a conceptual iceberg. At the top of the pyramid is an event. In the moment, all we see or experience is an event at the tip of the iceberg. But if the event is repetitive, there is a pattern to be discovered and characterized. Further below the pattern, there is a structure that supports the pattern that leads to the event. If we can correct or optimize the structure, we can break or improve the pattern and relieve the dysfunction of the event. Let’s look at an example of this concept: A major project review will take place with the sponsor tomorrow morning, and our team is working late into the night to finish the deliverable that will be presented and discussed. This is the first major review on the project. I am new to this organization, so this is my first experience with this event, which is the heroic effort to complete this first deliverable. My fellow team members, all with more experience, pepper the tense work with comments, such as “Here we go again!” and “Why does it always take a big push to complete projects around here?” These acidic remarks reveal to me that there is a pattern of similar events.

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Figure 13.1  Relationships among events, patterns, and structures.

The review meeting went poorly. The deliverable wasn’t quite finished, and the lack of sleep affected the quality of the work and the presentation. After the review meeting, the team seemed to scatter, and not much happened for a few days while the team was in recovery mode. At our next weekly team meeting, members complain about the Event and Pattern, and how this gripe session is typical for the first team meeting after a major deliverable. Having recently studied systems thinking, our team leader Naomi wisely shifts the discussion to investigate the Structure that causes the Pattern that results in the Event. In addition to Figure 13.1, she also sketches two more figures on the whiteboard. Figure 13.2 is a behavior over time graph of the intensity of effort on the project deliverables. It is a sketch that shows the pattern of heroic effort followed by recovery. Naomi then draws Figure 13.3, which is a causal loop diagram to depict what is going on in this repetitive pattern. On this diagram, she writes the letter “R” to show that each trip through the loop is reinforcing, that is, it tends to make the next trip through the loop both certain and more intense. These figures help us to visualize the situation. Their value is that they promote conversation and problem solving. Note that Naomi has included a delay between the conclusion of one deliverable and the start of work on the next. Could this hold one or more clues to the Pattern of heroic efforts to finish out every deliverable? Perhaps this recovery delay means we are late to start work on each new deliverable and are therefore always playing catch-up. Are there other Sub-Patterns elsewhere in the loop that promote

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Figure 13.2  Behavior over time graph of team effort for deliverables.

Figure 13.3  Causal loop diagram of cycles of heroic effort.

the heroic Event? Further discussion may lead us into factors that we can correct to get us out of this self-defeating pattern. This example is an over simplification of what may be complex factors that contribute to the Event we experienced. A real-life exercise in developing such diagrams and analysis would be more extensive with multiple related loops. The point here is to introduce some powerful tools you can use to get to the heart of mitigating problems and optimizing the function of your team. These tools are used to facilitate dialogue, so you can ultimately determine opportune places for intervention. An important systems tool is using such diagrams to identify important places of leverage in organizational processes.

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I encourage you to make use of systems-thinking tools like these for your own understanding of your work and its optimization, but even more so for collaborative problem solving with your colleagues. The Anderson and Johnson book listed at the end of the chapter is a great primer on this topic. The Meadows book goes further to demonstrate prime points for systemic interventions and the very powerful relationship of behaviors to organizational culture. When dysfunctional patterns repeat, people start to say, “That’s just the way we do things around here.” To change an unhelpful culture, we need to understand and change the structure that promotes ineffective behavior. To help you get started, check out the Wujec reference and the related TED talk. He describes an exercise to introduce teams to visualize and discuss their processes using the simple task of making toast. The exercise starts with individuals drawing the process on their own, then they share their sketches in the group. Laughter results over the realization that there are so many ways to make toast. The exercise reveals an important insight: we each see a process differently, and it is in the dialogue that we come to understand it as a group. It is only then that we can effectively work to optimize the process. We commonly take our patterns and models of thinking for granted. The entire point of considering these models is to examine them and not take them for granted. The most powerful place to leverage improvements in organizational work is at the level of these mental models. The systemsthinking tools offer a great way to convert what is cerebral into something more tangible that facilitates examination and discussion in groups. This process is very similar to what you have done repeatedly with engineered systems; now you will be doing it with social systems. One of the most powerful ways to exercise leadership is to act at the system level. But you also know the only place you have total control is over yourself. These two seemingly opposing facts resolve in synergistic fashion when you recognize that change in yourself also changes your system and gives you greater influence over your system. Seeing the complexity and adaptability of your organization enables you to also see and nurture its simple elegance in part with the powerful tools offered by systems thinking.

References [1] Snowden, D. J. and M. E. Boone, “A Leader’s Framework for Decision Making,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 85, No. 11, 2007, pp. 68–76. [2] Senge, P. M., The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, New York: Doubleday, 2010.

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[3] Meadows, D. H., Thinking in Systems: A Primer, White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2008, p. 159. [4] Senge, P., O. Scharmer, and D. Winslow, “30 Years of Building Learning Communities: A Dialogue with Peter Senge, Otto Scharmer, and Darcy Winslow, Part I,” Reflections, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2013, pp. 40–52.

Selected Bibliography Anderson, V. and L. Johnson, Systems Thinking Basics: From Concepts to Causal Loops, Acton, MA: Leverage Networks, 1997. Wheatley, M. J., Leadership and the New Science: Discovering Order in a Chaotic World, Third Edition, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2006. Wujec, T., “Draw How to Make Toast: A Simple and Fun Introduction to Systems Thinking.” DrawToast, June 2013, https://www.drawtoast.com.

CHAPTER

14 Planning: Journey into the Unknown If you are planning for a year, sow rice; if you are planning for a decade, plant trees; if you are planning for a lifetime, educate people. —Chinese proverb

Takeaways  “What should we be doing?” is perhaps the most important question to answer in an organization, and planning gives us the answer.  Our plans must balance short- and long-term planning horizons but be geared toward action in the present.  How we plan is based in large part on context and by observing and adapting. Planning is an important function for those of us in the technology and management fields. Planning is no less than creating the future. Because the future is unknown and somewhat of a moving target, making and executing plans is fraught with risks. Many of us work in business environments that change daily—we may often feel we are trying to find our way blindly in the dark. How can we make and execute plans in a chaotic world where the stakes are high? One day while driving in my car several years ago, I heard on the radio an incredible story of exploration by people from long ago, the wayfinders [1]. Permit me, if you will, to use their story in this chapter as an extended metaphor for the planning and working in contemporary business orga-

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nizations. Their journeys offer rich insights into our efforts to make and execute plans in modern technological organizations. Anthropologists who have studied the settlement of islands in the Pacific Ocean have been struck by the sheer difficulty of the task. Imagine trying to find a few dots of land within more than six million square miles of ocean! Now imagine doing so in uncharted waters about three thousand years ago without the benefit of ships or navigational instruments. While it was once thought that voyagers found these islands entirely by chance, researchers eventually came to discover there was a sophisticated and systematic method for finding these few proverbial needles in an enormous haystack. The migration across and throughout the Pacific began with inhabitants of Southeast Asia who ventured to nearby islands. This migration was relatively easy because the islands were large and close together. As they migrated eastward, the distances between islands increased, so their navigational skills improved. Eventually, at the Solomon Islands, they came to the limit of easy discoveries and faced vast open waters. They had to develop new techniques to successfully reach across the great expanse of the ocean. It was originally believed that exploration was accomplished by “suicide” missions—sending groups on one-way, downwind voyages. According to this theory, if a group found an island, they would settle it. If they did not find land, they would be lost at sea, for the return trip upwind would be impossible. In time, researchers learned the method used for exploration was far more advanced and humane than a risky crapshoot. These people, now recognized as Polynesian, learned to explore the ocean through systematic experimentation and round-trip journeys. Groups of sailors in oceangoing canoes would venture forth for one to two months at a time in search of new islands. If they found nothing, they returned home, and their experiences became part of the community knowledge. That route and that area were now known to have no places to settle. Voyages in other directions would lead to discoveries, and these groups would return to their native island with news of the find. A second group would then travel to the new island to colonize it. In this way, the Polynesians skipped from one island to another, exploring and colonizing in an extremely short time, perhaps only several hundred years. As time passed, these wayfinders grew in expertise, eventually landing in Hawaii and Easter Island, traversing incredible distances of more than two thousand miles in one voyage! How did they find their way? While they were without navigational instruments, the wayfinders did have a highly developed understanding of navigation and position by visualizing the stars and the moon at night and the sun in the day. Even with these signposts, knowing one’s position relative to home required

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the extensive memorization of all movements of the craft over a period of weeks. Visually locating a coral atoll with a low profile in the middle of the ocean is almost impossible unless one is incredibly lucky enough to be within a few miles of it. The wayfinders dramatically improved their skills for locating land by developing techniques to read subtle clues in the ocean and the wind and the behavior of fish and birds—factors that would suggest the presence of land even if the land were as far as one hundred miles away. What does wayfinding have to do with our modern organizations? How can it help us navigate our way in the uncharted waters we face in technology and management? In our work as technical managers, we must plan and strategize. We have been handed nothing less than the responsibility to create the future, to identify where to go, and to get there. To do so, we must plan, first with a broad brush to outline a big picture, and then with a fine brush for specific tasks to accomplish the big picture. If we worked in stable endeavors, it would be relatively easy to plan and implement the plan. But most (if not all) of us do not have this luxury. Our work is subjected to a constant state of change, even unbridled chaos. We are surrounded, immersed in incredible ambiguity with absolutely little or no information on how to proceed. We must commit resources to a plan without knowing for months or years whether we will succeed. We are pressed to act quickly and decisively; much is at stake, and it is stressful to decide. We could roll the dice and embark on reckless organizational missions. Or perhaps the explorations of the wayfinders can shed light on ways we modern day voyagers can plan our challenging journeys.

Themes for Good Planning and Execution Five general and related themes are relevant to our discussion of planning: (1) dealing with the ambiguous future, (2) matching the planning process to the context, (3) maintaining balance among time perspectives, (4) finding congruence within an organization, and (5) executing the plan. Stating that the future is ambiguous is simply stating the reality of life. What is most relevant to this topic is what we do with that reality, and that brings us to context. Some business environments involve operations that are relatively slow to change; for example, multiyear construction projects demand a high degree of predictability over most of the schedule. In contrast, an application for a smart phone involves continually changing technology and stiff competition. In such an environment, it may be difficult to forecast beyond more than a few months into the future. A predictable

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context allows for a longer planning timeframe and plans that are more detailed. When the environment is relatively unstable, short-time horizons and flexibility are wise. Because the latter scenario is more like what most of us encounter, our remaining discussion will proceed accordingly. Here is a trap that catches many in organizations: many people and many organizations crave certainty, and they approach planning as if the future were predictable. This mindset causes enormous stress because plans that are made tend to get set in stone even when later reality demonstrates the folly of that approach. These points suggest that any plan must balance and harmonize shortand long-term planning efforts. What we will do in the near future can and should be planned in detail. Farther down the road is shrouded in mystery. What we do today and this week should build toward something we would want a year from now even if that distant goal is still a bit ambiguous. What is not known today, especially in the realm of technology, must necessarily become more like a research and development effort. The last theme of planning is congruence across the organization, and here again context is important. In some organizations, the operations of various departments are tightly coupled, and in others the connections are weak; nevertheless, in all circumstances, plans must be coordinated into a unified whole that makes sense. The title of this section is a reminder that for all their importance, planning and plans really do not amount to much. It is the execution that makes all the difference. Organizations overwhelmingly report that the execution of their plans is deficient or does not achieve the desired results. Perhaps this is because they employ the typical annual planning retreat. Such events often lead to a flurry of activity for a few weeks, but initiatives stall in the busyness of the present. A better approach is needed.

Strategic and Tactical Planning One part of planning is developing the grand vision, the big picture. In organizations, this is called strategic planning. Strategy provides the broadbrush strokes of the painting, and it is what is discussed in the prototypical planning retreat. Strategy is usually in the domain of executives and senior management, and that may hold a clue for the disappointing execution results. Everyone must own the company’s strategy, not just a few individuals at the top of the structure. As we said in Chapter 11, make it your responsibility to know, believe in, and internalize your organization’s strategy and how your work relates to it. Elements of strategic planning typically involve decisions about and plans for the type of business and markets we would like for our organization.

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An endeavor of this nature does not happen by whim. Organizations, particularly large ones, must follow formal processes for investigating strategic opportunities, deciding on which ones to pursue, then implementing tactics to accomplish the strategies. The conversion of strategy into execution involves tactical planning. In most places, strategy comes alive through the commissioning and execution of various projects. If you are working on a project, it is presumably congruent with and probably the result of the strategic plan. Tactical planning is the process of identifying the specific tactics for how the organization’s resources will be used to achieve the strategic plan. While the strategic plan may be developed at the executive level of an organization, the tactical plans are likely to be developed and implemented at lower levels of the organization. Sometimes when we are operating in the detailed level, it is easy to lose sight of the big picture; furthermore, if the work I am doing today takes me off course, and I continue to stray, I will have a great deal of trouble reaching my destination. The answer to the question, “What should we be doing?” has one answer that applies to the grand vision and another that applies to the task at hand today. The two answers must harmonize, or we will soon encounter difficulty. No doubt this principle resonates with you if you are familiar with Stephen Covey’s [2] primary guiding principle of highly successful people, that they “begin with the end in mind.” It is often fascinating to observe the strategy followed by a company over time. Over several decades, General Electric evolved from a focus on industrial systems to a conglomerate that cut across diverse industries, including finance. During this transition, iconic CEO Jack Welch required that each division be first or second in its industry; any lower-ranking operations were sold or eliminated. Later, GE strategy turned to a digital theme and then returned to its industrial roots. It initiated a breakup of the conglomerate that had seemingly lost its focus. Understandably, individuals who worked within the company over one or more transitions might have experienced a significant upheaval in their work. Yet large firms must make conscious efforts to be nimble and adapt to changing technologies and markets. Employees must trust the senior leaders and what they see in the marketplace.

Systematic Experimentation: Observation and Adjustment Over a number of years in my career, I have been involved in or provided advice to start-up technology businesses. Such endeavors are fraught with risk, and many more of these ventures fail than succeed. One of the top reasons for the failure of new ventures is the inability to adapt to changing

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conditions. This shortcoming is particularly true for entrepreneurs. Many of them conceive of a business idea based on a worldview as they see it. While their customers often see things differently, most customers would be willing to accept the offering if it were changed. Sadly, many entrepreneurs refuse to listen, but those who do adapt have a much better chance for success. What is true for the plans of entrepreneurs is true for plans made by anyone. Do not fall so in love with your plan that you fail to heed what your surroundings are telling you. Plans and journeys are experiments. One cannot adapt a plan without first observing the environment and listening to customers. Nainoa Thompson, a modern-day explorer leading a revival of wayfinding, states, “The majority of navigation is observation and adjusting to the natural environment.” [3] Remain observant and stay flexible to adjust plans to changing circumstances. While one should give plans a chance for success, one should not follow a plan blindly; make corrections and learn as you go. The objective is to be successful, not to prove the validity of a specific plan. As the German general Helmuth von Moltke the Elder said, “No battle plan ever survives contact with the enemy [4].”

Hitting the Box and Then the Details The prospect of arriving precisely at a tiny, faraway island in the middle of nowhere is a daunting task. It is much easier to reach a challenging destination if your initial objective is only to reach the vicinity of your destination. When traveling great distances to a small island, Nainoa Thompson tries first to hit a much larger target, a box that is perhaps several hundred miles across. After reaching the box, he then focuses on the final destination. As Thompson says, “The first part of the journey to Tahiti is not trying to get to Tahiti, but to make sure that you hit this box.” As this perspective suggests, a plan does not have to be perfect or totally complete prior to execution—it only need be good enough to hit the box. It is a misuse of time to make detailed plans for work to be done several years from now. Certainly, one must plan sufficiently well to target the box, but conditions and knowledge will change so much along the journey as to render a long-range, detailed plan useless. In our planning, we can be faced with a variety of factors that may affect the completion of the plan. As we plan and execute the plan, we want to concentrate on the key factors that will affect the success of our plan and avoid getting lost in trivial details. Do not forget the concept of key metrics from Chapter 12. These significant few factors become a key part of the answer to our question, “What should we be doing?” They guide us to set

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our priorities whether our time horizon is today, this month, next year, or a lifetime. Here is another way to conceive of the box for your project. Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist and sociologist at the turn of the twentieth century, observed that most of the country’s income went to a small percentage of people. His observations have come to be known as Pareto’s principle, or the 80/20 principle. In many situations we encounter, only a small percentage of the causes produce the greatest effect. In these situations, there are “the significant few and the trivial many.” With all that said, there still comes a time when we must sweat the details. It makes little sense to travel a great distance across the ocean, reach the vicinity of an island, and never actually land on it. Attending to details in your products and services demonstrate a high degree of care for your customers. They also notice, and do not appreciate, sloppiness with details or when details are inconsistent with the big picture.

Seeing and Feeling the Destination Experienced wayfinders such as Nainoa Thompson talk about reaching a mental state in which they can internally visualize their destination even when it cannot be seen with their eyes, and all visual cues are lost. With experience comes a sense of confidence and calm. We make our best observations and decisions when we reach this state; we make poor decisions when we are stressed and chaotic. In our business endeavors, “What should we be doing?” is perhaps the most important question for us to ask as individuals and as groups. The answers suggest our priorities. The answers determine our destinations. We know innately that random activity will not get us to our destination, so we must plan. I hope this journey with the wayfinders has been interesting and will enlighten your organizational journeys of making and following plans. It is perhaps comforting to know that our ancestors from thousands of years ago learned how to venture without maps and with only rudimentary navigational skills into a vast ocean. We carry in our beings the same skill for navigating complex and daunting ventures in technology and management. Planning is a uniquely human activity. It is as much an instinctive part of our beings as it was for our ancestors from long ago. It is connected to our curiosity about the unknown and our desire to shape the future. We long to reach our destination, savor the accomplishment, and benefit from it. If we succeed, we want to return home and celebrate. If we fail, we still want to return home safely.

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Planning well is key to our ventures into uncharted territory and the magical discoveries and accomplishments that await us there. By doing well at planning, we can make our ventures safe and effective, and we can capitalize on the new knowledge. The most rewarding business endeavors, as with the greatest voyages of exploration, are not only about discovering new places in technology and commerce; in making our plans and executing them, we discover ourselves.

References [1] Evenari, G., Wayfinders: A Pacific Odyssey, DVD, directed by Gail Evenari, PBS, 1999. [2] Covey, S. R., The Seven Habits of Highly Successful People, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990. [3] Thompson, N., “Hawaiian Voyaging Traditions: On Wayfinding,” n.d., http:// archive.hokulea.com/ike/hookele/on_wayfinding.html. [4] As quoted in Donnybrook: The Battle of Bull Run, 1861, by Detzer, D., Orlando, FL: Harcourt Books, 2005, p. 233.

Selected Bibliography Andersen, E., Being Strategic: Plan for Success; Out-Think Your Competitors; Stay Ahead of Change, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2009. Van Der Pijl, P., J. Lokitz, and L. K. Solomon, Design a Better Business: New Tools, Skills, and Mindset for Strategy and Innovation, Hoboken: Wiley, 2016. Zweifel, T. D. and E. J. Borey, Strategy-in-Action: Marrying Planning, People, and Performance, iHorizon, 2013.

CHAPTER

15 Putting the Pieces Together The man who gets the most satisfactory results is not always the man with the most brilliant single mind, but rather the man who can best coordinate the brains and talents of his associates. —W. Alton Jones

Takeaways  Engineering managers are called upon often to facilitate solving problems.  Skill in problem solving requires making sense of many ambiguous or unknown elements.  Keys to problem solving include classifying items according to patterns and experimentation. If you have ever been masochistic enough to begin a five-hundred-piece jigsaw puzzle, you have asked yourself the question, Why did I do this to myself? It is a sinking feeling to be faced with an overwhelming problem or project with no clear way to proceed. Perhaps engineers are better prepared than most professionals to deal with such problems. On the road to becoming engineers, our instructors forced us to solve the dreaded set of simultaneous equations with too many variables. We learned to tame such beasts by applying reasonable starting values to the equations and iterating to a solution. In the world of work, the problems to be solved have human, organizational, and market variables thrown in for fun. As engineering managers, 149

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we are regularly presented such organizational jigsaw puzzles, often with a daily or weekly frequency. These conundrums come in many forms, perhaps the development of a new product, the solution of a stubborn production problem, or a major crisis with company financial losses. A management issue rarely has one correct solution, and if there is one, it is completely unknown. There will likely be multiple correct answers. Or just to make things interesting, none of the available options may be desirable, and you are faced with choosing only the least objectionable one. Oh, and the correct answer today may be entirely wrong next quarter. A key skill for the engineering manager to develop is the ability to make sense of disparate, even conflicting, nuggets of information and opinion and clear a path to a conclusion. Problem solving is a skill that draws on technical skill and the qualities of leadership, conflict resolution, and political mastery. These talents may be applied to forging a path in new territory as with new product development, or in detective work to determine what went wrong on the production run that became a disaster. But it is a skill that should not be exercised alone. Solutions, especially important ones, are best developed collaboratively, as appropriate for the need, context, and situation. As daunting as the task may seem, it is possible to fashion solutions out of the mayhem. Just as with the jigsaw puzzle, with patience and persistence, an organizational mind-teaser can be tamed into a solution or set of related solutions. So clear off the plan table, take a cleansing breath, and let us start to put that jigsaw puzzle together!

Find All the Pieces When you tackle a jigsaw puzzle, it is disconcerting to get well into the project and discover that some pieces are missing. In engineering management work, a missing piece may cause you to reach a poor solution when a better one was available. A number of organizational functions are involved in new product development and have a stake in the outcome. These functions may include technology, engineering, marketing, manufacturing, packaging, and field support. Besides the obvious roles, there are many other support functions in the organization that are necessary for success. If you neglect to include one of these functions, your project will suffer dramatically and will likely require later rework. Just as with an engineering problem, your first step toward reaching your objective is to make sure you define and understand the problem as completely as possible. This may initially seem like an impossible task be-

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cause so many organizational problems are open ended. Here are three suggestions for nailing down the problem: Consider approaching the matter first as a people issue. Who are the key people involved in understanding a problem or in accepting or approving a solution? Visit with each of them, privately if appropriate, to get their viewpoints and inputs. Use this information and attempt to define causes or factors that can be eliminated. Second, what potential influences can be eliminated? If you are searching for the reason why several welds in a pipeline are cracked, can you rule out the possibility that one individual welder’s poor technique was responsible? Write down as many potential nonsources of trouble as occur to you—many times these lead you to a solution more quickly than otherwise. As a third suggestion, consider writing all the separate pieces of information on a set of sticky notes and placing the whole set on a wall. Such notes are a great way to organize your thoughts, especially when collaborating in a group. Consider leaving the notes up on a wall where all team members can see and work with them often—it may take a while for a solution to emerge. By finding all the pieces, you can avoid fretting over potential aspects of the problem that may surface later. You now can get your arms around the circumstances. Perhaps the situation is not as bad as you originally thought. On the other hand, maybe things are worse, in which case you now know to call for help. There is a sense of relief that comes with knowing the issue is defined.

Envision the Solutions While the makers of jigsaw puzzles give you a photograph of the completed puzzle, you may not have an explicit picture of the solution to your organizational problem. It is important that you try to describe a vision of the solution as best you can before working out the details of the puzzle. Envisioning the endpoint is a difficult prospect when your project is entirely new and lacks any obvious points of reference. Remember that early in the process there may be many viable solutions to your issue. For many organizational issues, there is not one final solution, but a set of related solutions that must be synergistic to be effective. You do not want to prematurely focus on one approach; doing so often prompts a tendency for organizational positions to harden, in which case better solutions may never emerge. If you are the leader of the problemsolving or decision-making effort, you would be wise not to dictate your solution to the group from the start. You seek a group decision or solution,

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not an individual one. Is an elusive and time-consuming “perfect” solution really needed? Probably not! Go for a solution that is “good enough.” When identifying the vision, you and your associates are talking about solutions only in very general and broad terms. You are framing the solution you will choose or identifying a frame of reference for it. Within any vision, there will be multiple alternative paths to the final agreed-upon plan. Within the same vision, in the organizational world we not only have many approaches to complete a specific jigsaw puzzle, we also have many different jigsaw puzzles among which we can choose to devote our efforts. If you are the leader for the vision, take what you learned from those simultaneous equations with too many variables. It is important at an early stage that you conceptualize and outline possible visions of the solution, or the organizational direction may never converge. Groups do best when there are a finite few defined choices. Start somewhere and iterate toward the solution. As the leader, you have a delicate balancing act to perform. You need to get the input of many people, but you will likely get divergent viewpoints. Remember that it is a good thing to have a variety of perspectives. While you may aim for a compromise, any solution will be rejected as useless if the group does not own it. You must somehow develop a group consensus, using your leadership and political skills to work out issues and achieve buy-in. You are much more likely to get acceptance for a potential vision or solution if you offer it as an incremental and experimental change. People will consider trying something if they do not need to make significant changes in their activities and if they can reject the path after a trial period if they so choose.

Place the Corners and Sides Once you have agreed on a particular vision for the issue at hand, you and your associates can start to work on developing potential alternatives for solutions. At some point, decisions will be needed for a specific direction, but you and your team will likely need to do some homework to be in a position to make an informed decision. It is often worthwhile to quickly identify some obvious relationships. With the jigsaw puzzle, these pieces are the corners and sides. As you look at your notes, some portions of the issue stand out as relevant or important or as things that should be addressed first as you work out a solution. The corners and the sides of the puzzle enable you to dramatically frame the solution. You and your organization now have momentum toward a so-

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lution. You have quickly given yourself an emotional lift that you will need for the coming steps.

Prominent Themes: The Significant Few The relatively easy work has now been done, and you have many pieces left to the puzzle. Take the next easiest step and group those remaining pieces according to relevant themes. As you look at your notes, does it appear that a number of the issues relate to manufacturing? These can be grouped accordingly. It may be overwhelming to make sense of all the myriad aspects of your problem. Usually a precious few of the issues will dominate the implementation. Can you prioritize the information about your effort to identify the three to five most important issues? You will feel much better after you know where to focus attention. This process is related to Pareto’s principle. For many situations, a few themes dominate. As part of this “significant few” exercise, look for deal killers. Does the total cost of the parts for your new analytical instrument greatly exceed the target price identified by the marketing department? Yikes! Settle that issue before spending much time on anything else. One more important bin to provide is the one for interdisciplinary issues, those puzzle pieces that have more than one subject. Some portions of your problem will not fit neatly into one function or department. Perhaps there is an issue in the handoff of work between customer support and field engineering that requires the direct involvement of representatives from both groups. These are often critical pieces in the organizational puzzle. With these various approaches to sorting and prioritizing, you have made substantial progress toward your objective. You have likely gathered significant information about your issue and you have identified dominant themes. You are in a position to facilitate a decision among the key people to decide on a specific solution or solutions. As an example, at this stage in a planning process, your organization has now progressed through strategic planning and is ready to proceed with tactical planning. The overall vision has been identified, and the important themes that need to be addressed have also been recognized. It is now possible to carry on with the detailed tactical plans, making sure each group continues to complete their particular tactical plan in harmony with the overall strategic plan.

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Experimentation Is Required When searching for solutions to a problem, it is often necessary to experiment. Just as with pieces of the jigsaw puzzle, some combinations will work, and some will not. As you proceed to the conclusion of your effort, there is no substitute for developing prototypes or interim solutions whether the matter at hand is a new product or service or something that is existing but needs improvement or repair. Your objective is to get group buy-in to final solutions—this often requires that people view preliminary results or see, touch, and operate prototypes. Doing so changes their perceptions of the solutions; this is information that you absolutely require. Such test drives will also ease their anxieties and build their comfort level with new aspects of the solutions long before the conclusion of the project. The details of the implementation may not be known when we start; we will create them along the way. With this in mind, when including others in the experimentation, give them more than one option for the solution. Do you remember that choice is an intrinsic motivator? There is a natural inclination in people to criticize and reject something new or different. When offered two or three options, a choice satisfies their urge to criticize, while giving you information that you need to forge a solution. A tool that may help you in your experimentation is called design of experiments (DOE). DOE is a statistical tool that many people in engineering and science use to recognize dominant factors in problems with a number of variables. If you have a meaty problem but limited time or resources, DOE can give you a suitable solution with a modest amount of data by identifying factors that most significantly influence the outcome.

Filling in the Organizational Puzzle As suggested in the quote at the beginning of this chapter, your job now is to proceed to an organizational solution, making use of talents and resources that you can find. Leverage any existing resources or expertise that might relate to your needs so you can proceed quickly to completion of each area without a heroic effort. Do not completely reinvent the wheel—see how many parts you can scrounge from other wheels. Domain experts are valuable for working out the details of your problem bins. You may be able to delegate entire sections of the problem to these people, or perhaps they can help you sort through issues more quickly than you could on your own. You will, of course, consult with people who are politically powerful in the organization, but do not forget to consult with the rank-and-file people to craft a solution.

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Communicate to Integrate Integration is the act of combining resources that were developed separately but must ultimately work as a package. Many engineers are painfully familiar with integration, as with trying to integrate software into hardware late in a project. With your organizational jigsaw puzzle, difficulties will occur when trying to make some pieces fit together. This may be particularly true for the issues in the interdisciplinary bin you created earlier. It will be tempting, but useless, to use a hammer to force the pieces to fit. Here are some alternatives that will help you avoid bashing your thumb: Almost every problem with integration can be traced to a communication failure. Before any work is started, parties that will develop resources separately must describe the particulars of their interface very explicitly and in great detail. One describes the outputs she will deliver; the other describes the inputs he expects. It is equally important to define the criteria for knowing when the handoff is completed. If communication is good from the start, many problems can be avoided. The parties must also inform one another of any later variations from the plan. If you are pressed to facilitate the solution of integration issues, it is a good time to ask a lot of questions and display your engineering skills. It may also be one of the times when it pays to be anal-retentive.

The Finish Line After all your hard work, you have reached the implementation of the solution or, more commonly, the set of related solutions. It represents what you and your associates have understood from the vision to be a workable way to address the relevant issue. Celebrate your major accomplishment, then step back and look. How does your solution appear? You or others may notice some things you would like to change. Don’t become too critical. First, because you had no explicit picture on the puzzle box to consult, the final solution is often arrived at with the best wisdom and decisions based on the information at hand along the way. Second, the limited time available to work on the solution necessarily meant decisions had to be made under ambiguity. Third, because many people are involved, the solution represents the consensus approach to the issue. Individuals may choose to do things differently on their own, but this implementation is the best one developed by the organization under the constraints that were real and present all along the way. Substantive endeavors can only be accomplished when we work together with other people. Our starting point is a belief that the endeavor is

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greater than any of us individually. To realize the vision, we recognize that many decisions must be made along the way. It takes leadership and political skill to identify direction, achieve consensus, and forge social contracts in an organization with numerous disparate viewpoints. The person who can facilitate the blending of diverse voices into a harmonious effort is valuable indeed. Do not forget to frame and display your completed organizational jigsaw puzzle—it is a sign of a job well done!

Selected Bibliography Hoch, S. J., H. C. Kunreuther, and R. E. Gunther, Wharton on Making Decisions, New York: Wiley, 2007. Jones, M. D., The Thinker’s Toolkit: 14 Powerful Techniques for Problem Solving, New York: Times Books, 2009. Kaner, S., Facilitator’s Guide to Participatory Decision-Making, Second Edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007. Montgomery, D. C., Design and Analysis of Experiments, New York: Wiley, 2012.

CHAPTER

16 Embracing Opportunities Opportunity does not knock, it presents itself when you beat down the door. —Kyle Chandler

Takeaways  Our attitude toward seeking opportunities typically reflects a predisposition to either optimism or pessimism.  The ever-changing nature of business requires that we continually look for ways to innovate both what we do and how we do it.  Creative thinking techniques and exercises can help us identify opportunities when none seem available. Is the glass of water half empty or half full? It is an age-old question, one meant to make us think about how we view the world. Are we optimistic or pessimistic? Do we see a life of plenty or a life of paucity? Our answer reveals not only what we see at the present, but also how we view the path from current reality to future possibility. Perhaps we believe water is hard to find, and we will be lucky to have any in the years to come. Perhaps we have enough water, and we are uninterested in the question. Or perhaps we are too busy to even stop and care.

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Being pessimistic or preoccupied can lead us to overlook other sources of water, ones that are possibly much more abundant and readily obtainable. Perhaps we can even find something more valuable than water! Our quest to improve our circumstances leads us in search of opportunity. As the quote by Kyle Chandler suggests, opportunity does not just show up at the door, and it rarely identifies itself as such. Opportunity is created through systematic and diligent work. The pursuit of opportunities is a necessity—in our always-changing technological marketplace, we cannot run on autopilot. Doing nothing or merely continuing with business that is currently effective only guarantees that our organization will soon fall behind the curve. As futurist Dan Burrus says, direct your future, or someone else will. Luckily, we are immersed in a world of opportunities, but relatively few people and even fewer organizations see them or take advantage of them effectively. Opportunity thinking is forward looking in a positive way. It is the attitude that we can and must take steps to ensure a brighter future. It takes a significant, dare I use the overworked word paradigm, shift from a focus on the way things are done now to how differently things could be done in the future. Merely dreaming is just the beginning. The real effort comes with turning the dream into a reality that works for many people. In our businesses, we must invent opportunities. To embrace opportunity is to embrace and to incite change. We are not only trying to see the big picture; we are creating the big picture. To be successful at embracing opportunity means that we must be clever, calculating, and steadfast. It requires creative thought, alignment to the needs of others, experimentation, and considerable effort. And it requires following sound principles of business so the opportunity turns profitable in a timely manner. The 2000s and 2010s have seen the rise of the sharing economy. The term has multiple connotations, including peer-to-peer transactions for transportation and housing, among other arrangements. While not discounting the importance of the development of robust platforms and business models, many cite the Great Recession that started in 2007 as a prime catalyst. If one has lost a job, and finances are tight, a spare room in the house could be rented on a short-term basis as an economical alternative to a hotel room for a visitor. A car could be the means to offer part-time taxi services at a discount over traditional taxis. While the effects of the recession were real and painful, some (e.g., Uber and Airbnb) saw opportunity and capitalized on it by leveraging assets that would have otherwise gone unused. Let us now look at the world of opportunities that awaits us. We will consider why people miss opportunities and different attitudes toward op-

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portunities. We will complete the chapter with ways to effectively seek, create, and capitalize on opportunities.

Missed Opportunities If there are more than enough opportunities to go around, why are not more organizations adept at capitalizing on them? Here are four reasons why people and their organizations have a hard time seeing and exploiting opportunities. We’ll also consider ways to counteract these challenges. Resisting Change The pursuit of an opportunity usually comes at the cost of the status quo, and there are many people in an organization who are quite happy with the status quo. These are people whose position or power derives from the present reality and who may feel they have much to lose if there is change. Ironically, it is often those in middle management who are most resistant to change rather than those higher or lower in the organization. Organizations inevitably gain inertia and become bureaucratic. Bureaucracies fight that which challenges their power. People also resist change because it can be uncomfortable or even frightening. We do not know what the change might bring. We may be forced to learn new skills or a new system. If we resist change, we will be reluctant to look for and to pursue opportunities, and we may only submit to change when it is thrust upon us by a crisis. While it is important to exhibit the appropriate resolve in response to a crisis, it is perhaps more important that we not invite a crisis—or wait for a crisis—to take prudent action. Often, if we are observant, we can readily determine what we should be doing, and we can see trouble coming in the distance. If we wait until crises are upon us, we will find ourselves constantly fighting fires, or we may find our organization out of business. We can avoid much trauma with vigilance and an openness to appropriate change. The guru of the quality management movement, W. Edwards Deming, put it more bluntly when he said, “It is not necessary to change. Survival is not mandatory.” [1] Fear of Failure With an established organizational system, considerable work is invested into developing and improving the system and making it efficient. Many people come to rely on the system. If we change our system, things may not go well—we may upset the apple cart, and our pursuit of opportunity may

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lead to disaster. It is a very real possibility that an attractive opportunity can turn sour. When we pursue opportunities, we should realistically consider the risks involved and our ability to live with the outcome. Many people approach opportunities effectively by taking experimental steps at first before committing to a major new direction. With experimentation, one can more readily judge the true value of the opportunity and its acceptance by the organizational system. Sitting on a Lead Often in sporting events, a team that develops a comfortable advantage during a game or contest may get complacent or defensive: They sit on the lead. Such a strategy may work in a sporting contest that has a finite conclusion, but in many cases, it backfires. Because there is no defined end to the business game, sitting on a lead can be dangerous. When organizations achieve a level of good fortune, it can become tempting to avoid tinkering with success. People may express the attitude, “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” This adage reflects a belief that such success will continue indefinitely if the organization simply continues what it is doing well. If our organization existed in a static environment, this approach might work. But competitors are copying or improving on our products or services. Technological advances are taking place daily. Others are innovating ways to serve the customers and, being fickle, customers may go elsewhere just to try something new. In our ever-changing, fast-paced technological environment, a company’s complacency with success often precipitates its demise! We may soon find our comfortable and seeming insurmountable lead has now vanished. Fighting Fires How often have you or a colleague used the term “fighting fires” to describe a day at work? The phrase reflects a tiresome work life: the chore of constantly confronting and solving crises, with the implication that there was not time to address important matters. It is a demoralizing feeling—with each passing day, the firefighter feels he or she is falling farther behind. We cannot embrace opportunities if we are continually fighting fires. We often feel compelled to respond to the immediacy of an urgent need or request without considering whether it is worth our attention. It is necessary and appropriate to fight fires if they are really important, but if all

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we do is fight fires, and if many of our fires are unimportant ones, we will never accomplish what is important. Any number of people in the workplace will be more than happy to give you ownership of their problems. Don’t become callous and hard-hearted, but providing too much help can promote dependency. This is often a challenging area for new engineering managers. It is tempting to continue to get involved in the details of technical issues. Resist the temptation, however, to get too heavily involved. You must focus on tasks that your team and organization need for you to do. You need to discern and concentrate on what is important. Saying “no” (nicely) is one of the most important skills for a manager to learn, and perhaps one of the hardest. To move from reacting to what is urgent to accomplishing what is important, we must take control of our time, an issue we will talk about further in Chapter 27.

Attitudes Toward Opportunity In his book Opportunities, Edward de Bono [2] describes four different attitudes that people typically exhibit with respect to opportunity. He presents these attitudes through the following caricatures: The train driver likes the idea of being on a track and keeping a schedule. His mission is to follow to perfection his assigned tasks within an established system. He has little interest in considering opportunities. A doctor is primarily interested in problem solving. Her interest is to keep the system healthy and functioning and to solve problems as they occur. When a farmer considers her livelihood, she desires to find ways to maximize the yield of crops on her land. She innovates and looks for opportunities but does so within an established framework. Finally, the fisherman is interested in finding and exploiting opportunities wherever they may be. He goes from place to place searching for fish that are biting, using his creative expertise and experimentation to determine opportunities that will work for him. We encounter all such people in our organizations, and all of them are necessary for an organization to function well. It is the farmers and the fishermen, however, who identify and pursue attractive opportunities. Unfortunately, many organizations typically do not adequately offer them support. To a large degree, encouragement for opportunity seekers must be embodied in the corporate culture. If not, organizations and their bureaucracies have a way of smothering those who embrace opportunity and change.

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Organizational Culture Some industries and some companies exhibit a culture that is slow to change. Others are very forward looking and scour the horizon for interesting ways to innovate. To a large extent, these predispositions reflect both the context of an industry and the constitution of the people who are drawn to it. Organizational culture can oppose or nurture change and those who engage in it. Organizations also exhibit personality types, and these are particularly demonstrated in response to change. What is the culture in your organization? Large organizations tend to develop a certain inertia that can make them very resistant to change and the pursuit of opportunities. Many perceptive leaders of such large organizations recognize this shortcoming and have taken steps to decentralize control to smaller divisions of the company, allowing both decision-making authority and accountability in work groups. Such an approach allows the work group considerable latitude to pursue opportunities without being suffocated by the monolithic bureaucracy present in most large organizations.

Take a Risk, But Do Not Be Risky Risk is inherent in opportunity, so if we wish to embrace opportunities, we must come to terms with taking risks. When we identify and consider opportunities, it is important that we objectively look at risks, being neither paranoid nor nonchalant about them. Here are a couple of guidelines to consider in assessing the risks that come with opportunities: First, we must recognize there is a risk in following the status quo, particularly if our industry is characterized by ongoing innovation. If we continue with our existing approach, our technology may become outdated, or the market may embrace something new offered by a competitor. Far from being a safe bet, the status quo can often be the riskiest path of all. It can lead to eventual failure. Second, as we identify a risk, we must get a handle on the likelihood and potential consequences of the risk occurring. Many risks are relatively trivial, and their consequences can be readily controlled. In many cases, it is very unlikely the risk will manifest itself. On the other hand, some risks hold the potential for serious consequences. We should focus our attention on these significant risks and develop plans to manage them and mitigate their effects on the organization.

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Creative Thinking Given that opportunity must be created, the pursuit of opportunity requires the ability to envision new ways in which to do our work. To embrace opportunities, we must first conceive them, and to conceive them requires creative thinking. We all dig ruts with our thought processes and habits—it is necessary to have order in our lives and in the lives of those depending on us. But our mental ruts prevent us from both seeing what is present and seeing what could be possible. Creative thinking requires both the willingness to more fully observe life around us, and the willingness to challenge our knowledge, assumptions, and beliefs to discover new ways of thinking. I facilitated a turnaround for a team of technical people. This team had exhibited a number of dysfunctions that led to heroic efforts to deliver on commitments, and the members were constantly in a state of stress. At one meeting, I invoked a creativity exercise by de Bono [3]. It involves a provocative violation of an immovable assumption. This group was in the middle of an aggressive project with a six-month schedule. I threw down the gauntlet and said that it was of utmost importance (as in life or death) to finish in two months. We developed details so the justification for the new schedule was realistic. We tend to tacitly accept assumptions about our work. Asking the team to shave a week off the schedule would not have prompted them to seriously examine their work; however, tossing an insanely fast but critically needed goal in the mix demands just such examination and prioritization. Amazingly, creative and valuable answers came quickly. Within ten minutes, the members had restructured their typical workday activities, in some cases easily finding approaches that saved hours per day. As proof of the value of creatively finding opportunities when none seem apparent, one member who had for months liberally used the word “frustrated,” concluded the exercise with an enthusiastic, “I’m excited!” One can call this process creative destruction. When you look at your work and at your organization, what do you see? What can you observe that you previously missed? What if you thought more creatively about opportunities that may be available to you?

Making Opportunity a Reality The objective of developing and exploiting opportunities can produce innovative ideas, but your organization and your customers may not be ready for or receptive to them. We can embrace opportunities, but we need to do so in a way that accepts the nature of human beings, our colleagues, and

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our customers. We do not want to get too far ahead, because they will not come with us. We need to seek the sweet spot: opportunities that make improvements valued by our customers yet ones that are not so radical as to be rejected by them. As engineers we are accustomed to look for opportunities in technological improvements, and this is fine as long as you remember the previous paragraph; however, if you really are looking for a place to make radical and dramatic changes, look no further than customer service. Your customers will enjoy doting from your organization. Remember to appropriately experiment and prototype with your pursuit of opportunities. The engineer in transition may find that she works for an organization that resists change. The concept of experimentation can be of substantial help to her if she wishes to lead her associates toward an opportunity. As people develop experience with your suggestion, they are more likely to accept the pursuit of the opportunity you propose. One final suggestion for opportunity identification is benchmarking, the exercise of comparing our organization’s processes to the processes used by others. Benchmarking within our industry is useful if our organization is behind the curve: It helps us catch up quickly. Benchmarking is also valuable when we use it to draw insights from atypical sources. If benchmarking shows your organization is already doing well, be careful that it does not feed a sense of complacency. We must always strive to innovate whether based on our own behaviors or the best practices of others. We pursue opportunities and stimulate change either by choice or in response to a crisis. If we are not in crisis, our comfort with opportunity thinking comes in large part from a position of mastery and self-confidence, both personal and organizational. When we can move beyond fighting fires and treading water, when we have come to a place of relative mastery of our work and our time, we can be open to new ways of thinking. People typically enjoy working for managers who are known for encouraging creative thought and embracing new possibilities. Endeavor to be one of those managers. In a similar way, if you become known as someone who initiates, develops, and delivers successfully on innovative ideas, you will be very valuable to an organization. Self-confidence may be a prerequisite to successful change because, in most cases, change is challenging and requires experimentation. We need to have a certain unequivocal nature to keep a clear purpose through the inevitable setbacks as we determine and implement changes that will work. Perhaps most of all, change is about creating new habits. While we may feel that our quickly changing marketplace requires us to change constantly, if not chaotically, what we are striving for is a regular cycle of actions to reach and master new plateaus. Psychologists say people are most

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successful at change when they address only one reasonable change at a time, and they commit it to habit for the long run. Once something becomes a habit, it is easy to master and sustain. Embracing opportunities requires that we be open to change, that we intelligently choose appropriate changes, and that we implement those changes in a way that respects those impacted by the change. When we seek and pursue opportunity, we challenge the present status quo, and we create a new and better status quo.

References [1] Deming, W. E., “It is not necessary to change. Survival is not mandatory,” BrainyQuote, https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/w_edwards_deming_377112. [2] de Bono, E., Opportunities: A Handbook of Business Opportunity Search, New York: Penguin USA, 1992. [3] de Bono, E., Serious Creativity, Toronto, Canada: Harper Collins, 1992.

Selected Bibliography Burrus, D., The Anticipatory Organization: Turn Disruption and Change into Opportunity and Advantage, Austin, TX: Greenleaf Book Group Press, 2017. Michalko, M., Thinkertoys: A Handbook of Creative Thinking Techniques, Second Edition, Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2010. Sniukas, M., P. Lee, and M. Morasky, The Art of Opportunity: How to Build Growth and Ventures through Strategic Innovation and Visual Thinking, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2016.  Spender, J. C., Business Strategy: Managing Uncertainty, Opportunity, & Enterprise, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014.�

Principle 3: Getting Things Done Engineering managers are judged not so much on their technical abilities and creativity but by the achievements of the teams they lead. They must get things done, and others will do many of these things. It is not only important to get things done, however; a manager must get the right things done. In many organizations, objectives are accomplished through the completion of projects, so managers are expected to run projects competently. Successful project management depends extensively on effective communication and clear project objectives that are understood and supported by stakeholders. Managers also get things done by dodging trouble— proficiency with risk management involves avoidance of risks and application of contingencies when risk events occur. We also ensure that much is accomplished by having healthy processes—including those for making decisions—and by holding productive meetings. In Chapters 17–22, we will discuss how managers get things done by …  Focusing on implementing good processes to achieve desired outcomes;  Achieving success on projects by practicing effective project management skills;  Getting more done by effective delegating;  Accomplishing objectives at meetings while also making them rewarding and enjoyable;  Following good team processes for making decisions;

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 Avoiding and overcoming adversity through effective risk management practices.

CHAPTER

17 Outcome Depends on Process Your beliefs become your thoughts,  Your thoughts become your words,  Your words become your actions,  Your actions become your habits,  Your habits become your values,  Your values become your destiny. —Mahatma Gandhi

Takeaways  Insights from improving the quality of engineered systems can help us improve organizational processes.  Implementing good organizational processes will reliably lead to good outcomes.  To improve organizational processes as a manager, I must be willing to accept and act upon data about my performance. Many readers may already be familiar with varieties of process control with regard to engineered systems. A plastics or chemical plant will likely have automatic process control systems to ensure process variables are set appropriately. In a manufacturing setting, much attention is given to understanding factors that can affect variance so specifications can be met within allowable tolerance. Organizational systems and management methods are often implemented to assure quality and efficiency. These approaches include statistical process control, Six Sigma, and lean manufacturing. Many 169

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engineers and other professionals devote their careers to the pursuit and advancement of quality. When considering a physical product or engineered system, a quality result can be defined according to agreement among the relevant parties. Typically, the object of the definition can be reliably measured, for example, a target dimension might be 10.00 mm, with a tolerance of ± 0.01 mm. Although there may be differing opinions or needs on what constitutes quality along with increasing costs associated with better quality, objective metrics facilitate agreement for a given situation. But in management and leadership of organizations, how does one define a quality outcome in a way that can be objectively measured? Granted, some aspects of performance lend themselves readily to objective metrics— month after month of no income is a definitive sign of a failing business. Yet with regard to defining quality, other aspects of performance are ambiguous, slippery, and subject to perspective and interpretation. When our kids were younger, we often went for lunch at a popular chain sandwich restaurant. The kids’ menu included a ham and cheese sandwich that our son liked, except he didn’t want the cheese. But the restaurant’s order and delivery systems and training programs were organized around delivering a quality ham and cheese sandwich, with no variation. Sometimes the individual taking the order would flatly state there was no way to keep cheese off the sandwich, or he would conduct an extended search for the “hold the cheese” register function. More often than not, the manager was called over, and she would inform the individual on the sandwich production line of the custom build. The delivered sandwich had cheese on it about half the time. Which version of the delivered sandwich had the better quality? From a production process perspective, the no cheese version was out-of-specification, but to the customer, the with-cheese version was out-of-specification. Quality is in the eye of the beholder. While trivial, this story highlights a concept that serves as this chapter’s theme. A high-quality outcome is dependent on having a good process of activities that will lead to that outcome. When we are considering both management and leadership in the domain of human systems, we need to pay close attention to our process, perhaps even more than we do with engineered systems. In short, outcome depends on process.

Outcome Goals and Process Goals It is helpful to differentiate two types of goals: outcome goals and process goals. An outcome goal refers to a future state or snapshot that we would

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like to achieve. On the other hand, a process goal concerns actions that I take. If my company wishes to expand, we may set the outcome goal to have increased sales by $1 million by six months from now. A process goal to increase sales might be to make sales presentations to a minimum of three new potential clients each week for the next six months. Outcome and process goals are certainly related, and it makes sense to develop them together, yet there are differences, most importantly in the arena of control and sustainability of outcomes. I would suggest it is better to focus attention on process goals. Doing so ensures we develop the ongoing good habits that will make achievement of beneficial outcomes far more likely. Permanent change in behavior will likely make it easier to achieve not only the first $1 million sales increase but also subsequent increases in sales thereafter. On the other hand, had we been preoccupied with achievement of the outcome, we may have simply performed one-time actions and dropped them when we accomplished the objective. Our success could be partly the result of luck, or to borrow a term from popular music, we may end up being a one-hit wonder. We cannot reliably achieve a good outcome without having a good process to get there. Notwithstanding this perspective, in an organization, one cannot escape outcome goals. I am not suggesting we eliminate or deny outcome goals, rather that we give greater emphasis to the processes that make desirable outcomes far more likely to happen on an ongoing basis. The Gandhi quote above emphasizes this very point, albeit in a far more eloquent manner. His message is universal. With a few slight tweaks, he could have included such direction in a strategic plan or in a quality improvement initiative in an organization.

Understanding and Improving Organizational Systems Here we will only briefly touch on quality and process improvement for engineered systems. This domain covers a breadth of territory that includes statistical process control, Six Sigma, and lean as well as a variety of technical standards. The key point to make is that engineered systems typically lend themselves to objective measurements; therefore, the prospect of process improvement permits score keeping that is readily understandable by relevant parties. Everyone knows quality has been improved when the defect rate of manufactured parts changes from fifty per million to five per million. In contrast, it may be more challenging to objectively and tangibly measure organizational behavior and processes. Defining different levels of quality may seem more elusive. How does one develop an objective score of

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meeting effectiveness? What about defining and measuring good management and leadership? One approach to topics such as these is to identify certain metrics that give objective measurement. We could define a high-quality meeting as one that finishes in the allotted time from the agenda. Certainly such an outcome is better than having meetings that perennially run late, but is a meeting that ends on time necessarily an effective meeting? Anchoring purported quality improvement goals to a small piece of the big picture, especially when tied to rewards or punishment, tends to bring about unintended consequences. We make sure to end meetings when scheduled but fail to cover half of the agenda because of poor meeting norms and behaviors. As challenging as it may be to get our heads around the subject of intangibles with measuring organizational process improvement, I encourage you to not give up the fight. There are six principles to keep in mind as you do so: 1. Where objective measurements are possible, use them; 2. Use multiple and diverse forms of measurement; 3. Understand context and consider benchmarks and relative performance; 4. Be sure to include appropriate surveys of personnel; 5. Be aware of unintended consequences and the temptation for some to game the system; 6. Always keep the big picture in mind and keep your brain engaged. Let’s unpack these suggestions. There will be some objective metrics that are related to organizational health (e.g., employee turnover). It is reasonable to conclude interesting work results in lower turnover—people are more likely to stay where they like what they do. But many factors affect turnover, including a variety of management behaviors, such as whether or not a superior micromanages. Context and relative performance are important. Entry-level positions are nearly always subject to higher turnover than mid-level and senior positions. One can gain good insights from small samples, but a rigorous understanding benefits from substantial data with many types of measurement. Employee surveys are a must, particularly using pulse survey apps that are simple and quick. They provide immediate feedback that offers timely changes or interventions. While employee judgments are subjective, surveys can be constructed in such a manner to permit the development of more objective data. Table 17.1, for example, shows a survey question and

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response instrument regarding employee engagement. The response includes a seven-point Likert scale providing numerical data that can be used to construct trends and highlight variances. One would do well to pair these numerical responses with the opportunity for responding in more detail as indicated, perhaps by writing more detailed explanations, requests, or suggestions. Such pulse surveys take only a couple of minutes, so they can be used weekly or even daily. Can you see how an organization can gain feedback on and improve its organizational processes in an analogous manner to its engineering processes? As a fledgling manager, it may seem daunting to learn about my managerial performance. But stepping into your engineering persona, would you consciously ignore data that could help you understand and improve the behavior of a system? Would you deliberately choose to avoid temporary embarrassment, and in the bargain, pass up an opportunity to enhance quality outcomes? As the use and application of data analytics continues to grow, it will become easier to collect relevant information and gain important insights. Data, however, can be misinterpreted and misused, and narrow frames of reference can give skewed interpretations. Especially where rewards or punishments are tied to certain metrics, people may be tempted to focus intently on achieving them and disregard information that is even more meaningful. It is important to see the big picture, use your judgment, and keep your brain engaged.

Table 17.1 Example of Pulse Survey Question on Employee Engagement How would you describe your level of engagement with your work today? Please answer with the number that best corresponds to what you are experiencing today. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Little to no engagement Moderate level of engagement High level of engagement What do you think might improve your level of engagement today? Please choose as many responses as are applicable. • No improvement needed. • Level of engagement is unrelated to work. • Resolution of a conflict. • Guidance from a superior. • Clarification of an assignment. • Information or decision from an associate. • Other, please specify. Please provide any other information that is relevant.

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Singular, First Time, and Habitual Activities When we work with engineered systems, our approach to processes depends greatly on the newness and repetition of the process. When planning for the manufacture of a new part, our first pass may well be the construction of a proof-of-concept prototype. To do so, we necessarily must rely on expertise with similar components or technologies, benchmarks, and advice of subject matter experts. After experience with one or more generations of prototypes, we may be ready for production runs of hundreds of parts. Even thereafter, it may take some time before we have a stable manufacturing process that can achieve high levels of process control and quality with few defects and minimal waste. In short, our approach to and expectations about the output of a process will change substantially depending on whether the process is new and whether it will be performed once or many times. A similar perspective guides the approach toward organizational processes. The first or only time through a process is characterized by experimentation. It is only with practice, feedback, and adaptation that we can really understand and achieve greater levels of a quality experience. Again, we should use multiple types of measurements and surveys of participants to really understand what quality means. A focus on one narrow metric often produces unintended results. In one project management workshop I presented, a participant described a previous job in which she had provided telephone customer support. Her employer deemed that the length of the call was the only metric that really mattered and used it to evaluate the performance of its representatives. Calls were expected to last no longer than one minute and six seconds no matter how complex the needs of the caller. Inevitably, it took longer than the duration limit to answer some customer questions and solve their problems. Hurried dialogs resulted in disappointed, irritated, or angry customers; extended conversations prompted warnings and poor evaluations. With all the stress, she soon quit the job. Be careful how you define a quality outcome for an organizational process.

Innovating Organizational Processes There is a natural tension in human activities between habit and novelty. We typically need routine, but because routine can become boring and tiresome, we enjoy some novelty and the ability to inject variation. Different people may have different preferences along the spectrum of habit and novelty.

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This theme also influences the framework of organizational processes, and for guidance, we return to the five intrinsic motivators. With any activity, and perhaps especially one that is routine, we seek meaningfulness, choice, competence, progress, and the ability to innovate. To achieve competence, we typically need experience that comes through habit. But we also desire the ability to improve the habit. The key words in this context are choice and ability. We want some degree of freedom to adapt the process and innovate upon it while still relying on enough repetition to feel competent. With regard to the team contract, we recommended the agreement on expectations of regular good behaviors plus provision for regular updates (i.e., adaptations or innovations) as appropriate and desired. It may take time for new behaviors to become competent and reliable habits. For individual changes in habit, some use a rule-of-thumb of twenty-one days. When group behavior is involved, the time may be longer. Context is the determining factor, especially the importance, meaningfulness, and complexity of the change. In all these considerations, remember the model of the complex adaptive system. All the colleagues in the team and organization are intelligent and feeling agents who want and need to participate in decisions that affect them. They do not want imposed order; rather, they work best when they develop and test collaborative solutions that bring about emergent order after the occurrence of creative tension. Such tension does not have to be dramatic. It is as simple as one team member suggesting a different workflow in the laboratory. With each new plateau of order in an organizational process, it is easier to rely on outcome-based goals. And from such a position, the team can again innovate the process in a manner that brings even greater quality. As a final point on innovating processes, consider that structure may have a significant effect on habitual processes. Leveraging what happens from a systems perspective can lead to dramatic improvements. As with our discussion of the organization as a system in Chapter 13, the most reliable and lasting changes will take place when we use a systems approach to changing habits. For individuals trying to improve their nutrition, the advice is often given to remove all unhealthy foods from the home. This is a systems approach to make it difficult to return to processes that lead to undesirable outcomes. To expand on this matter, let us go back to the children’s birthday party analogy. The first model with a high degree of parental control resulted in a highly structured party process that allowed for little variation. The second (or, sense-making model) still offered structure; its structure offered rather few but important boundaries. Within this structure, considerable choice was allowed.

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In some cases, structuring a process will make the process more reliable and reduce the possibility of mistakes. For this reason, many fast-food restaurants obsess over the arrangement of production lines and the shape of equipment. In other cases, structure facilitates process. For one engineering team with which I consulted, productivity and engagement improved dramatically with a simple restructuring of the location of and resources available to team members. Habit had made it hard to see these valuable and easily attainable structural improvements. As the Gandhi quote reveals, the processes we undertake and the habits we follow ultimately reveal our beliefs and values, especially about quality and our own participation in achieving it. When dealing with an engineered system, it is perhaps easier to maintain emotional distance because the object in consideration is a physical concept or an inanimate object. With an organizational process, one that depends on my managerial competence, I become intimately part of the system. My participation is fair game for scrutiny, and knowing this can trigger potentially challenging emotions; furthermore, we all have blind spots, and we can become better managers by learning about what everyone else can see. As an active agent in the system, I can choose to accept and participate in the scrutiny and use the information to change for the better. The ultimate choice for quality is to embrace the process of growth and improvement. This path provides the best outcome of all.

Selected Bibliography Duhigg, C., The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business, New York: Random House, 2014. Heath, C. and D. Heath, Switch: How to Change When Change Is Hard, New York: Random House, 2010. Kegan, R. and L. L. Lahey, An Everyone Culture: Becoming a Deliberately Developmental Organization, Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2016. Martin, K. and M. Osterling, Value Stream Mapping: How to Visualize Work and Align Leadership for Organizational Transformation, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014.�

CHAPTER

18 From Chaos to Order: The Project Project work is the vehicle by which the powerless gain power. —Tom Peters

Takeaways  Promotion to project manager is often the first step for an engineer into a supervisory position; therefore, it is important to perform well in the role.  Because projects fail at the start, we must do well in the planning process.  Keys to project success include matching the project model to the level of uncertainty, abundant communication, and having a solid change process. A project is an expression of the human desire to create, to discover, and to improve. It is the path that leads us from the imperfect present to a better future and the means for capitalizing on an opportunity. It is the channel that leads from chaos to order. From a young age, we are immersed in projects, first at play and then at school with greater accountability. Our mastery of knowledge itself is dependent in part on our proficiency to manage projects. While we develop a style for executing projects, we may not necessarily involve others in them. In the workforce, the importance of—and the emphasis on—projects hurtles to new heights. In many businesses, projects are major undertakings, supported by sophisticated tools and processes. The stakes are high,

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and the impact of poorly managed projects is painful. Unfortunately, many organizations are deficient in their management of projects. The development of software is one of the most troubling examples of poor skill in project management. The Standish Group reported that only 29% of software projects were completed according to their targets, as recounted by Jennifer Lynch, their communication manager [1]. Significant and important organizational resources are wasted when project performance is lacking. Many companies place a high value on expertise in project management and help staff members develop this expertise. Far too many other companies do little to train or support their project managers and expect far too much from them. How well are you prepared for managing projects in your organization? For many engineers, the first step into management comes through project management. I would strongly encourage you to develop your skills in this area because proficiency in project management is a very important capability for the organization and for the engineering manager. Project management in technological organization is a difficult job, in part because of unreasonable expectations placed on projects and those who manage them. It is, however, a job that can and must be done for the success of the organization. While most of your early projects were individual ones of modest importance, now they involve many people, and the stakes are high. Intuitive skills you learned earlier in life must be augmented to handle these demands. The two key factors to focus on are good communication and reliable processes that produce results.

What Is a Project? A project is a unique activity that creates something of value and has deliverables. It is accomplished on a schedule with a specific start and end. The concept of a project is scalable from very small to very large efforts. It is often helpful to view a major project as a group of related subprojects, and such an endeavor is typically called a program. Projects consume resources in the form of labor, money, and time. Because risks are encountered along the way to project completion, some projects fail to meet their objectives. From the definition, one can see that a project has three distinct elements: scope, schedule, and budget, often known as the iron triangle. Recently, three related elements, risk, resources, and quality, have been added to the iron triangle to produce a project diamond model. It can be seen that these elements are highly interactive and require tradeoffs. Expanding the scope of work on a project will likely extend

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the schedule and may require additional budget. If we wish to hurry our project, we must either reduce the scope or add more resources. A project is a human endeavor; projects are about people. Projects succeed because of people and fail because of people. While many people may contribute to or be influenced by a project, the key players are known as “stakeholders” because they have a “stake” in the project’s outcome.

Need for Formality On personal projects, the specific expression of scope, schedule, and budget can be flexible and informal. When projects are undertaken in organizations, however, there usually must be a high degree of clarity in, understanding about, and commitment to these three essential elements of the project, for all parties involved. In most cases these can only be achieved with a sufficient level of formality through following appropriate management processes, obtaining sufficient documentation, and review and approval of significant decisions by all affected stakeholders. Formality is needed because there may be an immense level of interdependence among participants, tasks, and pieces. Formality creates structure that enables all participants to rely on information and work confidently to complete the project. The structure for managing the project also provides a means of accountability and scorekeeping for all participants. While the structure and process must be formal, it should not be so cumbersome as to stifle the work of the team. Formality should facilitate communications, decisions, and commitment as well as provide a foundation of information upon which team members can confidently depend. This formality should start when a project is merely a concept. A critical place to start is to understand how much or how little we know, then plan accordingly.

Experimenting with Projects A project is about the creation of something new, but is that something slightly or radically different than what has been done before? There is not a one-size-fits-all way to manage projects, and it depends on the uncertainty in the endeavor whether it is uncertainty in technology, team members, or markets. Projects with a high degree of certainty lend themselves to more certain planning. Where there is much uncertainty, it is very difficult to plan. What may seem abundantly obvious and logical is often difficult for people to accept. We can work under uncertainty when all parties accept it and adjust expectations accordingly. But many customers and other stakeholders want

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to believe in a certain path to project conclusion. There is considerable pressure for organizations, often from customers, to know exactly where they are going, as well as how long it will take and how much it will cost to get there. Pretending we know answers in advance is a recipe for failure. The only antidote for such a situation is the truth.

Get a Life (Cycle) If you are having difficulty developing reasonable projections of scope, schedule, and budget, your project may be well to the experimental side of the spectrum. If your management is pressing you to commit to a scope or schedule in which you have no confidence, it is time to rely on the truth that you cannot adequately plan your endeavor. It is much better to approach your venture from the perspective of a life cycle that is composed of several consecutive projects. This approach is also known as phasing. Each project or phase in the sequence is gated: Its objective is to reduce the uncertainty of the endeavor to a point that an informed decision can be made about whether to proceed with the next stage. With such an approach, it is possible to adequately plan each phase in sequence with certainty. An example of a life cycle is offered in Table 18.1. This life cycle recognizes the fact that much is unknown about the substance of the endeavor, so some research and experimentation are in order. When concepts are proven, one can proceed with determining whether they are feasible in a practical sense. If proven feasible, the concepts can be applied more broadly as a working process or product. While it may be possible to perform some phases in parallel, most are sequential. At the conclusion of each stage, the stakeholders make the decision on whether to proceed further.

Table 18.1 Example of a Life Cycle Project or Stage Number Activity 1 Concept research. 2 Concept feasibility study. 3 Prototype demonstration. 4 Market feasibility study. 5 Concept scale-up. 6 Design for production. 7 Preparation for release. 8 Release. 9 Enhancement. 10 Retirement.

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When you balk at committing to a preposterous project plan, your boss may call you lazy, scared, or unmotivated. He may question your commitment to being a team player. You must be prepared to rely on the truth. If your boss does not relent, it may be time to dust off your resume.

Project Planning It is said that projects fail at the start. The most critical work on a project takes place when the project is planned, before the actual project effort ever starts. When project planning is done well, the execution of the project can go more smoothly and with more certainty. Few organizations devote enough attention to project planning. It is hard to see tangible value to planning. If we just get to work, we can feel good about being busy. But failure to plan comes back to haunt the project later. Issues that were not addressed in planning eventually must be solved. Failure to communicate in the planning stage means misunderstandings must be settled later when rework is costly. You will either pay a modest amount now in planning for the project, or you will pay dearly later when the project is in trouble. It is difficult to provide a relevant rule of thumb on the amount of time that should be invested in planning, because of the diversity of projects in the workplace. In general, the more a project is unfamiliar, uncertain, and complex, the more planning is needed. Schedule slippages can have enormous consequences because the cost of late completion of a project for most organizations is very high, perhaps even millions of dollars per week. Projects that are late and in turmoil create a lot of stress on the team members, and the result is poor work. So the return on investment in planning is very attractive.

Planning Well Our planning phase will have as its objective the complete identification of the scope of work to be achieved by the project, the schedule on which it will be achieved, and the resources to be used. At the initial stages of planning, it is likely that these three elements will be largely unknown. The planning phase will develop sufficient detail to enable informed decisions about the direction of the project and will enable clarity and reliability so the participants can be certain about the ultimate success of the project. Several guidelines will improve the effectiveness of the planning phase and increase the value of the plan developed. First, all the key parties to the project should be involved in the planning effort. Failure to include key people at this stage will result in unwelcome surprises later.

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Second, we must seek the truth to avoid the forced fantasy often foisted by various stakeholders. If we sign on to a wildly optimistic fiction of what the project will accomplish, we will pay for it later. Third, the planning phase consists of multiple iterations, each of successively greater clarity. We start from a general concept, and as we begin to add levels of detail, we find that the combination of our three elements of scope, schedule, and resources is untenable. The schedule may be inexorably long, prompting a reconsideration of the scope of work. Every time the elements of the project are reconsidered, we need to check in with our stakeholders to see if they will agree to a change in direction. We continue to iterate until we reach a plan that is acceptable to our key parties. Ultimately, the planning stage produces what is in essence a binding contract among the stakeholders. The plan is an explicit and complete statement of the work we will execute on the project, how long it will take, and what resources will be applied. Project plans that are not approached as complete, explicit, and binding documents leave room for trouble to brew. The fact that a project plan is binding does not mean changes can never be made once the project is under way. There are a number of very good reasons why changes should be incorporated after commencement of work. Knowledge is learned in the course of implementing project work, and the new knowledge may prompt appropriate or necessary improvements in the objectives of the project elements. Having a formal change process is one of the most critical components for project success. Projects are subjected to a number of pressures from all quarters—some participants want to expand the scope of work, some want to limit it. Some would lengthen the schedule, while others would shorten it. Other project managers may wish to acquire your team members, but you want to prevent it. A formal process of change and approval helps to eliminate any random or deliberate action that can send the project in a direction other than that agreed on. We have now spent considerable time discussing some of the major trouble spots in project planning. If you have conquered or avoided them, the specific process of project planning is rather straightforward.

The Process of Planning The effort of project planning begins with identifying all the work completely and estimating what it will take to complete the work to meet the project’s objectives. The process continues with sequencing work and matching the work needs to the resources available. Planning also accounts for potential risks to the project and considers how to mitigate them. The presentation here about planning will offer only a rudimentary introduction to the

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subject. Detailed information is available in the selected bibliography at the end of the chapter.

Identifying and Estimating All Work Packages Once the project’s objectives are identified, the next step is to provide detail on the work to be done. The resulting expression of effort is called the work breakdown structure (WBS). Documenting all the work to be done should involve all relevant parties. One starts with the overall scope and attempts to subdivide the effort into appropriate packages of effort. This is done with a hierarchical approach, and at the lowest level, there are individual tasks that can be accomplished within a few days. This granularity allows work packages to be readily understood—they do not seem overwhelming. It also facilitates good control because off-target efforts can be corrected in a timely manner. Each task in the WBS should have an explicit, tangible output so it is clear when the work on the task is complete and the effort is handed off to the next task. A sample WBS is shown in Figure 18.1, and it provides the tasks that may be included in a simple system upgrade project. Each task must also identify one individual who owns the responsibility for that task. When all work is identified, estimates are made for each task on how long it will take to complete (e.g., in person days). Remember to promote honesty in such estimates.

Figure 18.1  Sample WBS for system upgrade.

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While you are in the process of identifying all the work on a project, do not forget project management. It is common for project management to account for 5% to 10% of the total effort on a project.

Sequencing the Work The next step in planning is sequencing the work. Some tasks can be done in parallel; others must be done as a sequence of steps. In constructing a house, the foundation must be prepared before framing can start, but interior painting and landscaping can proceed at the same time. The result of sequencing is often shown in graphical form, and one such representation is the Gantt chart. Figure 18.2 provides a sample Gantt chart for a simple software project, and this representation conveys a lot of information about the project. Each horizontal bar provides information about one task: The length of the bar indicates how long the task is scheduled to take, and the position shows where the task occurs on the calendar. Arrows represent the order of sequential steps with dependencies among tasks. For some of the dependencies, there is a lag time from the finish of the predecessor to the start of the successor depending on the nature of the relationship. This sample chart also identifies the people responsible for each task. By adding task duration estimates through each distinct path through the network, we can then determine the longest path through the network, known as the critical path, and it is shown with a wider, darker bar. Because the critical path sets the overall schedule, it understandably attracts a lot of attention. Once the project is under way, the project manager will regularly update the schedule, and the Gantt chart then represents the actual schedule to date as well as the remaining forecast schedule.

Resource Loading With our schedule and resource estimates, we are set for our initial attempt at the allocation of people working on the project at any given time. Often when we perform resource loading, we will encounter an impossible situation. On our sample Gantt chart, for example, Lee is committed to tasks four, five, and six, which are shown to run concurrently over several days. We have assumed each person works full time for the duration of the task. We then have a problem because the chart shows that over March 13–15, Lee is committed to work either sixteen or twenty-four hours each day. Because project planning is iterative, we will need to go back and look for changes that will eliminate impossible conditions, perhaps by rearranging tasks, adding personnel, or by extending the project. In this case, we

Figure 18.2  Sample Gantt chart.

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may consider delaying Lee’s work on tasks four and five, but such a move will lengthen the project. Perhaps we can bring in someone else to help Lee, but doing so may not be possible or appropriate. When changes are substantive and affect our objectives, the stakeholders must agree to them.

Risk Management Various aspects of our plan will be based on some assumptions about the future; for example, our project may depend on the procurement of certain raw materials. If our assumptions turn out to be invalid later (i.e., there is a shortage of raw materials), the project may not meet its objectives. We need to identify the major risks to our project and take steps to avoid risks, mitigate their effects, and provide for contingencies. It is impossible to eliminate risks from our projects, but there is much we can do to prepare for them. We will talk more about risk management in Chapter 22.

Formalizing the Contract After perhaps several iterations of planning, we will, hopefully, develop a plan that is reasonable, meets our project objectives, and is agreeable to all stakeholders. This is a big accomplishment, and the resulting plan and agreement must be made formal. It is literally a contract among all relevant parties to commit to this effort. But it is more than just one contract; the plan is a compendium of numerous subcontracts among all parties to the project. Until now, changes to the plan could be made rather easily. The further we proceed in the execution of the project, however, the greater the pain caused by changes. Once project work commences, if a change is suggested, the official change process must be invoked: A formal review and a formal decision are required before any change can be implemented. One cannot overemphasize the need to strictly enforce the change process from this point on in the project.

Being Agile Before leaving the topic of planning, it is valuable to visit the topic of project models, more specifically agile project management, simply known as agile. This model gained prominence because of problems with software and IT projects related to common uncertainties in software development, errors in complex code, and challenges of integrating subsystems developed separately.

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In the conventional (or, waterfall) model of a project, tasks follow in sequence until completion. In contrast, the agile model is built on iterations, each of which develops working code. Each iteration runs quickly, typically from one to four weeks. Planning for an agile project has a lighter touch that is compensated for by processes that promote extensive crosscommunication among team members and stakeholders. For agile to work well, all involved must fully buy into the model of accepting uncertainty while also committing to quick sprints, lots of communication and learning, and a high level of discipline for working products.

Scope Creep No meaningful discussion of projects would be complete without addressing scope creep, the common tendency of work to increase on a project. Someone almost always wants to make changes in the scope of work once the project is under way. Changes in the work may be appropriate, but as project manager you must force the requestor to follow the formal change process. This process will enable stakeholders to agree to the change properly and to officially adjust the accompanying consequences to the project objectives and elements. The formal change process discourages the introduction of frivolous, arbitrary, or unilateral requests for project changes. Perhaps the most important word in the vocabulary of the project manager is “No.” Many pressures are brought to bear by well-intentioned parties to change the direction of effort according to their needs. Good project managers are assertive, enforcing the rules that were agreed upon by the parties prior to the start of work. These rules protect all parties involved. Inevitably, there will be misunderstandings on specific elements of the scope once work is under way. There is an art to the preparation of a project plan with sufficient detail to embody complete understanding while not having so much detail as to be cumbersome and require excessive preparation. The resolution of such misunderstandings often depends on the level of trust among the parties. I would encourage you to take steps to build trust early in a project, as you will likely need it later.

Controlling the Project If you have done well at planning your project, the execution of the work will go rather smoothly. During the execution phase, your job as a project manager switches from planning to control. Keep communication flowing, stay current with the project status, report the status on a regular basis to the stakeholders, and apply corrective measures when needed.

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A common mistake in project control is being overly optimistic about work that is supposedly completed. It is very frustrating to believe that a certain task is complete or nearly complete, only to find out later that it is not. Trust—but verify. With regard to reporting, different constituencies have different needs for information. Team members will need detailed information in their areas of responsibility. On the other hand, executive management is only interested in a high-level understanding of the project’s status. Many organizations use a traffic signal model to report status: A green status means ontarget, yellow indicates a minor problem, and red indicates serious trouble. Associated with this model is the concept of reporting by exception. Your management expects work to be on-target, and they are happy to have only a very brief acknowledgment of such areas. When certain tasks are status red, they will want more detail and, more particularly, they will want to know what you have done to correct the situation.

Financial Management for Projects A common approach for project financial management is earned value reporting, and it is beneficial because it provides a great way to combine performance, schedule, and budget. In planning for the project, estimates will be developed for the project budget and schedule. The details of these estimates can be portrayed by task in the accounting system used for the project. Because the use of resources can be traced to tasks, and because we have structured our tasks with durations of a few days, we can regularly have an accurate picture of the project status in terms that can be converted to financial indices. At any point in time, a dollar amount can be stated for the work completed to date. This figure will include the cumulative cost of labor and materials used, and it is known as the actual cost (AC). Prior to the start of the project, we had estimated a cumulative cost for the tasks we have now completed. This figure is called the earned value (EV). The third metric we will use is the planned value (PV). This metric comes from the project plan we developed prior to the project, and it represents the cumulative amount of money we had planned to spend by this point in time. It may seem somewhat confusing to think in terms of dollars for schedule; in fact, it is a more informational description of the project schedule. If a project or activity is reported as being five days behind schedule, and there is one person working on the activity part time, it is very different than an activity that is behind five days with twenty people working on it.

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A graphical representation of the use of earned value is provided in Figure 18.3 [2]. Each of the curves shows a cumulative earned value metric. In this figure, on the reporting date, the earned value is greater than planned value, and this means the project is ahead of schedule. The actual cost is less than the earned value, meaning we are spending less than we had forecast on the work that has been completed. It sounds good to be ahead of schedule and under budget, but be careful about drawing conclusions too quickly. Project performance reporting requires an in-depth understanding of the workings of the project. In this example, it is possible some of the work has not actually been completed or is of a lesser quality than required. These indices can also be used to forecast performance at the project’s completion. Earned value reporting provides a great methodology that can enable a project team and its stakeholders to understand project performance at any time in a project.

Figure 18.3  Earned value example. (After: [2], p. 90).

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Other Keys to Project Success Before we conclude this chapter, let us consider three other ingredients that contribute to the success or failure of a project: Communication Is Crucial Perhaps the most critical job for a project manager is to facilitate good communication among stakeholders and team members on a project. While the specific reasons for project failure are many and varied, these reasons are almost always related to a breakdown in communications. A key ingredient in poor project communication is the very common problem with unstated assumptions or differing expectations. As a project manager, consider it your highest duty to monitor and facilitate healthy communications on your project. We will talk more about communications skills in Chapters 23–25. Tracking Issues When a project is in progress, questions or issues often arise about specific aspects of the project. There may be a clarification needed on a product’s specifications or an issue about resource availability. These issues must be captured and documented on an ongoing basis. A common practice is to generate an issues list and update it as needed based on inputs raised by the team or stakeholders. Each issue on the list is assigned an owner who will do whatever is appropriate to settle the issue. Limited Authority One common problem for the project manager is insufficient authority, a problem that often occurs when the hierarchy of formal power in an organization is organized as a matrix, as depicted in Figure 18.4. In such an organization, most of the staff will report to a functional manager (e.g., the engineers report to the director of engineering). When project teams are organized, team members then report to the appropriate project manager only for the purposes of the project. In Figure 18.4, Susan is the project manager for the team composed of Jacques, Erin, and Heath. When inevitable conflicts occur over responsibilities or allocation of time, Jacques will defer to the director of engineering over Susan as project manager because the engineering director approves his salary and evaluates his performance. Susan lacks the formal authority to reward or discipline team members, so she must then rely on her influence and political expertise.

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Figure 18.4  Sample matrix organization chart.

A project is the bridge between our present existence and a better future. Projects are great endeavors, and some of the most rewarding work in an organization comes in the form of a project. Projects are very important to organizations, and no doubt to your personal career success. It is to your benefit to become proficient at project management. We have within us a deep desire to work on projects—this work fulfills our desire to create and to master our world. But many projects needlessly result in train wrecks. While some place the blame on project management, the root causes are more fundamentally linked to the limitations of our human nature. We sometimes do not communicate well, and we often want what is not realistic. With formality of process, good communication, and appropriate expectations and attitudes, projects can be successful. Most projects in organizations can be managed with skills that are really quite simple and readily achievable.

References [1] Hastle, S. and S. Wojewoda, “Standish Group 2015 Chaos Report – Q&A with Jennifer Lynch,” InfoQ (blog), C4Media, Inc., October 4, 2015, https://www. infoq.com/articles/standish-chaos-2015. [2] Newell, M. W., Preparing for the Project Management Professional (PMP) Certification Exam, New York: AMACOM, 2005, p. 90.

Selected Bibliography Aucoin, B. M., Right-Brain Project Management: A Complementary Approach, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2007.

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition Kogon, K., S. Blakemore, and J. Wood, Project Management for the Unofficial Project Manager, Dallas, TX: FranklinCovey, 2015. Scott, D. J., Project Management: A QuickStart Beginner’s Guide for the Serious Project Manager to Managing Any Project Easily, CreateSpace, 2016. Verzuh, E., The Fast Forward MBA in Project Management, New York: Wiley, 2016.

CHAPTER

19 Delegating Deciding what not to do is as important as deciding what to do. —Jessica Jackley

Takeaways  Effective delegation starts with a supervisor’s understanding of the unique role that only he or she can fulfill.  Delegation involves coordination and integration both within the team and between the team and the larger organization.  A critical ingredient of good delegation is providing the support needed to promote intrinsic motivators. Around your company, you may have encountered the lean methodology term, minimal viable product (MVP). It captures the concept of identifying the minimum necessary features for early users of a new product with the assumption that there will be enhancements at a later time. A product is a means to solve a customer’s problem or need; therefore, some sources use the phrase minimal viable solution (MVS) to capture the perspective that we are building a solution. The pioneering online shoe shop Zappos took the MVS approach to its start. It began with a simple website populated with pictures of shoes the founder had taken at local shoe stores. When a customer wanted to order, he bought the shoes at full price at a local store and shipped the order himself. In its early days, the MVS was a means to simply determine if people

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would buy shoes online; no additional services mattered if customers would refuse to buy their shoes this way. Let’s assume you have been promoted at your company from individual contributor to a team leader position. If you are like many engineers new to a first supervisory role, the situation seems daunting and overwhelming. The job description covers half a page. Your workday will change dramatically, and your skills will be stretched. You may feel unfit for the role. Take a deep breath and consider the following: In this new position, you are tasked with producing a solution to a problem or need, and the solution has some supervisory element. Starting with the problem or need, what is the minimal viable solution you must provide to your organization? Develop this answer as succinctly as you can, and it will give you a place to start getting your head around your new role. Note that this exercise takes your thoughts away from tasks and toward outcomes—away from a to-do list and toward a vision. Your MVS should be guided by company strategy and developed with input from your superior. If your team is responsible for product development, your MVS may be related to that product’s MVP. The tenor of the two concepts, however, will be substantively different. An MVP describes features, but an MVS describes outcomes; therefore, the MVS explicitly or implicitly includes a management function or action. Again, assuming you’re a team leader, your aggregate MVS will roll up all the respective MVSs of your team members plus your own individual contribution. It is this latter one that should be your focus for the moment because it is the core of your new role in the short term. Your individual MVS is the value that you, and you alone, can and will give to the organization. It is the job only you can do; no other work you may do will matter if you do not accomplish this function. The purpose of this exercise is to give you a laser focus on what you must do and to help diminish the panic that naturally comes with such a promotion. You can and will soon add more substance to your MVS, but this is enough for now. What might your individual MVS sound like? If you work in operations at a process plant, it might be, “Improve the uptime of the J-7 reactor from 98 to 99.5% in the next sixty days.” Alternatively, if you work in a projectbased software firm, your MVS could sound like, “Deliver the integrated and tested as-specified C-39 package by June 30.” Both of these solutions incorporate the several MVSs of the team members who report to you. Remember it is the (minimum) C-39 package as specified, not one with nice-to-have features. Let’s state in the MVS in the negative. If I did not see to it that the uptime of the J-7 improved from 98 to 99.5% within the sixty-day window, I failed at my job as manager regardless of other great things I may have

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accomplished; similarly, if the specified C-39 was not delivered, nothing else I achieved matters. Note that I am responsible for the entire solution. It is as if I were to do all the work that produces the solution. But because we are talking about a team environment, the solution is too involved for any one person to bring about; I must turn over much of the work to the solution. There must necessarily be connections among your individual MVS and those of your subordinates, and that brings us to the specific topic of delegation.

Success Factors for Delegation It is worthwhile to differentiate actions that first-time managers may confuse. The act of delegating a task means giving a subordinate work that I might usually perform. The act of assigning a task simply means handing out work regardless of whether I usually, sometimes, or never perform it myself. We will focus in this chapter on delegation because you need to resist the urge to hold on to tasks you could do so you can focus on those you must do. Understand, however, that some of the principles we cover here also apply if you are simply assigning work you would otherwise not have done. I have heard it said that to be really productive, only do what no one else can do. Stated another way, it means outsourcing all work that is outside of one’s MVS. Going to that extreme may or may not be appropriate in your circumstance; nevertheless, the concept of his message is to focus on work that I alone must do—and must do well. There are three main ingredients to my MVS: (1) coordinating and integrating my team’s work with that of the rest of the organization, (2) making sure each team member can accomplish his or her MVS, and (3) coordinating and integrating the various team member contributions. These elements of my work have a definitive systems flavor to them. There is also a definitive support flavor that involves ensuring each team member has what is needed to deliver his or her MVS. The key question to address in delegating is what support do my team members need? In answering this question, I want to rely on the five intrinsic motivators: meaningfulness, choice, competence, progress, and ability to innovate. I need to consider any unique needs of my team, but here are common categories of needs:  Big picture—a team member needs to understand how her piece of the work fits into the larger work of the rest of the team and the still larger work of the organization. Perhaps more critically, she needs

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to understand how her deliverable is important to the mission of the organization.  Clarity—work packages and outcomes need sufficient definition to provide clarity of objectives while allowing for the individual to still have choice in details.  Guiding principles—these are the principles that illuminate the choices and priorities that will be made, particularly when unexpected conditions are encountered, and these include critical success factors. Understanding these principles allows individuals the ability to improvise and innovate in a way that is consistent with the needed solution.  Responsibility and authority—the concept of delegation is built on handing over the responsibility for an outcome and the authoritative power to accomplish the outcome. Responsibility goes hand in hand with accountability. Handing over authority means I delegate appropriate decision-making power to team members and avoid micromanaging or second-guessing their decisions.  Expectations—as with the team contract, a key theme to delegation is that we express expectations of one another. This expression is not simply a one-way street: while I make clear my expectations of the scope, quality, and timeliness of work, my subordinates must also articulate their expectations of my supervision and the behaviors of colleagues. Use good communication skills and feedback to ensure there is clarity in understanding expectations.  Resources—I must make sure my charges have the resources they need to succeed. I recommend you be generous with whatever tools, materials, supplies, and support functions your team needs.  Social infrastructure—we’ve used this concept elsewhere in the book to include the team contract and the ingredients that enable a team and its members to engage in outstanding collaboration.  Competence and growth—it is frustrating to have an assignment that is either far beneath or far out of reach of one’s skill level. Aim to delegate to each individual in a way that matches their talents, strengths, and skills but prompts them to stretch a bit.  Confidence—subordinates need to feel internally that a superior believes in their competence and has confidence they will succeed; similarly, subordinates need to see the superior is confident in his or her own role.

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 Interest—meaningfulness is enhanced when individuals feel someone important, especially a superior, takes interest in their work activities as well as who they are outside of work.  Timely communication—progress is promoted when communication takes place both regularly and at other times when it is needed.  Feedback—team members need to know when they are on-track or have deviated.  Advocacy— inevitably there are issues from outside the team that need resolution for the team to succeed. Team members highly value a superior who keeps them insulated from petty politics and meddling.  Coach, mentor, and role model— coaching is oriented to tasks. It is directed to ensure near-term performance and skills. Mentoring concerns overall, long-term development. While a superior needs to coach a subordinate, often someone else in the organization will provide mentoring to them. It is my job, nevertheless, to ensure each team member has a mentor. Subordinates learn important behavioral and cultural aspects of a job by observation of the superior, so it pays to be conscious of myself as their role model. There will be more about these topics in Chapter 29. If it seems overwhelming to think of yourself as having to address all these areas, you can now understand why I have suggested your initial focus is on a minimal viable solution to your new position. These elements are synergistic, so as you address one, you will necessarily fulfill several others.

Demonstrating Respect The human brain is very attuned to relative social status among colleagues. Interestingly, this focus is tied into the fight-or-flight response. If I feel slighted or put down by someone, there can be an automatic and unconscious reaction to either withdraw or to fight back. One could say that the fightor-flight response is there to ensure both our physical and social survival. Relative status does not mean all colleagues have an equal social status; it means there is an expected status in each interaction. While I recognize that the CEO has much power and responsibility and sits much higher in the hierarchy than I do, I expect she will recognize my position and role and that I am a motivated professional. How she interacts with me can enhance or diminish my relative social status with her. An engineering manager would do well to keep this function of the brain in mind, particularly in the context of delegation. Many people have

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the image that delegation only involves assigning tasks in a top-down manner. While this image has some truth to it, the manner in which direction is given can either demonstrate and promote respect for a subordinate, or it can come across as disrespectful. In delegating work with subordinates, I want to ensure I am promoting intrinsic motivators. I also want to recognize each individual as an intelligent and motivated professional who has unique perspectives to bring to a task. I want to avoid telling them what to do and how to do it; rather, I wish to collaborate in a way that allows them to internalize the agenda and objectives. One way to demonstrate respect is to move from giving directives to asking questions as appropriate when discussing work that is clearly in the responsibility or expertise area of the subordinate. Consider, for example, that team member Kim is writing code but having difficulty getting it to work properly. With one approach, I could search for the problem and, assuming I find it, dictate a fix. A more respectful approach may be to ask Kim where she thinks the problem may be and what possible solutions might exist. Do not consider this strategy as a gimmick, however. Be genuine in wanting to know what a subordinate thinks and trust the process.

Problem Areas in Effective Delegation There is both skill and art in delegation, and poor outcomes are symptomatic of problem areas. The first problem area in effective delegation is delegating too little. As a perfectionist, I am often reluctant to turn over control of outcomes to others. It is often challenging for me to let go and depend on others for things I could do myself. The second problem area involves difficulty in finding the sweet spot of oversight for a supervisor to exercise. Too much oversight is stifling, and it is usually related to either perfectionism or lack of confidence in the subordinate. Too little oversight can result when a superior is too busy or lacks confidence in his or her supervisory skills. The solution to both problems lies in the listing of delegation success factors given above. In approaching delegation, consider the following important finding. It is often said that people quit their bosses, not their jobs, and that maxim is certainly true for toxic supervisors. Yet a deeper reason for leaving comes because of the work itself: As reported by Goler, at al., employees leave when the work is not enjoyable, when their strengths are not being used, and when they are not experiencing growth in their careers [1]. In other words, people leave when the intrinsic rewards of work are sorely lacking, but the individual most responsible for structuring this work is the

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supervisor. So the maxim stands true, but on further consideration, there are deeper layers to its truth. When delegation does not go well, it is more likely for an individual to leave. Effective delegation promotes the intrinsic motivators that enhance engagement and cements teams. It starts with understanding my role, what I alone can and must do to support and bring about the best in collaboration.

Reference [1] Goler, L., J. Gale, B. Harrington, and A. Grant, “Why People Really Quit Their Jobs,” Harvard Business Review, January 11, 2018, https://hbr.org/2018/01/ why-people-really-quit-their-jobs.

Selected Bibliography Cooper, C. M., Delegation: The Key to Leadership, CreateSpace, 2015. Genett, D. M., If You Want It Done Right, You Don’t Have to Do It Yourself!: The Power of Effective Delegation, Fresno, CA: Linden, 2004. Malone, C. C., The Art of Delegation: Maximize Your Time, Leverage Others, and Instantly Increase Profits, CreateSpace, 2015.�

CHAPTER

20 Meeting Management A meeting is an event where minutes are taken and hours wasted. —Attributed to Capt. James T. Kirk, Star Trek

Takeaways  Because meetings are almost universally ineffective and disliked, they offer a ready opportunity for both leadership and dramatic improvements.  Meetings become effective only when all participants take responsibility for a good outcome.  As with a team contract, effective meeting norms that are enforced provide a solid social infrastructure for rewarding experiences. In team leader workshops that I facilitate, I include an exercise on meeting management that is meant as a call to action for leadership and change. It is a rare organization in which members are pleased with and eager to attend meetings, so this exercise resonates every place I go. The exercise is a type of reverse best practices process in which participants identify problem group behaviors, then reverse these into positive or best practice policies. The session proceeds in three parts, the first two of which are in groups of about five. The last part is done with all groups together. For the first part, I invite each group to come up with a list of ten things they hate about meetings and write them on their flip chart. This step is easy. Some groups relish the effort and gladly extend their list to fifteen or twenty criticisms. In the second part, each group writes a second list in which they reverse each item from the first list into a positive policy; 201

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for example, “Our meetings start late,” is reversed into the policy, “All our meetings will start on time.” This stage is also easy. To conclude this stage, I invite a representative from each group to present their top five items from each list, and there are many duplicates among the groups. We hold the third part as an entire class, and it begins with me asking what prevents the enactment of these obviously reasonable and effective strategies. Participants provide many good reasons, such as “It is part of the culture for our meetings to get off topic,” or “We can’t start the meeting until the boss arrives, and she always runs late.” I listen, nod, and respond that these are all completely understandable. Then I throw down the gauntlet. “I could return in a year, run the same exercise, and groups would probably report the same lists. You know that, don’t you? What will it take to make these valuable policy changes happen?” Because we have talked about taking responsibility throughout the workshop, I ask the payoff question, “What will you do about it?” The silence in the room is palpable. We get comfortable with ineffective but habitual behaviors. Here we get to the nut of why people are universally frustrated with meetings: Everyone generally knows what a good meeting looks like, but it is uncomfortable to think about trying to change ingrained habits. It is easier to pass the responsibility to someone else or to the culture bogeyman. As Cameron Herold says [1], “The problem isn’t that meetings suck; it’s that we suck at running them.” This exercise never fails to connect with most of the participants. It is usually the first time they have been confronted with the undeniable reality that they have personally either contributed to poor meeting behaviors or acquiesced to them in others. That knowledge will never go away, and the discrepancy between what they know and what they do will eventually spur them to act. On a good day, some in the workshop will publicly organize and commit to making changes. What is your perception about the meetings in your organization? Are you willing to exercise leadership to make positive shifts in meeting behaviors? Of course the prospect is daunting! As with just about everything else in leadership, the place to start is with yourself. None of this is to pass judgment. Few people are ever taught skills in good meeting management, and few organizations take meetings seriously enough to establish healthy norms and behaviors. It is as if there is a widespread unspoken belief that if we meet, we will figure out what to do. For our purposes, we will focus attention on regular team meetings in which all attendees should actively participate. There are other types of events, such as a keynote speech to several dozen attendees, which will

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have unique and differing needs. To be more conscious, deliberate, and effective about our meetings, let us start with a few principles. .

Establishing Effective Beliefs Who is responsible for the meeting I am in right now? Of course, it’s the designated meeting leader. Conventional wisdom says the success of the meeting and the happiness of the attendees rests on his or her shoulders. But that sounds a lot like the great-person model of leadership, with the conclusion that everyone else at the meeting is passive. We know better, so the correct answer is that everyone at the meeting is responsible for how well it goes. Undeniably, there must be organization before and during the meeting, and it does not necessarily have to be the same individual at both stages. Every meeting must have an owner, that person who accepts the task for a particular outcome. The owner usually, but not always, prepares an invitation list and an agenda and distributes them prior to the meeting in a timely manner. As for what happens during a meeting, I prefer to use the term host or emcee for the person who runs the meeting. This language helps shift attitudes from the use of “leader,” which suggests that there are passive “followers.” The remaining participants are expected to arrive prepared for the meeting and to be active during it. The verb form of participant is to participate! A major part of participation is the responsibility for both following and enforcing good meeting norms and behaviors. Or to restate, while there are certain important expectations of the emcee, there are equally important expectations of everyone else in the room. This model of meeting management relieves the emcee of the unhealthy burden to solely carry the flow and outcomes, and it significantly changes the dynamics in the room for the better. Note that different attendees can host different parts of the meeting. I recommend teams rotate roles on a regular basis so all members gain multiple meeting skills. This model also communicates the norm that all members are responsible for meeting outcomes. Finally, let us check our beliefs about the nature of gathering. Meetings are so ubiquitous that we become complacent about their character and of the people in attendance. As professionals, time is one of our most valuable resources, and we should treat it as such. Our meetings, even regular ones, should convey respect for time and the importance of the work. As a separate consideration, there will be social occasions for meeting, and those would be appropriately more relaxed.

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With this foundation, let us proceed with a set of best practices so that you and your associates get excited about your meetings!

Reinvent the Meeting We typically have models that we ascribe to certain meetings, but those are not written in stone. Habitual behaviors lull us into complacency, and it is worthwhile to revisit our assumptions, even to start with a blank canvas from time to time. The following list is certainly not exhaustive, but includes some suggestions that may help get your creativity flowing.  Necessity – Is this meeting really necessary? Could the agenda be accomplished in some other way, perhaps asynchronously on a collaboration platform?  Attendance – Who must be there? Who must be an active participant? While we may consider inviting others, they can decline to attend or come as observers.  Duration – Endeavor to schedule shorter meetings, and you will likely find that you get more done.  Anticipation – Some participants will have another meeting immediately after yours, and most meetings start at the top or bottom of the hour. Instead of a thirty-minute meeting, make yours last no more than twenty-five minutes to allow a restroom stop before arriving on time at the next meeting.  Environment – Pay attention to the meeting environment and location in designing your meetings and change things from time to time. Some groups meet standing up so participants don’t get too comfortable and draw out the meeting. Consider meeting in the lobby, cafeteria, or coffee shop for a change of pace.

Meeting Norms In Chapter 9, we covered the concept of a team contract and its use to establish agreement on expectations of attitudes and behaviors. There is typically a section on meeting management in a team contract, as it is critical for people who convene on a regular basis. As a way to start the ball rolling, consider running your own version of the exercise at the start of this chapter.

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At some point in your exploration of expectations in meetings, you will need to cover enforcement of norms. Unenforced norms are the same as no norms. But enforcement need not be mean or draconian. Many groups take a lighthearted approach. Many times, people only need gentle reminders when they get off topic or long-winded. A numbered list of expectations on a wall chart can prompt a cheerful, “Mike, Number 8” from someone else when I have neglected to silence my phone before the meeting started. What about norms for occasional meetings or meetings for which the attendee list changes regularly? In such cases, it is better if the organization or division has a standard short list of meeting norms that can be posted in the room or covered as the first slide. Here the emcee will have more of a role in enforcing behaviors, but that does not relieve other participants of their responsibilities. For such meetings, it is worthwhile to include meeting norms in the agenda that is sent prior to the meeting. We could offer an expansive list of good and not so good meeting behaviors here, but that would miss the point. As demonstrated in the reverse best practices exercise, we all know what a good meeting looks like, and it is far better for ownership when group members participate (there’s that word again) in developing norms.

Processes for Healthy Participation and Outcomes We want to design the meeting structure to maximize the effectiveness, and that includes strategies for reasonable participation from all parties. Some people talk too much, while others say little or nothing. When left unchecked, the dynamics between such personalities are self-reinforcing. It is worthwhile as part of the meeting norms to have a round robin check-in with all attendees on important matters. As each person speaks, everyone else is silent. This practice provides a protected window for introverts. We can also set a time limit, say two minutes, on how long a person can talk before moving on. Doing so prevents one individual from dominating the discussion and helps the meeting end faster. When we say meetings are important, we should be prepared to back up that statement with behaviors. Cell phone usage for messaging during a meeting is rude. Yet at times there are true emergencies, and it is appropriate for an attendee to be notified. One way to resolve this dilemma is to designate a point-of-contact assistant who is outside the meeting. He or she politely interrupts the meeting to notify the participant of the emergency message. In this way, participants can devote their attention to the meeting, which is important, right? It is similarly rude to work on a laptop unless such work is both necessary to the topic at hand and brief.

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A common problem with meetings is a sloppy start time. People may enter the conference room right on schedule, but several minutes transpire during which there are hellos, small talk, pouring tea, and getting seated and prepared. Make it a policy for everyone to arrive with a buffer of three to five minutes before the stated start time. If the meeting is scheduled to start at 8:30 a.m., actually start the agenda at 8:30 a.m. On the subject of being prepared, we can take a lesson from the delightful 2001 movie, Legally Blonde. Reese Witherspoon plays Elle Woods, a seemingly frivolous college student who enters Harvard Law School to win back her boyfriend. On the first day of class, the stern Professor Stromwell calls on Elle with a question from the required readings. Having not prepared, Elle responds, “I wasn’t aware we had an assignment.” Stromwell dismisses Elle on the spot, with the directive to return only when she had properly prepared. Every participant in an upcoming meeting should have completed the assignment to be appropriately prepared to work according to and directed toward the outcomes specified in the circulated agenda. One best practice in project management is the use of a brief mission statement for the project. One team reads this statement at every meeting as a reminder to all of what has brought them together. The leader of that team remarked that meetings proceed unusually well and that the project has fewer problems than would typically be expected. When teams venture off in new directions, it is important for them to be able to find their way “home.” Before adjourning a meeting, it is worthwhile to briefly summarize the main outcomes and action items so participants leave with the big picture of what was accomplished.

Agenda Before we embark on a trip, we organize and prepare so we can reach the destination. Such preparation is all the more important when multiple people are involved. For an upcoming meeting, the agenda provides the roadmap for the meeting, instructions for how to prepare for the meeting, and any other relevant meeting-specific information. Prototypically, one person owns the outcomes of the meeting, and he or she is the one who sets the agenda. This document specifies those who are invited, the start time and duration, the outcomes to be completed, and the sub-topics on the program with their respective durations. As relevant, the agenda may also include reminders of behavioral norms, particularly if the meeting has participants who do not regularly convene as a team. The agenda must be distributed to allow ample opportunity for preparation by

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attendees, and there should be a process to accept or decline the meeting invitation (e.g., through a collaboration platform). Under most cases, groups should follow the agenda closely during the meeting. Yet there is an art to deviating from the agenda when it is appropriate. The emcee should check with participants for their agreement to make substantive deviations from an agenda. Once the meeting is over, notes that include minutes, decisions, and action items should be made available within twenty-four hours. While the meeting owner often prepares the notes, a designated individual can also do them.

Virtual Meetings Virtual meetings add to the challenges of meeting management, and they deserve special attention. On the plus side, it is remarkable that so much can be accomplished on collaboration platforms with geographically dispersed attendees. Two realities, however, make the virtual meeting potentially less effective than its face-to-face counterpart: (1) communication has diminished richness and clarity, and (2) it is easier for participants to give attention to other matters. We must therefore go to greater lengths to ensure a quality experience that draws attention to accomplishing the important work at hand. Make use of the most robust technology for your collaboration platform and pay particular attention to audio quality. Where possible, have everyone on webcams and use headsets for superior audio quality. Endeavor for your presentations and discussions to be engaging so participants are less likely to stray into online shopping or watching cat videos. It is also important at the start of the meeting to put away cell phones and close all other windows on their computers to devote their attention to the meeting. Be strident in enforcing healthy meeting behaviors, particularly to structure regular opportunities for all parties to participate. This last point is absolutely crucial if you have a meeting in which some participants are colocated while others attend remotely. It is exceedingly easy for the virtual attendees to be considered as barely involved without all parties making a concerted effort for full participation.

Culture and Pushback As said earlier, dysfunctional behaviors arise for a reason, and even if the behaviors are seemingly unpleasant, people find them comfortable and familiar. People may complain about a dysfunctional culture, but are reluctant to take it on. Culture is not a mysterious force that is set in stone. Geert

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Hofstede [2] describes culture as shared mental programming. Because culture shows itself in behaviors, if we want to change culture, we must change behaviors. Often when someone takes up the mantle of leadership to move meeting behaviors in a better direction, he or she is subjected to various forms of pushback: eye rolling, snickering, passive-aggressive foot-dragging, or even outright challenges. It can be easy to give in or avoid the prospect altogether. Yet without someone changing, the dysfunction will continue. Always strive to model effective meeting behavior and be the adult in the room. Your best tool is the team contract with effective meeting norms. There is a world of difference between one person trying to change the behaviors of six other adults as compared with having prior agreement among seven adults to adhere to certain behaviors. To repeat the earlier suggestion, a less-threatening way to move matters in a better direction is a reverse best practices exercise as at the start of the chapter. Norms are more likely to be developed, owned, and enforced when they are made collaboratively. In workplace culture, meetings are so common and sloppy that we treat them casually, flippantly, and cynically. A far better attitude is to treat every meeting as having the utmost importance. To think about it, we are ostensibly doing important work, and the time of all attendees is likewise important. Think back to our intrinsic motivators: meaningfulness, choice, competence, progress, and ability to innovate. When meetings are executed well, they promote all these motivators, and thereby greatly enhance the engagement of all who participate.

References [1] Herold, C., Meetings Suck: Turning One of the Most Loathed Elements of Business into One of the Most Valuable, Austin, TX: Lioncrest, 2016. [2] Hofstede, G., “The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices and Theories,” Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1983, pp. 75–89.

Selected Bibliography Axtell, P., Meetings Matter: 8 Powerful Strategies for Remarkable Conversations, Corvallis, OR: Jackson Creek, 2015. Lencioni, P. M., Death by Meeting: A Leadership Fable about Solving the Most Painful Problem in Business, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004.�

CHAPTER

21 Decision Making I saw myself sitting in the crotch of this fig tree, starving to death, just because I couldn’t make up my mind which of the figs I would choose. I wanted each and every one of them, but choosing meant losing all the rest, and, as I sat there, unable to decide, the figs began to wrinkle and go black, and, one by one, they plopped to the ground at my feet. —Sylvia Plath, The Bell Jar

Takeaways  Different types of decision processes are needed for different contexts— choose what is appropriate for the situation.  When participants support the process, they are more likely to support the outcome of a decision.  We ultimately make decisions based on emotion as supported by factual information.

Fish or Cut Bait! With this colloquialism, a friend may have implored you to make a decision if you have appeared stuck. It is one thing to make decisions on minor, informal, or personal matters; it is another to decide on matters that involve a workplace team, division, or entire company. Often such decisions will be made as a group, and we need good decision-making approaches that provide an effective process.

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In the quote above, Sylvia Plath offers rich imagery of the task before us. We are typically faced with multiple options to consider, and many times there is no clear winner. Knowing that by making the choice we exclude possibilities that may have turned out better, which is the best choice? That is the nature of decision making: the risk that our choice may result in a less than desirable outcome. By postponing the decision too long, all our opportunities wither, bringing about the worst outcome of all. To choose well among the available figs, we need a collaborative process to understand the decision context, explore and consider options, and collectively reach a decision. Ultimately, we seek a quality decision, whatever that means for the situation. This consideration leads us to context.

Understanding the Decision Context Consider your experience with making decisions. Some you’ve made as an individual, and others have involved friends, family, or colleagues. You have had to decide both trivial and consequential matters. A few decisions are days, weeks, or months in the making, while others must happen immediately. These various considerations highlight the fact that all decisions are made in a certain context. When we address organizational decision making, it is imperative that we be clear about and articulate the context around a particular decision. Doing so dramatically improves the quality of the decision. For many (if not most) organizational endeavors, some data gathering and subsequent analysis will be needed before proceeding. While we have done well to frame and address the issue, we may still lack insights on specific details that will make the outcome tangible and concrete. The following list, based on one by Neal and Spritzer [1], provides suggestions for the context of decision making in an organization to promote quality decisions. Note that this list presumes some groundwork has been done leading into the decision-making process, such as developing a set of candidate options. Perhaps the best source for creating a list of options is our team, with appropriate research or input from subject matter experts. Set a reasonable time limit on the development of alternatives. Appropriate framework – A clear understanding of the problem to be addressed provides a framework for the decision. Worthwhile alternatives – Depending on the need, a short list of options that are both creative and viable should be developed. An option is viable if it addresses the need and accomplishes the desired outcome. Meaningful information – We would like information on each of the options to illuminate their consideration. The information we seek is reliable and unbiased. It also includes any relevant uncertainties and ambiguities.

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Clarity of outcomes – We need a clear understanding of where we intend for the chosen option to take us as well as the tradeoffs we are willing to make to get there. By understanding the context of the decision, we are well on the way to making a quality decision.

Importance of Process Following the theme of Chapter 17, there are no guarantees that we will achieve a great outcome because of uncertainties about the future and externalities beyond our control. Following a solid decision-making process, however, dramatically increases the likelihood of a quality decision. As with the team contract concept, we seek to express our expectations of one another and the process we will undertake to reach a decision. Depending on the context, there are different decision-making processes or types (more about those in the next section). Generally, we want agreement on and transparency in the process. Perhaps more importantly, all relevant stakeholders must agree to involvement in the process, giving a good-faith effort when a group decision is warranted and providing support for the final decision. Expressing and agreeing upon such expectations dramatically reduces the possibility that one or more individuals will, for example, complain that their perspectives were not considered or criticize a decision if an expected outcome is not achieved. Research done at MIT has demonstrated that better decisions flow from diversity of inputs and perspectives [2]. Interestingly, our inclination to disagree increases dramatically in a group that is diverse, but we are predisposed to agree with a homogeneous group. During the deliberation process, we want diversity of opinions and disagreement. We need individuals who have a common ground of understanding but see things differently and are not all part of the same group. I once had the privilege of serving as a member of a NASA Mishap Investigation Board, in this case for an incident that occurred on the ground. In accord with our topic, NASA had initiated a policy where every such board would include an outside consultant, someone who was not employed by NASA. In essence, the MIT research and NASA policy demonstrate the importance of having a process that promotes the airing of multiple and alternative viewpoints and information, even ones that are initially unwelcome. Our process for deliberation should purposely provide for dissent because such an approach will dramatically improve the quality of the decisions made. Our process must accordingly include a way to manage conflict to

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keep it focused on conflict of ideas and avoid conflict of emotion. There will be more about the encouragement of dissent in Chapter 23.

Decision Approaches There is not, nor should there be a one-size-fits-all approach to decision making in an organization; the approach used should fit the circumstances. There are three essential considerations for choosing which decision approach is appropriate in a given situation: the urgency or timeliness on needing a decision, the impact of the decision, and the importance of buy-in among stakeholders. Table 21.1 summarizes several types of approaches to decision making and guidelines for when to use them. In an organizational setting, many important decisions will be made by a leader (with consultation) or will be participatory in a group. As the impact and importance of buy-in increase, there will be a greater need for consensus or even unanimity. These trends point to a greater need for formality, but there are many situations for which such methods are not necessary or may be neither wise nor timely. When the building is on fire, the situation calls for a knowledgeable person to take charge and shout out directives! The key point with implementing these various decision-making approaches is whenever possible to have agreement on the process and approach by which a decision will be made. In other words, there is first one decision about process, and when that is settled, that decision leads to a second decision about the matter at hand. We may, for example, reach con-

Table 21.1 Types of Decision-Making Processes DecisionMaking Type How Decision is Made Directive One person decides Consultative Democratic Consensus

Unanimity

Person making decision seeks advice from others before deciding alone Majority vote

When to Use On minor matters; when time is critical; when group is stuck For modestly important matters or when group is stuck May be appropriate on many matters when consensus is not required On important matters when there is sufficient time

Group reaches a joint decision; all members either vote for the choice or can wholeheartedly support the choice All group members vote for and agree On important matters when full upon the choice commitment of all members is critical and time is generous

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sensus that the project leader should make a certain decision on a scope change, but only after using a consultative process. Let us touch upon the importance of appropriate support and commitment to the decision. A key perspective is this: Each of us may come to a certain decision as an individual, but an organizational setting requires deference to the decision of the group. Assuming a decision is neither unethical nor foolhardy, we agree to support the decision and commit to the activities it encompasses, even if we may have individually chosen otherwise. Perhaps the most important way to promote support for the outcome of a decision is to have agreement on the process used to reach the decision. In various competitions, including sports and elections, there are winners and losers. Those who lose or support a losing party will feel upset over the loss but nevertheless recognize the winner of the contest as long as the process transparently followed rules. Likewise in an organization, what individuals seek most is for their input to be considered as part of a fair and appropriate process.

Indecisiveness Be on the lookout for “analysis paralysis.” It may be tempting for groups to continually postpone a decision because they lack information. In the business world, there will never be enough information. As the leader of a decision-making effort, there is an art to knowing when to gather more data and when to prompt people to move along to a decision. It is often valuable to “time box” a decision—force a decision by a definite date based on the available information. On the other hand, if it seems that critical information is still missing, but substantial time is passing by, it may be appropriate to experiment with solutions. If you are leading the decision-making process, be attentive to the dynamics of the group as well as your own intuition. A sense that matters should be converging but are not may be a sign that available options are not satisfactory or that participants cannot come to a consensus. It may be time try a different approach. Here are a few to consider: Be Creative While creative ideas are always welcome with upcoming decisions, they are particularly needed when we face an impasse. It may be worthwhile to call upon a version of the provocation exercise from Chapter 16. As you may recall, the key to this exercise is to violate well-established assumptions. In this case, such assumptions may be standing in the way of convergence to a decision.

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Experiment Participants may be feeling anxious about committing to a major decision with long-term consequences and a requirement for allocation of substantial resources when there is still significant ambiguity over direction. It may be possible to reach consensus when we stage the decision into more than one phase. We can perhaps reach agreement for a pilot project or a quick round of experiments. The pilot project approach can be attractive when there is general agreement on one option but reluctance to summon extensive resources to bear. This approach is, in essence, a proof-of-concept project to help stakeholders gain confidence in a full-scale program. It is appropriate after the pilot project to reassemble the group for a final and formal decision for the larger effort. Participants may not converge on a particular option; indeed, more than one option may seem worthy, or different options may appeal to different constituencies. In such a case, a round of experiments, essentially parallel pilot projects, can illuminate the way forward. Again, bring the team back together after the experimental phase to reach its final decision on the major program.

Getting Emotional about Decisions Many of us in the professional workplace would like to believe we make decisions rationally by assessing pros and cons and basing them on data. While not discounting the importance of this approach, it may come as a surprise to learn that each of us ultimately decides according to emotions. People make decisions emotionally, then support the decisions afterwards with logic and selected data. Dr. Antonio Damasio is a neuroscientist at the University of Southern California who has studied the impact of emotions on decision making. He relates the story of his patient Elliott [3], an intelligent and successful attorney who had to undergo brain surgery to remove a tumor. The surgery was successful, and Elliott recovered. Before and after surgery, cognitive tests confirmed Elliott had lost none of his intellectual abilities, and he returned to work. But something was seriously wrong with Elliott. His demeanor turned flat and he lacked motivation. The removal of the tumor necessitated the removal of the part of Elliott’s brain that processed emotions. Curiously, Elliott lost the ability to make decisions, even minor ones. His marriage fell apart, and he lost his job. Despite his intelligence, people found it difficult to interact with someone who showed no emotion and got stuck deciding what to eat or what to wear.

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The tragic case of Elliott demonstrates that we make decisions according to how we feel about the options available to us. Upon reflection, this characteristic of the human brain makes perfect sense. If I feel excited about an option or an opportunity, I am likely to filter seemingly “objective” information in a way that supports my desire for that outcome. In contrast, negative emotions associated with a path makes it more likely that I will resist the path, no matter how worthwhile it may appear to someone else. Suppose I have just become aware that an important supplier of equipment on my project has suddenly gone out of business. As project manager, it is objectively my responsibility to share this news with the project sponsor. Based on previous experience, this individual has demonstrated a calm reaction to similar challenges, and has actively collaborated on good alternative solutions. My emotions would accordingly support revealing the bad news to the sponsor. But perhaps this sponsor has a history of exploding upon the receipt of such news and casting blame on the messenger. In such a case, my emotions may lead me to suppress this information. There really is no way around the influence of emotions on our decisions. It is far better to accept and acknowledge them—as individuals and as a group. It is a sign of maturity when we can experience the emotion fully, act in a way that is contrary to it, and nevertheless feel even better about the decision. We began this chapter contemplating on the reality that risks come with the decisions we make. It is important to keep the perspective that even if a decision brings less than desirable outcomes, we can still pivot, adapt, and improvise. With the approaches provided in this chapter, we will reduce the likelihood of poor outcomes. We can proceed deliberately but confidently, knowing we have followed a solid process with our colleagues in a manner that promotes diversity of perspectives, dialogue, and support for the decision. Perhaps the best decision of all is simply following a solid and robust process for making decisions!

References [1] Neal, L. and C. Spetzler, “An Organization-Wide Approach to Good Decision Making,” Harvard Business Review Online, May 27, 2015, https://hbr. org/2015/05/an-organization-wide-approach-to-good-decision-making. [2] Clearfield, C. and A. Tilcisk, Meltdown: Why Our Systems Fail and What We Can Do About It, New York: Penguin Press, 2018. [3] Damasio, A., Descartes’ Error, New York: Putnam, 1994.

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Selected Bibliography Bazerman, M. H. and D. A. Moore, Judgment in Managerial Decision Making, Eighth Edition, New York: Wiley, 2013. Duke, A., Thinking in Bets: Making Smarter Decisions When You Don’t Have All the Facts, New York: Penguin, 2018. Kaner, S., Facilitator’s Guide to Participatory Decision-Making, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014. Krogerus, M. and R. Tschäppeler, The Decision Book: 50 Models for Strategic Thinking, New York: W. W. Norton, 2012.

CHAPTER

22 Hitting from the Rough: When Things Go Wrong Compost happens! —Bumper sticker

Takeaways  Things will inevitably go wrong, and it is to our benefit to plan and prepare for possible risk events.  Risk management involves simple tools to identify possible risks and prioritize them according to likelihood, impact, and extent of advance warning.  Preparation and practice help us to respond well when unexpected crises occur. Readers who have played golf have experienced hitting from the rough— the boundaries of each fairway that include trees, tall grass, and other obstacles. Even the best golfers sometimes find themselves in the rough, requiring considerable skill to salvage a decent score on the hole. It is part of the game, and part of the skill in playing golf to make good shots from the rough. Because we are competent in our work, things usually go well. But we all occasionally encounter trouble even under the best of circumstances.

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Some of this misfortune is simply random. Some of it we tempt because we embark on endeavors that involve risks. Yet all of us in our work must take risks because, in our competitive marketplace, it is risky to continue business as usual. A key part of getting things done is the ability to handle adversity— knowing how to avoid it, if possible, and knowing how to rebound from it. Skill at risk management and problem solving is a valuable tool in the engineering manager’s toolkit. People who manage crises well are worth their weight in gold. But it is perhaps even better to dodge trouble in the first place. Many crises can be prevented, or their effects minimized, through good planning. How do we keep ourselves out of the rough? If we land there, how can we extricate ourselves gracefully? We should begin our preparation long before we take our first swing on the golf course. At work, skill in risk and crisis management begins with the planning of our work.

Introduction to Risk As we begin the subject of risk management, it is worthwhile to define and characterize terminology. A risk is an event that may occur in the future that will have a detrimental effect on our work. If the risk actually occurs, we call it a risk event or a problem. For risks that we have previously identified and for which we have planned, we implement response or contingency steps when the risk event occurs. If the risk event was unexpected, we may be required to apply problem solving skills to the situation. If the problem is serious, we call it a crisis, and our actions are more accurately called crisis management. It is helpful to differentiate between those risk events that involve health or safety and others that may impact the success or robustness of our business. Of course, health and safety concerns necessarily earn much attention, and, in many cases, the mitigation of such risks is mandatory by regulation. We will focus primarily on business risks in this chapter. Risk events come in all shapes and sizes, and they have varying effects on our work. Some risk events are rather benign, and even if they take place, they offer little consequence. Other risk events are very serious with dramatic, if not mortal, effects. Perhaps a large part of our approach to risk management is learned through experience and feedback from our environment. A child who accidentally touches fire learns through pain to avoid fire or to handle it carefully in the future. In so doing, she develops intuitive skills for risk management.

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Through experience, we also develop a preferred level of comfort or tolerance for risk. Some people are quite comfortable living with risk and are confident in their skills for responding to risk events. Other individuals prefer a high degree of security from risk events. There is ultimately no way to remove all risk from our lives or work. To attempt to do so only means we accomplish very little. Our goal is to develop and implement plans and attitudes to achieve a comfortable level of risk.

Organizational Barriers For a variety of reasons, many organizations do a poor job at managing risks. In large part, this poor performance results from several erroneous attitudes and beliefs that are now presented and addressed. Denial and Fear of Negativity One of the fundamental reasons organizations fail to practice risk management is denial. It is manifest through the belief that we will never have trouble, or if we do have trouble, we can solve it readily. In many cases, executive management worries about the motivation and commitment of staff members. Management may fear admitting the potential for future risk will allow the staff to develop a negative attitude and lose the ambition to work toward objectives. Risks and problems exist only in our minds, and if we talk about them, they may come true. Management also wants to convey a positive, can-do image to customers. While denial may be expedient, it also goes against reality. Concern with Distraction and Inefficiency Some may believe it is a waste of time to consider potential events that may never occur, but effective risk management enables teams to more confidently, efficiently, and successfully achieve their objectives. Good risk management tools are designed to streamline the planning process so there is not excessive consideration of unimportant risk events. Lack of Time or Low Priority Most people in organizations are already pressed for time. It is often a hard sell to convince them to invest time in planning for future risks when they are fighting present fires. Organizations usually do not make risk planning a priority. Granted, it takes time to plan for risks, but a valuable risk management plan can be produced with a nominal investment of effort.

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Concern for Blame Finally, many people detest taking responsibility for solving a problem regardless of the source. They fear acknowledging a crisis and owning the solution means admitting fault and attracting blame. For many crises, the trauma is prolonged because everyone denies responsibility, and many will deny the existence of the crisis as long as possible. Where a quick response would have mitigated the damage, the avoidance of responsibility magnifies the harm. Good crisis management involves quickly admitting that a crisis exists and immediately looking for the solution.

Elements of Risk Management As stated by Pritchard [1], a constructive risk management program will include three major elements: identification of risks, assessment of risks, and strategies for risks. Completion of these three elements provides a comprehensive process that can be as simple or as complex as appropriate or desired. We will now talk about these elements in more detail. Risk Identification It is not possible to plan for risks with any specificity unless we are aware of them. Our first step for risk management is the effort of identifying the risks to our work. Risk identification is best approached as a group effort because much of the valuable knowledge of risks exists outside of management. We should not only call on our experts but also those who might have a fresh viewpoint on our work. It is helpful to list what has gone wrong in the past and take steps to avoid such events in the future. People and organizations tend to give greater importance to recent risk events. This bias will not necessarily be representative of what may happen in the future. We are better off casting a wider net to consider other possibilities. We can facilitate the identification process by trying to list all the things that must go right for our work to be successful. Doing so will often force us to identify a host of assumptions, including many that seem trivial or taken for granted. At times, the exercise may border on the pathological or absurd: yes, my work assumes that the world has not been destroyed by thermonuclear war. But some seemingly ridiculous thoughts are in some cases very relevant. You may want to come up with a few broad categories to lump together bizarre but uncommon potential events. Many of the items you generate will deserve closer attention, but not at this point. The intent of the identification exercise is only to capture all

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relevant risks to which your work may be subject. Are you relying on the delivery of materials or equipment? These items may not be available on time. Perhaps the scope of your project has areas that are ill defined. If so, there is a risk that your project will later need rework, with the accompanying impact on schedule and budget. Does your project involve new or immature technology? There is often a significant risk to the project’s success because the technology may fail in implementation, or it may only be feasible with a substantial investment of resources. When you feel you have put in a good effort at identification, there is no need to stretch it out to the bitter end—the list will never be complete. Once risks are consciously known, our minds have a marvelous way of working on them, even unconsciously. But while they are doing so, let us move to the next step in our process. Risk Evaluation Different risks have different meanings for our work—some are trivial, and others are significant. To make the best use of our time and resources, we need to prioritize risks to focus on those that matter the most. It is advantageous to have a group process for evaluating or scoring potential risks. When evaluating risks as a group, pay attention to people who serve as “voices in the wilderness” offering important minority viewpoints. Our evaluation system should take into account several characteristics of each risk. First, some risk events are extremely rare, and others are more commonplace. We may accept the risk associated with a rare event but take steps to avoid one that is more common; for example, in analysis of flooding in low-lying areas, civil engineers have terminology that identifies the extent of flooding to be anticipated over different periods of time. They talk about a “ten-year flood,” a “one hundred-year flood,” and a “five hundredyear flood.” The first case defines a rainfall or flooding event that occurs often. The second and third cases define flooding events that happen infrequently. We may accept the risk of building in the five hundred-year floodplain but not in the ten-year floodplain. The likelihood of a particular risk event is a key characteristic to consider. The second characteristic to consider is the impact on our work. Some risk events have relatively little bearing on the outcome of our work; other risk events can have catastrophic effects. Our scoring system should take into account the ultimate effect of the risk event on what we are trying to accomplish.

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Our third evaluation element is the extent of advance warning we will receive of the coming risk event. If a risk event visits us suddenly, we have no time to prepare for it. Such events should be scored with a higher degree of risk. On the other hand, when we can see trouble approaching in the distance, we have time to prepare properly. Consider the warning of an approaching hurricane. Often, residents in its path have several days’ notice and the opportunity to take precautionary steps or even to evacuate. In contrast, an earthquake does not announce its arrival ahead of time. We can now combine our three elements—likelihood, impact, and extent of warning—into a combined or overall evaluation of the risk event. There are many different ways to score risks, from very informal techniques to formal numerical methods. What is most important is to have consistency in scoring and use the results to highlight those risk events that have an overall relatively high score compared with others on your list. An example risk evaluation tool is shown in Table 22.1 [2,3]. This tool shows two hypothetical risks that might occur on a project involving the construction of a bridge. The risks we are considering in this example are those that might prevent us from meeting our project objectives as embodied in the scope, schedule, and resources. The first risk in the list is scored according to a simple “low—moderate—high” scale, where “high” represents more risk. The “overall” score is primarily based on a gut impression of the effects of the four other assessment components. The second risk issue is scored on a scale of one to five where a value of five represents more risk. In this case, the “overall” score can be a scalar or weighted average of the components. The scoring system you implement can be any one that is meaningful to your organization. When we evaluate and make decisions on the set of scores in the “overall” category, we should give extra consideration or weight to the contribution from the “impact” category. In cases such as those that may cause serious injury or death, such an impact can dominate the overall score. When the impact is high, even if the overall score is low, we should examine this risk further.

Table 22.1 Example Risk Evaluation Tool for a Bridge Construction Project Extent of Issue Likelihood Impact Warning Overall Bad weather M H L M Materials not delivered in time 4 5 3 4.0 After: [3].

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Consider the Challenger space shuttle disaster. The accident was attributed to O-ring failure at cold temperature, a risk that was considered to have a low probability of occurrence. But because the impact of the event—death to the astronauts—was very high, extra caution was warranted. “When people think the probability of something is low, they throw caution to the wind” [4]. The objective of the evaluation step is to parse our initially lengthy list into a more manageable one that includes only our most critical potential problems. When we proceed to the next step, we will only consider those risk issues that are relatively high overall risks to our objectives—these will be enough to keep us busy.

Risk Strategies Each of the issues on our short list must now be examined to develop strategies to overcome or diminish the risks they pose. The strategies we seek come within three categories: avoidance, response, and transference. We prefer strategies that will help us avoid the risk events altogether. Where we are unable to completely avoid a risk event, we will then need to identify steps to respond to the event so as to mitigate its effects. In some cases, we can transfer some of our risk elsewhere. As in Chapter 16, the development of risk strategies is another great place to practice creative thinking techniques. Many steps are taken before the risk event occurs, and many are taken afterward. But some of the steps we take in response will only be possible if we have first taken some steps before the risk event. I may define one risk event for driving a car as running out of fuel. If this event occurs, I could fill the tank with extra fuel from a spare can in the vehicle. That is a great response, but it is available only if I have planned ahead of time to carry the spare can—and I have filled it. Despite our best efforts, many risk events still occur. We should include in our process plans to respond to the event and mitigate its effects on our work. It is helpful to identify ahead of time specific response actions and those accountable for them. In many cases, good response plans are never implemented for lack of a single specific owner. Table 22.2 provides a simple example of the development of a set of risk strategies. It uses one of the risk events we presented in Table 22.1, the potential late delivery of materials for the bridge construction project. This tool lists both avoidance and response techniques, but there is no direct relationship between entries on a given row in the table. In addition to avoidance and response actions, a third risk strategy is transference of the risk, which includes pooling the risk. One example of

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Table 22.2 Example Set of Risk Strategies Avoidance Response Only use vendors with excellent Evaluate possible rearrangement of on-time delivery records construction work sequence and schedule. Plan for deliveries at least 2 Seek materials from alternate vendor. weeks before materials needed

this strategy is auto insurance. Any given population of drivers will have a certain propensity for involvement in auto accidents. These drivers can pool their risks together through insurance so that each pays a tolerable premium for the benefit of coverage. No one party suffers an overwhelming financial loss from an accident; in essence, all parties share a fraction of the loss. A similar approach can be taken with other aspects of your work. Perhaps you have identified a potential risk with the availability of skilled personnel for your operation. On your own, you may not be able to hire extra people, but perhaps other divisions in your company would share staff members with you. Finally, one legitimate response to a risk event is to reconsider our objectives. After the occurrence of a risk event on a project, for example, it may be appropriate to change the scope, schedule, or resources or perhaps even abandon the project altogether.

Risk Management Actions We can now examine our list of strategies and choose which ones to implement. Let us emphasize that effective risk management necessarily leads to actions. Those elements that are avoidance or transference strategies are actions we will definitely implement. Those elements that are response actions will be implemented if a specific condition is fulfilled. The process we have examined here is simple, straightforward, and easily implemented. Formal techniques provide more in-depth coverage of the elements of risk management. One of these that may be familiar to many engineers is known as failure modes and effects and criticality analysis (FMECA). While FMECA is more specifically used in analysis of product or system failures, the concepts are directly applicable to more general risk management issues. We have now developed and taken steps to implement a risk management system for risks that we anticipate. What do we do about those risk events that are completely unexpected?

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Planning for Surprises: Training and Improvisation We are all subject to random misfortune, and we likewise encounter this in our work. It may initially seem that risk planning is ineffective in such cases. But risk planning helps us develop confidence and skill for problem solving and crisis management. Let us talk specifically here about training and practice. Military units and sports teams spend an overwhelming amount of their time training and preparing for game or battle conditions. The process of training, especially under challenging circumstances, helps them develop confidence, resilience, and insights that are valuable when they encounter new situations. On the other hand, we in the workplace spend very little time training for the unexpected. Much of our crisis management or problem-solving skills are developed in the heat of battle. But when we engage in effective risk planning and risk management, we develop and sharpen these skills. We learn better how to improvise.

Crisis Management When a crisis occurs, we will be required more than ever to rely on our confidence, creativity, and decisiveness. To avoid being overwhelmed, we need to break the problem into more manageable components. Paramount to emerging from the crisis is to maintain a sense of calm resolve. One of the greatest examples of good crisis management can be seen in the actions of Johnson & Johnson after seven deaths had been traced to consumption of its popular pain reliever, Extra Strength Tylenol. Someone had taken bottles of Tylenol from stores, laced them with arsenic, and returned them to the shelves. The company’s response was decisive. It announced through the media for all customers to stop taking Tylenol, and immediately recalled all Tylenol products at a cost of more than $240 million. In the recovery process, the company pioneered tamper-resistant packaging, and it quickly became the industry standard. Sales of Tylenol soon rebounded. Johnson & Johnson executives acknowledged that nothing had prepared them for this crisis; however, they did rely on a long-standing company credo, one that spoke of the company’s responsibilities to its consumers and the community [5]. Their quick decision to take ownership of the response and do what was morally right proved to also be the best long-term business decision. It is beneficial to examine cases of crisis management, problem solving, and risk management planning both from personal experience in our own organizations and experiences of other organizations. It is worthwhile to

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capture learning from significant events for the purpose of assisting our efforts in future risk management plans and crisis management efforts. When we push the envelope in technology or other respects, we are subject to considerable risks in projects and operations. But in our everchanging marketplace, any business is subject to disruption. We need a good risk management program and the accompanying training and preparation that come with such a program. We are much better off, however, if we do not stress our work or our systems to their limits. Engineers have known this maxim for years, designing safety factors into the systems they design and operate. We do live in a risky world, but most of the risks we encounter at work are risks we can control. Effective responses to adversity strengthen our work and our organizations. Practicing effective risk management enables us to gain confidence that we can avoid or mitigate many risks that we can anticipate—and respond to those we cannot. When things go wrong, we face a critical decision. While it is tempting to curse fate or cast blame, these usually accomplish little. If we look for and choose it, there is often an opportunity to bring about much good in response to adversity.

References [1] Pritchard, C. L., Risk Management: Concepts and Guidance, Fifth Edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2014. [2] Lewis, J. P., The Project Manager’s Desk Reference, Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. [3] Ibid. p. 306. [4] Ibid. p. 307. [5] Johnson & Johnson, “Our Credo,” 2018, Johnson & Johnson, https://www.jnj. com/about-jnj/jnj-credo.

Selected Bibliography Carlson, C., Effective FMEAs: Achieving Safe, Reliable, and Economical Products and Processes Using Failure Mode and Effects Analysis, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012. Dezenhall, E. and J. Weber, Damage Control: The Essential Lessons of Crisis Management, Westport, CT: Prospecta Press, 2011. Kendrick, T., Identifying and Managing Project Risk: Essential Tools for FailureProofing Your Project, New York: AMACOM, 2003.

Principle 4: Communicating Effectively When associates do not communicate well, work suffers and frustration results. It is imperative that managers learn and practice effective communications skills. The ability to communicate well is often ranked as the most important competence for managers to have. A manager must become skilled in listening and understanding as well as in delivering messages clearly in a variety of forms. It is also important that a manager monitor the understandings of stakeholders to ensure team members work in synergy. Chapters 23–25 offer tips on how the engineer in transition to management can develop an effective approach to communicate effectively. A manager must …  Endeavor to promote understanding, agreement, and action;  Become an efficient clearinghouse for information among team members;  Learn and practice good interpersonal communications proficiency, particularly the ability to make messages simple and clear.

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23 Communicating with Purpose There is no communication in this world except between equals. —Ken Burns

Takeaways  Good workplace communication involves understanding that leads to action.  To really understand, we must in humility recognize that we do not understand and become present to effective communication.  The emotional content of communications is significant and often overlooked; skill in emotional intelligence is valuable to a manager. In the workplace, we typically communicate for three reasons: to understand one another, to (hopefully) reach agreement, and to form the basis or motivation for action. We communicate to move from one state to another and to then use this movement to change—to act. The process of communication is the process of change for a purpose. If we communicate for a purpose, then it is best that we communicate with purpose. When we say to communicate with purpose, we mean to be consciously intentional and to be skilled. This triad of understanding, agreement, and action serves as the framework for the many and varied types of communication on the job. It is a framework that moves us from self- to mutual-interest; it is a process that brings progress.

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The human condition is one of continuing interplay between tension and release, or as we named it earlier, dialectics. One could characterize this phenomenon as the path from potential energy to kinetic energy and back again. We come to conversation with different understandings, meanings, interpretations, agendas, and definitions. In the tension of this reality, we can either find a space for collaborative common ground, or we can conclude that we lack common purpose and move ahead separately. We will talk in more specifics about communication skills and techniques in the following chapters. Here we want to highlight the mindset of taking communication seriously in your role as manager. This mindset provides the foundation for the skills because it helps you get your whole person involved in communication rather than attempting to simply invoke a quick trick. It all starts with understanding one another.

Challenging What We Think We Understand In large part we discover ourselves in relationships whether they be at work or in personal life. In our varied relationships, we encounter commonalities and differences, and these are revealed in communication. The quality of communication has a significant influence on the accuracy of our understanding of these commonalities and differences as they are relevant to a situation. Any communication must start somewhere. There must be at least some commonality to have any understanding. For the sake of efficiency, any interaction depends on a foundation of commonality. Here, commonality in language, culture, and experiences makes it possible to skip past a lot of groundwork. Nevertheless, assumed commonalities and assumed differences can hinder healthy communication. Examples of these include stereotypes of others based on certain characteristics of people. We also encounter different types of information conveyed between people. Information has both factual and emotional components, and we tend to give greater credence to the latter. For these reasons, there are myriad opportunities for misunderstanding one another even when we seemingly have much in common. It may seem one solution is to limit my relationships to selected individuals with whom I share much in common. Yet successful outcomes at work absolutely depend on both commonalities and differences. We develop better solutions when we benefit from diverse information and perspectives combined with a healthy level of dissent. There are distinct risks when organizations become stale and resistant to alternative viewpoints. In short, this whole topic of understanding can be tricky and complicated. At the same time, the effectiveness and success of teams and

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organizations depends on good communication. These considerations suggest that what we seek is a healthy balance of commonality and differences. More importantly, we seek a healthy and effective process for exploring what is similar and dissimilar and what to do with these. It all starts with understanding. Understanding really starts with challenging our own assumptions about what we think we understand. As a manager, you will be held responsible for the effectiveness of your team, and that is determined in large part by the effectiveness of communication. It is to your advantage to actively take responsibility for your part in communication and in promoting understanding. I must remember that leadership involves a willingness to change, and the greatest locus of control is over myself. When I am willing to question my understanding of another person and of our interaction, then I become willing to seek greater clarity of our interaction; likewise, when I question our collective understanding, I promote clarity of understanding in the team. I become willing to actively promote richer communication.

Presence and Active Participation Much works against us all in communication, especially our ongoing responsibilities and various sources that vie for our attention. Often we think about what is in the past and yet to come in the future. A peer manager, for example, may be talking to me about features in software, but I am distracted by thoughts about an important review meeting that will take place in two days. It is challenging to gain control of the neural white noise in our heads and establish presence—really paying attention to what is going on at the moment. If I do not control my musings, I tend to be a passive communicant, meaning I miss both receiving and giving important information. In my work as an engineer, I provide expert witness testimony. It is key for any witness in a legal matter to be clear about the question being posed by an attorney; mental distractions can lead to assuming a different question than was actually posed. Someone once offered good advice on how a witness can overcome internal ruminations, and his advice works for anyone seeking to be more present to an interaction. His approach is to access our senses, particularly the sense of touch. The method is easy: Simply take notice of what my chair feels like, sense my forearms on a table top, and feel the floor beneath my shoes. The effect is almost immediate; it brings my mind into the room and into the present, and helps me engage what is being said right now. When I establish presence, I become an active participant in the communication happening at the moment. Furthermore I establish a habit of being proactive about communication. Establishing active participation is

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the overwhelming ingredient in effective and successful communication and therefore outcomes. It is worthwhile to include the process of listening in our consideration. It is commonplace in our world for people to feel their voices do not matter. Have you ever noticed how many people simply want to be heard? It is a fundamental act of respect for another to demonstrate that I am listening, to acknowledge and validate their point of view, to show that I understand it, and (as appropriate) to incorporate their interests in the matter at hand. This approach to others is often described by the term active listening. This term emphasizes the importance of presence while also directing us to spend more time and attention in receiving information—and less in sending it. I endorse this predilection but have chosen to characterize the behavior as presence and active participation. These concepts are more encompassing and capture the desired mindset for effective understanding.

Emotional Intelligence Communication between people includes both factual and emotional information. While emotional components can be conveyed in words (e.g., “I am really excited!”), much of this content occurs in vocal tone and the catchall body language. We tend to send and receive emotional content in an unconscious manner, and we give more credence to it than to factual content. Furthermore, emotions play a big part in decision making. It is therefore worthwhile to develop awareness of emotions in ourselves and in others and to learn to manage them effectively. This skill is known as emotional intelligence (EI). The benefit of a heightened level of EI is the ability to guide our own thoughts and actions in a more helpful direction, and in so doing also guide interactions with others to better places. While part of EI is considered a trait much like personality, another part is considered a skill that anyone can improve and master. Perhaps the most widely used construct of EI was that presented by Goleman [1], which is summarized in Table 23.1 [2]. Skill in emotional intelligence has been linked with better project performance and effectiveness when working in a matrix organization. We use EI to enhance communication and collaboration.� While objective data and rational thought are used for making decisions in organizations, one must not discount the importance of emotions. We often choose a course of action and then either use selective data or interpret data in a way that supports the decision we have already made. All of us have narratives our brains use to represent reality–without them we could not possibly make sense of all the information coming at us. One may

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Table 23.1 Elements of Emotional Intelligence Knowing one’s emotions Managing emotions

Motivating oneself Recognizing emotions in others Handling relationships

The ability to identify one’s emotions; to understand links among emotions, thought, and actions The capacity to manage one’s emotions; to control emotions or to shift undesirable emotions to more effective ones The ability to enter into emotional states by choice; to summon emotions toward the attainment of goals The capability to empathize; to read and be sensitive to other people’s emotions The ability to sustain satisfactory and beneficial relationships; to lead and influence the emotions of others

After: [2].

believe emotion in workplace decisions represents a flaw in humankind, but such a belief will not be productive. It is better to accept the emotion and attempt to understand what is behind it. Let’s return to the conversation about software features with the peer manager, the one in which I was thinking about the upcoming review meeting. One part of EI is being aware of and managing my emotions. During this conversation, I become aware of anxiety I feel about the upcoming review. I also become aware that preoccupation with the anxiety was getting in the way of paying attention to the present conversation. Managing my anxiety means I can at least temporarily pause it so I can be present to my colleague. As I become present and listen actively, I sense in her body language she seems upbeat and animated in a way that doesn’t seem to match a conversation about software requirements. I say, “You seem very happy about software today; is there something else you’re happy about?” She replies, “I’m telling you this in confidence because it is not public yet, but I am getting a nice promotion!” I grin, offer congratulations, and tell her that she deserves it. This is a second part of EI: the awareness of the emotions of others—and responding appropriately to them. In keeping with an ongoing theme, understand that emotional intelligence is about what I think, say, and do. It is not about an attempt to manipulate the emotions of others to accomplish my personal objectives. We allow people to come to us as they are in the moment. We read their emotions and our own and respond according to what will be healthy and beneficial.

Negotiation One could say that many of our interactions involve negotiation, whether trivial and informal or complex and formal. At the simple end, we negotiate

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over what movie the group will see; at the serious end, representatives of nations negotiate trade agreements. Whatever the nature of the negotiation, you can gain skill by addressing three fundamental aspects of the process: The first aspect is your overall approach to and attitude about this negotiation. Many people believe a negotiation necessarily will lead to an outcome in which there is a winner and a loser. I encourage you to seek win-win outcomes, particularly considering long-term relationships with the other party. If you hit a point in the negotiation at which it seems there is only a win-lose outcome in store, that is the time to get creative about related considerations that may convert the situation into one that permits a win-win outcome. It may be tempting to believe this will be the only transaction I will ever have with a particular party and feel comfortable about coming out the victor in a win-lose outcome. Call it karma, coincidence, or something else, in my experience we often encounter such parties further down the road. It is better to be in the habit of seeking win-win outcomes as much as humanly possible. The second element is developing a good understanding of your interests and those of the other party or parties involved. By understanding the position and interests of your counterpart, you will be in a better place to have an efficient negotiation that is more likely to result in a win-win outcome. The point to make here is to give conscious attention to what I prioritize as important and what I may be willing to concede. Such considerations are best done ahead of an upcoming negotiation. The third consideration is often overlooked, but just as important as the first two. It is the identification of my Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA). For a particular negotiation, I determine an alternative that may not be my first choice but is nevertheless acceptable if we do not reach mutually agreeable terms on the first; that is my next best alternative. Suppose I wish to purchase a particular new car from a dealer near my home. Often much emotional attachment is in play in such a purchase, and car salespersons use this to their advantage. The identification of a best alternative helps us avoid paying an unreasonable price and agreeing to expensive add-ons. My alternative may be the same model at a different dealer, a similar car from a different manufacturer, or to keep driving my present vehicle for another six months. With this determination, I can then set in my mind a price above which I will not pay. Having a best alternative in place ahead of a negotiation diminishes the pressure to make this deal happen and therefore makes it more likely to achieve a win-win outcome.

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Dissent and Argumentation In a chapter that includes content about communication and agreement, it may seem curious that I have included dissent and argumentation as a topic. Yet in the big picture, we want our team decisions and agreements to be based upon the most valid and the best information we can consider. To accomplish that end, we need to recognize and manage the biases we all have, including perhaps the toughest of all, our bias against considering any information that runs contrary to our strongly held beliefs. If we fail to consider unwelcome yet valuable information, or if we abuse anyone who presents such information, we risk poor outcomes and damaged relationships. Let us delve into this topic by first defining terms. Argumentation is the presentation of an argument, and it would be synonymous with expressing a position or perspective and supporting it with facts. In court, when an attorney presents an opening statement to the jury, he or she is presenting an argument. A debate club in high school or college engages in competitions that are all about argumentation. After the competitions, opposing teams will shake hands, mingle, and interact—there are no hurt feelings. One actually learns argumentation by presenting any position, even one that is contrary to personal beliefs. Note that this term is distinctly different from the connotation of arguing that signifies an angry exchange between parties. The related term dissent means to differ in opinion, and it often connotes the presentation of a minority opinion; for example, when the United States Supreme Court renders a decision that is not unanimous, in addition to the majority ruling and opinion, there is often a formal dissent issued by one or more justices who disagreed with the decision. It is the argument that did not win. On the job, the best outcomes result when we have adequately considered the information that is reasonably available. To accomplish this end, we need to actively promote dissent and argumentation; doing so helps us overcome the natural tendency we all have to reject information that conflicts with our own beliefs. As with the debate competitions, we do so in a way that is healthy. Yet courting differing views can feel threatening. We each have developed opinions for good reasons, and our beliefs are often intertwined with self-concept and self-worth. When a colleague identifies flaws in my opinion, my emotional brain may feel attacked. Emotional intelligence is critical for managing such interactions so I can separate myself as a person from ideas my team is considering for our organization. I have found it worthwhile to recognize that my “persona” as an employee is distinct from my “self.” We will talk more about this concept in Chapter 32.

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We need a healthy process to present opinions and arguments in a way that does not provoke one other. When the team consciously commits to such a process, we lessen the chance that someone will feel threatened. Some groups take the debate team approach in which individuals get to present perspectives with which they disagree. In other cases, the meeting norms will include an active attempt to find the flaws in an argument. Groups often aim for the development of objective data to lessen the impact of personalities and arbitrary opinions. Quick research and experiments can be used to further illuminate the likely outcomes of taking alternative approaches. Ultimately, we seek the discovery of our best collective understanding of truth, not a subjective or biased version of it. The journey typically elicits humility among all participants, and with it, a willingness to grow in understanding and perspective. Far from a grudging “acceptance” of contrary or diverse viewpoints, it is a deep respect for and even a willingness to change a point of view. Above all, we establish and follow norms and procedures that promote the healthy and respectful presentation of opinions, research, data, and recommendations. No one person can own the truth; it is ours to collectively discover.

Agreement—Including Agreement to Disagree Conversation, argumentation, and negotiation will eventually come to a conclusion. We naturally arrive at a point of reaching agreement, or in the alternative, recognizing we do not have the basis for an accord on the way forward. With our associates in an organization, we typically work toward a common objective, and therefore we usually work toward agreement. When there is agreement, we move toward the next step: acting upon it. Yet let us not cast agreement and disagreement as mutually exclusive outcomes. It is better to have a more nuanced interpretation of outcomes that can include some in which we “agree to disagree.” It is our collective resolution or outcome and the attainment of a new equilibrium that allows us to move forward.

Action Life in an organization is about motion from one point to another. Communication is a significant driving force to produce this movement; its ultimate intent is productive action. Communication that is transparent, efficient, effective, and rich, tends to promote alignment in a productive direction, beneficial action, and successful outcomes.

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Subsequent chapters in this section offer further development of these concepts and provide some specific techniques to apply them. The theme in this chapter is to hone the proper attitude toward communication and its importance. That attitude always starts with two humbling thoughts: I do not understand as much as I need to understand, and I do not hold the entire truth on my own. From this start, I can become present to the communication at hand and then seek to understand, change, and act. If we have communicated well, understood one another, explored diverse viewpoints and tested them, negotiated effectively, and reached agreement, we have accomplished a significant part of what it takes to get things done in an organization. We have communicated with purpose.

References [1] Goleman, D., Emotional Intelligence, New York: Bantam Books, 1994. [2] Ibid. pp. 43–44.

Selected Bibliography Beebe, S. A., S. J. Beebe, and D. K. Ivy, Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Sixth Edition, Pearson, 2015. Cornwall, M., Go Suck a Lemon: Strategies for Improving Your Emotional Intelligence, CreateSpace, 2010. Lewicki, R. J., B. Barry, and D. M. Saunders, Essentials of Negotiation, Sixth Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015. Maher, M., The Seven Levels of Communication: Go from Relationships to Referrals, Dallas, TX: BenBella Books, 2014.

CHAPTER

24 The Communication Clearinghouse (You) What we’ve got here is failure to communicate. —From Cool Hand Luke

Takeaways  Effective and proactive communication is perhaps the key determinant of success in engineering management. Strive to be a communications clearinghouse.  We must pay attention to the emotional content in communication.  Demonstrate care for others by being prepared and skilled in communication. On many occasions, voice recognition devices badly misunderstand our commands or requests. Depending on the context and our immediate need, the result can be laughter, frustration, or wasted time and effort. Perhaps these human-to-computer interactions are surprisingly symbolic of communication among humans in general. The consequences of poor communication are significant; it is a leading cause of grief and failure for projects and businesses alike. In many cases, a breakdown in communication starts with an incomplete or even nonexistent interaction. Information that should be shared is not. The parties involved may misunderstand one another; they may make incorrect assumptions and develop inappropriate expectations. When poor communication continues and, with it, a growing mistrust, conflict may result and escalate.

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Proficiency at communication is considered the most important skill for project managers. In the transition from engineer to manager, it is quite possible expertise in communication is the most important skill on which to concentrate. You should envision yourself as a communication clearinghouse, someone who sends and receives information effectively and facilitates good communication among colleagues. Imprint on your mind the daily (if not hourly) need to consider and act on the communication needs of your organization. As an engineer, you likely focused on technical communication; for example, reporting the results of an engineering test. As a manager, the primary nature of your communication may shift from technical information to business information. Your audience may also change from predominantly technical personnel to individuals of varied backgrounds and interests. Your communication content and style should change accordingly. As a manager, you will be called upon to deliver written and oral communication in formal settings that will have significant consequences for your organization and for you individually. Many organizations tolerate limited communication skills in their engineers, but not in their managers. It takes time and effort to communicate well. Failure to do so can result in extensive and costly problems as well as damaged relationships. As an engineering manager, you certainly should be concerned with the effectiveness of your own communication with others. But you will also need to facilitate the communications of others for your own interests or for the success of your organization. Many of your coworkers are either unskilled at communication, or they are too busy to care about communicating well. You will be doing your organization a great service if you can promote and facilitate understanding among your colleagues. To begin our development of communication skill, let us talk first about the general components of communication and what can go wrong with the process.

Components of Communication Communication between people can be visualized with the simple diagram provided in Figure 24.1, the concept of which should be familiar to many engineers. Communication begins with an idea in the mind of a sender, and it is transmitted in a message to the receiver. The receiver captures the message and, in turn, creates from it his or her own idea. Ideally, the participants would like for this process to conclude with the same idea in the minds of both the sender and receiver. But the idea in the mind of the receiver is not necessarily the same as that in the mind of the

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sender. The causes of the distorted message are many, but we can initially organize them into three categories: First, the sender may encode and distort the idea, either knowingly or unknowingly. Second, the communications channel may itself be imperfect, causing the message to change along the channel or even preventing reception. Third, the receiver may decode and distort the message, again either consciously or unconsciously. These obstacles to communication are trouble enough, but there are more. Sometimes one party will assume the other should understand an idea without a message ever being sent. Occasionally one will perceive a message from a sender, but the sender had no intention of sending it. A message likely contains some information or substantive content. But emotional content also comes as part of the message, and it can be intended or unintended. Such content may be explicit, or it may be implicit in the form of non-verbal communication (NVC) or intent that is perceived when one “reads between the lines.” One of the best general cures for communications problems is shown as feedback in Figure 24.1. The feedback path includes similar encoding, decoding, and channel imperfections. It is shown in dashed form because, in many cases, feedback is neither sought nor given—it is often assumed, with potentially incorrect results. As with an engineering system, feedback can improve the function of the communication between people. It helps the parties achieve a common understanding and correct any misunderstandings. As you can see from the figure, a message can get distorted at many points in the process. Here are some potential problem areas as we follow the message from origin through destination:

Figure 24.1  Diagram of communication between individuals.

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Encoding In engineered communications systems, encoding and decoding are often used to ensure secure private messages over a public channel. In interpersonal communications, encoding and decoding do not promote security, but they act as transfer functions that distort or corrupt the message. We could say that an idea is in a pure state when it originates in the mind of the sender. The first place it could be corrupted is the point at which the sender may impart encoding. Encoding may be done deliberately, for example, to purposely put a positive spin on bad news. Such a misrepresentation may or may not be blameworthy depending on the circumstances. More often than not, encoding happens subconsciously. If I am very nervous while delivering a presentation, my voice may quiver, I may speak tentatively, and I may make more mistakes. My delivery may be interpreted as a lack of confidence in the message. Unintended encoding can change the content of the message dramatically. It is beneficial for a sender to be aware of potential encoding that she is adding to a message, and this is a good reason to seek feedback.

Corruption from the Channel The communication channel can also affect the message. If the channel is completely blocked, the message never gets through. If the channel is noisy, the receiver may hear a garbled message or may be distracted. During an important business presentation I gave, a worker loudly operated a grinder nearby; I had to modulate the volume of my voice as the worker turned the grinder off and on.

Decoding A receiver can also corrupt a message through decoding. Decoding results from a number of factors including attitude, culture, and the nature of the relationship. It is often unconscious; for example, if the receiver does not trust the sender, the receiver may cynically warp the message, thereby justifying further distrust.

Emotional Content Communication can convey emotional content in addition to the objective content of the message. In many situations, the emotional component dominates the message, a fact that is often overlooked. Failure to acknowledge

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the emotions in communication can be a pitfall for engineers who are used to sharing information in a logical fashion. People sometimes choose to interpret messages negatively based solely on perceived emotional content. To help your receivers to understand, make sure the emotional content is what you intend and that it matches the substance of the message. Suppose you had received the following e-mail from a vendor: “Your order will not be delivered on the scheduled date. It is not our fault. A representative will call you.” This message provides important information but leaves much room for interpretation. If I receive such a message, it is easy for me to believe the sender does not care about how the matter affects me. The following alternative message expresses the same substantive notification, but it clearly conveys that the sender cares about the situation and will actively try to resolve it. “I regret to inform you that we are unable to ship your order by the scheduled date because of an unexpected strike at a supplier. We are aware that late delivery of your order could impact your business, so we are researching other options that could meet your needs. A representative will call you today to see if a suitable alternative can be arranged.” We have all received unwelcome news, so with reflection and empathy, we can readily craft messages that acknowledge the potential emotional reaction of receivers. Doing so will often strengthen our relationships with them.

Nonverbal Communication If we consider that verbal communication consists of the words that are spoken, then non-verbal communication encompasses the remaining ways that a message can be conveyed. NVC can include “body language,” vocal tone, and gestures. How much communication is verbal and how much is non-verbal may depend on the situation, but suffice it to say that NVC comprises a significant portion of what a receiver takes away from an encounter. When there is a mismatch between NVC and the substance of the message, people will give more credence to the former. It is important that you are aware of any messages you portray, intended or unintended, through NVC. Appropriate eye contact over the course of an interaction promotes trust. If you wish for your message to be believed, make eye contact appropriately and comfortably. Belief in the message is also facilitated by an open appearance. When a person crosses his arms, it is often interpreted as indicative of being “closed” to receiving information. Appropriate and natural gestures are often interpreted as a sign that the sender is animated

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and feels energetic about her message. Dynamic changes in tone and volume likewise convey a sense of energy that indicates the sender believes in the message. But be aware that senders and receivers bring to the communications process their own social or cultural context; for example, while eye contact is usually desirable, in some cultures or contexts, it can have a negative connotation. A friendly gesture in one country may be considered vulgar in another. To some people, crossed arms signify paying attention, not being closed to information. So do your homework, and if available, seek advice on cultural aspects of NVC that are relevant to your situation.

The Recipient Is the Customer You would not want to confuse a customer with your product or service. If you are the sender in the communication process, your receiver is your customer. The people who receive your messages are more likely to believe you, pay attention to you, and react as you hope they would if your substance and emotion are congruent. When you demonstrate authentic attention and care for your customer/receivers, they react positively. Be genuine in your communication style. Do not think you can get away with a few communication gimmicks—people can pick up on a fraud from far away. Nobody wants to pay attention to a message that is sloppy, boring, tedious, or off-target. Take appropriate steps to make yourself and your message interesting and polished. Our group once landed a contract with a unit of the U.S. Department of Defense, and I was asked to make a brief kickoff presentation at their site with several other contractors. From the tone of the sponsor’s invitation, it seemed the meeting would be small and informal. I prepared an informal slide presentation that included a little appropriate humor, but I brought no handouts. When I arrived at the meeting room, it was packed with more than seventy-five people, many of whom were in dress military uniforms. In the front row was an officer who was addressed as “Admiral.” Yikes! This was a formal program review! All the other speakers had elaborate slides and handouts. My slides were already loaded, but I convinced my sponsor to let me frantically put together a handout package on the spot. Because my presentation was far below the expectations of formality, it was a major embarrassment to the sponsor. It would be easy to blame him for not clueing me in on the meeting format, but he was the customer, and it was my responsibility to learn the rules of the game. And absolutely no one laughed at my (in retrospect) foolish attempt at humor.

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Qualities of Communication Types In-person communication typically offers the richest content of the various types of communication. This type offers information that can encompass all our senses, but in the workplace, it primarily offers auditory and visual information. At the initial stages of important relationships, it is usually necessary that the parties interact in person; otherwise, it is challenging to fully develop trust. Written communication is often used very effectively to convey factual information or convey information formally. We often do not consider that an important agreement has been reached until it is documented in writing. Oral communication, including conversation by telephone, is good for informal communication and facilitates more emotional content than written communication. As with personality types, people process and deliver information more comfortably in different forms. Erin, a graphic illustrator, feels at home with diagrams, while Manuel excels at technical writing. In what forms are you comfortable with communication?

Improving Communication All of us can stand to improve our communication skills. Here are a few guidelines for making dramatic improvements in understanding one another at the workplace: Listen! One of the best ways to improve at communication is to become a better receiver. Offer a speaker your undivided attention and listen actively. Active listening can include making eye contact, nodding when you understand a point, and offering appropriate facial expressions. You can demonstrate that you understand a message by paraphrasing it back to the sender. When you truly understand the other party, you can better formulate your own message when you are ready to send one. Utilize Redundancy An excellent way to ensure your message is received as intended is to send it more than once. During a presentation, you can repeat key points and emphasize them in your handouts. Messages to clients or customers can be communicated by letter or e-mail and then again by phone. There can be

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too much of a good thing, however. Do not repeat yourself so many times that your redundancy becomes irritating. As the adage says, tell them what you will tell them, then tell them, then tell them what you told them. Remember Feedback To dramatically improve the quality of your communication, offer and seek feedback. Providing feedback on substance lets the sender know your understanding of the message and allows him or her to correct any misconceptions. If you offer feedback about the sender’s style, it is best to check first whether that person is receptive to it and then to be gentle with a critique. When you seek feedback, pay attention to any substantive inconsistencies and correct them. Feedback about your style can be very valuable although it can be humbling. Put up your psychic shield and accept comments as information that can help you become even better at communication. Check the Emotions Pay attention to the emotional content of your communication, particularly to any unintended emotions. When a sender’s emotional content seems to differ from his substantive content, it may be appropriate to ask for clarification. Be Proactive Communication problems often arise because the parties grow lazy or forget to interact. A number of people are important to your work—it pays to communicate with them regularly even if only to check in with them. Be Simple, Direct, and Clear Much communication in the workplace is unnecessarily cumbersome and tedious. With the proper attitude and preparation, your communications can become crisp and readily understandable. We will devote Chapter 25 to this principle. Study the Audience Consider the background and interests of your audience and tailor your offering appropriately. It is particularly important to do this when you are preparing a formal presentation or proposal.

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Demonstrate Care You can demonstrate your care in several ways. Respect the time of your audience—put in appropriate preparation and organization into your message and be direct. It is not unreasonable to invest two days to prepare for a thirty-minute presentation to a client. Follow proper spelling and grammar rules. Many people have become particularly sloppy in their electronic messages. You should avoid this tendency in just about all business communications unless the context is very informal and with a close associate. If you follow proper spelling and grammar practices in your e-mail, your messages will stand out. Be Interesting Much of the communication in the workplace is bland and boring. Audiences appreciate when a sender takes the trouble to make a message interesting or entertaining or injects a little humor. Be careful about going too far—that is not usually the purpose of business communication. Include a Human Touch When was the last time you received a handwritten letter or note of thanks or encouragement on quality stationery? How did it make you feel? In our fast-paced world, a human touch in communication can go a long way in strengthening ties with colleagues. Practice! Proficiency in communication grows with practice. Take all the opportunities you can to make presentations or write reports for your organization. Completing a public speaking class can provide you with benefits for years to come.

The Payoff of Preparation Arthur and Gina are engineering managers from different companies, presenting proposals to a client who will select one of them for a contract. Arthur waited until the last minute to prepare. He rushed into the meeting room five minutes late and proceeded straight to the podium to begin. His handouts arrived in the middle of his presentation. He made light of the misspellings in his slides, and he apologized for the small print on some of them. Feeling uncomfortable with speaking, Arthur read from notes and spent little time looking at the audience. Finally, instead of the allotted thirty minutes, he talked for forty.

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Gina had invested considerable time preparing for her presentation, including practicing in front of team members. She made sure text on her slides would be visible throughout the meeting room and asked associates to proofread her handouts. Gina arrived early with all her materials and got organized. She had time to meet and converse informally with each member of the client team. Because she knew her material well, Gina made eye contact with each member of the audience and gestured appropriately during the presentation. She completed her talk in twenty-five minutes, allowing time for questions and comments. Let us assume the technical merit of the proposals was about equal and that either organization could competently complete the contract. Which organization do you think would be awarded the job? When a presenter demonstrates little preparation and skill, it is easy for the audience to conclude the presenter is incompetent and uncaring. This is one test you do not want to fail, and there is absolutely no reason why you should. Engineers have earned the reputation for being clumsy and ineffective in communication in business settings. As an engineer in transition, when you invest the time and effort in improving your communications skills, you will stand out dramatically in your organization. Individuals with technical competence and the ability to communicate well are highly regarded. While it is essential to be personally proficient in communication, it is perhaps more valuable that you help colleagues to communicate effectively. In doing so, you will significantly improve the performance of your organization, with the accompanying benefits. This is truly what it means to become a communications clearinghouse. By improving communication, you succeed in influence. The ultimate purpose of communication is for the sender to influence the receiver in some way. Far from being manipulative, good communication is an important means to bring about worthy outcomes in your work.

Selected Bibliography Berkley, S., Speak to Influence: How to Unlock the Hidden Power of Your Voice, Second Edition,Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Campbell Hall, 2004. Karia, A., Own the Room: Presentation Techniques to Keep the Audience on the Edge of Their Seats, AkashKaria.com, 2014. Lamb, S. E., Writing Well for Business Success: A Complete Guide to Style, Grammar, and Usage at Work, New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2015. Roman, K. and J. Raphaelson, �Writing That Works: How to Communicate Effectively in Business, Third Edition, HarperCollins, 2015.

CHAPTER

25 Make Your Point Effectively The Lord’s Prayer is 66 words, the Gettysburg Address is 286 words, and there are 1,322 words in the Declaration of Independence. Yet, government regulations on the sale of cabbage total 26,911 words. —David McIntosh

Takeaways  Good written communication in business is clear, concise, factual, and authentic.  The ideas of those who write well gain greater attention and have more influence than similar ideas that are conveyed poorly.  Practices for good writing include appreciating the audience, establishing mind share, prompting change, and being human. My Point … and I Do Have One is the title of a book written by Ellen DeGeneres. Her humorous title is relevant as we discuss how to be effective in the delivery of communication. Often a receiver of business communication must work to understand the point of a business message. The message may be confusing, boring, tedious, or meandering. Receivers may give up in frustration. Worse, they may deliberately reject the message because their time was wasted. The purpose of communication, specifically business communication, is to influence. Its intent is to stimulate a change in knowledge, opinion, or behavior. Yet if the communication is bewildering or unappealing, it fails

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to influence, or it influences negatively. Those who deliver a message are in essence “selling” the message, and the recipients are customers. Just as the manager of a restaurant strives to serve food that is tasty, pleasing, and fairly priced, the purveyor of the business message should also strive to deliver something appealing. Engineers have earned a reputation for demonstrating poor communication skills. This reputation results in part from their focus on technology rather than people. But the engineering community is largely responsible for these failings. The dry and even tedious communication style expected of engineers in technical settings promotes poor habits when engineers communicate in diverse organizational audiences. Engineers, however, are not alone in poor writing skills. The ubiquitous company press release often showcases the worst examples of business writing, including needless jargon and even purposeful attempts to hide reality. Consider the following excerpt, the opening paragraph of a news release from Citigroup [1]. Citigroup today announced a series of repositioning actions that will further reduce expenses and improve efficiency across the company while maintaining Citi’s unique capabilities to serve clients, especially in emerging markets. These actions will result in increased business efficiency, streamlined operations, and an optimized consumer footprint across geographies.

It is not until the third paragraph of this upbeat message that we learn this “repositioning” will include the elimination of more than eleven thousand jobs. Would any of these lucky employees use the term “repositioning” to explain how they came to be out of work? Worse still, there is no hint of regret or empathy for these “repositioned” individuals. The time of professionals is very valuable—and costly if wasted. Business communication is therefore expected to be succinct, sharp, factual, and authentic. Some organizations place a strict one-page limit on the length of any memorandum. Anything longer is “returned to sender” for the author to try again to respect the time of readers. Engineers generally have too little exposure to and practice with good writing habits. To be successful, engineering managers must deliver messages that are crisp, clear, interesting, and human. Fortunately, proficiency with communication is not difficult. Developing and practicing effective communication skills will help you accomplish much, avoid trauma, and stand out from the crowd. With proficiency in communication, you can be confident that the point of your message is understood and appreciated. It will influence others for the good of your work and your organization.

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Making Your Point: The Building Blocks Let us now introduce the following six building blocks for delivering your message effectively:  Appreciate the audience.  Establish mind share.  Deliver simply and clearly.  Prompt the change.  Be interesting  Be human. Applying these building blocks to your communication efforts will make them effective and successful. Let us now discuss these items in detail.

Appreciate the Audience Perhaps the most important maxim to remember when delivering a message is that the receiver is your customer. The principles we presented in Chapter 6 also apply to your communication endeavor. Internalizing this orientation and acting on it will necessarily help you consider the receiver’s needs and interests. It will lead you to deliver your message in a pleasing manner. We have all been on the receiving end of poorly delivered messages. Resolve to make your communication skillful so your receiver or customer will get your point. Applying the other five building blocks in this chapter will help you appreciate the needs of your audience. I would encourage you to take further initiative to improve your delivery skills by exploring the selected bibliography at the end of this chapter. As with any other interaction with customers, preparation for communication begins by studying to understand them. What are their interests? What are their characteristics? What issues are important to them? What do they dislike? Communication is not a one-size-fits-all process. Your ideas will be better received if you customize your message for the audience. When you are able to understand and articulate the characteristics of your receivers, you will be better able to target your message. Consider the following two different promotional messages for a hypothetical smartphone app, the “Genie”:

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 Your active lifestyle runs on information. The Genie is the perfect tool to coordinate your daily schedule, make dinner reservations, or send messages to friends.  Your business runs on information. The Genie is the perfect tool to schedule meetings, send and retrieve e-mail, or take notes anywhere. Can you see that the first promotion could be targeted to consumers and the second to business professionals? Perhaps a generic message might have worked with both groups, but the customized approach has more meaning to and identification with its recipients. When delivering messages, those who invest time and effort to care for their receivers are much more likely to be heard and understood than those who fail to consider their audience.

Establish Mind Share We are bombarded with issues that demand our attention. Overworked and over-informed, our attention spans are short. We impatiently seek ways to organize and compartmentalize information so we can make sense of it all. We grow restless with sources of information that take too long to make a point. Audiences in business settings have a short attention span; you must respect their time! They will allow a sender no more than one to two minutes to make a point. This principle holds true even if your presentation is scheduled for one hour or if you deliver a fifty-page report. Most people will be willing to invest their attention for a short time to see if what you have to say is interesting and relevant. If you do not deliver quickly, they will lose interest. They will even leave if they can. If not, they will turn their thoughts elsewhere. What Is the Sound Bite for Your Message? As a communicator, you need to develop a “sound bite” of your message, one that your receiver can easily remember amid the clutter of his or her working world. It is challenging to summarize a complex idea into twentyfive words or less, but if you can do so, your idea will carry much more influence. One of the most memorable sound bites is one delivered by President John F. Kennedy when he announced the initiation of the program for manned space flight to the Moon: “[T]his nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth” [2].

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In this short passage, President Kennedy completely described what would eventually become a $25 billion endeavor that required thousands of people. While much detail would be added, his words stand as one of the best examples of a mission statement ever uttered. Write Headings for Scanning Most people are attentive only to a small portion of what they view or encounter. Our attention is drawn only to key information (e.g., the headlines) and then we may investigate more deeply into a topic that suits our interest. Various forms of social media, advertisements, and news sources go to great lengths to craft “clickbait.” Do not expect anyone to completely read your two hundred-page report. Craft the section headings in your report as you would headlines in a newspaper to enable readers to completely understand the point of your message—even if they read nothing else.

Deliver Simply and Clearly Most of us unconsciously complicate the messages we deliver. Work is required to simplify and clarify messages. Here are four elements to help your receiver understand and remember your point. Edit Ruthlessly! When you prepare a document or presentation, plan to spend at least as much time in editing as you do in drafting. It is not unusual to produce four or five revisions before your offering is ready for prime time. When you edit, be ruthless! Be Direct and Lively Unfortunately, many engineers have been taught to use the third-person passive voice in technical publications. This approach lengthens and muddles thoughts. Use language that is readily understood by your audience and use simpler declarative sentences. Do not be afraid to use the first person (I, we) in your writing. Use active verbs and convert nouns into verbs if possible—verbs add life and energy to your message. Consider the following statement from a business report: During the month of December, the system that performs the deionization function was subjected to the evaluation process. Now, consider the same statement after pruning and with the first person, active voice.

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We evaluated the de-ionization system in December. The first statement makes the reader work to understand; the second statement cuts to the chase. Notice that we also converted the modifier and noun “evaluation process” into the verb “evaluated,” and in doing so pumped more life into the sentence. Do not overdo a good thing! An entire document of short, punchy sentences tortures your reader. It is desirable to mix in some longer sentences, including ones using the passive voice to give your writing some welcome variety. Most people, however, should err toward the side of pruning and enlivening their sentences. If you are giving a slide presentation, keep text on slides very brief and make abundant use of visuals. Do not slap a lot of small text or a lot of bullet points on a slide! You want the audience to look at and listen to you and not be reading your slides. Use Signposts People enjoy patterns in visual and auditory messages—these help to organize information. Consistent use of headings and subheadings in a written document helps the reader follow the material easily. In a presentation, your signposts could come in the form of summary slides that recapitulate each section of your talk. As you plan your signposts, remember the attention span of people tends to waver after a couple of minutes. Incorporate frequent changes in the flow to keep their attention. Use Repetition The final element in a simple and memorable message is repetition. Deliver your key points at least three times during the course of your message. At the beginning, offer your conclusions and key findings. In the middle, provide detail, justification, and application. At the conclusion, again summarize your point. Everything in moderation, however. Repetition can become annoying if carried too far. Do not repeat your message verbatim each time—paraphrase it.

Prompt the Change Organizations and individuals gather inertia in their work. Unless they choose otherwise, people will continue in the existing direction, perhaps even digging a rut. Communication uses persuasion to influence others to change. Perhaps you would like them to change their knowledge or opinion

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or to take some dramatic new action. They will only consider the change or take the action if your call to action is persuasive and clear. In this building block, you will deliver the sales pitch. Clearly show the benefit of your idea and clearly state what it is you would like of your recipient. Make it obvious for your recipients to see, agree with, and take the next step. Suppose you need to procure a new ventilation hood for your laboratory. Based on research of different offerings, you could communicate the findings and recommendations to your superior in a memo such as the sample provided in Figure 25.1. This document is short, direct, and easy to understand. It justifies the findings so the reader can reach the same conclusion. Lastly, it plainly identifies the appropriate action for the next step. Notice the subject line is crafted carefully to include the entire message of the memo in just seven words. Your boss could glance at the subject line

Figure 25.1  Memo recommending procurement of a ventilation hood.

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and the evaluation table and then add her initials. She would be done with the matter in less than ten seconds. When you are the sender, you are likely to be the resident expert on the subject, even if only in the sense that you are the expert about your own opinion. As the expert, you can confidently report your findings and recommendations. Your receivers usually do not want to invest the time and effort to independently achieve your level of expertise. They will appreciate the care you take in helping them quickly understand the salient points. In the vast majority of cases, they will readily agree with your conclusions and recommendations, and they will commit to the next step. Another way to view the principle of prompting the change is the adage to start with the end in mind. In our example, what is the last thing you want in your memo? It is your supervisor’s initials. Everything before that in the memo builds to that end point. Similarly, on a television or webbased cooking show, the chef almost always shows you the finished dish first to capture your attention.

Be Interesting Much of what is communicated in the workplace is boring and tedious. Make your communication interesting. There are many ways to do so without being cute. It is a breath of fresh air when someone takes the trouble to make a message pleasing, noteworthy, and human. Here are three suggestions to perk up your messages:  Expand the vocabulary in your writing.  Add photographs or figures that complement your message.  Refer to a prop when you are speaking. But perhaps the most powerful way to add life to a message is to bring appropriate human emotion into it.

Be Human Most business communication is the transmission of dry information, and that is fine. But where it is appropriate, the human touch is very welcome, and it can come in many forms. We all appreciate relevant and tasteful humor to lighten our hearts. A situation may occasionally suggest an emotional component to your message. Consider the Citigroup news release above; not only should the message have been forthcoming about layoffs, it should

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have also demonstrated concern for those losing their jobs, appreciation for their work, and commitment to helping them find new positions. Good news is a cause to celebrate. When delivering bad news, acknowledge that the receiver may have negative feelings about the matter. If your message is likely to stir conflict, emphasize your commitment to resolution. And never pass up an opportunity to convey expressions of thanks, compliments, encouragement, or simply concern—the workplace can never get enough of them. Judith Umlas [3] tells the story of her interaction with a new employee at Dunkin’ Donuts who served Umlas on three consecutive days. On the third day, Ms. Umlas was surprised when the employee served her coffee without waiting for the order—the server had remembered it from the prior two days. Ms. Umlas complimented the server on being a genius. Stunned, the server said, “I never hear compliments; I only hear complaints. Thank you.”

What Is the Story? One of the greatest tricks of the trade for people who need to communicate is storytelling. Humans are wired to gain wisdom and comfort from the universality of experiences, real or fictional, of others. As previously noted, storytelling is a great way for leaders to describe values and behaviors they wish to be modeled, or for that matter, not modeled. Stories are also a great way for communicators to provide an oasis in the dry and barren desert of business communications. Often there is no better way to make your point than through a human connection in a story. Consider this universal experience: We have all made fools of ourselves at work at one time or another. It is always comforting to learn someone else has achieved greater proficiency in this endeavor. My personal “Award for Communication That Is Creative but Not Necessarily Smart” goes to an individual I met once in a memorable meeting. I worked for a state agency whose charter was to develop technology-based businesses. This charter was interpreted to mean members of the public could submit ideas for inventions to our office. It was immensely entertaining to review all the crazy invention submissions, including the weekly perpetual motion machine. The recipient of this award claimed to have developed an incredible and versatile liquid. It was, “A Great Industrial-Strength Floor Cleaner! A Pleasant Mouthwash!” But perhaps its greatest triumph was as a healthcare product. During our meeting, the inventor said that his creation was an outstanding treatment for burns. Proving this claim through conventional medical research

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approaches, however, would require years of costly clinical trials and bureaucratic approvals. Believing patients should not be made to wait for the red tape, our brave inventor made the ultimate sacrifice for humanity. Yes, our hero purposely burned himself: He poured boiling water on both of his thighs. He then treated one leg with a commercial burn treatment and the other leg with the magic elixir. In our meeting, he reported that his invention healed the burn quicker and more completely than the commercial treatment. Then he said, “Don’t just take my word for it; let me show you.” The inventor stood up and dropped his pants. In my career, I have endured hundreds of meetings, but that was the one and only time someone disrobed. Our staff could barely (pardon the pun) contain our laughter for the rest of the meeting. As you might guess, we did not do business with this gentleman. In moments when I feel like I have made a fool of myself, I sometimes recall that story, smile, and feel better. It is always reassuring to learn when someone else has demonstrated a greater aptitude for foolhardiness. And nothing beats a great story. The minds of your colleagues overflow with thoughts. When you communicate with them, your message must compete with those thoughts, and it must battle the naturally short attention span we all have. You have only a brief opportunity to plant your message. Invest your time and effort wisely and effectively. As is sometimes said in the military, “Be bright, be brief, and be gone.” In this chapter, we provided the following six building blocks for achieving the mission of making your point effectively:  Appreciate the audience.  Establish mind share.  Deliver simply and clearly.  Prompt the change.  Be interesting.  Be human. This approach will make your point simple, clear, and pleasing to your audience. You can dramatically increase the likelihood that they will agree with your message and act on it. In doing so, you will have masterfully accomplished the purpose of communication: to influence and to change.

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References [1] Citigroup, “Citigroup Announces Repositioning Actions to Further Reduce Expenses and Improve Efficiency,” CITI, December 5, 2012, http://www.citigroup.com/citi/news/2012/121205a.htm. [2] Kennedy, J. F., “Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs,” May 25, 1961, https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKPOF-034-030.aspx. [3] Umlas, J. W., Grateful Leadership: Using the Power of Acknowledgement to Engage All Your People and Achieve Superior Results, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Selected Bibliography Diresta, D., Knockout Presentations: How to Deliver Your Message with Power, Punch, and Pizzazz, Revised Edition, Worcester, MA: Chandler House, 2009. Heath, C. and D. Heath, Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Survive and Others Die, New York: Random House, 2007. Roman, K. and J. Raphaelson, Writing That Works, How to Communicate Effectively in Business, Third Edition. New York: Harper Collins, 2010. Williams, J. M. and J. Bizup, �Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace, Twelfth Edition. Boston: Pearson, 2016.

Principle 5: Using Assets Wisely An organization and the individuals who work within it can only serve customers by making use of a variety of resources. When these assets are� used effectively, the organization thrives; when assets are poorly utilized, the organization suffers. Chapters 26–32 focus on the effective use and exploitation of the assets of a business. Managers can use assets wisely by …  Using resources of the organization in a manner that generates revenue and is consistent with its core beliefs;  Managing priorities effectively and thereby managing time effectively;  Acting on the recognition that the talent of employees is the organization’s most valuable resource;  Cultivating enthusiasm and motivation in associates;  Being aware of one’s personal brand and ensuring that it is consistent with the role of manager;  Caring for their own well-being and motivation.

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26 The Balancing Act: Managing Tradeoffs The art of good decision making is looking forward to and celebrating the tradeoffs, not pretending they don’t exist. — Seth Godin

Takeaways  Because we can’t have it all, we must make tradeoffs.  The tradeoffs we make must be guided by our priorities, and in a manner that is compatible with the core values and mission of the organization.  We seek the value point, that is, the point at which features and costs balance harmoniously. A beer commercial sums up the enticement with its punch line, “Who says you can’t have it all?” To sell their products, advertisers would like for us to believe we can have it all—that we do not have to make choices. We temporarily suspend reality and get hooked. We go to the store that offers the contradictory “best quality at the lowest price,” wanting to believe that, somehow, one of the fundamental laws of the universe has finally been repealed for our benefit. Eventually we find that our fantasies cannot possibly come true, and we are once again faced with the real world. We cannot have it all; there is a choice between quality and price. We must evaluate tradeoffs. We must make choices.

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As engineers, we are well acquainted with the need to make tradeoffs. We are adept at tweaking systems to achieve optimization however it is defined. The aerospace engineer would like to design the fighter plane to be fast and agile, but doing so also makes it unstable. He analyzes and explores and achieves a compromise that is workable. The power plant engineer seeks a source of fuel that is inexpensive and does not pollute, yet the available fuel choices often tend to be one or the other. He, too, must evaluate the tradeoffs and make enlightened choices. The choices define us, and they define our work products and our organizations. How we choose depends on what we consider important. In some cases, the choices are binary, but often they exist on a continuum, and we seek the optimum result. An engineer may feel comfortable in the realm of technical tradeoffs. In the transition, however, the engineering manager faces analyses of tradeoffs that may be less familiar: ones that involve features, costs, schedules, and politics. He or she must gain skill in facilitating collective decisions involving these tradeoffs. Tools are needed for reaching consensus on these important issues. In this chapter, we talk about tradeoffs and how to make them work for our organizations. It is challenging enough to make choices as an individual, but it is considerably more difficult to make choices collectively in organizations. One reason for this difficulty is the belief that we can have it all can become a collective delusion.

The Core Tradeoffs The decisions we face in our organizations often involve two fundamental tradeoffs. The first is the relationship between benefits and costs. Which is the better choice for a car, a Kia or a BMW? The answer depends. The BMW is likely the answer if your evaluation criteria favor technical quality and features. On the other hand, the Kia is the better car if low cost is the criteria. At the heart of the discussion of tradeoffs is the unavoidable tradeoff between benefits and costs. There is no free lunch—benefits come with a cost. Many of the decisions we face in organizations fundamentally involve this core tradeoff. This tradeoff is played out in many ways. We would like for the highway to have more lanes to handle additional traffic, but adding lanes increases the cost of the highway. We would like to apply a more powerful computer chip in our design, but the chip generates more heat that must be dissipated. The second core tradeoff is that, in many cases, available options are mutually exclusive, and they consist of both desirable and undesirable

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attributes. Choosing one option necessarily means that we must accept its drawbacks and that we cannot enjoy the niceties of other options. Suppose we have the choice between two vendors for a laboratory test instrument. Vendor A offers an instrument that is functionally superior, but the unit is out of stock and will not ship for three months. Vendor B offers a basic unit that can ship immediately, but it has a poor maintenance record. We do not have the option of having Vendor A’s product delivered on Vendor B’s shipping schedule. Nor do we have the option of giving Vendor B’s product the better functionality of Vendor A’s unit. The options available to us come “as-is” with “warts and all.” Assuming both options meet our minimum requirements, we must achieve an overall balance of the good and the bad for a given option based on our needs and wants.

The Value Point When we attempt to identify the balance point in our tradeoff, we are attempting to define what is called the value point. The value point is the point at which features and cost balance, or in other words, the pleasure of the features justifies the pain of the costs. As individuals, we are constantly making such tradeoff decisions. We often do so unconsciously, especially for items or issues that cost little. For major decisions, we may evaluate alternatives more carefully, but many of us reach such decisions emotionally or viscerally and then use logic to justify the decision. For individuals, it can be challenging to define the value point in a tradeoff, but it can be considerably more difficult to do so in a group. We need tools to help us do so. The first of these tools is a statement of the core beliefs of the people who are relevant to the decision.

Statements of Belief and Purpose It is easier to make decisions when we can articulate what we value and what our purpose is. When done well, the collective definition of values and purpose allows teams to avoid much needless struggling over direction and decisions. Statements of collective values and purpose have different names among organizations. In general, the following concepts may be used:  Vision statement (a word picture of the organization at a future time)  Statement of values or beliefs (the collective principles and ideals that guide thoughts and actions)

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 Mission statement (goals the organization wishes to attain)  Statement of business philosophy (description of rules of conduct)  Statement of core purpose (the reason the company is in business and why it was originally formed, delineating the scope of the organization’s business) These statements are interrelated and overlap, but for our discussion, we are most concerned with statements of values, mission, and purpose. Statements of values distill the important beliefs of an organization, and they can be used to provide guidance on operating decisions of the organization. A mission statement illuminates where the organization is going. A statement of purpose helps provide overall direction for work and often translates the values statement into action. There is no right or wrong way to write such statements of values or purpose, but they require reflection and iteration. They should genuinely mirror what is important to the people of the organization. Such statements are often changed over the years to reflect the times, but usually retain core elements. Many belief statements of organizations are bland. Who can argue with a statement such as “We stand for quality,” but what does that really mean? Corporate belief and purpose statements often become another place to want everything. They give the impression that all objectives can be accomplished and do little to help employees know what is most important. The best statements have a transcendent quality to them. They are noted for their simplicity and focus on a bare minimum of key principles. Some of the best corporate belief statements have a way of distilling guidance to simple concepts. In keeping with the character limit on its platform, Twitter’s mission statement [1] is “To give everyone the power to create and share ideas and information instantly, without barriers.” Such a statement will enable Twitter employees to make countless decisions about a myriad of issues. Each decision can be evaluated according to whether it contributes to providing this “power” to everyone. It is often helpful to distill beliefs and purpose into easily remembered phrases or images. For decades, the image of the garage in which Bill Hewlett and David Packard started their business has served as an impetus for invention and entrepreneurship in the technology giant Hewlett-Packard. While corporate statements of belief and purpose are important, so too are statements that are crafted for singular projects. In these cases, the intentions of the customer are more relevant and important than the intentions of the corporation.

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One powerful method for getting at beliefs and purpose is the five whys. Start with the descriptive statement, “We make X products” or “We deliver X services” and then ask, Why is that important? five times. After a few whys, you’ll find you’re getting down to the fundamental purpose of the organization [2]. Table 26.1 provides some great one-line statements of core purpose of several organizations. These examples show how simple and powerful statements of values and purpose can help employees know what to do. Notice that these statements engage the soul. They do not address questions of profit, market share, or stock price.

Where the Rubber Meets the Road Statements of beliefs and purpose can be very helpful for overall direction for a group at work. But it can still be challenging to translate these global statements into specific choices. Other tools and processes are needed, particularly when a group of individuals must collectively make a decision about direction. In this endeavor, it is still difficult for participants to not want it all. The process must force participants to address and resolve tradeoffs. The following four-step process can help participants prioritize available options and move to a decision on which option to pursue: 1. Generate a wish list of attributes. 2. Prioritize the attributes, particularly to separate needs and wants. 3. Determine cost and schedule of needs as well as incremental costs and schedules of wants. 4. Package a few combinations of attributes to promote a decision. Table 26.1 Statements of Core Purpose for Several Organizations Company 3M Cargill HP Mary Kay Nike Wal-Mart Disney After: [2].

Core Purpose To solve unsolved problems innovatively. To improve the standard of living around the world. To make technical contributions for the advancement and welfare of humanity. To give unlimited opportunity to women. To experience the emotion of competition, winning, and crushing the competition. To give ordinary folk the chance to buy the same things as rich people. To make people happy.

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To illustrate, let us consider a hypothetical product, the iChampion. It is a wearable performance monitor for moderately serious athletes. Let us assume we are at the concept stage of development for the product, and we need to make a first pass at product features before we proceed with the design. It is often common at the concept stage of a product for stakeholders to want it all. We would like for our process and tools to assist us in quickly progressing through this stage onward to reality. The first step in the process is to have the relevant group members develop a wish list of product attributes including features and functions as well as cost and schedule targets. No evaluation should be performed at this stage. With the list now developed, the second step is to rank the attributes according to their importance. This step imposes conditions that force the separation of “must haves” from “nice to haves.” Here we use a comparative analysis tool. The product attributes are organized into a stair-step matrix as shown in Figure 26.1, and each attribute is compared against every other one.

Figure 26.1  Comparative analysis tool.

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Each cell in the figure shows the two attributes that are under consideration, representing the row attribute from the left and the column attribute from above. As a group, we reach a decision on which of the two attributes is most important and highlight our priority—in this case, it is noted with a box around the choice. For example, in the cell consisting of choices A and B, we have decided the ability to monitor blood oxygen concentration is more important than monitoring the amount of perspiration. We work our way through the entire table and, in so doing, compare each attribute to all others. After completion of the table, we count the number of choices for each attribute and rank them according to score from highest to lowest. In our example, the ranking of the attributes is as follows in Table 26.2. We have now ranked the attributes, and we can use this information to guide our further planning for the product. The value of this comparative tool is that it forces us to get past the roadblock of expecting to have it all. It is valuable at this point to group the top attributes in our ranking into a baseline configuration of features with a corresponding cost and schedule. In essence, this represents our minimal project. In our wearable performance monitor example, let us say we have decided our baseline product should include the O2 monitor and the real-time secure cellular data link attributes. Such features might be valuable to serious athletes who would be performing with a coach present for a competition. We do not want to totally eliminate the remaining “nice to have” items on our list, so this is where we begin the tradeoff analysis. The next step involves determining incremental cost and schedule for each of the remaining items in our ranked list. The resulting information can be presented in a form such as that shown in Table 26.3. The attributes at the top of the figure represent our baseline product with its corresponding development cost and schedule. At the lower end of the table, we have listed our “nice to have” attributes with accompanying incremental effects on cost and schedule as well as future profits. Note that each row provides the incremental effects of that one item. Table 26.2 Ranking of Attributes for Sample Wearable Performance Monitor from Figure 26.1 C B F E D A

Attribute Cellular data link O2 monitor To market in 9 months Price under $450 Greater battery capacity Perspiration monitor

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Table 26.3 Incremental Cost and Schedule Analysis Tool

C B

Attribute Cellular data link O2 monitor

↓ Incremental analysis F To market in 9 months E Price under $450 D Greater battery capacity A Perspiration monitor

Development Cost $1.5 million

Development Schedule Profit 10 months $3.0 million

+ $0.2 million + $0.4 million + $0.2 million + $0.1 million

–1 month +3 months +2 months +2 months

+$0.5 million +$0.2 million +$0.1 million +$0.1 million

The final step is the decision-making process. If the issue in question is simple with few attributes, a table such as Table 26.3 can be readily used by the group to decide on a final choice of options to add to the baseline. On the other hand, complicated issues with many options could benefit from identifying packages that combine options to facilitate the decision. This approach is analogous to the practice used by car manufacturers to offer option packages instead of allowing the choice of individual options. It is often necessary to evaluate these option packages as a whole because of the high degree of interaction among individual options; for example, the cellular data link may make it possible for a coach to send instructions but may also require greater battery capacity. In such a case, it makes sense to include these two product enhancements together in one option package. Our comparative analysis tool can have a variety of applications, including choices in decision making. These tools, and others like them, provide tangible results for facilitating group decisions on priorities. Of course, the relevant stakeholders should be included when applying such a tool. The real value of this tool is to help us collectively and efficiently make progress, evaluating a situation in which multiple options are available and tradeoffs must be made. As noted earlier in this chapter and elsewhere, we make decisions based on emotions and often selectively use logic or data to support the decision. It may initially seem the comparative analysis tool is only based on cold, binary logic, but in reality, it allows us to better get in touch with our emotions. When using the tool in a group, it is helpful for the facilitator to ask participants to consider how they feel while or after making each binary choice and after hearing the outcome of voting by the group. If some participants are feeling uncomfortable with the results, it may be worthwhile to discuss relevant points and go back through the exercise a second time. We live in a world in which we must make choices, because we cannot have it all. How we make those choices reveals much about our values and

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who we are as individuals and collectively as organizations. The choices we make provide evidence for our value system for the tradeoffs. Of course, we do not make decisions that entirely favor one attribute of work, such as maximizing profit by paying employees a pittance. Hitters in baseball often talk about the “sweet spot” on the bat, essentially the place at which the bat does not vibrate when it strikes the ball. When a pitch is hit directly on the sweet spot, there is the most effective transfer of energy from the batter to the ball. It is the spot that produces home runs. We seek the “sweet spot,” that value point at which there is optimal balance among the attributes however we may define it. Pushing too far in one direction causes the system to become unstable and falter, so we right it and seek the balance point again. The sweet spot is often elusive and ever changing, yet we must continually strive to achieve it. In our work, we seek the sweet spot. It ultimately comes with application, frustration, and practice. At the end of the day, the balance point—the sweet spot—is one that is felt in the gut, one that “feels right.”

References [1] Twitter, “Our Mission,” Twitter, 2018, https://about.twitter.com/en_us/company.html. [2] Collins, J. and J. I. Porras, “Building Your Company’s Vision,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 74, No. 5, Reprint No. 96501, 1996.

Selected Bibliography Hammond, J. S., R. L. Keeney, and H. Raiffa, Smart Choices: A Practical Guide to Making Better Decisions, Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999. MacKechnie, B., Achieving Strategic Alignment: How to Harness Its Power to Exceed Your Organizational Goals, Second Edition, Renton, WA: DoubleBee Publishing, 2013. Sinek, S., Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone to Take Action, New York: Penguin, 2009.

CHAPTER

27 Time Is on Your Side Time is the scarcest resource, and unless it is managed, nothing else can be managed. —Peter Drucker

Takeaways  The way to manage time is not to manage time at all but to manage priorities.  Consider a simple system for managing priorities by triaging tasks according to high, medium, and low priority.  Difficulties with time and priority management are often symptoms of emotions that are worthwhile to understand and address. “If only I had more time.” It is a common complaint among professionals. Many people feel strapped for time, always perceiving they are falling further behind. A life of constant catch-up is a stressful existence. We are all allotted the same number of hours in a day. There is no way to create more time; we can only make better use of the time we have. So how can we manage our time better? In Chapter 26, we talked about the enticement of having it all. With regard to time, the seduction is that we can do it all. As with tradeoffs, the solution for poor management of time is to become aware of and act on our priorities. The objective of effective time management is not to manage time at all, but rather to manage ourselves—our focus and output as professionals. 273

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If we wish to make better use of our time, we must manage our priorities and how we act on them: We need to focus on what is important and then accomplish those things. When we do so, time will essentially manage itself. As an engineer becoming a manager, the demands placed on you will increase dramatically. Unless you take active steps to manage yourself and your time, you may find you are overwhelmed. In this chapter we will discuss time and how we, as professionals, relate to it. We will also discuss specific ways to ensure your priorities are fulfilled and that your time is spent well.

Attitudes Toward Time Many professional people speak about how busy they are and how little available time they have. For them, time is almost an enemy, because its relentless ticking always serves as a reminder of all that is undone. Such an attitude leads to frustration, stress, and defeat. An alternative attitude is to view time as an ally. Given enough time, patience, and application, we can accomplish almost anything we choose to do, even if we cannot do everything. Time really is on our side because effective use of time enables us to accomplish great things. Having such an attitude toward time can be freeing and uplifting. Personality type also affects attitudes toward time. I have known a number of people who have their schedules planned to the minute. Perhaps it is my personality, but such a method has always seemed too confining. I could never stand to have my life mapped out so explicitly, so my personal approaches are simple and flexible. Life cannot be controlled down to the minute. We need to have space in our lives to deal with the unexpected … and just to be human. To the extent that a time management system energizes you and helps you to be more human, it is worthwhile. Whatever your attitude about time, we can all improve in time management by better managing our priorities and actions. Many people have never given a second thought to their priorities or to how priorities relate to current activities. They blindly go through their lives by habit or going along with the crowd. Months and even years go by with perhaps the growing realization that something is not quite right. The first step in taking control of time is to commit to implement as a reality a simple concept we all understand: Some things we do are more important than others.

Priorities and Payoffs In a project management course I teach, we perform an exercise on managing priorities on projects. In the exercise, we remark that company

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management often deems everything as important. If everything is important, nothing is important. If we are to be serious about managing time, we must internalize and act on the fact that some things really are more important than others. In a related manner, some of our activities will necessarily produce more desirable outcomes than others. As a professional, it is to our advantage to make a match between these high-impact, high-payoff activities and the priorities that we set in our jobs. Let us consider two managers and their daily activities. Keisha spends the majority of the day meeting with team members and other stakeholders to discuss work objectives and progress to ensure work is succeeding as planned. Steve, on the other hand, is very concerned with expenditures on supplies, so he spends the morning locating stray pencils and paper clips. While Steve is fictional, I have actually encountered managers like Steve who fussed for hours over matters that had a total impact on profit of $10. Keisha’s approach is clearly more productive and will have a much more dramatic payoff than Steve’s approach. To better match our own activities to high-payoff activities, it is necessary to stop and take stock.

Identification of Current Priorities: The Time Log Most time management guides recommend the use of a time log as a starting point in taking better control of our schedules. What we do at any given time is representative of what we currently consider to be important. We record our activities and how long we spend on each one over a day or week to show how we are currently using our time. Keeping a time log can be as simple or as detailed as you wish depending on your personality and your degree of compulsiveness. The objective of this activity is not to promote guilt but to help us identify our current priorities. The use of a time log is often an eye-opening experience; we come to realize how much time we waste or spend on low-priority tasks.

The Trip Plan In talking about project management in Chapter 18, we mentioned a systematic approach to identifying the overall objectives of the project and then translating these objectives into specific actions to be taken. This process of project management can be applied directly into priority management as an effective program to master the effective use of your time. We identify the key priorities and objectives in our work and then

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translate them into specific actions to be taken. With a focus on the specific current actions that keep us moving toward our objectives, we make effective use of our time. A trip plan is a great analogy to consider for this approach to time management. Suppose we have been offered the opportunity to depart from St. Louis on an automobile trip to one of two destinations and receive a prize when we arrive. We can drive to Los Angeles and meet with a famous movie star, or we can drive to Miami and receive $5,000. Either way, we must be at our destination within seventy-two hours to receive the reward. Our choice of destination reflects our priority, and it then defines our objective. If a cash reward is more valuable to us than rubbing elbows with the pretty people, then our objective is to drive to Miami. To accomplish our objective, we must make good use of our time. We do not wish to meander along any old highway. We need to follow an appropriate route on a road map, and we need to get on down the road. We determine that, for today, we should drive from St. Louis to Atlanta to make sufficient progress toward the destination of Miami. If we plan our route and our trip well, we will have no trouble making it to the destination of choice in ample time.

Reflection: Converting Priorities and Objectives into Action On our trip, we regularly think about our location relative to the destination as well as any corrective measures that may be needed. Reflection is a critical component of priority management. To reorder our use of time, we must stop and reflect on what is important. The process of reflection is what ties together the past, present, and future in an effective way. In our reflection time, we identify our objectives, we prioritize them, and we develop the trip plan to accomplish our objectives. While we are on our journey, there are many distractions, and often other people will pull us off our chosen route. If we do not stop to reflect on our journey, we may never reach our destination. This process of reflection is an activity that should be done on a regular (preferably daily) basis. It need not take long—a few minutes at the start and end of every day will often suffice to order our activities. On a regular basis, we need to step out of the busyness of our lives to make certain that our current activities will take us to our desired destination.

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A Simple Program for Success Professionals have many tools at their disposal to schedule activities and make productive use of time. As valuable as these are, even a simple sheet of paper can match them as an effective time management tool. The simple act of reflecting and writing down one’s objectives and actions to accomplish them is the most powerful time management approach a professional can use—assuming one acts on the information on the sheet. The totality of time management is simply the identification of priorities and acting accordingly to accomplish them. The sheet of paper with our priorities serves as the vehicle to make the priorities real. As with the trip plan, we will have important and involved long-term goals that cannot be accomplished in a day. As part of the daily reflection, write down ten or twenty things that come to mind that need to be done, making sure to give consideration to your long-term objectives. Some of the major items on the list cannot be accomplished in one day; such tasks should be broken down into more manageable pieces. Go back through your list and perform the process of triage—place each item into one of three categories: “high importance” for the most critical items, “moderate importance” for those that are not so critical, and “low importance” for those items that are still lower in priority. You will focus your attention on the items on the “high importance” list. What critical tasks can you accomplish today? One hopes you will be able to do all of your critical list items and several items on your “moderate importance” list each day. You may or may not get to the items on the “low importance” list at all. To further focus your attention, consider making your triaged list stand out visually by using a color code according to the importance of the items. This simple program, perhaps more than any other, will enable you to manage your time and priorities well. Whether your objective list is on the back of an envelope, on your computer, or on your smart device, it is the key that enables you to make the best use of your time. Do all your objectives seem to fall into the critical list category? Is everything on your plate of seemingly vital importance? You still need to prioritize your list, or you will be frustrated. The comparative analysis tool we introduced in Chapter 26 will help you make sense of everything that screams for your attention. This comparative analysis tool is shown again in Figure 27.1, this time with activities from an engineering manager’s list of objectives. We once again perform a head-to-head comparison of objectives. As we mentioned, we should consider prioritizing our objectives according to what is truly important, not just in terms of what may be urgent. After completing the

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Figure 27.1  Comparative analysis tool for prioritizing objectives or tasks.

comparison matrix cells, we count the number of times we have chosen each item and rank all items in the list. From the ranking, it appears the preparation for the department review is the highest priority objective. Three other items seem to be of moderate importance, and two seem to be of low importance. It is helpful to now use the triage process to group our list into high-, moderate-, and low-priority items, as we have done in Figure 27.2. Figure 27.3 takes our one high-priority objective, the department review, and develops specific tasks to ensure the objective will be met. One can readily track progress toward the objective, perhaps by using a check mark when each task is completed. For this example, we focus on identifying our objectives and the next steps to achieve them. As with project management, a complete time management program includes documentation of the objectives and all the steps needed to accomplish the objectives. If your objective is a particular active project, you have probably already built a WBS for it, and the WBS can serve as a great source of information for time management. In our example, we omitted later steps with the understanding that these would need to be documented as well.

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Figure 27.2  Sample triage prioritization of importance of objectives (H = high, M = moderate, L = low).

Figure 27.3  Sample development of daily action items.

This simple tool to manage time and priorities will go far to help you accomplish your objectives and achieve your priorities.

Issues in Priority Management For the remainder of this chapter, we will address a few common areas that professionals encounter or should consider in their use of time. Procrastination I think procrastination and other difficulties with managing time and priorities are often symptomatic of something else. Perhaps we are avoiding what we really do not wish to do. Maybe we fear failure or criticism. I contend with fear of being overwhelmed on an effort, so I put it off. It is helpful to recognize the underlying emotion, accept it, and take steps to resolve it. Whatever the source, the cure for procrastination is amazingly simple: If you start the task you are avoiding and commit to it for five minutes, that is often enough to overcome the inertia of procrastination.

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Live a Pareto Life As professionals, we should seek to lead “Pareto lives.” We introduced the Pareto principle in Chapter 14 as the observation that a relatively few issues at work produce the greatest payoff for success. Strive to spend about eighty percent of your attention on the twenty percent of issues that have the most payoffs for your work. In essence, this is the theme of this entire chapter. Depend on Others When he was president of the United States, Jimmy Carter was known for working long hours, including spending substantial time to read reports and briefings thoroughly. Many analysts believe this focus on details diverted his attention from more important matters of leadership. Some tasks are better delegated to others, enabling you to focus your attention on matters that deserve your critical attention. Just Say “No” Many of us take on excessive responsibilities. It becomes hard to identify which activities to let go. It is necessary that we develop the ability to say “no” with a critical eye on those activities that have marginal value for us. Saying no enables us to more completely say yes and commit to those items that are high on the priority list. Understandably, you will want to be judicious about to whom, when, and how you say no. We will cover that topic in Chapter 32. To Focus, Be Unavailable Telephone interruptions or unexpected office visitors make it hard to concentrate. Most professionals need to avoid time wasters and schedule time to be unavailable (except for true emergencies). Being unavailable may mean simply closing the office door and turning off the ringer on the phone. I often find it better to completely get away from the office to concentrate. Master the Environment Productivity can increase dramatically if you can structure your work environment to be more efficient. This process includes removing clutter and placing useful resource materials within easy reach.

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Allow Time for the Unexpected No one can schedule his or her time completely with certainty. However we choose to organize our day, we must allow room to address the unexpected that will inevitably occur. Focus on Habits Just like in Chapter 17, it is helpful to give particular attention to our habitual processes. Any time wasters in our habits have a multiplicative effect; accordingly, prioritizing or streamlining them can free up a lot of time. Challenge Your Assumptions and Be Creative In Chapter 16, I described a provocative creativity exercise with a dysfunctional team that involved drastically shortening an already aggressive project schedule. Challenging an ingrained assumption with a seemingly impossible time crunch called upon creative ideas. The solutions uncovered dramatic improvements in productivity and usage of time; they illuminated activities that were really important and routines that were not. Time Hacks A Web search for “time hacks” will reveal many great productivity and time saving tips; for example, Craig Jarrow’s Time Management Ninja [1]. In keeping with the productivity advice from Chapter 19, make sure to do the work no one else can do and consider delegating or outsourcing other tasks. On a given job, consider the level of quality that is appropriate. Should you seek perfection, or is an average job acceptable? Perfection takes a lot of time.

Play, Rest, and Balance One of the pitfalls of many time management programs is their intent on squeezing more and more activities into the day. One can feel much like a robot when executing tasks on a lengthy to-do list. Some programs will even encourage you to get by on only a few hours of sleep so you can cram more busyness into the day. Such an approach is ultimately counterproductive—if not detrimental—to your health. The antidote is literally to schedule play and rest into the day. These come in different forms for different people. Life is ours to enjoy, and you can only enjoy it if you are the master of your schedule, not the other way around.

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No one can make more time; we can only use the time we have more effectively. To master the time we have, it is beneficial to make a better match between our priorities and our actions. Such an approach necessarily means we must take time for reflection on a regular basis to consider where we are going and how to get there. As professionals, we have many demands placed on us, and it is easy to get overwhelmed, particularly if we also have interests, responsibilities, and commitments outside of the workplace. However we choose to manage our priorities, we need to allow space to disengage and simply to take pleasure in life. Any time or priority management program that does not help us enjoy life better is not worth our time. The best approaches for managing time and priorities are ones that help us to be more human—to achieve fulfillment at work, to be present to others, and to enjoy our lives.

Reference [1] Jarrow, C., “Time Management Ninja,” Time Management Ninja, https://timemanagementninja.com.

Selected Bibliography Allen, D., Getting Things Done: The Art of Stress-Free Productivity, Revised Edition, New York: Penguin, 2015. Dover, D., The Minimalist Mindset: The Practical Path to Making Your Passions a Priority and to Retaking Your Freedom, Intriguing Ideas Press, 2017. Glei, J. K., Manage Your Day-to-Day: Build Your Routine, Find Your Focus, and Sharpen Your Creative Mind, Las Vegas, NV: Amazon Publishing, 2013. Jast, J., ��Hack Your Habits: An Unusual Guide to Escape Motivational Traps, Bypass Willpower Problems and Accelerate Your Success, Second Edition, CreateSpace, 2017. MacKenzie, A. and P. Nickerson, The Time Trap, Fourth Edition, New York: AMACOM, 2009.�

CHAPTER

28 Work Those Assets! When a person with experience meets a person with money, the person with experience will get the money. And the person with money will get some experience. —Leonard Lauder

Takeaways  Recognize the importance of good utilization and development of the organization’s assets.  The organization’s assets include what is tangible as well as knowledge, people, and relationships.  Allocation of assets follows those who are good stewards of them in alignment with strategy and the agendas of those in power. You may have heard the euphemism, “Use it or lose it,” as it applies to the virtues of exercise for producing health and fitness. For our discussion in this chapter, the saying also applies to the many resources we have at our disposal at work. To succeed, managers must develop acumen for the effective control over organizational resources. These resources include a wide range of assets, such as real estate, equipment, money, knowledge, ingenuity, and relationships. Your effectiveness as a manager will be enhanced if you can gain responsibility for and leverage the productive use of the resources available

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in your company. As an engineer in transition, your objective is to gain skill in the use and exploitation of assets. The use of the word “exploitation” here does not carry a negative meaning as in the abuse of assets for personal gain. Rather, the company benefits when its assets are made profitable, and the company languishes if its assets are used poorly. Effective use of assets also has the important associated benefit of helping your career. It is an endeavor of both strategic and tactical moves to establish your position and build on it. These moves are often political, but this is not a cynical, selfish endeavor. By doing good for the organization, you will also be doing good for yourself. As an engineer, you had access to equipment, building space, and perhaps some sources of funding, but someone higher up the food chain likely made choices about these for you. As a manager, you will be in a position to make such decisions, but you may compete with other peer managers for the resources. In most organizations, there may not be enough resources to go around, and there is competition for them. Because the quality and effectiveness of your work is dependent on the application of these resources, it is in your best interest, and in the best interests of the people who work for you, to skillfully compete for the resources. With that said, do not fall into the trap of believing you must have a lot of tangible assets to do good work; scarcity in resources can force us to focus and innovate. As we work, we use and build assets that can be valuable for gaining subsequent work. We can make dramatic advances in productivity and business development if we view these assets as having value to be applied for gaining further benefits and rewards. Three concepts can help guide our approach to assets:  Stewardship. When we are given responsibility for resources, we are expected to use them competently. Stewardship is an awareness of the responsibility and accountability that flows with it. Decision makers will allocate resources to those they consider good stewards of them.  Opportunism. The use of assets carries with it the opportunity for a benefit for the organization. In some instances, the opportunities are obvious; in others, the opportunities are available but hidden. Creative exploitation of assets will dramatically enhance their value.  Synergy. A particularly effective way to exploit assets is to actively look for applications that augment or use other efforts in a synergistic or complementary manner.

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In this chapter, we will discuss the ways in which resources are applied, used, and valued in organizations. We will also focus on ways in which you can make better use of resources to accomplish great objectives for your organization and for yourself.

The Function of Resources In Figure 28.1, we have adapted a graphic from Chapter 12 to show a simple system diagram of an organization but with several changes to focus our attention on the use of resources. This system of the business includes additional assets, such as relationships, as resources of the organization that will be applied to the transfer function. Without all these resources, the transfer function of the organization cannot take place, or the function is hampered. With the effective application of the resources, the transfer function is optimized. In the output of the system, we have now also added profit, knowledge, relationships, and enhanced assets. In the function of our work, we often increase the value of our assets, or we create new ones that we retain. Such assets include new knowledge, new or strengthened relationships, enhanced physical resources, or intellectual property. The latter can be considered a specific subset of new knowledge, but it is identified separately because of the legal implications of the term. It is knowledge that can be protected by law. Finally, in the diagram, we have included a feedback path. When we create or enhance assets, they remain with the business and can be used to benefit future business. It is important that we see this feedback path in concept and take steps to exploit it in practice.

Figure 28.1  Input/output representation of a business.

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To exploit resources, we must gain access to them. But because resources are finite, those in power in the organization must be convinced to choose our stewardship. It is time again to play politics.

Playing Politics with Resources As stated in Chapter 10, organizations are political creatures, and this observation holds true for the use of resources. If you wish to use the resources of the organization, you need to play politics. Let us revisit some points that were previously presented. People can play politics for cynical and self-serving reasons or for the benefit of the team and important causes. Those who work for you will depend on the availability of resources to do their jobs well. The success of your company will also depend on the effectiveness with which those resources are used. If you care about these, it is imperative that you involve yourself in the political game to attract the resources necessary for the success of your projects and operations. Playing politics does not suggest you brazenly bulldoze over everyone else to acquire an empire. Equanimity and sensitivity are appropriate; for example, in a recession, many companies apply across-the-board reductions in operating budget. Accept the adversity in a spirit of doing your part to keep the organization financially viable. When times are good, use the opportunity to spread the good fortune generously.

Alignment with the Agenda Being a political player in an organization is largely about developing relationships with people who are in power and aligning with their agenda. Your ideas and your request for resources will be much better received if you can show this connection. To be in alignment with the agenda, you must first know the agenda. It is important that you become conversant on how your team, your project, or your operation contributes to the bottom line in the organization. It is a good idea to keep updated presentation and report materials that demonstrate the value added by your efforts and maintain your visibility to the decision makers. All other factors being equal, they will assign resources to individuals they know to be following and contributing to the organizational agenda.

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Starting Out If you are a fledgling manager, it may seem like a daunting task to compete against established managers for scarce resources. In such a situation, consider how you might turn your position into an advantage: You offer the opportunity for a fresh approach. Many organizations offer new managers specific assistance in getting established, such as with seed funding for a new project or training programs. They may also offer mentoring programs. Avail yourself of these opportunities, but you may need to seek them out if they are not well publicized in your organization. Other techniques will help you get started with the acquisition of assets. Because you are untested as a manager, it is to your advantage to partner with established managers on projects or programs. There is strength in numbers, especially when the others carry established clout. You can work out an arrangement with the established partner for sharing the assets. This is one place where a mentor is quite valuable to you. Another way to dilute the concern over your lack of experience is to suggest a staged approach to use of resources. Perhaps you can structure a trial period or gated phases in a project and use your effective initial performance as justification for continuing the later stages. It pays to be attentive to significant issues in the organization that may be dear to upper management. Suppose the division director in your architecture and engineering firm has made it known that he wishes to expand markets in large commercial buildings. One strategy you can offer as a fledgling manager is to lead a small team on a two-day focused effort to quickly develop the expertise to tackle this market. In other words, do not wait to be told to work on the boss’s pet project—step up and volunteer for it. Your display of initiative will likely make up for any concerns about your lack of experience. Inexperience can become a strength if you can frame the issue as one that needs a fresh approach.

Be a Skillful Player As you become established as a manager, it is important that you continue to play the political game well on an ongoing basis. To play the game well, be continually aware of and plan for opportunities to exploit assets and to be seen doing so for the benefit of the organization. Continue to follow the agenda of the decision makers and seek to frame your needs accordingly. Always be prepared to demonstrate the direct payoff of your activities to the agenda and to the bottom line of the organiza-

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tion. Never pass up an opportunity to demonstrate the value added by your activities to people higher up in the organization or to valuable outsiders. Once you have acquired assets for a period of time, make an effort to secure follow-on commitment for continuance. It is often relatively easy for the person in charge to let you continue to use an asset or to continue funding once it is already in place. In this process, you will use your asset base as leverage for future work and benefits.

Knowledge Management The discipline of knowledge management has grown dramatically in popularity. Organizations have come to realize it is expensive to create knowledge and wisdom in an organization, and it is tragic to allow them to wither unused. We regularly encounter situations where organizational mistakes are repeated, and wheels must be reinvented. Effective management of knowledge can become a competitive advantage. I would encourage you to take steps in your organization to recognize the knowledge of the organization as an asset and take steps to capture and build on it. Unfortunately, many forces work against knowledge capture, retention, and sharing. Here is a brief example of the power of knowledge management. The internet venture that I mentioned in Chapter 12 was an online community for professional project managers, and one of our themes was the value of knowledge sharing among professionals. In one of our programs, we organized a valuable online forum on applying software tools across an organization for project management. Several months later, we worked an exhibit booth at a project management conference. One morning, I met a harried man walking by the booth; he only wanted to know if we sold software. We did not, but I was curious about his rush. He had just been assigned the task of quickly rolling out a project management software tool across his organization, a major multinational firm. He had only a day to make a purchase decision. The salespeople he would encounter would no doubt try to sell him an expensive solution. Based on our prior forum, I suspected he was about to commit to a tool costing more than $100,000, but one that would probably not be useful to his organization. It is a mistake to believe that an elegant tool will make up for a lack of good project management processes. My friend’s organization had not taken steps to build its processes, so the elegant tool would not be useful at all. In our online forum, several contributors had indicated that a much less expensive tool was just right for organizations building their processes.

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When I relayed the knowledge from the forum, my friend was very interested, and I pointed him to the forum on our website. The information I shared probably saved him a day of scurrying about for the wrong information as well as the purchase of an elegant tool at a dear price. Worse, it is unlikely the tool would have been of any use, because the necessary underlying processes were not in place. His company likely would have scrapped the tool within a year. That one encounter proved the power of lessons learned and knowledge shared.

Budgets In considering assets, a critical area for you to manage is budgets. Budgets give you access to funding, and funding is the fundamental asset or resource in an organization. You need funding for your projects and operations to exist and to succeed. You will need to do some homework to determine the budgetary rules that must be followed in your organization, both the published rules and any informal rules. Be particularly aware of the lead times for budgeting— sometimes budgets may be set six months or more before the start of a fiscal period. One important area to understand in budgeting rules is the disposition of unused funds at the end of a fiscal period. Do the rules allow you to carry over and maintain control over unused funds into the next fiscal period, or do the funds revert to a general pool? In some cases, departments must spend wildly in the last month before the end of a fiscal period because budget rules will force them to lose unspent money. Be aware that sometimes there are little-known exceptions to budget rules. Earlier in my career, I worked for a state agency. At the time, a request for acquisition of a computer would have to be submitted to state purchasing agents, who would then issue a request for bids. The time from the initial request until the computers were received could push several months. On the other hand, if it could be shown that an “emergency” existed, the purchasing channel could be avoided, and a computer could be bought without bids in a matter of hours. “Emergency” only had to mean the project or program would suffer because of the substantial delay through the purchasing channel. Needless to say, those who were aware of this exception used it extensively. Be on the lookout for similar exceptions in your budgeting process. Become proficient with the implications of account procedures. It is often in your interests to keep open certain account numbers when you can show follow-on work is possible or likely. It is typically easier for an

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organization or sponsor to approve additional funds for an existing account than to authorize an entirely new account.

Maintain Integrity In this chapter, we have talked at some length about playing politics and exploiting exceptions in rules. Please do not interpret any of this as a license to violate laws or company policies. I have been aware of several individuals who crossed over the line and encountered trouble for unethical or illegal acts. Unethical behavior will earn you a reputation as someone who is only interested in personal gain and may subject you to disciplinary action. Illegal deeds are certainly much worse—you can be summarily terminated and be fined or jailed. The commission of unethical or illegal acts is a sure way to ruin your chances for future business and success in your career.

Attracting Great People As with any other resource, you can position yourself to have people assigned to you by demonstrating that doing so will achieve the objectives of the organization. Perhaps even more important is your ability to attract and have assigned to you those who are proven performers. You do not want just anyone on your staff—you want people who are pleasant and productive. Perhaps the best way to attract great people to work for you is to become known as a great boss. Go out of your way to support, protect, and reward your people. Emphasize that your endeavors are so important, they need the best people working on them. If you cannot get the full commitment of a star player, see if you can get her for at least a part-time commitment. On the other hand, it is often possible for an ordinary performer to demonstrate extraordinary work when challenged and supported.

Relationships Perhaps the most important resources available to you are your relationships both inside and outside your organization. In an organizational sense, relationships will enable you to gain business and succeed more readily in your career. The strength of your relationships with coworkers and with key individuals outside your company will make your work life easier or more difficult. Many examples could be given about the value of relationships to you. But I would also mention one challenging aspect of relationships, the temptation to burn bridges.

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In short, don’t do it! It is always best to remain on cordial and professional terms with people, even troublesome people, because you never know when you may encounter them again. Destructive words said in the belief that you can bid good riddance to someone will often come back to haunt you. Even relationships that seem to be of no use can sometimes be surprisingly valuable at a later time. It is best not to burn bridges. Your own success and the success of those who work for you will depend on the availability of and effective use of assets. Resources will be allocated to you to the extent that you can attract them and use them well. You attract the resources by demonstrating that their use will align with the agenda of the decision makers. You use them well by ensuring they contribute to the bottom line of the organization. Three principles highlight the approach that effective engineering managers apply toward resources: First, those who demonstrate effective stewardship of assets will receive the benefits those assets produce. Second, to grow in responsibility and authority, managers need to be opportunistic because resources may be scarce and their allocation is competitive. Finally, one of the best ways to use resources is to create synergies with other assets or new business. In this way, you can leverage them to continue to grow the assets of the organization.

Selected Bibliography Harrison, S. S. and P. H. Sullivan, Edison in the Boardroom Revisited: How Leading Companies Realize Value from Their Intellectual Assets, New York: Wiley, 2008. Lendrum, T., ��Building High Performance Business Relationships: Rescue, Improve, and Transform Your Most Valuable Assets, Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons Australia, 2011. O’Dell, C. and C. Hubert, The New Edge in Knowledge: How Knowledge Management Is Changing the Way We Do Business, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2011. Stewart, T. A., Intellectual Capital: The New Wealth of Organizations, New York: Crown, 2010.

CHAPTER

29 You’ve Got Talent! I have no special talent. I am only passionately curious. —Albert Einstein

Takeaways  As an engineering manager, it is important that you develop the talent of those you supervise.  Talent development is both short term through coaching and training and long term through mentoring.  Managers serve their team members by preparing them for present responsibilities as well as for career progression. In Medieval Europe, an organizational phenomenon known as the guild came into prominence. Guilds were associations of artisans or merchants, somewhat like contemporary trade unions and professional societies. One important feature of a guild was a process for developing talent in the organization, with a progression from apprentice to craftsman to journeyman and then to master. While the concept of a guild remains in some professions and regions, its function for talent development applies in every organization. Simply put, an organization that does not nurture and grow talent will soon wither.

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Among other responsibilities, an engineering manager is expected to foster the skill progression and maturity of the individuals he or she supervises. This role may be considered under the catchall term talent development. The title of this chapter recognizes that not only do you have talent yourself as an individual, there is talent that works under your leadership. What does it mean to develop talent in yourself and in your team? Consider for a moment the skills, judgment, and thought patterns that enable you to practice engineering. How did those come about? What keeps them alive and moving in a more refined and expansive direction? For many people there are common themes of formal education, self-education, guidance from trusted individuals who have greater skill, and personal growth. The objective is to become a more proficient practitioner for the task at hand. But in an organization, what is the task at hand? If you are managing a group of engineers, the task at hand certainly centers on the relevant engineering work of the team and organization. Since engineering is a team sport, this task also necessarily includes a significant collaboration component. Another way of saying this is “playing well with others.” Finally, the task involves ongoing growth in these dimensions, and with it, taking on new responsibilities that bring greater impact. In all these efforts, your human resource department will likely have specific programs for you to follow as well as offer you support for developing your team. Make sure to consult them as you proceed. Humans are wired for continuous learning and development. Your role is to assist what comes naturally. To dive deeper into this topic, let’s consider as two forms of guidance: the engineering career and the engineering mind.

Career Progression Assuming you supervise engineers, one way to frame your role in the talent development function is to look at the typical career trajectory for engineers. If you supervise people who are not engineers, the following concepts should be adapted as appropriate. In Figure 1.1 from Chapter 1, we depicted an example of the first ten years of a typical engineering career according to needs in two general skill areas: technical and managerial/leadership. Recall that the first few years of work emphasize technical skills, but the need for these diminishes, and as they do, roles require more managerial and leadership skills. By reading this book, you are helping to address your own career progression to accommodate this trend. As you are also responsible for seeing to the development of those you supervise, you must both address their near-term skill needs as well as prepare them for the upcoming shift in skills.

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Think Like an Engineer … and More With the engineering career progression in mind, one way to approach talent development is to look at the elements that go into engineering. The development of talent can then be considered as the deepening and expansion of those skills. The engineering method is “the strategy for causing the best change in a poorly understood or uncertain situation within the available resources” [1]. As engineers, we learned this methodology in the context of technology, physical laws, and engineered systems. In an organization, engineers must also play the role of collaborators, both with other engineers and with non-engineers. With that context, this definition of the engineering method is generic enough to encompass a wide range of applications. This process is exactly what a manager or leader must fundamentally do as part of the role. Table 29.1 categorizes the way engineers think in their professional practice or their habits of the mind [2]. No doubt these six categories and their descriptions resonate with your own experience. As with the engineering method, these descriptors are also generic enough to apply to any number of organizational situations. With this background, talent development can be viewed as the further development and expansion of this method and these ways of thinking. With this framework, talent development works with the existing foundation of skills and builds upon it. Such an approach is valuable, particularly when addressing the shift to management and leadership roles. Many engineers consider such roles foreign to their identity when in fact they are Table 29.1 Engineering Habits of Mind Descriptions Category Systems thinking Problem finding Visualizing Improving

Creative problem solving Adapting Source: [2].

Skills Seeing whole systems and parts and how they connect, pattern sniffing, recognizing interdependencies, synthesizing. Clarifying needs, checking existing solutions, investigating contexts, verifying. Move from abstract to concrete, manipulating materials, mental rehearsal of physical space and of practical design solutions. Relentlessly trying to make things better by experimenting, designing, sketching, guessing, conjecturing, thought experimenting, prototyping. Applying techniques from other traditions, generating ideas and solutions with others, generous but rigorous critiquing, seeing engineering as a “team sport.” Testing, analyzing, reflecting, rethinking, changing (physically and mentally).

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congruent with and integral to the practice of engineering. In the big picture, talent development is about helping your charges become more skillful practitioners in an organizational setting.

Servant Leadership You may have heard of or encountered the growing movement of servant leadership. This term is a framework for viewing the leader’s role as one of providing the resources that his or her charges need for success. Servant leadership stands in contrast to the conventional command-and-control view of a leader at the top of a hierarchy. A servant leader’s role is one of service, not control. The relationship with subordinates involves promoting conditions that bring out their best. In addition to accomplishing the work at hand, a prime goal of this model is to develop bench strength of leaders who are also oriented to serve. This framework of servant leadership provides an excellent foundation for talent development. Again, not losing sight of achieving objectives, the servant leader is equally concerned with the long-term development and maturation of people and of fostering leadership in them. Stating the process in this way suggests talent development will have a mix of short-term and long-term needs. Let us now consider those.

Training and Coaching The short-term needs for talent development will be largely oriented to tasks, especially immediate or soon-to-come tasks. If engineers work under you, they may well need continuing education in a relevant technology. They may also need development of skills in collaboration, such as how to be an effective contributing team member or team leader. In many cases, formal training is appropriate whether the setting is in a workshop, conference, online course, or video series. These are very helpful with skill development, but they are often insufficient. An additional type of development is appropriate, and it is called coaching. Coaching is typically a structured and time-limited relationship oriented to improve in specific task or performance areas. Usually there is an agenda that sets out to achieve short-term goals. A coach essentially helps the individual become a more proficient practitioner for the matter at hand whether it involves engineering design, delivering a presentation, or any range of skill-based needs. The goal of coaching is to improve performance in certain behaviors. The image of a coach of an athlete or sports team offers a good way to view the role of coaching in the workplace.

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Mentoring In contrast to the short-term and specific orientation of coaching, mentoring is concerned with long-term development that is general and expansive. A mentoring relationship can last for a long time, potentially years, and it focuses on holistic personal and career development. The arrangement is often informal, with both semiregular and ad hoc meetings. The agenda is often set by the mentee. As much as anything, the mentor serves as a role model and helps guide growth into the mentee’s future roles in the career progression. In an organizational setting, such guidance often is directed to leadership and cross-disciplinary collaboration topics. The relationship helps mentees learn important values, beliefs, and mindsets that will be needed in more responsible roles. A mentor also prompts the mentee to take ownership for his or her own development and maturation. Mentors help open doors and provide introductions, essentially grooming mentees. The healthiest mentoring relationships are not one-sided: mentees have something to offer the mentors as well. With both coaching and mentoring relationships, your role as a servant leader is to make sure your subordinate has what is needed for their successful performance, for engagement with their work, and for good collaboration with others. You do not necessarily need to be the coach or mentor, but to see that those functions are provided. With the exception of the role discussed in the next section, for your direct reports, it is probably better that someone else mentors them. In these matters, remember that each individual under your responsibility will have both short-term and long-term development needs.

Succession Planning A common bit of wisdom is sometimes offered to an individual upon receiving a promotion. It goes like this: Your first task as a new manager is to groom a successor. Such advice may seem curious at first. Why plan for an exit when a manager has barely started a position? But upon further thought, the strategy makes good sense from several perspectives. A good way to understand these perspectives is to consider what may happen in the absence of having solid bench strength for your team. Any transition in leadership causes some degree of disorder whether large or small. When there is an unexpected event (e.g., a sudden emergency), a manager may not be able to work or contribute at all. Someone else will have to quickly stand in the gap, and many problems may result from the turmoil: missed deadlines, diminished quality of work, and substantial

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stress on everyone. Considering the learning curve for entering a supervisory position, it may take some time before team operations return to a sense of normalcy. Developing your bench is a good insurance policy for the unexpected. Let us assume misfortune does not visit. At some point, you will be promoted or transferred, or you may choose to move to a different employer. While such transitions are not typically sudden, their duration is usually measured in days or weeks. There is often not enough time to sufficiently pass along information and wisdom to a successor while also getting up to speed on the upcoming position. As a servant leader, you want your successor to be set up to be his or her best, and a quick apprenticeship is unlikely to fit the need. Even given the transitions that naturally occur, your organization benefits from steady leadership in each supervisory position. Teams can feel confident and secure with pending transitions, knowing they will retain the needed supervisory talent to thrive under new guidance. And it is better to avoid devoting time to train a successor while you are already in your new position and trying to focus on all you need to learn. You can also feel a sense of pride in knowing you did your part to leave behind a solid team that is thankful for your leadership and wishes you well, but didn’t miss a beat when you assumed your new role. In most organizations, you will not explicitly choose your successor; nevertheless, it is likely appropriate individuals in your organization, including in HR, will be interested in your opinions about the management and leadership talents on your team’s bench. Following their guidance, it is worth your while to then appropriately groom one or more individuals on your team. Understand that your successor may not necessarily come from your present team, so be attentive for others in the organization who might be a good fit for your position. In the previous section, we mentioned that this is the one area in which you should be prepared to mentor one or more of your charges. Given the natural career progression of engineers, it is a valid and smart strategy to mentor everyone on your team on how to make their transition into management and leadership. The concept of lean construction is oriented to reducing or eliminating waste. One lean principle often offered is this: underutilized talent is wasteful. At the same time, we can never fully achieve our potential. Attention to ongoing talent development and striving for our potential ensures we recognize how critical human talent is as an asset. As a manager, endeavor to nurture the growth of those you supervise. But it is just as important that you endeavor to nurture your own growth. These two channels of development (for yourself and for your charges) are intertwined and synergistic.

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Developing your bench helps you to grow and enables you to reach greater and greater heights.

References [1] Koen, B. V., Definition of the Engineering Method, Washington, DC: American Society for Engineering Education, 1985, p. 10. [2] Lucas, B. and J. Hanson, “Thinking Like an Engineer: Using Engineering Habits of Mind and Signature Pedagogies to Redesign Engineering Education,” International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2016, pp. 4–13. [3] Hoschette, J. A., The Engineer’s Career Guide, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010.

Selected Bibliography Blanchard, K. and C. Díaz-Ortiz, One Minute Mentoring: How to Find and Work with a Mentor–and Why You’ll Benefit from Being One, New York: William Morrow, 2017. Coyle, D., The Talent Code: Talent Isn’t Born, It’s Grown. Here’s How, New York: Bantam Books, 2009. Robertson, R., �The Coaching Solution: How to Drive Talent Development, Organizational Change, and Business Results, Salisbury, MD: Secant Publishing, 2015. Sharkey, L. and M. Barrett, The Future-Proof Workplace: Six Strategies to Accelerate Talent Development, Reshape Your Culture, and Succeed with Purpose, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2017.

CHAPTER

30 Mobilizing the Troops I’m slowly becoming a convert to the principle that you can’t motivate people to do things; you can only demotivate them. The primary job of the manager is not to empower but to remove obstacles. —Scott Adams

Takeaways  While many organizations tout people as their most important resources, it is only in those that genuinely act on this belief where associates experience solid engagement with their work.  Motivation is enhanced when connections are made between tasks and deeper purpose.  A manager can promote engagement and motivation by helping to remove demotivators so associates can fully experience the motivators intrinsic to the work. The statement goes something like this: “At XYZ Corporation, people are our most important resources.” Many organizations have similar mottoes, and the statement is indeed true. Yet it would absolutely shock most of these organizations to discover the overwhelming power of the idea. It is a concept so powerful that if it were truly believed and practiced, it would revolutionize business. Unfortunately, at many organizations, it is a statement that merely sounds nice but lacks substance. It is not practiced to any considerable degree, because to do so would require an overwhelming change in attitudes 301

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and actions among the leaders and managers. These organizations dearly want employees to be motivated but are not willing to pay the price required for that motivation. With good intentions, they instead turn to quick motivational fixes. Human beings are indeed the most powerful assets of an organization, because more than any other resource, the creative and problem-solving abilities of people are practically limitless. No other asset of an organization has the potential to effect dramatic order-of-magnitude changes in the conduct of business through simple actions or thoughts that are channeled in productive directions. People can be incredibly productive, unproductive, or even counterproductive. More often than not, employees fall into some average middle ground. They are somewhat or generally productive, but they never realize their enormous potential as individuals or in groups. As a direct manager, you will depend heavily on the productivity of the people who work for you. They are your most important resources. In a complementary way, you as direct manager are perhaps the single most important person to them in the organization. Their motivation and their productivity will largely depend on how effectively and genuinely you care about them and their work. For an organization to reap the benefits of improved employee motivation, there must be a fundamental appreciation of employees. The recognition of their value must be deep and consistent throughout the organization, its policies, and its actions. To mobilize the troops, the troops must believe the cause is worth it, and the troops must know the leadership will absolutely value and support the troops. The way forward is not difficult or complicated. People really want to feel engaged in their work and be fully appreciated for all that they are. Working in such an environment is truly fun, but not simply in the cheery connotation of the word. Work is also fun when it is genuinely satisfying and productive. In this chapter, we will discuss ways in which managers can mobilize the most important assets they have: the people in the organization. To mobilize the troops, recognize their value, appreciate them, and believe in them. Your success as a manager depends on them and their motivation.

What Promotes Motivation? Let’s revisit some topics from Chapter 4. In his excellent book Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, Dan Pink [1] reports the results of an interesting piece of research called the candle problem. The objective of the problem is to attach a candle to a wall using a box of thumbtacks

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and matches so that the candle does not drip. Two groups are assigned this problem. The first is told that researchers are measuring how long it takes the group to reach a solution to determine a benchmark; the second group is told they will be given money if they are in the top twenty-five percent for speed to reach a solution. Curiously, the group that was promised the monetary reward consistently took three minutes longer to complete the solution than the group that believed it was creating a benchmark. The research is not about candles, but about creativity and motivation. As Pink reports on this experiment, money does not stimulate creativity; indeed, it seems the cash reward is somewhat of a demotivator. It is that which is intrinsic to the work that offers the most reliable motivation, particularly for our contemporary professional work. Recall the five intrinsic motivators: meaningfulness, choice, competence, progress, and the ability to innovate. Perhaps the suggestion of establishing a benchmark evoked a sense of meaningfulness in the faster group because it involved the creation of knowledge and a sense of esteem. In Chapter 4, we also reported that the interest shown by a supervisor is also a strong motivator. While the overall culture of and attitudes in an organization are important, an employee’s direct superior manager holds the most significance for whether an employee perceives that his or her work matters. Such a conclusion makes sense. In many organizations, particularly large ones, most employees rarely come in contact with the executive management of the company, but they encounter their supervisors on a daily basis.

Motivation and Meaning Many readers with children have heard the defiant statement, “You can’t make me!” usually delivered by a child at a time when the parent most needs cooperation. Employees in an organization could well deliver the same statement, and many do in a subtle and silent manner. Yet despite these instances, we are aware of occasions when people are incredibly productive and can accomplish amazing feats. When truly motivated, a group of people can achieve almost anything. How then can a manager turn on this switch that connects to stellar employee performance? The truth is, the manager cannot operate the switch; it is totally up to the employee. Enlightened leaders understand and believe that most people generally aspire to perform productive work. To flourish, people need an environment that is conducive to achievement coupled with a meaningful effort to pursue.

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There is much the manager can do to create such an environment. To discuss this environment, we will look at some of the factors that deeply motivate people. But first let us look at a story of remarkable motivation and accomplishment.

The Red, White, and Blue Out I live in the community that is home to Texas A&M University. In the days after the September 2001 terrorist attacks, many individuals sought to respond in some meaningful way to these events. One student at the university initiated an idea for a patriotic display at the next home football game, which was nine days away. He thought it would be uplifting for fans at the game to wear the colors of the American flag but in a unique way. It would look great if the fans in the upper deck would wear red shirts, those in the middle deck would wear white, and those in the lower deck would wear blue. He also thought he could sell red, white, and blue T-shirts to commemorate the occasion and donate the proceeds to the victims of the attacks. In his initial thinking, he hoped to sell perhaps a few thousand shirts, an ambitious but achievable goal. The event came to be known as the Red, White, and Blue Out. As he shared his vision with others, the concept spread like wildfire. People eagerly wanted to help, and others wanted to buy the shirts. Many individuals and student organizations pitched in. Companies that would normally never extend credit to a college student now provided shirts based only on the promise to work out compensation later [2]. When the local supply of shirts was exhausted, vendors located hours away volunteered to send delivery trucks full of thousands of shirts. Students worked all-nighters to apply these words on each shirt: “Standing for America.” What began as a modestly ambitious project became an enormous undertaking. By the time the football game arrived, over seventy thousand shirts were sold, including thirty thousand in four hours at the stadium before the game started. Approximately $200,000 was raised for relief funds as a result of the T-shirt sales. The sight at the stadium was truly breathtaking as a sellout crowd of over eighty thousand became a sea of nearly uniform patriotic colors [3]. The story did not end here. Alumni groups made arrangements and paid the expenses to fly five of the leaders of the project to New York to personally deliver the proceeds of the T-shirt sales to police and firefighter representatives. The alumni groups also donated a $1,000 scholarship for each of the five leaders of the project [4].

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There was nothing special about the students who led the initiative of the patriotic display and T-shirt sales. They were not charismatic, and they did not offer cash incentives or even good grades to students who helped them. Those who participated did not even belong to a coherent organization, and they certainly had no experience with such a project. More than anything else, everyone associated with this project wanted to participate in an undertaking that had meaning. While many organizations struggle with motivation of employees, this essentially accidental project demonstrates what is possible when individuals and groups find incredible motivation. Why is it that endeavors such as this one resonate with people so that they demonstrate remarkable motivation? What will make people literally drop everything and exhibit commitment and trust they would otherwise never show? Let us now look at some factors that motivate people deeply.

The Motivation to Work If you sample a number of diverse individuals about why they work, many will respond, “Because I need the money.” Of course this is true, but for most professionals, the reasons for working go much deeper. Recalling Maslow’s needs hierarchy, once a person’s needs for survival, shelter, comfort, and companionship are reasonably met, his attention will shift to loftier ventures that are often pursued in the work we choose. In fact, the motivation to perform rewarding work reaches deep into the human psyche, and when the deeper reasons are tapped, people can commit to incredible endeavors. Many of these deep and powerful motivators involve factors that are high on Maslow’s needs hierarchy list. These inspirations go to the heart and soul of what it is to be human. Here is a nonexhaustive list of some of the passionate factors that can motivate people to commit to an effort:  To create—we derive considerable pleasure from bringing something new and useful into existence.  To bring about order—when we turn chaos into order, we experience a rewarding feeling of mastery over our environment.  To serve—many of us find considerable meaning in bringing pleasure and fulfillment to others. We feel good when we fill a need or fulfill a duty. Many people in public service professions state the reason of service as a prime motivator for their desire to work, but this motivator can be found in any profession.

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 To do something personally rewarding or meaningful—as humans, we find value, reward, and fulfillment in an endless array of enjoyable pursuits.  To receive recognition—it is enjoyable when peers, superiors, and others take interest in our work or compliment it.  To right a wrong—when some people see an injustice, they feel a moral obligation to make it right.  To make a difference—a basic fear of humans is the fear of being irrelevant. We can overcome this fear by doing things that make a difference.  To make a statement—in many cases, we desire to let others know who we are and what we stand for. There is a sense of pride when we demonstrate to others our competence or our values. These are among the positive motivators for people, those factors that will move them to commit to a cause. While the motivation for commitment comes from within, a manager can help create an environment that encourages an outlet for such motivation at work. In so doing, it is possible to evoke the increased productivity that is desired.

Group Motivation It is challenging enough to create conditions for an individual to be motivated and committed to an objective. It is more complicated for a group of people to work together toward a common motivating objective. How can a manager ensure the work objectives of groups align with those of the organization and its customers? One of the best tools for goal alignment is to have vibrant mission and values statements for the organization, the division, or for the project. For individual projects, there are specific objective statements to be met but done in keeping with the mission. Figure 30.1 demonstrates the alignment of mission and values with the motivation of team members. In this figure, mission and values serve to guide the inertia present when motivation is positive and in force. Essentially, they serve as boundaries. When alignment is present, motivation takes the group to achieve the desired objectives. The process of achieving alignment is somewhat of an iterative process. It is important for a manager to listen to and observe the interests of team members, paying attention to the types of positive motivating factors that seem to interest them. It will also be important that the individual and

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Figure 30.1  Alignment of employee motivation with organizational objectives.

group members find a way to frame the needs of the organization or customer in a way that maps well to their own motivating factors. The manager can assist in the effort as well. In many cases, framing the objective into a motivating issue can seem to be a challenging task, but it is worth the effort to be creative in this regard. Engineers are very used to describing the objectives of a project in functional or technical terms, as with specifications. Yet to be good at motivating team members, engineering managers must develop skill in framing motivating factors that engage the emotions and souls of the team members. Let us suppose that I am a project manager for a petroleum exploration company. I have been assigned the project to explore a field in the Gulf of Mexico. I will certainly need to define the project for my team in technical terms—the number of wells to be drilled, the drilling depth, and equipment needed for the project. But to engage the motivation of my team members, I should look for deeper motivating factors that interest them. Here are a few examples:  The energy from this new field will supply heating to fifty thousand homes for ten years.  Plastics developed from the petroleum we produce will enable the development of, among other things, prosthetics that can benefit disabled individuals.

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 The production of the field will enhance national security by reducing dependence on foreign sources of petroleum. Insights such as these can help team members see how their work directly benefits the community at large and how others depend on their work. Work that is framed in this manner can more readily motivate individuals to commit themselves deeply to a mission. As you think about your work and the work of your team, think creatively about potential reasons that might entice them to come to work eagerly each day. Such deeper reasons provide the emotional energy that enables people to maintain commitment and productivity to a worthy objective. Closely related to the subject of group motivation is team building. In many cases in organizations, groups of individuals with little previous interaction come together to work on projects. It takes time and investment of energy for these individuals to begin to function as a cohesive team. Shared experiences, especially those that involve the triumph over challenges and adversity, lead team members to grow in trust and confidence in one another. This is part of the forming and norming stages in team development.

Battle the Bureaucracy Professional individuals generally are well motivated. The education and work of professionals demands that they demonstrate self-initiative, discipline, and achievement of objectives. They typically expect the same of others, so it comes as no surprise that these individuals detest unnecessary rules in organizations. Bureaucracy will get their hackles up. One of the biggest demotivators for professional people in organizations is a stifling bureaucracy. It should be one of your top priorities to clear and expedite the way for your team in your organization. Determine how to dodge silly rules and procedures and how to streamline approvals and paperwork. Few things frustrate a professional more than to have work slowed because someone in accounting or purchasing won’t approve a modest equipment purchase. Where bureaucracy has stifled the good work of professionals, go on a crusade against the red tape. Perhaps one of the best things you can do for your people is to fight the inefficiencies in the system for them. Occasionally in a baseball game, a manager will furiously argue a call by the umpire, and the manager will be ejected from the game. In many cases, the manager’s emotional outburst sparks a rally by the team. They get fired up when their leader is willing to fight for them. A few managers will even admit to getting ejected on purpose, solely to light a fire under their team.

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The complement to fighting bureaucracy is to encourage entrepreneurship. Many companies claim they support innovative and entrepreneurial thinking among employees, but in reality the organization will suppress any such initiative. Engineering managers are often given a high degree of responsibility and are held accountable for the completion of important projects or the supervision of critical operations. The outcome of such endeavors can have a net effect on the company in the millions of dollars. Yet at times these same people are not allowed to make modest purchasing decisions without receiving a series of approvals. Entrepreneurship is threatening to many people in an organization because by its nature, entrepreneurship changes or even destroys the existing ways. For an organization to support entrepreneurship, it must be truly entrepreneurial at its core—in the mission and values that are practiced every day. The leaders of a company must be secure enough to accept the upheaval that comes with entrepreneurship. Such leaders understand that one either embraces entrepreneurship and its uncertainties, or one risks losing business to competitors that are entrepreneurial. While it may seem risky to be entrepreneurial, in reality it is far riskier not to be entrepreneurial. When employees are supported to innovate as entrepreneurs, they blossom and become highly productive.

Job Security Insecurity about one’s job can be a major demotivating factor at work. A few decades ago, many workers believed they could remain with the same employer for an entire career. Now people generally understand that a job is not a guarantee of employment until retirement; nevertheless, a layoff, downsizing or forced retirement almost always comes as a blow. Workers fearing termination are understandably demotivated. Those who remain after a layoff also struggle to maintain their motivation. It is to the advantage of an organization to keep productive individuals employed, yet organizations struggle to achieve this. These days, it is unrealistic for an employee to expect permanent employment. Yet companies that strive to achieve this are often rewarded with substantial employee motivation and loyalty.

A Healthy and Fun Environment No one likes to work in a sour or oppressive organization—one filled with infighting, negative attitudes, and stifling behavior. People enjoy working in an environment that is positive, where their labors are appreciated, and where they can achieve great things.

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It is your job as a manager to do what is within your power to minimize the negative factors in your workplace. Where destructive conflict is present, take the initiative to resolve it. Another problem is meddling in or micromanagement of the work done by the team. Such interference is interpreted as a lack of trust in the opinion and judgment of the professional. There is a fine line between effective guidance of the work of a programmer and micromanagement. Avoiding the line is often a skill that comes with time. Outstanding organizations also promote fun at work because it is perhaps fun that most engages the human spirit. In these organizations, fun comes naturally with people who are comfortable with one another and are supported in their fun by management. People who have fun at work let it come naturally and appropriately as part of the job. But the greatest fun at work is the satisfaction that comes with work that is done well, when obstacles are confidently overcome in a sense of camaraderie with co-workers. And when a team accomplishes a meaningful objective, it is worthwhile for the manager to celebrate it and to tastefully publicize it to the larger organization.

Creative and Valuable Play Too many organizations overextend their employees. All workers, but particularly professional workers, need unstructured time. It is often during such time that workers can have the opportunity to envision innovations for their jobs. As a manager, it is important that you facilitate such creative and valuable “play” time. Companies such as 3M have made creative playtime part of its corporate mission, even supplying budget to such efforts. Some very valuable inventions and products have come from this creative play. The overused motto is really true—the talents and ingenuity of people are the most important assets of an organization. But people may remain unmotivated and therefore underproductive unless this belief permeates the policies and actions of the organization. If it’s only a catchy slogan, employees see it for the empty phrase that it is and will make of it an object of ridicule. It becomes an unfortunate demotivator. As managers, we cannot motivate those who work for us; they can only motivate themselves. We can do much to demotivate them, and these actions we should avoid or minimize. There is also much that we can do to facilitate the motivation of others, and we should consider it a high priority to do so. When people are truly motivated, they will break through many obstacles to achieve their objectives. We can facilitate their motivation with

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a supportive environment and by helping to define work objectives in the terms that engage the human soul at work. To a large extent, these strategies involve making our organizations and work human. It is not enough for an organization to have a motto that says they value their people—it is necessary for the entire strategy of the company to live this belief. We can make work more human when we recognize that in exercising their talents, people long to have meaning and make a difference—to leave a valued mark on the world. We humans are naturally motivated. As a manager, you have a great gift and great responsibility to nurture that natural motivation and help it to be rewarding.

References [1] Pink, D., Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, New York: Riverhead Books, 2011. [2] Garcia, R., “Maroon is Out, Fans to Sport USA Colors,” The Battalion, September 14, 2001, http://www.thebatt.com. [3] Garcia, R., “RWB Out a Success,” The Battalion, September 21, 2001, http:// www.thebatt.com. [4] Garcia, R., “Ags Rewarded for RWB Out,” The Battalion, November 1, 2001, http://www.thebatt.com.

Selected Bibliography Buckingham, M. and C. Coffman, First, Break All the Rules: What the World’s Greatest Managers Do Differently, New York: Gallup Press, 2016. Catlette, B. and R. Hadden, Contented Cows Still Give Better Milk: The Plain Truth About Employee Engagement and Your Bottom Line, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012. Chester, E., On Fire at Work: How Great Companies Ignite Passion in Their People Without Burning Them Out, Shippensburg: Sound Wisdom, 2015. Katzenbach, J. R. and Z. Kahn, Leading Outside the Lines: How to Mobilize the Informal Organization, Energize Your Team, and Get Better Results. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010. Yerkes, L. Fun Works: Creating Places Where People Love to Work. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2007.�

CHAPTER

31 Playing the Part So from then on, he looked at all his choices and said, What would a good person do, and then did it. —Orson Scott Card, Ender in Exile

Takeaways  Branding communicates characteristics and qualities. A managerial position has an associated and recognizable brand.  Because such a position involves greater responsibilities, people expect managers to exhibit greater discipline and care in appearance, speech, and behavior.  It is worthwhile to be aware of your personal brand and for it to be both unique and consistent with the expected brand of your engineering management position. One of the challenging aspects of most transitions is the confusion or conflict over identity and sense of where one belongs. It is perhaps a universal human truth that we tend to identify ourselves with groups and according to certain characteristics of those groups. We also classify others into certain categories according to qualities we observe. In the transition from engineer to manager, it is natural that I experience dissonance about which of those groups is my “home” or my “tribe.” At times I may feel I belong to neither.

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The promotion has placed me squarely in the management group. Not so long ago, I may have sat at lunch with engineering peers while we rolled our eyes (or worse) over what “management” had just done; now I am “management.” I may now supervise those who were recently peers. There may be an uncomfortable dance as we all attempt to navigate the new dynamic. As the excerpt from Orson Scott Card’s Ender in Exile above suggests, there is a period in most new roles or personas in which we are “faking it until we make it.” Although his character, Peter, pursues goodness for insincere motives, there is nevertheless something we can learn from his strategy. It is simply to model those who exemplify the persona to which we aspire. Soon the role becomes second nature. The lesson of the character Peter is not to be a hypocrite; rather, as it is in your quest to sincerely become a good manager and leader, you may initially have to pretend. There is an even more important consideration to embrace this period of “acting”: In your fledgling role, your associates will expect and need for you to behave as a good manager/leader. This group will include those former peers whom you now supervise. Sure, they will grouse about how you have changed, but they still need leadership. More to the point, and as we covered in Chapter 29, they need you to help grow them into the leaders they will become. As with any new role, you will be a novice at first, but your learning curve will be much shorter if you embrace the role and follow a good model. In short, you want to play the part.

You: The Brand We will center the exploration of this topic on the concept of branding. Think about various companies and their products and services. Think about the characteristics and qualities these represent. Companies devote substantial attention to developing and communicating their brand because it is what differentiates them and their offerings. What comes to mind when you think of the name Disney? Perhaps words such as fun, family, and fantasy. In our encounters with products and services in the marketplace, we expect the offering and what is communicated about it to form a consistent message. If we stayed at a Ritz-Carlton Hotel, we would think something was amiss if there were thin towels in the room. We would be confused if an advertisement for the hotel boasted that it was cheaper than a youth hostel. Fundamentally, a brand is about identity. A brand communicates to the world who you are and what you stand for. As it is with products and

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services, each of us communicates a certain image based upon appearance, speech, and behaviors. We expect physicians to have a certain “brand.” Consider various genres of music. We expect artists in each of the genres to similarly have brands that correspond to their respective genres. Classical musicians in orchestras appear in formal wear, and country music artists often wear jeans and cowboy hats. Each of us as individuals has a personal brand; it is the position or perception each of us has in the minds of others. In a sense, it is a headline summary for easy categorization. This is a natural feature of human interaction because our brains are wired for efficiency in handling information. The headline summary approach enables us to quickly make sense of our relationships, what to expect in different relationships, and what might be expected in various interactions. It also enables us to readily identify people with whom we prefer or need to associate according to context. One’s brand could be defined as what you would like for people to say about you when you are outside the room. Perhaps I would like to be considered as someone who is knowledgeable, accessible, and “plays well with others.” I may also hope to be seen as someone who dresses smartly and has appropriate manners in a variety of situations. In my work, I may also try to be known for being a good steward of resources and taking care of those around me. To say that each of us has a personal brand is a neutral reality. The relevant nugget is that it is important to be aware of this fact and then ensure the brand that people perceive is indeed the one we wish to communicate. People have a negative reaction when they sense dissonance between what they observe and what they expect. Similarly, I may feel confused when I sense people do not understand me. In your prior encounters with managers and executives, what did you expect, and what did you observe? You may have perceived some behaviors and appearances that were pleasant and helpful and others that were not. Could you discern habits of speech, dress, and mannerisms that were distinctive from, say, entry-level employees or people who fill orders in a warehouse? If so, you are catching the point of this chapter. Those we encounter in the workplace expect certain general qualities of managers. As you transition from an engineering to a management position, your associates and customers will similarly expect you to exhibit the brand category that is associated with managers. If you do not exhibit this brand, people will be confused and will be less likely to recognize you as a manager. None of this is cynical or hypocritical; it is simply being consistent and congruent with human nature and expectations of the role of manager.

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Discussing the managerial brand does not imply a singular lockstep way of talking, acting, or dressing. There are infinite variations on a general theme that fit the managerial brand to identify the tribe. You will be able to develop and project a style that is unique, but still consistent with the brand so you are recognizable as a manager.

Your New Peer Group Assuming you were promoted from a group of engineers, your peer group or tribe has now changed somewhat. You will be considered as belonging to two peer groups: the engineering group you lead and the management group. You will want your brand to synthesize these two groups, and the good news is that it will not be difficult to accomplish this synthesis. To address this synthesized brand, consider two defining elements of the job description of an engineering manager: responsibility and breadth. As a manager, you will have greater responsibilities. This is not to imply engineering team members are irresponsible, but only that managers of such a group are responsible for more. The term breadth connotes that while individual engineers likely have a narrow focus, the engineering manager addresses big-picture considerations, and often with customers and individuals in cross-disciplinary roles. The engineering manager can be considered as a liaison between engineers and the larger organization. He or she is, in essence, an essential and defining interface between a subsystem and its ecosystem.

Acting the Part We generally expect and associate a higher level of formality and discipline to someone with greater responsibilities. Why would there be such an expectation? To have good outcomes in an organization, those in responsibility need to demonstrate the ability to manage emotions in a healthy manner, be directed to solving problems and serving others, and be generally pleasant and professional. We expect such characteristics of all employees, yet those lower in the organizational hierarchy are often given greater slack in behaviors. Where breadth is concerned, we generally expect a manager to be relatively knowledgeable and conversant on relevant topics and to interact well with people from a diversity of backgrounds and perspectives. Such a manager must be able to help make sense of differing perspectives and lead matters toward consensus and good decisions in a timely manner.

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How would such a prototypical engineering manager act, speak, and appear? To a certain extent, the question suggests there is a chameleon-like quality to the answer. This is not surprising, because there is the expectation on all of us that we behave and dress differently according to the occasion and context. We generally dress very differently depending on whether we are attending a funeral or karaoke night. There is not a single set of answers that apply categorically; the answer is quite relative to context. Managers at a business involved in extensive engineering field work have qualities that are very different from those in a social media firm. In your firm, how would you describe the brand of engineers? What about the brand of other engineering managers in your organization? And the brand exhibited by upper-level managers? If you are now an engineering manager in this business, the starting point for your brand should be similar to that of the other engineering managers. You can then build upon and adapt it to your unique preferences. Both context and individuality are important. Your company will likely have a corporate brand that it promotes. It expects its employees to appear and act in a manner consistent with this brand. At the same time, people also crave interactions with real human beings; we dislike robotic adherence to roles. In short, there needs to be a balance that establishes your unique identity within the context of both the organization’s brand and the brand expected of its engineering managers.

The Individual/Role Relationship In our treatment of your brand, it is worthwhile to address how your personal identity relates to your workplace identity. At times in my career, I have experienced situations in which I would have made one choice as an individual while recognizing that my role suggested an alternative choice. In almost every such instance, this dissonance had relatively insignificant consequences; however, I will stand firm whenever serious matters such as ethics, safety, or damaging business consequences are involved. It has been helpful all along to recognize that who I am in my workplace role is not necessarily who I am as an individual, although there is necessarily considerable overlap. In other words, I am able to comfortably inhabit a certain persona for professional matters and then “hang it in the closet” at the end of the day. This perspective is extremely beneficial when working in a team and in reaching group decisions. In my workplace persona, I may very well support a group decision that I would otherwise reject as an individual. I do this because I acknowledge it is a group decision made for the benefit of the group. While recognizing the importance of standing upon principle, it can nevertheless become frustrating when an individual

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holds firm to a position simply because he or she is unable to navigate this individual/role relationship.

Wearing the “Uniform” We associate particular combinations of dress (i.e., uniforms) with certain professions. Members of the military, police officers, fire fighters, and emergency responders all wear uniforms that permit their identification and affiliation. In many instances, these uniforms are functional, but they also convey an air of respect for the important roles such professionals serve. Other professions have associated dress codes; for example, physicians often wear scrubs or white lab coats. Individual organizations may require certain combinations of dress. Apple store employees are known for their recognizable blue shirts. Beyond defined manners of dress, there are certain “uniforms” associated with roles. We expect executives to wear more formal and better quality clothing than we would expect of entry-level or frontline employees. A CEO of a Fortune 500 company may wear a Rolex watch, while a factory foreman may wear a Timex. It is not possible to give you any specific guidance regarding your clothing choices that will support your engineering management role. What is in style continually changes, and what is considered appropriate and desirable in one location may be deemed tasteless elsewhere. A solid principle to follow is to wear clothing that fits well: not too tight and not too loose. You can also rarely go wrong with purchasing high-quality fabrics. Generally, when in doubt, choose a dressier look, but one that is not too dressy for the context. Understandably, this guidance may initially seem far too squishy, but with exposure and experience, it will become easier. The topic of grooming is relevant as well. One may get by with an unkempt appearance in an entry-level position at some firms, but such an image will detract from one’s influence in a managerial role. As with other aspects of one’s brand, clothing and overall appearance communicate role and position. Someone in a management position is entrusted with considerable responsibility. We could debate whether it is right to judge someone by appearance, but that would be pointless. People do form an impression that is quick and often subconscious. They are more likely to give respect and pay attention to an individual whose appearance communicates discipline, confidence, awareness of context, and achievement. One could readily say these qualities define the hallmarks of any business. It is only natural that we would entrust leadership of the business to individuals who embrace such valuable themes.

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Mind Your Manners One could characterize manners or etiquette as desirable social behaviors for a given situation or context. We are judged in part by how we speak, write, and act. Displaying good manners is really a means of showing respect and appropriate care for others. These qualities are important—if not crucial—in business settings because managers are more likely to interact with customers and with peers and superiors throughout the organization. Individuals in global businesses must interact well with people across multiple cultures. Again, those who are granted such greater responsibilities are expected to demonstrate behaviors that exhibit heightened social awareness in all relevant situations. Something as seemingly innocuous as devouring food at a dinner with important clients can have a damaging effect on business. Awareness is the first and most important step, and it leads to the development of knowledge and skill in appropriate etiquette. It is worthwhile to take advantage of training in etiquette, especially cross-cultural etiquette. Actors often go to considerable lengths to study the characters they portray so as to fully inhabit their roles. In our encounters in the workplace, we expect people to play their parts. But we do not enjoy a performance that is robotic or simply a caricature. An actor who both stays true to the role and brings something extra to it is the one who often delivers the most enjoyable performance and receives accolades accordingly. In this perspective, the brand associated with the role of engineering manager is far from restrictive. Developing a unique personal brand consistent with one’s role attracts respect because it communicates competence. When one earns such respect, he or she can influence others in directions that are beneficial for the organization. The topic of branding—playing the part—is really about serving others and their need for managers to demonstrate responsibility and care. Being attentive to one’s brand is not about rigid conformance but about exhibiting worthiness to employ the healthy power that comes with an engineering management role.

Selected Bibliography Carson, M., Introduction to Personal Branding: 10 Steps toward a New Professional You, Delightful Communications, 2016. McNally, D. and K. D. Speak, Be Your Own Brand: Achieve More of What You Want by Being More of Who You Are, Second Edition, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2011.

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CHAPTER

32 Charity Begins at Home This above all; to thine own self be true. —William Shakespeare

Takeaways  Professionals may encounter substantial stress in the workplace, along with balancing work and other commitments and interests.  Stress is not necessarily bad for us, and in many ways, it helps us stretch our limits and master greater skills.  Effective stress management involves regular oscillation between stress and recovery, as well as the management of our physiological stress responses to non-threats. At many points in this book, we have identified important issues for you to address as an engineer in transition to manager. Some of these matters have been suggested as high priorities for your attention. It may seem overwhelming to consider or master so many different concerns. If this is the case, here is one more priority: take care of yourself. Charity begins at home. Many forces in the workplace and in society seek to burden you with responsibilities and judge you critically when you fall short of them. Much of what we do as technological professionals is complex, has some element of unfamiliarity, and has some critical consequence coupled to it. Many of

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us are substantially overworked and pushed to do more. There may be serious conflict or even toxicity at the office. Work can become an all-consuming activity, and there are people in your organization who would be more than happy to see you so consumed. Professionals also have substantial responsibilities outside the workplace. Many have children, and some are single parents. Some have aging parents who need care. Others may be in the throes of significant life events, such as a wedding, divorce, or serious illness. All these factors can contribute to a high degree of stress. Excessive stress can make us feel lousy both physically and emotionally, and it can decrease our skill and productivity at work. Such unhealthy stress drains the spirit and joy from life and hinders the fulfillment of our responsibilities or our interests anywhere. Intense, unmitigated stress can lead to a crisis. Your personal and emotional health, as well as that of loved ones, demands that you be able to strike a healthy balance between work and the rest of life. While there may be a few people who can consistently work lengthy hours at stress-filled jobs, the majority of people require time away from the demands of commerce. We need time to meet responsibilities to loved ones at home and to exercise our bodies, hearts, and souls. Many people also want to pursue other endeavors, such as a hobby or community service. We do best when we can find meaning in life and when we are free to recreate. While “doing” is valuable, so is “being.” It is also worth examining whether our work has meaning to us or is merely a means to a paycheck. Work that is done mechanistically or that does not somehow engage our souls can be very draining. When our hearts and souls are engaged in our work, we experience a rush of energy. Research has also shown that individuals who find purpose in their work are able to put in a long workday without ill effect, while others who do not experience this sense of purpose are likely to be worn down over a similar workday. As professionals, work is important to us and is a critical part of who we are. Yet we need to avoid letting it so dominate us that we ruin who we are or continually miss priceless, cherished experiences. Work is not so important that we should miss hearing the laughter of a child, sharing a beautiful sunset with a loved one, or being present during the demise of a parent. Our work prospers when we integrate our values and purpose into our work and integrate our necessity for a livelihood with our other human needs. This chapter is about recognizing the importance of balance and meaning, seeking them, and taking steps to achieve them as a professional.

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Conquering Stress The position of manager in an engineering or technological organization is stressful. Executive management often expects the impossible on a tight deadline while meeting profit targets. The engineering manager may have too few staff working on too many projects, so team members often struggle to maintain their direction and productive inertia. Stress in such a job is practically a given. After the job I mentioned in the story that opened this book, I felt so much stress that for some time I thought about dropping out altogether. I fantasized about buying a farm, growing my own food, and kissing the politicized and crazy technological world goodbye. The more I considered this lifestyle, however, the more I realized that such a move would have been a waste of my talents (not to mention the financial difficulty of such a life). With time, I learned to master stress and once again enjoy my career. Of course, I did not eliminate stress or even diminish it. In fact, my most stressful times came later. Here is a critical component of effective stress management: the recognition that stress will always be with us. How we respond to and master stress substantially determines whether we can avoid the damaging effects of stress. The absolute best advice I have ever encountered about stress comes from James E. Loehr in his book Stress for Success [1]. Two salient concepts from Mr. Loehr have enabled me to make dramatic improvements in stress management. First, while stress has received a bad name, it is actually beneficial for us. Stress becomes harmful when it is excessive; otherwise, an appropriate amount of stress helps us improve and grow. If you think about this for a moment, you can realize this is true. All of us become comfortable with our perceived limits of performance. Unless we are remarkably self-motivated, we generally need some external stimulus to cause us to improve or change. Such a stimulus causes us stress—it jars our comfortable limits and causes us to stretch our abilities beyond what we considered possible. We then find that we have established new and improved capabilities. As the Roman poet Horace said, “Adversity has the effect of eliciting talents which in prosperous circumstances would have lain dormant.” For many—if not most—people, this observation suggests a new relationship with stress. Perhaps if we cannot welcome stress, at least we can see the benefits it brings when we respond well to it. It is easy to see this effect in exercise. From time to time I neglect exercise, and after renewing it, my first efforts at power walking, swimming, and weight training are frustrating. After several outings, however, my strength, stamina, and

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technique improve. It was only when I subjected my body to stress that my limits of performance expanded. Let us continue this example with Mr. Loehr’s second key point: We become proficient with managing stress by learning to oscillate. Oscillation means we follow periods of stress with periods of recovery that include relaxation and recreation. Exercise physiologists have learned that muscle tissue is built and strengthened from the cycle of exercise and rest. Exercise tears the muscle fibers and then new, stronger fibers grow during the periods of rest between exercise outings. One cannot exercise strenuously at a high output indefinitely. Our bodies must take time to recover, rest, and rebuild tissue. A similar observation can be made about our minds and emotions as we exercise them at work. We are unable to work our minds strenuously for extended periods without a break. We are also unable to handle highly stressful situations and the accompanying intense emotions for indefinite periods. When we allow ourselves to oscillate, our bodies and minds are powerfully able to absorb the stress. What is more, we become able to handle more demanding situations, but only as long as we continue to follow active stress with appropriate downtime. Figures 32.1 and 32.2 present a visual representation of approaches to stress. These figures show improved stress management when one oscillates. In each figure, we represent over time the stress that is both experienced and tolerated by a typical individual. The beneficial effect of healthy oscillation is illustrated in Figure 32.1. This figure depicts a series of regular, moderate recovery periods after stress coupled with less-frequent periods of deeper recovery. This oscillation enables the resilience to withstand and prosper through a progression of increasingly stressful events. On the other hand, Figure 32.2 shows a pattern of extended, unbroken stress with insufficient oscillation. Because there is no downtime for recovery, the cumulative stress becomes too demanding, so the amount of stress that can be tolerated decreases. In this situation, productivity diminishes, and nerves become raw. If not corrected, such stress can lead to a crisis, such as burnout. I once suffered burnout after a demanding period in which I did not oscillate. I was responsible for designing and writing a business plan for a start-up company. For about three weeks, I worked exclusively on the business plan. The task required a lot of research and simulation of many financial scenarios. To engage in this intense mental work and concentration, I worked long hours in the office at the computer with my door closed. I interacted very little with anyone else, and for practically every waking hour, I brooded over the plan and the scenarios.

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Figure 32.1  Healthy oscillation provides resiliency for stress.

Figure 32.2  Insufficient oscillation reduces the capacity to handle stress.

By the time I finished, I was physically sick, and my brain was ground meat. I even cancelled a vacation with my wife. I literally had to take two weeks off to do practically nothing. My life was seriously out of balance, and I paid the price for it. I learned an important lesson in the process. Perhaps some individuals can operate at a high level of physical or mental intensity for weeks, but the vast majority of people need to free their minds from work on a regular basis. In my experience, one does not necessarily need to take extraordinary steps to oscillate on the job. Perhaps the easiest way to oscillate is to engage in a variety of activities. Taking short breaks throughout the day to move around (away from one’s desk) is an important, regular recovery activity. When our brains grind endlessly, we lose our balance. Humans function much more effectively when we oscillate, and life is much more enjoyable. When we learn and practice oscillation, our recovery periods become rejuvenating. They enable us to return to work or to the challenging

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situation with new energy. Often when we relax, we find we are able to generate new, creative, and beneficial solutions. Downtime, relaxation, and recreation are critically important to productivity. It is unlikely that stress will diminish appreciably unless we take active steps to turn it off. Oscillation, therefore, is a process for us to undertake consciously, deliberately, and regularly. For many professional people, it may seem challenging to carve out time to relax or recreate. If this describes you, it may be necessary to start with small steps. Five minutes of deep breathing and stretching can do wonders to calm you. When I close my eyes and imagine myself in my favorite vacation spot in the mountains, I feel refreshed. A sidesplitting, knee-slapping laugh always enriches the soul. Of course, it is important to include lengthier periods of recreation. Activities that promote recovery are practically limitless—do whatever works for you.

Mastering the Physiology To a large extent, the events and conditions that we deem to be stressful do not cause us physical harm; rather, they may often involve a perceived loss of status or fear of a condition that may or may not happen. It is often helpful to recognize that our minds and bodies do not differentiate a real and immediate physical threat from one that is only possible or emotional in nature. We evolved for survival, and that meant summoning the fight-or-flight response on a moment’s notice when faced with an imminent physical threat, say, from an attacking animal. This response releases adrenaline to enable the mind to focus and the body to act dramatically. But when called upon too regularly, these physiological responses can wear us down and lead to self-defeating behaviors, including overeating. Assuming there is no imminent physical threat, one can take the perspective that what really causes us trouble is how we think about what we consider “stressful” events. It is not so much the event that is stressful but what we believe about the event. If that is the case, this recognition can dramatically help us to master situations that may have previously caused us distress. The Selected Bibliography has some great resources to help reframe these emotional stressors and in so doing provide a better sense of well-being.

Just Say No … Maybe If we are feeling stressed and overworked, chances are we have neglected caring for ourselves. If we then decide to create room in our busy schedules for recovery, something else has to give. To have recovery time, we must

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reduce or eliminate some other responsibility or commitment. We must say no. For many people, the prospect of saying no to a request or demand is problematic for a number of reasons. For our discussion, we will only address the perceived or real consequences of saying no to a responsibility on the job. There is no doubt that declining to accept an assignment or passing on a work opportunity can have unfortunate consequences for your job or career. If you feel stressed out, you may be tempted to automatically and forcefully say no to all new requests. I would recommend that you be judicious about which assignments you decline and to whom you say no. From a political and career perspective, some tasks are important to do even if they cause discomfort. Short of providing an explicit “no,” it is worthwhile to have an arsenal of responses that enable you to have some sense of control over your time so you can avoid over commitment. When you are presented with a new task that you really do not want, the following are a few responses to try as alternatives to saying no:  “Maybe.” Sometimes an emphatic “No!” can be perceived as inconsiderate and may irritate the requestor. Recognizing the validity of a suggestion can diffuse the potential for unwelcome consequences. A “maybe” also buys you some time to think about the request. Sometimes, upon further reflection, it becomes clear that you can find a way to follow through on the task.  “Someone should.” The value of this response is agreeing to the validity of or need for the request without committing yourself to it. Perhaps you can offer to find an appropriate person or alternative means to accomplish the task.  “What is the priority?” At times when my plate has been full, and a supervisor gave me a new duty, I responded by asking him to revisit my priorities: “Help me see where the new task fits in my list of responsibilities.” In most cases, the reordered priority list enabled doing the new task by eliminating another list item. Often, my boss was not aware that I had been performing so many tasks. At times, it is appropriate to say no, but it is always worth doing so in a diplomatic way. Providing reasonable explanations for your response will often demonstrate to coworkers that you value their suggestion or request.

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Take Care of Your Body As professionals, many of us lead our work lives almost entirely in our brains. It can become easy to neglect our physical well-being. Because we all inhabit bodies, we are all athletes in some fashion. No doubt you have heard how to achieve and maintain a fit and healthy body, so we will not belabor the point. Our bodies and minds function better when we eat well, exercise, get adequate rest, and avoid destructive behaviors. When our bodies function well, we have more energy to give to our work and to other parts of our lives.

Take Care of Life Outside Work We all have interests and commitments outside the office. Many of us are raising families, caring for elderly parents, or making contributions to the community. Some of us are continuing education to improve ourselves. Others enjoy hobbies or activities with friends. All these interests interact with our work. In recent years, companies have come to understand that it is impossible for professionals to draw an arbitrary line between what happens at the office and what happens at home. Many organizations provide some degree of flexibility for employees to address outside responsibilities and interests. Employees generally feel better when they have some degree of control over their schedule and environment to address concerns outside of work. As an engineering manager, it is important to recognize these needs for yourself as well as for the people who work for you. When you permit flexibility for your team members, they are more likely to be loyal, motivated, and productive.

Care for the Team … Carefully Many people spend more time with their coworkers than with their spouses, significant others, or children. We share many important and emotional experiences with those in adjoining cubicles. In many ways, associates at work become much like family members to us. In addition, many people derive a sense of community at the office, experiencing a sense of connectedness that may be lacking elsewhere in their lives. As a manager, it is important for you to pay attention to this connection and value it. It is worthwhile to recognize key events in the lives of workers and acknowledge that potentially strong emotions may be associated with these events. Be sure to celebrate achievements and happy events. Remember the

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Hawthorne studies—employees react dramatically to the interest shown by a supervisor. At the same time, your group at work is not a bona fide “family.” The nature of organizational relationships is a need for achievement, performance, and adequate profitability. At the end of the day, employment is a contract. Many people are painfully aware through layoffs and restructurings that the work “family” can fall apart or be shattered very easily. As a manager, you may also be in a position to make salary or employment decisions about colleagues. While it is important to nurture the spirit of the relationships with others at the office, remember that these relationships are foremost about work. One other way in which you can care for your associates is to model a healthy approach to work. Subordinates tend to mimic many of the work habits of the boss. If he is a workaholic and puts in twelve-hour days, his team members will likely believe he expects the same work ethic. If the manager sends and receives emails and text messages at any hour, perhaps subordinates will feel that is expected of them. Consider what effect these behaviors might have on the team and on their lives outside of work.

Care for the Heart and Soul Human beings have a fascinating and wonderful need to connect with higher endeavors. Perhaps these endeavors can be summed up in the single word love with its varied meanings. We are creatures with a “heart.” We need to experience approval for our accomplishments, but we also need to experience love that places no expectations on us. We desire companionship and intimacy, to express love and receive it. These areas sometimes cause our greatest joys, frustrations, and hurts as well as our most intense emptiness or fulfillment. We are also creatures with a “soul.” We seek activities that bring us meaning, in all its varied forms. We long to create, to contribute, to make a difference, and to leave a mark where we have trod. These actions nurture our souls and the souls of others; they animate and give meaning to life. Preferably we can work at a job that in some way nurtures our souls. Often in our busy world, we get so caught up in responsibilities that we neglect the soul. Consider this a gentle reminder to take steps, both at the office and away from it, to nurture your soul. Outside of work, it is relatively easy to find many and varied rewarding activities. On the job, it may seem a bit more difficult to find food for the soul. Consider that there is value and dignity in almost any job that does not involve illegal or immoral activity, and one can almost always find in it a

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higher purpose. There is a story told of three masons at the construction site for a grand cathedral. In turn, each was asked to describe his job. The first said gruffly without looking up that he was just laying bricks. The second replied that he was constructing a wall. With noticeable pride and enthusiasm, the third answered that he was building a great cathedral. Perhaps it is all a matter of perspective. Some people may encounter a time when they genuinely feel an urge to change jobs or even careers to follow the heart. I admire people who make significant changes in their lives to respond to such a calling. It is worthwhile to take stock to determine if we are following our dreams or our calling, because there is a feeling of profound peace when we find our place in the world. At the same time, searching for the elusive perfect job is often an exercise in futility. One does not have to find the cure for cancer or save the world from hunger to perform worthy work. A more typical professional or technological career can still nurture one’s soul and the souls of others. For many of us, major changes in direction are not warranted, but we can all seek to find a higher purpose in whatever we do. It is largely the attitude toward a job that either feeds or starves the soul. There are many ways to follow dreams, and, as the saying goes, we should bloom where we are planted.

Perspective and Priorities In several places in this book, we have addressed the need to identify and act on our priorities at work. In this chapter, we have also recognized that our lives at the office and away from it are intertwined and interdependent. If this is the case, we must also integrate larger issues of priorities with those at the office. Once I read a curious review of a business book that called upon the Roman philosopher Seneca and his essay “On the Shortness of Life.” The title tells you everything you need to know about the essay. The reviewer took the position that we could learn all we need to know about business by reflecting on Seneca’s essay. In short, awareness of our mortality causes us to prioritize our lives and get on with what is most important. We all have reminders of the shortness of life from time to time. Adversity catches up with everyone, perhaps through the death or serious illness of a loved one or the trauma of a community tragedy. We all know we are mortal, but sometimes the realization is more present than at others. These occasions serve to clarify priorities. It has been said that people at the end of their lives rarely wish they had worked harder. On the contrary, if they express a regret, it is for a broken

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relationship that was never mended, for time not spent with children, or for failing to “smell the roses.” This does not mean that what we do at work is without worth, for we derive great value from our labors; rather, it suggests how to order the varied and integrated priorities in our lives. It is also a reminder to not neglect our greater “work.” What, then, is our greater “work”? The particulars of the answer will differ for each person, and we all must seek our own answer. But the following is an excellent observation offered by author and rabbi Harold S. Kushner: Most people are not afraid of dying; they are afraid of not having lived … [I]t is not the prospect of death that frightens most people … What frightens them more is the dread of insignificance, the notion that we will be born and live and one day die and none of it will matter … [W]hat they desperately want is to live long enough to get it right, to feel that they have done something worthwhile with their lives, however long. [2]

It is such a perspective on our lives that enables us to address and set the priorities for our little-w “work” and how these priorities relate to our big-w “Work.” Often, we even find that ordering our greater priorities enables us to do our work with more of a sense of purpose.

Calm Confidence There is a calm confidence that comes when we accept ourselves, when we develop a workable response to stress, and when we find meaning and purpose in life. This calm confidence is not an elusive state of blissful enlightenment—millions of people live so on a daily basis. Our colleagues respond positively to such an air of calm confidence. On the other hand, they are likely to snub and even thwart people who project only pessimism. Either way, a person’s attitude often becomes a selffulfilling prophecy. When we project an air of calm confidence, we help put others at ease, and we invite cooperation. People are unlikely to cause you trouble when they perceive you are in control of your environment and your life. Work as an engineering manager is sometimes stressful and seemingly overwhelming. An important part of mastery in the transition is the management of the stress that goes with the job. Effective stress management is, in large part, the ability to turn off the stress and oscillate. If we cannot turn off the stress, it controls us; if we can turn it off, we’re back in control.

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When we live and work with a sense of meaning and purpose, we are naturally energized, and we can resist the emotional trauma that can come with adversity and excessive stress. Searching for and finding meaning is a worthwhile objective, but many times it comes in the most surprising places. An open mind and heart enable us to see what we sometimes miss when we are too busy and stressed. This is one of the best reasons to oscillate. As important as work is, it is often of lesser priority than the relationships and the major occasions that shape our lives. When we give ourselves room for life outside work and do the same for our coworkers, our work gains immeasurably in perspective, and we often become more energized and productive at work. If we wish to “take care of business,” then we must take care of ourselves and those around us. In this regard, charity really does begin at home.

References [1] Loehr, J. E., Stress for Success, New York: Random House, 1997. [2] Kushner, H. S., Living a Life That Matters: Resolving the Conflict Between Conscience and Success, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001, pp. 146–147.

Selected Bibliography Bernstein, A., The Myth of Stress: Where Stress Really Comes from and How to Live a Happier and Healthier Life, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010. Goewey, D. J., The End of Stress: Four Steps to Rewire Your Brain, New York: Atria, 2014. Greenberg, M., The Stress-Proof Brain: Master Your Emotional Response to Stress Using Mindfulness and Neuroplasticity, Oakland, CA: New Harbinger, 2016. McGonigal, K., The Upside of Stress: Why Stress Is Good for You, and How to Get Good at It, New York: Penguin Random House, 2015. Shannon, J., Don’t Feed the Monkey Mind: How to Stop the Cycle of Anxiety, Fear, and Worry, Oakland, CA: New Harbinger, 2017.

Principle 6: Taking It to the Next Level People continually strive for improvement and demand the same from their associates. Engineering managers are expected to constantly progress in their management skills. While it may seem tempting to rely entirely on the latest management fad or resort to more control over associates, innovation in management often comes about through a return to basics. In Chapters 33–35, we will examine how managers can take their work to the next level through …  Following prudent approaches to innovation by looking for constraints to success;  Facilitating overachievement and greatness among team members;  Returning often to the fundamentals of management.

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33 It Is Only Natural: Faster, Better, Cheaper To change and to change for the better are two different things. —German proverb

Takeaways  Organizations and their customers commonly seek dramatic breakthroughs that may be characterized as “faster, better, cheaper.”  Significant breakthroughs can be achieved if risks are understood and we keep our brains engaged. Problems often arise if breakthroughs are undertaken for posturing.  Systems approaches and constraints management typically provide significant improvements with little additional risk, but require the shift away from parochial thinking. It is curious to watch interviews of a team after they win the championship of their sport. Of course, there are celebrations and congratulations. But almost without fail, players and coaches offer an immediate commitment to repeat as champions in the next season. There seems to be a natural instinct to work toward the next challenge almost as soon as the previous one is conquered. A similar theme is evident in the business world. No matter that your product is wonderful, and no matter that your last project was completed months ahead of schedule and under budget, the organization will not let 335

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you rest on your laurels. Lest you get complacent, customers and executive management constantly cry: “Make it faster, better, and cheaper.” A dizzying pace of change defines business in the technological workplace. While incremental improvements in performance are welcome, often what is expected is a dramatic advancement. Everyone wants the breakthrough. Such attempts at improvement create stress as we collide with the limits of technical and human systems. As we saw in Chapter 32, improvement often requires that we stress the system, but what if the system already seems pressed to its limits? What if we stress the system so severely that we cause it to fail? As an engineer in transition, you will be called upon to deliver improvements both in technical systems and in organizational processes. You may be pressured by your organization into radical and ill-advised advancements. Such endeavors may be highly risky and stressful; they often end in failure. There are ways to keep your sanity and prudently succeed at innovation. Let us now become proficient at the dance of “faster, better, cheaper.”

Resolving the Dilemma In Chapter 18, we discussed the triple elements of a project as scope, schedule, and resources. Improvements in these three elements map directly into the triple goals of faster, better, and cheaper. For brevity and readability, we will occasionally refer to these triple goals with the acronym FBC. You may remember that when we discussed the triple project elements, we mentioned they were highly interactive. It seems intuitive that if we push to improve one element of the three, we are likely to have an unwelcome change in one of the other elements. Such is the nature of attempting to find an appropriate value point. An expansion of the scope of a project almost always leads to either a longer schedule or additional resources or both. We understand that faster service implies a higher cost; for example, overnight courier service costs more than standard mail. We also understand that when a task is performed at a substantially quicker pace or with dramatically reduced resources, quality often suffers. While incremental improvements may be possible, often what is required is a breakthrough to produce a real improvement without compromising other elements. How can we get past real or conceptual barriers to truly make improvements in schedule, quality, or resources? The short answer is that we must know what we are doing and keep our brains engaged. The leadership in many organizations expects that

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innovation in management processes can be called on by decree—the more dramatic the decree, the more impressive the innovation. While this recipe can work on occasion, it often results in misfortune. While the popular use of “faster, better, cheaper” and “FBC” is often traced to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as explained momentarily, we will use it generically. Whatever the terminology, there is often the pressure in organizations to make dramatic breakthroughs in these categories.

Change Must Be for the Better In 1997, NASA’s Pathfinder spacecraft landed on Mars and transmitted astonishing photographs of the Mars landscape, including evidence that the craft’s Sojourner Rover, a wheeled remote vehicle, had maneuvered successfully across the surface of the planet. The mission and its dramatic images attracted the interest of the public to a degree not seen since the manned moon landings. While the technological achievement was impressive, what made the feat more remarkable was that NASA had implemented a substantially leaner and more aggressive approach to missions than had been used in the past [1]. With this new lean and aggressive strategy, NASA wanted to demonstrate that space exploration could be accomplished at a reasonable cost [2]. As compared with the previous Mars mission in 1976, Pathfinder was developed in half the time and for less than ten percent of the cost when accounting for inflation [3]. The Pathfinder mission was a tremendous success, and it demonstrated that the FBC concept could work, even for a project as challenging as the landing of a spacecraft on Mars. The success of this mission made it appear that any challenging endeavor could be conquered under the FBC banner. Similar lean and aggressive management concepts were applied to two other Mars missions that reached the planet in 1999. But while the new aggressive FBC goals were applied, one goal remained unchanged from all prior missions: there could be no failure. The Mars Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander both arrived at the planet as expected. In each case, however, radio transmissions ceased unexpectedly and permanently; both spacecraft probably crashed. In the first mission, the failure was likely due to the inadvertent mixing of metric and English measurements resulting in an improper and catastrophic flight path [4]. In the other mission, it is believed that a combination of poor design, faulty wiring, and inadequate testing resulted in the early shutdown of the descent engine on the spacecraft. In both these missions, hindsight demon-

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strated that the lean and aggressive management plan had contributed to or caused the failures [5]. The seeming failure of the FBC management style for these missions caused a great deal of embarrassment for NASA, and many began to question the wisdom of this management approach [6]. While the Pathfinder program had been an unqualified success, the other two failures demonstrated the risky side of the FBC mantra. The benefits of dramatic breakthroughs are substantial, but the stress to the management system is also significant. A dramatically leaner and more aggressive approach may increase the risks of our endeavor so much as to invite failure. This is not a categorical criticism of FBC; rather, it is the recognition that the significant departures from prior business that come with FBC often introduce substantial risks. FBC is a reasonable strategy when we enter it with eyes open, and stakeholders are comfortable with the greater potential for failure. Because these two Mars missions were unmanned, failure was disappointing but not catastrophic. One analysis [7] demonstrated that for unmanned missions, the FBC approach is far better than the non-FBC strategy. This analysis compared sixteen NASA missions that followed the FBC strategy and one that adhered to conventional management. Only ten of the sixteen FBC projects were successful, but combined they cost less than the one successful conventional mission; just by raw numbers, the FBC missions produced ten times the knowledge. From this perspective, FBC is the overwhelming smart choice, but only when failure is acceptable.

Pushing the Envelope Prudently In many organizations, the FBC approach is initiated and maintained for political or theatrical reasons. It should be an indicator of trouble when it seems that proving the team proficiency with dramatic FBC becomes more important than the product or service to be delivered. One must be very careful when committing to endeavors that are wildly optimistic about intended accomplishments. What if the cost of failure is too dear to embrace FBC or something like it? Are there ways to make significant improvements without embarking upon radical measures? There are certainly cases of order of magnitude improvements in management processes. While these are relatively uncommon, they are always established on solid foundations and processes, not wishful thinking. It is much more reasonable to reach for incremental, yet still generous, progress. One should never disengage the brain or reasonable judgment when in pursuit of innovation.

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In all such endeavors, change for the sake of change is ill advised. Users of the product or service may not accept failures or defects; they typically have an expectation of benefits that cannot be compromised. Among the three goals of faster, better, and cheaper, there is always a fourth unstated and critical dimension of success: The product or service must be “good enough.” If the offering is not functional, it is useless no matter how much faster, better, or cheaper it may claim to be. There are a number of worthwhile ways to make improvements in management processes. In the remainder of this chapter, we will focus on one very broad and systematic problem-solving approach. In Chapter 34, we will discuss a second method that seeks to empower team members.

The Blessing and Curse of Specialization Centuries ago, skilled artisans provided products and services. These were individuals who would perform or oversee the complete delivery of the offering. Products or services were relatively simple, and it was easy for the artisan to understand the entire process of production and to see the effects of any changes in the process. With the Industrial Age and scientific management principles, production grew in complexity, and work was divided into parts that were assigned to different people. One person could not complete the entire production process, and only a few people understood it. People and components of organizations became specialized. With specialization, individuals focused on their specific task and began to lose sight of the overall nature of the organization or product. A side effect of this shift was that organizational components became territorial and uninterested in the needs of other components. This trend has, at times, led to unfortunate competition among units within an organization. Where organizational units would attempt improvement, their focus would be on the improvement of their own function. Unfortunately, such myopic improvements, while noble, often do little for the overall function of the organization.

Find the Bottleneck In previous years, my family took regular driving trips from our home in Texas to visit relatives in my birthplace of New Orleans, a drive that takes us along Interstate Highway 10 through Louisiana. After about six hours into the trip, we would almost always encounter stalled traffic on approach to the city of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. What caused the delay? All the eastbound traffic on I-10 had to funnel into one lane!

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This bottleneck was not the result of construction; a freeway interchange in Baton Rouge was designed and built for this constrictive traffic pattern. It remained this way for decades, and we typically lost thirty minutes or more because of this bottleneck. The pain of the delay was compounded by the presence of three young children in the minivan, who by this point of the trip were tired of traveling. Unfortunately, there were no suitable alternate routes to avoid the backlog. Curiously, a project to add a fourth lane in each direction of the freeway was completed about five miles further down the road. While this lane addition was a nice improvement at that location, the upgrade did nothing to improve our overall drive time. The money used for the lane addition project would have been much better spent adding another lane where there was only one. Technical and organizational systems often have bottlenecks. Overall improvement can only be made when there is improvement at the bottleneck—improvements elsewhere may or may not improve the overall functionality of the system. Worse, in some systems, our attempts at improvement may result in inadvertent, unwelcome outcomes. To be aware of bottlenecks and to make breakthroughs in performance, we must look at the entire system. In our specialized world, however, each business unit goes about improving its own area without regard for the rest of the system. Such improvement may be nice, but what about the unit responsible at the bottleneck? Perhaps it can make improvements on its own, but more than likely, it needs the help or resources of other units to make dramatic changes.

Constraints Management Part textbook and part novel, Dr. Eliyahu M. Goldratt’s The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement [8] explores the concept of constraints management (CM). While this theory was initially applied to a production environment, it has since been expanded to management processes, such as project management. Here is the foundation of the CM approach: One can look at any system and observe that its functionality will be limited by certain constraints or limitations. Typically, there will be one specific component—the bottleneck—that limits the system’s overall function. One cannot improve the system unless one improves performance, or relaxes constraints, at the bottleneck. In our example of Interstate 10, the constraint on system performance is the bottleneck where all traffic must merge into one lane.

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A key element of this approach is the focus on the goal of the system, hence the title of Dr. Goldratt’s book. Specialists have lost sight of the value of the product of the system; we must return to understanding the overall system purpose to hope for improvement. Only then can the resources and creativity of the organization be directed to solve issues that will result in any improvement, dramatic or modest, in the system’s overall function. As an example of the approach of constraints management, let us consider a production system [9] such as the electronics module assembly line depicted in Figure 33.1. In this figure, there is a path for assembly of module A, a path for assembly of module B, and the two modules are then combined at a final assembly station. In this example, of all the stations, Station 2 takes the longest time for assembly. The production rate at this station can be no more than three units per hour. Because of Station 2, the final product can only be produced at the rate of three units per hour even though the other stations can operate at a rate of six units per hour. Notice that an improvement in throughput at any of the Stations 1, 3, 4, or 5 does nothing to improve the overall production rate. The people at Station 5, for example, could make a dramatic improvement in their operation, reducing final assembly time to, say, five minutes. While their effort may be heroic and commendable, they have done nothing to improve the rate at which the product is fabricated. In an organization where departments compete with one another, it may be tempting for the people at Station 5 to cast blame toward the people at Station 2; however, the people at Station 2 are not necessarily slow or unproductive—we only know that this operation, as it is currently performed,

Figure 33.1  Example of production bottleneck.

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is the bottleneck. The throughput of this product will not improve without a change in operation at Station 2; the entire operation is constrained by Station 2. This example also demonstrates that the risk in the production of the electronics system is dominated by the operation at Station 2. Minor delays at the other stations have relatively little, if any, effect on the overall production rate. But delays at Station 2 will definitely slow the overall production rate. While CM is readily understood for production, the concepts can also be applied to management processes such as project management. Let us now look at Figure 33.2, which is the same Gantt chart used in Chapter 18. If you will remember, the critical path is the longest path through the network and the one that has the greatest impact on overall schedule. If the critical path slips, the overall schedule slips as well. In essence, the critical path is the bottleneck in project management. Critical path tasks are also important because they hold the highest risk for the overall success of the project in meeting its schedule. Trouble with these tasks can threaten the entire project. Further examination of the critical path may uncover room for schedule improvements, or one may be able to identify ways to make slack or buffer in the tasks to reduce risks to the project. An important element of constraints management is the guideline that all other concerns of the operation are subordinate to the improvement of the bottleneck. In our Interstate 10 example, an addition of a lane where only one lane existed should have been the highest priority. In the electronics production example, if we wish to improve throughput, our highest priority should be analysis of the operation at the station with the bottleneck. While common sense enables us to see the value of improving the operation at the bottleneck, this element can be the most challenging component of CM to implement in an organization. In our electronics plant, will the manager of the final assembly operation be willing to forego her entire discretionary budget so that the manager of Station 2 can improve the throughput of his operation? A fundamental change in the operations, values, and policies can be required for leaders and employees to literally subordinate all other concerns in order to improve the constraint [10].

Other Approaches As we mentioned earlier in this chapter, there are a number of valuable management methodologies for making dramatic improvements in business processes, and constraints management is but one of them. Managers should be careful about following any methodology dogmatically; rather, they should prudently apply the appropriate approach for the situation. It

Figure 33.2  Sample Gantt chart with critical path.

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may even be wise not to refer to a specific methodology by name, because some have earned a poor reputation due to improper application. Thankfully, these various approaches are often similar in nature but operate on variations of a theme—they are typically holistic or systemic in their quest for improvement. The following are a few other popular approaches to process improvement:  Reengineering. It is sometimes helpful to redesign an existing process from scratch to optimize its performance. Reengineering involves examining, designing, and then implementing a business function with a blank canvas with little consideration of how it is currently done. A common adjective associated with reengineering is the word radical because it can create upheaval in organizations that have become accustomed to the existing process.  Systems engineering. Where reengineering involves existing processes, systems engineering typically involves new processes or products. It is a subject familiar to many engineers, and it encompasses consideration of the totality of a system. This methodology is highly interdisciplinary and focuses on customer needs early in the development cycle.  Quality management. Quality management is an orientation to provide products or services that are pleasing and valuable to customers. Its aim is excellence. Customer focus is a key ingredient of this methodology, so it typically involves organizing work in whatever manner is most beneficial to the customer. Quality management includes the principles of continuous or incremental improvements as well as breakthrough improvements.  Process modeling. Just as with engineering systems, business processes can be simulated or modeled. Process modeling can be used with any of the other improvement methodologies for analysis, study, and scenario planning to work toward optimization.  Agile. The agile moniker refers to a software project-management methodology based on multiple iterations toward a product, and each iteration produces working code. Agile better accommodates the scope changes that commonly occur on such projects. There is a trend toward applying agile principles to non-software projects.  Lean. The lean category refers to a philosophy to minimize or eliminate waste, whether in manufacturing, construction, product development, or other applications.

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Systems Thinking Upon reflection, one can see a definitive theme in this chapter of systems thinking; indeed, it is often when we shift our focus from “the trees” to the big picture “forest” that we can better see opportunities for dramatic improvements. This strategy is commonly called systems thinking. There are a number of great tools to facilitate systems thinking, particularly in groups; see the Selected Bibliography for helpful resources in these areas. Often the most impressive advances come when we examine our most basic assumptions—or conventional wisdom—and think creatively about alternatives. The term mental model is another way to describe an assumption or belief; it is our mental construct for the meaning of a concept or how something works. In The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook [10], Peter Senge offers a great example of how identifying and examining a mental model can dramatically change an outcome. He relates a common workshop exercise that assigns participants in pairs for arm wrestling. The facilitator states that “winning” involves bringing their opponent’s arm to the table and asks them to “win” as many times as they can in fifteen seconds. Most people will engage in a struggle, with each participant trying to push their opponent’s arm down while resisting and not allowing their own to fall. A few clever pairs, however, will briefly look at each other, then spend fifteen seconds flipping their arms back and forth without any attempts to resist. These participants quickly decided that the mental model of “winning” did not mean that only one person in the pair could win. Are there opportunities to examine your mental models for dramatic improvements in your work? The most successful approach to FBC comes when we harvest the lowhanging fruit—the most readily achievable and least risky improvements. These opportunities can produce dramatic improvements in themselves. Harvesting this low-hanging fruit requires that we understand our system and identify constraints or bottlenecks. To do so also requires that the organizational leadership enable and support organizational units as they work cooperatively on this agenda. The components of the organization must be willing to see and optimize the big picture; they must be led to do so and rewarded for doing so. Here again, meaningful and effective mission, values, and objective statements will help, as will healthy communications and teamwork. But perhaps what is most needed is an organizational commitment to focus energy on those issues that most hinder improvement. Faster, better, cheaper is a worthwhile objective when approached prudently because our customers will always expect us to improve. In our quest to become better, we must be certain to deliver the most fundamental

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expectations for the product or service. Engineers, and particularly industrial engineers, have much to offer to the objective of FBC because many engineers have been schooled and experienced in studying and optimizing systems. Systems thinking is necessary to make progress toward breakthroughs because a system is only as fast or as good as its most prominent bottleneck. Perhaps the most revolutionary idea for identification of the bottleneck is to consider our own assumptions and mental models and to challenge what we consider to be conventional or accepted wisdom. A fresh perspective or way to view a problem is often the fastest, best, and cheapest way to the outcome we seek.

References [1] Kluger, J., “Uncovering the Secrets of Mars,” Time, Vol. 150, No. 2, July 14, 1997. [2] Muirhead, B. K. and W. L. Simon, High Velocity Leadership: The Mars Pathfinder Approach to Faster, Better, Cheaper, New York: HarperBusiness, 1999. [3] Jaroff, L., “The Last Time We Saw Mars,” Time, Vol. 150, No. 2, July 14, 1997. [4] Sawyer, K., “Mystery of Climate Orbiter Solved,” Washington Post, October 1, 1999, p. A1. [5] Carreau, M., “Panel Blames NASA Chiefs in Mars Snafu,” Houston Chronicle, March 28, 2000. [6] Carreau, M., “2 Failures Will Be Felt at NASA,” Houston Chronicle, December 6, 1999. [7] Teitel, A. S., “Should NASA Reconsider the ‘Faster, Better, Cheaper’ Approach to Exploring Mars?” Vintage Space, March 6, 2012, �https://vintagespace.wordpress.com/2012/03/. [8] Goldratt, E. M. and J. Cox, The Goal: A Process of Ongoing Improvement, Third Edition, New York: Routledge, 2016. [9] Cox, J. F. III and M. S. Spencer, The Constraints Management Handbook, Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press, 1998, p. 57. [10] Senge, P. M., The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization, New York: Currency, 1994.

Selected Bibliography Anderson, V. and L. Johnson, Systems Thinking Basics: From Concepts to Causal Loops, Acton, MA: Leverage Networks, 1997.

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Blanchard, B. S. and W. J. Fabrycky, Systems Engineering and Analysis, Fifth Edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Meadows, D. H., Thinking in Systems: A Primer, White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2008. Senge, P. M., The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization, Revised Edition, New York: Currency, 2006.

CHAPTER

34 High-Performance Teams: Can You Stand the Fun? Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. —Ralph Waldo Emerson

Takeaways  High-performance teams are typically composed of “ordinary” people who discover and express extraordinary talents, usually when evoked by an exceptional leader.  To promote greatness in a team, a manager must eliminate typical organizational obstacles, and this often means buffering the team from the organization.  Great groups are fueled by curiosity and a belief that anything is possible. The Beatles stand as the most important musical act of the past half-century. Yet had it not been for their collaboration with Sir George Martin, commonly referred to as the “fifth Beatle,” the group may never have become more than an obscure nightclub act. Several record labels had rejected the group, and when Martin, the head of EMI’s Parlophone label, auditioned the group in 1962, he was likewise unimpressed with their musical abilities: “They played me all their stuff, and I didn’t think any of it was any good” [1]. He nevertheless signed

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them to a contract because, “... they had great personalities. They had a great way with them, and they charmed me a great deal” [2]. Martin went on to produce all but one of the group’s recordings. The collaboration between the Beatles and Martin was sheer genius and boldly innovative. The Beatles became such looming figures in music in large part because Martin nurtured and evoked greatness in them. As an engineering manager, you are in many ways the George Martin for your team of Beatles. Your team will typically be composed of young and talented (but raw) individuals. On your shoulders will be the responsibility to nurture and evoke greatness from them. If this seems like a daunting task, you are very perceptive. Thankfully, we can learn much from the experiences of groups that succeeded at worthy accomplishments. There are teams that are incredibly gifted and accomplished, and many of these have been immortalized and celebrated publicly. It is much more likely that your group will be closer to average, and your job will be to lead them to overachieve—to discover and express greatness that they did not realize was within. To participate in a high-performance team is an incredible rush. There is a vigor and passion about the work that literally pulls people into the office each day. Companies would dearly love to capture the quicksilver that drives high-octane teams. While there is a great deal of serendipity involved in the life of a really great team, the ingredients that facilitate overachievement are readily available to all of us. If this quicksilver is readily available, why are more companies not able to call on it? To truly achieve, teams must have a great deal of control over their work, and most organizations are unwilling to hand over this much control. Transfer of control does not mean anarchy, for one function of the leader is to ensure the team’s work has direction, relevance, and usefulness to the organization and its customers. In your role as engineering manager, you will be called upon to elicit greatness from every team you lead. Of course, some will do better than others. How can you improve your batting average? In this chapter, we will discuss the ingredients that help turn an average team into a great one. If you are ready for some fun, welcome to the highperformance team.

Groups That Achieve I have been fortunate to be part of three high-performance teams in my career. The first was my graduate research group, and it had the greatest effect of the three. I had performed well as an undergraduate, but under the

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direction of an entrepreneurial faculty advisor, Don Russell, and a group of superior students, I found talents within that I never dreamed existed. “None of us is as smart as all of us” [3]. So begins the seminal book, Organizing Genius, by leadership experts Warren Bennis and Patricia Ward Biederman. They studied and identified the common themes of a number of “Great Groups,” including the teams from the Manhattan Project, the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, and the Apple Macintosh. Their leadoff quote elucidates the fundamental, if not entirely obvious, first point about great teams. It is not the individuals who are great; it is the collaboration that spurs the greatness. When we team well with other people, we become part of something greater than ourselves, greater than any of us individually and greater than the sum of our contributions. One finding by Bennis and Biederman resonates with my own experience: “The best thing the leader can do for a Great Group is allow its members to discover their own greatness” [4]. In my graduate school group, I found skills, confidence, and perseverance I never knew existed within me. This is a critical point: Great groups do not begin that way. It is much more likely that an engineering manager will start a project with a team of relatively average people. Should the manager just expect average results? Many groups that appear to be “average” can accomplish great things, given an environment in which they can flourish, because talent wants and needs to exercise itself [5]. When “average” teams discover how to release their talents effectively, they can become great teams.

Following the Vision Bennis and Biederman found that a meaningful dream is at the heart of all great groups; likewise, a common element of these groups is a leader who is a “pragmatic dreamer.” It is not enough to aspire to a vision; it is critical that the vision is useful. The leader and the team members come to see the attainment of the vision as critically important. As we mentioned previously, it is important that individuals working in a team have a mission and objectives that are clear and meaningful to them. While it is necessary and important to describe goals in technical or functional terms, these alone do not provide the emotional energy that animates people to stretch their limits and give their best. The vision fuels the achievement.

Removing Unnecessary Rules and Micromanagement One ingredient to improving the performance of a team is to give its members a great deal of autonomy and responsibility. People who work well in

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high-performance teams are self-directed toward the vision. It is achieving the vision that counts; whatever hinders the achievement is to be overcome. It is for this reason that organizational rules are mostly irrelevant to high-performance teams. In their determination to find a path to the dream, they are unconcerned with noses that may get out of joint along the way. As we will see, it is often better to locate a high-performance team away from the organization, in part to avoid conflicts over organizational rules. Because they break rules, high-performance teams can be perceived to be threatening to their organizations. For this reason, while many organizations claim to aspire to greatness, the reality is that they block people from achieving it. Individuals who are inclined to achieve get disgusted and give up, or they move on. If the leaders of an organization are serious about accomplishing great things, they must be willing to allow the team members to buck the rules of the organization. High-performance teams should not necessarily have carte blanche to run roughshod over policies, however. Organizations should be clear about which rules are sacrosanct. In many cases, the limits are in place for a good reason. In a similar way, achieving individuals chafe over micromanagement. Micromanagement represents mistrust of the professional capabilities and judgment of these individuals.

Play with a Purpose The collaboration in high-performance teams is productive largely because it is built on “play.” This term does not describe involvement in games but the process of using knowledge and tools in new, innovative, and even mischievous ways. Such expert play is serious in its objective but stimulating and professionally amusing in its process. It is the fusion of sport with purpose. The organizing theme is the worthy objective, but it is fulfilled through a process of discovery. The road to discovery often leads first through uncharted territory. It is as if greatness can only be achieved by discarding or even demolishing the limitations of existing systems and conventional wisdom. “Many Great Groups are fueled by an invigorating, completely unrealistic view of what they can accomplish. Not knowing what they can’t do puts everything in the realm of the possible” [6]. Essentially, members of such groups are tinkerers fueled by curiosity. Many members of great teams are young. The curiosity and seeming invincibility of young individuals certainly fit into the personality of highperformance groups. Perhaps as we progress in our careers, we become weighed down with responsibilities and concerns, and we become less

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willing to take on the risks of breaking through limits. At any stage in our careers, we can overcome perceived limits and overachieve. I participated in my second high-performance team in my late thirties and my third such team in my mid-forties. Not only that, but some of my most innovative work has been done in my late fifities and early sixties. Returning to the Beatles, many people recognize their Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album as the group’s magnum opus. This album incorporated radical departures from contemporary mainstream music. As Martin recounts, the album’s genius came about not by plan, but only because the band members and he had followed their curiosity [7]. What was true for the Beatles can be true for any other team with members who have raw talent and curiosity. The path of discovery can lead to greatness.

The Most Important Person We have already mentioned in this book that the immediate manager is the most important person to an employee in an organization. As an engineering manager, it is highly likely you will be the direct supervisor for one or more employees. It is, therefore, important that you understand and act on the practices that support good worker motivation and achievement. In its Project Oxygen, Google sought to reliably identify effective behaviors of good managers. They did so by crunching massive amounts of data, some of it quantitative, such as employee turnover, with other elements of more qualitative data. Based on this data, Google determined that a good manager … 1. Is a good coach; 2. Empowers the team and does not micromanage; 3. Expresses interest in and concern for team members’ success and well-being; 4. Is productive and results-oriented; 5. Communicates well; 6. Assists career development; 7. Offers a clear team vision and strategy; 8. Demonstrates key technical skills that help him or her lead the team [8].

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In short, these qualities represent a commonsense approach to management; they recognize and respect the talents and interests of employees.

Skunk Works: Made for the High-Performance Team The requirements of wartime often have a way of conquering the inefficiencies in management. In 1943, the United States learned of German plans to produce a fighter plane based on a new concept engine. At that time, the propeller engine was state of the art; the development of the jet engine could gain Germany vast air superiority. A crash program was required to overtake the enemy. The War Department gave Lockheed the project to develop a prototype jet fighter on an incredible schedule—6 months—when the typical development time would have been several years. The job of managing the effort was given to Clarence L. “Kelly” Johnson, a young man with a reputation for no-nonsense achievement. Johnson located his team of twenty-three engineers in a Spartan environment—a tent at the Lockheed facility in Burbank, California. Located adjacent to a putrid plastics factory, the group came to call itself the “Skunk Works” after a foul-smelling still in the L’il Abner comic strip. Johnson and his team pulled off the impossible—the project was completed in 143 days! Their F-80 became the first jet fighter to fly. The accomplishments of the Skunk Works were so remarkable that the group has remained a permanent part of Lockheed and is responsible for many of the company’s advanced projects. They have completed a succession of notable achievements, including the U-2 and SR-71 spy planes and the F-117A stealth fighter. The Skunk Works concept has been copied by many other organizations, and it serves as a great technique to accomplish many of the practices we have identified in this chapter. Development teams that operate in a skunk works environment often produce results considerably faster, at lower cost, and with higher quality than conventional approaches. A skunk works embodies several characteristics. The project team is chosen to include proven achievers, and they are given aggressive and clear goals to achieve. Distractions are removed from the team, and the team is moved to a new location for the duration of the project. Team members work on only the one project for the duration of the time they are needed. Finally, team members are given a high degree of autonomy and responsibility for meeting the project objectives. As mentioned earlier, it is very difficult for many organizations to truly allow this high level of delegated control and autonomy in a work team.

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It is, in large part, for this reason that many teams are never allowed the opportunity for greatness.

Nurturing Greatness From my experience with high-performance teams, I believe that most professional people, as Bennis and Biederman state, want to express their talents and accomplish great things. Many times, the politics and arbitrary rules of organizations stifle these individuals along with their creativity and motivation. In other cases, some people have never achieved because no one ever expected them to achieve. While only a few teams are truly exceptional, nearly every team can accomplish great things if they are allowed and led to do so. This does not mean that anyone is readily capable of being a high achiever. I have known a number of individuals at work who totally resist any prodding to press their limits. Most are productive employees, but they do not belong in a high-performance setting. Occasionally, a manager may encounter a “team buster.” This term generally describes someone who exhibits highly selfish and negative behaviors in a team setting. In my experience, the other members naturally ostracize a team buster, but it is often up to the leader to present the individual with a choice—engage in team-building behavior or leave the team. I have only encountered one or two team busters in my career. On the other hand, I have worked with a number of people whom I would call underachievers—individuals who are neither selfish nor negative, but who nevertheless markedly impede the progress of an otherwise high-performance team. For a variety of reasons, their level of contribution is far below that of the rest of the group, and other team members become frustrated. While it is important to address each situation individually and work toward improvement, in my experience the appropriate solution is to find a graceful exit point for the underachiever. If underachievers linger for too long, they may drag down the performance of the rest of the group. It may not be feasible or appropriate to nurture a truly great group or skunk works for every project. It is, nevertheless, possible to creatively incorporate some aspects of these within the limitations of the organizational setting. It is worthwhile to have team members block off specific times to work on the project without interruption. You may also be able to identify a special place for team members to get away—perhaps even little-used storage space. A regular meeting at a nearby coffee shop can serve the same purpose. It is always important to have clear goals and as much freedom to achieve as possible.

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A manager should recognize that high achievers often need some downtime after the conclusion of a demanding effort. A demanding project requires a substantial commitment of energy on the part of its members, and they often need to recharge before moving on to the next challenge. This downtime is critical for an achiever to perform well on the next project. One might expect that a proven achiever would demonstrate exceptional prowess on every project. There is a counterintuitive concept in statistics called “regression toward the mean” that refers to the experience that a spectacular performance is likely to be followed by one that is closer to average. Do not be surprised if an individual who appears superhuman on one project becomes a mere mortal on the next. To facilitate continued achievement, give the superheroes a break. After George Martin’s first encounter with the Beatles, no one could have predicted the improbable and exceptional outcome of their collaboration. Your initial days as leader of an engineering team are likely to be much the same—while your team can accomplish great things, it will probably be just average unless you help them discover their greatness. There is much that you and your organization can do to tip the balance toward achievement. It requires that you create a managerial environment in which your people can express their talents without disruption and without unnecessary interference. Your role as engineering manager is to set the tone for achievement, create clear goals, and protect your team from distractions and meddling. You must also ensure the work of the team is directed toward the needs of the customer as embodied in the project goals. There is something serendipitous and elusive about excellence in teams. Greatness can be nurtured but resists being forced, because the individuals involved must choose to pour themselves into the endeavor. Team members must find personal meaning in the endeavor to fuel the energy needed—it is this meaning that provides the motivation that leads to greatness. In the end, the Beatles grew weary of one another and the demands that fame placed on their lives. High-performance teams are both incredibly fun and very draining; it is hard to keep up the energy level indefinitely. The performance of almost any team can be improved with the concepts discussed in this chapter. There is a bit of magic and luck associated with a high-performance team; one cannot produce greatness on demand. But if you have the honor of participating in a great team, it is an experience to be savored throughout your career.

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References [1] Pritchard, D. and A. Lysaght, The Beatles: An Oral History, New York: Hyperion, 1998, p. 98. [2] Ibid. pp. 97–98. [3] Biederman, P. W. and W. G. Bennis, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration, Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 1998, p. 1. [4] Ibid, p. 27. [5] Ibid, p. 29. [6] Ibid, p. 15–16. [7] Pritchard and Lysaght, op cit. [8] Garvin, D. A., “How Google Sold Its Engineers on Management,” Harvard Business Review, Vol. 91, No. 12, December 2013, pp. 74–82.

Selected Bibliography Buckingham, M. and C. Coffman, First, Break All the Rules: What the World’s Greatest Managers Do Differently, New York: Gallup Press, 2016. Collins, J. and M. T. Hansen, Great by Choice: Uncertainty, Chaos, and Luck–Why Some Thrive Despite Them All, New York: HarperCollins, 2011. Gostick, A. and C. Elton, The Best Team Wins: The New Science of High Performance, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018. Yaeger, D, Great Teams: 16 Things High Performing Organizations Do Differently, Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2016.

CHAPTER

35 Tending the Garden: Growing as a Manager The rung of a ladder was never meant to rest upon, but only to hold a man’s foot long enough to enable him to put the other somewhat higher. —Thomas Henry Huxley

Takeaways  Proficiency in management and leadership come about largely by returning to the six basic principles presented in this book.  While it is tempting to apply a “silver bullet” approach to management, it is important to keep our brains engaged.  Work and the practice of management are human endeavors. To become a better manager, become a better human. From time to time I have engaged in vegetable gardening as a hobby. Storebought produce pales in comparison to the flavor of carrots, tomatoes, or corn fresh from the garden. Knowing one’s own labor brought the harvest makes the produce taste even better. When we built our current home, we were eager to start a garden, so we built a bed in the most obvious spot for one behind our garage. When spring came, we eagerly planted tomatoes and other vegetables and counted the days until harvest. As we tended the garden over the spring, we were puzzled that the vegetables were developing slowly. Tomatoes that should have been large and numerous by June were few and puny. 359

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We finally realized we had neglected one of the basic tenets of vegetable gardening: Locate the garden in a spot that receives full sun throughout the day. The spot we had chosen for the garden only received about five hours of sun a day, too little for plants to thrive. Much of the success in vegetable gardening comes from dependably ensuring fundamental ingredients are present: plenty of sun, good soil, and adequate water. Take care of these, and you can expect a harvest. Growing as a manager is much like tending a garden. By faithfully and patiently following some fundamental guidelines, you will likely reap a good harvest. To continue to succeed and improve as a manager, keep returning to the basics. As we mentioned at the beginning of this book, most engineers will spend the majority of their careers in management, and most are frustrated with the challenges of the transition. In large part, I believe this happens because no one ever explained to them the realities of working with people in an organization. When a manager can understand and act on these realities, the transition can be successful and rewarding. In this chapter, we will summarize the major principles in this book and close with some observations on how to grow as a manager by frequently returning to the basics and by keeping humanity in the business.

The Six Principles In this book, we identify six fundamental principles for an individual to focus on and gain in skill as he or she transitions into management. Doing so will substantially improve one’s success as a manager and, accordingly, increase satisfaction with the position. These principles are open-ended; no one ever fully masters them. Growth as a manager really involves returning to these principles on a regular basis. We will now briefly summarize these principles. Here is your crib sheet for the entire book: Mastering Relationships Business is about people, and the health and effectiveness of relationships with associates in large part makes or breaks your success as a manager. This principle is the most important one of the six listed here. Managers master relationships by …  Always acting on the belief that issues involving people are the most critical ones to address.  Recognizing and accommodating personalities and idiosyncrasies of others.

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 Understanding genuine motivation and how to engage it.  Releasing control wisely.  Valuing customers.  Leading effectively.  Negotiating conflict.  Demonstrating skill in team relationships.  Playing politics well.  Collaborating effectively with peers and superiors.

Seeing the Big Picture Another important transition principle is the ability to think and act globally in a business. As engineers, we may have focused on a narrow area of work. As a manager, one must accommodate and integrate diverse interests and considerations, all toward the objective of the financial health of the business. To see the big picture, the manager …  Recognizes that organizations run on money, so work must be oriented toward a profit objective.  Approaches the organization as a system.  Learns to plan effectively.  Develops skill in integrating the needs of varied constituencies and constraints in solving problems and achieving objectives.  Looks for opportunities to pursue.

Getting Things Done A manager is judged in large measure by the completion of valuable work, especially well-completed projects. It is important to master skills in project management, and these skills depend a great deal on effective communication and clear objectives. The implementation of good processes, including those for delegation, meeting management, and decision making, all promote progress. Getting things done also means learning to manage risks and avoiding trouble, as well as extricating from trouble when it appears. Of course, good management is not only about getting things done, but getting the right things done.

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To get the right things done, managers …  Implement effective processes that lead to desirable outcomes.  Develop and apply proficiency in managing projects well.  Master delegation of tasks.  Ensure meetings are productive and rewarding.  Apply fitting and robust decision-making approaches.  Plan for trouble with appropriate risk-management practices.

Communicating Effectively Managers spend a lot of time in communication. In addition to recognizing the importance of people, effective communication is a critical skill in the transition to management. The manager must become an efficient clearinghouse for information in the organization. It is helpful to learn and practice good interpersonal communications skills, but, most notably, he or she must make messages simple and clear. To communicate effectively, a manager …  Seeks understanding, agreement, and action.  Recognizes that communication is an essential and major part of the job, and therefore facilitates good communication in the organization.  Delivers messages that are clear, succinct, appropriate, and engaging.

Using Assets Wisely The entire purpose of an organization can be summed up as the use of assets to perform a useful function on information or materials in a manner that adds value and generates income. When assets are used well, the business flourishes, and it is rewarding for all involved. Managers can use assets wisely by …  Resolving tradeoffs in a manner that reflects the core beliefs of the business.  Using financial and material assets to generate profit for the business.  Managing time well by managing priorities well.  Developing team members’ talent.

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 Nurturing motivation in associates.  Ensuring their words, actions, and image match the role.  Taking care of themselves and their own motivation.

Taking It to the Next Level Organizations and people do not stand still. The completion of each stage of work and each success suggests it is time to start the next project and to improve on what was previously done. Managers will always be expected to take their work to the next level, and can do so by …  Taking wise and productive approaches to innovation.  Leading teams to overachieve and strive for excellence.  Continually returning to the basics of management. Now that we have summarized the six principles in the book, I would like to talk about some of the major challenges in the practice of management in an organization. When we address these and other challenges, we should return to the six basic principles for insight and guidance.

Keeping Our Brains Engaged One of the biggest challenges in management is resisting the urge to have a mechanistic view of people, relationships, and organizations. This problem is not unique to engineers; it plagues nearly everyone. We dearly long for a deterministic understanding of how associates and organizations operate so we can reliably predict that “cause A” will produce “desired effect B.” History shows us that people and the organizations they inhabit are far more complex and unpredictable than we wish. All is not lost, however, because we do know certain ingredients promote organizational success, and we have discussed many of them in this book. The point is that management, as with any other professional discipline, requires that we keep our brains engaged. When we look for the quick fix, or the deterministic answer, we often create unintended results or look ridiculous. There is now a substantial industry of popular management thought and concepts that is disseminated through books, consulting, blogs, podcasts, and other means. This has been a great development because it enables the dissemination of management knowledge and wisdom to more people. On the other hand, many of the concepts may come across as recipes and

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have led to faddish behaviors in business. The blind application of the latest management fads has caused people to do things that make no sense at all. Several years ago, I had a brief consulting project with a major technology company. I visited one of its manufacturing facilities and was given a tour. The tour included a trip to the parking lot where my host pointed to a tractor-trailer. “It is full of parts,” he said. “When we need some for production, we just walk out and get what we need.” The tractor-trailer (and its contents) was owned by a vendor. My client had initiated a just-in-time (JIT) inventory control program for materials from its vendors. The JIT approach provides for the tight coordination of vendor deliveries with production needs so as to minimize the inventory on hand. Inventory that sits around is an unproductive asset, so the purpose of JIT is to reduce costs. When done well, JIT can offer substantial cost savings. My client only wanted parts to show up at the door when they were needed and to pay for them when used. The vendor apparently concluded it was too much trouble to coordinate its deliveries with the client’s production needs. So perhaps every few months, the vendor would deliver a new trailer full of parts. In the process, the vendor was flushing away a lot of money by having a truckload of its inventory sitting in a parking lot. My host commented that the vendor was no doubt passing along the inventory costs to my client. What a ludicrous approach to just-in-time inventory control! The vendor missed the whole point of JIT and missed a golden opportunity to reduce costs. Funny things happen when we disengage our brains from management.

The Lure of the Silver Bullet A management fad takes on the appearance of a “silver bullet.” Originally, the expression referred to the implement of justice used by the fictional hero, the Lone Ranger. The term has come to mean a methodology that is magically proficient at solving any problem. While many people emphatically state there is no silver bullet, they still act as if one existed. Management fads fuel this belief with the promise of spectacular results to just about any organizational malady. Why do people continue to hope in the silver bullet? The simple answer is that we crave what is simple. We are overloaded with information and sources that demand our attention. We are pressed to make sense of ambiguous contexts, make decisions, and take action. It is only natural that we would want the silver bullet.

Humanizing a Business: What Is Old Is New

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To solve this conundrum, we return to a basic truth of management that we discussed in Chapter 30. We repeat a recent suggestion as well: In a chaotic world, the most important resources for an organization are the creativity and motivation of its people. Even in a crazy world, human beings can accomplish remarkable feats and overcome daunting obstacles when they are motivated to do so. We need to see that people keep their brains engaged. “There is no silver bullet, but there are Lone Rangers who have arsenals of bullets for different situations” [1]. The principles that underlie management fads are usually excellent and beneficial, but they can fail when we attempt to apply them blindly as prescriptions. Human beings, alternatively, can adapt to changing circumstances and apply techniques that are appropriate to the situation.

Humanizing a Business: What Is Old Is New Another major challenge for managers is the issue of relinquishing control to subordinates—inherently, the issue is one of trust. In many cases, managers want to create reliability and predictability to the organizational processes. They also want to eliminate opportunities for mistakes by subordinates. In these attempts to structure work, however, managers sometimes constrict the actions of workers to an excessive degree. By eliminating mistakes, they also eliminate the opportunity for creative thought and problem solving. As we discussed in Chapter 4, the Hawthorne studies from the 1920s represent a watershed in management science from seemingly long ago. These studies developed some of the fundamental insights into the relationship of people and work. But do they still have relevance, and can they still teach us insights today in our “enlightened” managerial world? The world of manufacturing and management as we know it today is quite different from the one that existed in the first decades of the twentieth century. Scientific management was the standard; it promoted a viewpoint of work as a set of tasks that could be dissected and optimized, and each part could be studied independently of the others. Scientific management offered a ready way to understand and organize the function of production in a predictable manner. But more significantly, it viewed laborers as mere components in the production line. They were unthinking—even inhuman—parts of the machine who toiled in sweatshops. The Hawthorne studies attempted to show that worker productivity could be improved by increasing the illumination of their tasks. Underlying this intent is the belief in explicit cause and effect for worker motivation.

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This is precisely why the unexpected results of the Hawthorne studies were so groundbreaking. The Hawthorne researchers had stumbled on a surprising breakthrough—the performance of the laborers improved merely because they were being observed. But I think one other fundamental and more far-reaching truth emerged. Human beings involved in production (or any activity) could no longer be understood simply in an animalistic or mechanistic light. People, even lowly laborers, are complex, potentially unpredictable, and ultimately capable of far more creative thought than many managers want to believe. It is a concept that is both liberating and intimidating. Undoubtedly, the workplace is far more enlightened today than in 1925. But in many ways, scientific management and its reliance on the machine have not gone away. To a very troubling degree, they are still firmly entrenched. We still have sweatshops, only now with the use of air conditioning. Workers do not sweat—they are just treated in an inhuman way. I do not mean they are physically abused, but many times they are emotionally beaten with dogmatic rules and policies that hearken back nearly a century. Even many “enlightened” firms purposely or inadvertently squelch the creativity and individuality of the members of their organizations. In many cases, the attempt to organize work results in driving the humanity out of the workplace. In Chapter 17, I related the story of a telephone-support representative and her employer’s insistence on a hard stop of just over one minute for all support phone calls, no matter the complexity of the issue. There was no room for deviance even if a situation called for a creative approach; the agents’ calls were randomly monitored to ensure compliance with the rules. After one particularly hellish call during one particularly hellish week, she went home emotionally beaten and never went back. Despite the fact that the Hawthorne studies let the genie out of the bottle, many people still practice management as if it were 1920. They still organize the workplace under the belief that people are mere parts of the machine and that their every action can be predicted, dissected, formed, and packaged. Undoubtedly, this belief dominates the world of low-tech franchise businesses, but it is no stranger to the world of high tech even if its appearance is subtler. In our endeavor to somehow make sense of the crazy world that is commerce today, we crave predictability and control. When we strive for these, we often purposely or inadvertently impose processes, structures, and rules that stifle the individuality, creativity, and humanity of the people in our organizations.

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While much has been learned about management in the last one hundred years, organizations still struggle with how to perform it well and how to promote good management skills in its leaders. In some respects, it seems not much has changed. The Dilbert comic strip continues its success in large part because of the universal recognition that dysfunctional management is still alive and well. Yet we are aware of times when people work together incredibly well. We have seen many examples of this synergy, creativity, and cooperation in this book. It is possible for people to accomplish great things at work, but only when they are respected as thinking and feeling individuals, only when they are allowed and encouraged to be fully human. The Hawthorne studies are as fresh and meaningful today as they were nearly one hundred years ago. Even though they are simple, the management principles presented in this book are so rich that they invite frequent reacquaintance to learn new and deeper insights. The concept of lifelong learning is common to many professions, and it certainly applies to engineering. It signifies the recognition that our education does not end when we graduate from a university. This same concept applies to the practice of management and leadership, albeit in a slightly different way. Proficiency in management and leadership comes largely by continually returning to the fundamentals. It is back to basics all over again.

Become a Better Person, Become a Better Manager The story of work and the story of management are parts of the story of humanity. The essential elements of human behavior and stories about it have remained unchanged over the millennia. How many small software companies have described their effort to take on Microsoft by recalling the ancient story of David and Goliath? In the arena of office politics, we may feel like Faust striking an opportunistic bargain with the devil. A trip through a voicemail system at most corporations is reminiscent of the bewildering and hilarious infield lineup in Abbott and Costello’s “Who’s on First?” shtick. The names and the scenes change, but the stories remain much the same. They are stories of summoning courage, stories of overcoming flaws, stories of finding truth, and stories of the humorous foibles that make us all equals. If the stories remain the same, it must be that we struggle with the same essential challenges as did humans who trod the earth long ago. These challenges are not separated from our work; indeed, many of them play out in our work. Because management is about leading people to and through change, as a manager you will experience more than your share of these challenges.

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To improve as a manager, there are certainly many techniques and skills that can be learned and built upon. But to really grow as a manager, accept this challenge: To become a better manager, become a better human being. It is not my place to suggest specifically how others can better themselves; I have enough trouble trying to better myself. I only raise the issue here as a reminder because it is the question before us all. In becoming a better manager, as in becoming a better human being, perhaps the best answer is to return to the basics. I wish you well on your journey as a manager and leader. I wish for you to experience many rewards through your profession, and I hope that in the process of becoming a better manager, you feel that you have become a better human being. Material that supplements the content of the book is available at http:// www.engr2mgr.com. We invite you to visit that site for worksheets, templates, and other resources.

Reference [1] Highsmith, J. A. III, Adaptive Software Development: A Collaborative Approach to Managing Complex Systems, New York: Dorset House Publishing, 2000, p. 185.

About the Author Dr. B. Michael Aucoin is an internationally recognized thought leader in innovative collaboration for engineering and technical professionals, offering positive shifts for mission critical individuals, teams, and organizations. In addition to From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition, he has also authored Right-Brain Project Management. Dr. Aucoin is president of Electrical Expert, Inc. and Leading Edge Management, LLC in College Station, Texas. He offers consulting in strategy, organizational change, and development, and a pioneering leadership development program for engineers. His unique background straddles industry and academics, in the disciplines of engineering and management/ leadership. He also provides consulting and litigation support in electrical engineering, including expert witness consulting. He has earned a doctor of engineering degree (including all business disciplines), a master’s degree in electrical engineering, and a master’s degree in organizational leadership. Projects he has worked on have received the Outstanding Engineering Achievement Award from the National Society of Professional Engineers, and the R&D 100 Award from R&D Magazine. Dr. Aucoin has served as an independent consultant on a NASA Johnson Space Center Mishap Investigation Board. He received the Third Millennium Medal from the IEEE, and he is a Registered Professional Engineer and Project Management Professional. He offers short courses in project management, engineering management, and leadership.

369

Index A Action communication and, 236–37 converting priorities and objectives into, 276 plan for, 65–66 Action items, 279 Adjourning stage, teams, 88 Adversity, 215 Advocacy, 197 Agenda alignment with, 286 meeting, 206–7 Agile, 344 Agile project management, 186–87 Agreement, 236 Agreement to disagree, 236 Alignment achieving, 306 with agenda, 286 with objectives, 307 strategic, 109–10 Alliances, 99–100 Argumentation, communication and, 235–36 Asset use alignment with agenda and, 286



attracting great people and, 290 budgets, 289–90 concepts of, 284 function of resources and, 285–86 integrity in, 290 knowledge management and, 288–89 opportunism and, 284 overview of, 283–85 politics with resources and, 286 relationships, 290–91 stewardship and, 284 synergy and, 284 wise, 362–63 Attitude conflict and, 73 opportunities and, 161–62 time and, 274 Attributes, ranking of, 269 Audience, communication, 246, 251–52 Authority delegation and, 196 limited, 190–91 Avoidance or denial response, 75 Awareness, 319

371

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

B Behavior over time graph, 137, 138 Belief statements, 265–67 Benchmarking, 164 Bennis, Warren, 351 Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA), 234 Biederman, Patricia Ward, 351 Big picture and, 361 Blame, concern for, 220 Bosses. See Superiors Bottlenecks finding, 339–40 improvement of, 341, 342 Brains, keeping engaged, 363–64 Brand grooming and clothes, 318 identity and, 314–16 personal, developing, 319 Branding, 53 Budgeting, 124 Budgets, managing, 289–90 Bureaucracy, battle with, 308–9 Business as about people, 11–18 basic nature of, 121 branding, 53 budgeting and, 124 cash flow, 125 debt and, 122–23 equity and, 123 financial information, 128 financial management for projects, 126 financial statements, 124 humanizing, 365–67 input/output representation of, 121 ins and outs of, 120 investment and, 122 key metrics, 125 money and, 121–22, 124–26 new, success in landing, 127 opportunity costs, 125–26 relationships as defining, 14 simple rules for, 120

C Calm confidence, 331–32 Card, Orson Scott, 314 Care for body, 326–27 for heart and soul, 329–30 of life outside work, 328 stress and, 323–26 for the team, 328–29 Career progression, 294 Cash flow, 125 Causal loop diagram, 137, 138 Challenges, in transition, 12–13 Chandler, Kyle, 157, 158 Change for the better, 337–38 creative tension and, 135 leadership as mechanism for, 62 leading through, 62–66 new habits and, 164–65 problem identification and, 63 prompting, 254–56 resisting, 159 for sake of change, 339 self-confidence and, 164 system, 66 Choice, 36 Clarity, 196 Coaching, 197, 296 Collaboration with boss, 110–11 competence, 36 conflict and, 74 control and, 40, 43–44 engineers and, 2 in matrix organizations, 114–15 on organizational processes, 136–39 with peers, 114 team, 89–92 Commander’s intent, 65 Commonality, 230 Communication action, 236–37 active participation in, 231–32

Index

agreement (including agreement to disagree) and, 236 argumentation and, 235–36 audience, 246, 251–52 with boss, 111 brand, 53 building blocks, 251 as challenging, 26 clearinghouse (you), 239–48 commonality and, 230 components of, 240–41 corruption in the channel, 242 decoding, 242 delegation and, 197 delivery, 253–54 demonstration of care and, 247 diagram, 241 dissent and, 235–36 effective, 362 emotional content, 242–43 emotional intelligence and, 232–33 encoding, 242 feedback and, 246 headings for scanning, 253 human touch and, 247, 257 improving, 245–47 interesting, 256 listening in, 245 mind share and, 252–53 negotiation and, 233–34 nonverbal, 243–44 obstacles, 241 oral, 245 in-person, 245 poor, consequences of, 239 preparation, 247–48 presence and, 231–32 process, 229 proficiency, 240, 250 projects and, 190 prompt the change and, 254–56 with purpose, 229–37 purpose of, 249–50 recipient as customer, 244 redundancy in, 245–46 repetition, 254

373 signposts, 254 sound bite, 252–53 story, 257–58 time and effort in, 240 transparent, 236 types, 245 understanding and, 231–32 written, 245 Community, in network of relationships, 17 Comparative analysis tools, 268, 277–78 Competence collaboration, 36 delegation and, 196 Completion of work, 361–62 Complex adaptive system (CAS) defined, 134 dramatic advancements and, 136 leadership in, 134 overview, 133–34 promoting innovation and, 135 Compromise response, 76 Confidence calm, 331–32 delegation and, 196 leading with, 59–69 Conflict attitude and, 73 avoidance or denial response, 75 collaboration and, 74 compromise response, 76 defending positions in, 76 defined, 71 deserving attention, 81 in destructive stage, 75 of emotion, 74–75 forcing response, 76 of ideas, 73–74 as inevitable, 71–81 passion in, 74 personality types and, 73–74 of perspectives, 73 resolution response, 76 responses to, 75–76 smoothing response, 75–76

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Conflict (continued) taking responsibility and, 76–78 workplace, types of, 73 Conflict resolution as conflict response, 76 ladder of inference and, 77–78 procedural tools, 79–80 substantive process tools, 80–81 tools for, 78–81 true, 81 Consensus decision-making, 212 Constraints management application to management processes, 342 defined, 340 example, 341–42 focus on goal and, 341 foundation of, 340 improvement of the bottleneck and, 341, 342 Consultative decision-making, 212 Contract formalization, 186 Control in collaboration, 40, 43–44 delegation and, 42–43 over yourself, 45 paradox of, 39–45 project, 187–88 relinquishing and retaining, 40 sharing ownership and, 41–42 in supervision, 40 working with the system and, 44–45 Core purpose statements, 267 Creative tension, 135 Creative thinking, 163 Creativity, in decision-making, 213 Crisis management, 225–26 Cross-cultural teams, 90–92 Culture meetings and, 207–8 organizational, opportunities and, 162 teams and, 90–92

Customer relationship innovating, 57 transforming, 56–57 Customers being genuine with, 54 business communication about, 52 characteristics of, 50 communication recipient as, 244 developing orientation to, 48–49 everything depends on, 47–57 experience, living, 54–55 external, 49 human touch and, 55 identifying, 49–50 impressing, 54–55 inattention to, 47 internal, 48 loyalty, developing, 53–54 needs behind the needs of, 50–51 in network of relationships, 17 spectrum of service as, 52 technology adaptation life cycle and, 51–52 understanding, 49–52 unique nature of, 49 WOW! experience, 55 D Data dynamics, 173 Debt, 122–23 Decisions approaches to, 212–14 appropriate framework and, 210 attribute ranking, 269 clarity of outcomes and, 211 comparative analysis tool, 268 consensus, 212 consultative, 212 context, understanding, 210–11 creativity and, 213 democratic, 212 directive, 212 emotional about, 214–15 experimentation and, 214

Index

incremental cost and schedule analysis tool, 270 indecisiveness and, 213–14 making a reality, 209 meaningful information and, 210 processes and, 211–12 tradeoffs, 264 unanimity, 212 worthwhile alternatives and, 210 Decoding, 242 Delegation advocacy and, 197 approaching, 198–99 big picture and, 195–96 clarity and, 196 coach, mentor and role model and, 197 communication and, 197 competence and growth and, 196 confidence and, 196 control and, 42–43 demonstration of respect and, 197–98 effective, 198–99 expectations and, 196 feedback and, 197 guiding principles and, 196 interest and, 197 overview, 193–95 problem areas, 198–99 resources and, 196 responsibility and authority and, 196 social infrastructure and, 196 success factors for, 195–97 Democratic decision-making, 212 Denial response, 75 Dependency on others, 280 Dialects, 230 Dietz, Doug, 56 Directive decision-making, 212 DISC styles defined, 21 representation, 21

375

two dimensions of behavior and, 22 See also Personality types Dissent, communication and, 235–36 E Earned value, 189 Emotional intelligence (EI), 232–33 Emotions in communication, 242–43, 246 conflict of, 74–75 decision-making and, 214–15 Employees alignment of motivation with objectives, 307 fundamental appreciation for, 302 motivation, 302–3 motivation to work, 305–6 Employee surveys, 172 Encoding, 242 Engineers career progression, 3–4 collaboration and, 2 communication and, 250 customers and, 48 interpersonal skills and, 3 technical competency, 4 Enneagram, 24 Entrepreneurship, 309 Equity, 123 Execution, themes for, 143–44 Executives, in network of relationships, 16 Expectations delegation and, 196 meetings, 205 Experimentation decisions and, 214 project, 179–80 solutions and, 154 Extrinsic motivators, 34–35 F Failure cost of, 338

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Failure (continued) fear of, 159–60 “Faster, better, cheaper (FBC),” 338 Fear of failure, 159–60 Feedback communication and, 246 delegation and, 197 Fighting fires, 160–61 Financial information, 128 Financial management earned value and, 189 for projects, 126, 188–89 Financial statements, 124 First time activities, 174 Five whys, 267 Focus, 280, 281 Forcing response, 76 Forgiveness, 27 Forming stage teams, 85–86 Framing solutions, 152–53 Functional managers, 16–17 Fun environment, 309–10 G Gantt charts, 184, 185, 343 Gerber, Michael, 56–57 Goals outcome, 170–71 process, 170–71 vision versus, 63 Goldratt, Eliyahu M., 340 Google example, 353 Great boss, 113 Greatness, nurturing, 355–56 Grooming, 318 Groundwork, in politics, 100–101 Group motivation, 306–8 Group procedures, 80 Groups “average,” 351 peer, 316 power distance, 91 See also Teams Growth as manager brain engagement and, 363–64

overview, 359–60 silver bullet and, 364–65 six principles, 360–63 Guiding principles, 196 Guilds, 293 H Habitual activities, 174 Harmony, in plan for action, 65–66 Hawthorne effect, 31 Hawthorne studies, 30–31 Heart, care for, 329–30 Herman Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI), 24 Herzberg, Frederick, 34 Hidden organization, 101–2 High-performance teams Beatles example, 349–50, 353, 355–56 following the vision, 351 greatness, nurturing, 355–56 overview, 349–50 participation in, 350 process of discovery and, 352–53 removing unnecessary rules and, 351–52 Skunk Works, 354–55 See also Teams Homework, in politics, 100–101 Human idiosyncrasies, 24–26 Humanizing business, 365–67 Human touch communication and, 247, 257 customers and, 55 I Ideas, conflict of, 73–74 Identity acting the part and, 316–17 awareness, 319 individual/role relationship and, 317–18 manners and, 318, 319 overview, 313–14

Index peer group and, 316 wearing the uniform and, 318 you as the brand and, 314–16 Imperfection, 26–27 Impressing customers, 55–56 Improvement(s) of bottleneck, 341, 342 delivering, 336 incremental, 336 order of magnitude, 338 overview, 335–36 stress and, 336 Incremental cost and schedule analysis tool, 270 Indecisiveness, 213–14 Individual/role relationship, 317–18 Inefficiency, 219 Inference, ladder of, 77–78 Influence, exercising, 43–44 Innovation creative tension and, 135 customer relationship, 57 as intrinsic motivator, 36 In-person communication, 245 Input/output of business, 121 Integration defined, 155 of perspectives, 89 process, 174–76 solution, 155 team member work, 84 Integrity, 290 Interesting communication, 256 Internal customers, 48 Interpersonal skills engineers and, 3 need for, 3–4 Intervention, 138 Intrinsic motivators choice, 36 competence, 36 defined, 34 innovation, 36 meaning, 35–36 progress, 36

377 Investment, 122 Iron triangle, 178 J Job security, 309 Just-in-time (JIT) inventory, 364 K Kahn, William A., 112 Keirsey Temperature Sorter, 24 Key metrics, 125 Knowledge management, 288–89 L Ladder of inference, 77–78 Leaders as born, not made myth, 61 charismatic myth, 61 directing followers myth, 61–62 as great people myth, 61 growing as, 66–69 major change myth, 61–62 myths, 60–62 of vision, 152 vision and, 64 Leading allowing group to own vision and, 64 in complex adaptive system (CAS), 134 with confidence, 59–69 crafting vision and, 63–64 harmony in plan for action and, 65–66 initiative in, 67 opportunities, 67 problem identification and, 63 through change, 62–66 through story, 68–69 yourself, 66–67 Lean, 344 Lean construction, 298 Lean manufacturing, 169 Life cycle, project, 180–81 Line drawing, 80–81

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Listening, 245 Loyalty, customer, 53–54 M Management beginning the journey into, 1–10 budget, 289–90 constraints, 340–42 crisis, 225–26 issues, as not one correct solution, 150 knowledge, 288–89 meeting, 201 in network of relationships, 16 open-book, 128 project, 177–91 quality, 344 risk, 219–24 strategic alignment and, 109–10 of superiors and peers, 107–15 as team sport, 2–4 in 360 degrees, 109 time, 273–82 Managers acting the part, 316–17 becoming a better person and, 367–68 conflicting information and, 150 established, partnering with, 287 functional, 16–17 growing as, 359–68 as skillful players, 287–88 starting out as, 287 Manhattan Project, 12 Manners, 318, 319 Market value, 123 Martin, George, 349, 356 Maslow, Abraham, 31 Maslow’s needs hierarchy, 31–32 Matrix organizations, 114–15, 191 McGregor, Douglas, 32 Meaning intrinsic motivator, 35–36 motivation and, 303–4 Meetings agenda, 206–7



anticipation, 204 attendance, 204 culture and pushback and, 207–8 duration, 204 effective beliefs, 203–4 environment, 204 expectations, 205 management, 201–8 necessity, 204 norms, 204–5 perception about, 202 processes for participation and outcomes, 205–6 reinventing, 204 responsibility, 203 start time, 206 team, 202–3 virtual, 207 Mental model, 132, 134 Mentoring, 197, 297 Micromanaging, 42, 65, 351–52 Mind share, 252–53 Minimal viable product (MVP), 193, 194 Minimal viable solution (MVS), 193–94 Missed opportunities fear of failure and, 159–60 fighting fires and, 160–61 resisting change and, 159 setting on the lead and, 160 See also Opportunities Mobilization, 65 Modeling motivation, 30 organizations, 134 Money as fuel of organization, 121–22 indices of, 124–26 maintaining supply of, 126–27 Motivation alignment with objectives, 307 extrinsic, 34–35 group, 306–8 Hawthorne studies and, 30–31 intrinsic, 34, 35–36

Index

Maslow’s needs hierarchy and, 31–32 meaning and, 303–4 modeling, 30 overview, 29–30 passionate factors, 305–6 promotion of, 302–3 Theory X and Theory Y and, 32–34 Theory Z and, 34 to work, 305–6 Multinational teams, 90–92 Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTF), 24 N NASA example, 337–38 Negativity, denial and fear of, 219 Negotiation, 233–34 Network of relationships community, 17 customers/clients, 17 functional managers, 16–17 loved ones, 18 management and executives, 16 people you supervise, 15–16 sponsors, 16 stakeholders, 17 supervisor, 16 vendors and contractors, 17 See also Relationships “No,” saying, 280, 326–27 Nonverbal communication, 243–44 Norming stage, teams, 86–87 Norms agreement on, 87 defined, 86 O Objectives comparative analysis tool for, 278 converting into action, 276 “critical list” category, 277 framing, 307 identifying, 278 Observation, 141–43, 146

379 Open-book management, 128 Opportunism, 284 Opportunities attitudes towards, 161–62 benchmarking and, 164 creative thinking and, 163 embracing, 157 identifying, 164 making a reality, 163–65 missed, 159–61 organizational culture and, 162 overlooking, 158 paradigm shift to see, 158 risk and, 162 Opportunity costs, 125–26 Oral communication, 245 Organization, this book, xxiii–xxvii Organizational barriers, 219–20 Organizational culture, 162 Organizational health, 172 Organizations bureaucracy, battle with, 308–9 creative and valuable play, 310–11 financial life and health of, 120 healthy and fun environment, 309–10 hidden, 101–2 hierarchical power structure of, 102 as hunter-gatherers, 120 matrix, 114–15 modeling, 134 money as fuel for, 121–22 seeing system in, 131–39 web-like power structure, 102 Oscillation, 324–26 Ouchi, William, 34 Outcomes clarity of, 211 goals of, 170–71 keys to achieving, 40 meeting, processes for, 205–6 successful, communication and, 236 trying to force, 45 Ownership, sharing, 41–42

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From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

P Pareto lives, 280 Participation, meeting, 205–6 Passion, 74 Passive-aggressive behavior, 75 Peer group, 316 Peers collaboration with, 114 managing, 108–9 People business as about, 11–18 challenges of, 19–27 communication and, 26 as focused on themselves, 24–25 as following herd, 25–26 great, attracting, 290 as most powerful asset, 302 roles and, 26 supervision of, 15–16 as wanting to avoid looking bad, 25 People skills, 6 Performing stage, teams, 87 Personality assessment DISC styles, 21–24 Enneagram, 24 Herman Brain Dominance Instrument (HBDI), 24 Keirsey Temperature Sorter, 24 Kolbe, 24 Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTF), 24 Strengthsfinder, 24 Personality types conflict and, 73–74 individuality and, 20–21 in relationships, 21 system for styles, 21–24 Perspectives conflict of, 73 integration of, 89 priorities and payoffs, 330–31 team integration of, 89 Pink, Dan, 302–3 Planning balance and, 144



congruence and, 144 defined, 141 factors affecting completion of, 146–47 as human activity, 147 importance of, 141, 148 matching process to context, 143 overview, 141–43 phase, 181–82 process of, 182–83 project, 181–83 strategic, 144–45 for surprises, 225 systematic experimentation and, 145–46 tactical, 145 themes for, 143–44 wayfinding and, 143 Plath, Sylvia, 210 Play creative and valuable balance, 310–11 rest, balance and, 281–82 Politics alliances and, 99–100 approaches to, 98–-99 becoming an effective practitioner of, 103–4 cutthroat approach, 98 cynic approach, 98 as distasteful, 95 ethical principles and, 98 foundations for playing, 98 hidden objectives and, 103 hidden organization and, 101–2 homework and groundwork in, 100–101 innocent approach, 98 missteps, avoiding, 104–5 myths, 97–98 opportunist approach, 98 overview, 95–97 playing, 97, 98, 105 playing, with resources, 286 power sources and, 103 practitioner approach, 99

Index relationship focus, 101 Polynesian example, 142–43 Power sources of, 103 structures, 102 Power distance, 91 Presence, 231–32 Priorities comparative analysis tool for, 278 converting into action, 276 identification of, 275 payoffs and, 274–75 perspective and, 330–31 triage prioritization and, 279 work and, 332 See also Time management Problem boss being adult with, 112–13 guidance resources on, 111–12 mitigating judgment of, 112 transferring and, 113 See also Superiors Procedural tools, 79–80 Processes communication, 229 goals of, 170–71 importance of, 211–12 innovating, 174–76 for meeting participation and outcomes, 205–6 outcomes and, 169 planning, 182–83 understanding and improving, 171–73 visualizing and collaborating on, 136–39 Process modeling, 344 Procrastination, 279 Professional ethics, 80 Progress, 36 Project diamond model, 178 Projects agile project management and, 186–87 communication and, 190 contract formalization, 186

381

controlling, 187–88 defined, 177, 178–79 elements, 178 experimentation, 179–80 financial management for, 126, 188–89 Gantt charts and, 184, 185 as human endeavor, 179 iron triangle, 178 life cycle, 180–81 limited authority, 190–91 need for formality, 179 overview, 177–78 planning, 181 planning process, 182–83 planning stage, 181–82 resource consumption, 178 resource loading, 184–86 risk management, 186 scope creep, 187 sequencing the work, 184 success factors, 190–91 tracking issues, 190 waterfall model, 187 work breakdown structure (WBS), 183–84 Puzzle analogy, 149–54 Q Quality management, 344 R Red, White, and Blue Out, 304–5 Redundancy, in communication, 245–46 Reengineering, 344 Reflection, 276 Relationships among events, patterns, and structures, 137 customer, 56–57 as defining business, 14 mastering, 360–61 network of, 15–18 personality types in, 21

382

From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Relationships (continued) in politics, 101 as resource, 290–91 romantic, 104 Resource loading, 184–86 Resources delegation and, 196 function of, 285–86 playing politics with, 286 Respect, demonstrating, 197–98 Responsibility conflict and, 76–78 delegation and, 196 meeting, 203 talking versus taking, 133 Risk characteristics, 221–22 defined, 218 identification, 220–21 introduction to, 218–19 strategies, 223–24 Risk evaluation defined, 221 elements, 221–22 example tool, 222 hurricane example, 222 objective of, 223 space shuttle example, 223 Risk management actions, 224 elements of, 220–24 organizational barriers, 219–20 overview, 186 Role models, 197 Roles, acting in, 26 Romantic relationships, 104 S Scope creep, 187 Security, job, 309 Self-confidence, 164 Self-leadership, 66–67 Senge, Peter, 135, 345 Sense making, 135 Servant leadership, 296 Sharing economy, 158

Sharing ownership, 41–42 “Significant few” exercise, 153 Silver bullet, 364–65 Singular activities, 174 Six fundamental principles, 360–63 Six Sigma, 169 Skunk Works, 354–55 Smoothing response, 75–76 Social awareness, 5 Social infrastructure, 196 Soft skills, 6 Solutions envisioning, 151–52 experimentation and, 154 filling in, 154 finding all the pieces and, 150–51 framing, 152–53 implementation of, 155–56 integration, 155 “significant few” exercise, 153 Soul, care for, 329–30 Specialization, 339 Sponsors, 16 Statements of belief and purpose concepts, 266 defined, 265 distilling into phrases/images, 266 five whys, 267 guidance, 266 translating, 267–71 Statistical process control, 169 Stewardship, 284 Stock, 123 Stories, telling, 68–69 Storming stage, teams, 86 Story, in communication, 257–58 Strategic alignment, 109–10 Strategic plan, 109 Strategic planning, 144–45 Strengthsfinder, 24 Stress conquering, 323–26 deep breathing and stretching and, 326 improvement and, 336 oscillation and, 324–26

Index overview, 323 self-defeating behaviors and, 326 Substantive process tools, 80–81 Succession planning disorder and, 297–98 natural transitions and, 298 See also Talent development Success principles, 7–8 Superiors collaboration with, 110–11 great, 113 managing, 108–9 problem, 111–13 Supervision control and, 40 Theory X and Theory Y models of, 33 Supervisors, in network of relationships, 16 Synergy, 284 Systematic experimentation, 145–46 System(s) changing, 66 complex adaptive, 133–36 mental model and, 134 seeing, in organization, 131–39 tools, 138–39 understanding and improving, 171–73 working with, 44–45 your place in, 132–33 Systems engineering, 344 Systems thinking, 345–46 Systems-thinking tools, 138–39 T Tactical planning, 145 Talent development approach to, 295–96 defined, 294 mentoring, 297 servant leadership and, 296 succession planning, 297–99 training and coaching, 296 underutilized talent and, 298–99 Team chemistry, 91

383 Team contract, 88 Team members collaboration, 89–92 expectations, 88 of great teams, 352–53 motivation factors, 307–8 in project control, 188 work integration, 84 Teams adjourning stage, 88 care for, 328–29 dysfunctional, 87 effectiveness of, 85 forming stage, 85–86 high-performance, 349–56 integration of perspectives, 89 kickoff meeting, 85–86 meetings, 202–3 multinational and cross-cultural, 90–92 norming stage, 86–87 overview, 83–84 performing stage, 87 social infrastructure, 88 stages of, 85–88 storming stage, 86 tensions, balancing, 85 virtual, 90 working in as beneficial, 12 your experience with, 84–85 Technology, relationship with, 13–14 Technology adaptation life cycle customers and, 51–52 defined, 51 groups, 51–52 Theory X accomplishment and, 33–34 defined, 32 model overview, 33 responsibility in, 42 situations for, 33 Theory Y accomplishment and, 33–34 defined, 32 model overview, 33 responsibility in, 42

384

From Engineer to Manager: Mastering the Transition

Theory Z, 34 Thompson, Nainoa, 146, 147 Time attitudes towards, 274 effective use of, 282 saving tips, 281 for unexpected, 281 Time log, 275 Time management dependency on others and, 280 focus and, 280, 281 issues in, 279–81 overview, 273–74 Pareto lives and, 280 play, rest, balance and, 281–82 priorities and payoffs, 274–75 priorities identification and, 275 procrastination and, 279 program for success, 277–79 reflection and, 276 saying “no” and, 280 trip plan, 275–76 unavailability and, 280 Tools for conflict resolution, 78–79 procedural, 79–80 substantive process, 80–81 Tradeoffs benefits versus costs, 264 core, 264–65 mutually exclusive options, 264–65 overview, 263–64 statements of belief and purpose, 265–67 value point, 265 Training, 296 Transition becoming social and socially aware and, 5



description, 4–5 embracing new rules and new role and, 6–7 new challenges in, 12–13 seeing organization as system and, 132 in succession planning, 298 success principles for, 7–8 Triage prioritization, 279 Trip plan, 275–76 Tuckman team stage model, 85 U Unanimity decision-making, 212 Understanding, 231–32 V Value point, 265 Values and purpose statements, 265–67 Vendors and contractors, 17 Virtual meetings, 207 Virtual teams, 90 Vision agreement on, 152 allowing group to own, 64–65 crafting, 63–64 following, 351 goals versus, 63 identifying, 151–52 leader of, 152 Visualization, on organizational processes, 136–39 W Waterfall model, 187 Wayfinding, 146, 147 Work breakdown structure (WBS), 183–84 WOW! experience, 55 Written communication, 245