From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion: Challenges, Perspectives and Trends in the Development of Digital Competences (Lecture Notes in Educational Technology) 9819976448, 9789819976447
This book offers an expert perspective on two key phenomena in the development of the information society, namely digita
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English Pages 578 [562] Year 2024
Contents
Contributors
1 Introduction—In Seeking Solutions to Minimise Digital Exclusion and Develop Digital Competences Around the World
References
2 Overview of Digital Inclusion Initiatives and Perspectives in Albania
2.1 Rationale
2.2 Digital Albania Profile
2.2.1 Digital Access as Foundation for Digital Transformation
2.2.2 Digital Market Environment
2.2.3 Digital Access Policies and Regulations
2.3 Digital Skills Development
2.4 ICTs and the Education System
2.5 ICT Strategies
2.5.1 National ICT Strategy of 2003
2.5.2 National ICT Strategy of 2007
2.5.3 Strategies that Support Innovation
2.5.4 Strategies for the Promotion of Broadband Services and Infrastructure
2.6 ICT in Education
2.6.1 Digital Agenda 2015–2020
2.6.2 The Inclusion of ICT in Education
2.6.3 Curriculum Development
2.6.4 Children’s Rights and the Digital Environment
2.7 e-Albania
2.8 The Current Digital Inclusion and Perspective
References
3 Digital Inclusion and Digital Divide in the Context of Bosnia and Herzegovina
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theoretical Framework
3.3 Research Methodology
3.3.1 Research Procedure and Method
3.4 Discussion
3.4.1 Primary and Secondary Education and Digital Inclusion in BiH
3.4.2 Higher Education and Digital Inclusion in BiH
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 The Idiosyncrasies of Digital Divide in Brazil: A Literature Review on Initiatives of Digital Inclusion
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theoretical Framework
4.3 Methodology
4.4 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2003 to 2007
4.5 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2008 to 2012
4.6 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2013 to 2017
4.7 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2018 to 2022
4.8 Conclusions and Further Work
References
5 Bridging the Digital Divide in Higher Education: Notes from the Emergence of the COVID-19 Pandemic
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Method
5.2.1 PRISMA Protocol Process
5.2.2 Thematic Analysis
5.3 Results and Discussions
5.3.1 Descriptive Findings
5.3.2 Thematic Analysis
5.3.3 Bridging Digital Divide in Higher Education
5.4 Conclusion
References
6 From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion in Colombia: A Systematic Literature Review of Strategies from Education
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Theoretical Framework
6.2.1 Factors of Digital Exclusion in Colombia
6.3 Method
6.3.1 Procedure
6.4 Results and Discussion
6.4.1 Bibliometric Analysis
6.4.2 Official Documents Analysis
6.4.3 Relationship Between Digital Inclusion and Colombia
6.4.4 Relationship Between Technology Education or ICT and Colombia
6.4.5 Relationship Between Digital Divide and Colombia
6.4.6 Relationship Between Digital Exclusion and Colombia
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 Digital Transformation Training and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theoretical Framework
7.2.1 Social Inclusion Indicators. Definition of Digital Divide and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica
7.2.2 Development of Public Policy for Digital Inclusion
7.2.3 Infrastructures
7.2.4 Digital Competence
7.3 Method
7.3.1 Procedure
7.4 Results and Discussion
7.4.1 Bibliometric Analysis
7.5 Digital Divide in Costa Rica and Its Specificities
7.6 Development of Digital Competence in Costa Rica
7.7 Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica
7.8 Conclusion
References
8 Digital Divide and Digital Inclusion in Cuba: A Systematic Review
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theoretical Framework
8.3 Aims
8.4 Methodology
8.4.1 Procedure
8.4.2 Sample
8.5 Results
8.5.1 The Reality of the Digital Divide and Digital Exclusion in Cuba and Proposed Forms of Digital Inclusion
8.5.2 Digital Literacy Initiatives Developed
8.5.3 The Development of Digital Competences in Education
8.5.4 ICT and COVID: Forms of Intervention that Consider the Use of ICTs During the Pandemic
8.6 Discussion
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Issues Related to Digital Divide from the Past Perspective of Czech Scientific Journals (2003–2022)
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Theoretical Framework
9.3 Methodology
9.4 Results
9.4.1 The Digital Divide in the Context of Senior Education
9.4.2 The Digital Divide in the Context of Primary Schools
9.4.3 The Digital Divide in the Context of Higher Education
9.4.4 Digital Divide and Quality of Life in Society
9.5 Discussion
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 From Digital Exclusion to Digital Inclusion: How is the Dominican Republic Fostering a Digital Culture?
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Materials and Methods
10.2.1 Search Strategy
10.2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Principles
10.2.3 Quality Standards
10.2.4 Theoretical Framework
10.2.5 Digital Exclusion in Latin America and the Dominican Republic
10.3 Results and Discussion
10.3.1 How Does Literature Define Digital Inclusion and Exclusion?
10.3.2 Which Factors Constitute the Digital Divide and Digital Exclusion Concepts in the DR?
10.3.3 What Initiatives Are Implemented in the DR to Decrease the Inequalities in Using Digital Technology Between Groups of Different Socioeconomic Backgrounds, Ages, Races, and Genders?
10.3.4 What is the Status and Development of Digital Culture in the DR?
10.4 Limitations
10.5 Conclusions
10.5.1 Suggestions
10.5.2 Recommendations for Practice
References
11 From the Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion: An Ecuadorian Perspective
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Method
11.3 Results
11.4 Discussions and Conclusions
References
12 Digital Divide Issues in Greece: A Systematic Review
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Theoretical Framework
12.2.1 The Internet
12.2.2 The Digital Divide
12.2.3 Digital Divide and Inequalities
12.2.4 Main Factors Affecting the Digital Divide
12.3 Research Questions
12.4 Methodology
12.5 Keywords for Data Collection
12.5.1 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
12.5.2 Reasons for Articles and Reports Exclusion
12.5.3 Documents Found and Documents Used
12.6 Findings—Results
12.7 Discussion
12.8 Conclusion
References
13 Addressing the Digital Divide in Indonesian Higher Education: Insights, Implications, and Potential Solutions
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Related Work
13.3 Method
13.4 Findings and Discussion
13.4.1 The Factors Contributed to the Digital Divided in Indonesian Higher Education
13.4.2 The Implications of the Digital Divide in Indonesian Educational Outcomes
13.4.3 Solutions to Overcome the Digital Divide in Indonesian Higher Education
13.5 Conclusions
References
14 Is Digitalization for Everybody? Perspectives and Obstacles to Digital Inclusion in Lithuania
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Methodology
14.3 Results
14.4 Discussion
14.4.1 Education
14.4.2 Digital Accessibility and Competency in Public and Private Sector
14.4.3 Digital Competency, Accessibility and Divide Across Various Social Groups
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Digital Inclusion in Malaysia: Realigning Research and Education Policy
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 History, Policy, and Philosophy
15.1.2 Digital Inclusion Research
15.2 Methodology
15.3 Analyses and Findings
15.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis
15.4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
16 Addressing the Digital Divide with Educational Systems in Mexico: Challenges and Opportunities
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Theoretical Framework
16.3 Methodology
16.3.1 Eligibility Criteria
16.3.2 Information Sources
16.3.3 Search Strategy
16.3.4 Study Selection Process
16.3.5 Data Extraction Process
16.3.6 Methods of Synthesis
16.4 Results
16.4.1 Study Selection
16.5 Summary of Results
16.5.1 Digital Exclusion in Higher Education in Mexico
16.5.2 Digital Inclusion in Higher Education in Mexico
16.5.3 Studies and Statistics on Digital Exclusion and Inclusion in Higher Education in Mexico
16.5.4 Challenges and Opportunities
16.6 Discussion
16.7 Conclusion
References
17 Digital Inclusion in the Moroccan Context: A Review of Research and Educational Initiatives in the Twenty-First Century
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Theoretical Framework
17.2.1 Methodology
17.3 Results
17.4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
18 Technology and the Digital Divide in Panama
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Digital Divide and Inclusion in Panama: Forms (Types) of Digital Skills Development in the Last Two Decades
18.2 Method
18.3 Results and Discussions
18.4 Conclusion
References
19 Literacy and Digital Inclusion for the Twenty-First Century. The Case of Peru
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Theoretical Framework
19.2.1 Digital Divide(s)?
19.2.2 Digital Divide in Peru
19.2.3 Institutional Measures Taken
19.3 Methodology
19.3.1 Eligibility Criteria
19.3.2 Search Protocol
19.3.3 Identification
19.3.4 Screening or Selection
19.3.5 Eligibility or Suitability
19.3.6 Inclusion
19.4 Results
19.5 Discussion
19.6 Conclusion
References
20 Digital Exclusion and Inclusion in Poland—An Overview of Research and Educational Activities from Recent Decades
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Theoretical Framework
20.3 Overview of Research Results
20.4 1995–2000
20.5 2000–2010
20.6 2011–2020
20.7 2020–2023
20.8 Conclusions
References
21 Digitisation in Portugal: A Systematic Review of Technological Exclusion and Inclusion Since the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Methodology
21.2.1 Type of Study
21.2.2 Sample Selection
21.2.3 Selection Criteria
21.2.4 Selection Process
21.2.5 Content Analysis
21.3 Results
21.3.1 Analysis of the Publication Selection (23)
21.3.2 The Reality of Digital Exclusion
21.3.3 Technology Allocation Plans
21.3.4 Digital Literacy
21.3.5 Impact of COVID-19
21.4 Discussion
21.5 Conclusions
References
22 Romania 2000–2022: Educational Policies and Strategic Options for Digital Inclusion. Literature Review
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Theoretical Framework
22.2.1 Educational Strategies and Policies on Digitization
22.2.2 Digitization of Education—Policy Decisions and Critical Analysis
22.3 Methodological Framework
22.3.1 Types of Documents and Selection
22.4 Research Limits
22.5 Results
22.6 Discussions and Conclusions
References
23 Overview of Digital Exclusion in the Slovak Republic Conditions from 2000 till Nowadays: Review Study
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Theoretical Framework
23.3 Digital Inclusion and Exclusion in the Context of Slovakia
23.4 Methods
23.4.1 Research Focus
23.4.2 The Selection of Sources
23.4.3 Information Source
23.4.4 Data Analysis
23.5 Results
23.6 Discussion
23.7 Limitations
23.8 Conclusion
References
24 Analysing the Digital Inclusion in Spain from a Systematic Literature Review
24.1 Introduction: The Inclusion of Educative Systems in Europe
24.2 Digital Divide
24.2.1 Access Gap
24.2.2 Usage Gap
24.2.3 Digital Divide of Quality of Use
24.3 The Role of ICT in Inclusion Processes
24.4 Digital Competence Training for Teachers
24.5 Methodology
24.6 Results
24.7 Discussion and Conclusions
References
25 Information Literacy and Digital Inclusion: Challenges of the Modern Information Educational Environment in Ukraine
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Research Methodology
25.3 Research and Discussion
25.3.1 Literature Review. Informatization, Use of Information Technologies in Ukraine
25.3.2 Digitization of Modern Information Society in Ukraine
25.3.3 Digital Literacy of the Population of Ukraine: Study of Digital Skills of Ukrainians
25.3.4 Digital Inequality and Ways to Overcome It
25.3.5 Training of Specialists for the IT Industry in Ukraine
25.3.6 Information Literacy of Ukrainians
25.3.7 Information Literacy of the Elderly People
25.3.8 Information Literacy of Ukrainian Teachers
25.3.9 Discussion
25.4 Conclusions, Recommendations, and Perspectives
References
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Lecture Notes in Educational Technology
Łukasz Tomczyk Francisco D. Guillén-Gámez Julio Ruiz-Palmero Akhmad Habibi Editors
From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion Challenges, Perspectives and Trends in the Development of Digital Competences
Lecture Notes in Educational Technology Series Editors Ronghuai Huang, Smart Learning Institute, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China Kinshuk, College of Information, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA Mohamed Jemni, University of Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia Nian-Shing Chen, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Taiwan, China J. Michael Spector, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
The series Lecture Notes in Educational Technology (LNET), has established itself as a medium for the publication of new developments in the research and practice of educational policy, pedagogy, learning science, learning environment, learning resources etc. in information and knowledge age, – quickly, informally, and at a high level. Abstracted/Indexed in: Scopus, ACM Digital Library, ERIC, INSPEC, Norwegian Register for Scientific Journals and Series, SCImago
Łukasz Tomczyk · Francisco D. Guillén-Gámez · Julio Ruiz-Palmero · Akhmad Habibi Editors
From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion Challenges, Perspectives and Trends in the Development of Digital Competences
Editors Łukasz Tomczyk Department of Education Jagiellonian University Cracow, Poland Julio Ruiz-Palmero Department of Didactics and School Organization, Faculty of Educational Sciences University of Málaga Málaga, Spain
Francisco D. Guillén-Gámez Department of Didactics and School Organization, Faculty of Educational Sciences University of Málaga Málaga, Spain Akhmad Habibi Faculty of Education Universitas Jambi Jambi, Indonesia
ISSN 2196-4963 ISSN 2196-4971 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Educational Technology ISBN 978-981-99-7644-7 ISBN 978-981-99-7645-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.
Contents
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Introduction—In Seeking Solutions to Minimise Digital Exclusion and Develop Digital Competences Around the World . . . . Łukasz Tomczyk, Francisco D. Guillén-Gámez, Julio Ruiz-Palmero, and Akhmad Habibi
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Overview of Digital Inclusion Initiatives and Perspectives in Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nazmi Xhomara
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Digital Inclusion and Digital Divide in the Context of Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amina Ðipa and Lejla Turulja
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The Idiosyncrasies of Digital Divide in Brazil: A Literature Review on Initiatives of Digital Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anna de Souza Cruz Ravaglio, Gerson Muitana, Cristiano da Silva Benites, Claudiane Santana, Maria Amelia Eliseo, Ismar Frango Silveira, Valéria Farinazzo Martins, and Cibele Alburquerque de la Higuera Amato Bridging the Digital Divide in Higher Education: Notes from the Emergence of the COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kaspul Anwar, Juraidah Musa, Sallimah Salleh, Masitah Shahrill, and Roslinawati Roslan
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From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion in Colombia: A Systematic Literature Review of Strategies from Education . . . . . 123 Myriam Ortiz Padilla, Roberto Soto-Varela, and Luis Oviedo Berrocal
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Digital Transformation Training and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Melchor Gómez-García, Roberto Soto-Varela, Ana Cristina Umaña-Mata, and Estíbaliz Pérez-Pérez
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Digital Divide and Digital Inclusion in Cuba: A Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Inmaculada Martínez-García, Enrique Alastor, Elena Sánchez-Vega, and Juan Jesús Mondéjar-Rodríguez
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Issues Related to Digital Divide from the Past Perspective of Czech Scientific Journals (2003–2022) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 ˇ Lenka Benediktová, Jan Bezdˇeka, Michal Cerný, Zbynˇek Filipi, and Lucie Rohlíková
10 From Digital Exclusion to Digital Inclusion: How is the Dominican Republic Fostering a Digital Culture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Laura V. Reyes-Alardo, Leipzig Guzmán-Mena, Rita Cruz, and Darwin Munoz 11 From the Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion: An Ecuadorian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Juan Carlos de la Cruz-Campos, Magdalena Ramos-Navas-Parejo, Coral Ruiz-Roso Vázquez, and Gabriel Estuardo Cevallos Uve 12 Digital Divide Issues in Greece: A Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Anthi Karatrantou and Christos Panagiotakopoulos 13 Addressing the Digital Divide in Indonesian Higher Education: Insights, Implications, and Potential Solutions . . . . . . . . . 291 Lalu Nurul Yaqin, Lantip Diat Prasojo, Noor Azam Haji-Othman, Norazmie Yusof, and Akhmad Habibi 14 Is Digitalization for Everybody? Perspectives and Obstacles to Digital Inclusion in Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Ramun˙e Kasper˙e and Jolita Horbaˇcauskien˙e 15 Digital Inclusion in Malaysia: Realigning Research and Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Mohd Faiz Mohd Yaakob, Hapini Awang, and Nur Suhaili Mansor 16 Addressing the Digital Divide with Educational Systems in Mexico: Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Claudia Blanca González Calleros, Josefina Guerrero García, and Juan Manuel González Calleros
Contents
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17 Digital Inclusion in the Moroccan Context: A Review of Research and Educational Initiatives in the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Imane Bakkali, Ana Belén Pérez-Torregrosa, Violeta Cebrián-Robles, and Manuel Cebrián-de-la-Serna 18 Technology and the Digital Divide in Panama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Moussa Boumadan, Marlegne Torres, Rusia González Valdés, and Francisco Farnum Castro 19 Literacy and Digital Inclusion for the Twenty-First Century. The Case of Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Julio Cabero-Almenara, Carmen Llorente-Cejudo, Antonio Palacios-Rodriguez, and Fiorela Anaí Fernández Otoya 20 Digital Exclusion and Inclusion in Poland—An Overview of Research and Educational Activities from Recent Decades . . . . . . 433 Łukasz Tomczyk, Izabela Kielar, Arif Da¸s, and Nihal Da¸s 21 Digitisation in Portugal: A Systematic Review of Technological Exclusion and Inclusion Since the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Ernesto Colomo-Magaña, Andrea Cívico-Ariza, Francisco D. Guillén-Gámez, and Fernando José Sadio-Ramos 22 Romania 2000–2022: Educational Policies and Strategic Options for Digital Inclusion. Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Gabriela Neagu 23 Overview of Digital Exclusion in the Slovak Republic Conditions from 2000 till Nowadays: Review Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Milan Kubiatko 24 Analysing the Digital Inclusion in Spain from a Systematic Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Vicente Gabarda Méndez, Enrique Sánchez Rivas, María Rubio-Gragera, and Julio Ruiz-Palmero 25 Information Literacy and Digital Inclusion: Challenges of the Modern Information Educational Environment in Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Larysa Lukianova and Oksana Ovcharuk
Contributors
Enrique Alastor, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain Cibele Alburquerque de la Higuera Amato, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Kaspul Anwar, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam Hapini Awang, Institute for Advanced and Smart Digital Opportunities, School of Computing, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia Imane Bakkali, Higher Normal School, Université Abdelmalek Essaadi, Tetuán, Morocco Lenka Benediktová, Department of Computer Science and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia, Plzen, Czech Republic Jan Bezdˇeka, Department of Computer Science and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia, Plzen, Czech Republic Moussa Boumadan, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Julio Cabero-Almenara, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Seville, Spain Violeta Cebrián-Robles, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain Manuel Cebrián-de-la-Serna, Vice-Rector’s Office for Virtual Campus and Educational Innovation, International University of Andalusia, Málaga, Spain Gabriel Estuardo Cevallos Uve, Higher Technological Institute Tsachila, Ecuador, Ecuador
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x
Contributors
Andrea Cívico-Ariza, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain Ernesto Colomo-Magaña, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain Rita Cruz, Universidad Federico Henríquez y Carvajal (UFHEC), Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Juan Carlos de la Cruz-Campos, Faculty of Education Sciences and Sports of Melilla, University of Granada, Granada, Spain Francisco Farnum Castro, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá city, Panamá ˇ Michal Cerný, Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic Arif Da¸s, Erzurum Vocational College, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Nihal Da¸s, School of Foreign Languages, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Amina Ðipa, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Maria Amelia Eliseo, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Valéria Farinazzo Martins, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Fiorela Anaí Fernández Otoya, Faculty of Education, Santo Toribio de Mongrovejo Catholic University, Peru Zbynˇek Filipi, Department of Computer Science and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia, Plzen, Czech Republic Ismar Frango Silveira, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Vicente Gabarda Méndez, Faculty of Philosophy and Education Sciences, University of Valencia, Spain Melchor Gómez-García, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Spain Rusia González Valdés, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá city, Panamá Francisco D Guillén-Gámez, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain Leipzig Guzmán Mena, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Federico Henríquez y Carvajal (UFHEC), Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Contributors
xi
Akhmad Habibi, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Jambi, Jambi Indonesia Noor Azam Haji-Othman, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam. Jolita Horbaˇcauskien˙e, Faculty of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania Anthi Karatrantou, Department of Educational Sciences and Social Work, University of Patras, Patras, Greece Ramun˙e Kasper˙e, Faculty of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania Izabela Kielar, Institute of Education, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland Milan Kubiatko, Department of Preschool and Primary Education, Faculty of Education, Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic Carmen Llorente-Cejudo, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Seville, Spain Larysa Lukianova, Ivan Ziaziun Institute of Pedagogical and Adult Education of the National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine Nur Suhaili Mansor, Institute for Advanced and Smart Digital Opportunities, School of Computing, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia Inmaculada Martínez-García, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain Mohd Faiz Mohd Yaakob, School of Education, Universiti Utara Malaysia Juan Jesús Mondéjar-Rodríguez, Undergraduate Training Directorate, University of Matanzas, Cuba, Cuba Gerson Muitana, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Darwin Munoz, Universidad Federico Henríquez y Carvajal (UFHEC), Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Juraidah Musa, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam Gabriela Neagu, Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania Myriam Ortiz Padilla, Faculty of Legal and Social Sciences, University of Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, Colombia Oksana Ovcharuk, Institute for Digitalisation of Education of the National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
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Contributors
Luis Oviedo Berrocal, Faculty of Legal and Social Sciences, University of Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, Colombia Antonio Palacios-Rodríguez, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Seville, Spain Christos Panagiotakopoulos, Department of Educational Sciences and Social Work, University of Patras, Patras, Greece Estíbaliz Pérez, State Distance University of Costa Rica, Costa Rica Ana B Pérez-Torregrosa, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain Lantip Diat Prasojo, Faculty of Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Magdalena Ramos Navas-Parejo, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain Anna Ravaglio, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Laura Reyes Alardo, Universidad Domínico Americano (UNICDA), Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Lucie Rohlíková, Department of Computer Science and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia, Plzen, Czech Republic Roslinawati Roslan, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam Coral Ruiz-Roso Vázquez, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain María Rubio-Gragera, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Spain Julio Ruiz-Palmero, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Spain Fernando José Sadio-Ramos, Escola Superior de Educação do Politécnico de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Sallimah Salleh, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam Enfique Sánchez-Rivas, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Málaga, Spain Elena Sánchez-Vega, Faculty of Education Sciences, International University of Valencia (VIU), Valencia, Spain Claudiane Santana, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil
Contributors
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Masitah Shahrill, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam Cristiano da Silva Benites, Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil Roberto Soto-Varela, Faculty of Education, University of Valladolid, Segovia, Spain Lejla Turulja, School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Łukasz Tomczyk, Institute of Education, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland Marlegne Torres, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá city, Panamá Ana Cristina Umaña, State Distance University of Costa Rica, Costa Rica Nazmi Xhomara, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Faculty of Information Technology and Innovation, Luarasi University, Tirana, Albania Lalu Nurul Yaqin, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam Norazmie Yusof, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
Chapter 1
Introduction—In Seeking Solutions to Minimise Digital Exclusion and Develop Digital Competences Around the World Łukasz Tomczyk , Francisco D. Guillén-Gámez , Julio Ruiz-Palmero , and Akhmad Habibi
This book ‘Digital Competences development’ offers a global, expert perspective on two key phenomena in the development of the information society, namely digital inclusion and digital exclusion. Despite the intensive digitalisation of various areas of human activity, the lack of proper ICT literacy, the lack of access to high-speed Internet, and the still unsatisfactory level of e-services are a reality in many regions and countries. The aim of the monograph is to explore the processes related to the dynamics of digital exclusion in the last two decades. The monograph also seeks to present effective or model educational solutions that foster the development of digital competences. The book offers a dual view of the digitalisation of the space of private and professional life from an international perspective, discussing the operationalisation of digital exclusion, as well as presenting constructive solutions related to digital inclusion, the development of new media literacy, and the development of infrastructure and e-services that enhance the quality of life. The monograph is
Ł. Tomczyk (B) Institute of Education, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland e-mail: [email protected] F. D. Guillén-Gámez · J. Ruiz-Palmero Department of Didactics and School Organization, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J. Ruiz-Palmero e-mail: [email protected] A. Habibi Faculty of Education, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_1
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based on a systematic literature analysis using the highest methodological standards, covering studies across three decades from 24 countries. The publication presents a unique overview of research related to the dynamics of digital exclusion and the development of digital competences, as well as an analysis of the most effective educational solutions for fostering the digital inclusion of disadvantaged groups. The publication fills a gap in the market, where no analysis that looks at digital exclusion and digital inclusion from a global dimension has been undertaken so far. The monograph includes an in-depth characterisation of educational solutions (both in formal and non-formal education) that have so far not been explicitly promoted outside of those regions or countries where they have been highly effective in minimising the digital divide. The book is therefore not only a straightforward collection and analysis of available data from the last two decades, but is also an example of comparative research of use within many social science disciplines. Each chapter is based on a systematic analysis of the literature available in national and congressional languages. The authors have carried out an in-depth literature search, presenting the reader with the characteristics of the development of the information society in each country. In addition, each chapter also highlights the administrative, organisational, and educational assumptions behind the activities that have contributed to raising the level of basic and specialised digital competences among children, young people, and adults (including those in late adulthood). The book thus offers a kind of summary, representing a compendium on the digitalisation of various sectors of human life. The publication will be of particular use to educators dealing with the topic of digital exclusion and inclusion who are looking for knowledge on enhancing digital competences in disadvantaged groups. The monograph will also be useful for social policymakers involved in designing solutions to minimise various forms of digital exclusion. In addition, the publication is suitable for academics and students from the disciplines of pedagogy, social policy, new media psychology, media sociology, and cultural anthropology. The book opens with a study prepared by Nazmi Xhomar from Luarasi University, Albania. In the chapter entitled ‘Overview of Digital Inclusion Initiatives and perspectives in Albania,’ the Tirana-based researcher highlights several key aspects related to the minimisation of digital exclusion and digital inclusion referring to dimensions such as the Digital Albania profile; Digital skills development; ICTs and the education system; ICT strategies; ICT in education; e-Albania; current digital inclusion and perspective. The second chapter, prepared by a team of researchers from the University of Sarajevo entitled ‘Digital inclusion and digital divide in the context of Bosnia and Herzegovina,’ reveals the challenges related to the level of digital competence, and the vision of educational development, as well as strategic issues in planning activities to minimise the level of digital exclusion. The chapter ‘The idiosyncrasies of the digital divide in Brazil: a literature review on initiatives of digital inclusion’ was prepared by experts representing the Mackenzie Presbyterian University of Sao Paolo—Anna Ravaglio, Gerson
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Muitana, Cristiano da Silva Benites, Claudiane Santana, Maria Amelia Eliseo, Ismar Frango Silveira, Valéria Farinazzo Martins, and Cibele Alburquerque de la Higuera Amato. The Brazilian perspective, using the PRISMA methodology, demonstrates the complexity of analyses of digital exclusion that address the perspectives of public policies, technology, education, social inclusion, and social inequalities. The chapter entitled ‘Bridging the Digital Divide in Higher Education: Notes from the Emergence of the COVID-19 Pandemic’ was explored by researchers representing the University of Brunei Darussalam: Kaspul Anwar, Juraidah Musa, Sallimah Salleh, Masitah Shahrill, and Roslinawati Roslan. The chapter offers valuable insights into the challenges faced, the solutions learned, and the policy recommendations devised for bridging the digital divide in higher education, highlighting the achievements of existing studies, and identifying shortcomings and research topics that merit further attention in light of the emerging situation. Researchers Myriam Ortiz Padilla, Rober Soto-Varela, and Luis Oviedo Berrocal have prepared the chapter ‘From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion in Colombia: A Systematic Literature Review of Strategies from Education.’ In this study, the authors identify the most successful forms of digital inclusion in the last three decades in Colombia with the purpose of promoting the safe use of ICTs and adequate digital skills, both in urban and rural areas nationwide. The chapter ‘Digital divide and digital inclusion in Cuba: a systematic review’ has been prepared by Inmaculada Martínez-García, Enrique Alastor, Elena SánchezVega, and Juan Jesús Mondéjar-Rodríguez. The study is focused on the literature on the digital divide in Cuba, with the purpose of identifying those initiatives carried out that contribute to the digital inclusion of the population. For this, the authors have used the PRISMA methodology. In addition, the implications of the pandemic on the use of ICTs have been analysed, yielding a list of suggestions for future research and actions to address this division. The chapter prepared by Melchor Gómez-García, Rober Soto-Varela, Ana Cristina Umaña, and Estíbaliz Pérez is entitled ‘Digital Transformation Training and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica.’ The authors belong to the Autonomous University of Madrid (Spain), the University of Valladolid (Spain), the Distance State University of Costa Rica (Costa Rica), and the University of Costa Rica (Costa Rica). The authors use the PRISMA protocol to access different databases such as Scopus and the Web of Sciences (WoS) with the purpose of identifying the most successful forms of digital inclusion in recent decades in Costa Rica. In the chapter ‘Issues related to digital divide from the past perspective of Czech scientific journals (2003–2022),’ a team of authors representing two Czech univerˇ sities, composed of Lenka Benediktová, Jan Bezdˇeka, Michal Cerný, Zbynˇek Filipi, and Lucie Rohlíková, characterised the different dimensions of digital exclusion in the Czechia, one of the CEE countries. The Czech authors sought to differentiate digital exclusion in the last two decades according to the age of the respondents among whom digital competences were strengthened. The chapter entitled ‘From Digital Exclusion to Digital Inclusion: How is the Dominican Republic fostering a Digital Culture?’ by Laura Reyes Alardo, Leipzig Guzmán Mena, Rita Cruz, and Darwin Munoz, based on a systematic analysis of
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articles, presents the specificity of digital exclusion in the Dominican Republic. The chapter presents the process of digital exclusion and inclusion, taking into account definitional issues and social aspects of digital inclusion, as well as educational interventions. The chapter that focuses on Ecuador was prepared by Juan Carlos de la Cruz Campos, Magdalena Ramos Navas-Parejo, Coral Ruiz-Roso Vázquez, and Estuardo Cevallos Uve, and is entitled ‘From the digital divide to digital inclusion: an Ecuadorian perspective.’ The authors form an international working group representing different universities: the University of Granada (Spain), the University of Málaga (Spain), and the Higher Technological Institute Tsachila (Ecuador). The objective of the study was to discover which institutions the authors of the selected publications belong to, which countries they come from, determine which countries are interested in the topic of Ecuadorian digital inclusion, its distribution over time, and its main results. Regarding Greece, the authors Anthi Karatrantou and Christos Panagiotakopoulos from the University of Patras have prepared the chapter entitled ‘Digital Divide issues in Greece: A systematic review.’ The authors analyse the forms of digital inclusion that have been developed and applied in Greece over the last two decades. For this, a systematic review was carried out through PRISMA of the literature, based on scientific articles and national and European reports. Specifically, the authors have analysed how specific factors interact with the digital divide, considering age, gender, employment, income, internet access, place of residence, electronic government, and marital status. In the chapter entitled ‘Addressing the Digital Divide in Indonesian Higher Education: Insights, Implications, and Potential Solutions,’ the study conducted by Lalu Nurul Yaqin, Lantip Diat Prasojo, Noor Azam Haji-Othman, Norazmie Yusof, and Akhmad Habibi draws attention to the increasingly urgent issue of the digital divide within Indonesian higher education. This concern has been particularly amplified amid the COVID-19 pandemic, which has underscored the pivotal role of technology and online resources in ensuring the continuity of education. The report made use of a systematic literature review (SLR) and employed PRISMA. The findings that emerge from the SLR strongly highlight the significance of tackling the digital divide that prevails in Indonesian higher education. Key strategies to bridge this divide encompass augmenting internet infrastructure, harmonising technological resources, and facilitating access to digital devices and services. The implications of this research resonate deeply within the spheres of policymaking, educational institutions, and practitioners. To this end, it is imperative to prioritise improvements to infrastructure and establishing reliable internet connectivity. Concurrently, a compelling need exists to narrow the technological chasm between various regions within Indonesia, ensuring equitability in the availability of digital tools and resources. A central facet of this endeavour lies in the empowerment of educators through comprehensive technical training and support programmes. This empowerment is envisioned to enhance their ability to oversee online-based learning, enabling them to harness digital resources efficiently, steer online discussions, and foster collaborative learning experiences. Equally imperative is providing training and support systems designed
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to nurture students’ digital competences, fostering digital literacy and equal access to educational avenues. Two researchers, Ramun˙e Kasper˙e and Jolita Horbaˇcauskien˙e from the Kaunas University of Technology, in the chapter ‘Is digitalisation for everybody? Perspectives and obstacles to digital inclusion in Lithuania,’ highlight the critical factors related to digital inclusion, which include lack of adequate motivation, place of residence, and understanding of the positive implications of ICT use. The next chapter starts with history, policy, and philosophy and continues with a detailed bibliometric analysis of digital inclusion in Malaysia. In an era marked by rapid technological advancement and its consequential impact on various aspects of society, understanding the dynamics of digital inclusion has emerged as a critical concern, particularly within the unique context of Malaysia. This study embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the intricate landscape of digital inclusion within the Malaysian milieu, with a specific focus on the pivotal intersection of digital inclusion, educational policy, and research. The convergence of educational policy and research, orchestrated to facilitate impartial access to digital technologies and augment digital literacy proficiencies, emerges as an exigent necessity. Through the seamless fusion of these two dimensions, Malaysia is poised to chart a transformative course towards a more all-encompassing and technologically proficient education system, one that guarantees the readiness of every learner to thrive within the ever-evolving digital terrain. Within the collected chapters, the study prepared by the authors from Mexico, Claudia Blanca González Calleros, Josefina Guerrero García, and Juan Manuel González Calleros, deserves special mention. In their study ‘Addressing the digital divide with educational systems in Mexico: challenges and opportunities,’ the three authors representing the Universidad Veracruzana and the Universidad Autónoma de Puebla highlight the changing levels of digital exclusion and the educational aspects of digital inclusion over two decades. This study offers new insights into the dynamics of changing levels of digital competence and co-occurring processes. The analysis of digital exclusion and inclusion in Morocco was prepared by the researchers Imane Bakkali, Ana Belén Pérez Torregrosa, Violeta Cebrián Robles, and Manuel Cebrián de la Serna, who belong to a group of international institutions: Université Abdelmalek Essaadi (Morocco), the University of Jaén (Spain), the University of Extremadura (Spain), the International University of Andalusia (Spain), and the International University of Andalusia (Spain). The authors have carried out a review of the literature on e-inclusion in Morocco and the educational initiatives implemented during the last two decades. A chapter analyses the digital divide in Panama based on the experience of researchers Moussa Boumadan, Marlegne Torres, Rusia González Valdés, and Francisco Farnum Castro. The chapter entitled ‘Technology and the Digital Divide in Panama,’ analyses the digital divide with the purpose of establishing specific objectives for the use of ICTs so that society can understand, adopt, and make the best use of information technologies, a process that will help to improve the lives and well-being of the Panamanian people.
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The analysis of digital exclusion and inclusion in Peru was prepared by Julio Cabero-Almenara, Carmen Llorente-Cejudo, Antonio Palacios-Rodriguez, and Fiorela Anaí Fernández Otoya, from Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo Catholic University (Peru) and from the University of Seville (Spain). The authors reflect on digital exclusion in Peru and its possible causes, as well as on the most successful forms of digital inclusion in recent decades. To achieve this, the authors have approached the systematic analysis of the literature in accordance with the PRISMA methodology. The Polish experience related to the development of the information society and therefore to strengthening digital competences was presented by the international team of Łukasz Tomczyk, Izabela Kielar, Arif Da¸s, and Nihal Da¸s. The article, entitled ‘Digital exclusion and inclusion in Poland—an overview of research and educational activities from recent decades’ highlights the specificity of digitally excluded people in the four stages of the development of the information society. The process of inclusion is described in the contexts of IT development and social change, with particular reference to the implementation of educational activities attributed to formal, non-formal, and informal education. The chapter entitled ‘Digitization in Portugal: a systematic review of technological exclusion and inclusion since the beginning of the twenty-first century’ was prepared by Ernesto Colomo-Magaña, Andrea Cívico-Ariza, Francisco D. GuillénGámez, and Fernando José Sadio-Ramos. The authors examine the need for technology infrastructure and training over three decades, including in their analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic which revealed the lack of infrastructure and training in the educational community. Gabriela Neagu, representing the Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy, prepared the chapter entitled ‘Romania 2000–2022: educational policies and strategic options for digital inclusion. Literature review,’ in which she analyses the formal conditions related to the development of digital competences. The study is based on a mapping of key government documents and research findings that set out the direction of change in ICT literacy formation from a national perspective. In turn, the Slovak perspective is presented by Milan Kubiatko who, using the PRISMA methodology, prepared the article ‘Overview of digital exclusion in the Slovak Republic conditions from 2000 to the present: Review study.’ The results of the study present several interesting areas related to the popularity of research into digital exclusion, as well as the resulting public awareness of digital competences. From the INNOEDUCA Research group, four researchers have prepared the chapter ‘Analyzing the digital inclusion in Spain from a systematic literature review,’ which considers the digital divide between teachers and students of different ages and educational stages. In addition, the authors reflect on how age and gender are variables to consider since there is a digital gap both in access to and in the use of technology. The book ends with a chapter entitled ‘Information literacy and digital inclusion: challenges of the modern information educational environment in Ukraine.’ The study, by Larysa Lukianova and Oksana Ovcharuk, suggests clear differences in the level of digital literacy, which is conditioned not only by metric age but also by social class. The Ukrainian article draws attention to the mediating variables in the process
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of minimising digital exclusion, which are not always taken into account in other countries. We would like to thank all the reviewers who contributed to the improvement of the quality of the publication. Special thanks at this point go to: Adina Mihailescu, Agnieszka Iwanicka, Anna Włoch, Cesar Collazos, Dana Egerova, Elma Selmanagic Lizde, Fernanda Dreux, Gıyasettin Demirhan, Haris Memisevic, Katarzyna Potyrała, Laura Fedeli, Sonia Magali Arteaga Sarmiento, Maria Diacon, Mariana Porta, Natalia Demeshkant, Pavol Prokop, Valdimir Costas, Zuzana Halakova, Ahmet Salih, Amit Kumar, Hugo Heredia Ponce, Indrajit Doddanavar, Seda Ozer Sanal, Miriam Ágreda Montoro, Verónica Sierra, Indrajit Doddanavar, María Mercedes Romero Rodrigo, Jesús López-Belmonte, César Calderón Mayorga, Eduardo Menjívar, Javier Rodríguez Moreno, Diana Marín Suelves, Zhonggen Yu, Can Sayginer, Arzu Deveci Topal, Mohd Hafiz Mohd Hanafiah, Muhammad Sofwan, Tommy Wiajaya, Turki Mesfer Al-Qahtani, Made Hery Santosa, Robi Hendra, and Asih Jamila. At the same time, we would also like to thank the National Centre of Science (NCN, Poland), which inspired the preparation of this international monograph through the realisation of the project REMEDIS [021/03/Y/HS6/00275] under the CHANSE ERA-NET Co-fund. The project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme [contract number 101004509]. We hope that the book will prove to be an interesting global voice in the discussion on the changes in the development of the information society in recent decades and, at the same time, will contribute to changing the level of digital competence among groups requiring social and educational support (Tomczyk & Fedeli, 2022; Tomczyk et al., 2023).
References Tomczyk, Ł., & Fedeli, L. (Eds.). (2022). Digital literacy for teachers. Lecture notes in educational technology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1738-7 Tomczyk, Ł., Mascia, M. L., Gierszewski, D., & Walker, C. (2023). Barriers to digital inclusion among older people: A intergenerational reflection on the need to develop digital competences for the group with the highest level of digital exclusion. Innoeduca. International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 9(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca.2023. v9i1.16433
Chapter 2
Overview of Digital Inclusion Initiatives and Perspectives in Albania Nazmi Xhomara
Abstract The demand for digital skills in Albania is related to the changes that the economy is undergoing and the desire of society to move forward to digitalization. The aim of the chapter is to investigate the digital environment, digital inclusion, digital process, and digital perspective in Albania. Digital access is thought to be the most important variable to predict the digital transformation of society, especially the societies that came from dictatorship regimes. Information technology and innovation have a great potential for the dissemination of knowledge and competencies, especially inside the education system. The digital connectivity as foundation for digital transformation of the economy, education, and society remains a prerequisite to empower digital development in every context. The chapter is compounded by different sections about digital inclusion and digital perspective: (1) Digital Albania profile; (2) Digital skills development; (3) ICTs and the education system; (4) ICT strategies; (5) ICT in education; e-Albania; (6) current digital inclusion and perspective. Keywords Digital inclusion · Digital process · Digital perspective · School · Students · Albania
2.1 Rationale Digital development through digital transformation has become ever more important since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Various United Nations agencies and other organizations have assisted countries in their respective skills relying substantially on the digital component. Expanding the availability of digital products and services, and empowering citizens, workers, and especially students in their daily engagements and needs during lockdown has become one of the key priorities of all countries. The ability to leverage the progress made in the digital sphere has N. Xhomara (B) Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Faculty of Information Technology and Innovation, Luarasi University, Tirana, Albania e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_2
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become an important factor in determining resilience during the COVID-19 crisis (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). In this context, demand for digital skills in Albania is related to both digital skills as a key competence and specialized digital skills related to specific occupations. The current demand for digital skills in Albania is linked to the changes that the economy is undergoing and the desire of society to move closer to digitalization. In an increasingly digital world, Albania, as a middle-income country, has high demands for digital skills development but few opportunities to acquire these skills. Most of the society owns basic digital skills and technical competence, such as using electronic products, software programs, social media, and making easy online transactions such as searching on the internet and sending and receiving e-mails (Xhomara, 2022). Digital skills are the most important input especially in education system. Digital learning tools are increasingly prevalent in classrooms, yet too often, technology integration efforts by educators replicate rather than transform traditional instructional practices (Xhomara, 2021). In the PISA assessment it is sanctioned that at level four of proficiency students can work effectively with situations that may involve explicit phenomena requiring them to make inferences about the role of science and technology. They can select and integrate explanations from different disciplines of science and technology and link those explanations to aspects of life situations (Xhomara, 2018). As the nowadays situation is developing into a new normal where digital inclusion is not only a solution to an emergency act but a long-term investment, it is necessary to unravel the different dimensions of digital development skills in every country as Information and Communication Technology, thereafter ICT’s become increasingly important (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). ICT has a great potential for the dissemination of knowledge, effective teaching, and the development of more efficient education services. Schools and classrooms must have teachers who are equipped with resources and technological skills to be able to effectively teach students curricular content including technological concepts and skills (Xhomara, 2016). Hasani et al., (2020) demonstrated that a positive correlation exists between using computer and academic performance. It can be concluded that using computer impacts the academic performance of students. Significant digital connectivity as foundation for digital transformation is of primary importance and remains a prerequisite to empower digital development in every area. It is the key for every aspect of the economy acting as a fundamental enabler for businesses, consumers, as well as citizens. Access to the fixed, mobile, wireless, as well as satellite at an affordable price is a key prerequisite for advancing sustainable development of every aspect of life of society. Education systems, especially teaching and learning are affected positively by digital inclusion. The study conducted by Xhomara and Karabina (2021) found that the variance of online learning is different, revealing that, different levels of online learning influence academic performance. It is also found that approximately 49.7% of the variance in academic performance can be explained or accounted for by online learning differences. It is confirmed that the variance of online learning is different, revealing that, different levels of online learning influence students’ satisfaction. The study
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also found that approximately 78% of the variance in students’ satisfaction can be explained or accounted for by online learning differences. It can also be concluded that the middle-term points explain 84.6% of the variance in their academic performance for experimental group, and 73.1% for control group in the context of face-to-face and online teaching. This indicates that middleterm points strongly influence students’ academic performance in the context of face-to-face and online teaching (Xhomara & Hala, 2021). At the same time, the study conducted by Xhomara, and Dasho (2019) demonstrated that a positive correlation exists between information and communication technology skills and effective learning of students. It can be concluded that the information and communication technology skills impact effective teaching and learning. It is also found that approximately 72.2% of the variance for the experimental group and 87.8% for the control group in academic performance can be explained or accounted for by coursework differences in the context of blended learning (Xhomara & Baholli, 2022). Xhomara and Dasho (2023) found a significant positive correlation between online instruction and student learning outcomes. They also found that online instruction is making a substantial positive contribution to the prediction of student learning outcomes. Therefore, the digital inclusion is of great importance in education system as well as in every aspect of everyday life in society.
2.2 Digital Albania Profile 2.2.1 Digital Access as Foundation for Digital Transformation Digital access is meant to be the most important variable to predict the digital transformation of society. The latest International Telecommunication Union, thereafter ITU data (2018) suggest that 72.2% of people in Albania used the internet in 2020. The result is far below the European country’s average of 84.9%. However, the increase in the number of internet users by different people and different professions is steady and slightly accelerating on a year-by-year basis. According to the latest data of the last three years, the number of users has increased by an average of 3.3 percentage (ITU, 2018). Therefore, in 2020, Albania had 99% of the population covered with 3G and 98% with 4G/LTE. The number of active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 people was 69, while the number of fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 people was 18. The greatest increase known is the number of fixed broadband subscriptions. Since 2018, the number of fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 people experienced an annual growth with a compound annual growth rate, thereafter CAGR of 18.6%. As for the number of active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 people, Albania has encountered a CAGR of 5.2% (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). Despite the number of fixed broadband subscriptions still being low, 83.3% of people had internet access at home in 2020. Furthermore, about 96% of the broadband
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traffic was consumed via fixed broadband subscriptions, with a monthly average of 97.4 GB. Meantime, the average monthly mobile broadband internet traffic per mobile broadband subscription is 3.6 GB. Based on the cross-cutting strategy “Digital Agenda of Albania” 2015–2020, Albania’s physical extension of fiber optic infrastructure reached 5000 km in 2015, and the network has also been growing ever since. Broadband is currently supplied through fixed and mobile technologies like DSL, FTTH/FTTB, and FTTx in combination with Network Graphic Annunciator (NGA). Increased investments in fiber optics (FTTH and FTTB) are undergoing by fixed-network operators in the country. Yet, according to the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority’s reports and feasibility study results, broadband speeds are low. The existing bandwidth in fixed and mobile networks operators is less than 30 Mbps. In terms of mobile technologies, broadband is supplied via 3G/HSPA/HSPA + and 4G/LTE networks, as well as satellite technologies (ITU, 2020). Table 2.1 summarizes a set of ITU indicators that embed Albania in a European and Global context regarding telecommunications and internet indicators (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). Thus, based on the above data it can be concluded that, while in many directions, Albania finds itself well above World averages, there remains a nonnegligible gap on some important indicators compared to Europe region averages. Table 2.1 Key Telecommunications and Internet Indicators in Albania in comparison to the European and World average Key Indicator (2020)
Albania
Fixed telephone subs per 100 inhabitants
7.8
Europe 32.5
World 11.6
Mobile cellular subs per 100 inhabitants
91
118.3
107
Active mobile broadband per 100 inhabitants
69.5
101.5
77.3
3G coverage (% of population)
99.2
98.4
93.6
LTE/WiMAX coverage (% of population)
98.4
98.5
85
Individuals using Internet (%)
72.2
84.9
59.1
Households with Internet access (%)
83.3
87.6
65.7
Fixed broadband subs per 100 inhabitants
17.7
33.8
15.8
256 kbit/s to 2 Mbit/s
0.3
0.3
1.8
2 to 10 Mbit/s
32.3
6.4
6.7
10 Mbit/s
67.4
92.3
89.9
Fixed broadband subs by speed, % distribution:
Source ITU, 2022a, 2022b
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2.2.2 Digital Market Environment The digital market environment seems to be a very vital and competitive sector in Albania in the current years. According to the ITU “Measuring Information Society Report 2018”, Albania’s ICT environment has seen a positive development over the past years. Government innovation strategies brought forward by the government and the European Union enlargement process have empowered policy reform, particularly in the ICT sector. Access, as well as the use of ICTs, have grown due to the government’s strategic vision and liberalization of the ICT market. Although ICT infrastructure is well-developed in urban centers, rural connectivity remains a challenge. In different regions of the country, especially rural ones, the costs can be high, and the penetration is low. The lack of rural connectivity situation is “one of the major gaps” and hampers growth in the country. Hitting the COVID-19 pandemic in Albania, asked an increase in demand for highquality internet services. To meet this demand, fixed as well as mobile broadband operators had to increase the network capacity. In 2020, the investment of mobile operators reached ALL 6.9 billion (pprox. EUR 56.8 million), increasing by 63% compared to ALL 4.2 billion (pprox. EUR 34.6 million) in 2019. The fixed broadband operators made ALL 2.76 billion (pprox. EUR 22.7 million) investments in 2020. In 2020, seven operators that generated 82% of the revenues in the ICT market were ALBtelecom, ABCom (Vodafone), ASC, ATU, Abissnet, Nisatel, and Digicom. Meanwhile, Vodafone Albania continued to hold the largest share of the mobile electronic communications services market, although it is slightly decreased compared to 2019. In terms of penetration rates, the highest ones of urban penetration are in Tirana City with 40.18% and Korça City with 25.55%. The highest rate of rural penetration is in Durrës county with about 21%, followed by Tirana and Shkodra counties with 10% and 8% (AKEP, 2020). Therefore, despite the comparison between Albania and Europe, the digital indicators of market environment have grown in the last years.
2.2.3 Digital Access Policies and Regulations Path stepping on the European Union integration defined the strategic vector for empowering the economic growth of the country and asked for the active development of the ICT sector. In this context, several policies and programs have been in place ever since the start of processes to access the European Union, thereafter EU, and important improvements have been achieved in terms of access, infrastructure, and affordability. The first National Broadband Plan (2013–2020) of Albania provided a set of orientations and aims to be undertaken by the government, public agencies, and other regulatory institutions to improve and further develop broadband infrastructure throughout the country. Aims also include increasing internet penetration, providing the internet with high speed and reliability across the country, increasing competition, and lowering the prices. The plan also aims to expand the number of e-services and to
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digitalize all public services, as well as to raise the awareness of the society regarding the benefits achieved from the use of broadband services (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). Among the main developments resulting from the plan is the adoption of law 120/2016 “On the development of high-speed electronic communications networks and the provision of the right of way” (Parliament of Albania, 2016). It imposed the development of broadband infrastructure by creating spaces for the shared use of the existing utility infrastructure designated for broadband networks. Despite achievements, however, there is still room for improvement in the implementation of this law. To advance on it, the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority (AKEP) allocated spectrum frequencies for mobile broadband and removed technological restrictions on the use of the spectrum. At the same time, AKEP created an atlas for telecommunications infrastructure and took measures for shared infrastructure use. These measures advance broadband security in rural and remote regions, and the ones in the field of international roaming (ITU, 2021a, 2021b; MIE, 2020). To overcome the remaining problems related to the connectivity, in June 2020, the Albanian government approved and adopted the National Plan for Sustainable Development of Digital Infrastructure, Broadband 2020–2025 (MIE, 2020). The new national broadband targets are to provide by 2023 free access to Wi-Fi in 50% of the biggest public areas, such as parks, libraries, and main squares in all cities and villages. By the end of 2025 is also planned to achieve: (a) broadband penetration of 100%, with 50% having high-speed access of at least 1 Gbps (urban areas-Tirana) and 50% having access at the speed of at least 100 Mbps; (b) 100% of households in rural and remote areas connected to broadband with a speed of at least 100 Mbps; (c) 100% of schools connected with high-speed broadband of 1 Gbps and access in every classroom of pre-university education; (d) 100% of universities and other higher school institutions connected with high-speed broadband of 1 Gbps; e 100% of health centers and hospitals connected with a high-speed 1 Gbps broadband; and finally (f) one major city, the major transport corridors, and strategic locations covered with 5G connectivity (ITU, 2021a, 2021b; MIE, 2020). Other broadband-related important policies include the Economic Reform Program 2019–2021, Albania’s 5G Strategy, regional strategies—including SEE2020 and Multi-Annual Action Plan for a Regional Economic Area in the Western Balkans, thereafter MAP-REA WB6, Balkans Digital Highway, and Albania’s National Cyber Security Strategy (EU Delegations, 2022). Finally, from a wider regulatory position, Albania currently scores 88 in the ITU ICT Regulatory Tracker, placing the country at 46th place among the countries considered for the 2020 ranking. The country is sharing this place with the other four countries from the Europe region. The ITU Tracker identifies the changes taking place in the ICT regulatory environment. It facilitates benchmarking and the pinpoints identification of trends and gaps in ICT legal and regulatory frameworks and allows decision-makers to make the case for further regulatory reform toward achieving a vibrant and inclusive ICT sector (ITU, 2021a, 2021b; MIE, 2020). The ICT Regulatory Tracker is composed of 50 indicators grouped into four clusters: (1) Regulatory authority, that is focusing on the functioning of the separate regulator: Albania scores 18 out of 20; (2) Regulatory mandates, who regulates what: Albania scores 20 out of 22; (3) Regulatory regime,
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what regulation exists in major areas: Albania scores 26 out of 30; (4) Competition framework for the ICT sector, that is the level of competition in the main market segments: Albania scores 24 out of 28 (ITU, 2021a, 2021b; MIE, 2020). The G5 benchmark that covers four pillars, with 66 indicators is also considered: National Collaborative Governance, Policy Design Principles, Digital Development Toolbox, and Digital Economic Policy Agenda. According to the latest data, Albania scores 72.33 in the G5 benchmark, that is a good result if compared to Europe region average of 73.9. This positions the country in the 52nd place among 193 countries and suggests that there is still an area of improvement. This benchmark positions Albania among the group of countries with a fourth-generation regulatory regime (G4), that is integrated and led by economic and social policy goals. Albania reached G4 only in 2020 and is among the 84.4% of European region countries that graduated to G4 (ITU, 2021a, 2021b; MIE, 2020). Therefore, the country’s overall result is slightly higher than the Europe region average score of 86.9, but is well above the world one of 71,9. Recently, the ITU launched a reviewed fifth generation of regulation benchmark, focused on collaboration among different stakeholders in the ICT sector and with other sectors of the economy of the country (ITU, 2021a, 2021b).
2.3 Digital Skills Development The transformation of the Albanian economy in the current years and the digitalization of society increased the demand for digital skills and knowledge. Yet, the level of digital knowledge and skills across the population leaves space for improvement, and there are disparities in access to opportunities to acquire the digital knowledge and competencies. According to Eurostat statistics, in 2019, only 21% of Albanians aged 16 to 74 possessed basic digital skills. This was one of the lowest percentages among all European countries (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). The majority of society owns basic digital skills and technological competencies, such as using electronic items, software, social media, navigating the internet, and sending and receiving e-mails. Due to the knowledge and skills accumulated through the education system, citizens between 15 and 25 years old own intermediate digital skills. However, only individuals who have completed university studies, and those who work in the digital sector possess more advanced skills (Haxhi, 2021). According to the recent digital skills assessment conducted by the ITU and Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy of Albania, the labor market is currently struggling from the lack of digital knowledge and skills, non-appropriate university education curricula, and the lack of opportunities for employees’ digital knowledge and skills development. The Albanian ICT sector has a severe shortage of talented individuals. It is characterized by a large gap between ICT graduates’ knowledge and competencies and the market needs, even for lower-level positions of them. As a result, many companies provide intensive and costly in-house training for new graduates, sometimes lasting up to six months period (ITU, 2022a, 2022b).
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The Albanian government has already embarked on a journey to improve the education system, with the measures implemented at the legislative and administrative levels. There is an extensive number of government organizations and agencies that are responsible for digital skills development in Albania. The ranking list includes the Prime Minister’s Office, the Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth, the Ministry of Finance and Economy, the Ministry of Energy and Infrastructure, the National Agency of Information Society, the Agency for Quality Assurance of PreUniversity Education, and the National Agency of Vocational Education Training and Qualifications (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). The national strategic documents contributing to the digital knowledge and skills development include (1) the National Education Strategy 2021–2026, (2) Digital Agenda of Albania 2015–2020, (3) the National Employment and Skills Strategy 2019–2022, (4) the National Strategy for Scientific Research, Technology, and Innovation 2017–2022, and (5) the National Strategy for Development and Integration 2015–2020. However, the Digital Agenda of Albania 2021–2025 predicts one of the core pillars to be dedicated to enabling and developing basic and advanced digital knowledge skills to broadly involve the people in ICT services and increase the number of ICT professionals (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). To facilitate and accelerate the digital knowledge and skills development in Albania, numerous projects were implemented by the development partners and the private sector, as follows (ITU, 2022a, 2022b): • “The Skills for Jobs (SJ4)” pilot project was launched in April 2018 to offer remote internships to ICT students. The project involves ICT businesses, including 11 leading companies based in Tirana, giving the students practical assignments to be done in the classroom or at home. The project uses the PAPION online platform. • Pavarësia school launched a pilot course in “design software for 3D printers” involving 22 Vocational Education and Training, thereafter VET teachers and students. Equipment and software were provided by a Swiss company operating in Albania. The course is used to develop the digital skills and competences of students to enable them to meet the demands of modern industry and to create tools. • Cisco academies: IT teachers from the VET center of Kamza, Kolin Gjoka school in Lezha, industrial Pavarësia school in Vlora, and Gjergji Canco electro-technic school received a “Cisco three-month blended training”. These schools have become Cisco academies, offering IT training opportunities. • “Technology for innovative pedagogy”, in 2017, a project led by Irisoft Education delivered several IT training modules and involved 135 teachers from five vocational schools. The training included the development and use of a dedicated portal on vocational subjects. • “IT career opportunities for young women”, Albania’s Massive Open Online Courses offered ICT courses to 8,500 trainees. More than 42% of them were female. • “Swisscontact Skills for Jobs project” supported by teachers and experts aimed at developing digital learning content for IT, hotel and tourism, and business
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education programs. An open-source learning platform offers digital resources that can be used for classroom practice or self-learning at the learner’s own pace and place. • Vodafone Albania Foundation manages several social projects, including establishing 120 “innovation clubs (i-Clubs)” involving schools across the country in extracurricular youth education (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). Furthermore, ICT resource center Protik, a not-for-profit organization, was established in 2012 by the Government of Albania, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Albanian-American Development Foundation, Microsoft, Cisco, and Albtelecom. Since then, it was aimed to support the development of start-ups and the ICT sector in the country by providing online workshops, courses, and ICT resources. The COVID-19 pandemic reinforced the need for digital knowledge and skills development in both the education system as well as in the market sectors. The crucial role in adjusting to new realities in the education system can be attributed to teachers, as many of them were not previously trained or prepared to transition from offline to online teaching activity (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). The private market also needed to quickly adapt to new digital conditions and adopt new ways of working. The need to work from home showed how critical digital knowledge and skills are. In this context, the companies from ICT-related sectors were the most prepared comparing to the companies from other fields. Among the projects that help unsupported categories of the population adjust to new realities is the “Supported Continuous Unemployed Learning” project. It started in August 2020 and aims to train around 6,000 vulnerable low trained jobseekers and help them acquire basic professional and personal knowledge and skills including literacy, numeracy, and basic digital competencies. The ultimate aim is to support and facilitate the access and transition of the specific group in the labor market and additional vocational education. This project is financed by the European Union Program for Employment and Social Innovation and implemented jointly by the National Agency for Employment and Skills and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Albania (UNDP, 2020).
2.4 ICTs and the Education System The fundamental enablers of digital transformation are based on the context of e-government, e-administration, and e-delivery of public services. ICT is playing an essential role in the education field from the perspective of the governance, of the education system, and the delivery of education, as well as beyond the actual content delivered, such as curricula including digital knowledge and skills. The new ITU—United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) report on “Connectivity in Education: Status and recent developments in 9 non-EU countries of Europe region” (2021) evidenced the dimensions of ICTs for e-government of education and ICTs as a medium for delivering online education. In Albania, there
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are about 3,818 education institutions in both urban and rural areas that nrol nearly 520,759 students from pre-primary to upper secondary education in the country (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). According to UNICEF, the literacy rate for the 15–24 years age group in Albania corresponded to 99.3%, while the completion rate of upper secondary education for the youth of school age is 77.9%. The important reforms are asking the school decentralization, introduction of competency-based curriculum, and significant changes in key education indicators. In addition, together with other socioeconomic reforms, improvements in teaching quality, textbooks, school premises, as well as the education infrastructure throughout the country are required. In 2009, the “e-school program” supported by UNDP, equipped hundreds of primary and secondary schools with modern computer labs, high-speed, reliable internet access, and training in information and communication skills. In 2012, as part of the “Digital Age of Communications Agenda” and “One-Laptop Per Child” initiative, the Albanian government set several partnerships with the satellite internet providers aiming to offer internet access to institutions from remote rural areas including schools (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). By 2014, the Albania Education Excellence and Equity Project worth a 75-million-dollar supported the construction or rehabilitation of 607 classrooms and laboratories as well as the provision of over 24,000 computers and internet connectivity to schools. This project minimized the student– computer ratio from 46 to 14 in urban areas and 133 to 13 in rural ones. Despite this, the Digital Agenda of Albania 2015–2020 included priorities meant to enhance the education system through its digitalization, providing high-speed internet to education institutions and integrating ICTs in the teaching and learning process. At the meantime, this included providing schools with the necessary equipment, and creating opportunities for the use of high-speed internet in other environments within schools, not only in laboratories (Allmeta, 2015). According to the National Plan for Sustainable Development of Digital Infrastructure, Broadband 2020–2025, the government’s aim is to have 100% of schools connected with high-speed broadband connectivity of 1 Gbps and access in every classroom by the end of 2025. In terms of school governance, Albania has started to establish different integral components to system evaluation. In this context, the Educational Services Center is developing a modern Education Management Information System called “Socrates”, which is set to store information related to students, teachers, curricula, and schools in pre-tertiary education. As a data tool, Socrates emerges as an excellent opportunity for Albania to modernize the collection, management, and use of education data though its education system (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). Nevertheless, different barriers persist and slow down the process of establishing an equitable education system. Barriers, such as poor infrastructure around schools and the difficulty of recruiting quality teachers to rural areas largely contribute to the area’s differences in student access to education. At the same time, it affected job opportunities, as well as the overall learning experiences among students. The influence of these barriers became even more dramatic when the COVID-19 pandemic hit Albania. In the lockdown period in the spring of 2020, COVID-19-related closures affected approximately 653 000 students in the whole country. Education institutions
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started to deliver teaching through online platforms, and the recorded topics for all classes became available on all national TV channels. Furthermore, some internet providers cut their fees in half to improve digital access for students (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). To support student learning across different levels, a free online platform “Akademi.al” was launched by the Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth. The platform hosts an estimated number of 5,000 video explanations by the best teachers from all over the country covering all the school subjects. UNICEF has contributed to the project with 1,100 new video lessons to support students with their national university entrance exams. Although the platform already complies with accessibility digital standards, the development of a mobile application is part of Akademi.al and UNICEF’s near future objectives. Although these initial efforts, the pandemic lockdown directly impacted the quality of learning, for at least 11,000 students who were unable to access online teaching delivery. Many of them live in remote and rural areas with no internet access or digital devices at home, especially Roma children and children with learning difficulties and disabilities (ITU, 2022a, 2022b). To tackle problems with connectivity and access to computers, the #RedForKids initiative was launched in April 2020, by the Vodafone Albania Foundation. Partnering with the Albanian Ministry of Education, Vodafone Albania donated 5,000 smart devices and SIM cards with unlimited online learning data access to the most inneed pupils. Another initiative called the “Education Technology Hubs” was implemented by UNICEF Albania in partnership with the Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth. It is designed to offer qualitative learning for all and will best serve teachers and students as tech mobile libraries. UNICEF also has distributed 840 tablets with keyboards and 48 smart boards, equipment for charging and saving the tablets as well as free internet in 24 pre-university schools (ITU, 2022a, 2022b).
2.5 ICT Strategies ICT refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications, that includes the internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication media. ICT emerged in a developed world and globalization processes exported it to developing countries. As a result ICT becomes a kind of “inevitable luxury”, and at the same time it creates a feeling of “cargo cult”—people begin to think that simply by using computers problems will be solved (Harris, 1998; Kransberg, 1991). It requires a lot of effort for people to learn that it is not true, as it happened with Stability Pact structures when at least discovered that it is not possible to solve institutional problems simply by using computers (ESEE, 2003). While developed and developing worlds collide, we see the impact of differences in rationalities (Avgerou, 2000) when living habits, means, and technologies of one world are somehow “alien” imported into the other. Even in the case of useful technologies as ICT, the difference in rationalities makes their deployment processes and their impact in one place different from the other. In developed countries, it
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is evidenced that political visions of ICT are too much dependent on the individual visions of their leaders. Hence, there is a missing continuity in deployment processes and the ICT development is similar to a “Brownian movement”, with high cost for the country (Kacani et al., 2003).
2.5.1 National ICT Strategy of 2003 Because of pressure from outside the country, in 2003 Albanian government accepted and approved the strategy draft prepared by international actors in collaboration with local ICT experts. The first draft was designed by a team of foreign and local ICT experts from different institutions, funded by international organizations. The first draft was presented in a national conference, afterward different items of the document were discussed in detail in different sessions for main directions: (1) governance, (2) education, (3) business, and so on. The improved draft of strategy was approved by the government at the beginning of 2003 and one member of government was charged with its implementation. Together with the draft of strategy, three other documents were prepared: (1) e-readiness of the country, (2) development indicators, and (3) the roadmap for implementation of the strategy (Kacani et al., 2003). The strategy of 2003 is covering the main sectors: (1) government as promoter, legislator, and user of ICT, (2) use of ICT for education, research, health, and social services, (3) building infrastructure needed for an open information society, (4) accelerating economic growth in the private sector, and (5) ensuring relevance of ICT strategy within a regional and European context (ICT Strategy, 2003). For each sector specific aims and necessary actions are described. The document is accompanied by two other documents: (1) e-readiness assessment and (2) roadmap. The roadmap simply presents sectors, goals, and actions as a table, with some recommendations about deadlines. Meanwhile, the e-readiness assessment was the most difficult document to be compiled. Organizations collecting statistical data in Albania had no specific information on ICT; even the number of computers was evaluated based on small surveys and unreliable data from other sources. One of the conclusions of the strategy itself was the need for the collection of ICT-related data, a goal still not achieved at a satisfactory level. Implementation of the strategy almost failed. Strategy implied the creation of a consultative group for the government, with representatives of different communities. This body was created but it was composed by some of members of the government who acted as consultants of council of ministers. Actions defined in the roadmap were not seriously followed, except the creation of a government metropolitan network and some internet services, always with the funding of international actors. It was clear that government had other priorities instead of ICT, and all was done quite formally as response to the external climate.
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2.5.2 National ICT Strategy of 2007 In 2005 the new government, being enthusiastic about ICT, decided to revise the strategy and at the same time designed the measures for its implementation. For a long time, new government members were sensitive about ICT. The ministry covering telecommunications was charged with the task of revising the strategy. Some international organizations and foreign ICT experts are invited to help for this purpose. Unlike the first time, experts from other local institutions were not involved and no public consultancy was organized. Nevertheless, many of its ideas were already in the implementation process, and probably the hurry on its implementation may be a problem by itself (Kacani et al., 2003). The new ICT strategy 2005–2007 was not based on the critics of the last one but drafted from the scratch and it is more government oriented. The new strategy also offers some evaluation of the costs for its implementation (ICT Strategy, 2007). The strategy includes a general description of ICT situation in the country, playing the role of e-readiness assessment covering main fields: (1) ICT indicators; (2) ICT regulation; (3) e-commerce; (4) e-government; (5) e-education and research; (6) local governance, (7) employment, and (8) Economic, Social, Environmental, and Energy (ESEE) obligations. The vision, aims, goals, and policies, despite their repeating formulation, match more or less with the fields explicitly mentioned in the strategy. In this strategy ICT concepts are confused with each other, where the same words are paraphrased for aims, goals, and policies. Some objectives are fuzzy, ambiguous, or even unrealistic: (1) monitoring of ICT; (2) public relations; (3) promotion of ICT; (4) regulatory environment; (5) modern government; (6) e-commerce and concurrency; (7) human capacities; (8) education and research; (9) health care; (10) juridical system; and (11) digital content. Access to ICT and internet in schools takes a particular place in the strategies of government. It is emphasized in the strategy, and at the same time a special masterplan is prepared, aiming to complete with labs and internet connectivity in all pre-university schools of the country by 2008 (Kacani, Beqiraj & Frasheri, 2003).
2.5.3 Strategies that Support Innovation Since 2009, the government of Albania developed two strategies that support innovation: (1) the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation 2009–2015 (Council of Ministers, 2009), and (2) the cross-cutting strategy “Digital Agenda for Albania 2015–2020” (Council of Ministers, 2015). The 2009 strategy was focused on supporting centers of excellence, building groups of excellence in research and innovation that attract significant scientific actors. At the same time, the strategy was focused on diffusing innovation in businesses and organizations, enabling integration with European partners, and officially recognized the importance of innovation in the country. The 2015 strategy was developed with the vision of: “A society based
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on knowledge and information, through the empowerment of digital infrastructure in the whole country, and improvement of the quality of online services and increase of quality governance and transparency” (ITU, 2016). The main goals of the 2015 strategy were investment and policy measures to improve the ICT infrastructures, new digital services for individuals, and improvement of their lives. One important difference between 2015 and 2009 strategy is the focus on ICT as an enabler for innovation by providing more efficient and transparent public services, notably in education, as a means of increasing a competitive economy and social and economic inclusion. The education focus will improve the potential human capital and by consolidating the ICT infrastructure, the expected outcome is a more open and competitive one in line with European principles (ITU, 2016). The National Strategy for Development and Integration (Council of Ministers, 2013), the Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance, and similar documents connected to the EU accession process broadly lay out visions and strategies for the government and society (ITU, 2016). These include several items related to innovation, ICTs, and entrepreneurship, but only briefly, not laying out a specific strategy for these areas, but including them as small elements in a larger vision for national development. Critically, all these strategies note that there is a need for all ministries to contribute to pushing forward the ICT agenda, speaking to the issue, that many institutions and agencies sectors are developing independent strategies, that need to be better aligned. The Ministry of Economic Development, Trade and Entrepreneurship established a working group to draft the Business and Investment Development Strategy, which covers a range of issues, including investment, taxation, and regional integration. It similarly lays out a range of strategic focuses, including the development of business clusters, support entrepreneurship, and the development of innovation as a focus of many sectors. Although the Business and Investment Development Strategy covers many of the topics, such as the EU accession strategies, it does not include ICTs and innovation as core focus. It embraces the roles of various stakeholders and a digital market-driven approach. This strategy, as well as the other strategies developed were not necessarily embraced by the stakeholders interviewed, indicating a need for clearer communication of a strategy that embraces all of them (ITU, 2016).
2.5.4 Strategies for the Promotion of Broadband Services and Infrastructure The Strategies for the Promotion of Broadband Services and Infrastructure show the development of a National Broadband Plan in Albania and in particular the development of the institutional framework together with the development of electronic communications policy and legislation and how this has influenced the development of the National Broadband Policy of 2012. The case study conducted by Broadband Commission (2012) uelled the development of ICT and how achievement examples
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and policy orientation have provided the basis for the development of broadband connectivity in the country. At the same time, it is introduced the definition of ICT as a key pillar for the development of economy and the integration of ICTs into various fields of it. The strategies also review the role of the electronic communications regulator and other ICT stakeholders involved in the broadband market from setting the goals of the plan, to defining and implementing the necessary policy and legislative measures, to empowering the widespread application of modern technologies in all sectors of the economy and society (Broadband Commission, 2012). Open Government Partnership Initiative Another strategy that is contributing to laying the foundation for an ICT digital market in Albania is the Open Government Partnership, 2016. This partnership is a multilateral initiative that aims to secure concrete commitments from governments to promote transparency, empower citizens, and harness new technologies to strengthen governance. The partnership is a voluntary international initiative which secures commitments from governments worldwide, provides an independent reporting mechanism, and knowledge-sharing platform for the participating countries. Since joining this initiative in 2011, Albania has committed to many e-initiatives including the very successful e-Albania project (ITU, 2016). Albanian people are among the most passionate internet users in Europe, having achieved the second highest growth in this area in the world from 2006 to 2010. Albanian individuals have one of the highest mobile phone usage rates in Europe. The mobile phone penetration in the end of 2011 reached the 185% level. Albania is also the first country in the world to have achieved 100% of the electronic public procurement services (Broadband Commission, 2012). In recent years institutional measures have been introduced to bring Albania up to speed in the digital age. The government institutions of Albania have recognized the need for ICT for greater economic and social development. They have not only focused on measures to enhance a greater supply of ICT services but have also made a big effort in the last decade to stimulate demand for ICT services, through government and through the development of access to ICT services. Some of the main developments that attributes the ICT market in Albania according to Mataj (2011) include: (1) the state-owned telecommunications companies are privatized: in August 2000—Albanian Mobile Communication (AMC), stateowned mobile operator was privatized, and in October 2007—Albtelecom, stateowned incumbent operator was privatized; (2) new law on electronic communications approved in 2008—the update of the law is already prepared and pending to be adopted; (3) four mobile operators in 900 and 1800 bands; (4) first 3G individual authorization issued in November 2010 to Vodafone Albania, and the second 3G individual authorization issued in September 2011 to AMC; (5) fixed telephony— Albtelecom is the incumbent operator. In addition, there are approximately 80 alternative operators, regional or local; (6) internet access—there are 116 Internet Service Providers; as well as (7) International Internet Bandwidth—30Gbps (Mataj, 2011). The vision of the digital market in Albania is developing. The Albania start-up environment is recent and uelled by a push from both the public and private sectors
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(Spiru & Nako, 2015). In the current years, grassroots initiatives have flourished, contributing to an active digital market. ICT entrepreneurs are thriving and looking to exploit opportunities with the unique advantages of Albania (ITU, 2016). Key projects realized in terms of ICT accessibility and availability since 2005 according to Broadband Commission (2012) include: (1) the e-Cabinet system was implemented in 2009, and the new 2012 platform e-Acts incorporated into the system, more than 1500 users from all ministries; (2) in 2012 the Governmental Network Govnet is extended to local governmental institutions; by the end of 2012, many essential public services, such as private property register and health services will be electronic; (3) all 510 Post Offices offer free Broadband Internet Access throughout Albania, and plans are being made to extend this coverage in the country; and (4) the master plan for e-Schools approved in 2005. All 2000 public schools are equipped with PC laboratories (27.014 PC + Laptops) and broadband internet connections. ICT curricula are adopted; (5) the National Civil Register was digitalized, and biometric documents were issued in 2008. Online issuance of civil registry documents is available from the 354 registry units connected with the central database; (6) all public procurement has been realized through electronic means since 2009; (7) business registration is offered based on “one-stop shop” principle since 2007; (8) National Center of Licensing is offering services based on “one-stop shop” principle since June 2009; (9) e-government services are offered at least in the first and second level (Broadband Commission, 2012). Broadband Service According to Broadband Commission (2012), at the end of 2011 the number of households having access to broadband internet was about 161,000 or approximately 22% of households and are estimated to be over 13,000 business subscribers. Based on these data, the number of broadband connections—fixed and 3G-USB/modem per 100 inhabitants is about 6.2%, compared with 3.7% in late 2010. This compares to 13% in TFYR Macedonia and 20% in Greece. Most broadband infrastructure and availability are in around Tirana and in towns in the west of the country. During 2010, several significant changes according to Broadband Commission (2012) took place in the provision of broadband internet access: (1) increase of ADSL Broadband Internet Access speed from 256kbps–2mbps to 2mbps–12mbps, where the minimum and most used speed is 2mbps compared with 256 kbps in 2009; (2) International Internet Connectivity—direct international connection increased from about 6 Gbps in the end of 2009, to about 14 Gbps in the end of 2010 and to about 30 Gbps at the end of 2011; (3) provision of triple play packages: Internet, TV, and Telephony, (4) significant tariff reduction for broadband access (Broadband Commission, 2012). According to Broadband Commission (2012), the objectives identified in the Broadband Strategy include: (1) improvement and further development of broadband infrastructure through the country; (2) growth of internet penetration; (3) providing high speed and secure internet nationally, regionally, and locally, including to households and through anchor institutions such as schools, postal offices, and community centers; (4) increasing competition and reducing prices; (5) increasing quality of
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service; (6) increasing the number of electronic services available to the citizen of Albania and ultimately achieving the digitization of all public services; (7) increasing awareness of the benefits of the use of ICT services through broadband within all groups of society, including individuals with special needs; (8) achieving the required broadband infrastructure and speed throughout the county to serve the growth of public services such as electronic government—e-government, education— e-learning, innovation—e-innovation, and capacity building—e-building capacity (Broadband Commission, 2012). A key element identified in the strategy is the identification of the need to ensure a holistic approach to ICT development. The strategy aims and goals shall be met through the promotion of government communication and collaboration on ICT projects at all levels. The strategy shall also be met through a clear definition of the responsibility of central as well as local authorities and municipalities in ICT planning and the coordination and communication of their respective projects as well as decisions of national government. The government department responsible for the definition and implementation of the action plan is the Ministry of Innovation and ICT (Broadband Commission, 2012).
2.6 ICT in Education 2.6.1 Digital Agenda 2015–2020 Education is well known worldwide as the key to promoting economic growth at the local level as well as at the National Level. ICTs are significant, even more particularly important in countries where segments of the population are disadvantaged in education or live in rural areas, as is the case of Albania. Education is a key instrument for youth, that increases the opportunities for employment and improves their social conditions and economic situation. In a world that is ever more being directed toward technology and globalization, understanding, using and creating a culture of ICT has become a very important factor that enables the education of students with a contemporary and realistic education, which provides the workforce with skills acquired ready to face the challenges of development (UNESCO, 2015). The main purpose of the extension of ICT in schools is to increase the quality of teaching and prepare students with the skills of digital citizenship to be able to study and work in a world which is oriented more and more in the process of computerization services. Albania, the Ministry of Education and Sports has under the jurisdiction over 2,125 schools, 1749 primary schools. And 376 secondary schools. Each school has a dedicated broadband connection, but it is only in the computer labs. The internet connection enables the students and teachers to use different sources of information and in particular to work with curriculum projects. ICT curriculum in 2006 was held only in high school, and in 2014 was expanded to basic education, starting in 3rd
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grade and extends up to 12th grade. ICT in education was one of the main directions set out in National Strategy 2008–2013 and supported by the Word Bank project Excellence and Equity in Education Program (UNESCO, 2015). Today in our pre-university education system there are 1496 computer labs, divided by categories: (1) 5 desktops for pupils and one for teachers for schools with up to 300 students; (2) 10 desktops for students and one for teachers for schools from 300 to 600 students; and (3) 15 desktops to students and one for teachers, for schools with over 600 students to cover all country rural and urban area. Equipment according to the above configurations is connected to internal networks with switch cable, without any program management, or subject content applications. The report on the number of computers for student use varies from school to school. Roughly, this ratio is 1:27 in some cases low; meantime, students can receive information only in computer labs, but not in other school environments such as, for example, the library. More than 1/3 of the schools, students have limited opportunities for obtaining information online; and there is no awareness of children using the internet or online abuse children on the internet (Grooming) (UNESCO, 2015). The main objectives of Digital Agenda 2015–2020 include: (1) digitization of the education system to enhance the quality of education and contribute to creating a knowledge-based society through increased access to digital curriculum and enabling their connection to the internet (100%) and (2) integration into a contemporary level of use of ICT in teaching and teaching–learning, where all stakeholders such as teachers, parents, students, policymakers, and service providers play defined roles for the gradual transfer toward a digital society based on knowledge (UNESCO, 2015). The main activities to achieve these objectives according to UNESCO (2015) include: (1) establishment of an appropriate infrastructure for a modern teaching; (2) equipping schools with functional infrastructure for the use of information (computers, laptops, tablets, smart); (3) pilot project in 60 schools; (4) high-speed internet and accessing online opportunities also in other environments within schools, not only in laboratories; and (5) technical support that ensures efficient use of infrastructure. The Digital Agenda 2015–2020 challenges according to UNESCO (2015) include: (1) the opportunity to access education portals in accordance with the planned curriculum and portals that enable monitoring student achievement by their teachers and parents, opportunity to access the portal for students with disabilities, and to develop competencies to benefit from these services provided through the optimization of services provided like software systems; (2) the acquisition of ICT learning methodology, which enable teachers and students to improve their learning process; (3) creating an interactive school environment through the application of ICT in the management of schools and creating a link between the stakeholders in school, namely leaders, teachers, students, and parents; (4) presentation of a teaching level of ICT which will enable students to finish high school to qualify for certification programs like the European computer driving license (ECDL) and others; (5) preparation of the students and the community for employment in real life, for example secretarial work, basic programs, and creating web pages (UNESCO, 2015).
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According to UNESCO (2015), teachers professional development based on United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, thereafter UNESCO standards for the professional development of teachers in ICT require ICT policies and educational transformation as follows: (1) using online methods for professional development of teachers in ICT and enhancing the cooperation between teachers in this area; (2) teacher professional development for the integration of ICT in subject content; (3) digital resources provide; (4) delivering of teachers training in the development of digital materials; (5) integration of ICT into all curricula; (6) preparation of ICT standards for teachers; (7) designing of ICT standards for students; (8) designing of ICT standards for school administrators; (9) training teachers of preuniversity education system in the integration of ICT in the curriculum (UNESCO, 2015).
2.6.2 The Inclusion of ICT in Education The inclusion of ICT in education increases the possibilities to meet the specific needs of different groups of students. The inclusion of ICT consists of different supportive technologies, such as hardware and software solutions, Web 2.0 technologies, virtual learning environments, virtual worlds, and other similar technologies. Types and benefits of ICTs for education according to Rice (2010) include: (1) technical assistance that enables active participation in traditional educational activities, such as reading or writing; (2) general process of using ICTs to transform approaches to education to enable a more inclusive learning environment; and (3) technologies that can enable communication, often referred to as alternative and augmentative communication devices and strategies (Rice, 2010). According to Rice (2010) the main types of ICTs that can in turn fulfill these roles for students with disabilities are: (1) mainstream technologies, such as computers that contain in-built accessibility features; (2) accessible formats, also known as alternate formats, such as accessible Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Digital Accessible Information System (DAISY), books but also include “low-tech” formats, such as Braille; (3) assistive technologies, such as hearing aids, screen readers, adaptive keyboards, etc., that are used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Rice, 2010). Categories of assistive technologies according to Rice (2010) include standalone devices such as mobility aids (wheelchairs), alternative augmentative communication devices, and hardware and software that enable access to a computer (adaptive keyboard, screen reader). The high-tech assistive technologies that have emerged over the last two decades have had a particularly dramatic impact on access to education. Other ICTs for learning include educational software and Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs). These ICTs have a broader application to all students. It is therefore imperative that educational authorities ensure these technologies are universally designed in accordance with requirements under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities. A meta-study on the benefits of accessible
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ICTs in education identified a wide range of benefits to all stakeholders. The benefits reported varied from enabling basic participation and communication in mainstream classrooms to enhancing learning autonomy to enabling tasks to be tailored to suit individual skills and abilities (BECTA, 2003; Rice, 2010).
2.6.3 Curriculum Development According to the British Educational Communications Technology Agency (BECTA) (2003), national educational policy should require educational systems to adopt the use of ICT in all areas of curriculum development. ICTs can help transform static curriculum resources into flexible digital media. Standards and procedures for the production and provision of learning resources should be implemented to ensure they are provided in the required formats in a timely manner. The four key curriculum areas that educational policy should address and through which ICT skills and literacy can be improved are: (1) ICT literacy—ICT skills are taught and learned as a separate subject; (2) application of ICTs in subject areas—ICT skills are developed within separate subjects; (3) infusing ICTs across the curriculum—ICTs are integrated or embedded across all subjects of the curriculum; (4) ICT specialization—ICTs are taught and learned as an applied subject to train for a profession. Other policy measures according to BECTA (2003) that will improve access to curriculum for students with disabilities using ICTs is a requirement for open educational resources to be made available in accessible formats. Similarly, national policies and initiatives that require publicly funded websites to be accessible will help improve access to educational resources published online. A key development in curriculum design is universal design for learning. Universal design for learning is an emerging and transformative idea which has at its core the development of curriculum that is designed for the outset to meet the greatest number of users, reducing the need for costly and time-consuming retrofitting. Universal design for learning embraces the use of ICTs, particularly by persons with disabilities, to access and engage with the curriculum. Universal design for learning is finding its way into legislation in some countries and is likely to become a policy priority according as educators and policymakers become familiar with its principles and concepts (BECTA, 2003). According to BECTA (2003) in support of evidence-based policy, a small number of research studies are likely to significantly impact on the efficacy of any policy interventions. In general, these research studies should aim to establish the current installed bases of ICTs in schools at present, the state of current services that could support schools and the attitudes and experiences of teachers and students in the use of ICTs for education. In particular the research should establish: (1) national demographics on persons with disabilities and number of students likely to benefit from the provision of accessible ICTs; (2) current ICT infrastructure within the school including a number of computers and school connectivity to the internet; (3) types and numbers of accessible ICTs required; (4) affordability and availability in country of required accessible ICTs; (5) efficacy and sustainability of current funding
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strategies for provision and support of ICTs; (6) attitudes, knowledge of students, parents teachers toward accessible ICTs; (7) preparedness of teachers to incorporate accessible ICTs into their pedagogical practices; (8) availability of support dedicated networks for teachers and students; and (9) availability of services such as community-based rehabilitation services that could potentially support students and teachers in the use of high and low-tech assistive technologies for use in the learning environment (BECTA, 2003).
2.6.4 Children’s Rights and the Digital Environment The General Comment No. 25 (2021) of the United Nations on children’s rights in relation to the digital environment is the result of a two-year consultation with states parties, inter-governmental organizations, civil society, national human rights institutions, and children themselves. Over 700 children and young people, aged between nine and 22 years old in 27 countries, were asked how digital technology impacts their rights, and what actions they wished to see taken to protect them. UNICEF’s own inputs to this consultation emphasized that all the rights of all children must be respected, protected, and fulfilled in the digital environment (UNICEF, 2021). Albania, as a signatory of the United Nations Convention on the Children’s Rights, in the framework of the digitalization of the education system, but not only, implements protocols for the protection of children and adolescents. This is especially in public educational environments, in social environments, but also by making the public aware through the media and other activities. In this dispute, international organizations that protect children’s rights, such as UNICEF, and Save The Children, provide important help, which, in addition to supporting the formation of students with digital knowledge and skills, also support their digital protection that comes in various forms of digital abuse or violence. It is emphasized that meaningful access to digital technologies can support children to realize the full range of their civil, political, cultural, economic, and social rights. Digital technologies can facilitate access to health services and information and improve diagnostic and treatment services for maternal and child physical and mental health, and nutrition. Similarly, the digital environment can greatly enable and enhance children’s access to high-quality inclusive education, including reliable resources for formal, non-formal, informal, peer-to-peer, and self-directed learning, and enable distance or remote learning. This is especially true when reaching children in disadvantaged or vulnerable situations, in remote communities, and in situations of public emergency or humanitarian crises (UNICEF, 2021). It is also established that children should have equal and effective access to ageappropriate and empowering digital content and information from a wide diversity of trusted sources. During consultations for the development of the guidance, children themselves reported that the digital environment afforded them crucial opportunities for their voices to be heard in matters that affected them, and to ensure that the use of digital technologies can help to realize children’s participation at the local, national,
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and international levels, as well as provide support to child-led activism and child human rights defenders (UNICEF, 2021). While offering opportunities for growth, development, and empowerment, the digital environment also presents challenges and risks for children. It may also open new ways to perpetrate violence against children, by facilitating situations in which children experience violence, or may be influenced to do harm to others. Sexual offenders may use digital technologies to solicit information for sexual purposes and to abuse children, for example, by the live-streaming, production, and distribution of child sexual abuse material and through sexual extortion. The institutions should take robust legislative and administrative measures to protect children from harmful, hateful, and misleading content, and children should be protected from all forms of violence that happen in the digital environment, including child trafficking, genderbased violence, cyber-aggression, cyber-attacks, economic, sexual and other forms of exploitation, and information warfare (UNICEF, 2021). Of critical importance, it is recognized that digital innovations such as those related to artificial intelligence, algorithms, and data analytics, affect children’s lives and their rights even when children are not online themselves. The importance of protecting children’s privacy always is taking legislative, administrative, and other measures to ensure that children’s privacy is respected and protected by all organizations, and in all environments that process their data (UNICEF, 2021). The institutions should ensure that businesses respect children’s rights and prevent and remedy abuses of their rights in relation to the digital environment. This includes requiring the business sector to undertake child rights due diligence, and requiring a high standard of cybersecurity, privacy-by-design, and safety-by-design in digital services and products. The institutions should encourage the use of digital technologies to promote healthy lifestyles, including physical and social activity and that they should regulate targeted or age-inappropriate advertising, marketing, and other relevant digital services to prevent children’s exposure to the promotion of unhealthy products, including certain food and beverages, alcohol, drugs, tobacco, and other nicotine products (UNICEF, 2021). The additional recommendations to institutions include a wide range of child rights issues including: (1) the development of national policies on children’s rights that specifically address the digital environment; (2) specific attention to the effects of technology on children in the earliest stages of life; (3) the support needed by parents and care-givers and teachers to develop “digital literacy”—the technological understanding, capacity and skills necessary to assist and protect children in the digital environment; and (4) the need to ensure that appropriate and effective remedial judicial and non-judicial mechanisms for child rights violations relating to the digital environment are widely known and readily available to all children and their representatives, including across national borders. The cross-border and transnational nature of the digital environment necessitates strong international and regional cooperation. It is also stressed that if digital inclusion is not achieved, existing inequalities are likely to increase, and new ones to arise. The institutions should address the “digital divide” including in relation to gender equality and disability inclusion, and for those children in the most disadvantaged contexts (UNICEF, 2021).
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2.7 e-Albania The e-Government platform in Albania (e-Albania) according to ITU (2021a, 2021b) has proven to be successful and a powerful platform. Online services through the eAlbania portal are replacing on-site services in institutions of the country. Different documents, that serve as additional documentation for electronic services on the e-Albania portal, are now mostly signed electronically and are created by Albanian citizens and businesses through online applications. This is an important step forward in implementing the concept of more digital and citizen-centric public services. Albania advanced when it comes to the development of the information and communication technology field. The government promotes ICTs in different sectors by introducing and implementing various strategies and policies centered on ICTs, information society development, and the digital agenda. In addition, in recent years, the Albanian government has increased investments in the digitization of public infrastructure and the establishment of public E-Systems and Services (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). e-Governance is a tangible reality in Albania and is managed and administered by the National Agency of Information Society. E-Albania is a real-life success story of Albania, where e-Governance is not just a project to be implemented but a base through which institutions, citizens, businesses, and civil servants communicate and interact. Albania is currently undergoing one of the most critical transformation processes in public services digitalization and the complete digitalization of the administration’s work processes (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). Hence, electronic services in Albania are provided through e-Albania, a onestop shop for online public administration services. It is an online channel that delivers public services 24/7. Through e-Albania, every citizen or any interested party can receive detailed information about public services, including licenses, permits, authorizations, documents equipped with digital stamps, certificates, or other similar services of similar nature. E-Albania is entirely in line with government policies on ICT and Cross-cutting Strategy “Digital Agenda of Albania 2015–2020” (https://ealbania.al, 2022). e-Albania acts as a front-end point for government institutions to deliver their services and currently provides 1209 e-services. In 2013, only 14 electronic services were implemented in the portal. Since January 1, 2020, a new public services process began, providing 95% of the public service applications to citizens and businesses exclusively online. E-Albania is connected to the Government Interoperability Platform, the underlying and core architecture allowing the interaction between 55 electronic systems of public institutions. The Government Interoperability Platform enables 66% of the application forms to be prefilled automatically by interacting and exchanging data between these registers in real time. 2,302,050 million citizens and businesses are registered in e-Albania, while in 2013 only 50,000 were registered. A significant part of the services offered on the portal is 100% reengineered hence offering a completely paperless service and
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provided at no cost, without waiting in queues at the state counters, without having any physical contact with administration employees (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). To access electronic according to ITU (2021a, 2021b) services established and supported by various public or private institutions, individuals need to acquire basic digital skills. The platform allows communication in case of ambiguities, questions, or issues regarding registration or services provided on the portal. In this case, the user can contact the support service of the platform through its forum, e-mail address, comments, or messages on social networks. As the public uses the e-Albania platform, the delivery of services has been improved, and delivery time has been decreased. Moreover, it helps to eliminate bureaucracy and reduce corruption. As part of the new Digital Agenda 2021 + the Albanian government aims to increase the population’s digital skills. It includes providing more skills development opportunities for young people and re-skilling adults. In addition, the program foresees business-oriented capacity building and enhancing the country’s innovation potential by ensuring a well-coordinated approach among all actors (ITU, 2021a, 2021b). The mission of e-Albania is to be the main channel of receiving online public administration services for citizens, businesses, and public administration employees themselves; to offer users a platform where they can be an active part of improving public services and drafting government policies; to expand the user experience through the continuous addition of electronic services with more than 100 other electronic services within the year 2017; and to increase information on the existence of public administration services (e-Albania, 2022). The users of e-Albania include: (1) all Albanian citizens; (2) businesses registered in the Republic of Albania; (3) public administration employees in the active directory; (4) portal visitors (e-Albania, 2022). The vision of e-Albania is to become the main channel for receiving public administration online services. E-Albania offers (1) a one-stop office for public administration online services; (2) an online channel for providing public services 24 h a day, 7 days a week; (3) electronic services of level 3 and 4 according to United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN) (2014) through the latest technology standards, possibility to make online payments for these services through debit and credit cards; (4) electronic services of level 1 and 2 according to UNPAN (2014), where anyone interested can receive detailed information about services for the public, such as licenses, permits, authorizations, documents equipped with a digital stamp, certificates or other services of similar; (5) communication opportunities for any ambiguity, question or problem about registration, the services offered on the portal, through the portal forum, e-mail, comments, and messages on social networks; (6) improving the provision of services, reducing the time of receiving the service, avoiding bureaucracies, as well as reducing corruption; (7) electronic information and services that are created and maintained by various public and private institutions (e-Albania, 2022). The availability and accuracy of the service is the accountability of the responsible institution, which offers its electronic service through the portal. The general standards of e-Albania are as follows: (1) provides information on the services provided by public administration institutions, where the information
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presented on the portal is updated by the institutions themselves as needed; (2) ensures 24/7/365 availability with over 99% portal functionality; (3) it is connected to the Government Platform of Interaction—Government Gateway, in which 48 systems are connected which exchange data in real time; (4) the interaction system is a multifunctional central system, an Enterprise Service Bus solution with a service-oriented architecture; (5) payments for electronic services are made securely through the Government Electronic Payments Platform, which is connected to banking and nonbanking institutions; (6) offers the integration of a variety of security technologies to protect user data, where the registration process is carried out through the government portal and the data filled in by the users during the registration process are verified electronically with the data of the National Register of Civil Status for individuals and the National Commercial Register for Businesses; (7) the authentication and identification process is based on the “Single-Sign-On” strategy, to create a unique identity for each user, using NID for citizens and NUIS for businesses; (8) is compatible with the latest versions of internet browsers such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, etc.; (9) accessible on mobile web, iOS and Android mobile app versions; (10) offered 100% in the Albanian language (e-Albania, 2022).
2.8 The Current Digital Inclusion and Perspective The development of digital inclusion in Albania in the current years and in the coming years seems to be gaining special advantages. The needs of individuals, institutions, organizations, and businesses for digital technologies are growing more and more. In the following, digital data pertaining to January 2022 will be presented, which can serve as a reference point for digital rhythms in perspective (Datareportal, 2022). There were 2.07 million internet users in Albania in January 2022. Albania’s internet penetration rate stood at 72.2 percent of the total population at the start of 2022. Kepios’ (2023) analysis indicates that internet users in Albania decreased by 4,059 (-0.2 percent) between 2021 and 2022. For perspective, these user figures reveal that 796.6 thousand people in Albania did not use the internet at the start of 2022, meaning that 27.8 percent of the population remained offline at the beginning of the year (Kepios, 2023). Data published by Ookla (2023) indicate that internet users in Albania could have expected the following internet connection speeds at the start of 2022: (1) median mobile internet connection speed via cellular networks: 43.08 Mbps, (2) median fixed internet connection speed: 31.39 Mbps. Ookla (2023)’s data reveals that the median mobile internet connection speed in Albania increased by 0.71 Mbps (+1.7 percent) in the twelve months to the start of 2022. Meanwhile, Ookla (2023)’s data shows that fixed internet connection speeds in Albania increased by 7.44 Mbps (+31.1 percent) during the same period (Ookla, 2023). There were 1.87 million social media users in Albania in January 2022. The number of social media users in Albania at the start of 2022 was equivalent to 65.2 percent of the total population, but it’s important to note that social media users may not represent unique individuals. Kepios’ (2023)
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analysis reveals that social media users in Albania increased by 271 thousand (+17.0 percent) between 2021 and 2022 (Kepios, 2023). Data published in Meta (2022), cited by Datareportal (2022)’s advertising resources indicates that Facebook had 1.20 million users in Albania in early 2022. However, Meta made important changes to the way its advertising resources report audience reach data at the end of 2021—including making significant revisions to its base audience data for Facebook—so the figures shown here are not directly comparable with figures published in previous reports. The company’s revised audience figures mean that Facebook’s ad reach in Albania was equivalent to 41.8 percent of the total population at the start of 2022. However, Facebook restricts the use of its platform to people aged 13 and above, so it’s also worth highlighting that 49.1 percent of the “eligible” audience in Albania use Facebook in 2022. For additional context, Facebook’s ad reach in Albania was equivalent to 57.9 percent of the local internet user base (regardless of age) in January 2022. At the start of 2022, 37.9 percent of Facebook’s ad audience in Albania was female, while 62.1 percent was male (Datareportal, 2022). Numbers published in Meta (2022), cited by Datareportal (2022)’s advertising tools indicate that Instagram had 1.20 million users in Albania in early 2022. This figure suggests that Instagram’s ad reach in Albania was equivalent to 41.8 percent of the total population at the start of the year. However, Instagram restricts the use of its platform to people aged 13 and above, so it’s helpful to know that 49.1 percent of the “eligible” audience in Albania uses Instagram in 2022. It’s also worth noting that Instagram’s ad reach in Albania at the start of 2022 was equivalent to 57.9 percent of the local internet user base (regardless of age). In early 2022, 44.1 percent of Instagram’s ad audience in Albania was female, while 55.9 percent was male (Datareportal, 2022). Figures published in LinkedIn (2022), cited by Datareportal (2022)’s advertising resources indicate that LinkedIn had 480.0 thousand “members” in Albania in early 2022. However, note that LinkedIn’s advertising tools publish audience reach data based on total registered members, rather than the monthly active users that form the basis of the ad reach figures published by most other social media platforms. As a result, these LinkedIn figures are not directly comparable with the figures for other social media platforms published in Digital 2022 reports. The company’s advertising reach figures suggest that LinkedIn’s audience in Albania was equivalent to 16.7 percent of the total population at the start of 2022. LinkedIn restricts the use of its platform to people aged 18 and above though, so it’s also helpful to know that 21.1 percent of the “eligible” audience in Albania uses LinkedIn in 2022. For additional context, LinkedIn’s ad reach in Albania was equivalent to 23.2 percent of the local internet user base (regardless of age) at the start of the year. In early 2022, 48.4 percent of LinkedIn’s ad audience in Albania was female, while 51.6 percent was male (Datareportal, 2022). Numbers published in Twitter (2022), cited by Datareportal (2022)’s advertising resources indicate that Twitter had 94.4 thousand users in Albania in early 2022. This figure means that Twitter’s ad reach in Albania was equivalent to 3.3 percent of the total population at the time. However, Twitter restricts the use of its platform
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to people aged 13 and above, so it may be helpful to know that 3.9 percent of the “eligible” audience in Albania uses Twitter in 2022. For additional context, Twitter’s ad reach in Albania was equivalent to 4.6 percent of the local internet user base (regardless of age) at the start of the year (Datareportal, 2022). Data from Global System for Mobile Communications Association (GSMA) Intelligence, cited by Datareportal (2022) shows that there were 3.24 million cellular mobile connections in Albania at the start of 2022. However, note that many people around the world make use of more than one mobile connection—for example, they might have one connection for personal use, and another one for work—so it’s not unusual for mobile connection figures to significantly exceed figures for the total population. GSMA Intelligence’s numbers indicate that mobile connections in Albania were equivalent to 112.7 percent of the total population in January 2022. The number of mobile connections in Albania increased by 13 thousand (+0.4 percent) between 2021 and 2022 (Datareportal, 2022). As can be seen from the data presented above, the rates of digital inclusion have increased rapidly. However, Albania needs more work to be done to increase the quantity and quality of digital inclusion of the multiple categories of people. Albanian institutions responsible for the development of information technology and innovation, as well as all educational institutions, both pre-university and university, must increase the quality of their work. The extent of information technology and innovation in all cells of society, both in quantity and quality, would affect the improvement of the general standards of society. Increasing access to the use of the internet, as well as increasing access to the use of social media and their use in the function of general education and professional development of the population, especially young people, would affect the significant improvement of the democratic standards of society. Also, more work is needed to narrow the digital inclusion differences between urban areas and rural areas within the country. As it result from the findings, the difference in the use of the internet and social media between urban areas and rural areas is significant. Narrowing the differences between urban areas and rural areas would influence the approximation of the same standards for the use of the internet and social media throughout the country. It would also affect the progress of the country toward its full membership in the European Union.
References AKEP (2020). Raporti vjetor 2020. [Annual Report 2020]. Retrieved from: https://akep.al/wp-con tent/uploads/2021/09/Akep-Raport-vjetor-2021_final.pdf AKSHI (2007). Intersectoral strategy for information Society 2008–2013. Retrieved from: https:// akshi.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/strategjia_versioni_i_printuar_shqip.pdf Aksman, J. (2012). Diagnoza wybranych aspektów kompetencji medialnych współczesnych studentów pedagogiki. In Aksman, J., Pułka, J. (eds). Dzieci i młodzie˙z w kr˛egu oddziaływania mediów i grup rówie´sniczych—w i pomimo czasów ponowoczesnych. Kraków: Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego
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Avgerou C. (2000). Recognising Alternative Rationalities in the deployment of information systems. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries (EJISDC), Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1681-4835. 2000.tb00021.x BECTA ICT Research (2003). What the research says about ICT supporting special educational needs (SEN) and inclusion. Retrieved from: https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/14706/7/15009M IG2791_Redacted.pdf Broadband Commission (2012). Albania case study: Strategies for the promotion of broadband services and infrastructure. Retrieved from: https://broadband.itu.int/publication/albania-casestudy/ Council of Ministers (2009). National strategy of science, technology and innovation 2009–2015. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187164 Council of Ministers (2015). Cross-cutting strategy “Digital Agenda of Albania 2015–2020. Retrieved from: https://akshi.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Digital_Agenda_Strategy_ 2015_-_2020.pdf Council of Ministers. (2013). National strategy for development and integration 2014–2020. Retrieved from: http://shtetiweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/NSDI_2014-2020_version_ JUne-2013.pdf Datareportal (2022). Digital 2022 report on Albania. Retrieved from: https://datareportal.com/rep orts/digital-2022-albania e-Albania. Rreth Portalit [e-Albania. About the Portal]. Retrieved from: https://e-albania.al/Pages/ eAlbania.aspx ESEE (2003). eSEEurope common guidelines. Eighth eSEE working group meeting bled, Slovenia, 2003. Retrieved from: https://dokumen.tips/documents/esee-initiative-where-we-areand-where-we-want-to-go.html?page=1 EU Delegations (2022). Regional broadband infrastructure in Albania development. Retrieved from: https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/albania/83464/regional-broadband-infrastructure-dev elopment-albania-closing workshop_en Harris, R. (1998). Information Technology—The new cargo cult?; information technology in developing countries. Newsletter of the International Federation and Information Processing (IFIP) Working Group 9.4; 8(1) Hasani, N., Xhomara, N., & Kasumi, H. (2020). The improvement of students’ academic performance by using the computer and using the e-mail. jATES—Journal of Applied Technical and Educational Sciences. 10(4). https://doi.org/10.24368/jates.v10i4.203 Haxhi, F. (2021). Digital skills in Albania. Retrieved from: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Region alPresence/Europe/Documents/Events/2021/Digital%20skills/1_Florensa_Haxhi_Albania.pdf ICT Strategy (2003). National information and communication technologies strategy. Retrieved from: https://wbc-rti.info/object/document/7084/attach/0120_ict_strategy_Albania.pdf ITU (2016). ICT Centric innovation ecosystem. Country review- Albania. Retrieved from: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Innovation/Documents/Publications/Albania%20Country%20R eview%20Innovation%20June%202016.pdf ITU (2018). Measuring the information society Report 2018- Volume 2. Retrieved from: https:// www.itu.int/en/ITUD/Statistics/Documents/publications/misr2018/MISR-2018-Vol-2-E.pdf ITU (2020). Broadband mapping systems in Europe and regional harmonization initiatives. Retrieved from: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/Europe/Documents/Eve nts/2020/RRF/21-01-15%20Background%20Paper_Broadband%20Mapping%20Systems% 20in%20Europe%20and%20Regional%20Harmonization%20Initiatives_final_clean.pdf ITU (2021). 5G implementation in non-EU countries of the Europe Region. Retrieved from: https://www.itu.int/en/myitu/Publications/2021/10/12/12/56/5G-implementation-in-nonEuropean-Union-countries-of-the Europe-region ITU (2021). Digital skills Assessment Albania. Retrieved from: https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Reg ional-Presence/Europe/Documents/Events/2021/Digital%20skills/01_Jaroslaw_Ponder.pdf
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ITU (2022). Albania digital development. Country profile. Retrieved from: https: https://www.itu. int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/Europe/Pages/Publications/Publications.aspx ITU (2022). ITU regional and special initiatives for Europe. Retrieved from: https://www.itu.int/ en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/Europe/Pages/Activities/2022/ITU-Europe-Region-Initiatives2022.aspx ITU (2023). World telecommunication/ICT indicators database. Retrieved from: https://www.itu. int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/publications/wtid.aspx Kacani, J., Beqiraj, G., & Frasheri, N. (2003). Reflections on national ICT strategies in Albania. Retrieved from: http://www.scholze-simmel.at/it_star/ws3/albania.pdf Kepios. (2023). Digital 2022 Albania (February 2022) v01. Retrieved from: https://www.slideshare. net/DataReportal/digital-2022-albania-february-2022-v01 Kransberg, M. (1991). IT as Revolution. In Computers in the Human Context, ed. T. Forester, MIT Press Mataj, E. (2011). Digital Albania. US-Albania investment forum. Retrieved from: https://www.dev elopingmarkets.com/events/us-albania-investment-forum-september-2011 Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy (MIE) (2020). Decision of council of ministers on national plan for sustainable development of digital infrastructure, broadband 2020–2025. Retrieved https://www.infrastruktura.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/VKM-434-date-3.6. from: 2020-Per-miratimin-e-Planit-Kombetar-per-Zhvillimin-e-Qendrueshem-te-Broadband-20202025.pdf Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy (MIE). (2020). National plan for sustainable development of digital infrastructure, broadband 2020–2025. Retrieved from: https://www.infrastruktura.gov. al/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/National-Plan-BBand-EN.pdf MPPTT. (2003). national information and communication technologies strategy. Republic of Albania. Retrieved from: https://wbc-rti.info/object/document/7127/attach/1391_ICT-strategy_ albania_draft1.pdf MPPTT. (2022). Project proposal: Technical assistance for the telecommunications sector. regulatory impact assessment for the new law on electronic communications in the republic of Albania. Retrieved from: https://www.infrastruktura.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/D3-1-RIA-forthe-EC-Law-of-Albania-May-31-2022.pdf Ookla. (2023). Speedtest Global Index. Ranking mobile and fixed broadband speeds from around the world on a monthly basis. Albania Median Country Speeds May 2023. Retrieved from: https://www.speedtest.net/global-index/Albania Parliament of Republic of Albania. (2016). Law No. 120/2016: On the development of highspeed electronic communications networks and the provision of the right of way. Retrieved form: https://www.infrastruktura.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ligj-nr_-120-dt_-24_11_ 2016.pdf Spiru, V., & Nako, E. (2015). Discover the fresh startup scene In Balkans’ South: Tirana. Retrieved from: http://magazine.startus.cc/tirana-startup-city-guide/ UNDP (2020). Projects supported continues unemployment learning. Retrieved from: https://www. al.undp.org/content/albania/en/home/projects/supported-continuous-unemployed-learning. html UNESCO. (2015). ICT in Education, Albania. Retrieved from http://archive.iite.unesco.org/files/ news/639224/ENG_Albania_MoE_Bajame_Allmeta.pdf UNICEF (2021). Children’s rights and the digital environment. General Comment on how States should protect children’s rights with regard to the digital environment. Retrieved from: https:// www.unicef.org/albania/stories/childrens-rights-and-digital-environment Xhomara, N, & Hala, M. (2021). Impact of middle term points in total score in the context of face to face and online teaching. 25th International Conference on Multidisciplinary Studies, 17– 18 September 2021. EUSER; Book of Proceedings, 17–18 September 2021. California, USA. https://euser.org/icms25
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Xhomara, N, & Karabina, M. (2021). The influence of online learning on academic performance and students’ satisfaction. 3rd International Academic Conference on Education, 10–12 June 2021. Berlin, Germany. https://www.dpublication.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/12-2031.pdf Xhomara, N. (2016). Kompetenca Shkencore dhe Metodologjike e Mësimdhënies [Scientific and methodological competence of teaching]. Monografi [Monograph]. Shtëpia Botuese “Redona” [Redona Publishing House]. ISBN: 978–9928–148–49–0. Tirana, Albania Xhomara, N. (2018). Curriculum and academic performance. Monograph. Lambert Academic Publishing. ISBN: 978-613-9-85640-4. Omniscriptum Publishing Group. Germany Xhomara, N. (2021). Instructional leadership and effective teaching and learning. leadership in a changing world. Monograph. Nova Science Publishers, NY, USA. September 20, 2021. ISBN: 978–1–68507–079–3. https://doi.org/10.52305/PVLE5825. https://novapublishers.com/ shop/instructional-leadership-and-effective-teaching-and-learning/ Xhomara, N. (2022). Digital competencies of Pre-service teacher students: albanian context. In: Tomczyk, Ł., Fedeli, L. (eds.) Digital Literacy for Teachers. Lecture Notes in Educational Technology. Springer, Singapore. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1738-7_ 3 Xhomara, N., & Baholli, I. (2022). Influence of class participation and coursework on academic performance in the context of blended learning. International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design (IJOPCD), 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJOPCD.295951 Xhomara, N., & Dasho A. (2019). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills as a predictor of effective teaching and learning of students. International Conference of “Integrated Policy on Research and Innovations”. Luarasi University, 08 May 2019, Tirana, Albania. Full Papers, ISBN: 978–9928–4561–0–6. Retrieved from: https://luarasi-univ.edu.al/wp-content/upl oads/2019/10/Conference-Proceedings_2019.pdf Xhomara, N., & Dasho, A. (2023). Online interactions and student learning outcomes in a Moodlebased e-learning system. Technology, Pedagogy and Education,. https://doi.org/10.1080/147 5939X.2023.2214576.Link:10.1080/1475939X.2023.2214576
Chapter 3
Digital Inclusion and Digital Divide in the Context of Bosnia and Herzegovina Amina Ðipa
and Lejla Turulja
Abstract This study aims to give insight into the specificities of digital exclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina and also the successful ways of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The PRISMA method were rewieved studies published in available online databases, for the period 2000–2023. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were created in order to map reliable sources for this topic in the context of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The research results can be summarized as follows: (1) Digital exclusion occurs because of the low levels of digital literacy; (2) Lack of coherent and strategic vision for education system reform; (3) Shortage of qualified professionals and brain drain; (4) Lack of coherent and strategic vision for education system reform. The research provides insight and reveals applied practices that have proven to be useful for achieving digital inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords Digital inclusion · Digital divide · Bosnia and Herzegovina · PRISMA method
3.1 Introduction The internet and digital technologies have now permeated every aspect of human life (Alhassan & Adam, 2021). Despite accelerated technological progress and the availability of technology, there is a clear disparity in digital inclusion between countries and regions, referred to as the digital gap (Jamil, 2021). The digital divide refers to the disparity in access to digital technologies between those who have it A. Ðipa (B) Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Sarajevo, Skenderija 72, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] L. Turulja School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Trg oslobodenja 1, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_3
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and those who do not (Khalid & Pedersen, 2016). In this context, technology refers to an affordable and reliable internet connection, digital devices, and an adequate level of technology skills, i.e., digital literacy and the ability to fully participate in the digital ecosystem. In the literature, the term technological divide can also be found, which refers to social disparities in terms of access to and use of ICT at different socioeconomic levels. On the other hand, the term digital divide refers to a disparity in people’s access (i.e., the first level of the digital divide) and ability (i.e., the second level of the digital divide) to use the Internet and ICT (Jamil, 2021). Digital exclusion refers to those who fall on the wrong side of the so-called “digital divide”, that is, those who are denied access to digital development. Digital inclusion, on the other hand, refers to processes aimed at removing barriers to access to digital technologies, allowing individuals to increase their ability to participate in various life domains (Kim et al., 2021). Digital exclusion can have far-reaching societal consequences. This is precisely why this topic is critical for all societal policymakers. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is a developing country in Southeast Europe that faces a number of challenges in terms of bridging the digital divide and ensuring digital inclusion, particularly in the education system. Although students at all educational levels must have access to digital tools and the Internet in order to acquire digital skills and use online resources, limited infrastructure, a lack of resources, and insufficient digital literacy initiatives in BiH may stymie digital inclusion in these educational settings. Given the preceding discussion, the purpose of this article is to investigate the unique challenges of digital exclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a focus on primary, secondary, and higher education. The article will present the most effective strategies for promoting digital inclusion at these educational levels over the last two decades. Examining the dynamics of the information society in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the article aims to provide an overview of the current situation regarding digital exclusion in the BiH educational system, shed light on the progress made in the field, identify shortcomings, and provide insight into potential future improvements. Two research questions were defined in this context: – RQ1. What are the specifics of digital exclusion in B&H? – RQ2. What are the most successful ways of digital inclusion in the last two decades in B&H? By addressing the aforementioned questions, the article should contribute to a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with digital inclusion efforts in Bosnia and Herzegovina’s primary, secondary, and higher education. Understanding the dynamics of digital inclusion as well as barriers to access and participation in the education system at all levels of education can help to create a more inclusive and fair society for all citizens.
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3.2 Theoretical Framework We live in the digital era. Undoubtedly, digital transformation is taking place around the world at different speeds in countries with vastly different levels of resources, regulation, and public engagement (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2021a). Nowadays, digital transformation is no longer an option, but is competitive and innovative factor that is critical for public and private organizations, as well as for countries and regions (Ndou et al., 2023). So the governments have responsibility to lead this process and respond to these changes with appropriate policies and strategies that address inclusive digital transformation. In literature can be found various definitions and conceptualizations of the term digital transformation. When analyzing existing definitions of the term digital transformation, it is visible that some authors perceived digital transformation as the process which is connected to the digital technologies which occur in every society (Kozarkiewicz, 2020; Olczyk & Kuc-Czarnecka, 2022; OECD, 2019a). The recent growth of the digital technologies in the fourth industrial revolution such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics, nanotechnology, 3D printing, genetics, and biotechnology pose major challenges requiring proactive adaptation by corporations, governments, societies, and individuals (World Economic Forum, 2016). Literature highlights the transformational potential of these digital technologies (United Nations Development Programme, 2019), which can, in the same time, produce positive and negative effects. The positive effect is reflected in the fact that these technologies can improve economic growth (Olczyk & Kuc-Czarnecka, 2022) and also contribute to the overall welfare and reduce poverty (World Bank, 2016). Besides these, other available sources emphasize some other positive effects and power of digital technologies, which are reflected in increasing well-being of citizens, improving productivity, helping tackle climate changes (OECD, 2022). However, on the other side, according to literature, the aforementioned digital technology benefits might remain unrealized unless there are complementary policies, with the possibility of increasing inequality (World Bank, 2016; OECD, 2022). Furthermore, it can be said that digital technology enables many benefits, but also poses significant risks which can be viewed in terms of accentuating and widening inequality (United Nations, 2019a). In line with this, it is obvious that today’s society is characterized by the presence of digital technologies. This phenomenon entails new forms of inequality: digital inclusion and exclusion (Elahi, 2020). Regarding the definition of digital inclusion, it can be found many different definitions, as well as approaches. Some definitions were created by academic researchers, while others by international organizations. For example, some academic researchers start from an approach that within the definition includes components such as digital access, motivation, knowledge, and skills (Elahi, 2020), while others focus on the following components: connectivity (access), capability (skill), content, confidence (self-efficacy), and continuity (Helsper, 2008). Besides conceptualizations of the term digital inclusion that come from academic researchers, the definitions of the term digital inclusion can also be found in certain
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reports of international organizations. For example, the United Nations, in one of their reports, defines digital inclusion as the elimination of the digital divide by ensuring access, the skills, and the ability to use digital devices and content confidently, safely, and effectively (UN, 2019b). Next one organization, precisely OECD, highlights digital inclusion within its framework entitled “Going Digital: Shaping Policies, Improving Lives”. Their efforts in promoting digital inclusion are reflected in the designed digital transformation strategy which encompasses seven dimensions, as follows: access, use, innovation, jobs, social prosperity, trust, and market openness (OECD, 2019b). Valuable relevant efforts for promoting and achieving digital inclusion are made by European Commission. Their ambition is reflected in efforts to pursue digital policies that empower people and businesses to seize a humancentered, sustainable, and more prosperous digital (European Commission, 2021). The most recent efforts they made are related with the development digital compass which encompasses four cardinal points: skills, infrastructures, government, and business. It is worth to mention the Europe 2020 Strategy. In this strategy area of digitization occupies an important position. Some of the stated aims within this area are reflected, for example, in promoting faster deployment of high-speed internet and wider use of information and communication technologies (Hornungova & Petrova, 2022). In light of aforementioned theoretical analysis, it is obvious that the term digital inclusion covers components such as use and skills, but it is also important to emphasize that digital inclusion represents more than just being able to access the Internet (Wiley & Goulding, 2023). In other words, access to the Internet is critical, but not sufficient. Nowadays digital economy demands a strong analog foundation, skills that allow workers, entrepreneurs, and public servants to seize opportunities in the digital world and accountable institutions that use the internet to empower citizens (World Bank, 2016). At the beginning of the work is mentioned that digital technologies can be either an essential facilitator or divider of social inclusion in the information society (Nguyen, 2022). In order to avoid the digital divide in society, the importance of inclusive digital transformation is increasingly emphasized. Inclusive digital transformation, matters, because: addresses the needs of the most poor and vulnerable, including those who are not connected, mitigates the tendency of digital transformation to exacerbate existing inequalities, empowers underrepresented groups to take part in a meaningful way, and protects people from the adverse effects of digital technologies (OECD, 2021a). To achieve inclusive digital transformation, it is necessary whole society approach. In this regard, UNDP has developed an Inclusive Whole-of-Society Digital Transformation Framework which is shown in Fig. 3.1. This framework can be beneficial for countries in the process of identifying current strengths, weaknesses, and future priorities (UNDP, 2022). Each country is on its own digital transformation journey and has its own, unique socioeconomic context in which digital divides appear, and digital and social inclusion interact (Alexander et al., 2023). Through this work it will be presented the digital transformation journey of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a small upper-middle-income economy with a population of roughly 3.28 million
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Fig. 3.1 UNDP’s inclusive whole-of-society digital transformation framework (UNDP, 2022)
as of 2021 (OECD, 2022). Accession to the European Union (EU) is an over-arching priority (UN, 2021). The governance system of Bosnia and Herzegovina is considered one of the most complex in Europe. The country comprises two entities—the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with Brˇcko District as autonomous self-government, and 10 cantons within the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Overall, the country has 13 constitutions and legislative systems, 13 prime ministers, more than 180 ministries, and over 700 members of parliament in a country of around 3.5 million people (UNDP, 2020). When analyzing the digital transformation of some country, it is stressed four levels that need to be considered. First of them refers to the “regalian” functions of a sovereign state (e.g., fiscal matters, laws and regulations, national security), (2) the day-to-day organization and delivery of public services (health, education, justice, and most government services), (3) the proper functioning of the economy and society according to some set of accepted rules (typically a constitution), a particular economic system, as well as a set of cultural and confessional values, and (4) the overall efficiency and performance of the national economy as a whole, as it competes on the international scene (Portulans Institute, 2022). In this regard, Table 3.1 presents an overview of current
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existing strategic documents regarding digital transformation journey in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is evident from Table 3.1 that only three strategic documents related to digital skills have been identified. This data indicates an urgent need for enhancing strategic frameworks and legal regulations in this area. Table 3.1 Overview of main documents influencing digital transformation journey in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Labrovi´c Andelkovi´ c et al., 2021) Strategy document
Key issues
The joint socio-economic reforms (2019–2022)
This document includes a measure entitled “Policies that provide opportunities to youth, women and other vulnerable groups”. This measure aims at ensuring incentives and special financing programs for youth entrepreneurship, focusing on high-potential sectors—tourism, services, IT, and creative industries. Special attention is given to the improvement of digital ecosystem and incentivizing digital transformation of the entire economy, therefore making a clear link between the mentioned measure and digitalization. One of the most important actions to be taken here is improving IT education, starting with elementary school level. Besides that, digital transformation of all levels of authority (public sector) will be undertaken through more frequent usage of e-government and e-services. Lastly, both entities pledge to start with the reforms of the education systems in order to make it more compatible and adjusted to the needs of the labor market, especially in terms of digitalization
Information society development policy of Bosnia and Herzegovina for the period 2017–2021
Concepts, vision, and main goals and tasks of the development of the information society in the entire economy are presented through this document. It sets out bold proposals and goals, basing the development of society on ICT and its influence. The policy encompasses two pillars that deal specifically with strengthening the ICT industry, as well as digital literacy of population—pillars V and VI.44 Other pillars also have indirect connections with the application of digitalization and digital skills, such as pillar VII. Article 5.4 directly lists all stakeholders and their roles in implementing this policy further
The development strategy of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2021–2027
The DSFBIH outlines 4 strategic goals, 18 priorities, and 78 measures. The first strategic goal of this strategy stresses the necessity and importance of increase the digitization of the economy, which relies heavily on digital transformation and improvement of digital literacy
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3.3 Research Methodology 3.3.1 Research Procedure and Method In the context of methodology, our research is based on systematic literature mapping. Literature indicates that the purpose of a systematic review is “to collate all relevant evidence that fts pre-specified eligibility criteria to answer a specific research question” (Aurdin & Aurdin, 2022, p. 3). In order to properly conduct systematic literature mapping, PRISMA method, updated version from 2020, (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) was chosen. In literature PRISMA method is described as an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Chua & Yu, 2023). In this regard, Fig. 3.2 depicts the PRISMA flow diagram for databases, registers, and grey literature, which was utilized in this study. To find relevant material, a detailed search technique was designed. Due to the restricted quantity of publications, a mix of search phrases and keywords addressing various aspects of digital inclusion/exclusion and the digital gap in education in Bosnia and Herzegovina were used. The basic search string was “(“Digital inclusion”
Screening
Identification
Identification of studies via databases and registers
Records identified from: Web of Science (n = 19) Scopus (n = 33)
Records removed before screening: Duplicate records removed (n = 17)
Records screened for eligibility (abstract screened) (n = 35)
Records excluded (not relevant for research questions) (n = 17)
Studies used (n = 18)
Reports excluded (not relevant for research questions) (n = 4)
Reports identified from online databases (n = 15)
Included
Reports used (n = 11)
Studies included in review (n = 18) Reports of included studies (n = 11)
Fig. 3.2 Flowchart of study selection process
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OR “digital exclusion” OR “digital gap” OR “digital divide” OR “digital transformation” OR digital*) AND (education* OR school*) AND (“Bosnia and Herzegovina” OR “BiH”)”. In Table 3.2 are visible established inclusion and exclusion criteria in this research. Several data sources were identified to collect the necessary literature, including academic databases Scopus and Web of Science, and websites of international organizations like UNDP, OECD, UNICEF, and the World Bank, as well as domestic organizations like the Ministry of Education and research institutes. Following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) criteria, a detailed report of the systematic literature review was created. The report described the search procedure in detail, as well as the quantity and characteristics of the included studies, the conclusions, and any limitations discovered throughout the review. A small number of scholarly articles on digital inclusion/exclusion and the digital gap in Bosnia’s education system were found during the systematic literature review. To make up for the scarcity of scholarly articles, this study relied heavily on reports and research published by domestic and international organizations. These sources provide useful insights into the panorama of digital inclusion/exclusion in Bosnia’s educational system. Reports from institutions like the Ministry of Education, research institutes, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) frequently give comprehensive analyses and policy suggestions based on practical experiences and research. Before answering posed research questions, a bibliometric analysis of the studies identified through systematic literature review was conducted in order to map the research field for the specific country context. The keywords of identified studies are used to determine the core concepts and themes of literature. The associations between terms in a data set are examined using co-occurrence analysis in VosViewer. It aids in the discovery of correlations and connections between key concepts in the educational literature on digital inclusion/exclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Three clusters are identified in the co-occurrence network based on the keywords, as follows:
Table 3.2 Criteria for systematic analysis of literature Criteria
Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
Databases
WoS, Scopus
–
Timeframe
From 2000 to 2023
Research done before the year 2000
Focus
Relevant for research questions
Not relevant for Research Questions
Type of publication
Books, book chapters, conference reports, scientific articles, grey literature
–
Language
All languages
–
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Fig. 3.3 Keywords co-occurrence map
Red cluster: “Digital Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina”—cluster focuses on the digital transformation of education in BiH. It encompasses keywords related to engineering education, digital libraries, distance learning, e-learning, and curriculum development. The cluster investigates how technology is integrated into educational practices, as well as the difficulties and possibilities related with digital education in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fig. 3.3). Blue cluster: “Digital Literacy and Higher Education”—the cluster investigates the role of technology in higher education and the necessity for students to improve their digital abilities in order to navigate the changing educational landscape. It encompasses keywords such as higher education, digital literacy, digital transformation, students, and COVID-19. Green cluster: “Telemedicine and Medical Education”—the cluster explores the intersection of telemedicine, medical education, and technology. It encompasses keywords such as telemedicine, medical, human, education medical, and education distance. It investigates how technology is influencing the area of medicine. These clusters are included in the broader field of digital inclusion/exclusion in education in BiH, illustrating the intricacy and interconnectedness of numerous issues within the domain. The findings highlight the importance of incorporating technology into educational environments, fostering digital literacy skills, and using technology in health and medical education. Given the scarcity of research papers expressly focused on the topic of this article, it is critical to delve beyond the academic literature and investigate a broader variety of sources in order to gain a thorough grasp of the issue, particularly the research questions addressed. In this regard, it is crucial to emphasize that, in the context of BiH, reports from international and local organizations play a significant role in giving
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useful insights and statistics on the state of digital inclusion/exclusion in BiH. These papers frequently provide detailed analyses, case studies, and suggestions based on significant research conducted by professional groups. Taking a broader range of sources, including reports, into consideration, this research intends to give a thorough analysis of the whole field of digital inclusion/exclusion in BiH, thereby more effectively addressing the research questions. The report’s incorporation helps us to obtain precise insights, identify effective techniques, and comprehend the country’s unique dynamics of digital inclusion/exclusion during the previous two decades. In other words, the report’s facts and conclusions are used to provide answers to the research questions.
3.4 Discussion BiH is governed by a complex system characterized by a division of responsibilities among various levels of governments (state-level, entities-levels and the district, canton-levels). This division of responsibilities is problematic in the context of promoting digital inclusion because it can result in fragmentation, a lack of coordination, and ineffective policy implementation. In accordance with the Constitution, responsibilities for education are at different levels of government: • At the country level: – Ministry of Civil Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina – The Agency for Preschool, Primary, and Secondary Education • At the entity/district level: – in the Federation of BiH (FBiH): Ministry of Education and Science and 10 cantonal/county ministries of education – in the Republic of Srpska (RS): Ministry of Education and Culture – in Brˇcko District (BD): Department of Education In other words, when it comes to education, Republika Srpska, the ten cantons of the FBiH, and the Brˇcko District are responsible for education policy in BiH. BiH’s education system is divided into four stages: preschool (ISCED level 0), primary (ISCED levels 1 and 2), secondary (ISCED levels 3 and 4), and higher education ˇ (ISCED levels 6 and 7) (Celebi´ c and Jovanovi´c, 2021). When it comes to a general conclusion about the education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the key findings of the European Commission’s Analytical Report on Bosnia and Herzegovina from 2019 is that special attention should be paid to “low quality of education and insufficient orientation towards labor market needs”. Furthermore, the 2018 PISA test results revealed that students in Bosnia and Herzegovina had a low level of knowledge. In particular, 58% of students did not
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meet the minimum functional literacy level in mathematics, 57% in science, and 54% in reading (UNDP, 2020). Digital exclusion could be summarized in several key points: – Law levels of digital literacy—Furthermore, ITU statistics show that the rates of basic and advanced digital skills in Bosnia and Herzegovina are lower than the European average, which highlights the need for improvement (ITU, 2021). Similar results were recorded in the report for the year 2023. To be precise, it is stated that only 36.55% of the population possess basic digital skills versus 52.77% of the population at the European level. Regarding the digital skills of the workforce, deviations have been noted between what the curriculum provides and the needs of industry leaders (ITU, 2023). Despite the declarative emphasis on the importance of digital skills, frameworks are still under development. For example, up to date, no digital skills framework has been created for adults across the economy (OECD, 2021b). According to the report from USAID (2023), 37% of BiH citizens possess basic IT skills, and only 2% have advanced skills. Regarding the digital skills of youth, it is stressed that only 57% of young people ages 16 to 24 possess basic or above basic digital skills (USAID, 2023). – Furthermore, the lack of available statistics on standard digital skills highlights the country’s data gap. This highlights the importance of collecting comprehensive data to inform evidence-based policies and interventions (ITU, 2021). In order to bridge the digital divide and ensure that digital services are used in society, UNDP (2020) emphasizes that policy attention must be focused on the development of digital skills. This ensures digital inclusion and ensures that all citizens are included in the evolving digital society (“no one will be excluded”). To accomplish this, all stakeholders involved in the development of digital skills in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including policymakers from various sectors and administrative levels, private companies, academic and educational institutions, and various organizations (international, non-governmental, and so on), will need to collaborate (UNDP, 2020). – However, international assessments show that BiH students perform similarly to Western Balkan economies. Many students graduate without essential skills while teaching and learning data are scarce, complicating evidence-based policymaking. Capacity and resource constraints make strategic planning and reforms difficult for education authorities. This chapter discusses education in BiH and the importance of evaluation and assessment in raising learning standards for all students (Guthrie et al., 2022). – Shortage of qualified professionals and brain drain—Bosnia and Herzegovina has a lot of potential in the field of information and communication technology (ICT). However, there are some obstacles to overcome, such as a shortage of qualified professionals and brain drain. To address this, it is critical that education curricula include relevant ICT skills and competencies. In terms of aligning with the EU’s digital competence framework for students and professionals, the country has made limited progress. Furthermore, there is a lack of policy documents and support programs for the private sector to promote ICT (OECD, 2021c).
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– Lack of coherent and strategic vision for education system reform—There are many indicators that indicate that a more significant reform of the education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina is necessary. In this sense, numerous efforts have been made to improve the overall quality of public education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with special emphasis on the role of ICT in improving learning outcomes and preparing students for the digital economy. The results of these efforts, however, are mixed. In 2018, BiH adopted a new Common Core Curriculum Based on Learning Outcomes (CCC) after a multi-year APOSO-led development process. The CCC defines broad learning outcomes as the knowledge, skills, and competences students must understand and apply at different schooling levels. It also defines 10 key competences that meet European and international standards (Guthrie et al., 2022). While the Common Core Curriculum emphasizes the importance of digital skills, ICT and digital skills training programs are still at an early stage of implementation. There is also a lack of clearly defined goals and action plans for digital integration in education, especially when it comes to the inclusion of digital and blended learning in the curriculum. This highlights the importance of a more coherent and strategic vision. Furthermore, the education system of Bosnia and Herzegovina still lacks common standards for different levels of education, as well as for teacher training and performance evaluation. According to the findings of the ITU-UNICEF report, the country’s pursuit of full EU integration may be hindered by a disjointed digitization process and difficult measurement targets (ITU, 2021). This article will present a relevant discussion based on the levels of education, primary, secondary, and higher, in the context of digital exclusion/inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In this way, it will be possible to comprehend the topic of interest at various educational levels, that is, to comprehend the challenges and opportunities associated with each level of education. Because the situation in primary and secondary schools is so similar in terms of digital inclusion, the following discussion will be merged. Primary and secondary education, in particular, are components of a continuous educational journey. From a policy standpoint, it is frequently beneficial to examine primary and secondary education as a unified system. Many educational programs and changes are aimed at enhancing educational results and transitions between levels. – Primary education: At this level, digital inclusion is critical for laying the groundwork for future learning and development. The examination of digital inclusion in primary education allows for the identification of early barriers and challenges that young students face when accessing and using digital technologies. – Secondary education: Secondary education supplements primary education by preparing students for higher education or employment. The analysis of digital inclusion in secondary schools sheds light on the efficacy of digital integration initiatives, students’ access to digital resources, and the development of digital skills. – Higher education: Institutions of higher learning play an important role in preparing students for the labor market and developing the necessary skills and
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competencies. The digital inclusion in higher education analysis sheds light on the extent to which universities and faculties have adopted digital technologies for teaching, learning, and research.
3.4.1 Primary and Secondary Education and Digital Inclusion in BiH In BiH, digital inclusion in primary education has a significant impact on young students’ learning experiences and future prospects. The dynamics of digital inclusion in primary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the other hand, present unique challenges. One of the most significant barriers to promoting digital inclusion in primary education in Bosnia and Herzegovina is an unequal distribution of resources and infrastructure. In general, urban institutions have greater access to digital tools and Internet connectivity than rural schools. This disparity can limit rural students’ educational opportunities by limiting their access to digital learning resources, resulting in the development of digital skills and the creation of digital exclusion. In response to these challenges, several initiatives have been implemented in Bosnia and Herzegovina to bridge the digital divide and promote digital inclusion in primary education. Several of these initiatives involved the distribution of digital devices to students and teachers, such as laptops and tablets. Efforts have also been made to improve internet connectivity in schools. Furthermore, digital literacy programs have been put in place to teach students and teachers several aspects of digital technology usage. These programs aimed to teach students the digital skills they needed to use technology effectively while also encouraging responsible online behavior. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, responsibility for primary education is divided among entities: it is the responsibility of Republika Srpska and Brˇcko District, while it is the responsibility of cantonal ministries in the FBiH. As a result, initiatives and projects related to primary education have primarily concentrated on specific geographic areas. At the national level, only a few initiatives have been implemented, indicating a lack of a systematic and coordinated approach. Initiatives seek to improve digital literacy, develop students’ and teachers’ skills, and bridge the digital divide between Bosnia and Herzegovina and more developed countries. However, it is important to note that these initiatives may exacerbate the country’s existing disparities because some cantons had more cities or initiatives than others. Many of these initiatives are funded by international organizations based in Bosnia and Herzegovina, such as UNICEF, UNDP, and others. Line ministries also carry out activities to promote digital inclusion as part of their regular operations. It is evident that education reform and digital inclusion processes must be activated. In this regard, three major lines of action can be identified:
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– Improvement of school infrastructure—Bajgori´c et al. (2020) study highlights the direct link between resource scarcity and knowledge problems, as well as the importance of investing in resources to address knowledge gaps. – Improvement of teachers’ skills—It is critical for meaningful digital inclusion in primary education that teachers have the skills and knowledge to effectively integrate digital technologies into their teaching practice. Professional development programs, workshops, and ongoing support can help teachers improve their digital competencies and confidence in using technology as an educational tool. – Curriculum innovation—It is necessary to revise the curricula at all levels. – and coordinate access to primary, secondary, and higher education. Changes should take place at the program level, at the curriculum level, but also at the system level. – Adaptation of legislation and legal framework—Sufficient financing and longterm commitment from policymakers are required to support the viability of digital inclusion programs in primary education. However, rigorous research and evaluation studies are especially critical for assessing the impact of digital inclusion projects, identifying potential gaps, and making decisions based on empirical facts (Bajgori´c et al., 2020). A study conducted in Sarajevo Canton to improve digital skills concluded that it is necessary to: (1) motivate teachers to innovate teaching methods; (2) encourage students to think entrepreneurially; (3) improve school technical equipment (resources); (4) improve teachers’ and students’ digital literacy; (5) direct teachers’ digital literacy; (6) organize seminars for teachers to exchange experiences; and (7) organize additional tutorials and e-learning (Bajgori´c et al., 2020). In addition to teaching, technology is integrated to a limited extent in other processes in schools. For example, Beširevi´c (2020) emphasizes the importance of school libraries as access points to digital information resources, as well as the transition to a participatory culture in which library users become information creators. This study emphasizes the importance of school libraries providing computer-equipped learning spaces as well as opportunities for hands-on activities and content production. However, guided by the example of one project, the study states a number of challenges in this sense. One of the obstacles is the unique political environment in BiH, which includes three official languages and 11 separate curricula, which makes it difficult to plan and implement projects.
3.4.2 Higher Education and Digital Inclusion in BiH Higher education is not location-based like basic and secondary education. While elementary school enrollment is directly tied to the limited local community and high school enrollment is determined by the city where students live, faculty choice is usually not. Digital inclusion at this level of school depends heavily on:
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– Orientations of the higher education institution, with technical orientations being more inclusive than others. – Faculty and program quality and digital inclusion vary. In this regard, one of the mapped studies examines whether typical creative industry programs equip graduates for the labor market, self-employment, and career advancement by assessing the inclusion of business competencies (legal, managerial, marketing, and financial skills) and digital competencies (information literacy, digital communication, content creation, security, and problem-solving). Research has shown that while degree programs offer certificates in specific art forms or creative practices, they do not emphasize the business and digital competencies needed for self-employment and career advancement in the creative industries (Poljaškevi´c et al., 2020). – Individual teachers innovate teaching approaches, and their own abilities and knowledge make the subject inclusive. For example, Mujaˇci´c et al. (2015) discuss the advantages of using technology in the development of teaching and learning resources, as well as in the delivery of teaching and assessment of the course presenting the successful example of Digital Systems in the Engineering Informatics study program. The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed some key barriers to digital inclusion at this level of education. First and foremost, the main problem is related to insufficient legal regulation in the field of digitalization. For example, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a strategy for digitalizing higher education has not yet been created. Additionally, the next problem that has been detected is the lack of adequate technical conditions regarding access to tools and platforms for distance learning. Regarding students with special need, data indicates that there are no clearly regulated protocols and competent support services to cater to their individual learning needs in terms of distance learning (Huski´c & Lati´c, 2021). Similarly, Fejzi´c et al. (2022) analyzed the impact of IT on veterinary education before and during the COVID-19 epidemic. Vets use distance learning, web platforms, digital libraries, and virtual simulation models. Virtual teaching and new ways to fill gaps in hands-on education in teaching hospitals and laboratories have increased during the pandemic. What the study highlights are the difficulties of incorporating new requirements into an already overloaded veterinary curriculum and the need to balance scientific knowledge and practical skills (Fejzi´c et al., 2022). The curriculum of higher education institutions can be one of the reasons for the occurrence of digital exclusion. In this regard, one of the mapped studies through systematic review, indicates that the curriculum of most teacher training colleges does not develop digital literacy and digital competencies among students (Selmanagi´c Lizde et al., 2022). In line with this, research results from one of the mapped studies indicate the necessity and importance of involving modern teaching methods in order to redesign curricula in higher education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Todorovi´c, 2020). The aforementioned cannot be achieved without a digitally competent teacher. In light of that, research results from one mapped study highlight the need for development of teachers’ pedagogical competencies in online environment (Arsenijevi´c et al., 2022).
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3.5 Conclusion Based on the research, the specificities of digital exclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina can be considered from several perspectives: – Infrastructure and access: The cornerstone of digital exclusion is a lack of infrastructure and access to digital technology, both privately and in school. There are even schools and colleges that do not have internet access. – Factors of socioeconomic status: Given that BiH is a country facing economic issues, socioeconomic gaps play a key part in digital exclusion, which contributes to the fact that a huge number of students do not have the financial means to purchase the essential digital devices. – Digital skills and literacy: According to several reports, digital exclusion in BiH is caused by a lack of digital skills and literacy among both teachers and pupils. When it comes to the successful ways of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is important to highlight: – Broadband infrastructure development: Significant progress has been made in the expansion of broadband infrastructure in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the last two decades. – Improving school digital infrastructure: Several initiatives have acquired school equipment, distributing digital devices, and other equipment to primary and secondary schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the assumption that students will be able to use them at least during classes. – Training and education in digital skills: Throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina, numerous projects and programs are aimed at improving digital skills and education. Trainings, workshops, and courses were given by ministries, nongovernmental organizations, and educational institutions to increase digital literacy among various demographic groups. – Cooperation with international organizations: Collaboration with organizations such as UNICEF, UNDP, EBRD, and others has been beneficial to BiH’s digital inclusion. In their study, Bajgori´c et al. (2020) highlighted various examples of good practice in digital inclusion, and it is worth noting that it is about the individual efforts and enthusiasm of individual teachers. Examples of using multimedia in education, such as applications, simulations, and the like, stand out. The study emphasizes the need of understanding the dynamics of digital inclusion/ exclusion in the education system in order to promote a more inclusive and equitable society in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Policymakers, educators, and stakeholders may collaborate to develop personalized interventions and policies to bridge the digital divide and ensure equal access to great education for all people by addressing the specific issues and opportunities associated with digital inclusion.
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Chapter 4
The Idiosyncrasies of Digital Divide in Brazil: A Literature Review on Initiatives of Digital Inclusion Anna de Souza Cruz Ravaglio, Gerson Muitana, Cristiano da Silva Benites, Claudiane Santana, Maria Amelia Eliseo, Ismar Frango Silveira, Valéria Farinazzo Martins, and Cibele Alburquerque de la Higuera Amato
Abstract Brazil, a vast country with a population exceeding 200 million inhabitants, faces numerous regional and state-level disparities as well as significant social challenges, which impact on access to education, health, public services, and technology as well. Despite various initiatives implemented over the past decades to address these issues, the digital divide in Brazil persists as a reality. The causes of this divide are intricately linked to social exclusion and inequalities; however, they must be understood beyond mere economic factors—consequently, it is essential to consider additional dimensions when examining this phenomenon. Thus, the primary objective of this paper is to present a longitudinal study on the scholarly output pertaining to Digital Inclusion in the Brazilian context. This study aims to elucidate the progress of research in this field, offering insights into future trends and directions. Keywords Digital gap · Brazilian initiatives for digital inclusion · Social inequalities in Brazil
4.1 Introduction Despite many government efforts to promote digital inclusion through programs and laws in the past decades (Amato et al., 2019; Tomczyk et al., 2019), the digital divide in Brazil remains a reality. The benefits and opportunities brought by the implementation of ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) are not available to everyone. This inequality became more evident during the COVID19 pandemic lockdown, when Brazilian schools were forced to switch from inperson to online classes. For all students to continue attending their classes, a whole A. de Souza Cruz Ravaglio · G. Muitana · C. da Silva Benites · C. Santana · M. A. Eliseo (B) · I. F. Silveira · V. F. Martins · C. A. de la Higuera Amato Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_4
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infrastructure with internet access would be necessary. However, due to economic factors, many Brazilian students faced connectivity difficulties and were unable to proceed with their classes. In the return to normalcy, it is observed that poorer children had lower literacy rates (Siqueira, 2022). In 2022, 81% of the Brazilian population aged 10 and above were internet users (a seven-percentage point increase compared to 2019), with higher prevalence in social classes A (93%) and B (91%), and lower proportions in classes C (81%) and DE (60%). Regarding Brazilian households with internet access, 80% have internet access, showing a nine-percentage point increase compared to 2019 when 71% of households had internet access. In urban areas, 82% of households had internet access, while in rural areas, the proportion was 68%. In all analyzed social strata: class A (100% of connected households), B (97%), C (87%), and DE (60%) (CETIC.BR, 2023a). Regarding internet usage by children and adolescents (aged 9–17), 92% were internet users in 2022, with 93% in urban areas and 85% in rural areas. The mobile phone was the most commonly used device to access the Internet. 80% of children and adolescents used the Internet to do schoolwork (CETIC.BR, 2023b). These statistics reveal the disparities in internet access between urban and rural areas and among social classes in Brazil. The majority of Brazilian Internet users (62%) exclusively access the Internet through mobile devices, which accounts for more than 92 million individuals. This mobile-centric access is predominant among women (64%), individuals of African descent (63%), and mixed race (67%), as well as those belonging to the lower socioeconomic classes DE (84%). Approximately 40% of these users have never utilized a computer, whether a laptop or desktop. In this context, this chapter provides an overview of government and nongovernmental initiatives carried out in the last 20 years (from 2003 to 2022) to reduce digital divide in Brazil. It presents the results of a literature review conducted based on scientific articles that address digital inclusion public policies at the regional, municipal, state, or federal levels.
4.2 Theoretical Framework According to OECD (2001) Digital Divide “refers to the gap between individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio-economic levels with regard to both their opportunities to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) and to their use of the Internet for a wide variety of activities”. Noll et al. (2000) defines it as the “differences in access to and uses of information technology that are correlated with income, race and ethnicity, gender, age, place of residence, and other measures of socioeconomic status”. And, according to Korovkin et al. (2022), “the digital divide exists between countries, between regions within countries, or between social and/or demographic groups”. The same authors propose an organization of the different types of digital divide, as follows:
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– 1st level divide: challenges pertaining to the physical accessibility of digital systems; – 2nd level divide: disparities in digital competencies, modalities, and objectives of utilization; – 3rd level divide: the broader socio-economic repercussions arising from the implementation of digital technologies. These different levels of divide can be clearly seen in the papers published about Digital Division in the Brazilian context, and the shift between the 1st and 3rd level is noticeable along the years (1st level questions are more present in research done from 2003 to 2012, and 2nd and 3rd level issues appear more frequently in research done from 2013 to 2022). Of course, this does not mean that all problems regarding physical access to technologies are already solved in Brazil, but it indicates that the focus on problems has changed in the past ten years, since in many regions and contexts, the problem with physical access to computers and Internet has been mitigated—due to governmental actions or the simple change to a more digital-dependent society that is being currently occurring.
4.3 Methodology To understand the digital divide present in the Brazilian scenario in the last years, a meticulous literature review was undertaken to facilitate a comprehensive and unbiased investigation. The research was conducted with predetermined criteria. We sought to map the literature of the last 20 years on digital inclusion policies in the Brazilian context over a span of 20 years, specifically from 2003 to 2022. The identification of relevant scientific publications was accomplished by utilizing reputable scientific search engines, namely: Google Scholar and the CAPES Journals Portal (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior). Keywords in both Portuguese and English were carefully selected for this study. The inclusion of English keywords was intended to broaden accessibility to the research findings, considering that many Brazilian researchers publish their work in English. This approach ensures that a wider audience can engage with and benefit from the research outcomes. The following keywords were used as search strings: “digital inclusion” AND brazil AND education AND teacher AND (“digital exclusion” OR “digital divide”) AND “public policy” (and its version in Portuguese). The inclusion criteria considered full articles, primary sources, peer-reviewed articles, articles that showcase initiatives within the Brazilian context, and those that align with the issues of governmental and non-governmental policies for digital inclusion in Brazil. Secondary articles or systematic reviews, repeated articles, thesis and dissertations, articles outside the specified period, and articles to which we did not have access were not considered.
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Fig. 4.1 The literature systematic analysis process
The choice of the research had as a criterion to be referenced for producing knowledge in policies of digital divide. The flowchart of the research procedure is shown in Fig. 4.1. The selection process, based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, involved careful selection of each of the analyzed studies. After the articles were chosen, a qualitative content analysis was conducted using Bardin’s approach, based on the abstracts. Bardin’s approach employs systematic, critical, and objective procedures in the analysis of content information, ensuring rigor to maintain the heterogeneity of its subject. The selection of classification criteria is a crucial step in extracting structures that can be inferred in the analysis (Bardin, 2020). In this study, the content analysis was supported by the Atlas.TI software, which utilizes Artificial Intelligence for qualitative data analysis. It is worth noting that the software does not perform automated data analysis. All relationships established during the analysis process are based on the researchers’ decisions (Soratto et al., 2020). By providing detailed criteria and explanations, the methodology ensures the replicability of the study. The studies included in this research clearly outlined their objectives, methodology, and the results they obtained. This study has some limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, the adopted search criteria were quite restrictive, limiting the inclusion of studies in this analysis to those exclusively focused on governmental and non-governmental digital inclusion policies in Brazil. Secondly, a significant number of works may not have been captured by the academic databases (Google Scholar and CAPES Portal were considered for this study) or may have been excluded based on other criteria. Another aspect that must be taken into account is the considerable amount of academic production in Brazilian academia, which has notably grown in the last few years. For instance, just taking the raw data (before exclusion criteria) of papers indexed by Google Scholar attending one of two search strings (in Portuguese and English), the number of productions rose to around 1,000 (Fig. 4.2)—which forced a different type of analysis in the last period (2018–2022): only the most cited papers, following inclusion criteria, were analyzed.
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Fig. 4.2 Raw results on Google Scholar following the search strings before exclusion criteria being applied
4.4 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2003 to 2007 The period of 2003–2007, in the Brazilian context, shows the consolidation of the use of Internet as a communication media between people, companies, and government. Although broadband Internet being available—with restrictions—on this time, dialup connections were the most frequent ones. From the global perspective, in 2007 there were 1 billion people accessing the Internet, which corresponded to 17.8% of the world population—in South America, the penetration rate was around 20%, slightly bigger than the world average. It was a result of a growth in the order of four times of number of users in that region since 2000. Regarding users that had access from their homes, Brazil was the country with the biggest growing on Internet users during the year of 2007, going from 14 million users to 21.7 at the end of that year. Numbers diverge a bit according to the source, but the most reliable ones estimate as 40 million the total of Internet users at the end of 2007. Online Collaborative tools like Google Docs (launched in 2006) and Dropbox (founded in 2007), although not immediately adopted by final users at that time, brought some new possibilities for file-sharing and real-time collaboration in enterprises and in the educational field. This was the period in which the rise of social media platforms began, with MySpace (2003) and Facebook (2004), but the Brazilian users only got captured by this phenomenon in 2008, with Orkut. Also, YouTube (2005) and Netflix, that changed its commercial model in 2007, pointed out to collaborative videos and streaming (in Brazil, Netflix began its operations only in 2011). The launching of digital cameras (2003) and the first iPhone (2007) paved the way for a future convergence among touch-screen interface, internet connectivity, and multimedia features.
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In 2005, Brazilian government launched the Digital Inclusion Program (“Programa de Inclusão Digital”), making investments of USD 200 million, at that time the biggest program in this sense in Latin America. At that time, the digital divide in Brazil made Internet connections restricted to the 10% wealthier part of the population. Thus, the worst barrier to digital inclusion was directly linked to the income distribution and education levels in the country. The academic works related to Digital Inclusion in the Brazilian context found reflects the reality of this period and can be seen below (Table 4.1). After a content analysis, the most frequent categories found in these articles can be seen in Fig. 4.3, which shows only the categories that appeared in more than 10% of the papers (the numbers in front of the categories indicate the number of papers in which they appear), from a total of 170 codes detected in papers. It is noteworthy that the most frequent category is related to public policies, in a time where the establishment of governmental actions was taking place (for instance, in 1.2, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8, 1.10, 1.13, 1.15, 1.17, 1.19, 1.23, 1.27, 1.33, and 1.35, among others). Obviously, previous actions were taken by other governments to foster the democratization of technology among Brazilian citizens, but the stage of technological development itself represented a barrier to a bigger popularization of it. The high price of devices and private Internet access, together with the underdeveloped economic situation of the country at that time (the minimum wage in 2003 was USD 78/month, which was increased by a public policy of salary valorization, elevating the value to USD 196/month in 2007), made necessary a big governmental effort on public policies to guarantee a minimum access for the population. The categories “Social inclusion” and “Social inequities” appeared as frequent categories, which reveals the economic facet of the digital divide. “Technology” and “Information technology” also appeared as frequent categories, which denotes the preoccupation of the academic community of that time with technological development, from one side, and the application and uses of technology. In many cases, the discussion on this topic was strongly limited by 1st level divide (Korovkin et al., 2022) since the access to computers and the Internet was an important issue at that time. Two frequent terms, which appeared as an analysis category, was “Education” (1.4, 1.7, 1.16, 1.25, and 1.26, for instance), together with “Citizenship” (1.4, 1.6, 1.22, and 1.33, among others): in an incipient era of computers and Internet-powered educational solutions and few initiatives on e-government initiatives, it is understandable the worries of researchers at this time with both powerful applications and their relationships with Digital Inclusion.
4.5 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2008 to 2012 The time period of 2008–2012 has seen the growth of mobile apps: the release of Android OS in 2008 offered competition to Apple’s iOS and led to a rapid increase of the mobile ecosystems. The same period saw the rise of other social media players, like Twitter (2006) and Instagram (2010), and from an infrastructural point of view,
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Table 4.1 Academic production in the period of 2003–2007 ID
Title in English
References
1.1
Digital exclusion and education in Brazil: inside and outside the school
Sorj and Remold (2005)
1.2
Free software: for a public policy of training and digital inclusion
Oliveira et al. (2006)
1.3
Society and digital technology: between including or being included
Vaz Cabral Filho (2006)
1.4
Digital inclusion and education for informational competence: a matter of ethics and citizenship
Silva et al. (2005)
1.5
The contribution of the theory of social Silva and Borges (2007) representations to the discussion on technologies and digital inclusion in education
1.6
Policies and information management: a rereading on citizenship and digital inclusion
de Carvalho (2006)
1.7
Digital inclusion and online education for citizenship: points for reflection
Cabeda (2004)
1.8
Company, government, and society: the triple alliance in the context of digital inclusion
Bottentuit Junior and Firmo (2004)
1.9
Digital inclusion: an alternative to the social?—Analysis of projects carried out in Salvador
Costa (2006)
1.10
Digital inclusion: the social side of information and communication techniques
Feliciano et al. (2007)
1.11
Articulation between state and third sector in Digital Inclusion policies—the case of Telecentro Jardim Autódromo
Henriksen et al. (2007)
1.12
Without fear of [o] use: digital inclusion in fields
Gomes (2004)
1.13
Digital exclusion: a social, technological, or economic problem?
Junior (2006)
1.14
Information policy for digital literacy
Lima and Machado (2004)
1.15
Permanent virtual plenary: in search of the interlocution between the health councils
Silva and Labra (2007)
1.16
Evaluation of free educational software for elementary school
Gomes et al. (2006)
1.17
Guidelines of public policy for digital literacy of the state of Paraná
Tono (2006)
1.18
Digital literacy: new challenge for inclusion in Borges and de Araújo (2006) the world of work
1.19
Public access to the internet in Curitiba: who are and how users behave?
Duarte and Espínola (2007) (continued)
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Table 4.1 (continued) ID
Title in English
1.20
Information technology guidelines: a proposal Mendonça and da Silva Filho (2006) for micro and small companies in northeastern Brazil
References
1.21
The morphological production of cyberspace Pires (2004) and the appropriation of informational flows in Brazil
1.22
Digital emancipation: possibilities and Hetkowski (2006) advances in the democratization of knowledge
1.23
E-Paraná: the Paraná information and electronic services network
Riecken and Lanza (2007)
1.24
Dissemination of information in the scope of research and the role of promotion of organisms
Carvalho (2006)
1.25
For a critical and emancipatory environmental education in rural areas
Zakrzevski (2004)
1.26
Media-education from the perspective of community communication
Deliberador (2004)
1.27
Cultural equipment, libraries, and information Jannuzzi and Loureiro (2003) professionals in Brazil: state indicators around 2000
1.28
It did not start in Geneva, it will not end in Tunis: challenges from civil society organizations to realize the information and knowledge society
Cabral and Cabral Filho (2006)
1.29
Comparing government and NGO Digital Inclusion initiatives in the US and Brazil
Ferreira et al. (2006)
1.30
Digital divide and purchase intent: why demographic psychology matters
Akhter (2003)
1.31
Digital divide: conceptual problems, empirical Sorj and Guedes (2005) evidence, and public policies
1.32
Information and communication technologies and the global digital divide: technology transfer, development, and least developing countries
1.33
Understanding the interplay between actors Macadar and Reinhard (2005) involved in the development of an organization for telecentre network management: the e-citizenship project of the city of Sao Paulo (Brazil)
1.34
UNESCO, ICT corporations, and the passion of ICT for development: modernization resurrected
Leye (2007)
1.35
The interplay of public and private spaces in internet access
Viseu et al. (2006)
Rice (2003)
(continued)
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Table 4.1 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
1.36
Social inclusion and the information systems field: why now?
Trauth and Howcroft (2006)
1.37
The reality of virtual reality: the internet and gender equality advocacy in Latin America
Friedman (2005)
1.38
Usage dynamics of telecenters in Sao Paulo, Brazil
Spence and Straubhaar (2007)
1.39
Located privacy online: complex perceptions and everyday practices
Viseu et al. (2004)
1.40
The relational view of information seeking and Borgatti and Cross (2003) learning in social networks
Fig. 4.3 Most frequent analysis categories in the academic production on Digital Divide (Brazilian context) from 2003 to 2007 (source authors)
technologies like Big Data, Internet of Things, and Cloud Computing emerged—with still low impact on final users, especially in Brazil, whose digital divide problems were not yet overcome. According to the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD—“Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios”), in 2008 the most frequent place to access the Internet were the “LAN houses”—responsible for 48% of all accesses at that year, they were spread throughout the country in more than 90,000 places. One important information that arose from this report was that the path to Digital Inclusion passed
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through Education, since the illiteracy rate was around 10% at that time—considering the functional illiteracy, the number went to 23%. In 2009 it was launched the National Broadband Plan (“Programa Nacional de Banda Larga”), which aimed to bring Internet connection to schools, libraries, and public buildings across the country. The goal was to increase the number of Internet users in Brazil from 90 million—this number was reached in less than three years—in 2012 there were 105 million Internet users, representing a penetration rate of 48.6%. The National Broadband Plan was composed of many subprojects, beyond which the One Laptop per Student (UCA—“Um Computador por Aluno”) and several other—“tele center” are to be highlighted. Despite the continental size of the country, both programs obtained relative success in some regions: the UCA project was developed initially in 270 public schools spread in 22 cities in 13 states, starting with 67,200 laptops; also, in 2012, there were 219 public telecenters focused on assisting students, employees, parents, and communities, under guided or free access. The results of the academic production regarding Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2008 to 2012 can be seen in Table 4.2. From Table 4.2, analyzing the abstract, the most frequent analysis categories arising from 213 codes in 76 papers, are shown in Fig. 4.4. The scenario in this period is not too different from the previous one, appearing in just one brand new category—“Access to information”, which appeared in 5 papers— revealing a shift to 2nd level divide issues. Also, the strong ties among Digital Divide and social aspects appeared in two categories with more emphasis: “Social inclusion” and “Social inequities”.
4.6 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2013 to 2017 Several notable technological inventions and developments occurred between 2013 and 2017, including important advances in Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Computing, and the massive adoption of mobile phones in the world: in Brazil, in 2013, there were already more mobile connections (238 million) than inhabitants (195 million)— notably, the proliferation of smartphones and the availability of different data plans propelled the rapid expansion of mobile internet usage (GSMA, 2013). Consequently, a considerable number of Brazilians predominantly accessed the Internet via mobile devices. Between 2013 and 2017, Brazil witnessed significant advancements in Internet access, characterized by increasing penetration rates, the rise of mobile internet usage, and some governmental efforts to expand broadband infrastructure—the proportion of Brazilians with internet access at home reached almost 59% in 2017. Despite the progress made in Internet access, Brazil still faced challenges associated with the digital divide and inequalities: rural and remote areas suffered from limited access to broadband Internet services, while low-income communities often faced barriers to affordable connectivity options. These aspects persisted as significant issues throughout the specified period.
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Table 4.2 Academic production on Digital Inclusion from 2008 to 2012 ID
Title in English
References
2.1
Participatory construction of a public policy instrument for management and access to information
Freire (2008)
2.2
Building a map of public policies for management Lourenço and Freire (2008) and access to information in needy communities
2.3
Dialogues with the future and responses to the present: public policies for the use of computer science in the school context
Borges (2008)
2.4
Digital government and democracy: transition from a hierarchical model to an emerging model
Rover (2008)
2.5
Internet and citizenship: the transfer and use of information in the construction of digital citizenship
de Carvalho (2008)
2.6
Intermediate vs mediators: different approaches of ICTs in digital inclusion projects
de Azevedo and da Costa Marques (2008)
2.7
Public policy of telecenters and violence prevention
Lima and Furtado (2008)
2.8
Digital inclusion public policies in Paraná—1997 Tono et al. (2008) to 2006
2.9
Rethinking distance education from the perspective of digital inclusion
Teixeira and Marcon (2008)
2.10 The story economy: digital storytelling in economic and community development
Nutt and Schwartz (2008)
2.11 A reflection on the contribution of public and private organizations to digital inclusion
Bernardi and Dias (2008)
2.12 Assessing the informational inclusion of users of telecenters and public school laboratories in Brazilian digital inclusion programs
Neto and Miranda (2009)
2.13 Digital inclusion and health counselors: a policy for the reduction of social inequalities in Brazil
Moraes et al. (2009)
2.14 Social entrepreneurship with digital inclusion: the de Oliveira et al. (2009) case pirambu digital 2.15 Between inclusion and digital democracy: the performance of the state and the third sector in poor communities of the Metropolitan Region of Recife
Ferreira and da Mota Rocha (2009)
2.16 Digital inclusion and local development
Santos and Cardoso (2009)
2.17 Digital inclusion in Roraima: myth or reality
Joaquim (2009)
2.18 Global and regional in national social inclusion strategies for digital technologies
Cabral and Cabral Filho (2009)
2.19 The electronic government and the new public administration
Leão et al. (2009) (continued)
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Table 4.2 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
2.20 The process of democratization of technology in the schools of Recôncavo Baiano: an analysis of the digital inclusion programs of two cities
Silva et al. (2009)
2.21 Online. br: current challenges for internet governance and digital inclusion in Brazil
Oppermann (2009)
2.22 The federal government’s digital inclusion programs from the perspective of informational competence
de Lucas and da Silva Martins (2009)
2.23 Political participation of youth and cyber space
Busson (2009)
2.24 Policy, intellectual property, and technologies
Guerrini (2009)
2.25 Free pedagogical robotics: on socio-digital inclusion and democratization of knowledge
Mill and César (2009)
2.26 Information society and digital inclusion: a critical analysis
de Mattos and Dias Rocchetti Santos (2009)
2.27 Information and communication technology of Brazilian public schools: the Proinfo integrated program
Bielschowsky (2009)
2.28 The management of services of the telecenters of Mondo et al. (2010) Santa Catarina from the business perception of its managers 2.29 Contemporary aspects of the state: discussion about globalization
Neves, B. C. Aspectos contemporâneos do Estado: discussão sobre a globalização, inclusão digital e cognição
2.30 Digital education and inclusion for the elderly
Silveira et al. (2010)
2.31 Electronic governance and democracy
da Fonseca Júnior (2010)
2.32 Digital inclusion for local development
Teixeira and Santos (2010)
2.33 Emerging literacies of network actors: virtual ethnography with elderly in the digital inclusion program AcessaSP
Passarelli et al. (2010)
2.34 Memory and socialization of information on the web
Silva et al. (2010)
2.35 Public policy for information management: the case of the Santa Clara community
Nascimento and de Araújo Freire (2010)
2.36 Information policies, information and Neves (2010) communication technologies, and participation within the scope of the information society: focus on the digital inclusion of global to site 2.37 Public policies for digital inclusion in schools
Bonilla (2010)
2.38 Universal access policies and internet access as fundamental right: the constitutional law perspective informed by the brazilian case
Hartmann (2010)
(continued)
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Table 4.2 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
2.39 Use of technology and access to information by users of the GESAC program and digital inclusion actions of the Brazilian government
Neto and Miranda (2010)
2.40 “School of the Future” research laboratory/USP: action research and emerging literacies studies in Web 2.0 environments
Passarelli (2011)
2.41 “Indigenous digital inclusion” in the information society
Pinto (2011)
2.42 The collective cause: cultural public policies for the scenario of networks from the perspective of digital ecology (the Brazilian experience)
Costa (2011)
2.43 The digital inclusion of Sergipe-Brazil’s community health agents: a study of literacy practices in information and health communication
Paixão et al. (2011)
2.44 Technological appropriation and digital culture: the program one computer per student in the interior of the northeast of Brazil
Carvalho and Alves (2011)
2.45 Technological appropriation, digital culture and teacher education in distance degrees
Carvalho (2011)
2.46 Autonomy, freedom, and free software: some reflections
de Almeida and Riccio (2011)
2.47 Sergipe–Brazil health communities: a study of literacy practices in information and health communication
Freire et al. (2011)
2.48 Methodological guidelines used in digital inclusion actions
Bonilla and de Souza (2011)
2.49 Education and technology: between discourse and practice
Silva (2011)
2.50 Digital exclusion and citizen communication on the internet: the experience of the Young News Agency
Carvalho et al. (2011)
2.51 Field teacher education and digital technologies: articulations that point to other pedagogical dynamics and enhance reality transformations
Bonilla and Halmann (2011)
2.52 Impacts of the workshops, qualifying and mediation of multipliers and sessions with users of digital inclusion program in Brazil: an assessment from a multivariate analysis
Neto and Miranda (2011)
2.53 Digital inclusion as a social inclusion factor
Dias (2011)
2.54 Digital inclusion: contemporary controversy
Bonilla and Oliveira (2011)
2.55 Digital inclusion public policies
Helou et al. (2011)
2.56 Critical reflection on information and education telecenters in the city of João Pessoa
de Pinho Neto (2011) (continued)
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Table 4.2 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
2.57 Reflections on entertainment, education, and distinction in contexts of “digital inclusion”
Barros (2011)
2.58 Tonomundo
Teixeira and Santos (2011)
2.59 “Connected youth”? Telecentros: myths and evidence of digital inclusion
Nazario and Bohadana (2012a)
2.60 Palmas connectivity: application of digital inclusion projects in people’s lives
Pessoa and Castro (2012)
2.61 The implementation of the electronic trading
de Oliveira (2012)
2.62 The inclusion of communities in a virtual environment of socialization
Farias et al. (2012)
2.63 The information society at the service of social inclusion
Pezzella and Bublitz (2012)
2.64 Training and guidance: aspects of mediation in the universe of digital inclusion
Neves (2012)
2.65 Electronic government and public policies: Alonso et al. (2011) analysis on the use of digital certification in Brazil 2.66 Digital inclusion of young people in the Viçosa/ Minas Gerais microregion
Alves (2012)
2.67 Infiinclusion in Piraí digital: empirical evidence from actor-right theory
Teles and Joia (2012)
2.68 Municipal Infovia: challenges and perspectives in dos Reis and Mota (2012) technological inclusion 2.69 Lan house and telecenter: digital inclusion of low-income youth?
Nazario and Bohadana (2012b)
2.70 Modeling, development, and diffusion of de Castro Neto et al. (2012) hypermedia-internet applications for the Brazilian rural sector 2.71 The case of the university network of Silva and Moraes (2012) telemedicine: analysis of the entry of telehealth in the Brazilian political agenda 2.72 The use of ICM tools in UMEFs: a case study of the municipality of Vila Velha
Pedrini and Cruz, A. O. 10| O Uso Das Ferramentas de TIC nas Umefs: Um Estudo De Caso do Município de Vila Velha. Coletânea de artigos sobre informática na educação: construções em curso, 173
2.73 Program one computer per student: the context of de Souza and Carvalho (2012) public schools in Pernambuco and Paraíba 2.74 Reflections on the effectiveness of digital Furlan et al. (2012) inclusion educational projects in communities with high social vulnerability on the effectiveness of digital inclusion educational projects in high social vulnerability communities. Science in Extension Magazine, 8(3), 86–100 (continued)
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Table 4.2 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
2.75 Tonomundo: digital inclusion in public school
Teixeira and Santos (2012)
2.76 Challenges for digital inclusion in Brazil
Mattos and Chagas (2008)
Fig. 4.4 Most frequent analysis categories in the academic production on Digital Divide (Brazilian context) from 2008 to 2012 (source authors)
Instead of the advancement of private initiatives, a government shift occurred in 2016 made some important public programs to be discontinued in this period of time, together with an economic crisis that impacted public finances and overall incomes. Table 4.3 shows the publications of this period. The qualitative analysis, as powered by Atlas.TI, brought 259 codes from 81 papers. The main categories (Fig. 4.5) are not new, if compared with the previous periods, but an interesting aspect regarding this time cut is the spread of research themes, highlighting the subcategories under the category “Technology”, which reflects the popularization of technological tools—and their impacts on society— that occurred in that time. Another important aspect of this analysis is the frontier blurring between Digital and Social Exclusion—considering, at that time, how dependent people already were on technologies, the digital gap is increasingly associated with social inequities: no access to technologies means that citizens have no access to many public services and information, in general.
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Table 4.3 Academic production on Digital Inclusion from 2013 to 2017 ID
Title in English
3.1
Digital exclusion: the reflection of social inequality in Brazil Grossi et al. (2013)
References
3.2
Public policy of digital inclusion in the municipality of São Sebastião do Umbuzeiro—PB
Silva et al. (2015)
3.3
Educational public policies: focus on digital inclusion
Coelho and Cunha (2018)
3.4
Tensions that mark digital inclusion through education in the Peixoto and Echalar (2018) context of neoliberal policies
3.5
Public policies for digital inclusion in public schools BR
3.6
Sociodigital inclusion and human formation: ways to build a Lima et al. (2016) public policy in Niterói
3.7
Public policies of digital inclusion in the context of school education as a factor of access to information
3.8
Public policies of digital inclusion: educational challenges in Camozzato et al. (2015) contemporary society
3.9
Digital and technological inclusion: empirical research on the fundamental right of access to information
Nienow et al. (2013)
Carneiro and Silva (2014)
Barreto Junior and Perosini (2016)
3.10 Project to support digital inclusion and citizenship
Santos and da Mendes (2015)
3.11 Digital inclusion public policies: state and school
Santos (2016)
3.12 Clusters and methodological foundation of research on digital inclusion in the area of education in Brazil: the scientific agenda
Neves (2017)
3.13 Fundamentals and agenda of digital inclusion in Brazil: research in education
Neves et al. (2015)
3.14 Porto Alegre: a Brazilian city searching to be a master
Macadar and Lheureux-De-Freitas (2013)
3.15 Social and affective effects of public policies of digital inclusion: ethnographic a non-governmental organization
Bolzan et al. (2013a)
3.16 Evaluation of digital inclusion programs: Acessa São Paulo monitor training courses and the rural center for digital inclusion
Muniz (2013a)
3.17 Digital inclusion as public policy: disputes in the field of human rights*
Rosa (2013)
3.18 PROINFO: public policies of digital inclusion in public education in the Brazilian Amazon
Santana et al. (2017)
3.19 Portuguese language textbooks and the discursiveness of digital inclusion
Santos and Di Renzo (2016)
3.20 The digital inclusion of the UCA total project in the municipality of São João da Ponta in the state of Pará
Pereira and Gussi (2014)
3.21 Educational laptops in modality 1:1: Digital inclusion movements in rural communities
Pescador et al. (2016) (continued)
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Table 4.3 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
3.22 Digital inclusion on the coast of Paraná: a chronicle of exclusion
Angelin and Meza (2016)
3.23 Public policies aimed at free software in higher education: the use of the Scribus program in the Journalism course at the Federal University of Uberlândia
de Carvalho (2014)
3.24 Captiva program—ICT’s in the education of the field
de Oliveira, L. C., Gubert, L. C., & Simon, M. I. Programa CATIVAR–TICs na Educação do Campo
3.25 Public policies for the diffusion of the use of free software in de Carvalho and da Silva teaching (2013) 3.26 Internet in the field: human rights and public policies for digital inclusion
de Fornasier and Scarantti (2017)
3.27 Students’ perception of the inclusion of digital technologies in public education
Löbler et al. (2013)
3.28 Digital inclusion: a path to social inclusion
Porto (2015)
3.29 Digital inclusion for the visually impaired of the Braille sector of the Central Library of UFPB
Pinho Neto (2014)
3.30 Social inequalities and access to media in school and family environments
Nunes and Vilarinho (2013)
3.31 Reflections on digital inclusion programs from the analysis of accessa são paulo in rural settlements
Muniz (2013b)
3.32 Socialization and affectivity in the process of digital inclusion: an ethnographic study
Bolzan and Löbler (2016)
3.33 Public policies for the insertion of digital information and communication technologies (TDIC) the case of municipal education of Aracaju/SE
Porto et al. (2015)
3.34 Memory and technology: meaning effects on language teaching at school
Sarian (2015)
3.35 The educational computer teacher and his role in the public schools of the municipal school system of Santa Maria
Azenha et al. (2015)
3.36 Digital inclusion: an alternative of growth
Alonso et al. (2014)
3.37 Telecentros: a project for the digital inclusion of low-income Nazario and Bohadana young people? (2014) 3.38 Digital inclusion mapping in Brazil
Filho-Brasil and Cabral-Brasil (2013)
3.39 Youths and public policies: temporalities and identities perceived from a university extension experience for digital inclusion
Spenillo et al. (2014)
3.40 Digital technologies in the process of teaching and learning mathematics in youth and adult education
Gonçalves et al. (2017)
3.41 Digital inclusion actions in the prison institutions of Brazil and Spain: a comparative study
de Pinho Neto (2014) (continued)
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Table 4.3 (continued) ID
Title in English
3.42 The use of ICT through intelligence technologies and cognitive ecology in the practice of the rural connection project
References Costa et al. (2016)
3.43 Teaching technological training in the UCA program—paths Reis and Silva (2014) for an “unpublished-real” 3.44 The use of ICT by governments: a proposal for research agenda from academic production and national practice
Cunha and Miranda (2013)
3.45 The program one computer per student: conditions for digital de Santana (2016) inclusion 3.46 From inequality to digital literacy in Brazil—seen by the mediation of university tutors and community leaders between residents of the regions of Paraná and Itapoã/DF
Neto (2016)
3.47 Democratization in the digital age: challenges for conscious and egalitarian dialogue
Machado and Rivera (2017)
3.48 Education, learning, and technology in research-formation
Fantin (2017)
3.49 Digital inclusions, social development, and public policies
de Lima (2016)
3.50 Educate the distance—the age of inclusion
de Souza and Aragon (2017)
3.51 An educational project in ICT focused on vocational training Brito and Magalhães and socio-digital inclusion of young people from the state of Junior (2014) Ceará 3.52 I gained more to study: e-learning as a means of lifelong learning from a Portuguese prison establishment
Monteiro et al. (2016)
3.53 Creative digital cities and content: a political strategy for reducing inequalities in Brazil
da Costa et al. (2015)
3.54 The material efficiency of “internet access” as a fundamental Tomizawa (2014) right in the national order: digital inclusion and public policies in Brazil 3.55 Digital inclusion as a strategy for the social and cultural development of Vila Dois Rios
de Castro et al. (2015)
3.56 Innovation management and expansion of socio-digital inclusion: an analysis of the balanced scorecard application in the NaveGapará program
Santos et al. (2015a)
3.57 Validation of an instrument capable of identifying the level of individual digital inclusion
Bolzan et al. (2013b)
3.58 The history of ICTs in Brazil and Argentina countries and the democratization of the university
Rosa (2017)
3.59 Technological revolution, social networks, and contemporary challenges for the realization of cyberdemocracy and e-citadão rights: a proposal for referendum of important political issues
Soares and Bezerra (2017)
3.60 Social technologies in the information age: the case of free software networks
Triana (2014) (continued)
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Table 4.3 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
3.61 Policies for digital cultures in Brazil
Rubim and Rubim (2017)
3.62 The broadband expansion model in Brazil: an analysis of infrastructure policies and spectrum management for the universalization of internet access
Machado (2017)
3.63 School information: the state school registration system (Sere) of Paraná
de Oliveira and Breda (2013)
3.64 The decree of controversy—media disputes around social participation in Brazil
Barros and Ribeiro (2014)
3.65 Fostering the legality and stability of the video game market Schmidt and Gonçalves in Brazil: in search of the correct nomenclature, equality and (2014) tax and fair price 3.66 Access to geographic information: reflections on the importance of spatial data infrastructure (IDE) in public policy|geographic information access: thought on the importance of spatial data infrastructures
de Alencar and da Costa Santos (2013)
3.67 The competence in information and media focused on citizenship: the use of government information for participation in democracy
da Silva et al. (2017)
3.68 New media use in Brazil: digital inclusion or digital divide?
Pedrozo (2013)
3.69 The effectiveness of digital inclusion educational projects in communities with high social vulnerability
Dos Santos and Teixeira (2017)
3.70 Digital inclusion and social inequality: gender differences in Rashid (2016) ICT access and use in five developing countries 3.71 Multiple knowledge of network diversity: intercultural connections in the debate over digital inclusion with respect of the people of the forest
Moura (2013)
3.72 Factors influencer the use of electronic government services de Araujo and Reinhard in Brazil—influences that influence the use of electronic (2015) government services in Brazil—factors that influence the use of electronic government services in Brazil 3.73 Free software as public service in Brazil: an assessment of activism, policy, and technology
Birkinbine (2016)
3.74 ICT assessment in teaching: suggested indicates for Brazilian and Portuguese teachers
Alcântara et al. (2016)
3.75 The impact of mobility in Brazilian infocenters: access case study
Passarelli et al. (2013)
3.76 Television and digital media in Latin America: the under construction scenario
Gobbi and Machado Filho (2015)
3.77 The value of non-instrumental computer use: a study of skills acquisition and performance in Brazil
Kolko and Racadio (2014)
3.78 Factors influencing the use of electronic government services de Araujo and Reinhard in Brazil/factors that influence the use of electronic (2015) government services in Brazil/factors that influence of electronic gobierno services in Brazil (continued)
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Table 4.3 (continued) ID
Title in English
3.79 E-skill’s effect on occupational attainment: the Pisa-based panel study
References Dodel (2015)
3.80 Conceptual frameworks and practical applications to connect Kaplan et al. (2015) generations in the technoscape 3.81 The digital inequality in Brazil, 2004–2009: evolution and effects on political engagement
Mourao and Wood (2015)
Fig. 4.5 Main categories of analysis arising from the academic production from 2013 to 2017
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4.7 Digital Inclusion in Brazil from 2018 to 2022 This recent period was marked by a huge advance in Artificial Intelligence applications, Cloud and Edge computing, new possibilities for digital assistants, and a bigger integration among different devices and services, with an important capillarization of social media, Uber-like services, and streaming to the average citizen. However, not all these advancements were felt by the Brazilian population, considering the digital divide that persists. The COVID-19 pandemic deepened and exposed the digital divide, since people suddenly became strongly dependent on technological solutions for many aspects of everyday life—and those communities or regions that already suffered from bad internet connections or lack of equipment felt themselves excluded from that emerging society. Unfortunately, no important investment to diminish the impacts of the digital divide was made by the government of this period, leaving people to their fate. The number of Internet users reached 161 million people in 2022—in a country with 203 million inhabitants—which means that around 21% of the population do not use the Internet. Considering the rapid adoption of web and mobile-based solutions for most of the human needs, this number could change dramatically as years pass by. Due to the high number of academic productions found in this period (more than a thousand, in raw numbers), the results shown will differ from the previous ones, for the sake of clearness: only the papers that followed the exclusion criteria with five or more citations in Google Scholar as in 2023, June, will be considered. Table 4.4 exposes the findings about the academic production on Digital Inclusion in Brazil in the period of 2018–2022 (only papers with five or more citations in Google Scholar). As noted in Table 4.4, the core of discussions on digital inclusion passed by a profound change due to the COVID-19 pandemic: papers 4.1, 4.3, 4.7, 4.9, 4.14, and 4.17 dealt with the problems regarding digital gap, which has been exacerbated during that time, as mentioned by Araujo et al. (2020) and Silveira (2021). Papers dealing with specific communities, like children and adolescents (4.11), the elderly (4.19), disabled (4.8), quilombolas—are descendants of the persons that were brought as slaves from Africa to Brazil (4.16) and people living in low-income municipalities (4.18) also appeared in this period. The impacts of digital exclusion on Education are covered by papers 4.1 to 4.4, 4.7, 4.9, 4.12, 4.14, and 4.17—the last two papers dedicated to Education on Health. Also, worries more related to 3rd level divide appear more clearly on this period, which points out to new directions for the research on this topic in the next years.
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Table 4.4 Selected academic production on Digital Inclusion from 2018 to 2022 ID
Title in English
4.1
COVID-19 and the end Martins, R. X. (2020). A COVID-19 e o fim da 137 of distance education: educação a distância: um ensaio. EmRede-Revista de an essay Educação a Distância, 7(1), 242–256
4.2
Digital inclusion and education: the new classroom culture
Pischetola, M. (2019). Inclusão digital e educação: a nova cultura da sala de aula. Editora Vozes Limitada
4.3
Federal Universities in COVID-19 pandemic: student access to the internet and emergency remote teaching
Castioni, R., Melo, A. A. S. D., Nascimento, P. M., & 123 Ramos, D. L. (2021). Universidades federais na pandemia da Covid-19: acesso discente à internet e ensino remoto emergencial. Ensaio: Avaliação e políticas públicas em educação, 29, 399–419
4.4
(Un) Equal access to education in pandemic times: an analysis of access to technologies and remote teaching alternatives
Cardoso, C. A., Ferreira, V. A., & Barbosa, F. C. G. (2020). (Des) igualdade de acesso à educação em tempos de pandemia: uma análise do acesso às tecnologias e das alternativas de ensino remoto. Revista Com Censo: Estudos Educacionais do Distrito Federal, 7(3), 38–46
90
4.5
Digital Inclusion across the Americas and the Caribbean
Robinson, L., Schulz, J., Dodel, M., Correa, T., Villanueva-Mansilla, E., Leal, S., … & Khilnani, A. (2020). Digital inclusion across the Americas and Caribbean. Social Inclusion, 8(2), 244–259
44
4.6
Digital inequalities in the global south
Ragnedda, M., & Gladkova, A. (Eds.). (2020). Digital inequalities in the Global South. London, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan
28
4.7
Teachers and the use of digital technologies in remote emergency classes in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in Pernambuco
Leite, N. M., de Lima, E. G. O., & Carvalho, A. B. G. (2020). Os professores e o uso das tecnologias digitais nas aulas remotas emergencias no contexto da pandemia da COVID-19 em Pernambuco. Em Teia| Revista de Educação Matemática e Tecnológica Iberoamericana, 11(2)
24
4.8
Accessibility policy: what are visually impaired people?
Bruno, M. M. G., & Nascimento, R. A. L. D. (2019). Política de Acessibilidade: o que dizem as pessoas com deficiência visual. Educação & Realidade, 44
21
4.9
Pandemic stop: education and life
Zordan, P., & Almeida, V. D. (2020). Parar pandêmico: educação e vida. Praxis educativa, 15
12
Siqueira, E. S., de Souza, C. A., & Barbosa, A. F. (2019). Using a digital divide index among enterprises in the context of public policies in Brazil. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 85(3), e12088
12
4.10 Using a digital divide index among enterprises in the context of public policies in Brazil
References
Citations
131
(continued)
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Table 4.4 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
Citations
4.11 Childhood and adolescence in the digital age: a comparative report of the kids online surveys on Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, and Uruguay
Trucco, D., Palma, A., & UNICEF. (2020). Childhood and adolescence in the digital age: A comparative report of the Kids Online surveys on Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay
12
4.12 Brazilian technology policies in education: history and lessons learned
Valente and de Almeida (2020)
11
4.13 Improving broadband policy design using market data: a general framework and an application to Brazil
Prado, T. S., & Bauer, J. M. (2021). Improving broadband policy design using market data: A general framework and an application to Brazil. Telecommunications Policy, 45(4), 102111
7
4.14 Health teaching in COVID-19 times: access, iniquities, and vulnerability
Tourinho, F. S. V., & Raimondi, G. A. (2020). Ensino na saúde em tempos de covid-19: acesso, iniquidades e vulnerabilidade. Revista Brasileira de Educação Médica, 44, e164
6
4.15 Metamorphosis awareness: discussion on the concepts of inclusion and integration in the scope of socio-digital inclusion
Neves, B. C., Freire, I. M., & Suaiden, E. J. (2018). Conscientização da metamorfose: discussão sobre os conceitos de inclusão e integração no âmbito da inclusão sociodigital. Comunicações, 25(2), 3–27
6
4.16 Public policies for quilombola communities: a struggle in construction
da Silva, A. R. F. (2018). Políticas públicas para comunidades quilombolas: uma luta em construção. Política & trabalho, (48), 128
6
4.17 The use of emergency remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic: experience of teachers in higher education in nursing
Fernandes, S. F., de Aquino Nunes, R. J., de Almeida Neta, A. G., de Menezes, H. F., de Oliveira, K. C., de Freitas, R. J. M., … & da Silva, R. A. R. (2021). O uso do ensino remoto emergencial durante a pandemia da Covid-19: Experiência de docentes na educação superior em enfermagem. Saúde em Redes, 7(1Sup), 83–92
6
(continued)
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Table 4.4 (continued) ID
Title in English
References
Citations
4.18 Communications, territory, and regional development in Brazilian municipalities with very low HDI
Moreira, S. V., & Del Bianco, N. R. (2019). Comunicações, território e desenvolvimento regional em munícipios brasileiros com IDHM muito baixo. Revista Brasileira de Gestão e Desenvolvimento Regional, 15(4, jul)
5
4.19 Access and use of information and communication technologies to promote active ageing: for what? For whom?
Pedro, W. J. A., Ogata, M. N., Frizzo, H. C. F., Furnival, A. C., & Orlandi, B. D. M. (2019). Access and Use of Information and Communication Technologies to Promote Active Ageing: For What? For Whom?. The Internet and Health in Brazil: Challenges and Trends, 141–161
5
4.8 Conclusions and Further Work A considerable amount of research has been produced in Brazil on the Digital Inclusion subject. The analysis of the past 20 years allowed us to see an increasing maturity of the academic production. This analysis also as well as this analysis gives us a panorama of public policies implemented by different governments along these years. Further research could be conducted by exploring some future research trends of Digital Inclusion in Brazil, as follows: • The impact of new technologies: it must be investigated how new technologies, like generative Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain, and IoT could impact the digital inclusion efforts in Brazil, mainly how could them help to bridge digital divide in the country. • Rural and low-HDI areas connectivity: there are many challenges imposed by remote communities. Public policies on improving the access of underserved places should be considered. • Improvement of accessibility: to ensure equal access and participation, efforts on improving the accessibility of websites, mobile apps, and tools should be taken to guarantee a more equitable access to people with disabilities. • Digital Inclusion in Education: the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on the field of education, leading to significant transformations in its practices. Among various sectors, education has probably experienced the greatest disruption. Conducting a post-pandemic analysis of the effects of digital inclusion on educational outcomes holds the potential to address the disparities in access to high-quality education. • Evaluation of Digital Inclusion public policies and programs: existing and new programs for Digital Inclusion must be evaluated regarding their effectiveness. With a well-defined assessment strategy, it would be possible to identify best
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practices, mitigate problems, and propose recommendations for improving the design and implementation of future programs and policies. The integration of digital tools and resources in education has the potential to enhance learning experiences, facilitate collaboration, and prepare students for the digital-centric future. However, as the digital landscape expands, so does the need for a critical skill: digital literacy. Educational institutions have embraced various digital tools, such as online textbooks, learning management systems, and multimedia content, to create engaging and interactive learning environments. However, this shift also demands that educators equip students with the skills needed to navigate the vast sea of digital information effectively. The need for investment in digital literacy includes the ability to sift through the information overload, and identifying sources that are trustworthy and relevant to their learning objectives. Critical thinking and evaluation skills. Protection from misinformation and cultivating responsible digital citizens. Investing in digital literacy education must also include the skills to search for verified information (effective search strategies, source evaluation, crossreferencing information) and assess the veracity of digital content (fact-checking tools, understanding bias, and teaching media literacy). The concept of digital inclusion is of paramount importance in a globalized world driven by technology. In Brazil, as in many other countries, the effort to ensure equitable access to digital resources and technology-driven education has been both a priority and a challenge. Among the key issues that have been examined to hinder effective digital inclusion, it is possible to mention infrastructure disparities, socioeconomic factors, digital literacy deficits, and cultural and linguistic barriers of Brazilian diversity. Given the obstacles mentioned earlier, it is imperative to formulate an improved inclusion policy in Brazil, with a focus on prioritizing the following aspects: investing in infrastructure, subsidized access programs, comprehensive digital literacy training, community-centric approach, public awareness campaigns, and collaborative governance. This chapter provides a detailed assessment of the Brazilian scenario, but may reflect the reality of many other Latin American countries that need to face the same barriers in their specific contexts. Moreover, consider the same investment proposals to have more effective and lasting results.
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Chapter 5
Bridging the Digital Divide in Higher Education: Notes from the Emergence of the COVID-19 Pandemic Kaspul Anwar, Juraidah Musa, Sallimah Salleh, Masitah Shahrill, and Roslinawati Roslan
Abstract This systematic literature review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the challenges faced by universities in bridging the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, the solutions that have been learned, and policy recommendations. The study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) (Page et al., 2021) and employs descriptive analysis (Tranfield et al., 2003) and reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2019) approaches. The inclusion criteria covered scientific research articles published in the years 2019 to 2022 in the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases, in English, that focused on the higher educational context. The database searches initially provided a corpus of 520 articles, which was reduced to 17 articles after screening for duplicity and applying the inclusion criteria. This review offers valuable insights into the challenges faced, the solutions learned, and the policy recommendations for bridging the digital divide in higher education, highlighting the achievements of existing studies and identifying shortcomings and research topics that merit further attention in light of the emerging situation. Further, our rigorous methodology ensures that our findings are based on a comprehensive analysis of the relevant literature, making this study a valuable contribution to the field of digital divide research in higher education. Keywords COVID-19 pandemic · Digital divide · Higher education · Systematic literature review
5.1 Introduction The digital divide has emerged as a critical issue in the realm of educational technology, particularly in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Scholars such as El Said (2021), Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022), Koff (2021), Kummitha et al. (2021), K. Anwar (B) · J. Musa · S. Salleh · M. Shahrill · R. Roslan Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_5
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Maphalala et al. (2021), and Ssenyonga (2021) have underscored the significance of this issue. Broadly defined, the digital divide pertains to the disparities between individuals who have access to technology and those who lack such access (Phelps et al., 2021). These inequalities manifest in areas such as internet connectivity, digital literacy (Rahman, 2021), and inadequate provision of digital resources (De la Calle et al., 2021). Numerous factors contribute to this gap, including socioeconomic status, geographic location, and other factors that impede access to technology (BotéVericad, 2021). The consequences of this divide are profound, particularly for individuals who are already marginalized. For example, students from low-income backgrounds may struggle to keep up with their peers in an online learning environment due to the lack of digital infrastructure at home (Phelps et al., 2021). Similarly, elderly individuals and those with disabilities may face significant barriers in accessing healthcare services through digital platforms. The impact of the digital divide on higher education, particularly in the context of online learning, cannot be overstated. As noted by Aldwairi (2022), students who lack access to reliable internet connectivity and technology may face significant barriers in participating in online classes, completing assignments, and accessing educational resources. This can create significant disparities in academic performance and limit opportunities for certain students (Habibi et al., 2021; Liu, 2021). The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated these existing disparities, as higher education institutions were forced to transition rapidly to online learning. This shift has highlighted the inequities in access to technology and internet connectivity among students, particularly those from low-income backgrounds and underrepresented groups (Asher, 2021; Liu, 2021). Therefore, bridging the digital divide in higher education has become an urgent priority for many researchers. As a result, the need to bridge the digital divide in higher education has also prompted calls for more exhaustive studies, including quantitative and qualitative studies as well as literature reviews, as noted in the provided information. Such studies can provide a better understanding of the challenges faced by students in bridging the digital divide and inform the development of more effective policies and initiatives to address this issue. Therefore this article aims to answer these following questions: 1. What are the main features (e.g., method and purposes) of previous studies on digital divided in higher educational context during COVID-19 pandemic? 2. What are the challenges faced by the universities, lectures, students and higher education facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic? 3. What are the lessons learned by the reviewed articles related to digital divide in higher education during COVID-19 pandemic? In this study, we aim to address the complex issue of the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic. To achieve this, we have conducted a systematic literature review, drawing upon the state of the art and synthesis of knowledge on this topic. Our goal is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the challenges
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faced by universities, the solutions that have been learned, and the recommendations for policy and future research in this field. Through this analysis, we seek to provide valuable insights into the best practices for bridging the digital divide in higher education. To accomplish this, in the next section, we will discuss our research methodology and the specific steps that we have taken to conduct this study. We will then present our primary findings, which will address the research questions of this study. Overall, this study will provide a valuable contribution to the field of digital divide research in higher education, offering insights into the challenges faced, the solutions learned, and the policy recommendations for bridging the digital divide. Furthermore, our study will identify areas where further research is needed to overcome the deficiencies in the existing literature and address emerging issues in this field.
5.2 Method This systematic literature review focuses on recent research related to the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic. To find related articles to be included and analyzed, this study applied a multidisciplinary approach (Gamage et al., 2022). This approach includes the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) (Page et al., 2021), descriptive analysis (Tranfield et al., 2003), and reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019, 2021).
5.2.1 PRISMA Protocol Process This study adopted the preferred reporting items for systematic review and metaanalysis (PRISMA) 2020 protocol (Page et al., 2021). This protocol was originally designed to help researchers report studies related to health issues, but it has now been expanded to include social studies including those in educational contexts, (eg. Ahsan et al., 2021; Lohmann et al., 2021; Mahat et al., 2022; Rahmawati et al., 2020; Revuelta-Domínguez et al., 2022; and Sabiri, 2020). The PRISMA protocol consists of three significant phases, which are the identification phase, the screening phase, and the last, the eligibility phase (see Fig. 5.1). The following are the phases of the PRISMA Protocol applied in this study. Phase 1 Identification Phase In the identification phase, this SLR used the two biggest databases at the journal publisher, Scopus and Web of Science. This two-publisher combination has been chosen as the home of a prestigious journal and a current world-class database. To find relevant studies, this SLR used a specific search string (Table 5.1). The articles to be included in this study were limited to studies published between 2019 and 2022.
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Records identified from*: Scopus (n = 69) Web of Science (n = 520)
Records before duplication (n = 520) Duplicate records removed (n = 2) Record after duplication removed (n = 518)
Records screened (n = 518)
Records excluded: Not addressing digital divide in higher educational context
Reports sought for retrieval (n = 40)
Reports not retrieved (n= 478)
Reports assessed for eligibility (n =40) 17 articles are eligible 23 articles not eligible
Records eliminated: Record not in full text (n = 1) Out of the context (n =10) Lack of method and discussion (n=6) Book chapters, literature review, short article, opinion (n=6)
Eligibility
Screening
Identification
98
Studies included in the review (n = 17)
Fig. 5.1 Prisma protocol
Further, all of the reviewed studies included in this SLR were limited to research articles published in the journals between 2019 and 2022 (the years of the pandemic COVID-19). Book chapters, books, opinions, short articles, proceedings, systematic literature reviews, and meta-analyses were excluded (see details in Table 5.2). Additionally, the subject area included in this study was limited to studies focusing on social science, computer science, art and the humanities, and psychology. The reason for not selecting another subject area in the identification phase of this study is to avoid missing systematic literature and make sure this study sticks to its purposes (Pahlevan-Sharif et al., 2019, 2020). Based on the identification phase, this study
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Table 5.1 Search string used for the purpose of finding relevant studies Database
Search string/copy of query link
Identification stage
Scopus
TITLE-ABS-KEY (digital AND divide OR inclusion AND higher 69 articles AND education AND covid) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “SOCI”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “COMP”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “ARTS”) OR LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “PSYC”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “j”))
Web of science
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/alldb/summary/2aad04a33006-45cb-8d56-73a07cd9785c-5d14eeac/relevance/1
Total articles found in the identification phase
451 articles 520 articles
found 520 articles to be included in the screening phase, consisting of 69 articles from the Scopus database and 451 articles from the Web of Science database. Phase II Screening Phase At this phase, 520 articles that were identified as the target of this SLR in the identification phase were exported to the reference management software, EndNote version 19. All the articles were screened for duplicate publication prior to inclusion using the References menu bar on the EndNote. In this step, two articles were found to be duplicates and were excluded to ensure all studies included were not redundant, leaving 518 articles. Then, the title and abstract of each article were skimmed and scanned in the search panel for the whole library on EndNote using the specific search string “digital divide”, and it yielded a result of 40 articles. In more detail, in the second screening phase, 40 full-text articles were read in detail to meet the criteria of this study. The criteria to be included in the eligibility phase are that the studies should focus on the issues of the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Table 5.2 The inclusion of reviewed studies criteria Criteria
Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
Document type
Research article
Book chapters, books, short articles, opinions, features, proceedings, systematic literature reviews, and meta-analysis
Subject area
Social sciences, computer science, art and humanities, psychology
Article that was not published in the area of social sciences, computer science, art and humanities, and psychology
Language
English
Non-English
Timeline
Articles published between 2019 and 2022
Articles that were not published between 2019 and 2022
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Phase III. Eligibility Phase As for the third stage, known as eligibility, a total of 40 articles were prepared. The author’s name, method, study focus, and digital divides challenges by the university, university facility, teacher, and student were examined at this stage, as well as the bridging solution to solve the challenges, including policy recommendations and future recommendations, to ensure the reviewed studies met the inclusion criteria and were suitable for use in the current study to meet the research objectives. As seen in the PRISMA Protocol in Fig. 5.1, 17 articles were included for in-depth analysis. In addition, 23 articles were excluded as a result of the reviewed studies’ lack of discussion, out of the purposes of the current study, lack of method and discussion, not related to the digital divide, short article, lack of method explanation, book chapter, opinion article, and not related to the higher educational context.
5.2.2 Thematic Analysis Following the classification of the included journal articles, further insights and trends within the articles were established by reflexive thematic analysis (Table 5.3). This process was consistent with Braun and Clarke’s (2019) reflexive thematic analysis method, which identifies and analyzes patterns of meaning (themes) in qualitative data. This method can be applied within a range of theoretical frameworks and can be used to analyze almost all forms of qualitative data, both small and large data sets, to address different types of research questions (Braun & Clarke, 2019, 2021). To generate the trends identified in the literature, the six-phase Braun and Clarke (2006) method was adopted as follows. Table 5.3 Thematic analysis phase Phase
Procedures for each steps
Familiarizing oneself with the data Transcribing data; reading data, initial codes Generating initial codes
Coding interesting features of the data, collating data relevant to each codes
Searching for themes
Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data to the potential themes
Involved reviewing the themes
Checking themes in the entire data-set, generating a thematic map
Defining and naming themes
Analysis to refine the specifics of theme
Producing the report
Analysis extracts, discussion analysis, relate back to research questions
Source Thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006, 2019, 2021)
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5.3 Results and Discussions The initial database searches identified 520 studies related to the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic. The studies were screened for the period of pandemic COVID-19 (2019–2022), and only research articles were downloaded for identification. This list of identified articles was then checked for duplicates. After removing two articles, the remaining abstracts from the 518 articles were screened for eligibility. Based on the screening in the EndNote software, the screening stage left 40 articles to be included for the eligibility stage. The remaining 40 full-text articles were then read one by one to ensure that the reviewed studies included ones relevant to this study. Thus, the eligibility stage left a total of 17 articles to be examined in this study. Further, the final stage of the review process involved the reporting of the main descriptive findings and thematic analysis, which are presented in the next sections.
5.3.1 Descriptive Findings Descriptive analysis is a useful approach to provide a broad ranging descriptive account of the field using a very simple set of categories with the use of the extraction forms (Tranfield et al., 2003). In this study, we elaborated the categories of information collected and coded within the table in Microsoft Word in order to identify key points about the current literature. This allowed us to respond to the first research question: (a) What are the main features (e.g., method and purposes of related studies) of previous studies on digital divided in higher educational context during COVID-19 pandemic? The analysis shows that most of studies related to digital divide in higher education published during pandemic COVID-19 analyzed the studies through the qualitative lens (Asher, 2021; Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021; Frei-Landau & Avidov-Ungar, 2022; Gan & Sun, 2022; Kono & Taylor, 2021; Lynch et al., 2022; Maphalala et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Vurayai, 2022; Woldegiorgis, 2022), mixed method (El Said, 2021; Gocotano et al., 2021; Laufer et al., 2021; Shin & Hickey, 2021), quantitative (Faura-Martínez et al., 2022; Rahman, 2021), and quasi-exprerimental (Tan et al., 2022) (Table 5.4). Furthermore, the analysis highlights the findings that are consistent with the objectives of the reviewed studies on the digital divide in higher education that were published during the pandemic. COVID-19 found that most studies focus on exploring the impact of COVID-19 on the digital divide in higher education (Asher, 2021; Vurayai, 2022; Woldegiorgis, 2022), including in the virtual classroom (Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022), and the use of ICT to support the learning process (Lynch et al., 2022). Furthermore, the reviewed studies show that scholars are attempting to investigate how students dealt with the digital divide during COVID-19, such as the digital barriers encountered by students (Gan & Sun, 2022; Maphalala et al.,
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Table 5.4 Methods and purpose of reviewed studies Authors of reviewed articles
Methods of reviewed studies
Purpose of reviewed studies
Asher (2021)
Comparative case study
How the pandemic differently impacted higher education in two extreme contexts: America and Pakistan
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021)
Qualitative content analysis
To examine the digital divide in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and a radical shift to online learning,
El Said (2021)
Mixed method
This study looks at the overall learning experience following a sudden shift from face-to-face to online distance learning due to COVID-19 lockdown at a university
Faura-Martínez et al. (2022)
Survey
Investigate students’ perceptions of the general framework of the online teaching model they have received as a result of the paralysis of face-to-face classes
Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022)
Case study
To understand the structural and cultural barriers to learning equity in the teacher-education arena in times of crisis, using the digital divide perspective
Gan and Sun (2022)
Qualitative
Analysis of the digital barriers experienced by underserved college students
Gocotano et al. (2021)
Mixed method
Explores the students’ challenges with the flexible online learning implementation of the university in the rural area based on their background and experience
Kono and Taylor (2021)
Qualitative narrative inquiry
To understand how faculty adapted their courses during the rapid shift to remote and online learning,
Laufer et al. (2021)
Sequential mixed method
To find out how higher education leaders in 24 countries dealt with the rapid digital transformation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and to find out the factors that affect an institution’s ability to realize the potential of digital education in terms of access, learning, and collaboration, while highlighting the deeply rooted inequalities at the individual, institutional, and system levels
Maphalala et al. (2021) Qualitative study
The aim of the study was to explore the experiences of student teachers during the emergency transition to online learning in response to the COVID-19 lockdown at a South African university. Specifically, the study aimed to understand the challenges and opportunities that emerged during this transition, as well as the implications for teaching and learning in higher education (continued)
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Table 5.4 (continued) Authors of reviewed articles
Methods of reviewed studies
Purpose of reviewed studies
Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022)
Case study
The goal of the study was to find out how the COVID-19 pandemic affected the virtual classrooms in Zimbabwean universities, as well as what problems teachers and students had to deal with as they switched to online learning
Rahman (2021)
Survey
To assess the implementation mechanism of COVID-19 lockdown-induced emergency online learning at the undergraduate level in Assam
Shin and Hickey (2021)
Mixed method
The article aims to examine the emergency remote teaching and learning experiences of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic, identify the challenges faced by the university, teachers, students, and facility, and provide policy recommendations for the future
Tan et al. (2022)
Quasi-experimental
The article aims to examine the effects of a virtual cooperative approach on the motivation to learn first-principles theories among students who experience a digital divide
Vurayai (2022)
Qualitative
The article aims to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the digital divide gap in universities in Sub-Saharan Africa and to explore the challenges faced by the university, teachers, students, and facility in addressing this gap
Lynch et al. (2022)
Qualitative
The article aims to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in social work education and to explore the challenges faced by universities, teachers, students, and facilities in utilizing ICT to support learning
Woldegiorgis (2022)
Qualitative
The aim of the article is to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the South African higher education system and to provide policy recommendations and solutions for mitigating the digital divide faced by universities, teachers, students, and facilities
2021), motivation for learning in virtual classrooms and online (Gocotano et al., 2021; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Tan et al., 2022). Moreover, the analysis also highlighted the reviewed studies that focus on the shift from traditional face-to-face learning to remote and online learning (Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021; El Said, 2021; Kono & Taylor, 2021) as well as the online teaching model the student received as a
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result of the paralysis of face-to-face classes (Faura-Martnez et al., 2022). Additionally, the review studies published during COVID-19 also investigated the structural and cultural barriers to learning equity (Frei-Landau & Avidov-Ungar, 2022) and how higher education leaders in 24 countries responded to the digital transformation brought by the COVID-19 pandemic and solved digital divides in higher education (Laufer et al., 2021). To summarize, the reviewed studies on the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic indicate a predominant focus on exploring the impact of the pandemic on this issue, specifically in virtual classrooms and the utilization of information and communication technology to support learning. These studies further examine the manner in which students dealt with digital barriers, including their motivation to learn in virtual environments, while also exploring the shift from traditional face-to-face learning to remote and online learning. Additionally, the studies investigated structural and cultural barriers to learning equity, as well as the approaches adopted by higher education leaders in 24 countries to respond to the digital transformation brought about by the pandemic and address digital divides in higher education. While the previous section presented the primary results of the reviewed studies to illustrate the current state of the literature on the digital divide in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, the subsequent section employs a thematic analysis to identify and synthesize the central themes developed within this field.
5.3.2 Thematic Analysis In the current study, the reviewed articles were coded for reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019, 2021). The approach involved an inductive analysis of articles by reading literature multiple times, transcribing data, coding interesting features of the data, collating codes into potential themes, generating a thematic map, analyzing and refining theme specifics, and discussing the analysis to find the key findings (Braun & Clarke, 2019). Additionally, a concept matrix using a Microsoft Word table was applied to group the codes (Bearman & Dawson, 2013; Thorpe et al., 2005). The following subsequent sections present the SLR’s findings on the following second research questions: What are the challenges faced by the universities, lectures, students, and higher education facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic?
5.3.2.1
Digital Divided Issued Faced by Universities During the COVID19 Pandemic
Based on the reviewed articles’ key findings shown in Table 5.5, this SLR found that the three studies have clearly reported that the universities have challenged power outages due to a lack of proper monetary allocation for technology integration as the main challenges of universities during COVID-19 (eg. Asher, 2021; Azionya &
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Nhedzy, 2021; Gocotano et al., 2021). This situation has had a significant impact on universities’ ability to provide uninterrupted online classes and has further exacerbated the digital divide for students who lack access to reliable electricity and internet services. Further, according to Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), this situation has caused the universities to suffer from erratic and unstable electricity supplies, which has resulted in some institutions resorting to the use of generators to power their systems. In addition, the highlights of this significant challenge faced by universities in ensuring consistent access to technology during the pandemic, particularly in regions where electricity infrastructure and funding for technology adaptation may be lacking, Moreover, based on the six reviewed studies (eg. Maphalala et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Rahman, 2021; Tan et al., 2022; Vurayai, 2022; Woldegiorgis, 2022), this SLR found the major challenges that hindered the effective implementation of e-learning were inadequate IT infrastructure, lack of access to learning materials, and poor access to devices among students and staff (Maphalala et al., 2021); Beside this, a lot of universities also did not have access to learning resources due to a lack of technology infrastructure, poor internet connectivity, and limited IT skills (Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022). In addition, some universities also faced a lack of contingency planning for unanticipated situations, such as the failure to have alternative teaching and learning strategies in case of emergencies (Tan et al., 2022; Vurayai, 2022). Table 5.5 Key findings on the digital divide issued by university during COVID-19 Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021), Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), Gocotano et al. (2021)
The national electricity service provider is experiencing rolling blackouts due to a lack of proper monetary allocation for technology adaptation
Maphalala et al. (2021), Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), Rahman (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Woldegiorgis (2022)
• • • • •
Shin and Hickey (2021)
Struggled to provide the necessary technology and resources to students and teachers
Lynch et al. (2022)
Limited funding and resources to support the implementation of ICT, difficulty in maintaining technological infrastructure, and limited access to training and support for teachers
Unsatisfactory emergency online learning Lack of robust IT infrastructure Inadequate teacher training Inflexibility to incorporate technical skills Lack of contingency planning for unanticipated situations • High cost of broadband internet access, which may prevent some students from accessing online learning materials and participating fully in online courses
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On the other hand, with the sudden shift to remote learning, universities were required to provide digital platforms and tools to ensure that students and teachers could continue their education despite the physical distance. However, a study by Shin and Hickey (2021) found that universities also struggled to provide the necessary technology and resources to students and teachers. One reason was the sudden and unprecedented nature of the pandemic, which caught many institutions offguard and unprepared for the sudden shift to remote learning. In support of this, a study by Lynch et al. (2022) found that it happened because of limited funding and resources to support the implementation of ICT, difficulty in maintaining technological infrastructure, and limited access to training and support for the implementation of ICT. In conclusion, this SLR highlights the significant challenges faced by universities in the effective implementation of e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The main challenges include inadequate IT infrastructure, lack of access to learning materials, poor access to devices among students and staff, power outages due to a lack of proper monetary allocation for technology integration, and limited contingency planning for unanticipated situations. These challenges have further exacerbated the digital divide for students who lack access to reliable electricity and internet services. Additionally, universities struggled to provide the necessary technology and resources to students and teachers due to limited funding and resources to support the implementation of ICT, difficulty in maintaining technological infrastructure, and limited access to training and support for the implementation of ICT. Further, in relation to the digital divide, issues related to higher education facilities will be discussed in the next subsequent section.
5.3.2.2
Digital Divided Issued Related to Higher Education Facilities During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Table 5.6 shows the digital divide in higher education facilities based on data from selected articles. The studies reported many universities struggling to provide adequate technology facilities and resources to support remote learning (Asher, 2021; Gan & Sun, 2022; Gocotano et al., 2021; Laufer et al., 2021; Vurayai, 2022; Lynch et al., 2022; Woldegiorgis, 2022). There are several explanations for this situation, such as Asher’s (2021) report that this struggle involves not only the inability to provide the necessary technology but also access to reliable internet connections, computers, and equipment. Apart from internet access, in the context of Southeast Asia and Africa, Gan and Sun (2022) and Vurayai (2022) also found that the universities have limited technology facilities and technological support. Therefore, we were quite surprised given the fact that the digital divide in higher education facilities is not just a problem for low-income and developing countries, but a significant challenge also faced by universities in developed countries like the United States (Laufer et al., 2021; Lynch et al., 2022). For instance, Laufer et al. (2021) reported that students from rural areas in the United States face significant
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Table 5.6 Key findings on the digital divide in higher education facilities during COVID-19 Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021), Gan and Sun (2022), Gocotano et al. (2021), Laufer et al. (2021), Vurayai (2022), Lynch et al. (2022), Woldegiorgis (2022)
Online learning is hindered by various factors, including a lack of technology and internet connectivity, power outages, technical problems related to computer software, hardware, or networks, and a lack of internet access. These barriers stem from the digital divide between urban and rural areas, unequal access to high-speed internet, and a general lack of access to technology
El Said (2021)
The website portal currently being used is not helpful for learning
Maphalala et al. (2021), Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), Shin and Hickey (2021), Tan et al., (2022)
Universities struggled to provide adequate technical support services due to a lack of responsive and compatible ICT infrastructure
challenges accessing the necessary facilities for online learning at their universities, including access to libraries and computer labs. In terms of efforts to provide access information to students and lectures, a study by El Said (2021) found that the university’s website portal, which is the access being used for online learning, was not helpful for the teaching and learning process. This lack of helpfulness was attributed to several factors, including the complexity and difficulty of navigating the portal, a lack of user-friendly features, and limited access to necessary information. The study found that these factors contributed to increased stress and frustration among students, which in turn negatively impacted their learning outcomes. This condition is exacerbated by a lack of responsive technical support services (Maphalala et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Tan et al., 2022). Many students and lecturers have problems with hardware and software (Tan et al., 2022) and struggle to use educational tools in delivering and participating in online learning (Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022). While technical support services at the university frequently delay and sometimes disrupt the teaching and learning process (Maphalala et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Tan et al., 2022). To summarize, the digital divide in higher education facilities is a serious problem that affects universities all over the world, from developing to developed countries. Universities face challenges in providing adequate technology facilities and resources, reliable internet connections, and technical support services. The unhelpfulness of the university website portals used for online learning is an additional issue that contributes to student stress and frustration. It is crucial to address these challenges comprehensively and proactively to ensure that all students have access to the necessary resources for successful online learning.
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Digital Divided Issued Faced by the Lecturer During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Table 5.7 shows the challenges identified by the lecturer as a result of the digital divide during COVID-19. The sudden shift to online learning during the pandemic has presented significant challenges for many instructors, as evidenced by multiple studies (Asher, 2021; Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021; Faura-Martínez et al., 2022; FreiLandau & Avidov-Ungar, 2022; Laufer et al., 2021; Lynch et al., 2022; Maphalala et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Rahman, 2021; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Tan et al., 2022; Vurayai, 2022). For instance, Asher (2021) reported that many lecturers were ill-prepared for the sudden shift to online learning and faced significant challenges in designing and delivering effective online lessons, which led to a decrease in the quality of education in some cases. Azionya and Nhedzy (2021) also found that lecturers lacked technical knowledge and skills in using online platforms for teaching, which resulted in reduced effectiveness and engagement in online courses. Similarly, Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022) noted that the lack of studentto-student interaction and cooperative learning in online courses has also been a significant challenge for instructors (Laufer et al., 2021; Maphalala et al., 2021; Tan et al., 2022). On the other hand, several studies have found that one of the key challenges facing instructors during the pandemic has been a lack of training and support for online teaching (Lynch et al., 2022; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Vurayai, 2022). As mentioned by Vurayai (2022), lack of training and support have been cited as major barriers to effective online instruction, and this has been exacerbated by the sudden shift to online instruction during the pandemic. Another related issue is the lack of confidence that some instructors have in their ability to use technology for teaching. Kono and Taylor (2021) found that many instructors lack the confidence to effectively use technology Table 5.7 Key Findings on the digital divide issued by the lecture during COVID-19 Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021), Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), Faura-Martínez et al. (2022), Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022), Laufer et al. (2021), Maphalala et al. (2021), Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), Rahman (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Lynch et al. (2022)
The sudden shift to online learning has left many lecturers ill-prepared and facing significant challenges in designing and delivering effective online lessons and creating appropriate e-learning content. Inadequate technical and pedagogical skills; resistance to online mediums
Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022), Laufer Difficulty in fostering student engagement and et al. (2021), Maphalala et al. (2021), Tan et al. student-to-student interaction, as well as promoting cooperative learning (2022) Lynch et al. (2022), Shin and Hickey (2021), Vurayai (2022)
Lack of training and support have further hindered the transition to online learning
Kono and Taylor (2021)
Lack of confidence in the ability to use technology for teaching
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for teaching, which has hindered their ability to transition to online learning. This lack of confidence can lead to a fear of trying new technology and prevent instructors from effectively integrating technology into their teaching. To sum up, the sudden shift to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic has presented significant challenges for many instructors. The main challenges identified in multiple studies include ill-preparedness for online teaching, a lack of technical knowledge and skills, reduced effectiveness and engagement in online courses, and a lack of training and support for online teaching. Instructors’ lack of confidence in their ability to use technology for teaching is also a major issue that hinders the effective integration of technology into their teaching. It is crucial for universities and educational institutions to provide adequate training, support, and resources to instructors to overcome these challenges and ensure the quality of education during the pandemic.
5.3.2.4
Digital Divided Issued Faced by Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic
In terms of digital issued face by the student, this SLR found a significant challenge faced by students during the pandemic is the lack of access to technology and reliable internet networks. This has been identified as a significant factor contributing to the digital divide and has resulted in unequal access to online learning opportunities (Asher, 2021; Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021; El Said, 2021; Frei-Landau & AvidovUngar, 2022; Gocotano et al., 2021; Kono & Taylor, 2021; Laufer et al., 2021; Maphalala et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Rahman, 2021; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Tan et al., 2022; Vurayai, 2022; Lynch et al., 2022). This lack of access has led to a decrease in the quality of education for these students, as they may not be able to attend online classes, submit assignments, or access course materials. Likewise, another study also found that students from lowincome families faced significant challenges accessing technology and the internet during the pandemic (Asher, 2021), were unable to fully participate in online classes (Frei-Landau & Avidov-Ungar, 2022), and felt isolated and disconnected from their peers and instructors (Kono & Taylor, 2021). In some cases, students also had to travel long distances to access Wi-Fi hotspots or had to use outdated devices that were not compatible with the online learning platforms used by their schools (Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021). Another challenge faced by students was the lack of interaction with their instructors and technical support from their universities. This was identified in several studies (Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021; El Said, 2021; Lynch et al., 2022; Maphalala et al., 2021; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Vurayai, 2022). Students reported difficulties in getting timely responses to their queries, receiving feedback on their work, and accessing technical support when needed (Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021). This lack of interaction and support led to feelings of disconnection, isolation, and frustration, which in turn affected students’ motivation and engagement in their studies (Lynch et al., 2022; Shin & Hickey, 2021).
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Table 5.8 Key Findings on the digital divide issued by the student during COVID-19 Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021), Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022), Gocotano et al. (2021), Kono and Taylor (2021), Laufer et al. (2021), Maphalala et al. (2021), Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), Rahman (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Lynch et al. (2022)
Lack of access to technology and internet networks
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), Lynch et al. (2022), Maphalala et al. (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021), Vurayai (2022)
Lack of interaction and technical support from the university
Gocotano et al. (2021), Rahman (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Lynch et al. (2022), Woldegiorgis (2022)
Lack of literacy skills and motivation to learn online
Faura-Martínez et al. (2022)
Difficult to adapt to the new way of teaching, especially for those who did not have the necessary resources
Beside the challenges posed by a lack of access to technology, internet networks, and limited interaction with instructors, the digital divide during the pandemic has also been exacerbated by a lack of students’ literacy skills and motivation to learn online, as indicated by several studies (Gocotano et al., 2021; Rahman, 2021; Tan et al., 2022; Vurayai, 2022; Lynch et al., 2022; Woldegiorgis, 2022). This can be found as students struggle with the technical and digital literacy skills required for online learning (Gocotano et al., 2021), navigate online platforms (Rahman, 2021), and adapt to the new way of teaching (Faura-Martnez et al., 2022). Finally, Woldegiorgis (2022) concluded that the digital divide has had a disproportionate impact on students from low-income families and those with limited access to technology and internet networks, which can further contribute to a lack of motivation to learn online (Table 5.8).
5.3.3 Bridging Digital Divide in Higher Education 5.3.3.1
The Role of Government and Universities in Overcoming Digital Divide in Higher Education
Faura-Martínez et al. (2022) suggest that mitigating the digital divide in higher education requires a clear understanding of its nature and extent. This can be achieved through a data-driven approach, as demonstrated in Table 5.9, which highlights the importance of addressing the digital divide in higher education. The studies by Asher (2021), Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), and Shin and Hickey (2021) also
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emphasize the need to provide teachers with the necessary skills and competencies to effectively use digital tools, as this is crucial for bridging the digital divide. Governments can play a pivotal role in bridging the digital divide in higher education by partnering with mobile network operators to offer zero-rated applications and educational websites, while institutions can address inequalities in connectivity and devices using their own finances. To achieve this, institutions must enhance Internet bandwidth, expand data center capacity, purchase licensed e-learning tools, and provide training for students and professors on essential IT skills, as highlighted by Gan and Sun (2022), Maphalala et al. (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), and Lynch et al. (2022). Universities must also build technical assets by purchasing or loaning computers and social assets by fostering family support and connections with staff and peers to support student learning. In addition, universities should provide online resources such as tutorials and interactive materials and upgrade ICT infrastructure to support Table 5.9 Key Findings on the role of government and universities in overcoming digital divide Author(s) years
Key finding
Faura-Martínez et al. (2022)
Mitigate the digital divide
Asher (2021), Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021)
To prepare teachers for emerging digital contexts, provide extensive workshops and training for skilling, reskilling, and upskilling. This ensures they acquire the necessary competencies to integrate digital tools effectively
El Said (2021), Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022)
Provide ICT training for lecturers
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021) Governments partnering with mobile network operators to offer zero-rated applications and educational websites, while institutions address inequalities in connectivity and devices using their own finances. Universities must enhance Internet bandwidth, expand data center capacity, purchase licensed e-learning tools, and provide training for students and professors on essential IT skills Gan and Sun (2022), Lynch et al. (2022), Maphalala et al. (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022)
To support student learning, universities must build technical assets by purchasing or loaning computers, and social assets by fostering family support and connections with staff and peers. They should provide online resources such as tutorials and interactive materials, and upgrade ICT infrastructure to support online programs and techno-based pedagogy
Gocotano et al. (2021)
Adequate infrastructure and internet facilities are essential for establishing flexible learning. Digital education should prioritize collaboration over individual gain to ensure everyone benefits from technology
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online programs and techno-based pedagogy, as noted by Asher (2021), Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), and Shin and Hickey (2021). Moreover, establishing flexible learning through digital education requires adequate infrastructure and internet facilities, as highlighted by Gocotano et al. (2021). To ensure that digital education benefits everyone, it is crucial to prioritize collaboration over individual gain. This means that digital tools and platforms should be designed to promote cooperation and teamwork among learners, rather than simply facilitating individual learning. By prioritizing collaboration, digital education can help bridge the digital divide and ensure that all learners have access to the benefits of technology.
5.3.3.2
Bridging the Digital Divide in Higher Education: Solutions for Facilities and Resources
The digital divide is a major issue in higher education, and several solutions have been proposed to overcome it. One aspect that needs to be addressed is facilities, and Table 5.10 shows that reviewed studies have highlighted several solutions. Providing access to digital resources, including e-mentoring features, through university portals, as proposed by Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), and Gan and Sun (2022), is crucial in bridging the digital divide. Additionally, providing alternative resources for physical facilities, such as libraries and study spaces, as proposed by Shin and Hickey (2021), is important to ensure that students have access to resources regardless of their location. To ensure that everyone has access to technology and digital education initiatives, Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022) and Laufer et al. (2021) recommend Table 5.10 Key Findings on solution to overcome the digital divide in the aspect of facilities Author(s) years
Key finding
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), El Said (2021), Gan and Sun (2022)
Provide access to digital resources including e-mentoring feature to university portal
Shin and Hickey (2021)
Provide alternative resources for physical facilities such as libraries and study spaces
Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar (2022), Laufer et al. (2021)
Promote access to technology and digital education initiatives through adequately equipped public learning centers to ensure everyone can benefit from these resources
Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022)
Upgrade learning management systems to include critical applications such as centralized learning materials, videos, slide decks, assessment tools, and smart scheduling tools
Lynch et al. (2022), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai Implement and maintain robust online teaching (2022) and learning environments to support students and teachers
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promoting access to resources through adequately equipped public learning centers. Furthermore, upgrading learning management systems, as proposed by Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), to include critical applications such as centralized learning materials, videos, slide decks, assessment tools, and smart scheduling tools can be an effective way to bridge the digital divide. Finally, Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), and Lynch et al. (2022) recommend implementing and maintaining robust online teaching and learning environments to support both students and teachers. This requires investing in reliable internet infrastructure, licensing e-learning tools, and providing training for students and professors on essential IT skills. By implementing these solutions, universities can bridge the digital divide in the aspect of facilities and ensure that all learners have access to the benefits of technology.
5.3.3.3
The Solutions for the Lecturers and Students in Overcoming Digital Divide in Higher Education
Table 5.11 highlights solutions proposed by reviewed articles to address the digital divide and provide effective online learning for lecturers. Lecturers should adopt creative approaches such as creating small studios for video recording and accommodating students with poor connectivity or lack of access to technology by providing alternative activities and content delivery (Asher, 2021). Interactivity and feedback during online classes should be emphasized, and lecturers must upskill their digital skills to cope with inadequate technology resources or technical skills deficiency (El Said, 2021; Gan & Sun, 2022). Azionya and Nhedzy (2021) suggest that lecturers should consider the curriculum, digital competencies of students, module application, and class size when teaching online, prioritizing critical thinking in assessments and accommodating unstable student connections through live teaching and quizzes available 24/7. Several reviewed studies emphasize the importance of developing the pedagogical and technical skills of teachers to effectively deliver higher education online. Maphalala et al. (2021) advocate for multimedia and interactive tools to increase student engagement, while Shin and Hickey (2021) stressed the need for emergency remote teaching and alternative content delivery. Clear communication and feedback are also crucial, as highlighted by Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), and Lynch et al. (2022), who suggest chatbots, discussion forums, and personalized feedback as effective tools. While Woldegiorgis (2022) emphasizes the importance of maintaining a positive attitude toward online delivery to promote the benefits of online learning and engage students in a supportive and encouraging manner. In conclusion, providing adequate training for teachers on effective online pedagogy, emergency remote teaching, student engagement, and clear communication and feedback is essential for bridging the digital divide in higher education. A positive attitude toward online delivery is also crucial to ensure success in this new learning environment.
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Table 5.11 Key Findings on a solution for the teachers to overcome the digital divide Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021), El Said (2021), Gan and Sun (2022)
To facilitate effective online learning, lecturers must be creative and provide solutions such as creating small studios for video recording. They should also be accommodating to students with poor connectivity or lack of access to technology, offering alternative activities and content delivery. Emphasis should be placed on interactivity and feedback during online classes to increase attendance. Additionally, individuals should take the initiative to upskill their digital skills, including improvization to cope with inadequate technology resources or technical skills deficiency
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021)
When teaching, it is crucial to consider the curriculum, digital competencies of students (including skills, devices, and access), the module’s application (theoretical or clinical), and the class size. Assessments should prioritize strong critical thinking over rote learning and use a combination of short questions and essays. Live teaching and quizzes should accommodate unstable student connections and be available 24/7 to accommodate the home environment
Lynch et al. (2022), Maphalala et al. (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Woldegiorgis (2022)
Developing the pedagogical and technical skills of teachers is essential for effective online delivery of higher education. This requires providing adequate training on emergency remote teaching, building and maintaining student engagement, and clear communication and feedback with students. A positive attitude toward online delivery must also be promoted to ensure success
On the other hand, Table 5.12 displays various solutions proposed by reviewed articles to help students overcome the digital divide and participate effectively in teaching and learning. According to Azionya and Nhedzy (2021) and Maphalala et al. (2021), disadvantaged students require more support than their well-to-do counterparts to overcome the challenges they face. Therefore, it is crucial to train students in digital skills by participating in online courses, as suggested by Shin and Hickey (2021) and Maphalala et al. (2021). To increase student engagement, the use of multimedia and interactive tools is recommended, as advocated by Maphalala et al. (2021). Furthermore, to ensure that students have access to online resources and technology, several reviewed studies recommend providing them with affordable digital devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar
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Table 5.12 Key Findings on solution for the students to overcome the digital divide Author(s) years
Key finding
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), Maphalala et al. Disadvantaged students require more support (2021) than their well-to-do counterparts to overcome the challenges they face Faura-Martínez et al. (2022), Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022)
Student had to be trained in digital skills by participating in online courses
Lynch et al. (2022), Maphalala et al. (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Woldegiorgis (2022)
Providing students with access to online resources and technology, such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and affordable data
(2022) and Laufer et al. (2021) propose promoting access to resources through adequately equipped public learning centers. Upgrading learning management systems to include critical applications such as centralized learning materials, videos, slide decks, assessment tools, and smart scheduling tools can also be an effective way to bridge the digital divide, as proposed by Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022). Additionally, Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), Lynch et al. (2022), and Woldegiorgis (2022) recommend implementing and maintaining robust online teaching and learning environments to support both students and teachers. This requires investing in reliable internet infrastructure, licensing e-learning tools, and providing training for students on essential IT skills. These strategies can help provide students with access to online resources, technology, and online learning environments, regardless of their location or socioeconomic status. In summary, the data from reviewed articles in Table 5.12 highlights the importance of providing support for disadvantaged students, training students in digital skills, providing access to online resources and technology, upgrading learning management systems, and implementing robust online teaching and learning environments. These solutions can help bridge the digital divide and ensure that all students have access to the benefits of technology in higher education.
5.3.3.4
Policy Recommendations
The reviewed articles in Table 5.13 provide several policy recommendations to address the challenges of online teaching and learning. Firstly, there is a need to evaluate and analyze the existing curricula to determine how fluid and adaptable they are for emergency transition to online teaching and learning. This will enable institutions to identify gaps and make necessary modifications to ensure a smooth transition in case of emergencies (Asher, 2021; Kono & Taylor, 2021; Rahman, 2021). Additionally, there is a need to combine face-to-face learning strategies and online learning methods to create a hybrid learning environment that benefits both teachers and students (Azionya & Nhedzy, 2021). Secondly, government institutions should support educational institutions with funding, subsidies, and grants that lead to reducing existing inequalities. This will
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Table 5.13 Policy recommendations Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021), Kono and Taylor (2021), Rahman (2021)
Evaluation and analysis of the existing curricula to determine how fluid and adaptable they are for emergency transition to online teaching and learning
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021)
Combined face-to-face learning strategies and online learning methods
Faura-Martínez et al. (2022), Lynch et al. (2022), Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), Vurayai (2022)
Government institutions should support educational institutions with funding, subsidies, and grants that lead to reducing existing inequalities
Gan and Sun (2022)
Designing and implementing intervention programs focusing on improving resource access and developing the digital skills
Shin and Hickey (2021), Tan et al. (2022)
Providing support for students who are facing financial and digital difficulties, including providing equal access to technology and internet for all students
ensure that students from disadvantaged backgrounds have equal access to resources, technology, and internet to support their online learning. Providing support for students who are facing financial and digital difficulties is crucial, including providing equal access to technology and internet for all students (Faura-Martínez et al., 2022; Lynch et al., 2022; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022; Vurayai, 2022). Thirdly, designing and implementing intervention programs focusing on improving resource access and developing digital skills is recommended. This will help bridge the digital divide and ensure that students are adequately equipped to participate effectively in online learning. The government can also invest in upgrading internet infrastructure to support online learning and provide students with affordable digital devices (Gan & Sun, 2022; Shin & Hickey, 2021; Tan et al., 2022). In conclusion, the reviewed articles in Table 5.13 provide policy recommendations that address the challenges of online teaching and learning. The recommendations include evaluating and analyzing existing curricula, combining face-to-face learning strategies and online learning methods, supporting educational institutions with funding, subsidies, and grants, providing equal access to technology and internet for all students, and designing and implementing intervention programs focusing on improving resource access and developing digital skills. These policies will ensure that students have equal opportunities to access online resources and participate effectively in online learning.
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Agenda for the Future Research
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on education, forcing educational institutions to rapidly shift to online learning. As a result, there is a need for further research to investigate the quality of learning during the pandemic. Asher (2021) suggests that research is needed to examine the effectiveness of online teaching methods, student engagement, and academic outcomes during the pandemic in both K-12 and higher education. In addition, research should focus on the experiences and readiness of lecturers in adapting to online teaching and learning. Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), Gocotano et al. (2021), and Shin and Hickey (2021) suggest that further research is needed to identify the support and training needs of lecturers to ensure effective online teaching practices. These studies also suggest that research should explore the holistic view of the challenges brought by the pandemic on the sudden implementation of online learning. Moreover, it is important to conduct longitudinal studies to measure the long-term impact of the pandemic on students’ academic performance and well-being. Gan and Sun (2022) suggest that such studies could provide insights into the digital barriers arising from distance education and their impact on student performance. Research is also needed to investigate the long-term effects of digital education on higher education and the ways in which it can be used to bridge, rather than widen, existing inequalities. Laufer et al. (2021), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022), and Lynch et al. (2022) suggest that such research could investigate the potential for digital education to promote access to education for underrepresented groups and reduce disparities in academic achievement. Finally, Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022) and Woldegiorgis (2022) suggest that alternative solutions should be investigated to overcome the digital divide and improve access to e-learning for students in difficult circumstances. These studies suggest that innovative approaches such as mobile learning, community-based learning centers, and partnerships between educational institutions and technology companies could be explored. In conclusion, future research is needed to provide valuable insights into the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education and inform the development of effective strategies to support student learning and well-being during challenging times (Table 5.14).
5.4 Conclusion The COVID-19 pandemic has had an unprecedented impact on education, requiring a rapid shift to online learning. This shift has resulted in the need for research to investigate the quality of learning during the pandemic and inform effective strategies to support student learning and well-being during challenging times. To address this, the present work explores the digital divide in higher education during the pandemic by systematically reviewing related literature.
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Table 5.14 Agenda for the future research Author(s) years
Key finding
Asher (2021)
Further research about the quality of learning during the pandemic both in K-12 and in higher education is needed
Azionya and Nhedzy (2021), Gocotano et al. (2021), Shin and Hickey (2021)
Focus on lecturer experiences and readiness and other areas such as a holistic view of the challenges brought by the pandemic on the sudden implementation of online learning
Gan and Sun (2022)
Conduct a longitudinal study to measure student performance in the face of digital barriers arising from distance education
Laufer et al. (2021), Lynch et al. (2022), Tan et al. (2022), Vurayai (2022)
To explore the long-term effects of digital education on higher education and the ways in which it can be used to bridge, rather than widen, existing inequalities
Muchabaiwa and Gondo (2022), Woldegiorgis (2022)
Investigate alternative solutions to overcome the digital divide and improve access to e-learning for students in difficult circumstances
The review process was performed with rigor and limited to two databases (Scopus and Web of Science) to ensure that the included articles had undergone a peer review process. The review used a multidisciplinary approach, including the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA), descriptive analysis, and thematic analysis. Through this approach, the reviewed literature provides valuable policy recommendations and areas for future research in this domain. Policy recommendations include evaluating and analyzing existing curricula, combining face-to-face learning strategies and online learning methods, supporting educational institutions with funding, subsidies, and grants, providing equal access to technology and internet for all students, and designing and implementing intervention programs focusing on improving resource access and developing digital skills. These policies will ensure that students have equal opportunities to access online resources and participate effectively in online learning. Future research should investigate the effectiveness of online teaching methods, student engagement, and academic outcomes during the pandemic in both K-12 and higher education. Research should also focus on the experiences and readiness of lecturers in adapting to online teaching and learning, identify the support and training needs of lecturers to ensure effective online teaching practices, and explore the holistic view of the challenges brought by the pandemic on the sudden implementation of online learning. Longitudinal studies should be conducted to measure the long-term impact of the pandemic on students’ academic performance and well-being, and investigate the potential for digital education to promote access to education for underrepresented groups and reduce disparities in academic achievement. Research is also needed to
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investigate the long-term effects of digital education on higher education and the ways in which it can be used to bridge, rather than widen, existing inequalities. To overcome the digital divide and improve access to e-learning for students in difficult circumstances, alternative solutions such as mobile learning, communitybased learning centers, and partnerships between educational institutions and technology companies should be investigated. In conclusion, the reviewed literature highlights the importance of policy recommendations and future research to address the challenges and capitalize on the opportunities of online teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. These efforts will promote equitable and high-quality education for all students.
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Chapter 6
From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion in Colombia: A Systematic Literature Review of Strategies from Education Myriam Ortiz Padilla , Roberto Soto-Varela , and Luis Oviedo Berrocal
Abstract In the last 20 years, inclusion and digital exclusion in education have undergone significant changes in a country like Colombia. To address this, various strategies have been implemented by the Ministry of National Education (MEN), the Ministry of Information and Communications Technologies (MinTic), and nongovernmental organizations. Their objectives have been to reduce the digital divide between urban and rural areas nationwide, promote the use of ICTs and digital skills in education, and facilitate digital inclusion. The results have varied across different regions of Colombia. This chapter first presents the concepts of digital inclusion and exclusion, then describes the specificities of digital exclusion. Through a systematic literature review using the PRISMA protocol and consulting databases such as Scopus, Wos, and official MEN documents, the most successful forms of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Colombia are identified. This review of public policies for ICT promotion necessitates considering the role that the education system has played, is playing, or could play in the future to address these challenges and contribute to reducing digital gaps and fostering digital inclusion nationwide. Keywords Digital divide · Digital inclusion · Education · ICT · Colombia
M. O. Padilla (B) · L. O. Berrocal University of Simón Bolívar, Barranquilla, Colombia e-mail: [email protected] L. O. Berrocal e-mail: [email protected] R. Soto-Varela University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_6
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6.1 Introduction In the last two decades, there has been a growth in the interest of the scientific community in digital technology and its implications, internet access has become an indispensable tool in the society in which we live (Soto Varela et al., 2020), of which Colombia has not been oblivious, especially in the relation to the digital divide and digital inclusion (Chacón-Penagos et al., 2017). However, despite the progressive diffusion of new technologies, a series of inequalities have been identified. There are different conceptions of the digital divide in the national territory, but they coincide that it refers to the inequality between people having access to digital technology, and people that have greater digital access. From MinTic Colombia, it is understood that the digital divide refers to the difference in access to ICTs, either geographically or socially of a population with little access to ICTs compared to another population that does have access to ICTs (MinTIC, 2017a). The social inequality of digital technology has become one of the highest priority challenges to be overcome by countries worldwide, to which Colombia is also added with various strategies from education. But far from reducing, different reports indicate that in recent years inequalities are still growing, not only the digital ones, but also in education, economics, gender, health, political, and social (UNESCO, 2019; UNICEF, 2019). For this reason, the acquisition of media competence is essential to train critical citizens (Ortega-Rodríguez et al., 2022) to reduce these current inequalities of the twenty-first century, of great interest is the digital divide, which exacerbates social disparities in terms of access, use and appropriation of ICTs (Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021), and closure of the digital divide is essential for ensuring equal opportunities in the digital age, as it impacts access to information, education, employment, and participation in society (García-Cabrera et al., 2021). In general, people of higher socioeconomic status are more likely to use computers for educational purposes compared to those of lower socioeconomic status (Kuo et al., 2019). On the other hand, a worldwide decrease in the digital access gap has been found, even in less developed countries, and this is due to the joint efforts and work of educators, politicians, and business leaders (Erichsen & Salajan, 2014). The digital divide in the national territory and its relation to gender inequality has experienced a significant reduction over time. According to UNESCO (2019), in its early stages, it was observed that women took less advantage of devices, internet access, and digital technologies compared to men. Research conducted by the agency in several countries revealed that men used smartphones for a wide range of activities, from gaming to accessing electronic financial services, while women tended to make phone calls and use a calculator. However, in recent years there has been a rapid change in this situation. For example, in Bogotá, by 2019, the number of men and women using the Internet is practically the same, with 76% of men and 71% of women.
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Colombia has shown increasing investment in ICT expenditure over the years to increase the number of Internet-connected users, but it still faces regional digital divides. In other words, the country maintains differences in digital inclusion strategies across the national territory due to a larger number of rural areas than urban ones, thus widening the digital gap. Policies to reduce this digital divide have been prominent since 1997, including initiatives for telecommunications regulation, internet services, incentives for companies, and innovation-driven entrepreneurship (Peña et al., 2017). In this country, digital inclusion and social inclusion go hand in hand. Therefore, the scope of ICT contributes to the revitalization of social fabric and the integration of rural communities distant from urban areas, such as villages with limited connectivity. To achieve this, successful connectivity models implemented in South America have been taken as reference, which have promoted social inclusion through access to digital communities, virtual education, and social networks. These initiatives have shown social development and equity. Thus, the Kioscos Vive Digital (KVD) strategy emerges in villages and districts (Builes, 2016). The Colombian national government has decreed strategies in a national technology plan with a focus on information and communication (Plan TIC 2008) and has led this plan through various pillars such as e-government, research, innovation, regulations, incentives, education, health, justice, and competitiveness (Decreto 1151, 2008). The government’s strategies for digital inclusion between 2000 and 2011 can be divided into two groups. The first group aimed to enhance sectors through ICT, implementing strategies such as e-government, digital small businesses, computers for education, and Compartel. On the other hand, efforts were made to develop infrastructure through strategies such as Vive Digital Regional, information telecenters, digital citizenship, total connectivity, healthy internet, and technology for inclusion (González & Torres, 2013). These digital inclusion strategies were implemented to address the needs of a diverse and rural population. Among them, the Ciudadano Digital initiative stands out, targeting citizens in special conditions of vulnerability. The Compartel initiative aims to address the needs of low socioeconomic status population. The Telecentros initiative focuses on serving ethnic minority populations while preserving their native language. Lastly, technology for inclusion caters to people with disabilities (González & Torres, 2013). From MinTic in partnership with the MEN, strategies for inclusion and reducing the digital divide have been led and developed. However, efforts are still needed to reach all rural communities that are geographically distant from the national territory. In the reports, official documents, and scientific articles analyzed, the commitment of political leaders is evident, but it is also clear that there is a lack of follow-up on strategies during changes in government officials. Monitoring connectivity and technological inclusion for farmers, families in vulnerable situations, and those in extreme poverty should be prioritized in order to mitigate both social inequality and the digital divide. Although there are specific cases of successful and inspiring digital inclusion, a more comprehensive and sustained approach is needed to achieve significant results nationwide.
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In the Caribbean region of Colombian territory, specifically in the department of Atlántico, two digital laboratories were included in its capital, Barranquilla, in the year 2021. These laboratories were equipped with computer installations and the development of digital content, which led to the emergence of entrepreneurial ventures such as drones for agriculture and a cultural radio station. The “Puntos Vive Digital” strategy played a crucial role in ensuring access to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) through a community services model that encompassed training, entertainment, and various ICT service options (Giacometto et al., 2021). Additionally, in 2018, notable digital inclusion strategies emerged. In Santa Marta, in the department of Magdalena, a teacher and indigenous leader from the Shinduashe community in the Sierra Nevada arrived at a reservation in Nemoga, Cundinamarca. Through the Kiosco Vive Digital strategy, they helped the community preserve their traditions while embracing ICT. Similarly, in Cali, in the department of Valle del Cauca, the “Libros Vivo” project combined physical books with the virtual world through the Aurasma platform to promote reading. In Bucaramanga, in the department of Santander, they utilized the free WiFi zones to broadcast their sports TV program on social media. In La Guajira, older adults and people with visual disabilities used a Punto Vive Digital to receive training in computer and internet use (MinTic, 2018). Hence, in 2019, the “Connectivity for Equity” campaign was promoted, with the aim of reducing social regulations that impede telecommunications infrastructure development in Colombian municipalities (Rengifo et al., 2019).
6.2 Theoretical Framework As of 2022, Colombia has a population of 51.39 million inhabitants, with 69.1% having access to the internet and 81% of the population actively using social media. Among internet users, device usage is as follows: smartphones 97%, feature phones 13%, PCs 74%, tablets 34%, smart TVs 16%, and video games 29% (Rosgaby Medina, 2022). These increasing percentages are related to the technological transition to 5G networks, while still maintaining the presence of 2G and 3G networks to cater to Colombians with lower incomes, thus avoiding digital exclusion (Rengifo et al., 2018). According to MinTic’s Digital Integration Path program, the digital divide in Colombia is defined as the disparity between individuals, communities, regions, and countries that have the necessary conditions to effectively use ICT in their daily lives, and those who lack access to them or do not possess the necessary skills to utilize them (MinTIC, 2022b). The Colombian national territory is divided into 5 major regions: Andean, Orinoquia, Caribbean, Pacific, and Amazonia, as shown in Fig. 6.1. In the Andean region, there are departments such as Huila, Tolima, Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Caldas, Risaralda, Quindío, Antioquia with its capital Medellín, Santander, Norte de Santander, and the capital district of Bogotá. In the Orinoquia region, there are Arauca, Casanare, Meta, and Vichada. The Caribbean region includes Guajira, Cesar, Bolívar, Córdoba,
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Fig. 6.1 Map of Colombia by regions. Note The figure shows departments and municipalities grouped into 5 regions. Taken from Reina-Bermúdez et al. (2018)
Magdalena, Sucre, Atlántico with its capital Barranquilla, and San Andrés. The Pacific region comprises Chocó, Valle del Cauca with its capital Cali, Cauca, and Nariño. Finally, in the Amazonia region, there are Caquetá, Putumayo, Guaviare, Guainía, Amazonas, and Vaupés (Reina-Bermúdez et al., 2018). There are a total of 32 departments in Colombia, each with its respective municipal capital. Bogotá serves as the capital of the country. These departments vary in terms of their economic conditions, which are influenced by their geographical location and their classification as rural or urban areas.
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6.2.1 Factors of Digital Exclusion in Colombia The main factor of digital exclusion in Colombia is observed between urban and rural areas. The percentage of households with internet connectivity in urban areas is twice as high as in rural and dispersed rural areas. In the year 2020, 66.6% of urban households had access to the internet, while only 27.5% of rural and dispersed rural households had internet access, indicating an urban–rural digital divide of 39.1% (Pérez Urrutia et al., 2022). In Colombian households, the difference in internet connectivity influences digital exclusion. Fixed internet connection differs by 60% compared to mobile connectivity, which is at 19% (Pérez Urrutia et al., 2022). This indicates that devices in households are shared, limiting access to the internet as fewer individuals have mobile devices for technological appropriation. When asked about the reasons for not having internet access, Colombians cited high costs, not considering it necessary, lack of coverage in their area, not having electronic equipment to connect, lack of knowledge on how to use it, access to internet from other places at no cost, and concerns about security and privacy (MinTIC, 2017b). These responses have a greater influence in rural areas. Additionally, respondents were asked if they had ever accessed or used the internet, with the Amazon region showing the lowest percentage and the Andean region, located in the central zone, demonstrating higher values (MinTIC, 2017b) (Fig. 6.2). Furthermore, Bogotá, as the capital district, has the highest household internet access, followed by Valle del Cauca with its capital Cali, Risaralda with its capital Pereira, Santander with its capital Bucaramanga, Tolima with its capital Ibagué, Boyacá with its capital Tunja, Atlántico with its capital Barranquilla, and Antioquia with its capital Medellín. These regions share a common feature of having a higher presence of rural areas than urban areas. On the other hand, there are regions with lower internet access such as Vaupés, Vichada, Chocó, and Amazonas, which have a higher proportion of rural and dispersed rural areas compared to urban areas (MinTIC, 2017b, 2020). The digital divide index in Colombia assigns a numerical value to the digital divide on a scale from 0 to 1, with values closer to zero indicating a smaller digital divide in terms of 4 indicators: access to resources, utilization, digital skills, and motivation. Between 2018 and 2021, which coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic, the digital divide decreased by 6.6%, going from a value of 0.4395 to 0.4107 (MinTIC, 2022a, 2022b).
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Fig. 6.2 Map of Colombia showing the percentage of individuals aged 5 and above who used the internet as of 2020, and a table displaying the proportion of households with internet connection by departments. Note The figure shows the 32 departments and the DC, displaying the departments: 1 Guajira, 2 Magdalena, 3 Atlántico, 4 Cesar, 5 Sucre, 6 Córdoba, 7 Bolívar, 8 Norte de Santander, 9 Antioquia, 10 Santander, 11 Choco. 12 Arauca, 13 Boyacá, 14 Caldas, 15 Risaralda, 16 Quindío, 17 Tolima, 18 Valle del Cauca, 19 Cundinamarca, 20 Bogotá DC, 21 Casanare, 22 Vichada, 23 Meta, 24 Huila, 25 Cauca, 26 Nariño, 27 Caquetá, 28 Guaviare, 29 Guainía, 30 Vaupés, 31 Putumayo, 32 Amazonas y 33 San Andrés y Providencia. Taken from MinTIC (2020)
6.3 Method A systematic review of the literature on educational experiences that contribute to reducing the digital divide and promoting digital inclusion in Colombia was conducted. This methodology was chosen because systematic reviews promote transparency and rigor, and they allow for the identification of trends and opportunities for future research (García-Parra & Pérez Sepulcre, 2021). To systematically review the literature, the steps outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher et al., 2009), and the corresponding updates of the protocol (López-Belmonte et al., 2023), were followed. This included establishing relevant inclusion and exclusion criteria, developing a search strategy, searching and screening potential studies, evaluating the included studies, and analyzing and synthesizing the findings. For this literature review, the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases were used as they gather publications of impact and scientific relevance (López-Belmonte et al., 2023). Additionally, official
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documents from the Ministry of Education (MEN) were consulted as they showcase successful forms of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Colombia.
6.3.1 Procedure Firstly, the source, search strategy, and objective of the search were identified. The research commenced in March 2023 with the aim of covering the literature from 2002 to 2022. The first step of the research was to establish the research questions for this review, followed by the selection of inclusion and exclusion criteria for the articles and official documents. Next, a relevant search strategy and equation were chosen to address the research questions. In this case, the ERIC descriptors were employed in the search equation to identify their equivalents, which will be detailed in the strategy. Access to the required information sources for our search, such as the Scopus and WoS databases, was obtained through the websites of the libraries of the University of Simón Bolívar in Barranquilla and the University of Valladolid. This study examines articles with the following search relationships: (a) Digital Inclusion and Colombia; (b) Technology education or ICT and Colombia; (c) Digital divide and Colombia; (d) Digital Exclusion and Colombia), including the title, abstract, and keywords.
6.3.1.1
Research Questions
Taking into account the inclusion and exclusion projects in the country, the authors identify the prominent strategies for reducing digital divides and addressing the following questions: 1. What are the specificities of digital exclusion in Colombia? 2. What are the most successful forms of digital inclusion in Colombia in the last two decades? 6.3.1.2
Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion Criteria • Period: 2000–2022. • Language: English and Spanish. • Access: Open Access from university accounts of the Library Service of the University of Valladolid and the Universidad Simón Bolívar. • Types of included documents: Articles, book chapters, and official reports and documents. • Research areas: In Scopus, the subareas were Social Sciences and Multidisciplinary, while in Web of Science (WOS), the research areas were Educational
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Research, Science Technology Other Topics, Sociology, and Web Page: Education and ICT. • Articles and documents with digital inclusion strategies in education in Colombia. • Articles and documents with specificities of digital inclusion and exclusion in Colombia. Exclusion Criteria • • • •
Studies published before 2000. Studies describing projects outside the educational context. Limited description of the project or projects carried out outside Colombia. News and press releases.
6.3.1.3
Search Strategy
The databases identified were Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), and the main websites of the Colombian Ministry of Education (MEN) and Ministry of Information Technology and Communications (MinTic). The last search date was March 24, 2023. The ERIC search engine was used to identify descriptors. Table 6.1 shows the relationship between the terms and descriptors. The established combination of keywords was used to create search equations with Boolean operators and adaptations for each database. The search equations are related across multiple dimensions: (a) Digital Inclusion and Colombia; (b) Educational Technology (ICT) and Colombia; (c) Digital Divide and Colombia; (d) Digital Exclusion and Colombia. In the metadata of title, abstract, and keywords, considering the inclusion criteria such as categories of Social Sciences and Multidisciplinary and open-access publications, any document that includes the relationships in Table 6.2 was analyzed. Table 6.1 ERIC descriptors
ERIC descriptor
Spanish term
Educational technology
Tecnología educativa
Inclusion
Inclusión
Internet
Internet
Technology integration
Integración tecnológica
Equal education
Igualdad de educación
Access to computers
Acceso a computadores
Foreign countries
Países extranjeros
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Table 6.2 Search equations or search relationships in databases Database
Search equations
Search date
Scopus
Digital inclusión and Colombia
7/03/2023
WOS
Resutls after inclusión criteria
Total, included
13
10
65
ICT and Colombia
68
49
Digital divide and Colombia
8
5
Digital exclusión and Colombia
1
1
45
12
ICT and Colombia
585
53
Digital divide and Colombia
67
6
Digital exclusion and Colombia
10
4
Digital inclusion and Colombia
Results
7/03/2023
75
Organizations’ websites
Search equations
Search date
Results
MEN
Digital inclusion and Colombia
16-03-2023
218
8
MinTic
ICT and Colombia
428
30
Digital divide and Colombia
103
23
98
0
Digital exclusion and Colombia
6.3.1.4
Result after inclusion criteria
Total, included results 61
Data Screening and Extraction
Next, the titles and abstracts of the retrieved articles were reviewed, which allowed for the elimination of duplicate articles and classification according to the article inclusion criteria. Secondly, the articles were evaluated based on the exclusion criterion: relevance to the study objectives. Figure 6.3 shows the flowchart, adapted from Urrútia and Bonfill (2010), of the evaluation phase.
6.4 Results and Discussion The results are presented in two ways. Firstly, a bibliometric analysis of the articles in the Scopus and WOS databases is conducted. Secondly, official documents from the Ministry of National Education of Colombia (MEN) are analyzed, providing a detailed analysis from different regions, including strategies for digital inclusion, and
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Identification
Identification of studies via databases and registers
Records identified from: Databases (n=140) Other sources (n=61)
Screening
Records after removing duplicates (n =153)
Reports screening (n = 135)
Reports not retrieved (n = 42)
Reports assessed for eligibility. (n = 93)
Included
Reports excluded (n= 18)
Studies included in review: From Databases (n=47) Other sources (n=28) Total (n = 75)
Fig. 6.3 Prisma flow diagram
reducing academic disparities. All of this is done to answer the questions: “What are the most successful forms of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Colombia?” and “What are the specificities of digital exclusion in Colombia?” Additionally, official documents from the Ministry of Information Technology and Communications (MinTic) were consulted and analyzed to highlight specific aspects, which are included in the theoretical framework of this systematic review.
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6.4.1 Bibliometric Analysis The first phase of the analysis consists of dividing bibliometric variables that allow mapping the context of the selected articles. Table 6.3 presents the bibliometric variables of the articles included in the synthesis.
6.4.2 Official Documents Analysis During the document review, territorial teacher training plans were initially found by searching for “Digital Inclusion and Colombia” and “Digital Divide and Colombia” on the MEN website. The regions, through their different departments and municipalities, mention, present, do not present, or propose plans that contribute to the reduction of the digital divide. Table 6.4 shows the findings from reviewing the territorial teacher training plans (PTFD) prepared by the education secretariats of the national territory. From the review, 61 official documents were observed, but only 28 of them highlight significant experiences of digital inclusion. Of the 28 documents, 22 are from the Education Secretariats, the results show digital inclusion in education at different levels: early childhood, primary, secondary, and higher education. They coincide in addressing internet access in rural areas to reduce the urban–rural digital divide in the country. The infrastructure and connectivity challenges in various regions have hindered full access to and proper use of information and communication technologies (ICT) by individuals. The government policies are commendable in terms of investment and planning, but there is a need for better monitoring of the plans during political and administrative transitions, as well as increased control over contractor corruption (Amazonas Education Secretariat, 2022; Apartadó Education Secretariat, 2021; Arauca Education Secretariat, 2022; Barranquilla Education Secretariat, 2022; Bello Education Secretariat, 2022; Bolívar Education Secretariat, 2022; Buga Education Secretariat, 2021; Caldas Education Secretariat, 2022; Cali Education Secretariat, 2022; Casanare Education Secretariat, 2021; Chía Education Secretariat, 2021; Córdoba Education Secretariat, 2022; Duitama Education Secretariat, 2022; Huila Education Secretariat, 2020; Itagüí Education Secretariat, 2021; Manizales Education Secretariat, 2022; Medellín Education Secretariat, 2020; Norte de Santander Education Secretariat, 2021; Risaralda Education Secretariat, 2021; Sucre Education Secretariat, 2022; Tuluá Education Secretariat, 2021; Valle del Cauca Education Secretariat, 2022).
6.4.3 Relationship Between Digital Inclusion and Colombia MEN has identified that the nationwide connectivity deficiency has been a challenge since 2000 until the present day. In response, they have developed strategies for ICT
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Table 6.3 Research in the Scopus and WOS databases Database
Authors
Year
Type of investigation
Language
Scopus
Aarón, M.A., Bautista, E.F.
2021
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Ariza, J.F., Saldarriaga, J.P., Reinoso, K.Y., Tafur, C.D.
2021
Article
English
WOS
Barragán-Giraldo, D.F., Quiroga-Sichacá, L.E., Acosta-Valdeleón, W.
2022
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Barredo-Ibáñez, D., Díaz-Cerveró, E., Garzón, K.T.P., Del Rosario Gómez, R., Pérez, S., Nava, F.E., Quintero, N.F., Estrada, L.G.
2017
Article
English
Scopus
Benítez, W.E.P., Barreto, C.T.R.
2022
Article
Multilanguage
WOS
Berrío-Zapata, C., Rojas, H.
2014
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Botero, J.G., Botero, G.G., Restrepo, M.A.B.
2021
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Brijaldo-Rodríguez, M.I., Sabogal-Modera, M.L.
2015
Article
Spanish
WOS
Cabrera, M., Garnica, L.Y.Z., 2019 Farfán, I.C.M.
Article
English
WOS
Camelo, G.E., Torres, J.M.T., 2018 Reche, M.P.C., Costa, R.S.
Article
English
Scopus
Cárdenas, M.I.Z., Ortiz, C.A.G.
2019
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Castañeda-Trujillo, J.E., Jaime-Osorio, M.F.
2021
Article
English
WOS
Castro, M., Aguirre, S.
2020
Article
English
Scopus
Chacón-Penagos, Á.M., Ordóñez-Córdoba, J.A., Anichiarico-González, A.M.
2017
Article
English
WOS
Cifuentes, G., Vanderlinde, R.
2015
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Cohen, S.L., Calderón-Aponte, D.
2021
Article
English
WOS
Contreras, J.L.G., Torres, C.A.B., Ojeda, Y.C.E.
2022
Article
Spanish
WOS
Díaz-Guillen, P.A., Andrade-Arango, Y., Hincapié-Zuleta, A.M., Uribe-Uran, A.P.
2021
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Diettes, D.C.P.
2022
Article
Multilanguage (continued)
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Table 6.3 (continued) Database
Authors
Year
Type of investigation
Language
Scopus
Escobar-Zúñiga, J.C., Arenas-Martínez, E.C., Sánchez-Valencia, P.A.
2021
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Estrada-Villa, E.J., Boude-Figueredo, O.R.
2018
Article
English
WOS
Galvis, Á.H., González, Y.Y.L., Gonzálvez, M.A.A.
2018
Article
English/Spanish
WOS
Gutiérrez-Ángel, N., García-Sánchez, J.-N., Mercader-Rubio, I., García-Martín, J., Brito-Costa, S.
2022
Article
English
Scopus
Hernández-Vergel, V.K., Amaya-Mancilla, M.A., Prada-Núñez, R.
2022
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Lombana-Bermudez, A.
2021
Article
English
Scopus
López-Fernández, V., Llamas-Salguero, F., Sospedra-Baeza, M.J., Martínez-Álvarez, I.
2022
Article
English
WOS
Macintyre, T., Chaves, M., Monroy, T., Zethelius, M.O., Villarreal, T., Tassone, V.C., Wals, A.E.J.
2020
Article
English
Scopus
Marín, F.V., Inciarte, A.J., Hernández, H.G., Pitre, R.C.
2017
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Martínez, L.C.G., Galindo, L.S.C., Contreras, J.U.C.
2022
Conference
English
Scopus
Martínez, Z.L.G., Carvajal, S.A.R.
2021
Article
English
Scopus
Mendoza, B.J.R., Diaz, M.M.O.-D., Silva, L.C.M.
2018
Article
English
Scopus
Mendoza, H.H., Burbano, V.M., Valdivieso, M.A.
2019
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Mosquera-González, D., Valencia-Arias, A., Benjumea-Arias, M., Palacios-Moya, L.
2021
Article
English/Spanish
WOS
Nieves, L.H., Moya, E.C., Soldado, R.M.
2019
Article
English
WOS
Parra Sarmiento, S.R., Gómez Zermeño, M.G., Pintor Chávez, M.M.
2015
Article
Spanish
(continued)
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Table 6.3 (continued) Database
Authors
Year
Type of investigation
Language
Scopus
Pérez-Escoda, A., García-Ruiz, R., Lena-Acebo, F.-J.
2021
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Ricardo-Barreto, C., Llinas-Solano, H., Medina-Rivilla, A., Cacheiro-Gonzalez, M.L., Villegas-Mendoza, A., Lafaurie, A., Angarita, V.N.
2022
Article
English
WOS
Ricardo-Barreto, C., 2020 Molinares, D.J., Llinás, H., Santodomingo, J.P., Acevedo, C.A., Rodríguez, P.A., Navarro, C.B., Villa, S.V.
Article
English
WOS
Rodríguez-Martínez, G., Arango Lozano, C.A.
2021
Article
English
Scopus
Said-Hung, E., Valencia-Cobos, J., Prieto, E.G.
2017
Article
Spanish
Scopus
Sosa, E., Salinas, J., Crosetti, 2018 B.B.
Article
English
Scopus
Tapasco, O.A., Giraldo, J.A.
2017
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Teherán, P., Almanza, O., Mendoza, H.
2010
Article
English
Scopus
Urbano, O.F.A., Chanchí, G.G.E., Campo, M.W.Y.
2021
Article
English
WOS
Van Klyton, A., Castaño-Muñoz, W.
2017
Article
English
Scopus
Vargas, J.D., Arregocés, I.C., Solano, A.D., Peña, K.K.
2021
Article
English/Spanish
Scopus
Velasco Burgos, B.M.
2022
Article
English
access in collaboration with MinTic, based on territorial analysis, competencies, and organizations, with the aim of promoting inclusion with a territorial focus, fostering innovation in learning, digital transformations, and twenty-first-century skills and competencies within the framework of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) (MEN, 2022b). Therefore, this discussion explores the relationship between digital inclusion and Colombia, focusing on strategies implemented in recent years to bridge the digital inclusion gap in education. Initially, in the year 2000, strategies were defined to contribute to digital inclusion, such as access to infrastructure, ICT in educational processes, ICT in the business sector, the national ICT industry, and digital content. Agreements were established to promote internet access in rural and remote areas, geographically dispersed with
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Table 6.4 Contributions through digital strategies to reduce the digital divide from the MEN and MinTic, and their current territorial teacher training plans (PTFD) Territorial teacher training plans—by education secretariats
Year
Help reduce the digital divide
Observation
Amazonas
2022
Yes
There is a lack of clarity in educational and digital inclusion
Apartadó
2021
Yes
Policies are established to reduce the digital divide
Atlántico
2022
Yes
There are few strategies, with a focus on competencies
Arauca
2022
Yes
There is clarity in the information that allows access to the internet through the “Kiosko Vive Digital” strategy
Barrancabermeja
2022
No
There is a lack of clarity, as inclusion and the reduction of the divide are approached from the diversity of ethnic groups
Barranquilla
2022
Yes
Contributions to the reduction are made through digital libraries, digital materials, and the “Biblioteca Make Make”
Bello
2022
Yes
There is a connection between digital competencies and the “Vive Digital” points
Bogotá
2021
Yes
Teachers are trained in twenty-first-century competencies to strengthen digital teaching
Bolívar
2022
Yes
Budget for the creation of digital content and digital centers is observed
Boyacá
2022
No
Focus is on strengthening standardized tests
Bucaramanga
2022
No
Clear policies for reducing the digital divide are not evident
Buga
2021
Yes
Strategies, data, and policies for digital training are established
Caldas
2022
Yes
Data and figures for the use and appropriation of Media and Information Technologies are observed
Cali
2022
Yes
The reduction of the digital divide is emphasized with various strategies
Caquetá
2021
No
There are no evident strategies for digital inclusion
Cartagena
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Cartago
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Casanare
2021
Yes
Promotes teacher training in digital competencies
Chía
2021
Yes
Establishes training in digital content (continued)
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Table 6.4 (continued) Territorial teacher training plans—by education secretariats
Year
Help reduce the digital divide
Observation
Ciénaga
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Córdoba
2022
Yes
There are agreements for teacher digital training
Dosquebradas
2022
Yes
Budget for digital training is observed, and there are existing strategies
Duitama
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Envigado
2021
Yes
There are clear policies for reducing the digital divide
Floridablanca
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Girardot
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Girón
2022
No
The document was not found in the database
Guajira
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Guaviare
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Huila
2021
Yes
There are strategies for reducing the digital divide
Ipiales
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Itagüí
2021
Yes
There are strategies for reducing the digital divide
Jamundí
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Manizales
2022
Yes
There are strategies for digital training
Medellín
2022
Yes
Strong in strategies for digital training at different education levels
Mosquera
2022
No
The document was not found
Nariño
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Norte de Santander
2021
Yes
There are strategies for digital training
Palmira
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Pasto
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide (continued)
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Table 6.4 (continued) Territorial teacher training plans—by education secretariats
Year
Help reduce the digital divide
Observation
Pereira
2022
Yes
There are strategies for digital training, but they lack clarity
Piedecuesta
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Quibdó
2022
No
There is no evidence of digital inclusion strategies
Riohacha
2022
Yes
The strategy of connectivity through digital centers is evident
Rionegro
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Risaralda
2021
Yes
The strategy of connectivity through digital centers is evident
Sabaneta
2022
Yes
There are strategies for digital training
San Andrés islas y providencia
2022
Yes
Budget is observed, but there are no clear strategies
Santander
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Sincelejo
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Soacha
2022
Yes
There are strategies for digital training
Sogamoso
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Soledad
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Sucre
2022
Yes
There are strategies and budget for digital training
Tolima
2022
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Tuluá
2021
Yes
There are strategies for digital training
Tumaco
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Turbo
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Valle del Cauca
2022
Yes
There are strategies for digital training
Vichada
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Yopal
2021
No
There are few strategies for reducing the digital divide
Note The table was compiled using 61 official documents from the education secretariats attached to the Ministry of National Education. However, for the discussion and presentation of the results, only 28 of them were considered, based on the exclusion criteria
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limited access and power outages, as well as expanding coverage in schools, hospitals, libraries, courts, military facilities, and municipalities (MEN, 2022a). During the first decade, from 2000 to 2010, connectivity programs and projects were implemented, prioritizing the appropriation of ICT through national government policies to increase community access to services such as telephone calls, internet, and computers in public schools (MEN, 2022a). The next challenge was to focus on broadband access and ICT appropriation in educational institutions, not only in the public-school sector but also in the productive sector and different regions. Efforts were also made to secure national funding to address the connectivity deficit and contribute to closing the digital divide through infrastructure development (MEN, 2022a). In the second decade, from 2010 to the present, significant changes occurred, with successful digital inclusion being a prominent feature. The “Vive Digital” program was particularly noteworthy, as it focused on infrastructure renewal in urban centers, expanding ICT services and internet access. This helped to extend networks to cover rural areas more than urban areas. Additionally, the national fiber optic project was implemented, which included maintaining a network of 788 urban centers, accounting for 96% of urban hubs. In areas where fiber optic access was not feasible, wireless and alternative technologies were deployed to reduce the digital divide in regions such as the Amazon, Orinoquia, and Chocó (MEN, 2022a). During the years 2014–2018, the central urban areas were connected to the internet through fiber optics and WiFi as part of strategies implemented by the MEN and MinTIC. The “Conexión” digital strategy aimed to reduce the gaps in internet access and ICTs in both rural and urban schools (MEN, 2020). At the same time, MinTIC worked on the “Kioscos Vive Digital” (KVD) strategy, which increased access and usage of ICTs by improving infrastructure and broadband. Subsequently, the “Vive Digital” plan focused on the operation of installed kiosks (República de Colombia, 2019). These digital strategies had a positive effect on the use of ICTs in kiosks located in educational institutions with electricity supply. Additionally, the “Kioscos Vive Digital” initiative strengthened connectivity in communities and schools in general, allowing access in special cases, such as indigenous reservations (MEN, 2022b). In the ten-year education plan from 2016 to 2026, ICTs were incorporated into different levels of education, including curricula, to prepare students for the digital challenges of society and the territory (MEN, 2017). In the years 2018–2022, the TIC policy “The Digital Future is for Everyone” was introduced, aiming to connect Colombians and provide access to the benefits of technology, particularly in remote rural areas. In collaboration with MinTIC, strategies were developed to improve technology access in these distant rural zones through digital centers, with the goal of promoting digital inclusion in rural areas until 2031 (MEN, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2022d). Efforts have also been made to drive digital transformation in education, using the MEN’s online platform called “Colombia Aprende.” Initially serving as an informative platform, it has evolved into an inclusive and equitable strategy (MEN,
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2022b). The MEN has strengthened the “Aprender Digital” platform to design pedagogical strategies that address the realities and challenges of virtual reality and the metaverse (MEN, 2022c). To improve access to ICTs in remote rural areas, the international experience, particularly in Latin America, has been taken as a reference (MEN, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2022d). However, strategies for digital inclusion in Colombia over the past two decades have been developed through state policies and government development plans that have incorporated the use of ICTs in the country’s development, aiming to transform the culture of digital inclusion from an educational perspective (MEN, 2022a). Nevertheless, it is important to note that because of the COVID-19 pandemic, all these plans have been accelerated, showing a greater interest in adapting educational approaches to the needs of students and teachers. It is essential to integrate information and communication technologies (ICTs) into teaching and learning processes to improve the quality of education and the training of students, especially in rural areas, vulnerable populations, and remote regions. This requires greater coordination and collaboration between government entities and educational institutions, along with public policies and investment in educational technology in Colombia. Challenges include the lack of infrastructure, resistance to change, and the need for ongoing training in educational technology for teachers and students. Appropriate teacher training in the use of ICTs is required, as well as the development of policies and strategies to promote qualification in this field. Efforts should focus on incorporating innovation and creativity in the implementation of new technologies in the classroom, considering the specific characteristics and needs of students and their contexts. It is also important to reconfigure the culture and prior training of students and teachers regarding ICTs, integrating them with pedagogical strategies such as project-based learning, collaborative learning, and the flipped classroom model.
6.4.4 Relationship Between Technology Education or ICT and Colombia Scientific research suggests that educational technology in Colombia has experienced significant development in recent years, particularly due to the growing demand for the integration of ICT in education by students and teachers. However, it has also been noted that there are significant barriers and challenges that hinder its effective implementation in educational institutions, such as lack of infrastructure, resistance to change, and the need for continuous training in educational technology for teachers and students. Furthermore, the importance of developing public policies and strategies that promote qualification in the use of ICT has been emphasized, both for students and teachers, and that ensure equitable access to these technologies
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throughout the country, including rural areas, vulnerable populations, and remote regions.
6.4.5 Relationship Between Digital Divide and Colombia The digital divides in the Colombian territory are recognized by institutions, and educational strategies are being implemented to contribute to their reduction in basic, middle, and higher education levels. This includes promoting early education for children aged 0–5 years, as well as primary and secondary education, aiming to narrow these gaps (MEN, 2022d). These efforts align with the International Mission of Scholars, which consists of a group of experts in different areas of knowledge who participate and outline a roadmap for the advancement of science, technology, and innovation in Colombia (Ramírez De Rincón et al., 2019). The use of the Internet is essential in the attempt to reduce the digital divide and enhance technological inclusion for students, particularly those in remote rural areas. As a result, priorities have been established to promote ICTs in the National Development Plan, aiming to transform technology into an ally for equity-building, economic mobilization, the creation of new businesses, and the empowerment of industries 4.0 (MEN, 2022b).
6.4.6 Relationship Between Digital Exclusion and Colombia It is undeniable to state that educational technology in Colombia has become a topic of great importance in recent years. The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated this interest and, in some way, forced educational institutions to adapt and adjust their approach to meet the needs of students and teachers. In this regard, it is crucial to highlight the need to integrate ICT into teaching and learning processes to improve the quality of education and student training. It is essential to address the digital divide and ensure equitable access to educational technologies, especially in rural areas, vulnerable populations, and remote regions of the country. There is an urgent demand for public policies and investments in educational technology in Colombia. It is necessary to strengthen the effectiveness of these policies and promote greater coordination and collaboration between government entities and educational institutions to overcome barriers and challenges in the successful implementation of these technologies in educational institutions. This entails addressing issues such as infrastructure gaps, resistance to change, and the need for ongoing training in educational technology for teachers and students.
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This scenario presents challenges and opportunities that require concrete actions, such as technology management, teacher training, and appropriate use and access to technological tools. Providing solid teacher training in the use of ICT and developing policies and strategies to promote this qualification are fundamental. Efforts should focus on incorporating innovation and creativity in the implementation of new technologies in the classroom, considering the specific characteristics and needs of students based on their contexts and the particularities of their territories and environments, in order to achieve effective selection and design of these technologies. Aspects such as students’ and teachers’ perception and use of ICT are factors that can influence their adoption and effective use. Therefore, it is urgent to reconfigure the culture and prior training of both actors so that the appropriation of technologies can be integrated with pedagogical strategies such as project-based learning, collaborative learning, and flipped classrooms, which are gaining ground in the Colombian educational field.
6.5 Conclusion Currently, Colombia has made significant progress in terms of digital inclusion; however, there are still important challenges regarding exclusion and the digital divide. In terms of digital inclusion, Colombia has managed to increase internet penetration and mobile device usage among the population, enabling a larger number of people to access online services and resources. Additionally, the Colombian government has implemented programs and public policies to promote digital literacy and the inclusion of vulnerable individuals. On the other hand, there are still significant challenges related to digital exclusion in Colombia. The lack of access to basic services such as electricity and connectivity in some rural and remote areas of the country, as well as the lack of training and financial resources to access technology, continue to be major barriers to digital inclusion. Finally, regarding the digital divide, although Colombia has made progress in internet penetration and technology adoption among the population, there are still significant differences in terms of access and technology usage between urban and rural areas, as well as between different socioeconomic strata. This implies that there is still a long way to go in terms of equity and access to digital opportunities in Colombia.
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Secretaria de Educación Bolívar. (2022). Bolívar PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_40.pdf Secretaria de Educación Buga. (2021). Buga PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_Buga_PTFD_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Caldas. (2022). Caldas PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_35.pdf Secretaria de Educación Cali. (2022). Cali PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021– 2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_42.pdf Secretaria de Educación Casanare. (2021). Casanare PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_Casanare_ PTFD_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Chía. (2021). Chía PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_4.pdf Secretaria de Educación Córdoba. (2022). Córdoba PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_31.pdf Secretaria de Educación Duitama. (2022). Duitama PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_29.pdf Secretaria de Educación Huila. (2020). Huila PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_Huila_PTFD_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Itagüí. (2021). Itagüí PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_Itagui_PTFD_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Manizales. (2022). Manizales PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_19.pdf Secretaria de Educación Medellín. (2020). Medellín PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_20.pdf Secretaria de Educación Norte de Santander. (2021). Norte de Santander plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_arc hivo_pdf_Norte_de_Santander_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Risaralda. (2021). Risaralda PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_Risaralda_ PTFD_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Sucre. (2022). Sucre PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_23.pdf Secretaria de Educación Tuluá. (2021). Tuluá PTFD 2023 plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_Tulua_PTFD_2023.pdf Secretaria de Educación Valle del Cauca. (2022). Valle del Cauca PTFD plan territorial de formación docente 2021–2023. https://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1780/articles-319469_recurso_36. pdf Soto Varela, R., Sanz Prieto, M., & Boumadan Hamed, M. (2020). La realidad de la brecha de conectividad en el ámbito educativo español: Análisis de la situación actual. Innoeduca. International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 6(1), 56–65. https://doi.org/10. 24310/innoeduca.2020.v6i1.7741 UNESCO. (2019). Rationales and recommendations for gender-equal digital skills education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000367416/PDF/367416eng.pdf.multi UNICEF. (2019). Los niños y niñas de la brecha digital en España. https://www.unicef.es/public acion/estado-mundial-de-la-infancia-2018-los-ninos-y-ninas-de-la-brecha-digital Urrútia, G., & Bonfill, X. (2010). PRISMA declaration: A proposal to improve the publication of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Medicina Clinica, 135(11), 507–511. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.medcli.2010.01.015
Chapter 7
Digital Transformation Training and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica Melchor Gómez-García , Roberto Soto-Varela , Ana Cristina Umaña-Mata , and Estíbaliz Pérez-Pérez
Abstract In the last 20 years, inclusion and digital exclusion in education have undergone significant changes in a country like Costa Rica. To address this, various strategies have been implemented by the Ministry of Public Education (MEP), the Ministry of Science and Technology (MICITT), and non-governmental organizations. Their objectives have been to reduce the digital divide between urban and rural areas nationwide, promote the use of information and communication technologies (ICT’s) and digital skills in education, and facilitate digital inclusion. The results have varied across different regions of Costa Rica. This chapter first presents the concepts of digital inclusion and exclusion, then describes the specificities of digital exclusion in the country. Through a systematic literature review using the PRISMA protocol and consulting databases such as Scopus, Web of Sciences (WoS), and official documents from MEP and MICIT, the most successful forms of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Costa Rica are identified. This review of public policies for promoting ICTs requires considering the education system’s role, is playing, or could play in the future to address these challenges and contribute to reducing digital gaps and fostering digital inclusion nationwide. Keywords Digital divide · Digital inclusion · Costa Rica
M. Gómez-García (B) Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] R. Soto-Varela Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] A. C. Umaña-Mata Universidad Estatal a Distancia de Costa Rica, Ecatepec de Morelos, Costa Rica e-mail: [email protected] E. Pérez-Pérez Universidad de Costa Rica, Ecatepec de Morelos, Costa Rica e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_7
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7.1 Introduction In today’s highly technological global landscape, digital transformation has evolved from being a simple concept to an urgent necessity for the development and progress of nations. In this context, Costa Rica, a country known for its biodiversity and rich culture, has been steadily advancing towards the adoption of digital technologies in its various sectors. Digital inclusion, as an essential component of this process, seeks to ensure that every individual, community, and organization in the country has equitable access to the opportunities offered by the digital age, regardless of their geographic location or socioeconomic level. In the last decades, Costa Rica has consistently grown its technological infrastructure, driving connectivity and internet access across the entire territory. This advancement has been crucial in facilitating the integration of the Costa Rican population into the digital environment, enabling interaction and active participation in the knowledge-based economy and society (Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica, 2021). The Costa Rican government has recognized the importance of digital transformation as a fundamental engine for the country’s sustainable development. By implementing digital policies and programs, such as the Digital Agenda 2020, the aim is to leverage the opportunities offered by information and communication technologies to improve citizens’ quality of life, boost productivity in productive sectors, and enhance international competitiveness (World Bank, 2022). One of the essential pillars to achieve digital transformation in Costa Rica is the focus on education and training in digital skills (UNPD, 2020). From the early stages of education, digital literacy is promoted, ensuring that students acquire fundamental skills to navigate an increasingly digital world. Efforts have been directed towards improving the technological infrastructure of educational institutions and training teachers in the use of digital tools to enrich the teaching and learning process. However, despite the advances in digital transformation in Costa Rica, significant challenges remain. One of the most important barriers is the digital divide that persists between urban and rural areas of the country. While access to technology and digital services is broader in urban areas, rural communities face difficulties in accessing quality internet and taking advantage of the opportunities provided by the digital world. Moreover, digital inclusion goes beyond technology access and requires a holistic approach that addresses aspects such as training, digital literacy, and awareness of responsible and safe technology use. It is essential to ensure that all citizens, regardless of age, gender, educational level, or socioeconomic status, can benefit from available digital tools and services (Sánchez & Camacho, 2012). Despite these challenges, Costa Rica is in a favorable position to continue advancing towards an inclusive and sustainable digital society. The incorporation of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, and Industry 4.0 provides new opportunities to improve efficiency and competitiveness in various sectors, such as health, tourism, agriculture, and commerce.
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7.2 Theoretical Framework 7.2.1 Social Inclusion Indicators. Definition of Digital Divide and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica In the context of digital transformation, social inclusion indicators play a crucial role in measuring and understanding the degree of citizens’ participation and equitable access to digital opportunities (García-Holgado et al., 2020; Tomczyk et al., 2023). These indicators focus on key aspects that reflect the integration of the population into the information and knowledge society where ICT is a strategy for social inclusion (García Aguilera & Aguilar, 2022), providing a clearer view of the progress of digital inclusion in Costa Rica. García-Holgado et al. (2020) point out that social inclusion indicators can encompass aspects such as the availability and access to telecommunications infrastructure, internet connectivity, the ability to use digital technologies, digital literacy, as well as the appropriation and use of digital services and content. These indicators provide a holistic view of digital inclusion, considering both the technological and social and cultural aspects that influence the adoption and participation of the population in the digital environment. In the case of Costa Rica, measuring these indicators has become a priority in efforts to promote an inclusive and sustainable digital society. As the country moves towards a knowledge-based economy, it is essential to evaluate and monitor the level of digital inclusion in all regions and sectors of the population. These indicators allow identifying existing gaps and inequalities, providing valuable information for decision-making and the formulation of effective public policies. The digital divide in Costa Rica refers to the existing disparities in access to and use of information and communication technologies (ICT) among different population groups according to García-Martinez et al. (2020). Although the country has made significant progress in connectivity and internet access, important challenges hinder achieving full and equitable digital inclusion. UNPD (2020) highlights that the digital divide manifests at different levels, including access to telecommunications infrastructure in rural areas and marginalized communities. The availability of internet services and efficient connectivity in these areas has hindered their inhabitants from accessing digital opportunities and actively participating in the information society. On the other hand, digital inclusion in Costa Rica is not limited solely to technology access but also involves promoting the acquisition of digital skills, education in the responsible use of ICT, and encouraging active citizen participation in the knowledge society. Digital inclusion seeks to ensure that all citizens, regardless of age, gender, educational level, or socioeconomic status, could benefit from available digital tools and services. The Government of Costa Rica has demonstrated a clear commitment to promoting digital inclusion through the implementation of the Digital Agenda 2020 (Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica, 2016). This strategy aims to close the
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digital divide and foster an inclusive digital society where every citizen can participate in and benefit from the advantages offered by the digital era. An improvement is assumed in the absence of official reports to corroborate this. In conclusion, measuring social inclusion indicators and defining the digital divide and digital inclusion in Costa Rica are fundamental to assessing progress towards a more equitable and sustainable digital society. Reducing the digital divide and promoting digital inclusion present significant challenges, but with the ongoing commitment of the government and society, Costa Rica is advancing towards a more integrated and participatory society in the global digital environment.
7.2.2 Development of Public Policy for Digital Inclusion In Costa Rica, efforts to incorporate technologies into the country’s socioeconomic development have been ongoing for over a decade. Significant progress has been made in creating public policies aimed at promoting a digital government model, which, in line with global trends, encourages the use of technology as an innovative element for the country’s development (Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica, 2021). Examples of the interest in technology and innovation inclusion can be seen in the Ministry of Science and Technology change of name, which became the Ministry of Science, Innovation, Technology, and Telecommunications. Additionally, in 2020, the Costa Rica Promoter of Research and Innovation and the National Digital Government Agency (PROSIC) were established. However, a retrospective view of the last five years reveals that digital inclusion has followed the right path, but the implementation of plans and policies has been inconsistent and incomplete. Among the main reasons for the slowdown in the technology incorporation process are the inconsistency of strategic plans to promote and consolidate projects in this line. Secondly, the difficulties faced by the Costa Rican population in adapting to a new coexistence scheme with technology, leading to a lack of development of the necessary skills for such adjustment. Starting in 2020, with the aggravating factor of facing the COVID-19 pandemic, it was identified that the efforts made at the level of public policies and their implementation faced the challenge of an increased digital divide during the pandemic period, in all territories of the planet. In broad terms, this section presents some of the main policies and plans created by the government, as well as the progress and limitations found in their possible implementation. In 2016, the need to include technologies in the population’s daily lives was identified. It was determined that this task requires collaborative work involving both citizens and the government as a facilitator of resources and training for public officials and citizens in the appropriation of technology for the country’s social, cultural, and economic development. Prior to 2016, important initiatives had already been launched, but they did not achieve the expected goals. One such case was the creation of the Technical Secretariat for Digital Government (STGD) in 2006, whose operationalization was unsuccessful due to political and administrative instability. The STGD was dissolved in
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2010. One of the main reasons for this was its constant transfer between ministries and autonomous institutions, and the lack of effectiveness in implementing technologyoriented public policies. In the period 2010–2014, the promotion of institutional interoperability was emphasized to “simplify the processes and activities necessary for the connectivity of State institutions in order to increase the number of services provided” (Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica, 2013, p.20). The challenge (still relevant today) was that “as a society and a set of public institutions, we must face the technification of social interactions” (Prosic-Santovac, 2017). During 2016, the National Telecommunications Development Plan 2015–2021 (PNDT) was created. This plan aimed to “consolidate the construction of public policy in the field of digital technologies (…) whose main objective is to formulate planning instruments in Electronic Government, maintaining an updated information bank on the subject, as well as monitoring the progress made, to guide the orderly and articulated development of policies in this field” (PROSIC, 2016). The PNDT was envisioned to address various aspects of improving and including the population in the digital realm. However, it was later deemed a plan with limited ambition and instead closed opportunities for institutional integration. Its validity might help with compliance levels, but political factors could lead to its reformulation or abandonment in the coming years. In the evaluation of the PNDT conducted in 2021, several programs were found to be unfulfilled, including: (a) the computerization of procedures program, (b) the connected public spaces program, (c) the connected household’s program, and (d) the connected communities program. The main reason for non-compliance was related to funding for the proposed goals. Another initiative from the MICITT was the creation of the Community Smart Centers Program (CECI) in 2005. The CECIs aimed to support reducing the digital divide by generating science and technology capacities in the general population, with an emphasis on vulnerable populations. For the optimal development of these centers, MICITT must provide the necessary technological equipment and specialized staff to offer courses and training to the participating population. However, after 2015, there was a decrease in the number of centers due to sustainability issues. One of the main reasons for the decrease was the sustainability of the laboratories. Additionally, since 2012, Costa Rica has been part of the Open Government Alliance (OGA), which requires the development of a biennial plan to promote transparency and openness in the government. However, the achievements of the implemented plans have been partial and not ambitious enough according to the proposed objectives. In 2020, the National Policy Plan for Gender Equality in Education, Employment, and Enjoyment of Science, Technology, and Innovation was created. This plan aims to achieve gender equity in labor and educational processes, as the name suggests. As a result of the experiences faced during the pandemic and the limitations for the development of various productive and public service activities, in 2022, MICITT presented the National Plan for Science, Technology, and Innovation (2022–2027). The plan focuses on strategic areas such as human talent, knowledge generation, and transformative innovation. In general terms, the plan aims to strengthen STEAM
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skills, increase the number of STEM graduates, and promote optimal conditions for knowledge generation, among other goals.
7.2.3 Infrastructures The general data traffic per user in 2020 tended to be 3 times lower in low and middle-income countries compared to high-income countries (GSMA, 2021). By 2018, one-third of the world’s population connected to the Internet through mobile devices, and today, it is estimated that this number represents more than half of the global connections. By the end of 2020, 51% of the world’s population was using the Internet through mobile devices, representing an increase of 225 million compared to 2019 (GSMA, 2021). Broadband network coverage in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) has increased in the region, with “broadband coverage networks reaching an average of 92% of the population in the countries of the region” (García et al., 2020, p. 1). Nokia estimated that the minimum speed required to perform activities related to teleworking, studying, and gaming without interruptions should be 50 Mbps of download speed. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) examined the average speed of the countries in LAC and compared it to Nokia’s suggested technical requirement. The analysis revealed that only Panama in Central America has sufficient broadband speed to support multiple users performing various tasks in a single household. Additionally, it is noteworthy that none of the countries in the region have a mobile broadband speed close to 50 Mbps. According to researchers from the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the speeds observed in many countries are not sufficient to support intensive broadband tasks (such as videoconferencing and streaming) simultaneously for multiple household members (Zaballos et al., 2020). Regarding the affordability of Internet services, the Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development decided in 2018 that by 2025, “basic level broadband services should be made affordable for developing countries, with costs corresponding to less than 2% of per capita GDP” (García et al., 2020, p. 6). Based on these standards, only Costa Rica and Brazil achieved this objective, as access to broadband services is very expensive in most countries in the region. The percentage of Internet users in Costa Rica was 74.09% of the Internet user population in 2018. El Salvador and Nicaragua were the two countries with the most delayed connectivity in terms of the population. The World Economic Forum developed the Network Readiness Index (NRI) over several years. Currently, the NRI is in the hands of researchers who started the project independently from the World Economic Forum in 2000. The NRI is constructed based on four pillars: technology, people, governance, and impact. The NRI’s lower table shows that Costa Rica ranks 3rd in Latin America and 54th globally. Regarding the country’s position in the sub-indexes, it ranks 54th in technology, 60th in people,
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and 62nd in governance. Its highest position is in the impact sub-index, where the country reaches 46th place. In Costa Rica, there has been an increase in the number of disconnected households, going from 218 thousand in 2019 to 244 thousand in accordance with Dutta and Lanvin (2020). It is of great importance to understand the reasons why these 244 thousand households throughout the national territory do not have access to the Internet. Understanding why a household is disconnected is vital as it can lead to the development of necessary public policies to reduce the digital access gap. A study shows that more than half of the disconnected households do so due to apparent low levels of digital literacy: 17.8% claim not to know how to use the Internet, which is a clear admission of digital illiteracy. In comparison, 39.2% state that they do not need Internet access. Although it cannot be guaranteed that in households that say they “do not need” the Internet, there are underlying literacy problems, it is highly likely that this is one of the main elements in the decision of “not needing” the Internet. These two values together account for 57% of the total disconnected households. In other words, of the total disconnected households, 139 thousand are due to reasons related to digital literacy issues; connecting this type of household can be achieved through education, either formal education, which, as elaborated later in the chapter, has a significant impact on the likelihood of household technology access, or through specific courses focused on digital literacy itself (García-Retamero & Cokely, 2017). According to Montenegro (2021), the digital divide conditioned by the level of education is significant. While only 4.8% of households with incomplete primary education have a computer, this percentage is 93.6% for households with higher postgraduate education. Significant gaps are also observed in other types of devices. In the case of the comparison between higher education and primary education, both computer ownership and mobile phone usage remain relatively constant, and in Internet access, although there are some reductions, there was also an increase in the gap for 2020 compared to the previous year. A similar situation occurs in the comparison with households with completed secondary education; in this case, gaps increased in 2020 both in computer ownership and Internet connection.
7.2.4 Digital Competence Neither Costa Rica nor any of the countries in Latin America reached the OECD average (60%) in terms of the percentage of the population with basic and advanced ICT skills. It is possible that the lack of capabilities for Internet and ICT use may have been aggravated by the “effects of Covid-19 in the region by hindering the digitalization of various activities” (García-Martínez et al., 2020).
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The Digital Literacy National Program Bill aims to create a Program through which infrastructure and equipment projects are generated to contribute to “guaranteeing access to technological tools for the educational community to create capacities in the use and development of new technologies” (Department of Studies, References and Technical Services, [DEST], 2020, p.3), either MEP or MICITT. MEP emphasizes the importance of digital literacy. It therefore implements “a program with national coverage aimed at the permanence in the educational system of the most vulnerable groups” (Programa Nacional para la Alfabetización Nacional, 2020, p. 2), based on a comprehensive approach to the digital divide that considers “access devices and connectivity, complementing with digital literacy processes at different levels of ICT” (Programa Nacional para la Alfabetización Nacional, 2020, p. 5). The two main measures of digital training in Central America have been developing and presenting digital content through web pages, portals, and analog and digital resources, and second, providing classes through television, press, or radio (IDB, 2020). During the pandemic, various measures were taken: – The most common measure was to provide students with digital content (such as virtual games available on the Internet or downloadable that corresponded to educational material). – The second most used action was the use of the oldest communication channels around the world, also called first-generation channels, such as television and radio. This helped reach populations not connected to the Internet but with access to these technologies. – The third most used measure in the study was the printing of materials, so that they could be distributed through educational centers, to improve access for populations without Internet, electronic devices, television, or radio so that they could continue their education even when educational institution closures were inevitable. However, the migration to online education has faced many barriers to ensuring all students’ continuity of the educational cycle. In Central America, 33% of students have access to schools with the Internet, well below what is reported by OECD nations with 68% access (IDB, 2020). Surveys conducted in 19 Latin American states showed that only 22% of students have Internet at home and 19% have computers, making it difficult to guarantee education for all students and indicating the existence of a significant digital divide in the region (IDB, 2020). This situation indicates that Costa Rican households have access to the Internet above most Latin American nations, but there are still challenges to sustain educational processes in the context of the pandemic, particularly in terms of the digital divide, where not all households have equal access to technology. Approximately 324,000 students did not have connectivity in the new virtual education modality. Additionally, 33% of educational regions did not reach 50% internet access (Sutel, 2022).
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The connectivity efforts of the Centers for Public Service Provision (CPSP) carried out as part of the Program, show that by 2020, the number of connected CPSPs increased by 45% compared to 2019. This “meant 450 additional CPSPs with connectivity, reaching a total of 144,612 CPSPs with fixed telephone and Internet services” (Sutel, 2022, p. 25). Notably, most of the CPSPs (93%) correspond to educational centers of the MEP. The Equipped Public Centers Program constitutes an initiative that seeks to contribute to reducing the access gap to telecommunications services through the provision of these services (broadband connection) and equipment (laptops and tablets) to the Centers for Public Service Provision, most of which correspond to educational centers of the MEP, the Intelligent Community Centers (CECI), Education and Nutrition Centers, and Integral Child Care Centers (CEN-CINAI), as well as health centers and clinics of the Costa Rican Social Security Fund (CCSS). Schools and colleges of the MEP have been the instances that have received the most devices (about 72%) (Sutel, 2022).
7.3 Method A comprehensive examination of the existing literature on educational practices aimed at diminishing the digital divide and fostering digital inclusion in Costa Rica was undertaken through a systematic review. The adoption of this methodology was deliberate, as systematic reviews are known to promote transparency and methodological rigor, facilitating the identification of emerging trends and avenues for future research (García-Parra & Pérez Sepulcre, 2021). The review followed the prescribed steps outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher et al., 2009), as well as the updated protocol proposed by López-Belmonte et al. (2023). These steps encompassed the establishment of pertinent inclusion and exclusion criteria, the formulation of a systematic search strategy, the screening and evaluation of potential studies, and the analysis and synthesis of the findings. To ensure a comprehensive review, the WoS, Scopus, and Dialnet databases were selected as primary sources, as they house publications of significant impact and scientific relevance (López-Belmonte et al., 2023). Furthermore, the examination of official documents from the Costa Rica was incorporated into the literature review.
7.3.1 Procedure The initial steps of the research involved identifying the study’s source, search strategy, and objective. The research was initiated in March 2023, intending to encompass literature published between 2000 and 2022. Firstly, specific research questions were formulated to guide this review, followed by the establishment of inclusion and
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exclusion criteria for both articles and official documents. Subsequently, a relevant search strategy and equation were selected to address the research questions effectively. In this context, the search equation utilized ERIC descriptors to identify their corresponding equivalents, which will be further elaborated upon in the strategy. This study examines documents with the following search relationship: (a) Digital Inclusion and Costa Rica; (b) Digital Competence and Costa Rica; (c) Digital divide and Costa Rica.
7.3.1.1
Research Questions
Considering the inclusion and exclusion projects in the country, the authors identify the prominent strategies for reducing digital divides and addressing the following questions: o What are the specificities of digital divide in Costa Rica? o What are the most successful forms of digital inclusion in Costa Rica in the last two decades? o How has digital competence developed in Costa Rica? 7.3.1.2
Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion Criteria • Period: 2000 to 2022. • Language: English and Spanish. • Types of included documents: Articles, book chapters, official reports, and documents. • Research areas: In Scopus, the subareas were Social Sciences and Multidisciplinary, while in Web of Science (WOS) and Dialnet, the research areas were Educational Research, Science Technology Other Topics, Sociology, and Web Page: Education and ICT. • Articles and documents with digital inclusion strategies in education in Costa Rica. • Articles and documents with specificities of digital inclusion and exclusion in Costa Rica. Exclusion Criteria: • • • •
Studies published before 2000. Studies describing projects outside the educational context. Limited description of the project or projects carried out outside Costa Rica. News and press releases.
7 Digital Transformation Training and Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica Table 7.1 ERIC descriptors
ERIC descriptor
Spanish term
Educational technology
Tecnología educativa
Inclusion
Inclusión
Digital competence
Competencia Digital
Technology integration
Integración Tecnológica
Equal education
Igualdad de Educación
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Fig. 7.1 Internet speed. Note García et al. (2020)
7.3.1.3
Search Strategy
The databases identified were Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), and Dialnet, and the main websites of educational issues in Costa Rica. The last search date was April 15, 2023. The ERIC search engine was used to identify descriptors. Table 7.1 shows the relationship between the terms and descriptors. Subsequently, the titles and abstracts of the identified articles were meticulously examined, facilitating the elimination of duplicate articles and the categorization of articles according to the predefined inclusion criteria. In the next step, the articles were carefully evaluated based on the exclusion criterion, focusing on their relevance to the study objectives. Figure 7.1 illustrates the flowchart, adapted from Urrútia and Bonfill (2010), outlining the evaluation process during this phase.
7.4 Results and Discussion The results are presented to answer the questions: “What are the specificities of digital divide in Costa Rica?” “How has digital competence developed in Costa Rica?” and “What are the most successful forms of digital inclusion in the last two decades in Costa Rica?”.
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Fig. 7.2 NRI clasification. Note Dutta and Lanvin (2020)
7.4.1 Bibliometric Analysis The first phase of the analysis consists of dividing bibliometric variables that allow mapping the context of the selected articles. Table 7.2 presents the bibliometric variables of the articles included in the synthesis.
7.5 Digital Divide in Costa Rica and Its Specificities Dynamics of the information society in Costa Rica are experiencing significant changes driven by technological advancement and digitization in various areas. These changes have been the result of government and institutional efforts to promote digital inclusion and close the technological gap in the country. One of the main changes in the information society in Costa Rica is the increased adoption of digital technologies in citizens’ daily lives. Connectivity has become more accessible, and digital devices such as smartphones and computers are increasingly present in households, work, and academic life (Pick et al., 2021). This transformation has facilitated access to information, e-commerce, online education, and access to public services online. Additionally, the digitization of government services and procedures has improved the efficiency and transparency of institutions. The availability of online public services has streamlined procedures and reduced the need for physical travel, benefiting both citizens and the public administration. Although significant progress has been made, the contrast between the data obtained in the review and what should be according to the policy lines and regulations of the institutions shows that there are still challenges to face. Despite efforts to promote digital inclusion, inequalities in
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Identification of studies via databases and registers
Identification
Records identified from: Databases and other sources (n=162)
Records after removing duplicates (n =115)
Reports not retrieved
(n = 100)
(n = 42)
Screening
Reports screening
Reports assessed for eligibility. (n = 58) Reports excluded (n= 34)
Included
Studies included in review: Total (n = 24)
Fig. 7.3 Prisma flow diagram
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Table 7.2 Research Site
Authors
Year
Type of investigation
Dialnet
Castro Obando, V
2022
Article
Dialnet
Agustín Lacruz, M.C., and Clavero Galofre, M
2009
Article
Official site
PROSIC
2019
Report
Official site
SUTEL
2022
Report
Official site
PROSIC
2016
Report
Official site
PROSIC
2021
Report
News paper
La Republica
2019
Report
Blog
BID
2020
Report
Official site
MEP
2020
Report
Official site
RIATE
2008
Report
Official site
PROSIC
2017
Report
Dialnet
Chanto Espinoza, C.L. and Loaiciga Gutierrez, J.L
2020
Article
Official site
Academia de Centroamérica
2022
Report
Dialnet
Quesada Madriz, O
2021
Article
Official site
MICITT
2017
Report
Scopus
Castellón Zelaya, L.A
2020
Article
Dialnet
Chanto Espinoza, C.L. and Loaiciga Gutierrez, J.L.
2022
Article
WOS
Valverde-Hernández, M. E., & Paniagua-Esquivel, C
2021
Article
Official site
MICITT
2020
Report
WOS
García-Martínez, J.-A., Fuentes-Abeledo, E.-J., & Rodríguez-Machado, E.-R
2021
Article
Scopus
López, M. A., & Vargas, J. A
2018
Article
WOS
Ramírez, L. M., & Fernández, S
2017
Article
Scopus
Quesada, F., & Rodríguez, C
2020
Article
Scopus
Rodríguez, E. F., & Solano, J. M
2022
Article
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access to and use of digital technologies persist in different sectors of the population, revealing significant disparities in access to and use of ICT in different segments of the population. The specificities of this digital divide were identified based on several factors according with Pick et al. (2021): • Access to technological infrastructure: Although Costa Rica has made considerable progress in expanding telecommunications infrastructure, there is still inequality in internet access in rural areas and marginalized communities. Connectivity and network quality remain challenges for these regions, limiting access to digital opportunities and participation in the knowledge economy. • Digital literacy: The lack of digital skills and competencies is another specificity of the digital divide in Costa Rica. Some sectors of the population face difficulties in understanding and efficiently using digital technologies, limiting their ability to take advantage of available resources and services online. • Availability of devices: Although the penetration of digital devices such as smartphones and computers has increased in recent years, there are still households without access to these devices. This represents a barrier to access information and participate in online activities. • Education and digital training: The lack of incorporation of digital skills in the education system is another aspect that contributes to the digital divide in Costa Rica. The inclusion of digital skills in formal education is essential to prepare students for the digital world and promote a digitally competent society.
7.6 Development of Digital Competence in Costa Rica The effective development of digital skills in Costa Rica has become a priority in the quest to close the digital divide and promote comprehensive digital inclusion. Therefore, despite having implemented training programs for teachers and promoting technology integration in classrooms, there is still a need for a greater focus on developing digital skills from an early age (UNESCO, 2019). It is necessary to establish an educational curriculum that more comprehensively considers the development of digital skills in students, preparing them to face the challenges of the digital world. Some ways that would foster better development of digital skills include: • Integration of technology in education: Incorporating technology in the teaching– learning process has proven to be an effective strategy for developing digital skills in students. The use of digital tools and resources in classrooms allows for improved learning and promotes responsible use of technology from an early age. • Training programs for teachers: Training and updating teachers in digital skills are essential to promote the effective development of these skills in students. Continuous training programs and digital teaching resources help teachers integrate technology into their educational practices efficiently.
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• Access to digital educational resources: Ensuring access to quality digital educational resources is essential for the development of digital skills at all educational levels. The availability of online educational materials and digital learning platforms expands learning opportunities for students (MEP,2020).
7.7 Digital Inclusion in Costa Rica Costa Rica has implemented various successful strategies to promote digital inclusion in different areas over the last two decades (UNESCO, 2019). Some prominent forms of digital inclusion that have been carried out are: • Connectivity programs in rural areas: The Costa Rican government has promoted programs to improve connectivity in rural areas and marginalized communities. Installing internet access points and expanding telecommunications infrastructure have brought technology closer to previously underserved regions. • Digital inclusion in education: Technology integration in schools and teachers’ training in digital skills have allowed students to access online learning opportunities and develop digital skills relevant to their future. • Access to online public services: The digitization of public services has improved accessibility and efficiency in government procedures and management. The possibility of conducting procedures online has facilitated the lives of citizens and reduced the gap between urban and rural sectors (MEP, 2020).
7.8 Conclusion Costa Rica has made remarkable strides in advancing digital inclusion, yet it still faces substantial challenges related to digital exclusion and the digital divide. On the positive side, the country has witnessed increased internet penetration and mobile device utilization among its population, resulting in more individuals accessing online services and resources. Additionally, the Costa Rican government has implemented various programs and public policies to promote digital literacy and foster the inclusion of vulnerable groups. However, despite these efforts, significant challenges persist concerning digital exclusion in Costa Rica. Certain rural and remote areas of the country still lack access to basic services such as electricity and connectivity, hindering their ability to participate fully in the digital landscape. Moreover, the absence of adequate training and financial resources presents significant barriers to digital inclusion for certain segments of the population. Furthermore, the digital divide remains a critical issue for Costa Rica. While the country has achieved progress in internet penetration and technology adoption among its citizens, substantial disparities persist in terms of access and technology usage between urban and rural regions, as well as among different socioeconomic
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strata. This indicates that achieving equity and ensuring widespread access to digital opportunities is an ongoing endeavor for Costa Rica. In conclusion, Costa Rica’s efforts in digital inclusion have been commendable, but much work must be done to address digital exclusion and bridge the digital divide. By implementing targeted initiatives, fostering digital literacy, and improving accessibility to technology, Costa Rica can continue its journey towards a more inclusive and equitable digital society.
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Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. In BMJ (Online), 339(7716), 332–336. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2535. Pick, J. B., Sarkar, A., & Parrish, E. (2021). The Latin American and Caribbean digital divide: A geospatial and multivariate analysis. Information Technology for Development, 27, 235–262. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Latin-American-and-Caribbean-digitaldivide%3A-a-Pick-Sarkar/e9f93a86e7db2a08b2cbed2f1a0793e23b5a1aa1. Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica. (2016). Agenda Digital 2020. Retrieved from https:// presidencia.go.cr/2016/02/adoptan-agenda-digital-2020/. Presidencia de la República de Costa Rica. (2021). Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2019–2022. Retrieved from https://www.presidencia.go.cr/. Programa Nacional para la Alfabetización Nacional. (2020). Expediente 22206. Retrieved from https://delfino.cr/asamblea/proyecto/22206. Prosic-Santovac, D. (2017). Popular video cartoons and associated branded toys in teaching English to very young learners: A case study. Language Teaching Research, 21(5), 568–588. https://doi. org/10.1177/1362168816639758 Sánchez, A., & Camacho, K. (2012). Public Access ICT in Costa Rica. In R. Gomez (Ed.), Libraries, Telecentres, Cybercafes and Public Access to ICT: International Comparisons (pp. 150–168). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60960-771-5.ch013. Sutel. (2022). Estadística en el sector telecomunicaciones en Costa Rica. Retrieved from https:// www.sutel.go.cr/informes-indicadores?page=1. Tomczyk, Łukasz, Mascia, M. L., Gierszewski, D., & Walker, C. (2023). Barriers to digital inclusion among older people: a intergenerational reflection on the need to develop digital competences for the group with the highest level of digital exclusion. Innoeduca. International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 9(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca.2023. v9i1.16433. UNESCO. (2019). Digital Skills for a Connected World. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2020). Digital Inclusion and the Role of Connectivity in Latin America and the Caribbean. Retrieved from https://www.latinamerica. undp.org/. Urrútia, G., & Bonfill, X. (2010). PRISMA declaration: A proposal to improve the publication of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Medicina Clinica, 135(11), 507–511. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.medcli.2010.01.015. World Bank. (2022). Digital Dividends in Costa Rica: Leveraging the Digital Transformation for Development. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/. Zaballos, A., Iglesias, E., Cave, M., Elbittar, A., Guerrero, R., Mariscal, E., & Webb, W. (2020). El impacto de la infraestructura digital en las consecuencias de la COVID-19 y la mitigación de efectos futuros. Retrieved from https://publications.iadb.org/publications/spanish/ document/El-impacto-dela-infraestructura-digital-en-las-consecuenciasde-la-COVID-19-y-enla-mitigacion-de-efectosfuturos.pdf.
Chapter 8
Digital Divide and Digital Inclusion in Cuba: A Systematic Review Inmaculada Martínez-García , Enrique Alastor , Elena Sánchez-Vega , and Juan Jesús Mondéjar-Rodríguez
Abstract Cuba’s economic and political characteristics may be a contributing factor to a digital divide regarding the access to ICT and digital exclusion in certain social sectors. However, in recent years, efforts have been made to implement policies and initiatives to promote the digital inclusion of citizens in different areas. Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to carry out a systematic review of the current state of the literature on the digital divide in Cuba and to identify the initiatives carried out that contribute to the digital inclusion of the population. To this end, the PRISMA methodology (Moher et al. in PLoS Med 6, 2009) for systematic reviews has been used and the procedure followed has been represented in the flow chart. For the review, publications from the last 20 years were selected with a population of N = 907 investigations and a sample of N = 23 articles after the screening process. The results show the state of the literature on the digital divide and digital exclusion in the country, the digital literacy initiatives carried out and the existing interventions to provide digital skills training at different educational stages. Finally, the implications of the pandemic on the use of ICT are analysed. We have also included a list of suggestions for future research and actions to address this divide and have stated the needs that were identified in the literature on the subject. Keywords Digital divide · Digital inclusion · Digital literacy · Digital skills · Systematic review
I. Martínez-García · E. Alastor (B) University of Málaga (UMA), Málaga, Spain e-mail: [email protected] I. Martínez-García e-mail: [email protected] E. Sánchez-Vega International University of Valencia (VIU), Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J. J. Mondéjar-Rodríguez Universidad de Matanzas, Matanzas, Cuba e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_8
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8.1 Introduction Over the last decades, information and communication technology (ICT) has become an essential axis of the global economy and information. ICT is forever gaining an importance, transforming the way we live, work, learn and communicate. Access to ICT is a key factor for social and economic inclusion, hence the importance of continued development and enhancement of ICT to benefit society as a whole. The inequality of access, use and ability to take advantage of ICT’s possibilities between countries and, within countries, between social groups, is known as the digital divide (Red Cross, 2021; Pérez Porto & Merino, 2016). This term includes the lack of access to technological devices or high-speed internet services and the skills and knowledge needed to use them effectively. It gained importance with the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced part of the population into remote working and online education. Fernández Río et al. (2022) highlight the access division but describe two other divides that have hindered online education in the pandemic: the cognitive division, which refers to the lack of training (of teachers, students and families) and the school division, focusing on the scarcity of existing resources at the time and the lack of experience inherent in online education. In general, the digital divide can create inequality in terms of access to information, education and employment opportunities, as well as having a negative impact on a country’s economy and its ability to compete internationally (Soto Varela et al., 2020).
8.2 Theoretical Framework In Cuba, the digital divide is a major problem, as evidenced by the fact that, in terms of telecommunications infrastructure, Cuba ranks 125th out of 166 countries in the world (Internet Access in Cuba, n.d.). According to DPL News (2021), only 3.7% of the population has Internet access at home, a figure that is even worse in rural areas, where the percentage drops to 0.9% (UNICEF, 2020). Although the lack of Internet access in rural areas is not unique to Cuba (Sastre Reyes, 2019), this country shows up remarkable differences. Internet access in Cuba is limited by a number of factors such as lack of infrastructure, insufficient resources, lack of freedom of expression and, last but not least, government censorship. Another restraining factor for many Cubans is the high price of internet services, as one hour of connection can cost a quarter of an average monthly salary (Internet Access in Cuba, n.d.). The measures that the Cuban government has implemented to bridge the digital divide include the following: • Enabling internet access through mobile devices in December 2018 (Blasco, 2021).
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• Implementation of the National Digital Literacy Plan (PNAD), which aims to train the Cuban population in digital skills and competences. • Implementation of programmes to introduce ICT in the Cuban education system, including the teacher training in the use of ICT for teaching purposes. These initiatives are in contrast to government censorship of social networks (WhatsApp, Skype, YouTube and TikTok) along with international press and independent journalism websites, which forces the Cuban population to use virtual private networks (VPNs) to avoid such restrictions (Doramas Sánchez, 2023). With relatively low internet penetration compared to other countries in the region, in Cuba during the COVID-19 pandemic, the digital divide became an even more pressing issue and a factor of inequality in people’s ability to work and study from home, access critical information about the pandemic, and stay connected to friends and family. As a result, we find in Cuba digital exclusion (lack of access or skills to use ICT), a high rate of digital illiteracy (despite being a highly educated country) and difficulties in accessing online information and services, including educational and employment opportunities. This affects the Cuban population’s ability to make informed decisions and fully participate in society. It may also limit access to economic opportunities, as businesses and entrepreneurs may find it difficult to use e-commerce to reach new customers. In this Cuban context that we have outlined, the concept of the digital divide has gained relevance in recent decades. This much is evident, as well as its repercussions on the social fabric of the country in general and in the population in particular. The political and economic idiosyncrasies of the country have a significant influence on this digital divide and on the digital exclusion suffered by part of the population. However, new proposals at governmental, social and educational institution levels are increasingly promoting the digital inclusion of the Cuban population. For all these reasons, there is a need to study the process of change that has been taking place in the Cuban context in recent decades, as well as to investigate the research and publications on this topic. These aspects justify the development of this research. Specifically, this review aims to answer the following research questions: What are the particularities of digital exclusion in Cuba? And what are the most successful forms of digital inclusion carried out in the last two decades?
8.3 Aims Therefore, given this situation and considering the characteristics of the context, we intend to conduct a systematic review of the current state of the literature on the digital divide and digital exclusion in Cuba, as well as to identify the initiatives and programmes undertaken that contribute to the inclusion and digital literacy of the population.
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The specific objectives are the following: 1. To understand the current status of the digital divide and digital exclusion in Cuba and to identify digital inclusion projects carried out to alleviate them. 2. To analyse the digital literacy programmes or initiatives promoted in the country. 3. Identify the interventions undertaken to favour the development of digital competences in the different educational stages. 4. Examine forms of intervention that contemplate the use of ICT during the pandemic.
8.4 Methodology In this study, to carry out the literature review, the PRISMA methodology for systematic reviews (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Metanalyses) (Moher et al., 2009) was used. A systematic review represents a research methodology following a pre-established design to gather information on a specific topic (Aguilera-Eguía, 2014) taking into account the publications on the subject. The PRISMA methodology is characterised as one of the best options for this type of study because of the objectivity and scientific rigour carried out throughout the selection process of the documents that make up the sample. In this methodology, the selection process of the final sample is composed of four phases: identification, screening, eligibility and inclusion (Moher et al., 2009). These are the phases followed in this study which are represented in the flow chart of the methodology (Liberati et al., 2009) as shown in Fig. 8.1.
8.4.1 Procedure The Scopus, Web of Science and Proquest databases were used to search for articles. These were chosen for their scientific rigour, as they record research from peer-reviewed and indexed journals, as well as book chapters and published communications from publishers with a high level of impact. Next, and considering the study purposes, the search descriptors were selected, taking into account that the concepts were included in the ERIC and UNESCO Thesauri. As the country where the review was conducted was predominantly Spanish-speaking, the descriptors used were in Spanish and English language as they appeared in the aforementioned thesauri. The descriptors used were the following: “Digital competence”, “Digital literacy”, “Computer literacy”, “Digital skills”, “ICT competences”, “ICT”, “Internet”, “information technology”, “Educational technology”, “Digital divide”, “Access to information”, “Access to computers”, “Social exclusion”, “Digital inclusion”, “Alfabetización digital”, “Competencia digital”, “Competencias TIC”, “TIC”, “Brecha digital” and “Digitalización”. In order to perform a more exhaustive search, since the aim is to know the reality of a specific
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country, each of the terms was combined with the word “Cuba*” using the Boolean operator “AND”. The search terms were used for articles, book chapters and conference papers that had the same title, keywords and abstract. The time frame established for the search encompasses those publications from the year 2000 to the year 2023. Following the phases of the procedure established by the PRISMA methodology detailed in Fig. 8.1, once the search for terms had been carried out in the different databases, duplicate documents were eliminated, with a total population of N = 907 articles, chapters or communications. These are the ones that would be analysed in the so-called screening phase. To do this, bearing in mind the nature of the study and its objectives, the inclusion criteria were established to determine the research that would be selected in the process to form part of the final sample. These are the following: (a) publications in the years 2000–2023, (b) type of source: articles, book chapters and full papers, (c) publications in English and Spanish, (d) studies or experiences developed only in the Cuban context (as this is an in-depth study on that context only). In this case, the article selection process, known as eligibility, is carried out in three phases. Firstly, those documents that meet the inclusion criteria based on the title (N = 286) are selected. Secondly, those that meet the criteria are chosen after reading the abstract, resulting in a total of N = 162 selected documents. Finally, the full texts of this group were reviewed, applying the criteria, resulting in a final sample of 24 documents that make up the literature review and are analysed in the results section. In order to reach this final sample, in addition to the inclusion criteria, exclusion criteria were applied to justify the fact that some of the articles were not chosen for inclusion. These are shown in Fig. 8.1. Finally, the selected articles are classified into four categories according to the subject matter they address.
8.4.2 Sample In this literature review process, having conducted a search of different databases, a population of 907 articles, book chapters and presentations made at conferences was used. Finally, after carrying out the screening phases detailed above, the sample is made up of 24 research studies, which are classified into five themes, taking into account the aim of the study. These documents meet the inclusion criteria established in the first phase.
8.5 Results This section presents the findings from the review process. Table 8.1 lists the selected documents and provides further details on the authors and year of publication, objectives, research design and sample. The outcome of different research studies and their analysis is presented in each of the sub-sections in line with the research objectives.
Identification
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I. Martínez-García et al. Literature search Records identified through database searching: Scopus (N= 326), Web of Science (N= 444) y ProQuest (N= 284) Keywords: “Digital competence”, “Digital literacy”, “Computer literacy”, “Digital skills”, “ICT competences”, “ICT”, “Internet”, “information technology”, “Educational technology”, “Digital divide”, “Access to information”, “Access to computers”, “Social exclusion”, “Digital inclusion”, “Digital literacy”, “Digital competence”, “ICT skills”, “ICT”, “Digital divide” and “Digitalisation”. Inclusion criteria: a) publicaciones entre 2000-2023 b) artículos, capítulos de libro y comunicaciones c) publicaciones inglés y español, d) desarrolladas en Cuba.
Screening
Records after duplicates removed (N= 907) Records screened based on the title (N=907)
Records excluded (N=621)
Records screened based on the abstract (N=286)
Records excluded (N= 124)
Elegibility
Full-text articles assessed for eligibility (N=162)
Full-text articles excluded, with reasons (N=139): Topic excluded: o Articles about bullying, cyberbullying or cybersecurity not related to digital divide. o Internet in general, not related to digital divide or exclusion. o Use and assessment of specific ICT tools. o Adolescents and mental health in the use of ICT. o Social inclusion and social exclusion not related to digital divide. Sample: o Studies with samples from other countries. o Studies about specific groups (ex. refugees). Methodology: o Comparative studies. o Questionnaire validation. o Case studies. o Systematic reviews that do not address the digital divide.
Included
Studies included in the systematic review (N=23) by topic/aim:
1. Digital divide; digital exclusión and digital inclusion (N=6)
2. Digital literacy programs (N=6)
3. Trainning in digital skills (N=7)
Fig. 8.1 PRISMA flow diagram (Based on Liberati et al., 2009)
4. ICT & COVID19 (N=4)
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Table 8.1 Characteristics of the studies included in the systematic review (N = 23) Authors and years 1. Digital Álvarez et al. divide; (2015) digital exclusion and digital inclusion Cruz Capote (2022)
Aim
Study design
Sample
To address the development of public policies linked to digital inclusion in Latin America and Cuba
Literature review
N=9 documents
To identify the digital divisions generated through access to and use of ICTs among young people in Havana
• Mixed methodology • Semi-structured interviews • Questionnaire
• N=8 interviews • N = 175 questionaries
• Interpretative paradigm • Qualitative methodology • Case studies
Not applicable
López León and To analyse how the Saladrijas use of ICTs can Medina (2016) strengthen associative and community processes and enhance socialisation in historically excluded groups Polson (2019)
To explore and Presentation of an analyse the action initiative repercussions of the rise of public Wi-Fi and devices in Cuba
Not applicable
Quindemil Torrijo (2008)
Analyse the • Descriptive study implementation of • Documentary information policies analysis and their impact on information literacy in Cuba
The number of documents analysed is not detailed
Van Deursen and Andrade (2018)
To study the first • Qualitative and second levels of methodology the digital divide in • Questionary Cuba taking into account the use of the Internet
N = 106 participants (6 months experience)
(continued)
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Table 8.1 (continued) Authors and years 2. Digital Avello and literacy López (2015) programmes
Aim
Study design
To elaborate a • Qualitative framework of ICT methodology • Documentary competences for analysis teachers in Cuban hotel and tourism • Focus groups schools based on the study of the current situation
Sample • N=9 documents (documentary analysis) • N=6 professors (discussion groups)
Avello Martínez To describe the Training initiative et al. (2014) Cuban experience in the Master’s Degree in New Technologies for Education and its contribution to the training and improvement of professional competences related to the use of ICT in educational institutions
Not applicable
Fernández Sánchez and Ascón Pérez (2021)
Not applicable
Develop a training proposal on computer security based on the use of B-Learning to train teachers
Training initiative
Fuentes-Cancell To evaluate the et al. (2022) effectiveness of a MOOC course in the development of digital teaching skills of higher education teachers associated with the use of digital social networks for educational purposes
• QuasiN = 30 experimental study university (pre-test and professors post-test) • Quantitative methodology • Questionnaire designed ad hoc
Olazábal Revilla (2019)
Training initiative
Contribute to the training of law teachers in Cuba in the field of ICTs to improve their teaching performance
Not applicable
(continued)
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Table 8.1 (continued)
3. Training in digital skills
Authors and years
Aim
Study design
Tarango and Machado Rodríguez (2012)
Diagnosis of needs and proposal of an ICT information literacy programme for professionals in the health sector
• Quantitative N = 40 health methodology professionals • Detection of needs and proposal • Survey
Azel Jimenez et al. (2019)
To demonstrate the importance of ICT for the teaching–learning process in the subject History of Cuba
• Descriptive study • Quantitative methodology • Survey
Carvajal Describe the • Qualitative Hernández et al. operationalisation of methodology (2020) the ability to retrieve • Documentary analysis digital information in the third cycle of • Unstructured interview Primary Education and the criteria for its evaluation
Sample
Teachers belonging to the subject History of Cuba (sample not specified)
• Third-grade primary school curriculum (documentary analysis) • Key informants (interviews) (sample not specified)
Gual (2021)
To make use of ICT • Mixed • N=7 as a didactic strategy methodology students • Observation, • N=4 to improve the documentary teachers teaching–learning analysis and survey process in the subject of agrarian law
Estrada-Molina et al. (2022)
To evaluate the effect of the e-learning course Technologies and e-learning Methods on the digital competences of the participants
Moya Torres and Almeida Granela (2012)
To use ICT in the Educational teaching of a foreign innovation initiative language using the portfolio
• Mixed methodology • Quasiexperimental study
43 students (N = 21 control group. N = 22 experimental group)
Cuban-Belgium language courses (continued)
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Table 8.1 (continued)
4. ICT & COVID19
Authors and years
Aim
Study design
Sample
Ramírez et al. (2011)
To evaluate the • Descriptive study development of the • Quantitative Animal Health methodology Management course in a distance learning modality using the Moodle platform
N = 21 (teachers and students)
Suárez Navarro et al. (2021)
To study the transformations carried out in the chemistry course after introducing distance learning through the EVEA platform
• Descriptive study • Mixed methodology
39 students and 4 teachers
Cala Calviño et al. (2022)
To describe the use of WhatsApp as a tool for the development of teaching activities belonging to the Pharmacology subject in the Stomatology degree course during COVID-19
Educational innovation initiative
N = 32 students
Estrada-Molina et al. (2021)
Determine whether the redesign of the virtual course Introduction to the Evaluation of the Usability of Computer Systems Evaluation leads to higher levels of engagement in the confinement for the Covid-19 pandemic
• Quasiexperimental study • Questionnaire
N = 93 students attending the course
(continued)
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Table 8.1 (continued) Authors and years
Aim
Rodríguez Delís To explore the and Ruiz Ortiz limitations of the (2021) implementation of the distance education model of Cuban higher education in times of COVID-19 Verdecia et al. (2022)
Study design
Sample
• Qualitative methodology • Documentary analysis
N = 21 Reports from higher education institutions
Describe and • Mixed evaluate the distance methodology • Questionnaire and learning initiatives structured that were interviews implemented to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 in a Cuban university
N = 8312 students
Generally speaking, and referring to the characteristics of the studies that make up the sample, as shown in Table 8.1, the studies are classified into five categories that refer to each of the objectives. Thus, firstly, we have articles relating to digital divide, digital exclusion and digital inclusion (N = 6); secondly, those presenting digital literacy programmes (N = 6), examples of proposals for training in digital skills at different educational stages (N = 7) and, finally, those studies referring to proposals or initiatives carried out with ICT derived from the pandemic situation (N = 4). As to the methodological design of these studies, different research methodologies were used and various studies were drawn upon. However, most of our sources came from articles using a quantitative methodology (N = 5) (Azel Jimenez et al., 2019; Fuentes-Cancell et al., 2022; Ramírez et al., 2011; Tarango & Machado Rodríguez, 2012; Van Deursen & Andrade, 2018). These are followed in number by those studies that make use of a mixed methodology (N = 5) (Cruz Capote, 2022; Estrada-Molina et al., 2022; Gual, 2021; Suárez Navarro et al., 2021; Verdecia et al., 2022). Finally, we find those of a qualitative nature (N = 4) (Avello & López, 2015; Carvajal Hernández et al., 2020; López León & Saladrijas Medina, 2016; Rodríguez Delís & Ruiz Ortiz, 2021). The sample also includes research that uses a quasi-experimental methodology, the least numerous (N = 3) (Estrada-Molina et al., 2021; EstradaMolina et al., 2022; Fuentes-Cancell et al., 2022). There are also several studies that use documentary analysis as a methodology to meet their research objectives (N = 5) (Avello & López, 2015; Carvajal Hernández et al., 2020; Gual, 2021; Quindemil Torrijo, 2008; Rodríguez Delís & Ruiz Ortiz, 2021). Finally, we should mention the existence of a literature review (Álvarez et al., 2015) and a case study (López León & Saladrijas Medina, 2016). With regard to the instruments used for data collection, we can confirm that the use of questionnaires or surveys predominates
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(N = 7) (Azel Jimenez et al., 2019; Cruz Capote, 2022; Estrada-Molina et al., 2021; Fuentes-Cancell et al., 2022; Gual, 2021; Tarango & Machado Rodríguez, 2012; Van Deursen & Andrade, 2018; Verdecia et al., 2022), with the use of both structured (N = 1) (Verdecia et al., 2022) and unstructured or semi-structured (N = 2) interviews (Carvajal Hernández et al., 2020; Cruz Capote, 2022) being much less frequent and almost non-existent. As for focus groups, there is only one case of research that uses them for data collection (Avello & López, 2015). However, in contrast to the empirical works presented, the sample also includes theoretical articles involving the development of proposals, intervention programmes or programmes carried out in the Cuban context (N = 6) (Avello Martínez et al., 2014; Cala Calviño et al., 2022; Fernández Sánchez & Ascón Pérez, 2021; Moya Torres & Almeida Granela, 2012; Olazábal Revilla, 2019; Polson, 2019). Only on one occasion (Tarango & Machado Rodríguez, 2012) this proposal was accompanied by a prior needs assessment. Finally, with regard to the participants in the studies, the samples are composed of documents (regulations, curricula, programmes, laws, etc.) in the case of the documentary analyses and of students or teachers in most cases. All the information that has been analysed is detailed in Table 8.1. This is followed by an analysis of the documents in response to the objectives and research questions, identifying the characteristics of the digital divide and digital exclusion in Cuba and describing the most successful forms of digital inclusion carried out in this context. It also includes various types of digital literacy implemented in the country, educational initiatives to promote the development of digital competences and, finally, ICT initiatives during and after the COVID pandemic.
8.5.1 The Reality of the Digital Divide and Digital Exclusion in Cuba and Proposed Forms of Digital Inclusion In response to the first objective of this research on what the digital divide really means for Cuba, taking into account social exclusion and digital inclusion initiatives, there are four articles resulting from the review studying this topic. The results of the review confirm the view of Cruz Capote (2022), who states that in the Cuban literature there are not many works dedicated to studying the concept of the digital divide and its implications in this country. However, some studies exist (Álvarez et al., 2015; Cruz Capote, 2022; Quindemil Torrijo, 2008; van Deursen & Andrade, 2018) that analyse the concept of the digital divide in this environment and highlight the variables associated with it as well as its implications at the social level. It must be underlined that the contributions focus on the digital divide at the first and second level, i.e., the publications encompass an in-depth study of the access—or lack of access—to ICT and the use of ICT without mentioning the third level. Articles that refer to the difficulties of access predominate. One example is van Deursen and Andrade (2018) who focus their research on internet access in the country and how
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this affects the concept of the digital divide. In this case, the authors state that Cuba is characterised by restricted internet access as the country “is known to be one of the world’s most repressive settings for information and communication technologies” (van Deursen & Andrade, 2018, p. 1). This restrictive reality, according to the authors, has a negative impact on social inequality in two ways: On the one hand, the lack of internet access has a negative impact on users’ skills, as they will not be able to make use of this tool; on the other hand, the lack of access to the Internet magnifies existing social stratification, as the results of the study show. The authors state that, in the Cuban context, improved internet access would particularly benefit those in privileged positions (van Deursen & Andrade, 2018), thus increasing the existing digital divide. On this same issue of internet access and the digital divide, we find in the literature the work of Polson (2019) who has analysed the initiative carried out in Cuba since 2015, comprising the creation of free Wi-Fi access points in public spaces. The author states that this improved internet access helps citizens to connect with family members abroad and also gives them increased access to social networks and content they can find on the internet. In this case, in contrast to van Deursen and Andrade’s (2018) assertion that improved internet access will only benefit the privileged, Polson (2019) argues that these government initiatives promote digital inclusion across the whole of society and narrow the digital divide. However, the author is aware that there is still a long way to go to close the current digital divide, as it requires work and concrete initiatives to achieve digital inclusion for all citizens. The concept of the digital divide is also studied by Cruz Capote (2022). However, in this case, the author focuses her research on the access and use of technologies among younger people. As previously mentioned, the author differentiates between the material divide—or the ICT access divide—and the non-material divide—the skills divide—in the use of ICTs. Specifically, and referring to the access divide in the youth population, the most influential variables are the following: economic factor, socio-economic conditions of the families to which they belong and family characteristics that function as axes of inequality (skin colour, gender, educational level, place of residence, sociological and cultural location). Like the authors mentioned above, Cruz Capote (2022) states that the digital access divide affects the level of competence, creating a cognitive divide in terms of knowledge of the use of ICT tools. Faced with this situation of digital exclusion in the Cuban context derived from the digital access divide, López León and Saladrijas Medina (2016) study the extent to which ICT can favour social inclusion. The authors start from the premise that ICT, its knowledge and learning to use it can work to promote community processes and facilitate the socialisation of excluded social groups. Based on this idea, the authors present and reflect on the Joven Club de Computación y Electrónica (JCCE) project, whose objective is to computerise Cuban society by implementing and bringing ICTs to communities and offering training to all types of groups, especially children, adolescents and young people. The aim is to connect local communities and reduce the digital divide in terms of both access and use, promoting inclusion. Along the same lines are the works of Quindemil Torrijo (2008) and Álvarez et al. (2015) who, in their articles, analyse the public policies implemented in Cuba to
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reduce the digital divide and promote both digital and social inclusion. In the case of Quindemil Torrijo (2008), the author reflects on how policies can serve to respond to the digital divide resulting from the social inequalities existing in the Knowledge Society. He also devotes part of his article to analysing the implementation of the National Information Policy in the Cuban context. According to the authors, this policy is committed to the information literacy of the population, aims to promote access to ICT and its incorporation into the educational environment and, therefore, acts on the digital divide. Álvarez et al. (2015) offer a reflection on how public policies in Cuba are linked to the concept of digital inclusion. They also state that making ICT available to the entire population becomes one of the main ways to eradicate or reduce social inequality, as people could make use of them in their daily context and life. Although the authors go beyond the digital divide of access and state that it is not enough to provide computers or facilitate access to ICT, for real inclusion, it is necessary to teach digital skills and to train users so that they know how to use the technologies in an appropriate manner. Finally, both studies (Álvarez et al., 2015; Quindemil Torrijo, 2008) coincide in highlighting the difficult economic, social and political situation in which Cuba finds itself, caused in part by the economic embargo imposed by the United States. Quindemil Torrijo (2008) even speaks of Cuba as a country that “forms part of that third world full of inequalities” (p. 2) and which is in the process of development. For this reason, he emphasises the need for national policies that promote access to information services for the whole of society, since, according to the author, access to information is a right and informational equity that serves to promote social equality. For their part, Álvarez et al. (2015) comment on behalf of the country that “Cuba is one of the countries with the lowest per capita number of users with internet access, number of computers per inhabitant and rates of subscribers to mobile telephony services of all CELAC countries, but, at the same time, one of the countries that has worked hardest in developing projects and actions for digital inclusion” (p. 51). Therefore, in response to the research objective, it is concluded that there are few publications in the literature that address the issue of the digital divide and digital inclusion in Cuba, despite this country facing a situation of vulnerability.
8.5.2 Digital Literacy Initiatives Developed With regard to the second research objective, the literature review found six articles on digital literacy initiatives implemented in Cuba. As a defining characteristic, they are devoted to ICT training for education professionals. This fact highlights the importance given to education in new technologies in teacher training. One reason is that teachers need to acquire the skills to be able to put them into practice in the classroom, favouring their use in formal institutions. Firstly, we refer to the article by Avello Martínez et al. (2014), who developed the case of the Master’s Degree in New Technologies for Education that has been taught in Cuba for almost two decades. It offers training in the Information Society and ICT
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with the aim of transforming teachers, classrooms and teaching methodologies. The authors comment that this and other initiatives related to the implementation of ICT in the classroom help to alleviate social inequalities and represent one of the reasons for the introduction of ICT in the education system. However, the authors state that “the improvements observed are mainly related to aspects of the first digital divide, access; the second, referring to the use and appropriation of these technologies for learning, remains to be addressed” (Avello Martínez et al., 2014, p. 599). On the other hand, more specifically, the literature also comprises articles that refer to training experiences developed for teachers in specific centres. One example is the research carried out by Avello and López (2015) who are responsible for designing a framework of ICT competences through which they evaluate teachers in Cuban hospitality schools and subsequently offer training according to the needs detected. Although the results of the experience are positive, the authors underline the need for continuous training, “it is concluded that the implementation of the proposed framework for ICT training or digital literacy for teachers needs to be cyclical and continuous. Incorporating new tools, such as social web or Web 2.0 applications” (Avello & López, 2015, p. 7). Another recent example is that carried out by Fernández Sánchez and Ascón Pérez (2021) who offer training to teachers at a polytechnic centre based on the Blearning methodology using the Moodle platform. As positive aspects of the training, the authors underline that this methodology offers, in addition to blended learning, a flexible and open space where communication, collaboration and reflection are encouraged. In the case of the article by Olazábal Revilla (2019), a review is carried out on the digital training of Law teachers in Cuba, commenting on their needs and shortcomings. According to the author, the field of Law is an area that is influenced by the increased use of technologies, a fact that justifies the need to train teachers who will bring this knowledge to the classroom. The study stresses the need for teachers in this field to make use of Web 2.0 applications with their students in the teaching– learning process, for which their training is necessary. The author concludes in her research that teachers have general knowledge about ICT; however, they lack skills and knowledge about the use of digital tools such as Web 2.0. For this reason, it is necessary to encourage digital literacy in teaching by university departments at both the political and institutional level. The sample also includes articles on the evaluation of training experiences in digital skills for teachers. In this case, Fuentes-Cancell et al. (2022) evaluate a MOOC course designed for teachers to develop their digital skills. According to the authors, the results are very positive as they conclude that distance learning contributes to the continuity of teachers’ professional development. They also underline that one of the successes of the intervention is the combination of the MOOC course with activities developed through social networks (Facebook, LinkedIn and Telegram). In this case, the relevance and need for continuous teacher training in digital competences is underlined: “regardless of the branch of teaching (…), teachers’ technological skills, or their slight of ICT training, it is possible to further develop their digital skills” (Fuentes-Cancell et al., 2022, p. 21).
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Finally, we should mention the research by Tarango and Machado Rodríguez (2012), the only article in the review that does not deal with teacher training but rather presents an ICT information literacy programme for health professionals. As reflected in the research, in the Cuban context, there is a commitment to digital literacy in ICT for professionals working in the health sector in the country. This is because it favours the improvement of work in hospitals and health centres, as well as helping to prepare professionals to carry out their functions, to face problems and to make use of the available resources. As we can see from the research that forms part of the review, in the Cuban context there is still a long way to go in terms of digital literacy initiatives developed. The literature shows that most of them are carried out in the educational sphere, specifically in the university context, with the aim of training teachers; however, there is no research in other educational stages or other sectors, only in the health sector.
8.5.3 The Development of Digital Competences in Education In relation to the third research objective, we can say that there are several articles in the literature on initiatives and projects to promote the development of digital competences in Cuban educational contexts. However, one aspect to be considered is that most of them are oriented towards the university environment and only one of them is carried out at the primary school level. Considering the nature of these projects, three of them (Estrada-Molina et al., 2022; Ramírez et al., 2011; Suárez Navarro et al., 2021) consist of the development of virtual courses through the MOODLE platform. In the case of Estrada-Molina et al. (2022), they present a virtual course called “Technologies and methods of online training”. This training course investigates the use of social networks (Researchgate and LinkekIn) for educational purposes. The authors state that one of the main contributions of their intervention is that their proposal brings together formal learning— through the virtual platform—and the informal learning environment, making use of social networks as a resource. Another example of an initiative is that carried out by Ramírez et al. (2011) who present a distance course—also using the Moodle platform—in the Master’s Degree in Veterinary Preventive Medicine. After its implementation, they evaluate the proposal, concluding that this distance learning modality is considered very effective for the continuing education of professionals. Suárez Navarro et al. (2021) also carried out an initiative on distance learning using the Moodle platform. In this case, the topic is Organic Chemistry. The experience is also evaluated and the authors underline the positive effects of this way of working on student learning. However, in this case, they emphasise the need for teachers to be right on top of their subject as well as ICT and teaching methodologies in order to be able to successfully teach the subject using this particular platform. The latest initiative in this sense is the one carried out by Azel Jimenez et al. (2019) who also make use of a platform allowing distance learning in the subject “History of Cuba”.
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After carrying out the experience, the authors highlight its advantages, including improved teaching quality, flexibility in carrying out tasks, ease of student–teacher interaction and student motivation. Furthermore, there are two initiatives associated with the articles indicated in the sample in which digital competences are worked on at the educational level with other types of ICT tools: as in the case of Moya Torres and Almeida Granela (2012). The authors develop an initiative in which they make use of the e-portfolio for teaching a second language in a distance learning environment. Among the positive effects highlighted by the authors of the experience is that this way of working encourages student autonomy and promotes a collaborative learning experience. And Gual (2021), also in the university context, uses the blog as a teaching strategy in the subject Agrarian Law. Along the same lines as Moya Torres and Almeida Granela (2012), the author comments that the independence and autonomy of students is one of the greatest advantages of this way of working. Other advantages mentioned are that they encourage creative learning and help students to get closer to society, taking into account the characteristics of today’s world. Lastly, we mention Carvajal Hernández et al. (2020), who develop in their article the only proposal found in the systematic review conducted at the primary education stage. The authors stress the need to train in digital skills or competences from an early age. However, as we have seen in this section, the literature shows that most studies are carried out within the context of a university. We wonder why this is the main field of study and where the literature and future research on the subject should be focused.
8.5.4 ICT and COVID: Forms of Intervention that Consider the Use of ICTs During the Pandemic In the aftermath of the global pandemic, the way people relate to ICT and its use in different areas has undergone a major change. However, this has been influenced by contextual circumstances. For this reason, the final objective is to review the articles found in the literature on the use made of ICT in the Cuban context to mitigate the effects of the pandemic at the time of COVID-19. Generally speaking, we can affirm that there are articles on this subject in the Cuban literature and as part of the sample. However, as with the previous objective, all the articles deal with projects that have been developed in the university context, although the use of ICT in these projects has varied. One aspect that characterised the arrival of the pandemic is that teaching methodologies had to be modified by teachers almost instantaneously. The fact that faceto-face classes had to be suspended meant that ICT had to be used to make up for the lack of face-to-face classes. In these circumstances, several authors decided to publish their research on how they had carried out this transition to the virtual modality and to offer an evaluation of their research. One of the initiatives is the
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distance learning experience developed by Verdecia et al. (2022) in a Cuban university. After its implementation, the authors present a positive evaluation of it as they consider that they have been able to adapt to a distance learning model. However, they underline that, initially, students and teachers were not sufficiently prepared to make use of this distance learning modality. In addition, the researchers reflect on how these post-pandemic changes may contribute to the digital divide in the long term. In their words, “in the longer term, the accelerated technological and strategic changes precipitated by the pandemic have the potential to make a lasting difference to access to knowledge and flexibility of study, especially for more marginalised groups and those living in the remote areas” (Verdecia et al., 2022, p. 504). Another example of research is carried out by Estrada-Molina et al. (2021) who studied the level of user engagement with virtual courses developed during the pandemic period in a Cuban university. The authors evaluate these courses and make a positive assessment of the experience, considering the results obtained from the data collection. As positive aspects, they highlight that the opportunity of offering synchronous and asynchronous activities through Moodle and carrying out interactive sessions with Telegram has increased the students’ motivation regarding the implementation of the activities. As a negative aspect of this learning style, the authors’ opinions are along the same lines as Verdecia et al. (2022), pointing out that “in underdeveloped countries, the technological divide and its educational implications are growing, which is why it is necessary to develop alternatives to, as far as possible, maintain and offer training courses to a wide range of professionals” (p. 14). As an aside, it must be stated that the case made for a distance education modality by the hand of Cala Calviño et al. (2022) differs from those previously presented. This research consists of the use of the WhatsApp application as an educational tool for the development of activities in a subject of the Stomatology degree during the pandemic period. Among the advantages of the use of this application in the teaching– learning process, the authors declare the following words: it stimulates the active role of students in the construction of knowledge, real-time contact with educational agents, cooperative work, reflection and group work. However, they underline that is imperative to consider that teaching materials adapted to the application must be available for this tool in order to work in the educational context. One of the major limitations they found regarding the implementation of the intervention was universal access to the internet, one of the aspects that Polson (2019) established as a fundamental contributor to the digital divide. However, despite this, the authors have a positive overall view of the initiative carried out and make a case for the future need to encourage mobile m-Learning. The last article makes up the sample and responds to the fourth research objective is that by Rodríguez Delís and Ruiz Ortiz (2021), which offers a general analysis and reflection on the distance education models developed in Cuban universities at the time of the pandemic. The authors refer to the fact that “in recent years, Cuba has seen the rise of a new generation of young people (digital natives), while the use of ICTs in all processes of society has increased” (p. 7). These changes increase the lifelong learning opportunities on offer; however, they also lead to situations of digital divide and situations of digital exclusion of groups of students due to
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the lack of access to Moodle, connectivity and the price of internet connection. In view of this situation, they conclude that the distance education models that are emerging at the time of the pandemic help the continuity of training. However, distance education must be inclusive, for which connectivity and internet access for teachers and students in vulnerable situations must be addressed. The pandemic situation is thus directly connected to the digital divide, as stated by Delís and Ruiz Ortiz (2021) “the coronavirus exposed the existing digital divide and the challenges that are still unresolved in developing countries” (p. 12). After the articles reviewed and in accordance with the fourth objective of the research, we can confirm that the pandemic marks a before and after stage in the use of ICT in education. However, there is still a long way to go as the initiatives that are published and evaluated are only relevant to the Higher Education field. A significant aspect on which the authors agree is that these changes that have taken place in the use of ICT have highlighted the existing digital divide resulting from the lack of access to the internet and ICT resources, the need for teacher training in this regard and the need to work towards digital inclusion.
8.6 Discussion The systematic review developed here provides an overview of the situation in the Cuban context in terms of digital exclusion, as well as the initiatives of digital inclusion that have been undertaken in recent decades in the country. Firstly, one of the results of the study, without neglecting the publication date of articles, is that this study topic is relatively recent in the Cuban context, as most of the publications are from the last five years, with only two articles more than ten years old (Quindemil Torrijo, 2008; Tarango & Machado Rodríguez, 2012). As reflected in the literature (Doramas Sánchez, 2023; Internet Access in Cuba, n.d.; UNICEF, 2020), Cuba is a country with a particular political and economic situation that has led to numerous social differences and difficulties in accessing ICT. This is also mentioned by Cruz Capote (2022), who discussed how the financial and commercial blockade suffered by the country prevents the improvement of telecommunications infrastructure, an aspect that notoriously influences the digital divide in terms of access. Therefore, although the Information Society is in favour of a series of changes in the use of ICT in countries, in the Cuban context, there is still a long way to go, as the lack of universal access to the Internet, ICT and the population’s lack of literacy in the use of new technologies means that there is great social inequality and differences between regions. Certainly, the works under analysis have a common thread: they mainly focus on studying the digital divide in terms of access. This is because the authors agree that one of the biggest problems facing the country is access to networks and ICT, due to the political and economic situation previously mentioned (Doramas Sánchez, 2023; Internet Access in Cuba, n.d.; UNICEF, 2020). However, there is a certain consensus in the literature that training in digital skills and digital literacy in the use of ICT—the
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digital divide that currently exists—are necessary aspects that should be worked on with the population once the problem of the digital access divide has been resolved. In view of this situation, it can be observed that, in recent decades, inclusion measures have been taken to close the digital divide, to facilitate access and to train the entire population in the use of ICT. One example is Cuba’s implementation of the National Information Policy, which includes measures to work on the IT literacy of the population and on which the Cuban government has been working (Quindemil Torrijo, 2008) with the aim of achieving the digital inclusion of all citizens. However, as Álvarez et al. (2015) point out, in order to obtain real digital inclusion, it is essential to work on the current digital divide and promote training in digital skills. In this sense, the results of this review show that initiatives are being carried out; however, these are mainly aimed at teacher training in higher education or initiatives based on the use of virtual platforms for distance learning. Therefore, there is still a need to work on initiatives that reach out to other social groups and different educational stages. Likewise, the articles that make up the review also provide evidence of the change that has been taking place in the last three years in the Information Society in the Cuban context as a result of the pandemic. On the one hand, this situation derived from COVID-19 has highlighted the digital divide existing in the country (Delís & Ruiz Ortiz, 2021); nevertheless, it has also shown the capacity to adapt to the situation and the implementation of initiatives using ICT despite the lack of existing resources. In conclusion, it can be observed that measures are being taken in Cuba to achieve an end to the first-order digital divide, although it is true that more work still needs to be done on the second- and third-order divide. Given the characteristics of the articles indicated in the sample, considering the shortcomings that have been detected in the literature, the following is a list of topics to be included in future research and action plans: • Research on the current digital divide. • Research on the extent and impact of the digital divide in different social areas. • Research on digital skills training initiatives using ICT in early childhood, primary and secondary education. • Evaluations of projects carried out with ICT at both educational and social levels. • Digital literacy programmes in different social environments, but not limited to education. • Training programmes in digital competences in different areas and aimed at citizens from different socio-cultural backgrounds. • Research to identify needs in terms of ICT use. • Research on the evaluation of the different e-inclusion initiatives being implemented in the country. The limitations of the present study include those inherent to the methodology being employed. Despite having followed a systematic and exhaustive procedure typical of the PRISMA methodology, the exclusion criteria, the descriptors chosen and the selected databases themselves may have influenced the search and some
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existing articles in the literature on the subject may have been excluded from the sample.
8.7 Conclusion This study consisted of a systematic literature review in which 23 articles on the digital divide and digital inclusion in the Cuban context were reviewed in-depth following the PRISMA methodology. The research reveals that, in general terms, it can be stated that the literature is not exhaustive on the subject and the need for further study in this regard. Specifically, the results highlight the lack of existing literature on the digital divide, digital exclusion and inclusion within Cuba, despite the fact that the authors consider this to be one of the issues currently affecting the country. Likewise, we can confirm that the publications that make up the sample emphasise the digital access divide, without delving into the digital divide of use or the cognitive digital divide, following the classification of Fernández Río et al. (2022). Other evidence emerging from this review demonstrates that, although there are publications on social inclusion initiatives, these focus on the educational context and teacher training in ICT skills. For example, in those that make use of ICT to work on digital skills, these are mainly developed in the university context, without taking into account programmes carried out at other educational levels or in other social spheres. Finally, we should mention how the authors (Cala Calviño et al., 2022; Estrada-Molina et al., 2021; Rodríguez Delís & Ruiz Ortiz; 2021 and Verdecia et al., 2022) agree in their conclusion that the COVID-19 pandemic has required a series of technological transformations and ICT use that have only highlighted the digital divide and the situation of digital exclusion in which certain groups in the country find themselves. Faced with this situation, the literature is committed to working to promote digital and social inclusion through digital skills training for teachers, with digital literacy initiatives in all areas, promoting access to ICT and through government policies.
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Chapter 9
Issues Related to Digital Divide from the Past Perspective of Czech Scientific Journals (2003–2022) ˇ Lenka Benediktová, Jan Bezdˇeka, Michal Cerný, Zbynˇek Filipi, and Lucie Rohlíková
Abstract This contribution summarizes the results of a systematic analysis of publications on the topic of the digital divide, which were published in scientific journals in the years 2003–2022 in the Czech Republic. The digital divide includes inequalities in access to and use of information and communication technologies, which lead to inequalities in access to knowledge, employment opportunities, health care, and other areas. A content analysis of 50 professional studies, published in ten selected professional peer-reviewed journals, was carried out. From the point of view of the type of contribution, in the Czech Republic, specialist theoretical studies, quantitative research studies, qualitative research studies, and studies based on mixed research are devoted to the topic. In terms of topics, four prominent thematic categories were identified: the digital divide in the context of primary school, the digital divide in the context of higher education, the digital divide and seniors, the digital divide, and society. In the Czech Republic, unfortunately, relatively few researchers are devoted to the issue of the digital divide, and most professional studies deal only marginally with the topic. This phenomenon is particularly serious, due to the increasing digitization and the importance of the digital world for modern society, and in the future, there will be a need to increase the interest of professional workplaces to conduct further thorough research studies, and to look for solutions to limit digital exclusion in the Czech Republic. Keywords Digital divide · Digital inclusion · Digital literacy · Digital competence · Education · Internet access · Technologies
L. Benediktová (B) · J. Bezdˇeka · Z. Filipi · L. Rohlíková Department of Computer Science and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia, Plzeˇn, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] ˇ M. Cerný Department of Information and Library Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_9
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9.1 Introduction The digital divide is essential in educational (Qureshi et al., 2021; Romito et al., 2020) and social (Ragnedda et al., 2022) research. The lack of access to digital technologies and digital competencies represents a crucial tool for social inclusion (Seifert et al., 2021), economic adaptability (Mello et al., 2019), and the possibility of participation in democratic processes (Enochsson & Ribaeus, 2021). Although this is a global phenomenon, many studies can identify local specificities (Lembani et al., 2020; Miwa, 2020; Park et al., 2019). Considering these specificities given by language, culture, and social and economic conditions, we decided to probe the Czech research discourse through content analysis. This contribution is devoted to the topic of the digital divide, from the point of view of Czech scientific literature and research in Education that has been carried out in the Czech Republic over the last twenty years. The Czech Republic is a developed Central European country, which is trying to catch up with certain digital backwardness that manifested itself after the fall of the communist regime, compared to other countries of the European Union. The digital divide is one of the main problems in the field of technology use and consists of different access to technology and the Internet between different groups of the population. For example, seniors, people with low incomes, or people living in rural areas may have more limited access to the Internet ˇ and digital technologies (Ceský statistický úˇrad, 2023). Another problem related to the digital divide is the slow spread of high-speed Internet to remote areas. In some rural areas and smaller cities, there are still areas where it is not possible to get a high-speed Internet connection. The issue was highlighted by the COVID-19 epidemic, during which people with access to technology, sufficient Internet connection, and sufficient digital competences had a clear advantage for obtaining up-to-date information and implementing work and education remotely. Citizens of the Czech Republic, who did not have access to technology, Internet connection, and digital competence, were at a significant disadvantage for remote activities, which negatively affected their involvement in social life during the lock-down, with all of the associated problems. In recent years, however, the situation in the Czech Republic in the area of limiting digital exclusion has been improving. The government and other organizations are trying to ensure access to technology and the Internet for all residents. There is a national programme “Digitalization 2020,” which aims to strengthen the digital infrastructure and improve the digital competence of the population. The Czech Republic is becoming an increasingly important player in the field of technology, and Prague and other Czech cities are centres for many technology companies and startups. There is also a growing number of Czech companies specializing in software and technology development, and the Czech Republic is also receiving significant investment in technology and digital development. In order to conceptualize the topic of the digital divide in the Czech environment, it is necessary to mention two important local specifications that frame the possible reflection or structuring of the issue through the lens of various educational actors:
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(1) High decentralization of primary and secondary education. In the Czech environment, there is a very general curriculum document—Framework educational programmes—but its practical implementation is at specific schools (Janík et al., 2011; Janík & Miniˇríková, 2019), which results in an extreme diversity of approaches, structuring of specific curricula, but also the absence of a uniform set of textbooks guaranteed by the state. The state has very limited resources for managing the quality and content of education at individual schools, which complicates part of the research and its informative value, as well as the possibility of formulating certain general recommendations. In the Czech environment, there are extreme differences in the quality of education at the regional level—from results in comparative tests to the offer of general education study programmes at secondary schools. (2) The Czech Republic has the densest network of public libraries in the world. Since the 20s of the twentieth century, public libraries have been an important part of the educational infrastructure, whether it is a collaboration between schools and libraries (Mazáˇcová, 2017), or work with adult readers. Libraries also have a high degree of autonomy, and their educational activities are not co-ordinated or controlled in any way. This allows, on the one hand, to respond to local needs and determinants, but at the same time (as in the previous point), such a solution implies significant local differences and limited possibilities of reporting on the quality or systematization of measures to eliminate information poverty.
9.2 Theoretical Framework The phenomenon of information poverty is a complex and structured problem (Al-Zaman, 2023; Etim, 2020; Gibson & Martin, 2019; Mou & Xu, 2020). Chatman (1996), who was the first to deal with the problem of information poverty in a common sense, emphasized its social dimension. For her, it is associated with total exclusion and the social status of a poor person who does not believe in the world, and whose information strategies lead to building a local network of ties and a deep misunderstanding of the world. In this regard, information poverty is a certain facet or accompanying phenomenon that we should examine in all discussions about poverty as such. In the Czech environment, this aspect manifests itself primarily in the level of information literacy support for seniors, who represent a large, traditionally vulnerable, group of people. However, the conceptualization of the phenomenon is considerably broader. Jarvis (2007) considers information literacy in a broad sense as the ability to effectively work with information in the context of public decision-making. It draws attention to the fact that elections, as an essential act of a free democratic society, should be influenced by evaluating real information, not manipulative news and disinformation. Specifically, Jarvis’s sociological thinking reaches the Czech environment
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through Thelenová’s monograph (2014). Lupaˇc (2015) offers broader sociological perspectives in Czech. This discourse is also elaborated in the works of Mendez et al. (2019) and Camiling (2019), who link information poverty with health literacy and health as such. Meyer (2000) points out that the digitization of state services leads to the creation of a digital divide, in which only a few are able to exercise citizenship. In this direction, digital competence is also described by the European framework of digital competences (Vuorikari et al., 2022), which, although it talks about digital competences, points out at the same time that their absence leads to exclusion from social, civic, and cultural activities. In the Czech environment, this discourse is evident from Zlatuška (1998), who analyses the phenomenon of the information society. Britz (2004) understands information poverty as a situation in which individuals or communities of individuals cannot obtain the information they need to solve their problems. In a roundabout way, he returns to the work of Chatman (1996), who points out that the information-poor do not know about their poverty, which is also confirmed by Dervin (1994). It can be said that the majority of information-poor people are not aware of their poverty, which significantly limits the possibilities of its investigation. In this regard, the Czech environment is conservative in research, as the phenomenon of information poverty is not sufficiently addressed even in the social discourse. At the centre of the Czech discussion is the phenomenon of hybrid or information warfare, which draws attention to only a small part of the overall problem. As Hider and Bawden (2007) point out, it is possible to perceive libraries as basic institutions that serve to eliminate information poverty. This role has long been supported by other studies (Mckeown, 2016; Shen, 2013), which understand librarianship as a form of social service. In the Czech environment, the specifics ˇ relate to work with seniors (Durkᡠc, 2017; Zadražilová, 2017, 2019; Zadražilová & Vizváry, 2022), who form the traditional target group of libraries and can be easily addressed. A number of authors believe that a more robust and systematic policy for the elimination of information poverty should be sought, rather than ad hoc education in libraries (Scheeder, 2018; Yu, 2006). In the Czech environment, there is basically no discussion about the economicsocial impacts of information poverty (Norris, 2001; Nzomo & Fehrmann, 2020), but there is a strong discourse associated with information literacy, which is understood as a basic tool for eliminating information poverty (Haider & Bawden, 2007; Yu, 2006). Information literacy is a topic researched and described by Czech authors, both in Czech (Dombrovská et al., 2004; Horváthová & Zlámal, 2007; Mazáˇcová & ˇ 2022; Kováˇrová, 2016, 2019). The combiŠupicová, 2020) and in English (Cerný, nation of information literacy and the information gap is completely defining for the Czech environment, and represents, in principle, the only systematically researched field in this area. Other perspectives on the digital divide in the Czech context are also provided by some student research within the framework of Bachelor’s and diploma theses (e.g. Michálková, 2015; Piskurová, 2012), and popularization texts making the topic
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accessible to a wider public (e.g. Kolda, 2018; Štogrová Jedliˇcková, 2006; Weiss, 2017).
9.3 Methodology The aim of the analysis was to find out how Czech scientific journals reported on the topic of the digital divide in the years 2003–2022. Before specifying the research questions and describing the analysis procedure, we now briefly describe the chosen methodology. The basis of our work was content analysis (Disman, 2002), which in general can take a number of forms. In our case, we specifically chose quantitative content analysis, which is defined as a systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of the characteristics of the message (Neuendorf, 2002). For the analysis, we selected 10 scientific journals, which belong among the most important Czech pedagogical publishing platforms. The key selection criterion was the inclusion of the journal on the List of peer-reviewed, non-impact periodicals, published in the Czech Republic and approved by the Research, Development, and Innovation Council on 29.03.2013, and revised in 2015 (RVVI, 2015). Currently, this list is no longer used, but until 2017, it was used to evaluate the importance of the publication activity of academic workplaces in Czech journals. Given that we chose the years 2003–2022 as the time period for the selection of studies, the list of relevant journals from 2013 (i.e. valid ten years ago) was a suitable tool for us to find basic orientation in professional journals. A total of 5 general scientific journals were included in the selection: Orbis Scholae, Pedagogická orientace, Pedagogika, Studia paedagogica, e-Pedagogium, and a pedagogical magazine specialized in the context of higher education, Aula. The magazine Didaktické studie was also included in the selection. It is a magazine with a linguo-didactic Bohemian focus, which, in its monothematic issues, sometimes purposefully crosses these boundaries with a wider scope of defined topics, and also extends into general pedagogical and didactic contexts. In 2014, this magazine published a monothematic issue, Media and media education, which significantly touches our topic with its content. Journal of Technology and Information Education (JTIE) was also included in the selection, which focuses on the publication of research results, theoretical studies, and professional works in the field of technical (engineering) didactics, informatics, and digital technology didactics, as well as scientific didactics (chemistry, physics, geography, natural history, ecology), including mathematics. Within the framework of other subject didactics (e.g. art education, history, music education, foreign languages, Czech language, and literature…), this magazine publishes articles focused on the use of digital technologies (ICT) in education. Last but not least, two socially focused magazines were included in the selection: Sociální pedagogika and Sociální práce. Table 9.1 provides an overview of the journals included in our research, including information on which databases these journals are included in, and links to the
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websites of these journals, where the electronic archives of the published issues with which we worked during the analysis are located. In the initial screening of the content of scientific journals, we identified the problem that the concept of the digital divide does not actually appear as a basic research topic in pedagogical research in the Czech Republic. Therefore, we focused the analysis on finding studies not only in the field of the digital divide but also in the field of related topics that touch the topic of the digital divide in some way. Specifically, when searching for relevant studies in selected journals, we looked for studies that deal with the topics: the digital divide, digital exclusion, technology and social exclusion, the digital dam (an older concept), digital inclusion, digital competence (in the context of different social groups), information poverty, technology availability, the use of technology by different social groups (e.g. seniors, etc.). We elaborated the goal of our analysis into the following research questions. The main research question was: How did Czech scientific journals report on the topic of the digital divide and related topics in the years 2003–2022? We further divided the main research question into four sub-questions: (1) What were the frequencies of reports on the implementation of original quantitative and qualitative research investigations and professional theoretical studies in the field of the digital divide and related topics? (2) Which topics did the individual studies focus on? (3) Within which target groups and in which contexts were topics related to the digital divide addressed? (4) What were the main results and findings of the relevant studies? Table 9.1 Overview of journals included in the research study ISSN
Journal name
Database
Website
1802-4637
Orbis scholae
Web of Science
https://karolinum.cz/casopis/orbis-scholae/archiv
1211-4669
Pedagogická orientace
ERIH Plus https://journals.muni.cz/pedor/issue/archive
0031-3815
Pedagogika
ERIH Plus https://journals.muni.cz/pedor/issue/archive
1803-7437
Studia paedagogica
Scopus
1213-7758
e-Pedagogium
ERIH Plus https://e-pedagogium.upol.cz/archive.php
1804-1221
Didaktické studie
ERIH Plus https://pages.pedf.cuni.cz/didakticke-studie/
1210-6658
Aula
ERIH Plus https://www.csvs.cz/aula/
1803-537X
JTIE
ERIH Plus https://jtie.upol.cz/archive.php
1805-8825
Sociální pedagogika
ERIH Plus https://soced.cz/cs/archiv-casopisu/
1213-6204
Sociální práce
Scopus
https://journals.phil.muni.cz/studia-paedagogica/ issue/archive
https://socialniprace.cz/archiv-cisel/
Note The journal Orbis Scholae is listed in the Web of Science database and also in the Scopus and ERIH Plus databases, and the journals Studia paedagogica and Sociální práce are listed in the Scopus database, and also in the ERIH Plus database, the other analysed journals are listed in the ERIH Plus database
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The unit of analysis was a professional article or a professional study published in any of the selected journals. We did not include editorials, calls to authors, reviews, and reports on the implementation of conferences or other events in the analysis. We went through the posts manually. We always first decide based on the title of the contribution, whether it refers to the issue of the use of technology in education or the life of society, or whether it is an article that deals with social issues. We included the relevant contribution in the corpus, and at the same time, counted the occurrences of quantitative and qualitative research investigations and professional theoretical studies in order to determine the frequency of occurrence of individual types of contributions. We subsequently applied content analysis to the individual selected contributions, and noted data on authors, research questions, research samples, data on methods of data collection and analysis, and the main results and findings. In accordance with the procedures of quantitative content analysis, we took into account only the facts mentioned in the studies themselves (Neuendorf, 2002). The main results and findings were discussed in-depth by the research team. We looked for connections, common themes, and differences between the individual pieces of information found. We then selected the most interesting findings for processing the results in the following chapter.
9.4 Results As has already been mentioned, as part of our research, we went through 10 Czech pedagogically oriented journals. We focused on the last twenty years (2003–2022) and only searched for studies written in the Czech language. We have recorded 50 articles that touch on the topic of the digital divide, some of them only marginally. Fourteen of the found articles are focused on quantitative research which was conducted in the form of a questionnaire, in seven, qualitative research was carried out using interviews or discussions. The remaining articles can be characterized as professional studies. The digital divide and digital exclusion are very broad topics that affect the population across several age groups. We have therefore divided the obtained information into the following units, according to the focus on target groups: seniors, primary schools, universities, and society in general. An example of an overview of the studies that we selected for detailed content analysis from one journal (Studia paedagogica), and which formed the basic data set for our research, is presented in Table 9.2.
9.4.1 The Digital Divide in the Context of Senior Education Seniors are one of the groups that received significant attention in the researched professional studies. The ability to work with digital technologies, use e-mail, Internet
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Table 9.2 Overview of studies from Studia paedagogica included in the research study Study
Classification
Švaˇríˇcek and Zounek (2008)
The digital divide in the context of higher Mixed research education
Zounek (2006)
The digital divide and society
Zounek and Sebera (2005)
The digital divide in the context of higher Quantitative research education
Zounek (2004)
The digital divide in the context of primary schools
Theoretical study
Zukalová (2010)
The digital divide and society
Qualitative research
Zukalová (2007)
The digital divide and society
Theoretical study
Rabušicová et al. (2015)
The digital divide and seniors
Qualitative research
Sikorová et al. (2019)
The digital divide in the context of primary schools
Qualitative research
Švaˇríˇcek et al. (2020)
The digital divide in the context of primary schools
Quantitative research
Smetáˇcková and Štech (2021) The digital divide in the context of primary schools
Quantitative research
Šalamounová (2022)
Theoretical study
The digital divide in the context of primary schools
Methodology
Theoretical study
banking, or even just efficiently search for information on the Internet. These are skills that make a person’s life a lot easier if they master them. Otherwise, they can have a big impact on the quality of life, not only in terms of work (self-service) but also in terms of relationships, communication, or involvement in society. This is discussed in their article by Rabušicová et al. (2015). The research carried out by her team was carried out in the form of interviews after the seniors had completed several courses focused on working with computers. Respondents at the beginning of the course series admitted to being apprehensive about learning new skills. They were afraid of the amount of information and especially of the pace at which it would be served. However, after the final interviews, positive impressions prevailed, not only from the newly acquired skills but also from the newly acquired friendships. The feeling that they were keeping up with society and not losing touch with the times was very important. From the description of the lecturers of the courses, it follows that in the education of seniors, it is necessary to pay attention to the comprehensibility of the information conveyed, the pace of the course, and frequent repetition. The above is also confirmed in his article by Tomczyk (2015), who dealt with the use of digital technologies by seniors in the Visegrad Four countries. Digital exclusion can be minimized with sufficient education in the use of modern technologies. In the Czech Republic, universities of the third age or various associations and non-profit organizations (pensioners’ clubs, clubs for active old age, etc.) are dedicated to this.
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9.4.2 The Digital Divide in the Context of Primary Schools The digital divide in the school environment is a much-discussed topic, both from the point of view of the teacher and from the point of view of the students and parents. Hejlová (2014) discovered through surveys that students are already equipped with a variety of mobile digital technologies as early as the first grade, with only a small percentage of fifth-grade pupils not owning a mobile phone. Yet this issue drew attention, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic and emergency distance learning. What is interesting, however, is the fact that each group is at risk of digital exclusion for a different reason. From the point of view of the pupils, and hence the parents, it is mainly a problem of equipment. Švaˇríˇcek et al. (2020) conducted an extensive questionnaire survey among parents of primary school children (9810 respondents), which dealt with the course of distance education. A total of 25% of parents of primary school students said that they do not have enough digital equipment at home to cope with distance learning. For second-stage primary school (middle school) students, 16% of respondents were involved. The open answers show that the most common problems were: lack of ICT equipment (especially if there were more pupils in the family), especially web cameras, printers, and scanners, low-quality Internet connection, and also insufficient digital competence of their parents. The lack of hardware equipment is also confirmed by Šalamounová (2022), who conducted an in-depth study at 5 primary schools of different types. For this, she used not only semi-structured interviews but also observation of teaching and analysis of teaching materials. She states that the schools had to lend some students at least basic equipment for distance learning. At the same time, she points to a key problem on the part of teachers, namely their insufficient digital competence. Her investigation shows that there was pressure to unify the applications used, which was sometimes problematic, as each teacher had experience with different software. There was minimal space for training in other applications. From the study by Federiˇcová and Korbel ˇ survey, it follows (2020), which works, among other things, with the results of the CSI that before the pandemic only 19% of schools had a unified information system (e.g. MS Teams, Google Classroom, etc.), and less than half of the teachers had sufficient digital competence to conduct online learning. It is also not an exception that a teacher with good digital competences educate the rest of the teaching staff at the expense of his/her own duties and, possibly, personal time (Šalamounová, 2022). In a questionnaire survey by Stárek and Koubková Pavl˚u (2021), 70% of teachers rated their own digital competences as sufficiently developed for teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. During the pandemic, both teachers and students were forced to use technology, which pushed them forward, according to a teacher in Fromberger’s research (2020): “The children have learned to work better with computers, as have we, the teachers.” At the same time, however, the differences between those who have enough ICT equipment and quality facilities for online learning and those who lack equipment, which are often families with a worse socio-economic situation, are widening. There
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are also problems in families where parents have lower education and often lack digital competence (Smetáˇcková & Štˇech, 2021). The digital divide was (and is) a topic in education, even outside the pandemic period. However, before it, schools did not pay such attention to building digital competences, as can be seen from the article by Federiˇcová and Korbel (2020). According to Fasnerová (2013), teachers in the first year did not understand computer literacy as one of the most important competencies that they should equip students with for further effective and successful education. However, Zounek (2006) point out, even before the pandemic, that digital literacy and the ability to work with ICT technology is necessary not only for school and extracurricular education, but also for employment in the labour market, and in general for the inclusion of a person in society. People who lack digital competence are at risk of digital exclusion, with an impact on their quality of life. The importance of digital competences can also be read from the article by Štípek et al. (2015), who conducted a questionnaire survey among pupils and teachers of primary schools and dealt with the evaluation of individual thematic units in the teaching of informatics. At that time, both teachers and students alike perceived the ability to search for information and work with text as key. They also saw importance in the units Security, copyright, and ethics, and Basic user skills and file management. In today’s context, it is interesting that the teachers rated Algorithmization and programming as a less essential unit. The authors explain this by the insufficient education of teachers in the field, and also by the fact that they place emphasis mainly on common user skills in the field of computer control. The ability to work with a computer also has an impact on which materials the teacher can use for his teaching. In 2014, the primary source of information at school was the printed textbook (Sikorová et al., 2019), but since then the importance of electronic study materials, textbooks, worksheets, etc. has been increasing. In their research, Moravec and Pešková (2016) dealt with the perception of electronic textbooks among pupils in the second stage of primary schools (middle schools). Their investigation showed that 76% of pupils have no experience with this type of textbooks and only 11% of pupils use them. It is interesting to note that 75% of the pupils interviewed would like to use these textbooks in the future. The predominant motivation for their use is the possibility of multimedia integration, and the associated greater degree of enjoyment of the textbook. It is therefore obvious that a teacher who does not have sufficient digital competence to work with information from the Internet or to create his own electronic materials has a limited portfolio of study materials, and the ability to control other digital technologies (e.g. interactive blackboard) also goes hand in hand with this. A teacher who is able to work with information from the Internet will, in many cases, enliven, or make teaching more efficient: “Some attempts would take weeks. This is how we create a hypothesis with the pupils, and watch the video. Then we check if it’s verified for us.” This is how a physics teacher describes the use of online video (Sikorová et al., 2019). In the article, we can read numerous statements from which the effectiveness of using digital tools in teaching can be read. It is therefore obvious that a teacher who finds himself/herself in the digital divide may be limited, compared to his digitally literate colleagues. Important in this context ˇ is the knowledge of the CSI, pointed out by Benediktová (2021), that teachers from
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schools where the development of their digital competences had previously been neglected reduced the lead of their colleagues from schools where, even before the pandemic, the education of employees in the development of the use of digital technologies in which they devoted said skills to teaching. At the end of his article, Dostál (2009) asks whether it is possible to implement education without digital technologies in the information society. He assumes that it is not, and presents as an educational trend the structure that hypermedia teaching aids should have. If the teacher is to be able to select and create didactically appropriate aids of this type, he/ she cannot remain behind the digital divide. Moreover, Šauerová’s (2014) research indicates that an undue emphasis on digital technologies in education could intensify the recognition of socio-economic disparities among students hailing from diverse home environments with differing value systems, a situation which could ultimately have adverse effects on the teaching process. Although the previous paragraphs talked about ordinary primary schools, eliminating digital exclusion is also important in special primary schools. Krajíˇcek and Koˇcí (2014) pioneered a concept known as computer therapy for individuals with intellectual disabilities, utilizing contemporary digital technology means. This concept incorporates specific educational measures, assistive technologies, recreational activities, and connections with other supplemental therapies. The paper suggests that by harmonizing the present needs and resources of digital technologies, special education, and social services (based on the standards set by the computer therapy concept), the growth and development of individuals with intellectual disabilities can be more effective and sustainable. This, in turn, fosters a greater degree of independence for these individuals within their natural environment. For children with special educational needs, the involvement of ICT technologies in teaching can have great potential (Meier & Kuˇcerová, 2020). At the same time, the aforementioned authors draw attention to the fact that if children with special educational needs do not have suitable technical equipment available, the risk of digital and social exclusion is greater for them, or can arise more quickly than for children without special educational needs. The reason is primarily the possibility of compensating for the inadequacy of children with digital means, stimulating the necessary areas (e.g. the senses), or motivating children to do something that they would have difficulty doing without technology. Their research (questionnaire for parents, questionnaire for teachers, observation of teaching) shows that ICT technologies are most often used in schools to develop speech and vocabulary (4.4 on a scale from 1 to 5), visual perception (4.3), and attention (4.2). In families, then the most when developing thinking, attention, and visual perception (always 4.1). According to parents and teachers, the most used technology is tablets. A total of 64% of teachers and 37% of parents agree with the positive influence on the education of children with special educational needs using ICT technologies, and 23% of teachers and 37% of parents said they would probably agree. Also, 28% of teachers and 39% of parents say the biggest problem is finding the money to buy equipment.
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9.4.3 The Digital Divide in the Context of Higher Education Digital competences also play an important role in higher education, and a student on the edge of the digital divide may find studying very uncomfortable. The ability to access the Internet plays an increasingly important role in contemporary education. As the amount of educational materials accessible only online grows, whether in the form of separate articles or courses, the possible absence of access to the Internet is essential and directly leads to a deepening of the digital divide. Klement and Chráska (2012) drew attention to three consecutive studies, which showed that already between 2008 and 2012, the percentage of students of economic faculties who refused education with the help of e-learning gradually decreased to low percentage units. Five years later, Chráska (2017) described a decrease in the use of printed information sources by 10% and, conversely, an increase in the use of the Internet as an information source by 9% in the case of university students (PdF UP), in the monitored period from 2013 to 2015. On a subsequent note, Šimonová and Bílek (2013) showcased the advantages of employing digital technologies to aid teaching through a pedagogical experiment. They found that such integration was beneficial to the affective domain of educational process, meaning students positively evaluated and appreciated teaching that incorporated modern technologies over a prolonged period. Rohlíková et al. (2015) adds that the importance of using ICT technologies in higher education is confirmed especially by students who own and work with the technologies themselves. Those who do not have them do not have a very clear idea of how to use technology for their studies. As part of a questionnaire survey that was carried out at UWB (169 respondents), it was found that students value the possibility to register for online courses, access the library, and to search for electronic resources for studying. Students who have encountered inappropriately prepared e-learning materials or inappropriate use of technology in teaching in the past have a sceptical attitude towards electronic materials. Here again, we come across insufficient digital competence of teachers, in particular, competence in the field of creating electronic teaching materials. Fritzová et al. (2020) focused in their research (questionnaire, 106 respondents) on the digital competence of university students, especially students of the Faculty of Education. On a scale of 1–5, students rate digital literacy with an average value of 3.8. This is also related to the expression of 65% of them that they would welcome a subject in the study plan that deals with the use of modern technologies. Evidently, there is a lack of education in the use of ICT technologies, which corresponds to the results of the TALIS 2018 international survey, where there is talk of insufficient training of student teachers in the area of technology use. Fatková et al. (2023) conducted a combined research project in 2021–2022 that dealt with the course of distance education at humanities universities. Here, too, one can see not only the positives of using ICT technologies, but also a certain underestimation of the quality of digital competences not only of teachers but also of students. Only a quarter of the interviewed academics (23%) used distance learning tools in their teaching before the pandemic. The sudden transition to distance learning then revealed the quality of their digital competences, and the
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desire to use ICT in teaching. Differences in teachers’ competences are evidenced by the following statements and answers of respondents (academics): “I think that those who were familiar with e-learning before the pandemic, and were close to it, have improved in it by now, and those who didn’t started from the beginning, and I think that both didactically and technically they are somewhere completely different today.” I met several types of workers, some of whom were very enthusiastic about innovation, and actively co-operated in implementing and finding different options, and sharing them with others. On the other hand, there was also a group of people who fundamentally rejected online education.
Therefore, teachers’ approach to online education was different during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the statement of 53% of the surveyed students, who identified technical problems on the teacher’s side as the main problem of emergency distance learning, is alarming. A total of 47% of students also admitted their own problems with their Internet connections. Only 19% of students had a problem with working on the e-learning platform. It can be read from the above that the digital competence of the students is at a relatively good level, but the teachers are lagging behind. A general problem in the Czech Republic is coverage with a high-quality Internet connection, especially outside major cities. Here, too, it is evident what needs to be improved in order for Czech residents to avoid digital exclusion. A total of 78% of students said that they can manage their time better and get more done when learning online, and 47% of students enjoy working with modern technology. This confirms that a person who is able to work with modern technologies, i.e. digitally literate, increases his/her quality of life, not only while studying and at work, but also in his/her free time. We can therefore hope that the importance of digital literacy is, especially after during the pandemic, obvious. Digitally competent people in an academic environment can work (or study) more efficiently, as evidenced by the following statements from respondents: I think that hybrid teaching is great - I also used it in the last semester, and I connected students who even had a cold online, which they really appreciated, that they could take part in the teaching at the same time. I think that for those who are ill, or for those who are very far away, or for Erasmus, that’s great. I see low costs, mobility, the use of experts from practice, and foreign co-operation as advantages. These are all advantages that are otherwise difficult to realize. Here, I would see the future, and otherwise I see it seriously in the hybrid environment, as I said before, it is not good to go from extreme to extreme.
9.4.4 Digital Divide and Quality of Life in Society In the previous paragraphs, we mainly focused on specific groups (seniors, pupils, students, teachers), but it is clear that the digital divide is a risk for the overall quality of life, i.e. not only for education and later employment but also for a person’s social
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contacts or ways of spending free time (Kolaˇríková & Nˇemec, 2017). Modern technology and the ability to work with it affect a person’s possibilities in many ways, ˇ including spending free time. Cerný (2020a, 2020b) states in his study that: “The absence of this ability (to use modern technology) has an effect on the social and cultural capital of the given individual, he/she finds himself/herself at a fundamental disadvantage.” Arnseth and colleagues’ global research in 2016 arrived at a similar consensus, asserting that digital technologies influence the socio-cultural landscape, career and lifestyle choices, as well as one’s societal inclusion. In a separate study, Sedláková and her team in 2021 investigated interviews with a chosen set of individuals and interpreted the digital divide as the perception of reality through a deficient epistemic filter. Although there are few sources that would directly map the state of the digital divide in the Czech Republic, this topic can be marginally seen in many articles. In the previous paragraphs, we tried to present the information we found and draw attention in particular to the fact that digital exclusion can have an impact on the overall quality of life. It can be stated that in the Czech Republic, as well as abroad, we can generally observe two types of digital divide (Attewell, 2001; Weiss, 2017). The primary digital divide, which depends on the availability of technology for the target groups, tends to gradually close in the Czech Republic, technologies are more accessible, the Internet connection is of better quality, etc. The secondary digital divide, which refers to how effectively who uses information technology, if and what kind of user knowledge and skills he/she has, is related to information literacy and needs constant attention. As new technologies and systems arrive, the secondary digital divide continuously opens and closes for individual users, depending on how well users can follow and keep up with technological developments. Czech society is currently facing new challenges related to the development of artificial intelligence. The ability of people to use tools with integrated artificial intelligence will be significantly related to their work efficiency, employment in the labour market, and the overall quality of their life in society. Havelka et al. (2012) point out that one of the current requirements in the information society is the development of a general concept of IT education across all educational areas of knowledge, which should also be registered by students of all types of teaching study programmes. One of the directions for further research could be a descriptive analysis of the subjects in the study programmes, which would show the extent to which the individual disciplines reflected this challenge. Rabe et al. (2010) state in the conclusion of their pilot research that digital technologies have great potential for more effective education, which, however, will not be possible if they are not incorporated as a driving force in educational strategies. Seven years ˇ later, Cerný (2019) wrote about information literacy as something that the school must equip its students with, in accordance with the level of education, but at the same time warns against confining it to thematic blocks or specific subjects. He proposed its inclusion as part of digital competences in accordance with DigComp. In 2021, digital competence appeared among the key competences in the revised RVP. If it is really developed by teachers across educational disciplines, it can be
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assumed that this fact could help to solve many problems associated with the digital divide in the Czech Republic in future years.
9.5 Discussion In our overview study, we can see the fundamental relationship between the digital divide and seniors, or their education on computer courses, or information in general. This is an endangered population group, and working with technology enables them to actively participate in their own self-service in the contemporary world. The education of this group of people is associated with an emphasis on specific educational methods, such as a slower pace, practical examples, or an emphasis on social interactions. In this regard, the studies analysed by us agree with the conclusions of Gust (2006), who formulates specific recommendations in their study. In general, the topic of seniors and the digital divide is well described in foreign literature—Lagacé et al. (2015) talk about the relationship of prejudices associated with this group and digital technologies, Ito et al. (2001) refer to specific educational programmes for the elderly, Voelker writes about the relationship between the ability to work with information, technology, and health, as a way to support the quality of life of the elderly. It can be said that the Czech discourse notices this aspect of work with the elderly (Zadražilová & Vizváry, 2022) and reflects it, albeit in a substantially simplified form. It is an area in which practical activities (education in libraries, universities of the third age, Seniors writing Wikipedia, etc.) significantly outpace the empirical reflection of the phenomenon. The second target group reflected in the studies we monitored was the school environment. Neradová and Horálek (2012) stated that already in 2012, high-quality equipment of computer classrooms, as well as their networking and Internet connection, became standard in schools from primary to tertiary level in the Czech Republic. Teachers and families who had to offer pupils facilities during distance learning during the COVID-19 were still running into significant problems. The Czech environment is specific in that the duration of distance learning was 282 days at the second level of primary schools (middle schools), the other days were due to the closure of classes in the event of an outbreak of COVID-19. In this respect, the Czech environment is unique in terms of the length of the entire phenomenon, which brings with it complicated effects. It can be legitimately expected that studies reflecting the closure of schools, for example in France (Di Domenico et al., 2020; Monnier et al., 2021) will be significantly milder than in the Czech Republic. Reflected studies drew attention to deficiencies in hardware equipment (Babinˇcáková & Bernard, 2020; Khanna & Prasad, 2020), which represented a global problem. Gerbe and Leong (2021) say that the problem is not only the lack of hardware and software (which is consistent with our findings) but also the absence of training and the ability to work effectively with it. Similar conclusions were reached by Uzun et al. (2021) in Turkey and by Zhang et al. (2020) in China. The source of the digital divide could therefore be the mere absence of hardware equipment (which
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for various reasons households did not need), and which was difficult to find even in stores throughout the Western market throughout 2020. Therefore, COVID-19 has not only widened the gap between the digitally competent and the informationpoor, but has created a primary digital divide that has not been easily bridged, and whose consequences are likely to be the focus of further studies in the future. This is followed by a study by Poletti (2020), who points out that systematic policies should be sought to reduce differences in educational outcomes. But in reality, COVID-19 and its impact on the population will probably have the opposite effect (Armitage & Nellums, 2020), so Van Lancker and Parolin (2020) talk about a new massive child poverty, linked to the socio-economic status of parents. Nishikawa and Izuta (2019) therefore emphasize the importance of policies aimed at supporting and educating families. In our research, the digital divide at the level of primary education is also related to the topic of digitization of teaching in regular education, specifically to the topic of digital textbooks (Joo et al., 2017; Mardis & Everhart, 2012; Weisberg, 2011). Czech pupils would like to use such textbooks, but the school environment does not fully allow them to do so—or at least through the lens of the studies we have analysed. In general, it can be judged that effective work with technology in education could reduce the digital divide (Damarin, 2000; Roger, 2016; Swain & Pearson, 2002). In the Czech environment on this topic, Kubrický (2012), in an article about the creation of web-based educational materials, pointed out more than ten years ago the disadvantage that this activity can represent the necessity of appropriate equipment for teachers and pupils with technical competences. In such a case, the digital divide can limit even a didactically proficient creator of educational materials. Pupils who have special educational needs are a specific group at risk, especially those whose handicap is of such a nature that these pupils must attend special schools. Although everyone has special educational needs throughout their life (Ainscow et al., 2019), a health handicap represents a serious socio-economic threat (Judd et al., 2002). Technologies can—as our study also shows—significantly improve the education of these people (Burbules et al., 2020; Good, 2021) and their digital competence, enabling them not to be part of the digitally excluded (Iivari et al., 2020; Tohara, 2021). In relation to the fourth area resulting from the overview study, namely the context of universities, we can talk about two phenomena—the digital competences of students and the digital competences of academics. In general, it can be argued that the digital divide is not absolute, but is always related to the needs of individual target groups—in the case of the digital divide of students and seniors, we are talking about a different level and structure of competences (Candy, 2004), but what they have in common is that they do not allow a sufficiently effective stay in the information society. The analysed studies show that students have a long-term problem with digital competences. In the Czech environment, Horáˇcková (2011) drew attention to the above in her research, where future teachers of vocational subjects and future teachers of practical teaching and vocational training at secondary vocational schools carried out a self-assessment of individual parts of professional competences. Compared to
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most other professional competencies, they rated their own skills in the use of digital ˇ technologies and orientation in information sources at a lower level. Cerný (2021) states that there are exceptions even in the Czech environment. However, worldwide, it is a topic that is and has been reflected in a large number of studies (Cotten & Jelenewicz, 2006; Crews & Feinberg, 2002; Enoch & Soker, 2006), which draw attention both to partial problems in individual competencies (Napal Fraile et al., 2018), and above all, to their sensitivity to socio-demographic parameters. It seems necessary to abandon the idea that the generation of digital natives is truly digitally competent (Bennett et al., 2008) and find ways to remedy this situation. The studies we analysed show that the problem in digital competences is also on the side of academics. Alturise (2020) points out that it is challenging for academics to conduct online education, and even offers a certain sceptical view of the use of technology as a long-term, sustainable form of education. Seymour-Walsh et al. (2020) then emphasize the necessity of systematic teacher education and their longterm support. Johnson et al. (2020) focus on the fact that it is necessary to look for tools for the methodical preparation of teachers because the simple transfer of one educational form and outputs from one medium (physical space) to another (virtual) does not work. There is a need to fundamentally change the methods of completion, as well as the forms of educational materials and communication. In general, it can be said that the studies emphasize the existence of a certain absence of digital competences of academics, and at the same time, perceive it as a manifestation of the systemic failure of universities as a system or institution. The last area focuses on the relationship between the digital divide and the quality of life in society. Narvaez Rojas et al. (2021) generally say that information literacy has the character of a certain form of social health, which is necessary to ensure the functioning of society as a whole. Pashkova-Balkenhol et al. (2019) talk about the relationship between information literacy and the ability to manage the transition between secondary school and university. Camiling (2019) draws attention to the relationship between health literacy and information literacy, linking it to quality of life. Hughes et al. (2018) consider information literacy to be a prerequisite for the possibility of integrating into society in an international context. Dzula et al. (2020) point out that digital competences are absolutely essential for some professions, in terms of competitiveness. In the discourse outlined in this way, there is also the Czech environment, which draws attention to the fact that information poverty can lead to authentic manifestations of poverty, which the above-mentioned studies confirm in partial aspects.
9.6 Conclusion In our study, we mapped the issue of the digital divide from the perspective of relevant Czech professional journals (in the field of pedagogy and social sciences), and we believe that our results can be inspiring for further research in this area. In all ten journals included in the research study, in the issues published over the last
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ten years, we found contributions that in some (often marginal) way touch on the digital divide, digital exclusion and social exclusion, digital inclusion, technological equipment, digital competences, and technology use (in context of different social groups). However, studies specifically focused on the issue of the digital divide did not appear in the sample at all. In terms of the type of contribution, these were professional theoretical studies (n = 26), quantitative research studies (n = 17), qualitative research studies (n = 7), and mixed or combined research (n = 3). From the point of view of the topics covered by the individual contributions, we identified four significant thematic categories, namely the digital divide in the context of primary schools (n = 23), the digital divide in the context of universities and higher education (n = 16), the digital divide and seniors (n = 2), and the digital divide and society (n = 9). The results show that the topic of the digital divide in the Czech Republic, as well as elsewhere in the world, was exposed by the COVID-19 epidemic, which highlighted the importance of equipping individuals with technology, Internet connections, and digital competences for the effective use of technology in education, at work, and in personal life. Technologies affect the quality of life of all age groups of the population, and therefore there is a need to close digital gaps that are long-term or newly opened in connection with the arrival of new innovative technologies, with appropriately chosen activities aimed at the development of digital competences. Overall, it can be stated that the topic of the digital divide is addressed rather marginally in the professional journals that we included in our study, and in the future, it would be appropriate for researchers to pay much more attention to this topic. The development of informational thinking and information and digital literacy for acquiring knowledge and skills in the field of automation, as well as the use of artificial intelligence, appear as future prominent topics in the area of the digital divide. It is advisable to focus the attention of researchers in this direction and look for specific phenomena in the Czech context that are related to the digital divide, and that can help in detecting problems that need attention in society.
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Chapter 10
From Digital Exclusion to Digital Inclusion: How is the Dominican Republic Fostering a Digital Culture? Laura V. Reyes-Alardo , Leipzig Guzmán-Mena , Rita Cruz , and Darwin Munoz
Abstract Like many other developing countries, the Dominican Republic (DR) has faced numerous challenges in transitioning to a digital society. For decades, DR was submerged in digital ostracism. Toward the end of the 1990s, the country started prioritizing investment to establish and implement policies for digital transformation. These policies were deemed necessary for long-term development. However, transitioning from digital exclusion to inclusion has been challenging, particularly for DR and Latin American adults who still require support to become familiar with the internet and its associated strategies (Galperin in Int J Commun 11:23, 2017). Why are half of Latin Americans offline? A four-country study of reasons for Internet non-adoption. International Journal of Communication, pp. 11, 23.). This review explores the DR’s efforts to assess digital inclusion and exclusion. It also examines the factors related to the divide, initiatives implemented to decrease the digital gap between diverse groups, and the developing digital culture in the DR. Throughout the examination, it was discovered that both governmental and non-governmental organizations have taken various initiatives to bridge the digital divide. These include training programs, community technology centers, public internet access points, rural accessibility, and implementing a digital platform for educational content. Furthermore, the DR adopted the 2030 Digital Agenda, a road map toward technological adoption. Keywords Digital inclusion · Digital exclusion · Digital culture · Digital divide · Digital gap · Digital literacy
L. V. Reyes-Alardo (B) Universidad Domínico Americano (UNICDA), Abraham Lincoln No. 21, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic e-mail: [email protected] L. Guzmán-Mena · R. Cruz · D. Munoz Universidad Federico Henríquez y Carvajal (UFHEC), Av. Máximo Gómez Esq. César Nicolás Penson, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_10
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10.1 Introduction Historically, society, in a general sense, has been characterized by the exclusion of groups for several reasons, such as ethnic, religious, economic, and gender, among others. Social exclusion is a historical phenomenon rooted in unequal power structures. It has been a constant phenomenon in the history of humanity, perpetuating inequality and the marginalization of certain groups (Sen, 2000). Throughout history, we have witnessed this division and how social groups have been systematically excluded from the benefits and opportunities available to others, consequently perpetuating inequality (Fraser, 2001). Hence, through socioeconomic and technological advances, attempts have been made to close the gap that divides society into groups with greater or lesser privileges. Nevertheless, higher claims are much needed. Traditionally, societies have built barriers that have excluded specific groups, such as immigrants, women, and ethnic minorities. These barriers have created deep divisions and perpetuated social exclusion (Castells, 2000). The most significant responsibility falls on governments and their governing methods to achieve a more inclusive society as it develops, modernizes, and grows to overcome such inequalities. The failures of politics and economics are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. A governmental system that strengthens the voice of the affluent offers many opportunities for regulations and procedures—and their management—to be planned in ways that fail to guard average residents against the rich and further improve the latter (Stiglitz, 2012). Presently, it is urgent to develop and establish policies to allow the closing of existing social, economic, and technological gaps. One of those social gaps with a significant impact today is the digital divide. It results in digital exclusion and leads millions of people to remain ostracized and unaware of the significant advances that technology provides. However with the expansion of Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT) and the arrival of the computer age, the achievement of digital culture has gained attention globally (Wanyan & Dai, 2019). Unfortunately, despite this global attention, not all nations have made the same efforts to achieve a digital culture. Consequently, many countries, including the DR, are trying to overcome digital exclusion and bridge the digital divide. Digital inequalities are a global reality, and somebody can observe them, e.g., if we look at two opposite countries regarding technological advent. For example, China has made significant efforts to close the digital gap, such as by promoting open digital social services to its citizens (Wanyan & Dai, 2019.). However, although DR tries to promote equal access to technology among its inhabitants, progress is being made gradually. Implementing the DR Digital 2030 agenda seeks to reduce the gap that hits and divides society increasingly. For Dominican authorities, the significant advances achieved in artificial intelligence must be used appropriately to reach those citizens who are still digitally excluded in places and in ways never seen before (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). Thus, digital exclusion is one of the goals of the DR’s 2030 digital agenda. In that sense, it is crucial to understand the meaning of several terms commonly used in the literature
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related to the digital era, such as digital exclusion, digital inclusion, digital divide, and the acquisition of digital culture. This chapter spotlights the notion of digital inclusion as the particular interest that some individuals demonstrate involving Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT) as part of their lives and the ability to use them according to their interests; it is also referred to as technological mastery and the capacity to access pertinent online content and facilities (Crandall & Fisher, 2009). Simultaneously, the digital divide relates to differences in ICT use, access, and results (Fang et al., 2019). Digital exclusion is the group of people deprived of digital growth. It is associated with the digital divide because it is linked to having access to or not having access to a computer (Khalid & Pedersen, 2016). Research indicates that the reasons affecting the digital divide worldwide can be categorized into three different sections and nine main groups: socioeconomic, sociodemographic, personal elements, community support, type of technology, digital preparation, rights, infrastructure, and large-scale events (Fang et al., 2019; Lythreatis et al., 2022). However, some authors indicate that numerous factors are causing the digital divide’s original definition to change. Indeed, nowadays, more people have access to the Internet. As more individuals acquire technological devices, some authors suggest that the digital divide is determined by whether the individual has access to an Internet connection (Nemer, 2015; Rogers, 2001). According to Bollmer (2018), having a digital culture is related to switching from analog to digital formats, and it is about transitioning from an analog to a digital state and digitalizing processes. Hence, it is imperative to consider the societal impact of digital technologies in terms of their cultural significance, particularly in professional and academic settings. It is defined as a form of life and a mode of organization. Thus, acquiring a digital culture involves integrating technologies and digitalization as part of life. Bollmer (2018) also uses other terms to define digital culture, such as when organizations acquire digital equipment. At the same time, Gere (2002) indicates that people have a digital culture when they integrate techno-scientific discourses about information and systems. Since the digital divide has increased after the pandemic, and new technologies are emerging, some authors have indicated that it is a grand societal challenge (Lythreatis et al., 2022). Considering the digital divide differentiates between individuals who have reached the digital revolution by using the Internet, computers, and smartphones from those who have not, it is interesting to know what takes place in the DR, the impact of the gap between people who have access to internet connections and those who do not, and the degree of digital inclusion and exclusion in the country. This systematic review explored the definitions of digital exclusion and inclusion and explained how the DR fosters a digital culture. This study also examined which factors constitute the DR’s digital divide and digital exclusion concepts. Additionally, we analyzed the initiatives implemented in the DR to decrease the inequalities in the use of digital technology between groups of different socioeconomic backgrounds, ages, races, and genders. Finally, this study aims to systematically get an impression of the degree and promotion of digital culture in the DR. The inquiry questions that guided this review were:
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1. How does literature define digital inclusion and exclusion? 2. Which factors constitute the DR’s digital divide and exclusion concepts? 3. What initiatives are implemented in the DR to decrease the inequalities in using digital technology between groups of different socioeconomic backgrounds, ages, races, and genders? 4. What is the status and development of digital culture in the DR?
10.2 Materials and Methods A systematized examination was conducted to explain the notion of access to new technologies (inclusion and exclusion) and specifically to comprehend which factors compose the digital divide, digital exclusion, and digital inclusion concepts in the DR. In addition, this review aimed to investigate and determine what initiatives are implemented in the DR to decrease the inequalities in using digital technology between groups of different socioeconomic backgrounds, ages, races, and genders. Finally, we sought this review to understand the status and development of digital culture in the DR. Four inquiries were sought to better comprehend the target population and the study performed in the DR related to the path from Digital Exclusion to Digital Inclusion and how the DR fosters a Digital Culture. The procedure was structured into three major stages: (a) deciding, (b) grouping, and (c) unifying (Gough et al., 2017). This review is segregated into several stages: 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Starting the review. Then, the authors specified the databases selected for the search. The search lines. The benchmarks tracked for the assessment and choice of revisions. The authors incorporated the papers at the end of the procedure.
10.2.1 Search Strategy The search procedure included articles, reports, books, papers, essays, and theses, all described in Table 10.1. The authors chose the material because it contained whatever research they could find, such as theses or source surveys. They were used as literature for other systematic studies correlated to digital inclusion, digital exclusion, digital divide, digital culture strictly, revisions, papers, theses, or informs related to Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT). The authors chose Web of Science (WOS), Google Scholar, SCOPUS, and Wiley’s virtual collection electronic information service to manage this literature review. In addition, the authors searched tetrad sorts of electronic information services for publications in access to new technology (Inclusion), Digital Exclusion, and Digital culture in the selected electronic database:
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Table 10.1 Inclusion principles and exclusion principles Inclusion principles
Exclusion principles
Research paper on technology and education, including digital inclusion or digital exclusion in general
Studies not on technology or education or digital inclusion and digital exclusion in the DR
The article comprises digital culture and access to technology in general
The article does not involve digital inclusion or exclusion in the DR
They were published after 2000
They were not published after 2000
The studies were written in English or Spanish
The articles explored were not written in Spanish or English
The full version of the publication has open access via the following:
The full version of the publication does not have open access via the following:
1. Google Scholar
1. Google Scholar
2. Science (WOS)
2. Science (WOS)
3. Subscription of our institutions
3. Subscription of our institutions
4. SCOPUS
4. SCOPUS
5. Wiley online library 6. Official DR Gov Reports
5. Wiley online library 6. Non-Official Gov Reports
• WOS: TS = ((“digital inclusion*” OR “digital access*” OR “access to new technologies*”) AND (“digital exclusion*” OR “digital divide*” OR “Dominican Republic*”)). • WOS: TS = ((“digital inclusion*” OR “digital access*” OR “access to new technologies*”) AND (“digital exclusion*” OR “digital divide*” OR “Dominican Republic*”)). • Scopus: TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“digital gap*” OR “computer technology*” OR “gender divide*”) AND (“college” OR “university**” OR “Dominican Republic*”)). • Google Scholar: allintitle: “digital access*” OR “digital exclusion*” OR “digital inclusion*” AND “digital culture*” OR “technological gaps*” OR “gender gap*” OR “Dominican Republic 2030 agenda*” OR “digital public policies*” OR “Dominican Republic digital agenda*” OR “Dominican Republic digital literacy*” OR “internet use in the Dominican Republic*” OR “digital advance in the Dominican Republic*” OR “Dominican Republic*” OR “República Digital*” OR “2030 Digital Agenda*” OR “Digital Republic*.“ 1. Wiley virtual collection: in digital inclusion Article Titles OR “digital exclusion” in Abstract OR “digital culture” in Keywords OR “digital divide” in Article Titles OR “universe” in Abstract OR “Dominican Republic” in Keywords.
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10.2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Principles In this review, we chose from international research and DR-reported studies related to teaching technology, digital inclusion and digital exclusion, gender divide, digital divide, digital culture, implementation of new technologies, attitudes regarding the implementation of ICT in education, and the extent, model, and difficulty of the implementation. Also, we explored literature about how measurements are steadily handled to assess how the DR fosters a digital culture. Each scientific paper and Official DR Government Report that accomplished the examination standards were evaluated using several procedures, techniques, and investigation instruments for the study variable quantity. The authors assessed other general systematic reviews on this topic and another systematic review on this topic. We contrasted 151 articles, and after this analysis, 68 studies were selected since 83 papers were removed or duplicated. Table 10.1 presents the criteria employed within this study.
10.2.3 Quality Standards A detailed revision was conducted to decide which articles, papers, journal articles, Official DR Government Reports and dissertations fulfilled the value criteria and whether they met the requirements. The quality standards are listed in Fig. 10.1. As shown in Table 10.2, a concluded listing of 151 articles was considered, of which 83 were removed. We only selected 68 works. Papers involved in the evaluation must have a rating of at least three points to be chosen. Each inquiry had a trio of possibilities, and responses were cataloged as yes (1 point), no (0 points), and partial (0.5 points).
Is the paper including the Dominican Republic and the digital culture?
Are digital inclusion ideas incorporated?
Are digital exclusion ideas incorporated
Are the conclusions evident?
Does the paper include suggestions for policies to close the digital divide?
Does the paper include future research on the topic?
Fig. 10.1 Quality standards
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Table 10.2 Data extraction process Description
Numbers of papers
Articles found on Google Scholar and different libraries
151
Removal of duplicated
83
Exclusion and inclusion criteria application
0
Quality criteria application
0
Total of papers
68
10.2.4 Theoretical Framework Research exploring digital inequalities began in 1970 (Mun-Cho & Jong-Kil, 2001). This year, researchers formulated the hypothesis of the knowledge gap. However, in the early 1980s, extensive research was conducted on the influence of broadcasting and the unequal distribution of communications. Nevertheless, information inequality drew little attention as a social concern (Mun-Cho & Jong-Kil, 2001). The data gap became a topic of interest in the early 1990s when the US Division of Business’s National Networks and Information Administration introduced the term Internet access. Since then, personal computer use has increased and is constantly evolving (Eastin et al., 2015; Kim & Kim, 2001). Several studies indicate two approaches to the terms used to refer to citizen participation (inclusion) in the Information Society (Patricia et al., 2015). Nonetheless, in the European Union (EU), research and policy development are framed in terms of e-inclusion and e-exclusion, considering the research options and policies of social inclusion and social exclusion (European Commission, 2007; Patricia et al., 2015). Indeed, various facts affected the digital divide throughout the years, and many were based on prejudices such as the individual’s gender, as in the case of women (Zapata et al., 2017). The exclusion of women from the computing record perpetuates prejudices, such as the idea that female lack of interest in computing is natural (Light, 2013; Zapata et al., 2017). Therefore, artificial intelligence and robotics development fall into gender stereotypes (Zapata et al., 2017). Thus, the digital divide has developed into an essential issue in the interest of individual nations and international relations, as it is being considered at summit conventions and international forums (Kim & Kim, 2001). However, the term was soon expanded to represent the divide between those who have access to technological equipment and can navigate Cyberspace and efficiently employ modern technology and those who do not (Gunkel, 2003). Existing research has contributed to comprehending several aspects of the digital divide. Zapata et al. (2017) state that technical advancements in data are rapidly and extensively evolving. These changes affect how people interact with society, requiring an examination of traditional habits through technology. Those who do not master these changes are left behind, compared to those who have technological devices and access to the Internet and know-how to use them. The researchers also state that moving away from or after information technologies is usually a state of
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constraint resulting from financial possessions, the infrastructure of the context, limitations in education and information literacy, restrictions on access to labor markets, or sociocultural mental paradigms, such as women’s cases. Accordingly, women, black people, older people, and other minority populations, such as impoverished people, sexual and gender minorities, and African American girls, are left aside from technology access (Mehra et al., 2004; Selwyn, 2004; Zapata et al., 2017). Consequently, technology in the hands of a few market giants not only does not help humanity but also facilitates an asymmetrical distribution that denounces a large part of the inhabitants to a perpetual and irreversible excluded world (Vázquez Atochero, 2015). According to Vázquez Atochero (2015), we are experiencing a cultural and social revolution, a change of paradigm based on the human–machine relationship that conditions, above everything, the youngest citizens of the future. However, Sanders (2020) states that the Internet and digital tools are currently at the heart of community, financial, and social life roles. It has altered how we work, connect, spend, learn, distract, and approach information and public assistance. Thus, restricted people can be constrained or incapable of participating fully in society (Sanders, 2020; Serafino, 2019). Living in a community with such differences between people who can connect to the Internet and those who cannot is inevitable. Hence, the definition of digital exclusion has transformed over the years from a simple user of the Internet, technological devices, or non-user to discovering different stages of cyberspace use and abilities (Black et al., 2018). Interestingly, not having access to or partial entry to cyberspace inhibits populations from joining a planet with several opportunities that cannot be accessed if they cannot be and stay connected. Therefore, inclusion in the digital domain is closely related to social inclusion (Ragnedda et al., 2022). Researchers indicate that despite their Internet access, those individuals at risk of social exclusion are more likely to lack the digital knowledge to utilize its full potential (Ragnedda et al., 2022). They also affirmed that socially vulnerable people have more difficulty using digital technologies. Thus, these people are marginalized by their economic status. Thompson et al. (2014) discuss three different types of access to information. The first is physical access, which refers to the ability to physically or virtually access information. It also depends on the data being stored and retrievable. The second type is intellectual access, which depends on accessing the information after physical access. The last type of access is social access, which relies on the interaction of social groups and communities. It is related to know-how and skill relative to using technology, specifically the Internet. Regarding the initiatives implemented in the DR to decrease the inequalities in the use of digital technology between groups of different socioeconomic backgrounds, ages, races, and genders, we explored several studies conducted in other countries to understand the relationship between these factors and the digital divide. Research indicates that introducing ICT reinforces active social disparities (Goedhart et al., 2019). A study conducted in 2005 among school-age children in the United States (US) aimed to investigate any inequalities in internet use among the children studied (Cleary et al., 2006). Results indicated that many economic, demographic, and geographic factors significantly impact internet use among children (Cleary et al.,
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2006). In the same vein, regarding the digital divide in Europe. In a study published in 2008, concepts such as the physical access divide in Europe were explored (Van Dijk, 2008). The author defined the digital gap between European regions or countries as the opening of critical demographic factors such as gender, educational level, age, type of occupation, and racial minorities (Van Dijk, 2008). This study aimed to explore if they were limiting or, on the contrary, expanding at the time of writing. The findings of this study indicated a relationship between socioeconomic status and closing the physical-digital divide among different European regions. The physical access divide was defined as having computers and Internet connections (Van Dijk, 2008). The findings indicated that in Europe, by the year 2000, the gap had begun to close (Van Dijk, 2008). Therefore, higher-income and more educated individuals started achieving digital literacy and Internet access (Van Dijk, 2008). Thus, these findings revealed that socioeconomic status and academic level affected the digital divide (Van Dijk, 2008). People with high incomes were acquiring digital devices faster than people with low economic rates and lower educational levels. Thus, the digital gap started closing in high-income families, but differently in low-income households (Van Dijk, 2008). Recent research in Amsterdam has shed light on the multiple factors that can hinder access to the Internet. These factors include but are not limited to difficulties faced in daily life, motherhood, the complexity of information and communication technologies (ICT), and being a first-generation migrant. The consequences of these obstacles can lead to inequalities in the acquisition of technology and the development of a digital culture, which can hinder social inclusion. Studies have shown that adopting ICTs has further perpetuated existing social disparities. Furthermore, multiple sources, such as Goedhart et al. (2019), Helsper (2010), Van Deursen (2015), and Oudshoorn et al. (2016), have confirmed the link between social and digital exclusion.
10.2.5 Digital Exclusion in Latin America and the Dominican Republic Literature indicates that digital exclusion in Latin America is a multilayered problem that demands coordinated policy responses. Approximately half of all Latin American grownups still need to be connected to the opportunities correlated with Net adoption (Galperin, 2017). According to Gamboa and Gutierrez (2008), there is a strong link between household income and Cyberspace adoption in Latin America. However, there is international concern about solving these inequalities. The 2030 Digital Agenda heralds a new epoch alongside a new era in which the diffusion and acceptance of new ICT skills and global interconnection offer limitless opportunities to accelerate human growth, improve access to information, and develop knowledge societies. At the Eighth Governmental Session on Information Civilization in the Caribbean and Latin America in 2022, the Digital Program for
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the Caribbean and Latin America was introduced. The primary objective of this program is to facilitate collaboration among provinces in technology-related matters and foster the development of guidelines, capabilities, and governmental dialogue concerning the challenges and opportunities associated with the digital revolution for humanity, as well as the necessary budget required for its growth. The program will serve as a catalytic tool to support these efforts and promote their success. Thus, having a digital agenda would contribute to the subsistence of the region’s countries, and digital articulation implied that all people were within the ecosystem of the information society. Alliances should be formed between countries in the area and across borders (CEPAL, 2023). DR will be a part of these coalitions. Significant innovations and technological shifts within the DR are impacting many industries and universities that have adopted ICT in response to technical requirements (Munoz et al., 2022). In 2016, governmental authorities in the DR initiated the Digital Nation project, expecting to promote the insertion of communication and information technologies in productive, didactic, legislative, and civilian assistance activities. This bloc seeks to sketch, apply, and foster wide-ranging policies that integrate ICTs into the Dominican teaching system. With these initiatives, more Dominicans are supposed to be digitally involved in all aspects of their lives. Thus, ICT will have to be part of the DR context. Also, the main stakeholders would have to be involved in integrating technologies into the Dominican Republic’s everyday activities, educational institutions, policymakers, and non-government organizations (NGOs) (Comisión Nacional para la Sociedad de la Información y el Conocimiento, 2018).
10.3 Results and Discussion The methodology selected was a systematic literature review (SLR) and was used to guide this review. Results and discussion are shown in the succeeding paragraphs.
10.3.1 How Does Literature Define Digital Inclusion and Exclusion? In the contemporary world, striving toward creating a level playing field, where all individuals can participate in the rapidly expanding digital arena without bias or discrimination is imperative. Conclusively, technology has significantly impacted social interactions, education, and employment (Deleersnyder, 2022). Research indicates that developing technical skills is crucial for success in the new digital economy. Thus, this situation represents a challenge for those needing digital literacy. The COVID-19 epidemic has further highlighted the significance of digital inclusion.
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According to experts, digital inclusion seamlessly integrates offline opportunities and ensures equitable access to valuable online resources (Ragnedda and Kreitem, 2018). It encompasses bridging the digital divide and providing equal opportunities for all individuals to benefit from the digital world. However, discussing digital inclusion requires including the digital divide. The name “digital gap” (range) typically indicates the inequality between individuals accessing diverse information and communication technology and those without (Van Dijk, 2017, pp. 1–2). Early attempts to close the digital divide mainly focused on the nation-state breach of access, particularly in structural and economic relationships (Alexander, 2023). Nevertheless, new digital divides arose as technology advanced, leading to a shift in the discussion toward multiple digital ranges. The focus is no longer solely on one aspect of the digital divide but on various aspects that contribute to it. In their systematic review of fifty studies, Lythreatis et al. (2022) found that factors affecting the digital divide can be classified into sociodemographic, socioeconomic, and digital training. The authors also emphasized different digital disparities, some linked to technological factors like infrastructure and internet speed. In contrast, others are related to societal factors, such as diverse identities (Alexander, 2023). Considering the digital divide has evolved, the gap is even more significant for lowincome individuals who need more of these essential resources at home. According to national US data, a significant proportion of households, exceeding 40%, lack access to home broadband services (Vogels, 2021). Scholars and United States-based institutions such as The National Digital Inclusion Alliance (NDIA) have assessed Digital inclusion using the “three-legged stool” metaphor referring to the “three-legged stool of Digital Inclusion” (Treacy, 2017; Wilson, 2021) where access to the Internet and devices are two of the legs, and knowledge of how to use both is the third leg. Hence, it is vital to acknowledge that countries like the DR are still addressing the access issue. According to national data (ONE, 2022), there is a positive association between education levels and the use of technology in households. As people attain higher levels of education, there is an increase in the proportion of computer, Internet, and cell phone users in families. Also, we can observe a similar tendency in families’ socioeconomic status, where a higher socioeconomic status leads to a higher percentage of individuals aged five years and over accessing Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT). According to Ragnedda et al. (2022) and Sanders (2020), digital literacy is crucial for achieving social equality as it allows people to navigate both social and digital aspects effectively. Several communities are geographically isolated from essential resources, such as commercial centers, public facilities, schools, and medical establishments. Consequently, a significant disparity has emerged between the individuals who possess digital resources and those who don’t.
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10.3.2 Which Factors Constitute the Digital Divide and Digital Exclusion Concepts in the DR? Research indicates that feasibility, affordability, and education are highly restrictive in the DR. Many Dominican communities need more Internet access, so the infrastructure must be expanded into networks capable of supporting broadband Internet (ONE, 2008). On the other hand, the combination of income levels and service prices leaves 10% of the population without the possibility of acquiring a minimum Internet service. These results support the hypothesis of the advisability of deploying a public strategy of universal access through a network of telecentres instead of devoting resources to the growth of the service at the residential level since an effort in this last direction would be little profitable and even counterproductive regarding its effects on the social Internet usage statistics show that while in telecentres, the network is accessed mainly by individuals from low-income households, the opposite occurs with Internet users who have an account in their homes (ONE, 2008). The National Survey of Multiple Purposes (ENHOGAR) was conducted by the Statistics Office of the DR (ONE) in 2005, cited in ONE (2008). The findings indicated that the proportion of households that declared having contracted Internet service is 3.1%, and the balance of the population older than 12 years who claimed to have used the World Wide Web at least once through the 12-calendar month before the inspection is 16.4%. Also, this survey showed that only 13% of the connections declared are broadband. Thus, residential broadband Internet is in the early stages of the DR. According to the same study regarding affordability, 11.9% of participants declare that their income does not allow them to access the service. At the same time, only 2% of those surveyed indicated that the price was so high that they could not afford it. This study detected differences between those who have contracted the Internet service at home and those who go to telecentres. According to the data collected, 41.4% of those surveyed who answered navigating in Cyberspace at a minimum on one occasion throughout the preceding twelve calendar months indicated that they had attended a telecentre at least once. In comparison, 20.3% indicated they had used the service from home. These results were not exclusive. Therefore, some cases answered affirmatively to both. According to the study, internet access is considered a luxury service in the Dominican Republic. The results indicate that households with higher wealth are more likely to have Internet access, which could exacerbate the problem of inequality rather than reduce it. As for having technology in the home, the data collected by ENHOGAR also allowed some comparison of the households regarding ICT availability. The results show that those households that access the Internet at home are the best situated in this regard, with fixed and mobile telephony penetration rates of over 90%. These results categorically refute the hypothesis that there is some substitution between telephones and the Internet, although this phenomenon could gradually increase (ONE, 2008). These findings are relevant since having a personal computer (PC) at home allows people to learn more quickly about its management
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and maximize its functionalities. Thus, it confirms the need to develop computer training programs in establishments, schools, or access centers. The same study indicates other relevant data. For example, behind these challenges are those aimed at reducing the price of the service to make it more affordable, instructing the population to have a genuine ability to use the tool, and designing engaging content to encourage or stimulate Internet use. Regarding efforts to overcome the educational sector’s digital divide, research indicates the need to train students and professors (Checo, 2020). According to Checo (2020), more than providing students and teachers with access to ICT is required to enhance teaching practices and promote learning. This limited access to staying connected, and the lack of digital literacy, have negative implications for diverse opportunities for these citizens (Ragnedda et al., 2022). Both groups must obtain the necessary skills to utilize these tools effectively. Regrettably, ICT training has not been widely implemented. The K-12 Ministry of Education in the DR (MINERD) reported that as of June 2020, only 18,083 teachers had undergone training, which accounts for only 23% of the intended target (Checo, 2020). Lythreatis et al. (2022) identified trends in recent literature regarding algorithmic awareness and data inequalities as new digital divide levels. Hence, this is particularly concerning in countries like the DR since national data reported that the National Cyber Incident Response Team (CSIRT-RD) attended over 170 attacks in 2021. However, in the first ten months of 2022, this number rose to over 260 cases, as per CNCS (n.d.). Additionally, as in most developing countries, such as the DR, socioeconomic situations are a main factor in the digital divide. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be used as a reference. We see that traditionally other elements are more important than the digital issue, despite the strategic importance it has for the development of people. Other factors are absent or deficient technological infrastructure, connectivity and Internet access problems, and digital literacy (ONE, 2008, Sanders, 2020).
10.3.3 What Initiatives Are Implemented in the DR to Decrease the Inequalities in Using Digital Technology Between Groups of Different Socioeconomic Backgrounds, Ages, Races, and Genders? The DR has made progress toward closing the digital divide since the 2000s. Although research conducted in 2019 indicates that the total number of ICT non-users, even in developed prosperity states, is still elevated (Goedhart et al., 2019). For example, 17% of citizens in the Netherlands lack or have low ICT abilities, and an additional 6% have yet to use Cyberspace once (Goedhart et al., 2019). Accordingly, DR has made digital inclusion part of every government agenda to close the technology gap (Tomczyk & Sunday Oyelere, 2019).
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According to research by Tomczyk and Sunday Oyelere (2019), in 2016, the Dominican government established the Digital Republic Program to promote using ICTs in education, government, and citizen services. The program aims to provide comprehensive, quality, and permanent education with equal opportunities, as the DR Constitution outlines. This project aligns with the National Development Strategy and the “Digital Agenda,” a country strategy to promote economic and social development in the DR. The Digital Republic includes a platform for managing educational resources, training, and production for teachers and facilitators and providing educational resources in digital format. The program has developed three citizen technology-training projects in the Community Technology Centers (CTC): (1) Females in ICT, (2) Native Digital, and (3) T-Includes. The Ministry of Education (MINERD) has also sponsored projects to guarantee the inclusion of young populations and adults by 2020, such as the “Compu-Maestro 2.0 Program” and the integration of mobile applications to learn and teach with ICT. The National Institute of Public Administration (INAP) also offers free MOOC courses that are specifically designed for public servants and the public in general, some of which are taught by the Inter-American Development Bank (BDI). Initiatives Implemented in the DR to Decrease Inequalities in Using Technology Between Different Genders, and Different Socioeconomic Statuses. A study conducted in 2008 showed that when looking at the distribution of call center users according to gender, there was a bias marked by the greater participation of men (ONE, 2008). The same study indicated that women and men represent 42.7 and 57.3% (ONE, 2008). Although the difference is not high, this imbalance allows us to glimpse a particular gender gap using telecentre (ONE, 2008). The possibility that women face limitations in going to these establishments should be a reason for study and concern while the network of telecentres expands (ONE, 2008). According to Tomczyk and Sunday Oyelere (2019), the Digital Republic also focuses on helping women in ICT. This program aims to address gender disparities and mitigate technological challenges among adolescents and young adults aged 12–35. Another project implemented in the Digital Republic is called (Tomczyk & Sunday Oyelere, 2019). “The Digital Native” focuses on training children under 12 in the most vulnerable sectors regarding ICT adoption (Tomczyk & Sunday Oyelere, 2019). The importance of this project lies in its focus on closing the digital gap among vulnerable populations such as young people of low social and economic status, older people, and people with a lack of knowledge or access to technology. Thus, they were digitally excluded. In 2018, the National Statistics Office reported that the Ministry of Education (MINERD) had sponsored programs aimed at ensuring the inclusion of young people and adults by 2020. The programs also aimed to increase subsidies on ICT to meet some of the objectives of the Sustainable Development Goal of the DR 2030 Digital Agenda (Tomczyk & Sunday Oyelere, 2019). Results from the same study confirm that those with the Internet at home are advantaged in terms of educational level; therefore, they start from a better position to perform socially and professionally. On the other hand, the centers of collective access to the Internet are proportionally
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2008 1997
2004
• Law 66-97 Education • Technology in education
• Community Technology Centers (CTC) project
2006 • National Development Strategy (Decree 498-06) • National plan aiming to contribute to holistic development of the nation
• Education Decenal Plan • Ministry of Education (MINERD) • CompuMaestro 2.0 Program • Structuring of ICT Clubs • Quisqueya in TIC • Virtual Classrooms (AVES)
2016 2015 • DR becomes part of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of 2030.
• “República Digital” [Digital Republic] (Decree 258-16) • Program aiming to meet the objective 3.3.5 National Development Strategy
2018 • National Institute of Public Administration (INAP), • Fee MOOCs courses.
Fig. 10.2 The Dominican Republic’s government road map to digital inclusion, according to Munoz et al. (2020)
integrating more people with less instruction, giving them the possibility of improvement necessary to mitigate differences within society. The same study also revealed that the educational level of the telecentre users is higher than that of the population. This data is evidence of a phenomenon that can be anticipated. Regardless of the place or how they use the service, Internet users have a higher educational level than the average population, allowing them to take advantage of such tools (ONE, 2008). Another concern in that specific study was the reluctance to attend telecentres for many people over 40 years of age, thus marking a generational gap that should be interrupting the initiative to achieve the closure of this generational gap in the digital inclusion agenda. Figure 10.2 shows the ongoing dedication of the Dominican Republic’s government toward digital inclusion. Their determined efforts through various programs are helping bridge the digital gap and pave the way for a brighter future. Many of these initiatives and programs have helped to overcome digital exclusion in the DR. However, despite the many resources put into these endeavors, the digital divide still needs to get closer. The Initiatives Implemented in the DR to Decrease the Inequalities in Using Digital Technology Between Groups of Different Ages. National data highlights that among residents five years of age and older, 40.1% used PCs, 67.8% used Cyberspace, and 85.8% used mobile telephones (Munoz et al., 2020; ONE, 2018). A Project Progress Report for The Transparency Portal of the Telecommunications Development Fund (INDOTEL, 2019) discusses a digital inclusion project in the Dominican Republic. It provided computer equipment at the national level to State Institutions and Non-profit Organizations—government (NGO) and Non-Profit Institutions, including those that provide direct services to citizens with disabilities. In addition, outstanding students and public libraries may be included as beneficiaries and entities dedicated to academic research, among other institutions, to improve
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their management administration, strengthen academic training, and reward excellence. The project suggests that Institutions must be legally constituted, and students must have a grade or average grade above 90 points (INDOTEL, 2019). The initiative contemplates a component of Computer Accessibility, through which institutions in the disability sector that have previously collaborated with Instituto Dominicano de las Telecomunicaciones (INDOTEL) by its acronym in Spanish, in the development matters of projects that benefit industry will be approached; Specifically, they will be counting on their advice on the issues of disability and accessible ICT (INDOTEL, 2019). In the same vein, to continue contributing to digital inclusion, in 2022, INDOTEL announced the Digital Literacy Guides with a Gender Approach to train approximately two thousand women and benefit them from a program called “Social Digital Basket,” within the project “Connect the Not Connected.“ Through this program, Indotel seeks to include the benefited ladies socially and try to reduce the digital gap in women, showing them how to use technology responsibly (INDOTEL, n.d.). However, according to the Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana (2022a, 2022b), there is a digital divide and considerable telecommunications services between population segments of different conditions: socioeconomic, geographic (urban and rural, and between demarcations), generational, and gender. Therefore, the objectives of the 2030 Digital Agenda demand that the Dominican government, together with the private sector, academia, and civil organizations, develop an ecosystem that allows sustainable advances in the various aspects of national life and that makes it possible to insert the country into a digital economy within the framework of the National Development Strategy, which makes explicit reference to ICT in the objectives and lines of action of the four axes that compose it and, in addition, defines the political transversal use of them to achieve the goals that are proposed (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b).
10.3.4 What is the Status and Development of Digital Culture in the DR? Although historically, different efforts have been made to advance as a country, currently, the main initiative to develop a digital culture in a holistic way in the country is outlined in the 2030 Digital Agenda, defined as a road map that will guide DR toward digital inclusion and acquiring a digital culture. Thus, this agenda will allow high-tech implementation, affecting prolific sectors, authorities, academic circles, and society (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). Before the approval of the 2030 Digital Agenda, the DR promoted pioneering agendas and various strategies to develop Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT) as enablers of the collective and economic growth of the nation. One of
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the first initiatives was the inauguration in 1999 of the Parque Cibernético de Santo Domingo (PCSD), the first innovation and knowledge center in the region (PCSD, n.d.), to promote the technology industry in the country (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). Then, the first version of the Digital Agenda was elaborated in 2004; the second in 2005, the year in which the Countrywide Directive for the Info Association and Awareness was created (CNSIC); in 2006, it was revised based on the period 2007–2010 and then for the period 2011–2014 (CNSIC, 2018). In 2016, the government of the DR, through the Gabinete de Transformación Digital and the INDOTEL, initiated the Digital Republic program, expecting to promote the insertion of the area of ICT in industrious, didactic, administrative, and national facility procedures. This bloc seeks to sketch, employ, and adopt general strategies that combine ICTs into the Dominican teaching system (INDOTEL, 2019). As a result of a participatory effort, the Digital Agenda 2016–2020 was later replaced by the Program Digital Republic, which contemplated important projects tending to the ending of the digital gap, the deployment of infrastructure, and digital safety (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). With these initiatives, more Dominicans are supposed to be digitally involved in all aspects of their lives. Thus, ICT will have to be part of the DR context. Also, the main stakeholders would have to be involved in integrating technologies into the Dominican Republic’s everyday activities, educational institutions, policymakers, and NGOs (Munoz et al., 2020). The 2030 Digital Agenda initiative has been established by President Abinader and conducted by the Gabinete de Transformación Digital. This 2030 Digital Plan intends to ensure that, by the year 2030, the DR becomes a nation that exhibits affordable and accessible high connectivity, also to guide and equip the population with the required digital skills and competencies to make appropriate and productive use of technology (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). The 2021–2024 action plan has been created to measure progress concretely. It refers to the list of projects and initiatives prioritized by the government in charge of promoting, in the corresponding section, the fulfillment of its goals and objectives. To accomplish these goals, one of the cores of this plan is to improve the digital abilities of professors in the Nationwide Instruction Structure, as objective 4.2.2 explains (United Nations, 2015). In this regard, it is vital to remark on the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology’s (MESCyT) efforts in training programs for digital skills so that teachers and students are more efficient in their functions and responsibilities. At the same time, they work to promote public policies related to ethics in artificial intelligence, promoting research projects that cover the most vulnerable sectors (Presidencia de la República Dominicana, 2023). On the other hand, the country has made progress in developing digital skills in its population and using the Internet, where 74.8% of the population is already a user. This information places the DR in fourth place in Latin America, according to the latest measurement by 2020 by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Also, the number of online public services has been growing, placing the DR in seventh place in Latin America, according to the previous statistical measurements
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(Portal Oficial del Estado Dominicano, n.d.). In addition, the DR currently has an organization for detection and response to cyberattacks. However, much work must be done to continue strengthening and improving the response times of these detection and defense mechanisms (CNCS, n.d.). As cited by the Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana in 2022, the extraordinary circumstances resulting from or after the COVID-19 pandemic have speeded the acquisition of technologies, pinpointing the powers and limitations from commercial, collective, and regional opinions. Indeed, during the months of restricted mobility, telecommunication networks’ capacity, and resilience covered an extreme super-connectivity situation. This connectivity increased up to 50% in voice landline, 30% in mobile voice, 20% in fixed network data, and 50% in mobile traffic compared to 2019. In addition, the requirements for digital audiovisual services increased as a general leisure and entertainment consumer good as they became an accessible alternative to fill those activities that were prohibited and affected by the restrictions on physical mobility during the pandemic. To continue fostering a digital culture in the DR, the Export and Investment Center of the DR (ProDominicana) deployed the Single Investment Window (VUI), by its acronym in Spanish, platform and the Foreign Direct Investment Registry. Both aim to centralize the management and processing of permits, licenses, and certifications necessary to formalize foreign investments. Thus, it seeks to simplify, standardize, and automate authorizations issued by Dominican government institutions that participate in foreign trade operations in the DR (Ventanilla Única de Comercio Exterior de la República Dominicana, VUCERD, n.d.). In the same vein, Brecha Cero (2023) states that this initiative represents an advance in the strategy carried out by the DR, which is searching to position itself as a destination for foreign direct investment (FDI) in the Caribbean. Although the initiative is outstanding and allows progress in acquiring a digital culture in the DR through the automation of processes, it also allows for attracting foreign investment. However, more is needed to be successful. It must be accompanied by other policies at the national level that stimulate the adoption of mobile broadband to advance in the digitization of the market (Brecha Cero, 2023; VUCERD, n.d.). In addition, to continue developing digital inclusion, the Government authorities have taken steps to regulate the security of information and cyberspace. In June 2018, Law No. 230-18 was enacted, establishing and regulating the 2018–2021 National Cybersecurity Strategy (ENCS), in which the Center was created (Exec. Order No. 230–18, 2018). The Law enacted defines the pillars, objectives, and lines of action of the Cybersecurity program in the DR. Similarly, the ENCS mission establishes the appropriate cybersecurity mechanisms for protecting the State, its inhabitants, and, in general, development and national security. Additionally, the DR government introduced laws and complementary action plans for cybercrime, cyberterrorism, cyber defense, cyber warfare, and cryptography. Also, the DR government implemented other initiatives during the COVID-19 pandemic state (Gobierno de la República Dominicana, n.d.). The Ministry of Education (MINERD) launched the platform en linea.minerd.gob.do, available to the entire educational community. From this platform, teachers and students could access the 2019–2020 teaching and
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learning program, allowing them to continue the teaching and learning process while the authorities maintained the State of Emergency in the face of COVID-19 (Gobierno de la República Dominicana, n.d.). Furthermore, in the legislative and regulatory field in 2007, Law 53-07 on High Technology Crimes and Offenses was enacted in the DR. The main objective of this Law is the comprehensive protection of systems that use information and communication technologies. In addition, prevent and punish crimes committed by said technologies to the detriment of citizens or entities under the terms provided in said Law (Portal Oficial del Estado Dominicano, n.d.). In 2022, The President of the Republic, Luis Abinader, sent the bill against cybercrime to the National Congress to modify Law No. 53-07 of High Technology Crimes and Offenses. Given that many current crimes and offenses are not classified as criminal if approved, this new Law would repeal Law 53-07 on High Technology Crimes and Offenses (Presidencia de la República Dominicana, 2022). This bill is still in the Senate of the Dominican Republic for verification and subsequent promulgation (Senado República Dominicana, n.d.). The Telephone Private Company Claro recently announced that more than 400,000 customers would receive up to more than double the speed of fiber optic Internet at no additional cost, allowing access to Dominicans access to internet connections and helping close the digital divide by nurturing the DR’s digital culture (Claro Institucional, 2023).
10.4 Limitations After reviewing validated studies, this research provides a state-of-the-art research inquiry. It portrays research comprised of four types of databases investigated for publications in digital inclusion, digital exclusion, the digital divide, and the modern era (digital culture). They existed as resources for former methodical text revisions associated with digital culture, specifically reports, papers, articles, and theses, evidently in the DR. Several Documents from databases such as SCOPUS, the Web of Science (WOS), Wiley online library, and Google Scholar were chosen to oversee this systematized literature evaluation. We searched the terminology in the document’s heading, keywords, and summary (2000–2023). Overall, the current research adds to the scarce collection of studies that internationally depict the digital divide topic in the DR. Despite the multiple attributes of this research, some limitations arose during the study: 1. Although extensive, the literature review developed needs to explore the efforts made by authors and governments before 1990. Providing a history of technology and internet access in the DR would be helpful. 2. Several governmental documents are not available digitally. 3. It is essential to note that gaining access to these resources requires a formal request, which can take up to ten business days to process. The DR government
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and private institutions should enhance the research culture, and it is recommended to conduct interviews with government officials and professionals in the field to gain further insights. 4. It would be beneficial to compare the DR’s digital inclusion efforts with those of other countries that share similar socioeconomic conditions. 5. Also, by analyzing successful strategies and lessons learned from other Latin American countries, the DR can gain valuable insights to improve their digital inclusion efforts.
10.5 Conclusions Regarding the factors that constitute the digital divide and digital exclusion concepts in the DR, as in most developing countries, such as the DR, socioeconomic situations are the main factors related to the digital divide. Research indicates that feasibility, affordability, and education are highly restrictive in the DR (ONE, 2018).
10.5.1 Suggestions Many Dominican communities need more Internet access, so we suggest that the DR government should expand the infrastructure into networks capable of supporting broadband Internet (ONE, 2018). Remarkably, in 2016, the government, academia, the private sector, and civil organizations initiated the Digital Republic program, expecting to promote the addition of ICT skills in dynamic, instructive, administrative, and resident provision procurement. The aim was to insert the country into a digital economy within the framework of the National Development Strategy (Ministerio de Economía Planificación y Desarrollo, 2012). There are also several projects by non-governmental organizations and the private sector to foster digital inclusion in the DR. However, we suggest the Dominican government must seek inclusion by providing more services and legal and regulatory reforms.
10.5.2 Recommendations for Practice Regarding the status and development of digital culture in the DR, although historically different efforts have been made to advance as a country, currently, the main initiative to develop a digital culture holistically is outlined in the 2030 Digital Agenda, defined as a road map that will guide the DR toward acquiring a digital culture (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). Also, the significant improvements and technological changes that Dominican society is undergoing influence higher education institutions (Munoz
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et al., 2022). According to Muñoz et al. (2020, p. 84), the Overall DR Regulation of Teaching (66–97), as well as the “Ten Year Education Plan 2008–2018,” Plan Decenal de Educación 2008–2018, create interest in fostering and encouraging scientific, scientific, and humanist information, developing technical revolution, and conducting to the integration of ICTs into the didactic processes (Muñoz et al., 2020, p. 84). However, the extraordinary circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic sped up the digitization route, emphasizing the robustness and limitations of financial, community, and regional opinions. Also, in June 2018, Law No. 230-18 was enacted, establishing and regulating the 2018–2021 National Cybersecurity Strategy (ENCS), in which the Center was created. Law 230-18 defines the pillars, objectives, and lines of action of the Cybersecurity policy. According to these initiatives, ICT must be part of the DR context. Therefore, as Muñoz et al. (2020) indicated, the main stakeholders would have to integrate technologies into the Dominican Republic’s everyday activities, educational institutions, policymakers, and nonprofit organizations (NGOs) to solve these issues. Regarding the initiatives implemented in the DR to decrease the inequalities in using digital technology between groups of different socioeconomic backgrounds, ages, races, and gender, the DR has made progress toward closing the digital divide since the 2000s. However, access is mandatory to continue the conversation of digital inclusion. It is known that the government did not nationally cover accessibility to either devices or the Internet in 2018 (ONE, 2018). Also, this study showed that in the distribution of call center users according to gender, there was a bias marked by the greater participation of men (57.3%), where women represent 42.7% (ONE, 2018). In addition, new research indicated the existence of a digital divide and multiple telecommunications services between population segments of different conditions (Gabinete de Transformación Digital de la República Dominicana, 2022a, 2022b). However, despite the efforts made by the public and private sectors to achieve a digital culture, it is still necessary to continue equipping citizens and institutions with hardware, knowledge, and a sense of urgency to close the digital divide. Finally, the DR has tackled digital exclusion, such as creating public internet access points and initiatives to foster digital mastery. Nevertheless, there is still much work to be done to ensure that all people living in a country have access to the openings offered by the digital domain, including improving digital identification systems essential for all DR citizens to enable secure and reliable access to public and private platforms.
Author Contract/Declaration This section is a guarantee showing that this manuscript has not gotten prior publication and is not under consideration for publication in another place. The authors assert that they have examined and authorized the final version of the proposed manuscript. Recognition Author Statement Laura Reyes Alardo: Methods, Analysis, Quality Criteria, Theoretical Framework, Conclusions, and Limitations. Writing and editing—original draft and critically revised manuscript. Leipzig Guzmán Mena: Analysis, Format, Editing, Critical Revision of the Manuscript, and Supervision. Rita Licelot
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Cruz: Methods, Literature Review, Analysis, Certification, Critical Revision of the Manuscript, and Editing. Darwin Munoz: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, and Literature Review, Conclusions, and Critical Revision of the Manuscript. Declaration of Competing Interests None. Acknowledgements The article was written as part of the monograph titled “Digital Competences Development - Challenges, Perspectives, and Trends.” The prestigious Springer Nature Singapore will publish the book as part of the Lecture Notes in Educational Technology series (ISSN XXXX– XXXX)
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Rogers, E. M. (2001). The digital divide. Convergence, 7(4), 96–111. Sanders, R. (2020). Digital inclusion, exclusion, and participation. Iriss. For digital transformation integrating the lean thinking philosophy. In 2019 IEEE International. Selwyn, N. (2004). The information age: A qualitative study of older adults use of information and communications technology. Journal of Aging Studies, 18(4), 369–384. Sen, A (2000). Desarrollo y libertad. Ed. Planeta. Senado República Dominicana. (n.d.). 01605 Proyecto Ley - Modif. Ley 53–07 Ciberdelincuencia [01605 Project Law - Modif. Law 53–07 Cybercrime]. https://memoriahistorica.senadord.gob. do/items/331e5b6e-0e1c-43ae-a925-d36689d79808 Serafino, P. (2019). Exploring the UK’s digital divide. Office for National Statistics [Conference on Engineering, Technology, and Innovation] (ICE/ITMC) (pp. 1–8). IEEE. Stiglitz, J., (2012). El precio de la Desigualdad. Taurus, Alfaguara. Thompson, K. M., Jaeger, P. T., Taylor, N. G., Subramaniam, M., & Bertot, J. C. (2014). Digital literacy and digital inclusion: Information policy and the public library. Rowman & Littlefield. Treacy, A. (2017). What are the elements of a successful digital inclusion partnership? Blanding on Broadband. https://blandinonbroadband.org/2017/07/11/what-are-the-elements-of-a-succes sful-digital-inclusion-partnership/ Tomczyk, Ł., & Sunday Oyelere, S. (2019). ICT for Learning and Inclusion in Latin America and Europe. Case Study From Countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Finland, Poland, Turkey, Uruguay. Kraków: Pedagogical University. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for sustainable development (A/RES/70/1). UN General Assembly. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda Van Deursen, A. J., & Van Dijk, J. A. (2015). Toward a multifaceted model of internet access for understanding digital divides: An empirical investigation. The Information Society, 31(5), 379–391. Van Dijk, J. A. (2017). Digital divide: Impact of access. The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects, 1–11. Vázquez Atochero, A. (2015). Brecha digital, la barrera entre la élite on-line y los parias off-line. In Derechos humanos emergentes y periodismo (pp. 837–854). https://idus.us.es/bitstream/11441/ 38274/1/Pages%20from%20Derechos%20Humanos%20Emergentes%20y%20Periodismo-114.pdf Ventanilla Única de Comercio Exterior (VUCEDRD). (n.d.). Acerca de VUCE [About VUCE]. https://vucerd.gob.do/#smooth-scroll-top Vogels, E. A. (2021). The digital divide persists even as lower-income Americans make gains in tech adoption. Pew Research Center. Wanyan, D., & Dai, Y. (2019). Promoting equal access to public digital cultural services in China: Efforts and challenges. Libri, 69(3), 229–239. https://doi.org/10.1515/libri-2018-0079 Wilson, T. C. (2021). Digital inclusion: It’s not just about access. Bridges. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Zapata, C. B., Arraíza, P. M., Silva, E. F. D., & Soares, E. D. C. (2017). Desafíos de la Inclusión Digital: Antecedentes, problemáticas y medición de la Brecha Digital de Género. Psicología, Conocimiento y Sociedad, 7(2), 121–151.
Chapter 11
From the Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion: An Ecuadorian Perspective Juan Carlos de la Cruz-Campos , Magdalena Ramos-Navas-Parejo , Coral Ruiz-Roso Vázquez , and Gabriel Estuardo Cevallos Uve
Abstract The digital divide has become a global challenge in the age of information and communication technologies (ICTs). As societies move towards digitisation, inequalities in access to and use of ICTs are becoming more acute. Digital inclusion, on the other hand, seeks to close this gap and ensure that all individuals have the same opportunities to participate fully in the digital society. In the case of Ecuador, there are specificities in digital exclusion that need to be addressed to promote digital inclusion at the local level through decentralised autonomous governments such as municipalities or prefectures, and at the national level, through the central government. This systematic review aims to find out which institutions the authors of the selected publications belong to, which countries they come from, to check which countries are interested in the issue of Ecuadorian digital inclusion, their distribution over time and their main results, and conclusions, objectives, methodology used, what programmes they propose to reduce the digital divide and the specificities of digital exclusion in Ecuador. To achieve the proposed objectives, in response to the research questions, this review was carried out in accordance with the PRISMA statement by searching the scientific databases Scopus and Web of Science, limiting the search to articles published between 2000 and 2023. The main publications related to the digital divide concerning Ecuador were identified. The articles have been published over a narrow nine-year period between 2014 and 2022, with 2017 being the most productive year. It has been found that most of the institutions to which the authors are affiliated belong to Ecuador (7). However, five Spanish institutions stand out. The review included the main causes of the digital divide, proposals to reduce it, including J. C. de la Cruz-Campos (B) · M. Ramos-Navas-Parejo University of Granada, Granada, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. Ramos-Navas-Parejo e-mail: [email protected] C. R.-R. Vázquez University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain e-mail: [email protected] G. E. Cevallos Uve Higher Technological Institute Tsachila, Tsachila, Ecuador © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_11
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the rise of new technologies, educational policies, problems related to rural environments, distance education, and social and economic variables. The results of this study argue that successful e-inclusion strategies must be based on synergy between the public, private and social sectors. In this way, all actors are involved and linkages are created to ensure access to ICTs, adequate training to use them effectively and the development of inclusive policies at all levels of government. Keywords Digital inclusion · Digital divide · Ecuador · ICT · Systematic review
11.1 Introduction The digital divide has become a global challenge in the age of information and communication technology (ICT). As societies move towards digitisation, inequalities in access to and use of ICTs are becoming more acute. Digital inclusion, on the other hand, seeks to close this gap and ensure that all individuals have equal opportunities to participate fully in the digital society (Sunkel et al., 2013). In the case of Ecuador (Ibáñez-Apolo et al., 2023), there are specificities in digital exclusion that need to be addressed to promote digital inclusion at the local level through decentralised autonomous governments such as municipalities or prefectures, and at the national level, through the central government (Londoño Espinosa, 2020). Digital exclusion in Ecuador has specific characteristics due to its complex geography, cultural diversity and socio-economic inequalities. The lack of infrastructure in rural and marginalised areas mainly affects indigenous communities, AfroEcuadorians and other historically excluded groups, limiting their access to online education, job opportunities and basic services (Martínez et al., 2020; ECLAC, 2021). Moreover, this is accentuated in socio-economically disadvantaged groups, where lack of economic resources limits the acquisition of technological devices and mainly access to the internet. Ecuador has experienced significant growth in technological infrastructure and internet access in recent years in areas of high population concentration. However, inequalities in ICT access persist between urban and rural areas, as well as between different socio-economic strata (Quizhpe and Ponce, 2022). According to data from the National Institute of Statistics and Census (INEC, 2023), approximately more than half of the Ecuadorian population has access to the internet, but these figures hide regional, generational and socio-economic disparities. Some factors of digital exclusion in Ecuador include: (a) Regional disparities: Rural areas and marginalised communities in Ecuador face greater challenges in terms of technological infrastructure and internet access. The lack of adequate infrastructure limits access to basic connectivity services. (b) Access: One of the main forms of digital exclusion in Ecuador is the lack of access to technological infrastructure. According to the National Institute of Statistics and Census (INEC), until 2021, approximately 40% of Ecuadorian households did not have access to the internet. This lack of access is due to
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(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
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the lack of infrastructure in rural and marginalised areas, as well as economic barriers that make it difficult to acquire devices and connect to the internet. Generational: There is a generation gap in ICT use, with young people having greater familiarity and skill in the use of technology compared to older adults, and these associated cultural and gender barriers, with certain ethnic groups and women facing additional obstacles to accessing and using technology effectively. Skills: Limited digital skills development and low technological literacy also contribute to digital exclusion. Many people do not have the skills to use technologies effectively and take advantage of their benefits. This is due to limitations in digital skills education and training, especially among marginalised and disadvantaged groups. Socio-economic inequalities: Lack of economic resources prevents many people from accessing modern technological devices and/or paying for internet services. Content and usage: The scarcity of relevant content and the low use of technology in everyday activities are also factors to consider. The limited availability of Spanish-language digital content and the lack of online services appropriate to the needs of the population contribute to this gap. In addition, the lack of digital applications and services that are culturally sensitive and accessible to people with disabilities.
Despite these limitations, over the last two decades, digital inclusion has become a fundamental aspect of ensuring equity and citizen participation in the digital society. Ecuador, like other countries, has implemented several successful forms of digital inclusion that have contributed to reducing this gap and promoting equal access to information and communication technologies (ICTs). E-inclusion refers to the removal of barriers to accessing, using and benefiting from ICTs, with the aim of promoting the full participation of all citizens in the digital society (OECD, 2001). It involves providing opportunities for access to ICTs, as well as developing digital skills and promoting the meaningful use of technologies to improve people’s quality of life, which must be addressed and guided by those in charge of educational processes and projects. It is therefore important for teachers to be trained in digital competences in today’s educational environment. It recognises that technological advances and the rise of digital tools have transformed the way teaching and learning take place. Therefore, it is essential that teachers acquire the necessary skills to effectively use technology in their pedagogical practices (Pinto Santos et al., 2023). It is also recognised that the pandemic forced teachers to adapt quickly to new methodologies and digital tools in order to continue distance education and the importance of teachers adapting to new methodologies and digital tools. It highlights the need to develop digital skills and pedagogical competences specific to online education (Oguguo et al., 2023). It emphasises the importance of teachers possessing specific digital skills in order to carry out research work effectively. It recognises that ICT offers opportunities
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for data collection, analysis and presentation, as well as for communication and collaboration in research projects. The PLS-SEM approach is proposed as a tool for assessing teachers’ digital competence, allowing for the analysis of the relationships between variables related to the use of ICT in research (Guillén-Gámez et al., 2023). In Ecuador, several successful digital inclusion initiatives have been implemented. One of them is the “Ecuador Digital” programme, promoted by the Ecuadorian government, which aims to promote access to the internet and ICTs in rural and marginalised urban areas. This programme has provided connectivity to thousands of people, enabling them to access online services, education and training opportunities, and facilitating their participation in the digital economy (Ministerio de Telecomunicaciones y de la Sociedad de la Información, 2017). Another successful form of digital inclusion as part of the Ecuador Innovador y Competitivo programme of the Ecuador Digital Policy, promoted by the Ministry of Telecommunications and the Information Society, the Infocentros Comunitarios (Community Infocentres) project was revitalised. These centres provide free access to computers and the internet, allowing communities to access information, online services and educational opportunities. Community Infocentres are especially important in rural and remote areas where access to ICTs is limited, and there are currently more than 720 across the country (Ministry of Telecommunications and the Information Society, 2022). These spaces promote digital literacy and the active participation of citizens in the digital society, which were a derivation promoted in the first years of the new millennium under the name of community telecentres (Secretaría de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, 2014). In addition, digital skills training programmes have been implemented in various educational and community institutions. These programmes offer training in the use of digital tools, internet navigation, online safety and the development of basic digital skills. These initiatives aim to empower citizens to take full advantage of ICT opportunities and reduce the digital divide in Ecuador (Agencia de Regulación y Control de las Telecomunicaciones, 2022). It is important to highlight that the success of these forms of digital inclusion lies in the collaboration between the public sector, the private sector and civil society. The participation of multiple actors and the creation of strategic alliances are fundamental to ensure access to ICTs in a democratic and responsible manner, adequate training and the development of inclusive policies from the central government and decentralised autonomous governments. In relation to digital inclusion policies and programmes, for years, the governments in office have implemented various policies and programmes to promote digital inclusion in the country. For example, the National Plan for the Creation of Opportunities establishes specific goals to improve access to ICTs in rural areas, historically excluded areas and marginalised communities (Secretaria Nacional de Planificación, 2021). In addition, training and digital literacy programmes have been implemented to provide people with the necessary skills to participate in the digital society. These initiatives are characterised by a comprehensive approach, multi-sectoral participation and adaptation to specific contexts, seeking to ensure that all citizens can access, use and benefit from information and communication technologies.
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The objective proposed for this study was to analyse the publications indexed in the Scopus and WoS (Web of Science) databases that deal with the digital divide in Ecuador. In order to determine the level of the existing digital divide and the most effective ways of developing citizens’ digital competences. It is intended that this study will help to clarify the methods that the various research studies provide to alleviate the digital divide in Ecuador, in order to serve as a guide for possible educational interventions aimed at achieving digital inclusion. The research questions formulated, which have guided this research, are the following: RQ1 Which institutions are your authors affiliated with and which countries are they from? RQ2 What is the temporal distribution of the studies analysed? RQ3 What are the main results and findings of the publications analysed? What are their objectives? What methodology do they use? What programmes do they propose to reduce the digital divide? What are the specificities of digital exclusion in Ecuador?
11.2 Method In order to achieve the proposed objectives, answering the research questions, this research has been carried out using the systematic literature review method (GarcíaPeñalvo, 2019) based on the quality criteria set out in the PRISMA statement (Moher et al., 2009). The review process was conducted in two stages during May 2023: the first was devoted to planning and the second to action (Romero-Rodríguez et al., 2020). During the planning phase, the research objectives and questions were defined, and the inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected based on the objectives of this study. The most appropriate descriptors were also chosen and two of the most prestigious databases were selected to carry out the document search. In the action phase, the literature was analysed and the results were refined in order to extract the most relevant content consistent with the criteria of this study and, finally, to represent them. The inclusion and exclusion criteria, which are set out in Table 11.1, were chosen according to the research objectives and questions and in accordance with the premises of the PRISMA statement (Moher et al., 2009). In relation to the search for articles, a search equation adapted to the objectives of the work was established: “Digital inclusion” OR “Digital divide” AND “Ecuador”. The Boolean operators “or” and “and” were used and it was established that the descriptors should be found in the title of the document, abstract or form part of the keywords.
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Table 11.1 Document selection criteria Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
1. Scientific articles 2. Period 2000–2023 3. Studies analysing the reality of Ecuador with respect to the digital divide 4. Publications focussing on e-inclusion programmes
1. Other non-peer-reviewed publications 2. Studies prior to 1999 3. General publications or publications referring to other countries 4. Studies focusing on other topics 5. Duplicate articles
Source Own elaboration
This search was carried out by two different authors, at several different times, in order to contrast the coincidence of the results obtained. Guided by the PRISMA statement, article selection criteria were established. Inclusion criteria were set, with the aim of obtaining the documents that would be analysed later. In addition, exclusion criteria were formulated at the same time (Table 11.1). Continuing with the PRISMA protocol, discrimination was carried out in four stages (Fig. 11.1): the first, called identification, refers to the collection of the documents indexed in the two chosen databases obtained by performing the search equation. A second stage, called screening or selection, in which the documents identified with exclusion criteria 1 and 2, represented in Table 11.1, were eliminated. In a third phase, called suitability, the articles were analysed to choose those that respond to the research objectives and questions, which are those that correspond to inclusion criteria 3 and 4, and exclusion criteria 3, 4 and 5, reaching the last stage, called inclusion, in which all the articles that finally make up the research sample (n = 11) are found.
11.3 Results Once the analysis of the 11 scientific articles that make up the final sample has been carried out, after overcoming the different processes of inclusion and exclusion, the results that provide answers to the previous research questions are presented. Institutions with Which Authors Are Affiliated and Countries of Origin The authors of the documents analysed belong to different institutions and countries (Table 11.2). It can be seen that seven affiliations belong to Ecuador, where the largest number is concentrated. Spain follows with five different institutions, with one from the United States, one from Colombia and one from Portugal. Temporal Distribution of the Studies Analysed The 11 articles analysed were distributed between 2014 and 2022. There is nothing published with the characteristics to be analysed in this study between 2000 and
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Number of records identified in WOS (n = 9)
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Number of records identified in SCOPUS (n = 33)
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria (1,2)
Number of records excluded (n = 17)
I Id en tif ic ati on Sc re en in g
Number of full-text articles assessed for eligibility (n = 25)
Criteria (3,4) for inclusion and (3,4, 5) for exclusion
Number of records excluded (n = 14)
N= 11
Su ita bil ity In cl us io n
Fig. 11.1 Flowchart. Source Own elaboration based on Moher et al., (2009)
2014. Three of the eleven selected articles are concentrated in 2017, the year with the highest number of publications. Within this interval, 2015 and 2021 have no articles at all (Fig. 11.2). Main Results and Findings of the Analysed Publications After a detailed analysis of the eleven articles on which this study is based, the most relevant parts of the articles are summarised in order to determine the main results and conclusions, according to the objectives set out and the different methodologies used in each case.
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Table 11.2 Institutions with which authors are affiliated and countries of origin
Institution
Country
National Polytechnic School
Ecuador
Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador
Ecuador
National University of Education
Ecuador
National University of Chimborazo
Ecuador
Laica University Laica Eloy Alfaro of Manabí
Ecuador
University of Cuenca
Ecuador
University of Azuay
Ecuador
University of Maryland
USA
University of Santo Tomás
Colombia
Carlos III University of Madrid
Spain
University of Vigo
Spain
Autonomous University of Barcelona
Spain
University of Huelva
Spain
University of Malaga
Spain
Nova University of Lisbon
Portugal
Source Own Elaboration
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Fig. 11.2 Time distribution of the articles studied. Source Own elaboration
Pazmiño-Sarango, M., Naranjo-Zolotov, M., Cruz Jesús, F. (2022) Objectives: Explore the main regional drivers of the digital divide in Ecuadorian cities and the extent to which citizens’ adoption of information and communication technologies (ICTs) influences local policymakers’ decisions to develop e-government services.
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Methodology: An exploratory approach has been used, empirically assessing the provision of government e-services in each of the 36 Ecuadorian local governments. To do so, the measurement scale of the Local Online Services Index (LOSI) proposed by the United Nations has been followed, and then the government’s drivers to alleviate the digital divide at the local level have been evaluated. Main Findings: • The digital divide is driven by income and education disparities. • Government solutions are driven by ICT use. • It seems that policymakers at the local level are not paying adequate attention to the use of technology by their citizens. Lara-Lara, F. (2022) Objectives: To make an approximate proposal on the possible meanings of the digital competences indicated by UNESCO (2008) in the cultural context that establishes the Sumak Kawsay educational order in Ecuador. Methodology: A review of the literature has been carried out to contextualise, in an approximate way, the normative educational scenario, defending the presence of awareness as a key to the achievement of digital competences, discussing existing challenges through the contributions of the radical or inclusive approach to training and the theory of technological domestication. Main Findings: • The technological appropriation stage is still a challenge in the face of the serious digital divide. • The conversion process requires a technological dialectic that starts from a process of ecological awareness that is legally required and which must necessarily include cultural and social meanings beyond the original ones rooted in the West. • The need to incorporate keys to a pedagogy that discusses the role in Ecuadorian education of radical issues such as egocentrism, or the definition of the person as an integral part of nature, among others, must be made visible in Ecuador’s own educational standards. The existing digital divide at the national level, and especially in rural areas, advises caution in the implementation of virtual educational models that can replace the face-to-face offer, with the main challenge being the achievement of a process of appropriation. Collado-Ruano, J, Ojeda, M. N., Malo, M. O., Amino, D. S. (2020) Objectives: To reflect on the use of digital information and communication technologies (ICT) in the linguistic and educational processes of continuous teacher training in Ecuador. Methodology: A transdisciplinary, qualitative, exploratory, descriptive and analytical methodology is used, which explores in depth the digital competences that
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teachers must develop in order to promote artistic and intercultural languages among their students. Main findings: The learning technologies used during the filming, development and production of the film documentary “The Lost Art of Education” are shown to favour digital inclusion. Education in the twenty-first century needs a profound innovation of theories, methodologies and didactic resources focussed on revaluing the practices, customs, knowledge and cosmovisions of ancestral peoples with technological tools, digital media and audiovisual resources. Apolo, D., Melo, M., Solano, J., Aliaga, F. (2020) Objectives: To identify different proposals that make it possible to mention some waiting points for digital inclusion processes in Ecuador, based on public policy documents. Methodology: Based on a qualitative approach that, through documentary research, bibliographic analysis and critical review of the literature, generates contributions that make it possible to identify the challenges and possible gaps that government entities in Ecuador must face when proposing actions that link education and technology. Main Findings: • The impacts and results of the implementation of the National Development Plans must be transcended to allow for a deeper analysis in relation to this issue, together with initiatives and proposals on digital inclusion. • It cannot be developed in isolation and must be managed holistically over the long term. • It is essential to understand that it is not only necessary to create platforms; it is relevant to work from comprehensive pedagogical designs that start from understanding teachers from their experiences, support and motivation for the design of a contextualised training structure on issues of digital mediation. Martínez Cardama, S., Y Caridad Sebastián, M. (2019) Objectives: Evaluate the development of services carried out by infocentres in Ecuador to promote digital empowerment in their community. To know the specific projects carried out dedicated to specific groups with a greater need for collective empowerment, such as initiatives for the fight against gender inequality and the empowerment of women, indigenous groups or the elderly. Methodology: Survey method using an ad hoc Google Forms questionnaire. Main Findings: • The vital importance of these centres for the reduction of the digital divide in the country is highlighted through evidence of their training utility.
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• The tendency detected in the research of the lack of a gender approach in the planning of the activities of these centres is endorsed. • There are several challenges for their survival: 1. The necessary collaboration with local actors 2. Development of digital empowerment programmes for specific groups. García, C., Y Floril, M. (2018) Objectives: Provide internet service to rural areas of Ecuador. Repromote and improve the UL return channel (uplink), developing a second generation of the DVB-RCT standard, known as DVBRCT2. Develop ICT applications for interactive television learning (TV-Learning) built with Ginga software, allowing users to interact with television content of an academic, educational, cultural and entertainment nature. Methodology: An ex-ante evaluation was carried out, following the methodology proposed by the World Bank to evaluate the impact of programmes and projects, which consists of five phases; (i) preparing the evaluation, (ii) making the evaluation design operational, (iii) choosing the sample of a given population, (iv) collecting data and (v) producing and disseminating the results. An experimental group (inhabitants of Riobamba canton) and a control group (inhabitants of Guano canton) were used. Main findings: The definition of a new DTT technology, called DVB-RCT2, has been proposed, which will allow for a robust return channel, with applications in various fields such as the provision of internet access in rural areas, and interactive television learning systems (TV-learning), This research will help to reduce the existing digital divide between urban and rural areas of Ecuador, enhancing participatory learning, which is why this research will contribute to generate equal opportunities, promoting citizen participation and reducing the digital divide in areas where internet connection is deficient. Tirado-Morueta, R., Mendoza-Zambrano, D. M, Aguaded-Gómez, J. I, y Marín-Gutiérrez, I. (2017) Objectives: To verify the relationship and sequence between the different levels of internet access found among secondary school students. To verify to what extent the family status of the student influenced the different levels of internet access. Methodology: Through the empirical analysis of a structural model with a random sample stratified by provinces and comprising 3754 respondents representing secondary school students in Ecuador. Main findings: The results showed a sequence of relationships found between different levels of internet access, as well as the cumulative effect of technical resources and levels of digital literacy on academic internet use. It was observed that the influence of the student’s family status lost strength as the level of internet access increased.
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De Salvador-Agra, S., Y Martínez-Suárez, Y. (2017) Objectives: To study the semantic meanings that modernity acquires when it is delocalised, displaced from its orbit. Methodology: Case study of the Shuar and Saraguroy communities, developed in the eastern Ecuadorian Amazon, specifically in the provinces of Zamora Chinchipe and Morona Santiago. Data collection was based on methodological triangulation, integrating quantitative techniques (anonymous structured questionnaires) and qualitative dynamics (workshops, participant observation and in-depth interviews). Main Findings: • The concept of modernity transferred to a context of “outside the orbit” (this would be its opposite) calls for a rethinking of the opposition between tradition and modernity, as well as its derived categories in rational logic. • Digital technologies mark the actions and interactions of today’s global society; their appropriation by a marked collective, displaced to the margins of modernity, brings them, by the art and work of this action, to the centre of debates and negotiations. • The appropriation of digital technologies by indigenous people mobilises them into a more comfortable category, insofar as it refers to greater freedom, i.e. indigenous modernity. Tirado-Morueta, R., Mendoza-Zambrano, D., Marín-Gutiérrez, I., y MendozaZambrano, M. (2017) Objectives: Determine the level of access to internet use by the youngest sector of the population (secondary school students) in Ecuador. To understand the extent to which socio-demographic factors determine internet access and use. Methodology: Through the empirical analysis of a structural model with a random sample stratified by provinces and comprising 3754 respondents representing secondary school students in Ecuador. Main findings: The results show that the influence of socio-demographic factors is greater with respect to physical access to the internet, and this influence decreases with respect to more complex levels of internet use (i.e. the data show that a high socio-familial level does not guarantee internet access). At more complex levels of internet use, however, low status is a risk factor. González-Cabrera, C. Y Ugalde, C. (2016): Objectives: To identify whether inequality in the use of and access to ICTs according to the variables: institutional funding and age influence the degree of media competence of students and teachers.
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Methodology: The survey method was used, applying questionnaires to high school students and teachers in southern Ecuador, to measure the level of media competence through six dimensions. Main Findings: • It is observed that the level of students’ and their teachers’ competence does not vary significantly according to the type of school funding, whether private, public or co-financed, even though private and co-financed schools have greater access to ICT. • The degree of media competence of pupils according to the type of school funding suggests that private schools are not taking advantage of the ease of access to ICT as much as they should. • There is a lot of work to be done, not only in the field of education or in the effort to implement technological tools, but it also involves working hard to increase motivation to promote the effective use of ICT. This can be done by creating spaces for dialogue. Aruch, M., Loja, a. Y Sanders, J. B. (2014) Objectives: To determine the effects of the SíTEC programme and the availability and use of ICT in schools. Methodology: Survey and interview data from teachers and school leaders in the Shiña community are analysed. Main findings: SiTEC and associated partnerships and programmes are beginning to have an impact on their specific outcomes. Creative partnerships developed within the Ministry of Education, Bureau of Bilingual Education, the Shiña community have enabled communication and sharing of knowledge and resources between multiple partners. In light of the results obtained in the analysis of the articles, it can be seen that of the eleven studies, according to their study objectives, three focus on the possible causes that lead to digital and therefore educational and social exclusion of the most disadvantaged population in Ecuador (Collado-Ruano et al, 2020; GonzálezCabrera and Ugalde, 2016; Pazmiño-Sarango et al., 2022), five study concrete solutions for alleviating the digital divide (Apolo et al., 2020; Aruch et al., 2014; García and Floril, 2018; Martínez-Cardama and Caridad-Sebastián, 2019; Pazmiño-Sarango et al, 2022), two of them have focussed on clarifying concepts (De Salvador-Agra and Martínez-Suárez, 2017; Lara-Lara, 2022) and two others have diagnosed digital competence issues in students (Tirado-Morueta et al., 2017a, 2017b). With regard to the methodologies employed, two articles conducted a literature review (Apolo et al., 2020; Lara-Lara, 2022), two others focus on applying an intervention and then measuring its results (García and Floril, 2018; ColladoRuano et al., 2020), six are based on the survey method to collect data from students and teachers in different rural areas of Ecuador, through questionnaires, in some cases accompanied by interviews also to add the value of qualitative findings to
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quantitative studies (Aruch et al., 2014; González-Cabrera and Ugalde, 2016; De Salvador-Agra and Martínez-Suárez, 2017; Tirado-Morueta et al., 2017a; TiradoMorueta et al., 2017b; Martínez-Cardama and Caridad-Sebastián, 2019) and one of them is limited to measuring the e-service provisions available in 36 Ecuadorian localities (Pazmiño-Sarango et al., 2022). The most relevant findings of these studies show a series of causes that generate and justify the existence of the digital divide in Ecuador and the possible implications and programmes that can be carried out to alleviate these negative effects produced by technological inequality in certain groups and disadvantaged areas of Ecuador. With respect to the articles based on the causes that lead to the digital divide and the current state of Ecuador in this matter, it can be seen that seven study this phenomenon from different perspectives (Table 11.3). On the other hand, nine of the studies analysed provide solutions to the problem of digital exclusion through programmes and actions that can be carried out to alleviate it. Some propose interventions at a general level and other studies specify specific actions (Table 11.4). Table 11.3 Causes of the digital divide and the current situation in Ecuador Specificities of digital exclusion in Ecuador The digital divide is driven by economic and educational differences
Pazmiño-Sarango et al. (2022)
Current laws do not address the use of ICTs Technology use is a challenge for many groups
Lara-Lara (2022)
There are different levels of internet access
Tirado-Morueta et al. (2017a)
A cumulative effect of technical resources and levels of digital literacy has been created The influence of the family goes down as internet access goes up High socio-familial level does not guarantee internet access
Tirado-Morueta et al. (2017b)
A low level of internet use is a risk factor ICTs shape social actions at a global level
De Salvador-Agra y Martínez-Suárez (2017)
There is no relationship between the level of González-Cabrera y Ugalde (2016) students and teaching competence with respect to the type of school funding Private schools do not take advantage of ICT access facilities Source Own elaboration
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Table 11.4 Proposed actions and programmes to reduce the digital divide in Ecuador Actions and programmes to reduce the digital divide in Ecuador Promoting the use of ICTs by the government
Pazmiño-Sarango et al. (2022)
Dialectics, technology and ecological awareness
Lara-Lara (2022)
Raising awareness of the problem through Ecuadorian educational standards Technological programmes based on film documentaries and interactive video games
Collado-Ruano et al. (2020)
Use of innovative methodologies Use of technological didactic resources, digital and audiovisual media National Development Plans together with e-inclusion initiatives and proposals
Apolo et al. (2020)
Actions carried out jointly, with comprehensive management valued in the long term Working from holistic designs, developing teachers’ digital competence Creation of Infocentres Adding a gender focus
Martínez-Cardama y Caridad-Sebastián, (2019)
Collaboration with local actors Development of digital empowerment programmes for vulnerable groups Use of DVB-RCT2 technology providing internet García y Floril (2018) access to rural areas Interactive television learning systems (TV-learning) Appropriation of technologies by indigenous people to develop indigenous modernity, giving them more freedom
De Salvador-Agra y Martínez-Suárez (2017)
Implementation of more technological tools
González-Cabrera y Ugalde (2016)
Increased motivation for the effective use of ICTs Creation of spaces for dialogue between the educational community SiTEC: creative partnership developed by the Ministry of Education that enables communication and sharing of knowledge and resources Source Own elaboration.
Aruch et al. (2014)
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11.4 Discussions and Conclusions The digital divide has become a worrying challenge in the digital society in which we find ourselves. As societies advance with technological advances, social and economic differences become more acute. This global reality is particularly complex in the Ecuadorian context, where geography, cultural diversity and socio-economic inequalities aggravate the situation. The results of this study coincide with the statements of Guillén-Gámez et al. (2023) y Pinto Santos et al. (2023) who argue that the success of digital inclusion strategies must be based on a synergy between the public, private and social sectors. In this way, all actors are involved and links are created to ensure access to ICTs, adequate training to use them effectively and the development of inclusive policies at all levels of government. Based on the results obtained in this study that answer the objective and research questions, it is clear that most of the institutions to which the authors are affiliated belong to Ecuador (7), as might be expected given that the subject of the study is centred specifically on this country. However, five Spanish institutions stand out, with a considerable number of authors affiliated to them, which have researched the Ecuadorian situation with respect to the digital divide. On the other hand, it is stated that they have been published during a narrow nineyear period, between 2014 and 2022, with 2017 being the year in which the most articles were published, containing three of them. No results are obtained before this date, so it could be deduced that it is from 2014 when the problem of the digital divide in Ecuador begins to acquire relevance. No publications were found in 2023 either, at least up to May when the search was carried out. This is noteworthy, but not conclusive, since the period is unfinished. The results of studies analysing the Ecuadorian situation affirm that ICTs have become the backbone of today’s society, leaving the part of the population that cannot join this trend at risk of social exclusion. Some articles have shown that the lack of use of technology is not related to the socio-familial level of the students, the competence of the teachers or the technological resources available in the centres, since even when they are available, they are often not used. It is deduced that the causes that have contributed to the existence of these technological inequalities among the Ecuadorian population are due to factors such as: economic and educational differences, the lack of laws that encourage the use of ICTs in disadvantaged groups, the different levels of internet access, especially low in rural areas, and digital literacy (Martínez et al., 2020; ECLAC, 2021; Quizhpe & Ponce, 2022). In terms of the objectives of these studies, it can be said that they have been based on analysing the state of the question, the causes that generate the digital divide in Ecuador and studying possible solutions to reduce it. Therefore, it is considered that they cover the whole spectrum necessary to analyse in depth the problem of the digital divide in Ecuador and the interventions that could be effective to reduce it, depending on the different causes.
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The methodologies used to achieve these purposes, in general terms, are composed of literature reviews, didactic interventions and different survey methods, mainly to measure the effects of experimental implementations, as well as to study the effects of the digital divide. It can be seen that the 11 articles analysed made use of all the methods used in scientific research, varying according to the objectives set. This gives rigidity to this study. The ways of reducing the digital divide, mitigating its effects, according to the research analysed, focus on affirming that government intervention is necessary to promote ICTs, raise awareness of the problem among the population and carry out effective programmes in a comprehensive and joint manner with other institutions. On the other hand, it is proposed to develop different digital empowerment actions, to offer adequate teacher training and to use different technological resources created to motivate and make known the possibilities of these resources to groups that are excluded from access for different reasons. Specifically, the studies analysed propose the use of film documentaries, interactive video games and other types of television learning systems with the most disadvantaged groups who do not have easy access to the internet or have a poor connection. To make use of DVB-RCT2 DTT technology to facilitate internet access in rural areas, programmes such as SíTEC and other associated programmes and the creation of Infocentres. It follows that digital exclusion in Ecuador has specific characteristics caused by its complex geography, cultural diversity and socio-economic inequalities. The lack of infrastructure in rural and marginalised areas means that indigenous communities, Afro-Ecuadorians and other historically excluded groups are the most affected. They have limited access to twenty-first-century technological education, job opportunities and basic services. This perpetuates their marginalisation and social exclusion. With regard to the limitations encountered in carrying out this study, we would highlight the fact that we have only analysed the Scopus and WoS databases, being aware that there are other prestigious databases, such as Dialnet and Scielo, where searches could have been carried out to analyse other research that would contribute more content to the results of this work. As future lines of research, it is proposed to complement this study with research in other databases, to analyse in detail the specific proposals for reducing the digital divide, which some of the articles studied provide, in order to consider the possibility of applying them in other educational centres, to disseminate, propagate and study their effects in a wider range of action. It concludes by stating that the most recommendable way to abolish the digital divide in Ecuador is through government policies and adequate teacher training and awareness of the importance of acquiring digital competence and using different technologies in the classroom to transmit to students the necessary skills to function in today’s digital society in the most effective way. Not forgetting the most digitally disadvantaged rural areas, which need to be provided with internet access. In which methods can be used to facilitate access to the internet, as the most appropriate option, and as an immediate solution, which does not require the action of
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political institutions, alternative means can be used through television channels or video games. Acknowledgements This article is associated with an Advanced Project on Innovation and Good Teaching Practices entitled: Inverted classroom and immersive technological resources (XR) for the development of digital teaching competence in future education professionals (immer). Code: 22-06. With an amount of e2,999.99.
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Chapter 12
Digital Divide Issues in Greece: A Systematic Review Anthi Karatrantou
and Christos Panagiotakopoulos
Abstract The digital divide is referred to the gap between people who have access to Internet and technology and those who don’t. In this chapter, the digital divide and the most important related factors are sketched out, as well as the forms of digital inclusion that have been developed and applied in Greece in the last two decades are discussed. For this purpose, a systematic literature review was carried out based on scientific papers and national and European reports related to the research questions. Analysing the limited number of sources found in the field, some important findings arose. During the last twenty years, the digital divide in Greece affects and has been affected by different citizens’ characteristics, social-economic status and education level. Specific factors that dynamically related to the digital divide in Greece, seem to be education, digital literacy and skills, age, gender, employment, income, Internet access, place of residence, e-government and marital status. The current dimensions of digital divide in Greece as they emerged from the results of the present study, as well as various measures to improve the phenomenon, are discussed. Keywords Digital divide in Greece · Digital divide and inequalities · Digital literacy and skills · Internet use
12.1 Introduction The term digital divide refers to the gap between individuals and/or groups that benefit from new technologies and those that do not due to social and economic factors. The digital divide has become increasingly important in recent years, as more and more aspects of our lives are moving online especially during the pandemic due to COVID-19 (OECD, 2020; Alexopoulou, 2023). A. Karatrantou (B) · C. Panagiotakopoulos University of Patras, Patras, Greece e-mail: [email protected] C. Panagiotakopoulos e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_12
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The digital divide is a persistent problem in Greece, as in many countries around the world. While Greece has made significant strides in improving access to technology and the Internet, there remain significant disparities in connectivity, access to information, and digital literacy between different regions and socio-economic groups (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a; Alexopoulou, 2023). This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the digital divide in Greece, covering various aspects and its effects on Greek society. Authors also discuss the proposals given by the authors of the analysed sources focussing on actions, which aim to improve the phenomenon of digital divide in Greece. The structure of the chapter is as follows: after the introduction the theoretical framework is presented, within which the basic concepts involved in the study are defined and the factors affecting the field of study with an emphasis in the Greek reality, are discussed. Then, the research questions are formulated, and the methodology of the study is described. In the next two sections, the findings of the analysis are described and discussed. In the conclusion section, answers to the research questions are given. At the end, the sources supporting the content are listed.
12.2 Theoretical Framework After the wide spread of the Internet, it was seen that it has a huge influence on society and the individual in every country. In general, the Internet and technology have the potential to greatly support the economic development of modern and developed countries. For this reason, countries fund a lot of research to study technology and Internet issues (Feist et al., 2010; Liu & Feng, 2022). But it is clear even in the same country, not all people today have the same possibilities of access to technology and the Internet. This differentiation creates the digital divide, which is a multidimensional phenomenon and not simply the ability to access or not to Internet (Cuervo & Menendez, 2006). It is directly related to the characteristics of the users and to a number of specific factors that favor some people to enjoy the benefits of Information and Communication Technology or not (Mossberger et al., 2003).
12.2.1 The Internet The Internet, as a modern element of technology, has a huge influence on society and especially on young people. It promotes inclusion, efficiency and innovation (World Bank Group, 2016). Especially due to the coronavirus pandemic crisis, during the last three–four years, the impact of technology became the subject of several studies and the research regarding the most efficient use of the Internet climaxed (Alashhab et al., 2021). Educators, at all levels of education, began to apply alternative teaching methods to meet the new learning needs of their students (Varela, Prieto, & Hamed, 2020; Figueroa Flores et al., 2020; García-Peñalvo et al., 2021).
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In any case, the widespread use of the Internet helped to bring to the surface again some relatively old questions regarding the accessibility of technology, and terms such as “digital literacy” and “digital divide” have begun to be discussed again with intensity (Panagiotakopoulos, 2018). The Internet was first introduced in Greece in the early 1990s. Its adoption was slow due to the country’s relatively low Gross Domestic Product and the high cost of access. However, by the early 2000s, Greece had caught up with the rest of Europe in terms of Internet access (Panagiotakopoulos, 2020). Since then, access to the Internet in Greece has improved significantly. According to data from the Hellenic Statistical Authority (2022), the proportion of the population using the Internet increased from 53,6% in 2012 to 85,5% in 2022. However, there are still disparities in Internet access between urban and rural areas, with Internet penetration rates in urban areas being around 90% compared to 75.5% in rural areas (Statista, 2023). But during the last decade, the Internet take-up rate among individuals remains at a lower level compared with the EU average (Gounopoulos et al., 2020b). As Gounopoulos et al. (2018) showed, in Greece, educational attainment, age, income, employment status, family status, country of citizenship and type of locality are the most important factors determining Internet access and use.
12.2.2 The Digital Divide On the other hand, the “digital divide” is a wide-range term (Várallyai et al., 2015) and according to Raphael (2007), can be defined as the gap between those who have access to information and communication technologies and use them effectively for educational, economic, civic, and cultural needs, and those who do not. According to OECD (2001), the digital divide reflects differences between, but also within, countries. The approach to research in this area began around the year 2000, and has often been interdisciplinary across the fields of Technology, Sociology, Psychology, Economics and Education (Van Dijk, 2017). The European Parliament on December 13, 2022, adopted a resolution regarding the digital divide and the social differences created by technological evolution with the continuous digitalisation. In this, among others, it is noted (European Parliament, 2022): • Justifiable concern is expressed over the impossibility of accessing basic banking services without the use of a smartphone and because cash transactions are constantly declining in the euro area, and thus a new digital divide emerges. • Various service providers provide information only via the Internet or via smart phones, which puts the elderly, disabled, low-income, people without digital skills and people with limited Internet access at a disadvantage. • The possibilities offered by new technologies are controversial since, depending on their use and legislation, they can either contribute to the creation of an inclusive
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society and reduce inequalities or reinforce existing inequalities and create new forms of discrimination. • The excessive use of technological devices and the continuous digitalisation can exacerbate mental and physical health problems such as feelings of isolation, addiction problems related to the use of technology, sleep deprivation, emotional exhaustion, stress and burnout. • Digitalisation will have a negative impact on people who do not have sufficient digital skills or do not have access to an Internet connection or digital devices and can exacerbate social inequalities by reducing opportunities for some workers to gain quality employment. In the same resolution, it appears that: • The pandemic has exacerbated existing inequalities and the digital divide has widened. The effects of the digital divide in education have also become apparent, with some teachers and students being left out of the game because they lack sufficient technology, digital skills and access to equipment. • It appears that 5.3% of school-aged children in Europe live in conditions of digital deprivation. There are large differences between EU countries and children from families living in poverty or severe material deprivation do not have access to a computer and/or an Internet connection. As can be seen from the above, despite the efforts of the states to bridge the technological gap, there are major problems, and a solution has not yet been found. The digital divide splits our society into two parts, which do not keep pace, as they move at different speeds. Because of this many people feel isolated, since they cannot follow the developments, and the way in which the rest of the people live, who know how to use efficiently the technology. In Greece during the year 2020, ICT specialists were as percentage of total employees nearby the 1.8% (vs. 3.9% in EU). Of the total number of employed, 64% had at least basic digital skills, similar to those in the EU, with no significant differences between genders (Gavroglou, 2020).
12.2.3 Digital Divide and Inequalities The progress of technology and the advantages it offers are not given to everyone. The digital divide as shown below is influenced by several factors. It is typical that an elderly person living in an isolated area of a developing country will not have the same opportunities to access and use technology and the Internet as others (Ignatow, 2017). Inequalities due to the digital divide are created worldwide between developing and developed countries. Especially in our time, with the development of artificial intelligence technologies, countries can now effectively be divided technologically— informationally into rich and poor. But within and within societies themselves various
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factors influence individuals’ access to technology and the Internet (Fong, 2009; Oiu & Liu, 2023). In Greece, during the few last years, there has been a continuously growing trend for providing more and more digital services (E-Governance) requiring digital skills from citizens (Stasis & Papastylianou, 2022). But, according to Alexopoulou (2023), the more digitalised a society, the higher the risk for social exclusion. So, the social inequalities seem to be increased and presently no specific orientation to promote digital inclusion exists by the Greek Government. Moreover, as Gounopoulos et al. (2020a) note, the most important social factors affecting the usage of the e-government services are the educational level, the age and the citizenship. On the contrary, for the inequalities among gender, various policies are aiming to empower women with digital skills (Perifanou & Economides, 2020). The effects of the digital divide are very important especially in education, since during the pandemic due to COVID-19, the educational process was entirely supported by technology and the Internet. Research data during this period have shown that changes in education have had an impact on the mental and physical health of learners of all levels and ages and are associated with the emergence of symptoms of anxiety, boredom, social isolation, depression and other mental problems (Chang et al., 2021; Jung et al., 2021). During this period, the trainees were asked to work with the help of technology and adapt to e-learning conditions without having the necessary knowledge and skills (Rafique et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2021). Especially for school students, problems such as the lack of digital skills in the use of specific digital systems, the difficulty of accessing the Internet and technical problems created feelings of stress, anxiety, sadness and uncertainty (Jung et al., 2021). In Greece, Kyrgios (2018) supports that the digital divide in tertiary education is clear and in connection with economic, social, cultural and geographical disparities. Moreover, Bikos et al. (2018) note that the curricula in tertiary education should be oriented to students training using digital tools to strength the future teacher’s role and reduce digital inequalities. The same problem exists in primary and secondary education (Kyrgios, 2018). According to Stamati (2020), students in rural areas often do not have their own technological equipment at home, their schools haven’t sufficient equipment and severe inequalities lead to a growing digital divide. The difference in access to technology and the Internet is itself a social inequality. But even among people who have access to technology and the Internet, there are differences in their ability to use it. Of course, the digital divide has penetrated education as well. Various research shows that technology-assisted learning is more effective, i.e. knowledge is assimilated faster and remains more stable for a longer period of time compared to the traditional teaching process (Kolpashnikova & Bartolic, 2018). This fact, at the level of schools or institutions, creates conditions of inequality between graduates. In Greece, as noted before, there exist various problems and disparities concerning Internet access, which exacerbate social inequalities and the digital divide between
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the population (Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2022; Gounopoulos et al., 2020b; Statista, 2023). Big Data is also a representative sample of technology-driven inequality. The adoption of ways of collecting, processing and analysing Big Data in educational institutions creates similar inequalities (Berendt et al., 2017). Many educational institutions are slow to implement these new methods, compared to others. Thus, educational institutions that apply Big Data techniques seem to have a competitive advantage over other institutions (Junque de Fortuny et al., 2014; Macfadyen, 2017). This is a pan-European phenomenon, as few institutions seem to be investing Big Data technology.
12.2.4 Main Factors Affecting the Digital Divide Several studies have been conducted at an international level, involving many of the factors that can influence the digital divide. More than any other factor, the age factor in the digital divide has been studied. Research has shown that in developed countries the elderly is the age group that increases more than the others and the use of ICT in these ages lags behind younger ones (Neves et al., 2013). According to d’Haenens (2000), Várallyai et al. (2015), Kolpashnikova and Bartolic (2018), Kyrgios (2018), Gavroglou (2020), Brown (2020), Tsekeris et al. (2020), & Otani, (2021), the main factors of the digital divide are: age and gender, economic, social (i.e., social standing), education, employment, area of residence, technophobia, lack of motivation factors, cultural, & digital skills. As can be seen, the factors that influence the digital divide are various. It should be noted that familiarity with technologies differs from person to person and it is difficult for everyone to have the same opportunities for increased access and use of technology. Especially in Greece, the availability of technology and the Internet is strongly different between regions, often between urban and rural areas or islands, due to differences in infrastructure. However, most researchers investigate the existence or non-existence of the digital divide in a more general context. This study aims to highlight aspects of the digital divide in Greece, through a critical consideration of the limited research that has been carried out in the field in recent years.
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12.3 Research Questions In this chapter, we focus on the following two research questions: a. How are the digital divide and the most important related factors sketched out in Greece over the last two decades? b. What proposals are emerging to improve the phenomenon of the digital divide in Greece?
12.4 Methodology A systematic literature review, following the guidelines proposed by Kitchenham (2007) was conducted for the research purposes. Systematic review as a literature review method aims to define all studies related to the subject under consideration and usually is quite extensive. The review process followed steps proposed by Kitchenham (2007) such as planning, conducting the review, and reporting the review. The initial stage was based on the principles of the PRISMA statement (Moher et al., 2009), as it is considered one of the most appropriate protocols that can be used to transparently report strengths and weaknesses of any review research. It is a wellstructured process that describes adequately eligibility criteria for paper collection, information sources, remove duplicates, screen records, data collection process and finally, synthesise the result (Liberati et al., 2009). The research was conducted on Scopus (http://scopus.com) and Google scholar (https://scholar.google.com/) databases as their structure and organisation make the systematic review process easier for the researcher and they contain a particularly significant number of recognized journals and thus articles relevant to the topic. The study material included articles from the international and national (Greek) literature with publication years 2000–2023. Studies were collected based on their representativeness. Additional to the database search, the reference lists of each initially included paper were checked to identify other relevant articles that had not been in the regular search. Due to the limited number of papers in scientific journals and proceedings at the national and international levels concerning the situation in Greece, a search in Google for reports on the topic coming from national and European surveys and projects by formal national centres and authorities took place. Inclusion criteria, exclusion criteria and reasons for exclusion based on quality criteria were set. In order to decide whether a scientific paper or a report meets the inclusion criteria of the review, two (2) independently working reviewers screened each paper and each report retrieved. The same two independently working reviewers assessed each paper and report according to the reasons for exclusion based on quality criteria. Based on this procedure, the risk of bias in the included studies was assessed.
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12.5 Keywords for Data Collection The keywords for data collection were “Digital divide”, “digital exclusion”, “digital inclusion”, “digital competences”, “digital inequalities”, “Greece”, and “Ψ ηϕιακ o´ χ ασ ´ μα”, “ψηϕιακ o´ ς απ oκλεισ μ´oς ”, “ψηϕιακ η´ šντ αξ η”, “ψηϕιακ šς δεξ ι´oτ ητ ες ”, “ψηϕιακ šς ανισ o´ τ ητ ες ” (in the Greek language). The logical operators “OR” and “AND” were used to combine the keywords with each other in different ways. All keywords and combinations were combined with the word “Greece” via the operator “AND” as papers concerning Greece were demanding. The same keywords were used for both scientific papers and reports searches. When searching on Google search engine, the first 20 results were selected and screened after each search.
12.5.1 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria The articles must be relevant to the research questions, published between the years 2000–2022 in English or Greek language. The articles must be based on qualitative or/and quantitative research and access to the full text of the article must be available. During the screening, books, book chapters, book reviews, editorial documents, communication documents, news items, news discussions and reports by companies were not taken into consideration. The reports based on national and European surveys and projects by formal national centres and authorities were included in the research only if they were based on a qualitative or/and quantitative research methodology.
12.5.2 Reasons for Articles and Reports Exclusion After the screening of the papers and reports and the exclusion of those not meeting the inclusion criteria but the exclusion criteria, a set of reasons for further exclusion based on their methodological quality were stated. For this, quality criteria by Guyatt et al. (2008) adopted such as: “Are the research questions and objectives of this paper clearly defined?”, “Does the in-text context address the main research well?”, “Are the results clearly stated?”, “Can the results of this study provide valuable information?”.
12.5.3 Documents Found and Documents Used It should be noted that in most papers and reports included in the research, all the terms under consideration were discussed together, that is why in the results and discussion
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section of this chapter, issues of digital divide/exclusion and digital inclusion are presented and discussed also together. The number of sources found and finally included in the study, based on the abovementioned criteria and prerequisites, are shown in Fig. 12.1 and briefly described below:
Identification
a. Thirty-five (35) scientific papers/articles were found and eight (8) of them were finally included in the review (all published in the English language). b. Twelve (12) documents (frameworks, reports EU and statistical data) were found. Four (4) of them (one published in English and three in the Greek language) finally included in the review.
Records unedified through scientific database searching (n = 35)
Records unedified through other sources (reports) (n = 12)
Records screening (n = 32)
Records excluded (n = 12)
Eligibility
Full-text articles and reports assessed for eligibility (n=20)
Full-text articles and reports excluded with reasons (n=8)
Included
Screening
Records after duplicates removed (n = 32)
Studies included in qualitative synthesis (n=12)
Fig. 12.1 Flow diagram based on PRISMA 2009 (Moher et al., 2009)
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12.6 Findings—Results In Table 12.1, the papers finally selected to be included in the research are briefly presented. Studying and analysing the content of the scientific papers in Table 12.1, the findings are as follows: In their research, Gounopoulos et al. (2018), showed how socio-economic and demographic factors influence the decision to connect/access the Internet in a family. These factors are related to age, education, place of residence, country of citizenship, income and marital status. Due to the prolonged economic crisis and the high unemployment rate in Greece (24.6% in 2015), many educated people with digital skills cannot find a job and their low income affects their use of Internet services. People who can afford to access the Internet but prefer not to use it are likely to be older, without formal education, female and living in families with more than one member. Policymakers should focus on non-user groups, particularly those who are socially and economically excluded, such as the unemployed who do not appear to lack skills. These digitally excluded groups should be provided with financial initiatives and educational programmes as education is the most important factor influencing the decision to access and use the Internet. While Greece is still facing a long-term economic crisis, the digital divide should be addressed and tackled effectively. Not using the Internet leads to a new form of exclusion for socio-economically disadvantaged Greek citizens as the digital divide appears to be a major obstacle to Greece’s social and economic development. In the same direction, Gounopoulos et al. (2020b) support that those who are employed, highly educated and have higher incomes benefit most from using the Internet for educational, commercial and e-government purposes. According to their research, consistent differences in gender, employment status, income and educational attainment suggest a rather permanent structure of socio-economic inequality. Inequalities between those with lower levels of education and those with higher education persist, particularly in capital-enhancing activities. In contrast, age differences appear to be stable or decreasing. The Greek State should adopt corrective actions. Policy-responsive actions aimed at increasing Internet penetration should adopt a more targeted strategy for vulnerable social groups, such as low-income, loweducated people and people living in under-populated areas. The Greek government’s policy initiatives should also seek to make Internet activities, such as e-government and e-transactions, more popular and user-friendly. According to the results, the socio-economic factors that significantly influence an individual’s decision not to use the Internet (age, educational level, income and geographical area of residence) also affect the variation in Internet use. This leads to the conclusion that a new form of social inequality could emerge in Greece. According to Perifanou and Economides (2020), a wide gender gap in ICT-related higher education participation, employment, and salaries in Greece is present. A percentage of 44% of women have at least basic digital skills (versus 49% of men); 20% have above digital skills (versus 23% of men); and 50% have at least basic
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Table 12.1 Papers included in the study Authors
Title
Aim and research questions
Method
Gounopoulos, E., Kontogiannis, S., Kazanidis, I., & Valsamidis S. (2020a)
The Impact of the Digital Divide on the Adoption of e-Government in Greece
The authors evaluated the influence of the most important socio-economic factors on the use of the Internet for e-government and e-participation purposes in Greece The research questions examine the influence of gender, age, educational level, employment status, income and nationality to the use of the Internet for e-government and the influence of gender, age, educational level, employment status, income and nationality to the use of the Internet for e-participation
Quantitative research is based on the micro data from the 2017 ICT Survey on households and by individuals, conducted by the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ElStat)
Gounopoulos, E., Valsamidis, S., Kazanidis, I., Kontogiannis, S.(2020b)
A longitudinal analysis of Internet use. The case of Greece
The paper aims to investigate the factors that are associated with the Internet use in Greece Research questions were: Which socio-economic and demographic factors are associated with the various Internet use types in Greece for the years 2013 and 2015? How the influence of these factors has changed between the years 2013 and 2015?
Quantitative research based micro data from the 2013 and 2015 ICT Surveys on households and individuals, conducted by the Hellenic statistical authority
Perifanou, M., & Economides, A. (2020)
Gender Gap in Digital Skills in Greece
The paper suggests a framework to fight gender discrimination in ICT across four dimensions (ICT education & training, digital tools & infrastructure, people networking, ICT jobs) and three levels (access, use & participate, create). The resulting framework consists of twelve areas
Qualitative research based on national frameworks, reports and surveys
(continued)
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Table 12.1 (continued) Authors
Title
Aim and research questions
Method
Pappas, A., Drigas, S., Papagerasimou, Y., Dimitriou, H., Katsanou, N., Papakonstantinou, S. and Karabatzaki, Z. (2018)
Female Entrepreneurship and Employability in the Digital Era: The Case of Greece
The study examines the trends in the employability of women in the digital era, reviewing literature data and survey findings, to identify possible skills mismatches, and suggest training requirements to meet the demands of the future Research questions were: What are the current trends in the employability of women in the Greek digital era and what are the different types of skills required? What are the current trends in entrepreneurship of women in the digital era and which are considered as the most important entrepreneurial skills in Greece? What are the barriers in the accomplishment of these skills? What are the observed gaps in skills and how these gaps can be bridged through education and training in Greece?
Analysis and presentation of the general findings of the social research results (field research via an online survey that was conducted in Greece focus group and personal Interviews with key stakeholders as well as a correlation of the desk research with the findings of the surveys)
Gounopoulos, E., Kokkonis, G., Valsamidis, S., & Kontogiannis, S. (2018)
Digital Divide in Greece – A Quantitative Examination if Internet use
The paper attempts to discover the heterogeneity of the Greek non-users, by answering the research questions: Which socio-economic and demographic factors are associated with the most important reasons for not having Internet access in the household? Which factors influence the decision not to have Internet access in the household? Which socio-economic and demographic factors are related to Internet non-use? Since many people with Internet access decide not to use the Internet: What are the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of Internet non-users with access at home?
This study uses micro-data from the survey on the use of Information and Communication Technologies from the Greek households, in 2012. The survey Quantitative research (survey) conducted by the Hellenic Statistical Authority (continued)
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Table 12.1 (continued) Authors
Title
Aim and research questions
Method
Stasis, A. and Papastylianou, A. (2022)
Advanced digital skills towards interoperable e-government services: European and Greek case studies
The paper presents the digital skills policy, frameworks for citizens and professionals, the respective profiles and roles that were developed during the last decade in Europe, focussing on Interoperability
Case studies in Europe and Greece aim to highlight the transformation processes of the courses for digital and interoperability skills development so that they can be offered in a distance mode
Stamati, M. (2020)
Digital divide among primary school students on the island of Lesvos. A research assessment
The aim of the study was to detect the various levels of the digital divide in primary schools of Lesvos and to specify inequalities in the use of ICT by students The research questions were concerning: students’ interpretative patterns regarding courses conducted with ICT, factors affecting the use of ICT by the students, if students’ social class background affects the use of ICT and their perception of courses conducted with digital technology’s help
Qualitative approach with data collection through semi-structured interviews and not-controlled observation schools
(continued)
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Table 12.1 (continued) Authors
Title
Aim and research questions
Method
Bikos, K., Stamovlasis, D., Tzifopoulos, M. (2018)
Dimensions of digital divide and relationships with social factors: A study of Greek pre-service teachers
The paper examined the effect of independent variables, such as, gender, place of residence, location of Gymnasium and Lyceum, socio-cultural level of their parents, university department and familiarity with ICT Research questions were concerning: Gender and age make a distinction in access and use of computers at home, Pre-service teachers, who originate from rural areas and have attended schools there, will report difficulties in accessing the Internet from their home area and will differentiate from students of urban/sub-urban areas The use of computers at home, the frequency of the use of digital applications and the types of applications of computers by pre-service teachers, will correlate to the social and educational level of their parents. The university education of pre-service teachers is influenced both the use of computer applications and the level of their digital literacy
Quantitative research used as a survey instrument a questionnaire with 40 Likert-scale questions corresponding to various hypothesized dimensions: Academic Work, Entertainment Activities, Knowledge & Skills, and Sources of Learning
software skills (versus 55% of men). The authors based on National and European Union (EU) statistics discuss in depth issues concerning the gender gap in digital skills. They describe that among Greek people aged 25–29 years, women have above basic digital skills at 46% (versus men at 37%). Among Greek scientists and engineers (aged 25–64 years) in high-technology sectors, there are 21% women (versus 79% men). Less women than men use computers daily (a gap of 16%). Also, fewer women than men post opinions on civic or political issues or take part in online voting. In Greece, gender inequalities start appearing even at the lower secondary education, where fewer female students than male students engage in coding activities, and this trend continues in upper secondary education since 85% of female students never or almost never engage in coding/programming in comparison to only 66% of male students. It is notable that 0.4% of total employees are women ICT specialists (versus 2.5% men). The authors propose a Framework for Gender Digital Equity Strategies across 12 areas (3 levels X 4 dimensions). The levels concern Access, Use & Participation and Creation and the dimensions concern ICT Education & Training, Digital Tools & Infrastructure, People Networking and ICT Jobs. Pappas et al. (2018) discuss female entrepreneurship and employability in the digital age and note that women face a disadvantage in terms of payment, as well
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as career progression. A number of factors, such as educational attainment and stereotypes, account for gender issues in employability. For their personal development, women need to overcome a variety of obstacles and continuously enrich their qualifications by acquiring new skills and implementing innovative practices. Most entrepreneurs use ICT tools to optimise production, marketing and strategic objectives. Innovation in ICT seems to be a key success factor in entrepreneurship. Despite the barriers to female entrepreneurship, ICT could be effective tools for women to have equal opportunities with men in business development. The technological process over the last decades has reshaped the entrepreneurial environment in Greece. As a result, the factors affecting entrepreneurial skills and knowledge transfer have also been reshaped. Despite the fact that the European Commission encourages member countries to conduct surveys targeting female entrepreneurship, in Greece, this type of research remains limited. It is noted that the low level of digital skills in Greece may act as a barrier to further improvement of the digital economy and society. A series of actions and initiatives are recommended to strengthen, promote and support the active participation of women as entrepreneurs and workers in the ICT sector, as well as in other sectors of the economy, through the exploitation of ICT opportunities. Actions to enhance the role of women in the technology and STEM education sector, either as employees or as entrepreneurs, making the ICT profession more attractive as a career option, with a focus on encouraging more women to participate, increasing the number of young people trained for ICT professions, and ensuring certification and standardisation. Training actions to support the entry of women into the labour market on equal terms concerning ICT skills and competences required. Upgrading digital skills should be a target for education and vocational education and training curricula, and all changes should be aligned with a regional approach to future skills needs. Gounopoulos et al. (2020a) support that the most important factors in the use of e-government in Greece are educational level and age. The effect of socioeconomic factors on the use of the Internet for e-government purposes is insignificant. Educational level is the only significant socio-economic factor predicting the use of the Internet for participation in various democratic processes, while gender is a factor with a lesser effect. In order to enhance digital skills and attitudes towards technology, the state should focus on reforming the education system and adopting technologyenhanced teaching and learning. The results of their study indicate that the use of e-government services is affected by existing socio-economic inequalities. Policymakers should try to help citizens to realise the benefits of using e-government. The Greek government should adopt policy actions that will improve the level of digital skills for the low-educated, non-working population, the elderly and foreigners. It should also promote e-government services alongside traditional channels, because not all people have the skills or the trend to learn how to use the Internet and take advantage of the services available. Conversely, the use of e-participation services is not associated with social exclusion. Stasis and Papastylianou (2022) discuss about digital skills towards interoperable e-government services. The pandemic due to COVID-19 has forced educational and training institutions to offer distance learning programmes, and to transform existing
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courses by enhancing online platforms with synchronous and asynchronous ways of teaching and learning. Although e-learning already existed, the new need required: reorganisation and improvement of existing systems and telecommunication infrastructures as well as new ICT system functions. In addition, teachers/trainers had to become familiar with the new tools and platforms, which implies additional training for trainers. Many initiatives, such as the Greek National Digital Citizens Academy, have aimed to address this new need. Interoperability of digital services within the same institution/organisation and between institutions/organisations has emerged as a necessity. It is too early to say whether the pandemic period of Covid-19 has increased the maturity of interoperability of digital services in Greece. During this period, it was obvious that different parts of the same public organisation had to work together using the principles of interoperability, but they faced problems mainly due to the way the old systems were deployed and organisational barriers. Stamati (2020), in her study, focusses on digital divide in primary schools and specifies inequalities in the use of ICT by students, especially in the island of Lesvos. The differences in economic, cultural and social capital between students confirm initial hypotheses about inequality leading to a growing digital divide. Students in rural areas in some cases may do not have a computer at home, and the equipment in the school building they attend is inadequate. The socio-economic and cultural capital of the family is related to ICT access. In particular, the digital illiteracy of these children increases the digital divide in education, as they do not have the opportunity to use ICT as part of their educational process. ICT has not yet been actively integrated into the educational reality of the primary schools in Lesvos, to the extent that it has a major impact on the students’ attitudes as well as on the teaching and learning process. Early and equal access to technology, always combined with quality utilization and proper guidance by teachers, will give students the knowledge and confidence to move forward in the modern digital world of knowledge. Technology in the classroom promises to be a leveller of social inequalities. Trying to integrate ICT into teaching is a challenging task that requires a combination of school policy and teacher support to bridge this digital divide. Bikos et al. (2018) analyse in depth the existence of social-digital inequalities among Greek pre-service teachers, considering this study a prerequisite for assessing the strength of future education. Entertainment Activities at the University, Entertainment Activities at Home, Knowledge & Skills, Academic Work at the University, Academic Work at Home and Sources of Learning are factors under consideration. Gender does not seem to have any significant effect. Age, school location, mother’s education and the university department were significantly correlated with Digital Divide. Students graduated from Gymnasia located in big cities prefer to use the computers of the University to perform their Academic Work. Students whose mothers have higher education use more computers at home either for Academic Work or Entertainment Activities, while they appear more knowledgeable and skillful. Younger students (aged 18–19) spend more time on their computers for entertainment and social networking compared to older students (aged 20–22). Older students achieve a higher level of digital literacy compared to their younger peers. Regarding the socio-educational level of parents, the analysis supports the
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finding that students whose mothers have a higher socio-cultural background are more engaged with ICT programmes and web applications related to so-called academic literacy. Students with a low socio-cultural background use the computer at home mainly for communication and social networking and not so often for academic digital literacy practices. These students are generally considered to be less familiar with ICT and have lower digital literacy than students whose parents are at a higher socio-cultural level. Some factors encourage communication and social networking, and others encourage the use of ICT for scientific research and learning linked to school and academic literacy. It is important to notice that lessons related to educational technology can enhance students’ digital literacy. So, teacher education can be a key factor for the effective involvement of the next generation of teachers in addressing digital literacy. Digital literacy should be a formal statement for existing and new curricula inspired by the vision of the innovative school. Curricula should focus on education supported by digital tools and enrichment of modern educational programmes, and furthermore aim to enhance the role of the future teacher in mitigating digital inequalities. In Table 12.2, the reports finally selected to be included in the research are briefly described. Studying and analysing the content of the reports in Table 12.2, findings as the following arose: As Paidousi and Efstratoglou (2020) note, Greece lags significantly behind EU countries, ranking 27th in the Digital Economy and Society Index (index of digital readiness), marginally ahead of only Bulgaria. Greece ranks 28th in connectivity, 25th in human capital and use of Internet services, 24th in the integration of digital technologies by enterprises and 27th in digital public services. In Greece, 64% of the employed have at least basic digital skills, compared to 53% of the unemployed and 51% of the (economically inactive) population aged 16–74. The gender gap is only significant when it comes to people without digital skills, where men are fewer, and people with advanced digital skills, where men are ahead. Various efforts are being made towards increasing the number of people entering higher education studies in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Greece lags behind the European average in digital skills but is gradually converging towards the European countries in terms of digital skills. The combination of women and older people is associated with the lowest level of digital skills. Gender differences in digital skills are larger in older age groups. Educational attainment is an important correlating factor with the level of digital skills. It is important to note that the recent health crisis COVID-19 creates the right conditions for strengthening digital inclusion. Of course, it is necessary to design appropriate policy programmes to bridge the digital divide. Policies should be based on credible studies of the parameters that create the problems of the digital divide for individual social groups, so that they are appropriately tailored to the needs of each group. These groups include people over 55 years old, who may still be active in the labour market but lack digital skills at an average rate of 69%, people with disabilities, 54% of whom have never used the Internet, children and young people at risk of social exclusion, the unemployed and migrants/refugees. The European Commission has examined the need to
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Table 12.2 The reports included in the research Authors/Authority
Title
Aim
Method
Paidousi, C. & Efstratoglou, A. (2020)/Friedrich Ebert Foundation (FES)
Digital Inclusion and Human Capital in Greece
The report includes presents short proposals to address the digital divide and improve/upgrade the digital skills of the country’s human capital. It concludes with an extensive bibliography on the issues raised in it
The review based on national and European projects, surveys and frameworks
Tsekeris, C., Demertzis, N., Linardis, A., Iliou, K., Kondyli, D., Frangiskou, A., Papaliou, O. (2020)/ Hellenic Observatory Discussion Papers on Greece and Southeast Europe
Paper No. 153—Investigating the Internet in Greece: findings from the World Internet Project
The report aims to present the empirical results of the 3rd wave of the World Internet Project (WIP) nation-wide survey in Greece, that was conducted in April and May 2019. It presents the main findings and discusses the development of Internet penetration among the Greek population
The report is based on data collected by 1,208 interviews over the phone on a structured questionnaire (based on WIP guidelines)
Trevlaki. A. (2017)/ National Center of Social Research (EKKE)
Dimensions of Digital The short report aims Divide in Greece to discuss dimensions of the digital divide in Greece
The review based on national and European projects, surveys and frameworks
Tsekeris, C., Demertzis, N., Papadoudis, G., Linardis, A., Mandenaki, K., & Christophilopoulos E. (2023)/National Center of Social Research (EKKE) & Special Secretariat of Foresight
The Internet in Greece: The 4th wave of World Internet Project Greece
The research was designed by the National Center of Social Research in Greece following a mixed research model using a phone and an online, constructed questionnaire
The report aims to present the results of the last wave of the World Internet Project Greece (Autumn–Winter 2022), that concern crucial issues for the Greek Internet
upgrade the skills of European citizens in modern times in the context of the Europe 2020 strategy and the new skills agenda for Europe. Cooperation between Member States, public and private law bodies, various social partners, NGOs, education and training institutions and generally all public sector organizations active in addressing the digital skills gap or digital divide in Europe has started. The importance of the
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link between digital skills and education, the use of digital media in the educational process, the impact of digital skills on the transition from education to employment are highlighted. The need for coordination of policies and interventions at the local/ regional level is emerging. The study of Tsekeris et al. (2020) explore Internet penetration among the Greek population by providing comparative data on several aspects of the respondents’ Internet-related behaviour between all three WIP waves (2015, 2017, 2019). These aspects pertain to digital use, access and divides, online activities and social capital, Internet reliability and fake news, online victimization and privacy, political efficacy and freedom of expression. Based on the aforementioned data, we can conclude that gender, income, age, education and employment status have direct positive or negative correlations with Internet use in Greece. The results depict Greece as a digitally vulnerable society, with strong internal antinomies, which are in tandem with Internet’s radical ambivalence in general. Under the research prism of the 3rd wave of the World Internet Project Greece, the “Greek Internet” can be characterized as a complex space of antinomies and ambiguities. Despite the mass of potentialities offered by current digital technology, there is a high level of inequality of Internet uses, as well as a considerable number of non-users who refrain from Internet use, mainly because they are not interested or convinced about the Internet’s usefulness; or are afraid of (or confused by) technology; or lack technical skills, rather than Internet access per se. Digital divides and inequalities of any kind inevitably lead to new forms of social exclusion, marginalization, discrimination and poverty, thus further undermining (digital) citizenship, democratic participation and trust. Greece appears as a digitally immature, unready and vulnerable society, with strong internal antinomies, which are in tandem with Internet’s “radical ambivalence” in general. Nevertheless, the multilayered, nonlinear and complex dynamics of Web 2.0 or Social Web in the country is far from exhausted. Arguably, institutional betterment, policy-relevant reforms and a systematic increase in digital human capital (e.g. digital education, skills and competencies) would significantly contribute to value modernization and the effective exploitation of this evolving dynamics in the networked spheres of society, culture, economy and politics. As Trevlaki (2017) notes the digital divide in Greece, could be a substantial “reform” with social and economic impact, which, requires the technological upgrading of both the private and public sectors. The digital leap can only be achieved on the basis of a well-organized and well-designed plan, with concrete and realistic actions, clear priorities and a defined way of measuring results, in order to ensure that the use of new technologies gives all citizens access to the opportunities, knowledge and new markets that open up, while safeguarding citizens’ rights and freedom of expression. Digital literacy is nothing less than a crucial investment in human resources, through education and the development of appropriate skills for citizens of all categories through specific education and training programmes, with the aim of combating the digital divide. The role of cultural trends towards science and technology, the impact of political initiatives on education and training, funds available or not for Internet infrastructure, government initiatives and interventions to spread the Internet to connected schools, community centres and businesses, broader economic
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development, the utilization of human capital and the widening or not of democracy are additional factors that influence the degree of the digital divide for countries. Most important, however, is not so much the availability of computers and connectivity but the ability of people to use new technologies to their advantage and integrate them into meaningful social practices. Tsekeris et al. (2023) report presents the contents of the last wave of the World Internet Project Greece (Autumn–Winter 2022), which are related to issues of the "Greek Internet", such as the digital divide, the uses and the informational/ recreational value of the Internet, social media and AI algorithms, the future of privacy and the future of work, as well as the degree of credibility, freedom of expression, political competence, victimization and privacy violations. Internet use in Greece is steadily increasing, with 91% of the population in the last survey identifying themselves as users, an increase of 20% since the last survey in 2019 (71%). In the same study, there is a differentiation between non-users in terms of gender, of 46.98% (women 73.49%, men 26.51%), and in terms of age, the highest percentage of non-users (84.6%%) belongs to the 65 + age group, while no non-users are recorded at the young age group 15–24 years. About one-third of non-users (35.8%) belong to the lowest income category (income up to e1,000 per month), while 29.2% of non-users belong to the highest income category (income up to e2,000 per month). Also, the majority of non-users, 33.26%, are primary school graduates (30.5%), while 12.44% with a university degree say they do not use the Internet. The digital divide is now being shaped and transformed from a primary to a secondary divide, which is no longer so much about the socio-demographic characteristics of citizens as about digital skills or digital human capital in general and, by extension, “digital citizenship”. It seems that due to the recent health crisis, the digital literacy of respondents, as well as their skills, have been accelerated in the context of wider processes of digitization of employment. There has been an increase in the use of the Internet for transactions and an increase in the purchase of products online. The Internet is also an important source of entertainment for users in Greece, with daily video watching being the top preference at 64%, followed by downloading or listening to music at 56%, and online games at 44%. However, given the general emotional climate of mistrust, both in Greece and abroad, towards news in general and the Internet in particular as a source of information, the increase in the penetration of this medium is not accompanied by a corresponding increase in its credibility. Public and non-state actors in order, among other things, to build digital human capital (strengthening digital literacy/skills in combination with literacy for the future), as well as digital social capital, with the aim of reducing the existing digital gaps after access and supporting digital trust and digital inclusion and cohesion, which is of particular importance due to the disruption of the Greek Internet by the “echo chambers”. The issues concerning the research questions that arose based on the analysis of the papers and the reports were:
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Table 12.3 Issues found based on the analysis of the sources’ content Issue
Number of papers
Number of reports
Current state of the digital divide in Greece
5
3
Digital divide and Education
8
3
Digital divide, digital literacy and skills
6
4
Digital divide and socio-economic inequalities
5
4
Digital divide and gender
4
3
Digital divide and employment
3
4
Digital divide and income
3
2
Digital divide and age
3
3
Digital divide and Internet access
3
3
Digital divide and place of residence
3
0
Digital divide and e-government
2
0
Digital divide and marital status
1
0
Measures to address the digital divide in Greece
7
3
12.7 Discussion Based on the analysis of the content of each paper and report included in the present study various and import issues arose to be discussed in terms of the state of digital divide and associated parameters in Greece as well as the forms of digital inclusion actions and initiatives that have been developed and applied in the last two decades. The state of digital divide during the last twenty years is described by almost all papers and reports included. In the following, the digital divide-related factors according to the frequency that they appeared in the used sources are discussed. Concerning the current state of the digital divide in Greece and based on the results of the present study it is obvious that the digital divide is a still existing phenomenon. Most of the factors related with the digital divide according to the literature, as they described in the theoretical framework, arose as critical issues in the analysed papers and reports for Greece (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a, b; Perifanou & Economides, 2020; Pappas et al., 2018; Bikos et al., 2018; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023). Greece is ranked at the last positions among European countries in terms connectivity, human capital and use of Internet services, integration of digital technologies by enterprises and digital public services (Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020). There is a strong imprint of the digital divide in education. This is mainly due to the lack of digital skills, inequalities in access to technology, the geographical location of the school as well as to economic, cultural and social capital between students and their families. Digital literacy of students who lack the opportunity to use ICT as part of their educational process seems to affect the increase of the digital divide in education. Additionally, another important factor related to digital divide in education is teacher education, training and digital literacy (Gounopoulos
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et al., 2018, 2020a, b; Perifanou & Economides, 2020; Pappas et al., 2018; Stasis & Papastylianou, 2022; Stamati, 2020; Bikos et al., 2018; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023; Trevlaki, 2017). Most studies showed that gender is an important determinant of the digital divide as it is related to education, employment, income and other factors due to stereotypes in Greek society (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a, b; Perifanou & Economides, 2020; Pappas et al., 2018; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023; Trevlaki, 2017). Gender differences in digital skills are larger in older age groups (Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020). Gender does not seem to constitute a significant effect on undergraduate university students in humanities (Bikos et al., 2018). As Perifanou and Economides (2020) also mention, gender inequalities start appearing even at the lower secondary education, where fewer female than male students engage in coding activities, and this trend continues in upper secondary education. Concerning the digital divide, digital literacy and skills differences found between men and women concerning digital literacy and skills in various ages. It is worth noting that, at younger working ages, women appear to have basic digital skills at higher level than men but over a wider range of working ages, men have more digital skills specifically in high-technology sectors (Perifanou & Economides, 2020; Pappas et al., 2018; Gounopoulos et al., 2018; Stasis & Papastylianou, 2022; Stamati, 2020; Bikos et al., 2018; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020; Trevlaki, 2017). Furthermore, during the last two decades, inequalities in digital literacy between those with lower levels of education and those with higher education persist (Gounopoulos et al., 2020b). On the other hand, it seems that the recent health crisis empowered the digital literacy of citizens, as well as their technological skills (Tsekeris et al., 2023). Various interconnected factors were found to affect socio-economic inequalities. Based on the findings above it is obvious that Internet use/Internet access is one of the fundamental factors that relate socio-economic inequalities and digital divide. Furthermore, socio-economic inequalities are strongly related to education, income, employment, social status, residency area. Greece, as a state, seems to be penetrated by strong internal contradictions that might cause digitally an immature and unprepared society (Gounopoulos et al., 2018, 2020a, b; Stamati, 2020; Bikos et al., 2018; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023; Trevlaki, 2017). Moreover, employment and income are strongly interconnected with each other as well as with various inequalities. Due to the economic crisis, there is a high unemployment rate in Greece, so many educated people with digital skills are unemployed and/or with very low income. That affects their use of technology and Internet services. On the other hand, during the very last years, due to the recent health crisis, the digital literacy and skills of citizens have increased (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a, b; Perifanou & Economides, 2020; Pappas et al., 2018; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023; Trevlaki, 2017). As it is described above, age differences are related to different digital skills and use of ICT and therefore, are related to the digital divide (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a, b; Bikos et al., 2018; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023). People aged over 55 years old, who are still active in the labour market seem to
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lack digital skills (Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020). In terms of age, also, the highest percentage of non-users of ICTs belongs to the higher aged people (Tsekeris et al., 2023). According to Bikos et al. (2018), age makes a distinction in access and use of computers at home. Despite the mass of potentialities offered by current digital technology, there is a high level of inequality of Internet uses, as well as a considerable number of non-users who refrain from Internet use, mainly because they are not interested or convinced about the Internet’s usefulness; or are afraid of (or confused by) technology; or lack technical skills, rather than Internet access (Gounopoulos et al., 2018, 2020a, b; Paidousi & Efstratoglou, 2020; Tsekeris et al., 2020, 2023). People who can afford to access the Internet but prefer not to use it are likely to be older, without formal education, female and living in families with more than one member (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a). Place of residence, low income and marital status are among the factors that are also related to the digital divide. Due to the prolonged economic crisis and the high unemployment rate in Greece, many educated people with digital skills cannot find a job and their low income affects their use of Internet services. (Gounopoulos et al., 2020b; Stamati, 2020). According to Gounopoulos et al. (2018), Internet is used for egovernment purposes by people who are employed, highly educated and have higher income. Therefore, the interoperability of digital services remains a problem with an intense presence after the pandemic period of COVID-19 (Stasis & Papastylianou, 2022). All papers and almost all reports included in the study propose actions, measures, initiatives and corrective actions that the Greek State and policymakers should adopt to address the digital divide. According to their proposals, policymakers should focus on non-user citizen groups, especially those who are socially and economically excluded, like unemployed people who do not appear to lack skills, providing them with financial initiatives and educational programs (Gounopoulos et al., 2020a). Policy-responsive actions should adopt a more targeted strategy for vulnerable social groups (e.g., low-income, low-educated people and people living in underpopulated areas) (Gounopoulos et al., 2020b). In this direction, the Greek government should adopt policy actions that will improve the level of digital skills for the low-educated, the non-working population, the elderly and foreigners (Gounopoulos et al., 2018). Perifanou and Economides (2020) propose a Framework for Gender Digital Equity Strategies across 12 areas (3 levels X 4 dimensions). The levels concern Access, Use & Participation and Creation and the dimensions concern ICT Education & Training, Digital Tools & Infrastructure, People Networking and ICT Jobs. Actions and initiatives should be designed to promote the active participation of women as entrepreneurs and workers in the ICT sector and other sectors of the economy, through the exploitation of ICT opportunities. Actions to enhance the role of women in the technology and STEM sector should also be under consideration, making the ICT profession attractive with a focus on encouraging more women and young people to participate. Training actions to support the entry of women into the labour market concerning ICT skills and competences required as well (Pappas et al., 2018).
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Upgrading digital skills of citizens should be an important target for education, vocational education and training curricula (Pappas et al., 2018). Many initiatives, such as the Greek National Digital Citizens Academy, serves this new need (Stamati, 2020). Furthermore, equal access to technology, combined with quality utilization and proper guidance by teachers, will give young people the knowledge and confidence to be active in the modern digital world. Integration of ICT into teaching and learning is challenging and requires a combination of school policy and teacher support to bridge this digital divide (Stamati, 2020). Digital literacy should be a formal statement for existing and new curricula. Curricula should focus on education supported by digital tools and enrichment of modern educational programs, aiming to enhance the role of the future teacher in mitigating digital inequalities (Bikos et al., 2018). In this direction, the need for coordination of policies and interventions at local/regional level is emerging (Trevlaki, 2017). At the same time, the Greek government’s policy initiatives should make Internet services, such as e-government and e-transactions, more popular and user-friendly (Gounopoulos et al., 2018, 2020b). Interoperability of digital services within the same institution/organization and between institutions/organizations has emerged as a necessity (Stasis & Papastylianou, 2022). It is important to notice that the limitations of the study due to the limited number of papers and reports found and used as well as the fact that there are no studies or reports describing the changes that have occurred concerning the digital divide in Greece during and over the last twenty years, constrain the depth and breadth of the research and the discussion as well as the range of the conclusions.
12.8 Conclusion The aim of the chapter was to present and discuss the situation of the digital divide and the most important associated factors in Greece in the last two decades, as well as proposals by various researchers to improve the effects of the phenomenon. Based on the analysis carried out, various and important issues emerged under discussion. The state of the digital divide during the last twenty years is described by almost all papers and reports included in the study. Subsequently, the digital divide-related factors, according to the frequency that they appeared in the used sources, were analysed and discussed. From the analysis revealed that during the last twenty years, the digital divide in Greece is present and affects different aspects of citizens’ personal, educational and professional lives. Regarding the first research question, as factors that dynamically related to digital divide in Greece emerged education, digital literacy and technology skills, age, gender, employment, income, Internet access, place of residence, e-government and marital status. Regarding to the second research question, many proposals to improve the digital divide in Greece are discussed into the sources used in the study. According to them,
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trends of science and technology, political initiatives on education and training, funds for Internet infrastructure, government initiatives to support the Internet access for all citizens, economic development and utilization of human capital are fundamental principles to face the problem of digital divide. It is important to notice that the availability of computers and Internet access are emerging as important factors related digital exclusion and inequalities but the ability of citizens to use new technologies and integrate them into their lives and social practices arose as most important. Digital divide and inequalities of any kind lead to new forms of social exclusion, marginalization, discrimination, thus further undermining citizenship and participation. As shown by the analysis of the sources, nowadays the digital divide seems to be transformed in to a secondary divide, that is no longer related mostly to the socio-demographic characteristics of citizens but to their digital skills and “digital citizenship”. It is important to prepare and design better post-digital worlds, focussed on sustainable development, people and fundamental rights as well as on democratic principles and values.
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Chapter 13
Addressing the Digital Divide in Indonesian Higher Education: Insights, Implications, and Potential Solutions Lalu Nurul Yaqin, Lantip Diat Prasojo, Noor Azam Haji-Othman, Norazmie Yusof, and Akhmad Habibi
Abstract The digital divide in Indonesian higher education has become a pressing issue, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, where access to technology and online resources is crucial for educational continuity. This systematic literature review (SLR) aims to provide comprehensive insights into the factors contributing to the digital divide, its implications for educational outcomes, and potential solutions to overcome this divide. The findings of the SLR strongly support the significance of addressing the digital divide in Indonesian higher education. Key strategies to bridge this divide include investing in improved internet infrastructure, equalizing technological resources, and providing access to digital devices and facilities. The implications of this study are of utmost importance for policymakers, educational institutions, and practitioners. Prioritizing infrastructure development and reliable internet connectivity is essential, along with efforts to narrow the technological gap between regions in Indonesia, ensuring equal access to digital resources and tools. Comprehensive technical training and support programs for educators are crucial to enhance their skills in managing online-based learning, enabling them to effectively utilize digital resources, facilitate online discussions, and engage students in collaborative learning activities. Equally important is providing training and support for students to develop digital skills, promoting digital literacy and equal access to educational opportunities. Future research should prioritize identifying effective strategies and best practices for implementing technology-enabled distance learning.
L. N. Yaqin (B) · N. A. Haji-Othman · N. Yusof Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam e-mail: [email protected] L. D. Prasojo Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia A. Habibi Universitas Jambi, Jambi, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_13
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Keywords Digital divide · Educational technology · Indonesian higher education · Systematic literature review
13.1 Introduction The “digital divide” refers to the gap between individuals or groups that have access to and use digital technologies and those that do not (Billon et al., 2010). It encompasses various dimensions, including access to technology, digital skills, motivation to use technology, and actual usage of digital technologies (Soomro et al., 2020). The digital divide has been the subject of extensive research, with studies focusing on measuring and quantifying the divide (Billon et al., 2010). To measure the digital divide, research has also explored the causes and impacts of the divide. Studies have shown that the digital divide is influenced by socioeconomic status, race, age, and education level (Alkureishi et al., 2022; Jun, 2021). Moreover, the digital divide has significant implications for various domains, including education, healthcare, and social inclusion (Keser Aschenberger et al., 2022; Kummitha et al., 2021; Muchabaiwa & Gondo, 2022). One specific area of focus within the digital divide is higher education. The digital divide in higher education refers to disparities in access to and usage of digital technologies among faculty and students in higher education settings (Fujita, 2020; Soomro et al., 2020). Research has shown that the digital divide among faculty can exist regarding physical access to technology, motivation to use technology, digital skills, and actual usage of digital technologies (Soomro et al., 2020). This divide can be even wider in developing countries (Fujita, 2020). Understanding the digital divide in higher education is crucial for ensuring equitable access to educational resources and opportunities. The systematic literature review will contribute to the current body of knowledge by shedding light on the specific context of Indonesia, thereby informing policymakers, educators, and researchers about the state of digital inequality in higher education within the country. The insights gained from this research will pave the way for targeted interventions and strategies to mitigate the digital divide and promote equitable access to digital resources and technologies in Indonesian higher education. Finally, the recommendations of the prior studies included in this meta-analysis were concluded. In the next section, this study will examine the existing research and literature on the topic of the digital divide within the context of the study.
13.2 Related Work The digital divide has become a significant concern in recent years, particularly in the context of advancements in technology and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (Schalkwyk & Canares, 2022; Laufer et al., 2021; Woldegiorgis, 2022; Radovanovi´c et al., 2015). As stated by Laufer et al. (2021), technology has been heralded as a
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means to improve access and learning outcomes, but there is a growing recognition of the inequalities related to the digital divide. The digital divide encompasses not only unequal access to technical resources but also differing levels of digital skills (Laufer et al., 2021). This divide has been further exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has deepened the disparities between those who have access to ICT facilities and digital platforms and those who do not (Woldegiorgis, 2022). In higher education, the “digital divide” is defined as the unequal access to educational technologies and innovations among students, particularly those from nontraditional, underserved, marginalized, and disadvantaged communities (Devkota, 2021; Dziuban et al., 2018). This divide is influenced by various factors, including the policy trajectories of online and distance learning, infrastructural limitations, and the lack of strong student support (Devkota, 2021). Further, the lack of access to digital technologies and internet connectivity has deepened the existing disparities in higher education, particularly for students from low-income families and disadvantaged backgrounds (Devisakti & Muftahu, 2022; Woldegiorgis, 2022). The digital divide has become more pronounced during the pandemic as online learning intensifies the gap between those who have access to digital resources and those who do not (Woldegiorgis, 2022). This divide has significant implications for educational outcomes and opportunities, as students with limited access to technology may face challenges in participating fully in online classes, accessing educational resources, and engaging in collaborative learning (Laufer et al., 2021; Meletiou-Mavrotheris et al., 2022). A systematic literature review of digital transformation in higher education published between 1980 and 2019 by Castro Benavides et al. (2020) reported insights of digital transformation in higher education institutions (HEIs) from social, organizational, and technological perspectives. The authors demonstrated that, notably, the social perspective of digital transformation within HEIs is highlighted, emphasizing the importance of human resource skills and capacities for the success of digital transformation projects. The study identifies multiple dimensions affected by digital transformation processes in HEIs, including teaching, infrastructure, curriculum, administration, research, business processes, human resources, extension, digital transformation governance, information, and marketing. The study highlights that digital transformation in HEIs necessitates holistic transformations, rethinking organizational structures, and placing individuals at the center of development. The article emphasizes the need for comprehensive adoption methodologies aligned with HEIs’ business models, operational processes, and user experience. Further research is recommended to deepen the understanding of conceptualization and methodologies for successful digital transformation adoption in HEIs, facilitating comprehensive and impactful transformations within the higher education sector. A further systematic literature review by Skantz-Åberg et al. (2022) about teachers’ professional digital competence in relation to technology-based This study serves as a comprehensive examination of the concepts associated with technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) as they were utilized in educational research between 2010 and 2019, providing a foundation for future discussions and
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strategic advancements in the field. The key finding of this review is that the conceptualizations of TPCK vary significantly in terms of the terminology utilized and the sources from which they derive, with some being grounded in policy frameworks and others drawing from the research literature. Moreover, the aspects of teacher competence covered within these conceptualizations also differ, highlighting the diverse perspectives and understandings of TPCK within the educational research community. This study lays the groundwork for further dialogue and strategic developments in the field of TPCK, emphasizing the need for a shared understanding and consistent terminology to facilitate effective research, policy, and practice in promoting teachers’ digital competence. A scoping review was performed by Storr and McGrath (2023) to seek evidence to support digital learning in legal education in the last ten years. By reviewing a wide range of studies and literature, the authors analyze the current state of the evidence available in this field. The examination encompasses various aspects, including the evaluation methodologies employed, the terminology used to describe digital learning approaches, and the metrics utilized to assess their effectiveness. Through this analysis, the paper offers insights into the strengths and limitations of the current evidence base, shedding light on the extent to which digital learning is supported in legal education. By identifying gaps and challenges within the existing research, the paper provides a foundation for future discussions and strategic developments in the field. Overall, this study contributes to our understanding of the current evidence landscape and its implications for integrating digital learning in legal education. Moreover, in the basic condition, a review study by Dolan (2016) examines the complexities of the evolving digital divide in K–12 education and aims to shed light on the defining characteristics of technology use among students. The review highlights the contrasting experiences of affluent students attending schools with adequate resources and supportive teachers who actively produce technology by engaging in creative and interactive activities. In contrast, students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often have limited access to technology and primarily engage in passive consumption or drill-like exercises. Insufficient infrastructure, budgetary constraints, and pedagogical beliefs further exacerbate the digital divide. Additionally, the review emphasizes the need for teacher training and support to ensure that students can effectively use technology for academic purposes. Sing Yun (2023) published a PRISMA to explore a comprehensive understanding of the challenges related to digitalization in learning during the pandemic crisis. The review highlighted the importance of policy interventions, professional training for educators, improved infrastructure, and creative pedagogical approaches to ensure the success of digital learning. The findings provide recommendations for future research, emphasizing the need for government support, teacher training, enhanced infrastructure, and interactive educational tools to prepare for future digital learning processes. In addition, a systematic literature review by Spante et al. (2018) sheds light on the evolution and referencing strategies of digital literacy and digital competence in higher education research. The review reveals a transformation from a technical focus on technology use to a knowledge-oriented, cognitive, critical, and responsible perspective. Additionally, the review points out tensions between digital literacy and
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digital competence and the need for a common understanding of these concepts, particularly in terms of assessment and measurement. The findings of this systematic literature review will have a direct impact on the existing literature by addressing the unique challenges and complexities faced by Indonesian institutions and students in bridging the digital divide. To guide this study, we have formulated the following research questions with the aim of uncovering critical insights and driving meaningful change: 1. What are the key factors contributing to the digital divide in Indonesian higher education? 2. What are the implications of the digital divide on educational outcomes and opportunities for students in Indonesian higher education? 3. What are the solutions to overcome the digital divide in Indonesian higher education? By addressing these research questions, we seek to deepen our understanding of the digital divide in Indonesia’s higher education landscape, inform evidence-based policies, and empower stakeholders to take proactive measures toward bridging the gap and ensuring equitable access to digital resources for all students.
13.3 Method This study adopted the preferred reporting items for systematic review and metaanalysis (PRISMA) 2020 protocol (Page et al., 2021). This protocol was designed to help researchers report studies and has now been expanded in the context of social studies (Mahat et al., 2022; Rahmawati et al., 2020). The PRISMA protocol consists of three significant phases. The following information outlines the phases of the PRISMA Protocol applied in this study. The PRISMA procedure comprises three distinct phases: the identification phase, the screening phase, and the eligibility phase. For the identification phase of this systematic literature review (SLR), three prominent scholarly databases, namely Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science, were employed. These databases are widely recognized as hosting esteemed journals in various disciplines. To conduct the SLR, a specific search term was utilized to retrieve relevant studies, as detailed in Table 13.1. The inclusion criteria for this study encompassed articles published between 2010 and 2023. Excluded from consideration were book chapters, books, opinions, short articles, proceedings, systematic literature reviews, and meta-analyses (Table 13.2 for specific details). The identification phase yielded a total of 320 articles to be included in the subsequent screening phase, comprising 8 articles from the Scopus database, 224 articles from the Science Direct database, and 88 articles from the Web of Science database. Further, in the stage of the identification phase, a comprehensive analysis yielded a total of 320 articles, which were deemed the target articles and subsequently exported to the widely utilized reference management software,
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Table 13.1 Search string Databased
Search string
Elsevier by Scopus
TITLE-ABS-KEY (digital AND divide OR digital AND inequalities AND education) AND PUBYEAR > 2009 AND PUBYEAR < 2024 AND (LIMIT-TO (AFFILCOUNTRY, “Indonesia”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”))
Science Direct
Digital divide AND digital inequalities AND higher education AND Indonesia
Web of Science
https://www.webofscience.com/wos/alldb/summary/ad5c7ff7-5eaf-4dd3-a54b525cd292b479-93463560/relevance/1
EndNote version 19. Following a meticulous screening process, four duplicate publications were identified and excluded, resulting in 316 remaining articles. Employing a specific search string as detailed in Table 13.3, the search panel within EndNote was utilized to refine the dataset, resulting in a select subset of 30 articles. In the subsequent screening phase, these 30 full-text articles underwent a rigorous evaluation to fulfil the stringent eligibility criteria, which primarily focused on investigating and addressing the intricate matter of the digital divide within the context of Indonesian higher education. In the last stage known as eligibility, this study involved a total of 30 articles. In this stage, the author’s name, research methodology, purposes of the study, and the challenges posed by the digital divide within university settings, including those faced by universities themselves, university facilities, teachers, and students, were thoroughly examined. Moreover, the bridging solutions proposed to address these challenges, such as policy recommendations and future directions, were assessed to ensure that the reviewed studies met the inclusion criteria and aligned with the research objectives of the current study. Following the guidelines outlined in the Table 13.2 The inclusion of reviewed articles Criteria
Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Document type
Research article
Book chapters, books, short articles, opinions, features, proceedings, systematic literature reviews, and meta-analysis
Language
English
Non-English
Timeline
Articles published from 2010 to 2023
Articles published before 2010
Table 13.3 Search string for inclusion Search term 1
Abstract Contains “digital divide” AND “education” Abstract Contains “learning”
Search term 2
Abstract Contains “digital inequality” AND “education” AND Abstract Contains “learning”
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Fig. 13.1 PRISMA protocol
PRISMA Protocol (Fig. 13.1), a total of 11 articles were identified for in-depth review. Notably, 19 articles were excluded due to various reasons, including not being in the context of higher education, irrelevance to the current study’s objectives, insufficient methodological details and discussion, and the absence of a direct relation to the digital divide in the Indonesian higher educational context.
13.4 Findings and Discussion The findings and discussion presented in the following subheading, based on an in-depth analysis as seen in the attachment, encompass an overview of the articles included in the systematic literature review. The aim is to provide insights into the
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factors contributing to the digital divide in Indonesian higher education, the implications of this divide for Indonesian educational outcomes, and potential solutions to overcome it. In terms of research methods employed by the reviewed articles, it was observed that six studies utilized a quantitative approach (Aditya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Habibi et al., 2022; Hidayat et al., 2022; Mannan et al., 2023; Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). Additionally, two studies employed a mixed-methods approach (Cahaya et al., 2022; Kusuma, 2022), while two articles adopted qualitative methods (Waluyo et al., 2022; Winoto, 2022). Lastly, one article conducted experimental research (Oktavia et al., 2018). This diverse range of research methods reflects the multidimensional nature of the digital divide and underscores the need for comprehensive investigations that address its various aspects. Furthermore, based on the aims of the related studies included in the systematic literature review, two articles conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic were identified. These articles focused on investigating the necessity of an online education model and exploring how educational institutions can effectively utilize their existing resources to transition to online platforms (Cahaya et al., 2022). Additionally, the review aimed to examine the determinants driving digital library use by university students in Indonesia and Malaysia during the pandemic (Habibi et al., 2022). Moreover, four other studies included in the review delved into the realm of online learning and remote teaching. Specifically, their objectives were to investigate the basic principles of remote teaching implementation (Cahyadi et al., 2021), assess students’ experiences in using online learning platforms (Hidayat et al., 2022), explore preservice teacher technology integration (Kusuma, 2022), and bridge the gap by investigating the factors affecting online learning adoption (Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). Furthermore, this SLR also encompassed an article that explored the relationship between digital literacy and heutagogy (Mannan et al., 2023) and tested a theoretical framework to identify barriers to the implementation of digital transformation in higher education (Aditya et al., 2022). Additionally, the review included an article that investigated the challenges of improving the quality of education concerning curriculum and the quality of lecturer-based technology (Winoto, 2022). It also captured experiences in lecturers’ engagement and support of students’ pedagogical learning using technology (Waluyo et al., 2022). Finally, a study was conducted to compare the different impacts of e-learning as a condition and a social learning system on learning outcomes (Oktavia et al., 2018). In addition, the different research methods employed and the specific aims of each study contribute to a comprehensive understanding of this complex issue.
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13.4.1 The Factors Contributed to the Digital Divided in Indonesian Higher Education Based on an in-depth analysis of the reviewed articles, this SLR found that a dominant factor contributing to the digital divide in Indonesian higher education is the lack of access to internet connectivity (Cahaya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Waluyo et al., 2022; Winoto, 2022). For instance, Cahyadi et al. (2021) state that differences in the speed and accessibility of internet connections have become factors contributing to the digital divide in Indonesian higher education. The lack of access to electronic devices and reliable internet connections, along with the high costs associated with internet access, hinders students’ ability to fully participate in online education. This finding is in line with a study by Janc et al. (2022), who emphasize the increased importance of internet performance, particularly speed, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study found that faster internet connections have facilitated effective access to education, work, and socialization. This supports the idea that differences in internet speed contribute to the digital divide (Cleofas & Rocha, 2021). Disparities in technological infrastructure and facilities between regions in Indonesia are another significant factor contributing to the digital divide in the country (Habibi et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Waluyo et al., 2022; and Winoto, 2022). Habibi et al. (2022) highlight the insufficient access to resources and technological infrastructure as a limitation in the use of digital libraries. This indicates that the lack of technological infrastructure hinders access to educational resources, further exacerbating the digital divide. Waluyo et al. (2022) and Winoto (2022) also emphasize that disparities can result in unequal access to the internet and digital resources, which directly contribute to the digital divide in higher education. Furthermore, regional disparities in Indonesia have been widely studied and documented (Laksono et al., 2019; Wulandari et al., 2022). For instance, Aritenang (2014) examines regional disparities in Indonesia from an economic perspective. They highlight the disparities in per capita income and economic growth between Java and other regions in Indonesia. These disparities can be linked to the availability of basic infrastructure, including technological infrastructure, which is crucial for economic development and bridging the digital divide. Additionally, the disparities in technological infrastructure and facilities between regions in Indonesia hinder access to digital resources, limit connectivity, and create unequal opportunities for students. On the other hand, the study identified the lack of technical skills and knowledge as an aspect of the digital divide in the context of higher education (Kusuma, 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Waluyo et al., 2022; and Winoto, 2022). These studies emphasize that the lack of technical skills and knowledge acts as a barrier to accessing and utilizing online educational resources. This finding aligns with a study by Tsai et al. (2015), which discovered that individuals with lower education levels may encounter difficulties acquiring the technical skills necessary to bridge the digital divide. Furthermore, a further study conducted by Buzzetto-Hollywood et al. (2018) discussed the persistence of the digital divide in the United States and found that
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students from different socioeconomic backgrounds and racial groups enter university with varying levels of proficiency in using core computer applications, indicating a digital divide based on technical skills. Additionally, it can be concluded that the lack of technical skills and knowledge is a significant aspect of the digital divide in higher education. This divide is influenced by demographic factors such as age, education, and population density, as well as gender disparities in technology usage. The digital divide in Indonesian higher education is influenced by various factors beyond the dominant ones mentioned earlier. These additional factors include the lack of institutional funding, planning, and investment in technological facilities (Aditya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Winoto, 2022). Insufficient financial support and inadequate infrastructure hinder the development and implementation of digital technologies in educational institutions, widening the digital divide (Kontos et al., 2014). Inadequate pedagogical ability to maintain student motivation is another contributing factor (Cahyadi et al., 2021). Teachers’ ability to effectively engage and motivate students in online learning environments is crucial for bridging the digital divide. Without proper pedagogical skills, students may struggle to stay motivated and actively participate in online education. Technological disruption is also a factor contributing to the digital divide (Kusuma, 2022). The rapid advancement of technology can create challenges for educational institutions in keeping up with the latest tools and platforms. Failure to adapt to technological changes can result in a widening gap between institutions that embrace technology and those that do not (Khan et al., 2022). Furthermore, the lack of training and familiarity with technology tools is another factor that contributes to the digital divide (Oktavia et al., 2018). Students and educators who are not adequately trained in using digital tools may face difficulties in accessing and utilizing online resources. Socioeconomic disparities also play a role in the digital divide (Waluyo et al., 2022). Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may have limited access to technology and internet connectivity, making it challenging for them to fully participate in online education (Majeed et al., 2021). Additionally, the absence of communities of practice or peer networks to share experiences and best practices can contribute to the digital divide (Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). Collaborative learning and knowledge sharing among educators and students can enhance digital literacy and bridge the gap between those with varying levels of technological skills (Wang & Wu, 2022). In conclusion, the digital divide in Indonesian higher education is influenced by various factors, including the lack of institutional funding, inadequate pedagogical abilities, technological disruption, lack of training and familiarity with technology tools, socioeconomic disparities, and the absence of communities of practice.
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13.4.2 The Implications of the Digital Divide in Indonesian Educational Outcomes This section highlights the implications of the digital divide on educational outcomes. Based on the data from the study, this SLR found that five reviewed articles state that unequal access to educational resources is one of the key implications of the digital divide in higher education (Cahaya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Oktavia et al., 2018; Winoto, 2022; Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). This finding is in line with the study by Wei et al. (2011), who found that students who lack access to digital resources may face challenges in accessing educational materials, participating in online discussions, and engaging in collaborative learning activities. This can result in disparities in learning outcomes and hinder academic success. This statement is reinforced by research conducted by Gillis and Krull (2020) during the transition to remote instruction, where the study revealed that students who struggled to access technology faced additional barriers in learning. Another significant implication of the digital divide on educational outcomes is the lack of participation and engagement of teachers with students (Cahaya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Oktavia et al., 2018; Waluyo et al., 2022; Winoto, 2022; Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). When the teachers are not equipped with the necessary digital skills and resources, they may struggle to effectively engage students in online learning environments. This can lead to decreased student motivation, lower levels of participation, and ultimately, poorer educational outcomes (Wei et al., 2011). The digital divide can also affect classroom engagement and motivation. The lack of digital connectivity and integration of personalized technologies in teaching practices can lead to less engagement, motivation, and higher absenteeism among students. Furthermore, this SLR found that struggles in keeping up with technological advancements is another implication of the digital divide on educational outcomes (Aditya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Kusuma, 2022). The obstacles and technical problems in the learning process can disrupt students’ access to educational resources and impede their learning process. According to Nurhikmah et al. (2023), limited exposure to a diverse range of technology tools can limit students’ digital literacy and proficiency, affecting the students’ ability to navigate and utilize digital resources effectively. Inability to participate in remote learning and digital classrooms, limited support, and opportunities for digital skills development that must be anticipated (Cahyadi et al., 2021; Winoto, 2022). The inability to participate in remote learning and digital classrooms, as well as limited support and opportunities for digital skills development, further exacerbate the impact of the digital divide on educational outcomes (Wei et al., 2011). The digital divide is an ever-evolving phenomenon that continues to induce new divides as technological progress advances (Badiuzzaman et al., 2021). In conclusion, the digital divide has significant implications for educational outcomes. Unequal access to educational resources is a key implication of the digital divide in higher education, leading to challenges in accessing educational materials, participating in online discussions, and engaging in collaborative learning activities.
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This can result in disparities in learning outcomes and hinder academic success. The lack of participation and engagement of teachers with students is another significant implication of the digital divide on educational outcomes. When teachers lack the necessary digital skills and resources, it can lead to decreased student motivation, lower levels of participation, and ultimately, poorer educational outcomes. Additionally, struggles in keeping up with technological advancements can disrupt students’ access to educational resources and impede their learning process. Limited exposure to diverse technology tools can also limit students’ digital literacy and proficiency, affecting their ability to navigate and utilize digital resources effectively. The inability to participate in remote learning and digital classrooms, as well as limited support and opportunities for digital skills development, further exacerbate the impact of the digital divide on educational outcomes.
13.4.3 Solutions to Overcome the Digital Divide in Indonesian Higher Education Based on the data presented in the reviewed article, this study has found that investing in improved internet infrastructure, equalizing technological resources, and providing access to digital devices and facilities are key strategies to overcome the digital divide in higher education in Indonesia (Cahaya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Hidayat et al., 2022; Waluyo et al., 2022; Winoto, 2022; Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). According to Yudiatmaja et al. (2022), invest in infrastructure and resources to ensure equitable access to internet connectivity, digital devices, and online learning materials. It is evident that the digital divide poses challenges in the education sector, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, where teachers have had to transform their teaching materials into virtual modules with limited support for information and communication technology. In addition, these findings highlight the need for comprehensive strategies and investments to bridge the digital divide in higher education in Indonesia, including infrastructure development, teacher training, and the integration of technology in educational practices. Another key finding of the strategies to overcome the digital divide in higher education is the importance of providing comprehensive technical training and support for educators to enhance their skills in managing online-based learning. This includes training programs that focus on equipping teachers with the necessary knowledge and tools to effectively utilize digital resources, facilitate online discussions, and engage students in collaborative learning activities (Cahaya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Hidayat et al., 2022; Waluyo et al., 2022; Winoto, 2022; Yudiatmaja et al., 2022). Yudiatmaja et al. (2022) state that it is crucial to provide training and support for students to develop the digital skills necessary for utilizing technology effectively. This will not only enhance the quality of education but also promote digital literacy and equal access to educational opportunities. It is essential for policymakers and educational institutions to prioritize investments in technical
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training and support to address the digital divide and create a more inclusive and equitable higher education system (Mendoza et al., 2014; Rahman et al., 2022). By empowering educators and students with the necessary digital skills, we can overcome the challenges posed by the digital divide and foster a more resilient and adaptable education system. Beside infrastructure and technological training, this SLR also emphasizes the importance of increasing the availability and accessibility of digital learning systems and resources as a strategy to overcome the digital divide in higher education. This includes ensuring that educational institutions have robust digital infrastructure and platforms in place, allowing students to access online learning materials and participate in digital learning activities (Cahaya et al., 2022; Cahyadi et al., 2021; Habibi et al., 2022; Kusuma, 2022; Oktavia et al., 2018; Waluyo et al., 2022). Additionally, efforts should be made to increase the accessibility and affordability of internet connections and necessary resources for online learning, enabling students from diverse backgrounds to engage in digital education effectively. Apart from the factors mentioned above, this systematic literature review (SLR) also addresses socioeconomic disparities through targeted initiatives and support programs (Waluyo et al., 2022). Implementing government policies and regulations that prioritize digital inclusion and supporting research and innovation in technology for education are crucial steps recommended by Yudiatmaja et al. (2022). Additionally, Yudiatmaja et al. (2022) also recommend that universities establish support systems, such as help desks and technical assistance, to address educators’ needs and challenges. In terms of research, Waluyo et al. (2022) suggest further research to identify effective strategies and best practices for implementing technology-enabled distance learning. It is also essential to develop clear and actionable plans to implement digital transformation strategies and invest in building human resources and expertise in digital transformation (Aditya et al., 2022). Additionally, the necessity to explicitly convey strategies for self-regulated learning is underlined, as it equips students for lifelong learning and promotes relatedness and identification with the university (Holzer et al., 2021; Lister et al., 2021). The evaluation of the performance effects of strategic planning and the role of technological capability in open innovation strategies are also highlighted (Gibbons & O’Connor, 2005; Liao et al., 2020). These findings emphasize the importance of comprehensive strategies, policy support, technological capabilities, and effective implementation plans to address the digital divide and promote digital inclusion in higher education.
13.5 Conclusions In conclusion, this SLR provides robust evidence supporting the importance of addressing the digital divide in higher education in Indonesia. The findings highlight key strategies to overcome this divide, including investing in improved internet infrastructure, equalizing technological resources, and providing access to digital
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devices and facilities. It is evident that the digital divide poses significant challenges in the education sector, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, where the transformation to online learning has exposed disparities in access and digital skills. The implications of this study are significant for policymakers, educational institutions, and practitioners. Firstly, there is a clear need to prioritize investments in infrastructure development to ensure reliable and accessible internet connectivity across the country. This should be coupled with efforts to bridge the technological gap between different regions in Indonesia, promoting equal access to digital resources and tools. Additionally, comprehensive technical training and support programs for educators are crucial in enhancing their skills in managing online-based learning. These programs should focus on equipping teachers with the necessary knowledge and tools to effectively utilize digital resources, facilitate online discussions, and engage students in collaborative learning activities. Similarly, providing training and support for students to develop digital skills is paramount, as it enhances the quality of education, promotes digital literacy, and fosters equal access to educational opportunities. The SLR also emphasizes the importance of increasing the availability and accessibility of digital learning systems and resources. Educational institutions should ensure robust digital infrastructure and platforms that enable students to access online learning materials and actively participate in digital learning activities. Efforts should be made to address the affordability and accessibility of internet connections and necessary resources for online learning, thus enabling students from diverse backgrounds to engage effectively in digital education. Furthermore, addressing socioeconomic disparities through targeted initiatives and support programs is critical. Policymakers should implement government policies and regulations that prioritize digital inclusion, while supporting research and innovation in technology for education. Establishing support systems, such as help desks and technical assistance, can address the needs and challenges faced by educators. Future research is recommended to identify effective strategies and best practices for implementing technology-enabled distance learning. Clear and actionable plans should be developed to implement digital transformation strategies, and investments in building human resources and expertise in digital transformation should be prioritized.
References Aditya, B. R., Ferdiana, R., & Kusumawardani, S. S. (2022). Identifying and prioritizing barriers to digital transformation in higher education: A case study in Indonesia. International Journal of Innovation Science, 14(3–4), 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJIS-11-2020-0262 Alkureishi, M. L., Jaishankar, D., Dave, S., et al. (2022). Impact of the early phase of the COVID19 pandemic on medical student well-being: A multisite survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 37, 2156–2164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-022-07497-2
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Chapter 14
Is Digitalization for Everybody? Perspectives and Obstacles to Digital Inclusion in Lithuania Ramun˙e Kasper˙e
and Jolita Horbaˇcauskien˙e
Abstract The aim of this study is to research digital divide through various lenses in Lithuanian society over the past two decades. The objectives also involve digital competence and its measurement among various social groups including such parameters as age, gender, region, etc. The digital literacy component in the educational context is within the focus of this study as well. To achieve the aim of the study, the analysis relies on peer-reviewed scientific literature sources published in foreign and Lithuanian scientific journals. The results of the systematic literature analysis reveal that the absence of infrastructure or the Internet, lack of digital skills and lack of understanding of the benefits are still the main reasons for digital divide, mostly affecting seniors, residents of rural areas, the homeless and the disabled. Keywords Digital inclusion · Digital exclusion · Digital divide · Digital skills · Digital literacy · Lithuania
14.1 Introduction Strategic documents of the state clearly define the goals in terms of digital literacy, accessibility and inclusion. Although Lithuania’s Digital Agenda 2014–2020 prioritised digital literacy, access to digital technologies and the Internet, investments have been necessary for infrastructure and skill development, especially in some areas, sectors and for specific target groups. It has also been measured that the usage of information and communication technologies in Lithuania does not stand out among other European countries and averages the European estimates. In the last decade, the country made substantial progress in terms of infrastructure development, digitalization of public services and accessibility of the Internet. R. Kasper˙e (B) · J. Horbaˇcauskien˙e Kaunas University of Technology, A. Mickeviˇciaus 37, 44244 Kaunas, Lithuania e-mail: [email protected] J. Horbaˇcauskien˙e e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_14
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Digitalization as the main factor enabling the public sector, businesses and academia to successfully develop and use innovative services and products is highlighted in the State Development Programme for Digitisation 2021–2030. The continuous development of Lithuania’s population to use new technologies and successful adaptation to them is another prioritized aspect of this programme. Moreover, the aim of the National Digital Agenda is in line with the mentioned document and aims to increase data accessibility and re-use, ensure safe access to services, and enhance digital skills of vulnerable groups. In 2019, Lithuanian Artificial Intelligence Strategy: A Vision for the Future was released by the Ministry of Economy and Innovation. The main recommendations focus on citizens’ education in the field of artificial intelligence, its ethical, safe and sustainable use in various economic, public and academic activities. The strategy for progress in Lithuania “Lithuania 2030” defines the development of a smart society through a learning society where members are ready for the challenges of the future and capable of functioning in a constantly changing world. This aim is achieved via developing a lifelong learning system that effectively adapts the potential of information and communication technologies, provides the knowledge, acquisition and development of skills and competences that are essential for a dynamic society. Digital literacy, digital technologies and digital skills have been delineated as essential requirements for the twenty-first century. Digital inclusion, as noted in the European Union’s digital strategy policy (EC Digital Strategy, 2022), aims to provide the possibility to everybody within the EU to contribute and benefit from the digital world as well as empower them to fight social exclusion. On the contrary, the definition of digital exclusion implies deprivation of full access and capacity to use ICT resulting in limiting full participation in a society’s political, economic and social life (Cedefop, 2014). Another key term of importance in this context—digital literacy— refers to “the ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate and create information” while safely and appropriately using digital technologies for a variety of purposes, like employment and entrepreneurship (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2018). Digital literacy involves computer literacy, ICT literacy, information literacy and media literacy (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2018). Despite progress in development of the skills and improvement of infrastructure, societies still face the challenges of digital divide, otherwise referred to as digital exclusion. Digital divide is a complex and multidimensional problem calling for attention to various parameters, technologies and territories (Žilinskas, 2012). In its simplest understanding, digital divide refers to three levels: access divide, use divide and quality of use divide. The topic of digital competences, literacy and inclusion vs divide has become of paramount importance with the beginning of COVID-19 when the entire educational system and many other governmental and non-governmental institutions had to shift to the remote working mode. The aim of this study is to investigate the digital divide in Lithuanian society over the past twenty years from different perspectives. The objectives of the analysis include an overview of the studies in digital competency, digital inclusion and exclusion among different social groups. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance of digital literacy in the context of education. The paper is divided into
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several sections. Following the introduction, the research methodology section clarifies the procedure of data collection and analysis. The results of the collected data analysis are provided in a table, followed by a discussion of results and conclusions.
14.2 Methodology To achieve the aim of the study, the analysis relies on peer-reviewed scientific literature sources published in foreign and Lithuanian scientific journals. For the selection of scientific articles, we first focussed on the keywords to be used in the search in two languages. Keywords digital inclusion, digital exclusion, digital divide, digital competences (-ies, -y), digital literacy, media literacy, ICT literacy were searched in two languages Lithuanian and English. The collection procedure of scientific articles was conducted by two researchers separately. Data search and selection were conducted in databases of Web of Science, Scopus and Lituanistika. The latter was used since it provides 85,000 bibliographic records and 52,000 full-text documents related to Lithuania, its society, culture, and language. The systematic literature search was conducted following Prisma guidelines for systematic literature review. There was no limitation as to the year of publication, the search included papers published from 2000 to 2022. The motivation for the selected time span is related to the major social and economic changes in the last decade of the twentieth century after Lithuania regained its independence from Soviet Union in 1990. The first years of independence were marked by substantial transformations of all systems, including education, healthcare, public administration, etc. Since the early twenty-first century, most of the reforms have been implemented and oriented towards European values and directions. In the analysis of all research articles finally selected, the focus was on the sample size, research methodology applied, and the outcomes and implications of the study. The study included both quantitative and qualitative research studies. Analysis of the research papers included checking the abstracts, the theoretical overview, description of methodology, results and conclusions of the research (see Table 14.1). Following Prisma guidelines, the four steps were followed: identification, when the number of records was identified through database searching (N = 339, WoS N = 206, Scopus N = 53, Lituanistika N = 80), number of records after the duplicated were removed (N = 322); screening, number of screened records (N = 322), number of records excluded (N = 186); eligibility, number of full-text papers assessed for eligibility (N = 136), number of full-text papers excluded (N = 88) due to irrelevant content; included, the number of studies included for qualitative synthesis (N = 48).
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Table 14.1 The criteria for literature review Criteria
Inclusion
Exclusion
Sources of information
Articles published in peer-review journals, and full conference papers, based on theoretical and/or empirical analysis
Articles without peer review, reports, editorials, commentaries
Content
Studies where the keywords are the main object of the research
Studies where the keywords are related to specific field, i.e. engineering, medicine, etc.
Type of study
Quantitative and/or qualitative studies
Reference to Lithuania
Reference to Lithuanian context
No reference to Lithuania
Availability
Full text available
Full text not available
14.3 Results The search results demonstrated the prevalence of articles published in Lithuanian journals over those published in foreign journals. The majority of the research papers overviewed rely on quantitative (survey), qualitative (focus groups, interviews) research methodology as well as on the analysis of statistical data. Articles reporting comparative cross-country results are a few and they usually focus on the Baltic States or Nordic countries, with some exceptions where Turkey is taken into comparison. Table 14.2 presents a summary of all articles included into the analysis, indicating the authors and the year of publishing, the keywords, the number of subjects (where available), and the research method employed.
14.4 Discussion 14.4.1 Education Among a body of papers analysed, half were related to the digital divide, inclusion, literacy and skills within the educational environment. The researched data of these papers fall into the following categories: schoolchildren’s attitudes towards computer literacy and skills, teachers’ perspective towards digital competence and its use, and students of higher education institutions. Besides, the analysed data demonstrate a rise in the published papers on the topic of digital competences and literacy specifically within the pandemic context. The results pinpoint the generally sufficient level of digital competences of teachers and learners to engage in the educational processes (Balzarien˙e, 2021), except for the deficient competences in primary education (Braslauskien˙e et al., 2021). Positive views and smooth process of transfer to
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Table 14.2 Summary of research articles included in the study sample (2000–2022) Authors (year of publication) Keywords
Sample size, characteristics
Research tools, methods of analysis
Papers related to education Students (N = 1004) Tests and surveys
Šaparnien˙e (2001) Daubarien˙e et al. (2004)
Digital literacy, ICT First-year students Survey competence, digital of a technological proficiency, foreign university (N = 186) language studies
Peˇceli¯unait˙e (2005)
Computer literacy, knowledge of information technologies, students
First-year students (N = 98)
Modelling and analysis of questionnaire data for a virtual interactive environment for learners
Elijošaitien˙e et al. (2007)
Biomedical study programme, information and communication technologies, computer literacy
Second-year students (N = 52)
Survey, descriptive statistics
Malakauskien˙e and Šaparnien˙e (2007)
Computer literacy, school, learning organization
Heads of the general Questionnaire, education schools descriptive and teachers from 10 statistical analysis schools (N = 293)
ˇ Cesnuityt˙ e (2007)
Distance learning, Blind and partially Survey, computer literacy, sighted people (N = semi-structured integration of blind 74), experts (N = 5) interview and partially sighted people into the information society
ˇ Cechamirien˙ e et al. (2009)
ICT, computer University staff (N literacy of personnel = 511)
Survey
Mickus and Vidži¯unas (2009)
ICT competence, university students, level of ICT competence
University students (N = 4178)
Level of competence tested on a computer programme
Valaviˇcius et al. (2009)
Computer literacy, students, college studies
Students (N = 285)
Survey
Gedvilien˙e and Kankeviˇcien˙e (2012)
Computer literacy, College teachers (N information literacy, = 241) digital literacy, information society technologies
Survey statistical data analysis
(continued)
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Table 14.2 (continued) Authors (year of publication) Keywords
Sample size, characteristics
Research tools, methods of analysis
Gedvilien˙e et al. (2012)
Key competencies, adult teacher, adult education
Teachers (N = 30)
Survey, descriptive statistics
Kasperiuniene and Daukilas (2017)
Case study, learning Teachers from rural process, smart vocational training education schools (N = 25) technology, teachers’ perspective, rural vocational training institution
Interview using focus group interview format
Valantinait˙e and Sedereviˇci¯ut˙e-Paˇciauskien˙e (2020)
E-learning, online 19–21 years old learning students (N = 106) environment, ubiquitous learning, flipped classroom; student–teacher communication, ICT
Pre-test and post-test questionnaires; quasi-experiment
Kumpikait˙e-Vali¯unien˙e et al. COVID-19, burnout, (2021) digital competence, online learning, stress, well-being
Students from An exploratory Poland, Lithuania, study Turkey and India (N = 1097)
Spridzans and Dzerviniks (2021)
Collaboration, development of digital competence
Teachers (N = 44)
Balzarien˙e (2021)
Digital teacher competence, classroom leadership
Vocational Semi-structured schoolteachers (N = interview 10)
Braslauskien˙e et al. (2021)
COVID-19, distance Pre-school education, education teachers organization of (N = 15) pre-school education
Burkšaitien˙e et al. (2021)
Sustainable learning, online learning, higher education
Third and fourth Survey year undergraduates (N = 309)
Dagien˙e et al. (2021)
Teachers’ professional development, eye tracking, self-reflection, language education
Language teachers Experiment, (N = 6) and students qualitative in a secondary interviews school (N = 81)
Survey
Semi-structured interview
(continued)
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Table 14.2 (continued) Authors (year of publication) Keywords
Sample size, characteristics
Research tools, methods of analysis
Vintere et al. (2021)
Competence, engineering, life-long, remote, self-directed learning
Students (N = 387)
Survey
Ž˙ekait˙e et al. (2021)
Digital literacy, digital exclusion, distance learning, educational technologies, COVID-19
Pupils from 5 to 8th Interview grades (N = 26), their parents (N = 38), teachers of primary and secondary schools (N = 33), and school administration (N = 16)
Bartuseviˇcien˙e and Valionien˙e (2022)
Smart workplace, multi-dimensional model of competences, readiness of educational institution, digitalization
Students (N = 87)
Survey, statistical analysis
Ivanauskien˙e (2022)
Playfulness, seriousness, video game, play, game, school, media literacy
Teachers (N = 5)
Qualitative research methodology and a case study strategy
Kasper˙e and Liubinien˙e (2022)
Digital competence, digital skills, teachers, teacher training, Lithuania
Peer-reviewed scientific articles published in foreign and Lithuanian scientific journals
Systematic literature review
Peciuliauskiene et al. (2022)
Information search Students (N = 310) literacy, information evaluation literacy, ICT self-efficacy in teaching, pre-service teacher
Ponomariovien˙e and Jakavonyt˙e-Staškuvien˙e (2022)
General competences, subject competences, integrated education, primary school students
Pupils (N = 12)
An online survey of students in teacher training programmes
An exploratory qualitative case study; a semi-structured interview with the class teacher (continued)
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Table 14.2 (continued) Authors (year of publication) Keywords
Sample size, characteristics
Research tools, methods of analysis
Information and communication technologies, physical education, online learning, remote physical education classes
8–12th-grade Questionnaire students (N = 2688)
Stupurien˙e and Gülbahar (2022)
Computers science education, informatics education, computational thinking, primary education, primary school teachers, motivation and barriers, teacher training
Primary school teachers from Lithuania (N = 8) and Turkey (N = 7)
Tessitore et al. (2022)
Technology, online Sport science survey, sport science students (N = 327) students, cluster analysis
Semi-structured interviews
Survey
Papers related to the public and private sector Poškien˙e (2004)
Digital literacy, ecology, empowerment, transformative organizational learning
Otas et al. (2007)
Employees at companies (N = 535)
Survey
Civil servants (N = 1282)
Survey
Bagdanaviˇci¯ut˙e et al. (2008)
Civil servant, civil service, computer literacy, public administration
Civil servants (N = 200)
Survey, descriptive statistics
Fidan (2016)
Information systems, sectoral differences, inequality measurement, digital divide
Eurostat reports from 2010 to 2013
Gini method to determine the digital divide
(continued)
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Table 14.2 (continued) Authors (year of publication) Keywords
Sample size, characteristics
Research tools, methods of analysis
Manžuch and Maceviˇci¯ut˙e (2019)
Digital divide, digital exclusion, digital inclusion, libraries
Librarians, Interviews government repre-sentatives, participants from business enterprises, and non-profit organizations, staff of cultural institutions, researchers, artists (N = 75)
´ Cwiklicki et al. (2020)
Central Eastern Europe, e-health, policy, services
Kulikauskien˙e and Šaparnien˙e (2020)
Digital inclusion, enhancing digital inclusion in public library activities
Qualitative comparative analysis People with disabilities, seniors and library managers (N = 25)
Interviews, secondary data analysis
Laužikas and Mili¯ut˙e (2020) Communication sustainability, technologies, digital communication, civil service organizations
Leaders of civil service organizations (N = 20)
Semi-structured interviews
Karneckait˙e et al. (2021)
Family doctors, distance continuing professional development, advantages and disadvantages, primary health care
Family doctors working in health care institutions (N = 188)
Anonymous questionnaire
Labanauskait˙e et al. (2021)
Digital SMEs in Germany competences, (N = 14) and entrepreneurial Lithuania (N = 14) competences, labour market
Kimura (2022)
Digitization, museum professionals, questionnaire, Lithuania
Interviews, content analysis
Staff responsible for Questionnaire digitization in municipal museums (N = 50)
Papers related to various social groups Rimkuvien˙e and Stabingis (2003)
Information and communication technologies
N = 83
Survey
(continued)
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Table 14.2 (continued) Authors (year of publication) Keywords
Sample size, characteristics
Research tools, methods of analysis
Šuminas (2012)
Digital exclusion, social media, internet and politics, communication on elections, election to municipality council
Candidates applying Analysis of media to the municipality use councils in eight municipalities (N = 2753)
Žilinskas (2012)
Region, regional politics, digital divide, information and communication technologies
Households (N = Statistical data 6122) or residents of analysis the selected households of 16–74 years of age (N = 11,212)
Liubinien˙e and Thunqvist (2015)
Digital culture, digital divide, digital generation, media literacy, network society, social stratification
Cross-cultural case study, comparative research
Manžuch et al. (2018)
Digital divide, information society development programmes, measures to reduce the digital divide, Lithuania
A qualitative and quantitative content analysis of strategic information society documents
Šuminas et al. (2018)
Digital divide, digital divide indices, digital divide levels, Internet use
Analysis of statistical data
Seniors (N = 11)
Semi-structured interviews
Žemaitaityte and Katkoniene Information 60–80-year-old (2019) communication seniors (N = 49) technologies, technological development, seniors, competence in smartphone usage, older people’s education
Semi-structured interview
Žemaitaityte and Balˇciunaite Information (2018) communication technologies, older adults, non-formal adult education, University of the Third Age
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the remote mode of learning were also observed in studies analysing higher education students’ competences (Kumpikait˙e-Vali¯unien˙e et al., 2021; Rutkauskaite et al., 2022; Tessitore et al., 2022). Secondary schools Schoolchildren’s attitudes and computer literacy skills were studied in the lockdown period as those were the factors that might have an influence on the learning process and achievements. Secondary school children’s attitudes and computer literacy skills were researched by Rutkauskaite et al. (2022). The respondents representing 8–12th grade students were surveyed on how they used communication technologies in the remote classes of physical education. The research results demonstrated that the positive attitude was dominant towards using ICT in the educational process, the respondents indicated having higher ICT skills than average. At the same time, older students who had lower computer literacy skills and spent more leisure time with computers were less fit and physically active. The authors note that during the COVID-19 lockdown, the students decreased their physical activities. Moreover, the digital exclusion was traced when analysing schoolchildren’s adaptation to remote learning (Ž˙ekait˙e et al., 2021) due to students’ lack of digital competences, unknown educational platforms, lack or no prior experience of remote learning. The research found out that children with special needs experienced digital exclusion due to unprepared or lack of professionals in formal school education have necessary relevant knowledge and skills to work online with the particular group of students. Nevertheless, at the end of the lockdown, schoolchildren were positive about their improved computer literacy skills and expected to use them in the coming school years. Students’ parents and teachers noted that the faced problems during the quarantine period should have been dealt with not only by separate groups but by all involved parties together. Ponomariovien˙e and Jakavonyt˙e-Staškuvien˙e (2022) research results are in line with the findings of Ž˙ekait˙e et al. (2021), where they argue that the inclusion of ICT tools helps to raise the interest of students in a particular subject as well as develops computer literacy and competence. Higher education students’ digital literacy, inclusion and exclusion Research of students’ digital competences, digital inclusion and divide has been extensive in the entire period under analysis. The studies analysed university students’ digital competences from a variety of perspectives: in specific disciplines, in specific study programme, in a specialized and traditional universities, according to the year of university studies. Peˇceli¯unait˙e (2005) argued that students enrolled in study programmes of humanities were eager to develop their digital competences to get better and deeper knowledge of IT, to be ready to adapt to the requirements of employers as well as innovations. Digital literacy was analysed from the perspective of foreign language studies in a university (Daubarien˙e et al., 2004) indicating the advantages and threats of digital inclusion as well as highlighting the needs of students. The necessity to apply new technologies while teaching foreign languages was highlighted as well. As for
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students’ digital skills to use and participate in the learning process in various educational platforms, the results of Vintere et al. (2021) demonstrate Lithuanian students’ readiness and high-level digital competence to use distance learning platforms and tools when compared with peers in Latvia and Estonia. These results partially correlate with the study by Kumpikait˙e-Vali¯unien˙e et al. (2021), where social and informational dimensions of digital competences were analysed in Poland, Lithuania, Turkey and India. Lithuanian students indicated epistemological and informational dimensions of digital competence as positive while dealing with stress during the COVID-19 period. The analysis indicated that the development of students’ information and communication skills is becoming increasingly important in higher education studies and the use of ICT and computer literacy is inevitably becoming one of the essential skill sets required to ensure a successful learning (Elijošaitien˙e et al., 2007). As for the use of students’ digital competence in learning particular disciplines, the study by Burkšaitien˙e et al. (2021) noted that despite having the necessary level of digital competence students still saw themselves as only partially prepared for sustainable learning in university studies. Moreover, Mickus and Vidži¯unas (2009) argued that the level of digital competence of students was low when enrolling into university study programmes and testing of this competence before studies would benefit the whole study process and help in developing effective learning environments. Valaviˇcius et al. (2009) highlighted that students’ digital competence in most of the cases was developed during informal learning process. Some of the findings are in line with Tessitore et al. (2022) results that students’ level of digital proficiency was primarily related to their personal interests and not to specific content of their studies. The possibility to communicate with the teacher during the learning process as well as teachers’ digital competence and availability to help was identified as the most important factors (Valantinait˙e & Sedereviˇci¯ut˙e-Paˇciauskien˙e, 2020). Peciuliauskiene et al. (2022) discovered that due to ICT self-efficacy close correlation to ICT breakthrough in schools, apart from the development of digital competence, students in pre- and in-service teacher training programmes should develop information search and evaluation literacy competences. The research results by Bartuseviˇcien˙e and Valionien˙e (2022) show that sometimes, students do not acknowledge a high digital technological readiness of the institution they study in, and this might be one of the reasons for not fully using the possibilities offered by the institution. Teachers’ digital competency Teacher’s digital competence is a highly researched topic in the analysed period. Teachers from various types of formal education institutions—vocational schools, institutions of higher education, secondary, primary and preschools, participated in a number of studies. Balzarien˙e (2021) argued that teachers’ digital competences helped to transfer smoothly to remote forms of teaching as well as adapt, create and use appropriate material according to the particular needs of students. Interviews with preschool teachers (Braslauskien˙e et al., 2021) confirmed that teachers’ digital competences were the key elements for a successful move to online learning as well as
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parents’ active participation in the learning process. Stupurien˙e and Gülbahar (2022) found out that primary school teachers feel a lack of knowledge while teaching informatics to primary school children and in some schools, lack of infrastructure was detected. Continuous teacher support, professional development opportunities and increased teachers’ self-confidence should be taken into account while integrating computational thinking and informatics concepts into the curriculum of primary education. Continuous development of teachers’ digital competences was the key finding by Spridzans and Dzerviniks (2021). They argued that special attention should be focussed on pedagogical skills and technology integration and interaction for efficient online collaboration and teachers’ training should be carried out on international and national levels. In 2007 Malakauskien˙e and Šaparnien˙e came to a similar conclusion after surveying 293 secondary school teachers. The results of their study showed that respondents were inclined to value computer literacy’s influence on education quality. Ivanauskien˙e (2022) noted that teachers’ digital competence and stereotypical understanding played an important role while integrating computer games into curriculum. The required skills, technical resources, knowledge were a few mentioned factors that kept teachers from including games into teaching process. Dagien˙e et al. (2021) argued that in-service teachers should improve their ICT competences via eye-tracking technology which might help to increase the level of student-centred education together with teaching practices. The teachers working in rural vocational schools (Kasperiuniene & Daukilas, 2017) mostly used their digital competence for certain elements of the teaching process but the main highlighted reason for using technology was the presenting of vocational teaching content to students. Gedvilien˙e and Kankeviˇcien˙e (2012) study results suggested that lectures of social sciences and humanities found it more difficult to use technological tools in their work, while art teachers were better at using graphical software, computer maintenance and other devices. The results of the study by Gedvilien˙e et al. (2012) highlighted the teachers in state education institutions had computer technology competences and were able to apply them while teaching as ˇ well as in their everyday lives. While Cechamirien˙ e et al. (2009) results indicated that Vilnius Pedagogical University staff identified their ICT competence as improvable in the areas of statistical data processing, graphics and web page development. The study by Kasper˙e and Liubinien˙e (2022) confirmed the results of Spridzans and Dzerviniks (2021) that teachers’ digital competences should be developed on national and international levels by active involvement in cooperation projects. Moreover, the successful digitalization in education depends on the teachers’ competence and involvement of students, parents, school administration and other stakeholders.
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14.4.2 Digital Accessibility and Competency in Public and Private Sector The analysed period of the past two decades has resulted in a plethora of studies on digital accessibility and competency among the various players in the public and private sectors. The promotion of socially oriented ICT applications and innovations has been acknowledged as a way to reduce the social divide of various target groups (Ramašauskas, 2008). Therefore, the demand for relevant research has also been expressed many times. There has been a distinct series of papers on the use of digital services in libraries, museums and health care, and other public institutions as well as private companies. The papers have tackled issues both from the perspective of digital service users and providers. Qualitative comparative analysis looking into e-health services in the Central Eastern European countries has concluded that both the health care professionals and patients need to be offered training regarding their skills in use of an e-health system ´ in Lithuania (Cwiklicki et al., 2020). This fact was confirmed in a study employing an anonymous questionnaire with family doctors working in private or public health care institutions, where they expressed their similar attitudes towards “the advantages of distance professional development”, while the views towards disadvantages of distance professional development were more diverse and depended on age and workplace” (Karneckait˙e & Kranˇciukait˙e-Butylkinien˙e, 2021). The disadvantages towards remote professional development by younger doctors were indicated to be insufficiently useful training, non-professional organization and financial difficulties; meanwhile, older respondents saw insufficient computer literacy as an obstacle to computer literacy (Karneckait˙e & Kranˇciukait˙e-Butylkinien˙e, 2021). This indicates that older age is among the factors for digital divide. In terms of digital divide measurement and differences across sectors, museums seem to stand out being “considerably slower in adopting innovations”, most probably due to the conventional practices of work in museums, as discovered through a survey of 54 Lithuanian municipal museums (Kimura, 2022). Computer literacy training has been mentioned to be important in libraries as well (Kulikauskien˙e & Šaparnien˙e, 2020). Libraries could considerably facilitate access and use of ICT; however, they struggle adapting to technological changes themselves (Manžuch & Maceviˇci¯ut˙e, 2019). Computer literacy development in public institutions, especially those providing service to residents, has been acknowledged to be an issue. The digital skills of civil servants have been found to be underestimated for professional purposes (Bagdanaviˇci¯ut˙e et al., 2008), and generally lacking in practice among Lithuanian Civil Service Organizations (Laužikas & Mili¯ut˙e, 2020). In a study by Otas et al. (2007), who indicated that over half (approx. 51%) of the respondents of a large-scale survey were computer proficient users but did not use any digital services, the authors came to a suggestion that computer literacy had to be included as a requirement in all qualification criteria of civil servants, in order to reduce the numbers of respondents complaining of the employers; ignorance towards
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computer literacy. The study suggested continuing research across the country, as the overall and complete information may give grounds for the development of new information society projects (Otas et al., 2007). Digital competency has also been addressed and measured along with the digital divide and inequality among various sectors of the industry in Lithuania. Two decades ago, companies were aware of the importance of digital literacy and digitalization overall, supporting access to technologies to all employees and thus facilitating digital literacy (Poškien˙e, 2004). More than a decade later, Fidan (2016) determined high rates of the usage of IT systems, but at the same time, intersectoral differences. On the other hand, Labanauskait˙e et al. (2021) have found through the analysis of literature sources that digital competence measurement is equally important in Lithuanian and German companies, indicating that no regional divide possibly exists on a European scale.
14.4.3 Digital Competency, Accessibility and Divide Across Various Social Groups The analysis has resulted in a few distinct subtopics analysing digital divide, accessibility and competency across various social groups. The main findings of the many various studies showed gaps across regions, in different age groups, and genders. Some studies have discussed the issue in relation to the disabled members of society. Some studies have been conducted to determine the computer literacy, digital competency and accessibility results in rural areas. In a study by Rimkuvien˙e and Stabingis (2003), who surveyed 83 respondents in rural areas, the findings were twofold: first, residents of rural areas have insufficient knowledge and skills to use modern computer technologies, they are willing to improve their competence; second, obstacles to their competence development relate to underdeveloped or underused technological infrastructure in rural areas, usually in schools. Therefore, it comes as no surprise and may be hypothesized that residents of rural areas are somewhat deprived of the possibilities to enhance their know-how. The paper also gave recommendations which included organization of the courses, better communication of relevant information through digital means, development of IT service provisions by remote ways, etc. (Rimkuvien˙e & Stabingis, 2003). The issue of digital divide across regions has also been discussed in an analysis of media usage. In a sample of 2753 respondents (candidates for political positions) in eight different municipalities of Lithuania, Šuminas (2012) found a marked difference between large cities and other municipalities. Politicians were more eager to use social media like Facebook, Twitter and YouTube for their political communication purposes in large cities; meanwhile, in smaller municipalities, people still lack skills in interactive technologies (Šuminas, 2012). Other studies focussing on the regional differences have confirmed the results of previous research; for example, a large-scale statistical data analysis of households in various municipalities aimed at measuring the digital divide across
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showed the best ranking index for municipalities of large cities (Žilinskas, 2012). Manžuch et al. (2018) qualitative and quantitative content analysis has confirmed the digital divide at the level of information policies and digital technologies across regions. The most evident issue given attention in the strategic information society documents was found to be unbalanced availability of digital technologies across regions, while “motivation, ability, and opportunities to benefit from ICT disparities” were seen as the factors less evident in terms of digital divide (Manžuch et al., 2018). The topic of digital divide among senior residents in Lithuania has been given broader attention. Liubinien˙e and Thunqvist (2015), Šuminas et al. (2018) have determined that the least digitally literate social group was seniors, age being one of the most crucial factors in acquiring the digital skills and, therefore, the digital divide. On the other hand, a few studies (Zemaitaityte & Katkoniene, 2019) have indicated that the promotion of interest in technologies in senior years has a beneficial influence on the well-being of society. Žemaitaityte and Balˇciunaite (2018) have also indicated that the process of acquiring digital skills by seniors may be influenced by a variety of factors, including the infrastructure of the organization, the needs and the possibilities of seniors to use ICT. One of the first studies to investigate the digital accessibility and digital competence acquisition among various social groups of the Lithuanian population determined the differences between young men and women in the quality of computer literacy (Šaparnien˙e, 2001). By way of surveying and testing over 1000 university students, the researchers found that computer literacy was better among male students in comparison with female students who showed lower results both in the theory and practical tasks (Šaparnien˙e, 2001). Only very few studies over the last two decades have focussed on the situation of ˇ the disabled people. Cesnuityt˙ e (2007) used a survey and a semi-structured interview in the blind and partially sighted people (n = 74) and discovered that “the motivation to integrate, insufficient offer of distance programmes, inadequate digital space, lack of access to ICT, lack of information” were the obstacles for the involvement of the community in distance learning. Maskeli¯unas et al. (2019) have covered the influence of technologies in disability-related situations through a survey of social care workers, non-professional caregivers and seniors with early signs of dementia. They have figured out that both caregivers and dementia-affected seniors were positively affected by digital technologies (namely, an educational game), and using technologies for education may “result in an improved person-centered care” (Maskeli¯unas et al., 2019).
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14.5 Conclusion The implications drawn from the various studies on the digital divide in different social groups may be well summarized through the scope of the reasons stemming from digital competences and accessibility. In the papers analysed, the most prominent obstacles to the use of digital technologies and reasons for the digital divide in Lithuania have been delineated to be the absence of physical access to the computer or the Internet, lack of digital skills, and the lack of understanding the benefits (Šuminas et al., 2018). The affected social groups are seniors, residents of rural areas, the homeless and the disabled. In the field of education, digital inclusion, digital divide and digital competence have been researched extensively in the last few decades from a variety of perspectives (schoolchildren of various age, primary, secondary school teachers, students, and teachers of higher education institutions, to name a few). The most common problematic areas identified in a number of studies (Braslauskien˙e et al., 2021; Ivanauskien˙e, 2022; Kasperiuniene & Daukilas, 2017; Spridzans & Dzerviniks, 2021) deal with the teachers’ lack of self-confidence to use technology in teaching process before the pandemic period. The lockdown showed that learners (especially in primary school) also experience a lack of digital competences for learning in remote mode. Nevertheless, the self-evaluation of digital competence is high in diverse groups of respondents. This finding might point out to the underdeveloped teachers’ digital competence for teaching, ability to choose, include, adapt technology into the teaching process as well as to the needs of different groups of learners. Different possibilities to develop digital competence for teaching and learning processes should be available together with special support for both counterparts. All these findings may imply that digital divide still is a major national concern, which can be tackled through educational measures for development of digital literacy and competences of the society, especially targeted at socially vulnerable groups. One of the measures that Lithuanian government is currently more extensively implementing is competence development, including digital skills, through various non-formal education and lifelong learning programmes targeted at all social groups. It is likely that the measures taken will have an impact on the current overall situation and will result in an improvement in digital literacy and competence levels.
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Stupurien˙e, G., & Gülbahar, Y. (2022). Informatics at primary education: Teachers’ motivation and barriers in Lithuania and Turkey. In A. Bollin & G. Futschek (Eds.), Informatics in schools. A step beyond digital education. ISSEP 2022. Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 13488). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15851-3_3 Šuminas, A. (2012). Socialin˙es medijos rinkimin˙eje komunikacijoje: lygios galimyb˙es ar skaitmenin˙e atskirtis? Agora: politini˛u komunikacij˛u studijos, 1, 24–31. Šuminas, A., Gudinaviˇcius, A., & Aleksandraviˇcius, A. (2018). Skaitmenin˙es atskirties požymiai ir lygmenys: Lietuvos atvejo analiz˙e. Informacijos mokslai, 81, 7–17. https://doi.org/10.15388/ Im.2018.0.11937 Tessitore, A., Conte, D., Lukonaitiene, I., Mandorino, M., & Tschan, H. (2022). Investigation of the attitude and competency toward the use of technology in a cohort of sport science students. In 2022 IEEE International Workshop on Sport, Technology and Research, STAR 2022—Proceedings (pp. 143–147). UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2018). A global framework of reference on digital literacy skills for indicator 4.4.2. https://unevoc.unesco.org/home/TVETipedia+Glossary/show=term/term= Digital+literacy Valantinait˙e, I., & Sedereviˇci¯ut˙e-Paˇciauskien˙e, Ž. (2020). The change in students’ attitude towards favourable and unfavourable factors of online learning environments. Sustainability, 12(19), 7960. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197960 Valaviˇcius, E., Šiškeviˇci¯ut˙e, D., & Miliauskait˙e, J. (2009). Kompiuterinio raštingumo žini˛u pokyˇciai. Informacijos mokslai, 50, 74–80. Vintere, A., Aruvee, E., & Rimkuvien˙e, D. (2021). Challenges and benefits of remote learning in context of competence development of engineeri1ng students during covid-19 pandemic. In 20th International Scientific Conference Engineering for Rural Development. Book Series: Engineering for Rural Development (pp. 1663–1671). https://doi.org/10.22616/ERDev.2021. 20.TF360 Ž˙ekait˙e, J., Adomaityt˙e-Subaˇcien˙e, I., Schoroškien˙e, V., & Speiˇcyt˙e-Ruschhoff, E. (2021). Skaitmenin˙es atskirties veidai: formaliojo ugdymo dalyvi˛u poži¯uris ˛i skaitmenin˛e atskirt˛i ir jo kaita nuotolinio ugdymo laikotarpiu pandemijos s˛alygomis. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia, 47, 39–51. https://doi.org/10.15388/ActPaed.2021.47.3 Žemaitaityte, I., & Balˇciunaite, A. (2018). Application of information communication technologies in the study processes of the universities of the third age society. Integration, Education, V: Lifelong Learning Information Technologies in Education, 213–223. https://doi.org/10.17770/ sie2018vol1.3205 Zemaitaityte, I., & Katkoniene, A. (2019). Competences of older people to use smartphones as a factor of wellbeing in contemporary society. In 7th International Interdisciplinary Scientific Conference Society, Health, Welfare (Vol. 68, p. 03005). https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/201 96803005 Žilinskas, G. (2012). Skaitmenin˙es atskirties Lietuvos Respublikos regionuose analiz˙e. Public Policy and Administration, 11(3), 502–513.
Chapter 15
Digital Inclusion in Malaysia: Realigning Research and Education Policy Mohd Faiz Mohd Yaakob, Hapini Awang, and Nur Suhaili Mansor
Abstract Digital inclusion is recognized as having a meaningful connection with national development. In Malaysia, digital inclusiveness has become a policy priority.
15.1 Introduction Digital inclusion is recognized as having a meaningful connection with national development. In Malaysia, digital inclusiveness has become a policy priority. Education is seen as a key tool for achieving this policy goal, but it is important to consider the underlying principles of digital inclusion. Is it viewed comprehensively, or just in the context of education and with a narrow focus on inclusiveness? Since gaining independence in 1957, Malaysia has rapidly progressed into a developed nation. To maintain competitiveness in the global arena, including in the aspect of technology, various policies have been implemented. This can be seen through the 2017 Education Policy book, which indicated that the Malaysian government clearly wants to integrate Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and bridge the digital divide between urban and rural schools. Digital transformation has brought about numerous changes in organizations, work environments, and communication methods. Within organizations, digital transformation involves utilizing technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), digital platforms, social media, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Big Data (Baró et al., 2019). Studies show that digitization has a positive effect on the economy (75%), quality of life (67%), and education (64%) (Cassella & Morando, 2012). However, in educational settings, digital transformation presents a significant challenge for teachers. This challenge becomes even more pronounced M. F. M. Yaakob (B) School of Education, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010, Sintok Kedah, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] H. Awang · N. S. Mansor Institute for Advanced and Smart Digital Opportunities, School of Computing, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_15
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during critical periods, such as when the COVID-19 pandemic hits, as the implementation of teaching and learning becomes entirely dependent on resources, digital skills, and effective management of information and communication technology (Manco-Chavez et al., 2020). The education system in the country faces major challenges due to globalization, liberalization, internationalization, and the advancement of ICT. As a result, Malaysia requires a well-equipped workforce to meet progressive needs and compete in the global job market (Ministry of Education, 2009). At the same time, higher education institutions offering teacher training need to update their curriculum to align with the elements of Industry 4.0. This is important as future teachers must be exposed to and equipped with the latest skills in communication and collaboration, as well as critical and creative thinking that aligns with current technological advancements. Malaysian teacher training institutes and universities were established to meet the needs of the national education sector (Kasim & Abdurajak, 2018). However, the issue of technological or digital competence is still being discussed (Bahador et al., 2018) The era of IR 4.0 technology craves the competence of teachers in searching for information online, expertise in solving problems, sharing things, and collaborating with colleagues or anyone (al Khateeb, 2017). In this regard, digital competence is very important for a teacher to diagnose, understand, and improve students’ digital needs (Walker & White, 2013).
15.1.1 History, Policy, and Philosophy Modern education in Malaysia began after the country achieved independence in 1957. Since then, various policies have been enacted to ensure the country remains relevant in a globalized world. Understanding history is important for knowing the relationship between a policy and the country’s future direction. The National Philosophy of Education (FPK) gives the impression that education in Malaysia has its own unique model (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 1988). This philosophy which was developed in 1988 and revised in 1996, states: Education in Malaysia is a perpetual endeavor (continuous, holistic, integrated) towards the development of individual potential as a whole and their integration in efforts to create individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, founded upon faith and submission to God. These efforts are to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable, virtuous, responsible, and capable of achieving personal well-being and able to contribute towards the harmony and development of their family, community, and country. This philosophy is the basis of every education policy in Malaysia. The implementation of the latest policies, such as the Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia (PPPM) 2013–2025, translates this philosophy into action. Malaysia’s education system is an intentional effort to transmit knowledge and skills to its citizens and enhance society’s potential. The system has evolved through three stages: before independence, during the colonial period, and after independence. The pre-independence
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education system was informed by the Barnes Report, Fenn-Wu Report, Cheeseman Report, and the Education Ordinance. During the colonial period, the education system was divided into secular education and vernacular education. The postindependence education system was shaped by the Razak Statement, Aminuddin Baki, Education Act, and the Rahman Talib Report (Sufean Hussin, 1993). To advance the education system, education scholars have devoted their efforts to promoting the value of education globally, from the past to the present. The education system plays a crucial role in a nation’s development, influencing economic, political, and social progress. Education enables individuals to gain knowledge and develop high moral standards. It serves as a means of transmitting cultural identity from one generation to the next. Throughout its history, the education system in Malaysia has undergone numerous changes, including during the colonial era when access to education was unequal among different races and religions. This led to limited social solidarity. Before the arrival of the British, education was only considered important by the wealthy. The education system in Malaya experienced growth between the years 1824 and 1957, when the British, without a national education policy, were responsible for its management. The current administration of education adheres to the colonial policy of a laissez-faire approach, with a focus on open access and no regulation of vernacular instruction. The primary aim of British educational policy was to meet the demands of the labor market and economy (Sufean Hussin, 1993). Thus, the present educational philosophy aims to eliminate this stigma by cultivating a well-balanced generation with good manners, civility, and practical life skills (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2013). To this day, the education system in Malaysia has undergone significant changes and has become more organized. It prioritizes not only academic knowledge but also practical skills. The Malaysian education system encompasses various types of schools including national, national-type, vocational, and special education institutions. It uses four languages in daily life, including Chinese, Malay, Arabic, and Tamil. The education system places equal importance on providing education to both privileged and underprivileged individuals, ensuring that everyone has access to knowledge. The education system in Malaysia has a rich history, with Malay, Chinese, and Tamil schools undergoing changes to maintain their existence. Although there have been efforts to improve the education system in Malaysia, it has also faced challenges and consequences that have impacted its development. This has led to segregation and unequal access to education in vernacular schools, with disparities between urban and rural schools. With the growing gap becoming more pronounced after the pandemic, the need for inclusive and comprehensive digital inclusion research and policy has become increasingly pressing, taking into account various needs and requirements.
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15.1.2 Digital Inclusion Research Besides education policy, research also plays a crucial role in the advancement of digital inclusion. It helps in understanding the extent and nature of the digital divide, identifying the challenges and obstacles that prevent certain populations from accessing and utilizing digital technologies, and developing effective strategies to bridge the divide. Research can also inform policy and decision-making, leading to the development of programs and initiatives that are tailored to the needs and circumstances of different communities. By examining the impact of digital inclusion on various aspects of society, such as education, health, and the economy, research can provide valuable insights into the potential benefits and drawbacks of digital technologies. Moreover, research can help to assess the effectiveness of digital inclusion programs, allowing for continuous improvement and adaptation. In short, research is essential for ensuring that digital inclusion efforts are evidence-based and result in positive outcomes for all members of society. In developing countries, paying attention to digital inclusion should be a priority for governments. The digital divide, or the unequal distribution of access and usage of technology, can exacerbate existing inequalities and prevent communities from fully participating in the digital economy. Digital inclusion can bridge this divide by providing access to technology and digital skills to underserved populations, promoting economic growth, and reducing poverty. Furthermore, digital inclusion can enhance access to education, healthcare, and other essential services, leading to improved quality of life for individuals and communities. Additionally, digital inclusion can increase civic participation, empowering communities to participate in decision-making and holding their governments accountable. In today’s rapidly digitalizing world, governments in developing countries must prioritize digital inclusion to ensure that no one is left behind and that all citizens have equal opportunities to participate in and benefit from the digital revolution. Based on the previous discussion, the aim of this study is to understand the history, current trends, and to provide appropriate suggestions for future research in digital inclusion, particularly in developing countries such as Malaysia.
15.2 Methodology A bibliometric analysis method was used to understand the history and recent trends of digital inclusion studies in Malaysia. First, a quantitative exploration was conducted using the Scopus database on November 1st, 2022. As the concept of digital inclusion is closely related to the digital divide, the two keywords were used together in the bibliometric search. Later, the dataset was filtered to select only data from Malaysia, as shown in Fig. 15.1. This procedure produced 1,391 relevant data.
15 Digital Inclusion in Malaysia: Realigning Research and Education Policy
Screening
Topic, Scope & Eligibility
Topic
Digital Inclusion
Database: Scopus Scope & Coverage
Search Field: Article Title, Abstract & Keywords Time Frame: All Language: English
Keywords & Search String
Date Extracted
Record Identified & Screened
Record Removed Included
333
Record Included for Bibliometric Analysis
TITLE ("Digital Inclusion" OR "Digital inclusion" OR "digital inclusion" OR “Digital Divide” OR “Digital divide” OR “digital divide”)
1 November 2022
n = 1391
n=0
n = 1391
Fig. 15.1 Flow diagram of the search strategy
15.3 Analyses and Findings 15.3.1 Bibliometric Analysis A bibliometric analysis of research on digital inclusion and the digital divide can offer valuable information about the current state of the field, such as the quantity of published works, participating authors and institutions, and geographical distribution of research. It can also shed light on the most commonly used keywords, themes, methods, and frequently cited publications and authors. Furthermore, bibliometric analysis can be utilized to uncover areas in need of further research, such as underrepresented regions, themes, or populations. This is particularly valuable for policymakers, as it can guide the creation of specific policies and programs aimed at reducing the digital divide and advancing digital inclusion. This study restricts the
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scope of the digital inclusion topic to the Scopus database and English language only. The analysis utilized the keywords and search string of TITLE (“Digital Inclusion” OR “Digital inclusion” OR “digital inclusion” OR “Digital Divide” OR “Digital divide” OR “digital divide”). The data was gathered on November 1st, 2022, and a total of 1391 recorded papers were included in the analysis. a. Documents Profiles. The collected data was analyzed to identify the document types and sources. The analysis revealed 1,391 document types related to digital inclusion, comprising articles, conference papers, book chapters, reviews, conference reviews, books, notes, editorials, errata, short surveys, and letters. Table 15.1 reveals that the majority of the publications were articles (53.34%), followed closely by conference papers (31.78%). The remaining document types made up nearly 13%, with book chapters accounting for 6.76%, reviews at 3.67%, and conference reviews at 2.01%. The rest of the document types, including books, notes, editorials, errata, short surveys, and letters, each accounted for less than 1%. Table 15.2 displays the five source types, with the highest representation being journals at 58.81%, followed by conference proceedings at 24.16%. Book series and book publications also made substantial contributions, accounting for 9.71% and 6.90%, respectively. The least representation was from trade journals. b. Languages of Documents. Table 15.3 indicates that the majority of retrieved documents were published in English (85.16%). However, a number of papers were published in various other languages, including Portuguese, Spanish, German, Russian, French, Malay, Dutch, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Lithuanian, Moldavian, Moldovan, Polish, and Romanian. c. Subject Area. This study also presents the published documents based on their subject areas. Most digital inclusion studies were in the field of social science (51.91%), followed Table 15.1 Document type
Document type
Total publications (TP)
Percentage (%)
Article
742
53.34
Conference paper
442
31.78
Book chapter
94
6.76
Review
51
3.67
Conference review
28
2.01
Book
10
0.72
Note
10
0.72
Editorial
9
0.65
Erratum
2
0.14%
Short survey
2
0.1
Letter
1
0.07
Total
1391
100.00
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Table 15.2 Source type Source type
Total publications (tp)
Journal
818
58.81
Conference proceeding
336
24.16
Book series
135
9.71
Book
96
6.90
Trade journal
6
Total
1391
Table 15.3 Languages
Percentage (%)
0.43 100.00
Language
Total publications (TP)*
English
1211
85.16
Portuguese
118
8.30
Spanish
72
5.06
German
4
0.28
Russian
4
0.28
French
2
0.14
Malay
2
0.14
Dutch
1
0.07
Hungarian
1
0.07
Indonesian
1
0.07
Italian
1
0.07
Lithuanian
1
0.07
Moldavian
1
0.07
Moldovan
1
0.07
Polish
1
0.07
Romanian
1
0.07
Total
1391
*
Percentage (%)
100.00
None of the documents has been prepared in dual languages
by computer science (49.46%), engineering (16.03%), and business management and accounting (9.13%). The remaining subject areas covered in digital inclusion are listed in Table 15.4. d. Year of Publications. The earliest publication on this subject was in 1988. However, only nine publications were produced between the years 1998 and 2004. The number of related publications gradually increased from 2005 to 2009, reaching 146. As shown in Table 15.5, from 2010 to 2022, the number of publications rose significantly from 49 to 157.
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Table 15.4 Subject area Subject area
Total publications (TP)
Percentage (%)
Social sciences
722
51.91
Computer science
688
49.46
Engineering
223
16.03
Business, management and accounting
127
9.13
Medicine
124
8.91
Mathematics
92
6.61
Arts and humanities
80
5.75
Decision sciences
64
4.60
Economics, econometrics and finance
60
4.31
Psychology
50
3.59
Nursing
43
3.09
Health professions
31
2.23
Environmental science
30
2.16
Energy
20
1.44
Earth and planetary sciences
12
0.86
Physics and astronomy
11
0.79
Materials science
9
0.65
Agricultural and biological sciences
8
0.58
Neuroscience
8
0.58
Biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology
7
0.50
Multidisciplinary
6
0.43
Chemical engineering
4
0.29
Immunology and microbiology
3
0.22
Pharmacology, toxicology and pharmaceutics
2
0.14
Chemistry
1
0.07
Dentistry
1
0.07
Table 15.6 displays the most influential institutions with a minimum of five publications. Universidad de S¯ao Paulo topped the list with 46 publications, followed by Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul with 30 and Universidade Estadual de Campinas with 21. Some institutions had fewer than 20 publications, including Universidade de Brasília (19), RMIT University (18), Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (17), and Universidad de Sevilla (16). The remaining influential institutions are listed in Table 15.6 based on the total number of their publications. Table 15.7 showcases the most productive authors in the field of digital inclusion, with P. Tsatsou having the highest number of publications (10), followed by Santarosa (8). Other authors mostly had between five to seven publications, as classified below.
15 Digital Inclusion in Malaysia: Realigning Research and Education Policy Table 15.5 Year of publication
Year
TP
1988
1
1996
1
2002
2
2003
4
2004
3
2005
19
2006
19
2007
25
2008
23
2009
60
2010
49
2011
51
2012
56
2013
62
2014
70
2015
84
2016
79
2017
99
2018
111
2019
123
2020
135
2021
154
2022
157
2023
4
337
Notes TP = total number of publications
Table 8 displays the most active source titles in relation to digital inclusion studies, with the top title being “Lecture Notes in Computer Science Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics” with 57 publications. It is followed by the “ACM International Conference Proceeding Series” with 51 publications. “New Media and Society” had 27 publications and “Information Communication and Society” had 22. The remaining source titles had between 8 and 15 publications, as listed in the table. Visualization Map. The visualization map categorizes keywords used in related studies on digital inclusion into four groups. The most frequently used keywords are “digital inclusion,” “digital literacy,” “internet,” “accessibility,” and “technology.” Other keywords such as “social network,” “higher education,” “digital economy,” “digital transformation,”
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Table 15.6 Most influential institutions with a minimum of five publications Affiliation
Country
TP
Universidade de São Paulo
Brazil
46
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil
30
Universidade Estadual de Campinas
Brazil
21
Universidade de Brasília
Brazil
19
RMIT University
Australia
18
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
Brazil
17
Universidad de Sevilla
Spain
16
University of Oxford
England
14
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Spain
14
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Brazil
13
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Spain
13
Universidade Federal do Pará
Brazil
13
Universidade Federal da Paraíba
Brazil
13
Swinburne University of Technology
Malaysia
13
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Malaysia
12
Universidade Federal Fluminense
Brazil
12
The University of Texas at Austin
United States
12
Universidade Aberta
Portugal
12
London School of Economics and Political Science
England
11
Deakin University
Australia
10
University of Maryland, College Park
United States
10
Notes TP = total number of publications; NCP = number of cited publications
and “inclusive design” were also found. Figure 15.3 displays over 50 keywords, including “privacy,” “human–computer interaction,” and “digital process.” The field of digital inclusion has seen significant growth and attention in recent years. To understand its various aspects, a top-6 term co-occurrence network was conducted based on title and abstract fields using Binary Counting. The results revealed that the six most used terms were “divide,” “age,” “student,” “participant,” “accessibility,” and “topic.” Figure 15.4 uses VOSviewer visualization to further break down the terms into five categories. The first category covers terms related to usage, such as “Internet access” and “inequality,” and terms related to households, intentions, and rural communities. The second category covers terms related to samples, gender, variables, children, and behavior. The third category covers terms related to schools, teachers, learners, tablets, and the learning process, as well as federal universities and teaching. The fourth category covers terms related to accessibility, such as “language,” “nterface,” “creation,” “proposals,” “citizenship,” “respect,” and “disability.” The final category covers terms related to management, performance, control, overviews,
15 Digital Inclusion in Malaysia: Realigning Research and Education Policy Table 15.7 Most productive authors
Author’s name
TP
Tsatsou, P
10
Santarosa, L.M.C
8
Behar, P.A
7
Bertot, J.C
7
Conforto, D
7
Correa, T
7
Costa, J.C.W.A
7
Jaeger, P.T
7
Park, S
7
Salman, A
7
Baranauskas, M.C.C
6
Eynon, R
6
Farley, H
6
Machado, L.R
6
Pavez, I
6
Straubhaar, J
6
Bonacin, R
5
Bühler, C
5
Campbell, L.H
5
Chiner, E
5
Francês, C.R.L
5
339
Notes TP = total number of publications; NCP = number of cited publications; TC = total citations; C/P = average citations per publication; C/CP = average citations per cited publication; h = h-index; and g = g-index
conferences, proceedings, intersections, and special focuses. These terms are commonly used in the field of Binary Counting based on title and abstract fields. Thus, the top-six term co-occurrence network provides valuable insights into the various topics and areas of focus within digital inclusion. The results demonstrate the field’s diversity, covering topics related to usage, accessibility, education, and management. These findings can guide further research and understanding of digital inclusion, and inform policy and practice promoting digital inclusion for all. The term co-occurrence network, as presented in Fig. 15.5, is a visual representation of the relationship between various terms in the field of digital inclusion. This network was created from the title and abstract fields of related studies and was generated using Full Counting. It highlights the top five classifications of terms, which include “divide,” “disability,” “student,” “older person,” and “health.” The “divide” group in the network shows that terms such as “growth,” “dimension,” “component,” “management,” “connectivity,” “governance,” and “reform were
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Table 15.9 Most active source title Source title
TP
Publisher
Lecture Notes in Computer Science Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics
57
Springer
ACM International Conference Proceeding Series
51
Association for Computing Machinery
New Media and Society
27
SAGE Publications Ltd
Information Communication and Society
22
Routledge
Handbook Of Research on Comparative Approaches to The Digital Age Revolution in Europe and The Americas
15
IGI Global
Telecommunications Policy
14
Elsevier Ltd
International Telecommunication Union Proceedings of the 2009 ITU T Kaleidoscope Academic Conference Innovations for Digital Inclusion K Idi 2009
13
IEEE Communications Magazine
Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies CISTI
12
N/A
Universal Access in The Information Society
12
Springer
Gerontechnology
11
International Society for Gerontechnology
Advances In Intelligent Systems and Computing
10
Springer
Ceur Workshop Proceedings
10
Springer
Ciencia Da Informacao
10
Brazillian Institute for Information in science and Technology
Studies In Health Technology and Informatics
10
IOS Press
Informacao E Sociedade
9
Universidade Federal de Campina Grande
Journal Of Telecommunications and The Digital Economy
9
N/A
Telematics And Informatics
9
Elsevier Ltd
Communications In Computer and Information Science
8
Springer
Comunicar
8
Grupo Communicar Ediciones
Information Society
8
Routledge
Journal Of Medical Internet Research
8
JMIR Publications Inc
Notes TP = total number of publications; TC = total citations
frequently used in the research. These terms suggest that the divide between those who are digitally included and those who are not is a complex issue that involves multiple factors, such as the growth and development of technology, the management of digital systems, and the governance of digital policies. A closer analysis of the “disability” group, however, reveals other important terms such as “limitation,” “discourse,” “flexibility,” “interface,” and “accessibility.” These
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Fig. 15.3 Network visualization map of the author keywords
Fig. 15.4 VOSviewer visualization of a term co-occurrence network based on title and abstract fields (Binary Counting)
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Fig. 15.5 VOSviewer visualization of a term co-occurrence network based on title and abstract fields (Full Counting)
terms suggest that the issue of digital inclusion for people with disabilities is not just about physical access to technology, but also about the discourse surrounding the issue and the flexibility of technology to accommodate their needs. Other terms present in the network, such as “difficulty,” “risk,” “association,” “acceptance,” and “determinant,” provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex nature of digital inclusion and the various factors that impact it. These terms suggest that digital inclusion is a complex issue that involves not only technical difficulties but also social and cultural risks and associations, as well as the acceptance and determination of those involved. The term co-occurrence network in Fig. 15.5 provides valuable insight into the field of digital inclusion and the various factors that impact it. It highlights the complexity of the issue and the various aspects that need to be considered in order to achieve digital inclusion for all. The field of digital inclusion has seen significant research and interest from various countries worldwide. According to Fig. 15.6, the most cited articles in this field come from Brazil, with the United States, United Kingdom, Spain, and Australia also participating with a minimum of one author and a minimum of five citations per
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Fig. 15.6 Network visualization map of the citation by countries. Note Minimum number of documents of an author = 1; Minimum number of citations of an author = 5
author. This indicates that these countries have a strong interest in researching and understanding the issues and solutions related to digital inclusion. Other countries, such as Germany, Poland, Sweden, Ireland, Malaysia, Thailand, and Japan, have also been involved in this research, as reflected in Fig. 15.6. These countries have contributed to the network visualization by publishing articles that have received at least one citation, thereby adding to the overall body of knowledge in the field of digital inclusion. Moreover, countries such as Bangladesh, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Korea have also made contributions to this field by having at least one article related to digital inclusion studies cited in the network visualization. This highlights the global interest in this important issue, as digital inclusion affects individuals and communities across the world. In short, the research on digital inclusion is a global effort, with various countries contributing to the field through their research and publications. Figure 15.6 provides a snapshot of the countries that have been involved in this field and the extent of their contributions. As digital technologies continue to shape our world, it is crucial that we continue to understand and address the challenges of digital inclusion. By looking at the network visualization map, it can easily identify the most highly cited documents and the relationships between them. This information can be used
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to understand the patterns and trends in the field and to identify potential areas for further research. Moreover, the network visualization map can also be used to identify the most influential authors and institutions in the field.
15.4 Discussion and Conclusion The digital divide is a growing concern in many developing countries, including Malaysia. Disproportionate distribution of technology and access to the Internet between different population groups, such as residents in urban and rural areas could lead to unequal opportunities and outcomes. One of the aspects that are commonly affected by the digital divide is education. In light of this, Malaysia has worked to integrate ICT into its education system through initiatives like the Malaysia Education Blueprint (MEB). The MEB aims to increase the use of ICT in schools and was first implemented in 2013 with the 1Bestari program. The focus then shifted to accelerating ICT innovations for distance learning from 2016 to 2020, demonstrating the government’s commitment to digital inclusion in education. Nevertheless, there is still a missing link between policymakers and researchers in the field. In terms of research, it has been discovered that the existing trend of publication in Malaysia is alarming. Although the number of publications on digital inclusion is increasing, the majority of the studies are published in academic journals and written in English, limiting their reach to wider audiences, including policymakers. Only two publications on the digital divide in Malaysia have been written in Malay, which is a major language spoken by the majority of the population. The lack of publications in Malay means that the findings are not accessible to many Malaysians, and the impact of the digital divide on education equality and quality is not well understood. This is particularly important in the context of Malaysia, where policymakers need to be aware of the impact of the digital divide on education equality and quality in order to make informed decisions. Additionally, there is a lack of research specifically in the field of education on digital inclusion in Malaysia. Despite the majority of the studies being in the field of social science, there is a need for more research to understand the impact of the digital divide on education equality and quality. This is crucial for policymakers in developing countries like Malaysia to understand the importance of digital inclusion in the education sector. Based on term co-occurrence analysis, the main issue related to the digital divide in Malaysia is Internet coverage. This highlights the need for policymakers to focus on expanding Internet coverage to ensure digital inclusion for all Malaysians. To achieve digital inclusion in Malaysia, it is crucial that the findings of research on the digital divide are widely available and accessible to policymakers. Policymakers, education practitioners, and researchers need to work together to ensure that digital inclusion is achieved in Malaysia and that the digital divide is reduced. The need for more research in the field of education, and the availability of findings in languages accessible to the wider population, is crucial for ensuring that digital inclusion becomes a reality for all Malaysians. Despite that,
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the good news is that the number of publications on the digital divide in Malaysia is increasing year by year, indicating a growing interest in the topic. However, only two Malaysian universities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and the Swinburne University of Technology are actively researching digital inclusion in Malaysia. This highlights a lack of research in the Malaysian context, and the need for more research to be conducted on the issue. Aligning education policy and research on digital inclusion is crucial in ensuring that all learners have equal access to digital technologies and the skills needed to effectively use them. This includes not only providing access to devices and internet connectivity but also ensuring that students have the digital literacy skills necessary to participate fully in the digital world. Research can inform policymakers on the most effective strategies for promoting digital inclusion, such as investing in teacher training and providing ongoing support for students and families. By aligning policy and research, the possibilities of all learners to have the equal opportunities and skills they need to succeed in a rapidly changing digital landscape could be greatly improved. All in all, the goal of this study was to examine policies for integrating ICT and connecting urban and rural schools. It aligns with the 2017 Malaysian Education Policy’s objective to maintain competitiveness globally through technological advancement. Overall, this study provides insights into the progress of digital technology integration in the Malaysian education system and helps to ensure that the educational system continues to progress toward future development. This study used bibliometric analysis of the Scopus database, resulting in 1391 records. Of these, 742 were articles and 818 were from journals. All 1391 publications were in English, and none were in dual languages.
References al Khateeb, A. A. M. (2017). Measuring digital competence and ICT literacy: An exploratory study of in-service english language teachers in the context of Saudi Arabia. International Education Studies, 10(12), 38. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n12p38. Bahador, Z., Othman, N., & Saidon, M. K. (2018). Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Pengintegrasian Teknologi Pengajaran Berdasarkan Model TPACK dalam Kalangan Guru Matematik. Baró, F., Calderón-Argelich, A., Langemeyer, J., & Connolly, J. J. T. (2019). Under one canopy? Assessing the distributional environmental justice implications of street tree benefits in Barcelona. Environmental Science & Policy, 102, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019. 08.016 Cassella, M., & Morando, M. (2012). Fostering new roles for librarians: Skills set for repository managers—Results of a Survey in Italy. In LIBER Quarterly (Vol. 21, Issues 3–4, pp. 407–428). Igitur, Utrecht Publishing and Archiving Services. https://doi.org/10.18352/lq.8033. Kasim, T. S. A. B. T., & Abdurajak, F. S. (2018). Pengalaman Pengajaran Guru Novis Pendidikan Islam: Implikasi terhadap Reka Bentuk Kurikulum Latihan Pendidikan Guru (Islamic Education Novice Teachers’ Teaching Experiences: Implications towards Teacher Training Curriculum Design). Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1988). Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan. Retrieved from https:/ /www.moe.gov.my/index.php/dasarmenu/falsafah-pendidikan-kebangsaan.
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Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2013). Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013–2025. Retrieved from www.moe.gov.my. Manco-Chavez, J. A., Uribe-Hernandez, Y. C., Buendia-Aparcana, R., Vertiz-Osores, J. J., Alcoser, S. D. I., & Rengifo-Lozano, R. A. (2020). Integration of icts and digital skills in times of the pandemic COVID-19. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(9), 11–20. https://doi.org/ 10.5430/ijhe.v9n9p11 Ministry of Education. (2009). Standard Guru Malaysia. Sufean Hussin. (1993). Pendidikan di Malaysia. Sejarah, Sistem dan Falsafah. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Walker, A., & White, G. (2013). Technology enhanced language learning : Connecting theory and practice.
Chapter 16
Addressing the Digital Divide with Educational Systems in Mexico: Challenges and Opportunities Claudia Blanca González Calleros , Josefina Guerrero García , and Juan Manuel González Calleros
Abstract This scientific article presents a systematic literature review conducted following the PRISMA method to analyze the challenges and opportunities faced by the Mexican education system in effectively integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to address the digital divide. The aim of the study is to examine digital inclusion in higher education within the Mexican context and provide insights relevant to the country’s educational system. The review included studies published between 2002 and 2023, focusing on the Mexican educational system and written in English or Spanish. Various databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, Redalyc, and SciELO, were searched, along with other relevant sources. The review process, carried out from November 2022 to April 2023, involved organizing and compiling retrieved documents, removing duplicates, and applying inclusion criteria. Data extraction was performed manually, and a thematic analysis will be conducted to identify common themes and patterns across the selected studies. The results of the review highlight significant challenges, such as limited access to ICTs, lack of digital skills, and socioeconomic disparities, while also identifying opportunities through the development of digital literacy programs, implementation of inclusive policies, and collaboration among stakeholders. The findings emphasize the importance of addressing the digital divide in Mexican education and call for the formulation of comprehensive policies and strategies that consider technological barriers and socioeconomic inequalities. By effectively integrating ICTs, Mexico can foster a more inclusive and digitally empowered education system. C. B. G. Calleros (B) Facultad de Administración, Universidad Veracruzana, Puebla, México e-mail: [email protected] J. G. García · J. M. G. Calleros Facultad de Ciencias de La Computación Benemérita, Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México e-mail: [email protected] J. M. G. Calleros e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_16
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Keywords Digital inclusion · Digital divide · Global perspective · Higher education · Mexico
16.1 Introduction At present, we live in an increasingly digitized society where information and communication technologies (ICTs) play a fundamental role in various aspects of our daily lives. These technologies have revolutionized the way we communicate, access information, work, and interact with the world around us. However, despite technological advancements, significant differences in access to and use of ICTs persist. This phenomenon is known as the digital divide (Díaz Lazo et al., 2011). This digital divide in the education sector has significant consequences as it limits learning opportunities, the development of digital skills, and students’ participation in the digital society. Moreover, it hinders teachers from fully utilizing technological tools and resources to enrich their pedagogical practices and promote more interactive and personalized learning experiences (Almenara, 2014). Addressing the issue of the digital divide in the education sector is of vital importance. The effective integration of ICT in education can have a positive impact on the quality of teaching and learning, fostering the acquisition of essential digital skills for civic participation and the personal and professional development of students (Villela Cortés & Contreras Islas, 2021a). Furthermore, the digital divide in the education sector deepens social inequalities and perpetuates digital exclusion. Students and communities with limited access to ICT are at a disadvantage in competing in the knowledge society (Alva de la Selva, 2015). In the context of Mexico, the digital divide has become a significant challenge that affects various sectors of society, including the education sector. Although access to ICT has improved in recent years, there is still a marked inequality in terms of availability, infrastructure, and digital skills among different regions and socioeconomic groups in the country (Morales, 2020). The digital divide in Mexico is a reality that reflects existing disparities in access to and use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) across different regions, socioeconomic sectors, and types of schools. These disparities directly impact the educational realm and limit learning opportunities for students (Thirión & Valle Zárate, 2018). First, it is important to highlight the geographical inequality in access to ICTs in Mexico. According to data from the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI), urban and metropolitan areas have greater access to the Internet and technological devices than rural and remote areas. (INEGI, 2022). This creates a digital divide between urban and rural areas, where students residing in rural areas have fewer opportunities to utilize ICTs in their educational process. Additionally, the digital divide is also linked to the socioeconomic level of families. According to the National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL), families in poverty have less access to technological devices and the
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Internet (CONEVAL, 2022; Mecinas Montiel, 2016). This implies that students from low-income families face greater difficulties in accessing digital resources and taking advantage of the educational opportunities offered by ICTs. Another significant disparity is found in the type of school. Public schools, especially those located in rural or low-income areas, often face limitations in terms of technological infrastructure and connectivity. According to data from the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP), approximately 40% of public schools in Mexico do not have access to the Internet. These data highlight the existence of a significant digital divide in Mexico. Additionally, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has shown that Mexico is below average in digital skills among its students, reflecting the challenges the country faces in this area. In this regard, it is necessary to develop educational strategies and policies that promote equity and reduce the digital divide in the Mexican education system. This involves ensuring access to adequate technological infrastructure, providing teacher training in the use of ICTs, fostering the production of relevant digital educational content, and promoting digital inclusion in all schools and communities across the country. This article addresses the issue of the digital divide in the educational context of Mexico, analyzing the challenges and opportunities faced by the education system in the effective integration of ICTs. The significance of this research lies in its ability to generate valuable information that can contribute to improving educational policies and practices in Mexico, with the aim of reducing the digital divide in the education system. The results obtained through this study can have a significant impact on the development of effective strategies to address the challenges related to access and integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in education. By providing solid data and analysis about the digital divide in the Mexican educational context, this research can serve as a basis for informed decision-making by policymakers in education. The findings and recommendations derived from the study can guide the allocation of resources, implementation of teacher training programs, and improvement of technological infrastructure in schools. Ultimately, it is expected that the results of this research will drive significant changes in educational policies and practices, enabling more students to have equitable access to ICTs and the learning opportunities these technologies offer. This will not only benefit individual students but also contribute to the development of a more inclusive society, prepared to face the challenges of the digital era, and seize the opportunities it presents. This document is structured into six sections. The second section provides a theoretical framework that defines concepts such as digital inclusion, digital divide, and global perspective. The third section outlines the methodology employed for conducting a systematic review of the literature. In section four, the results of the systematic review are presented, while section five discusses these findings. Finally, section six offers a summary of the key points discussed throughout the document.
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16.2 Theoretical Framework The digital divide, defined as the gap between individuals with access to computers and the Internet and those without (Block, 2010), is a widely acknowledged issue in academic and political discussions regarding new media development. This divide has significant implications for education, as individuals lacking access to these technologies may encounter disadvantages in terms of educational and employment opportunities. Additionally, it is argued that the digital divide can perpetuate existing social and economic inequalities. Hence, addressing this divide becomes crucial in ensuring equitable education and providing fair opportunities for all. The recognition of this issue underscores its importance in contemporary society (van Dijk, 2006). According to various international organizations, the United Nations (UN) addresses the issue of the digital divide by employing indices that measure the diffusion and development of information and communication technologies (ICTs). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), on the other hand, focuses on standardized indicators that assess the access and usage of ICTs. Additionally, the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL) examines ICT policies and programs in the region, with a particular emphasis on gender-based digital divide and broadband access. These distinct approaches employed by the organizations contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of the digital divide and help in formulating effective strategies to bridge the gap (Gómez Navarro et al., 2018). The digital divide in the educational context is characterized by disparities in access to technology, frequency of technology use, and ICT skills among students based on factors such as gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. The digital divide, with its unequal access to technology and limited ICT skills, can impede students’ performance on digital assessments and affect the validity of score comparisons among different gender, socioeconomic, and ethnic groups (Ercikan et al., 2018). The digital divide in higher education refers to the discrepancies in access and utilization of digital technologies within the educational setting, as defined by PeñaLópez (2010). This encompasses the availability of technological infrastructure, such as hardware and connectivity, as well as the development of digital skills and competencies required to fully utilize digital tools in the learning process. These disparities can significantly impact access to education, the quality of learning, and academic performance. It is imperative to address this issue holistically by promoting equal opportunities and ensuring that all students possess the skills and resources necessary to thrive in an ever-changing digital landscape. Therefore, it is crucial to tackle the digital divide in education to ensure equal access to technology and equip all students with the necessary ICT skills to thrive in a digital learning environment. Efforts should be made to bridge the gap by providing equitable access to technology resources, promoting digital literacy programs, and integrating technology into the curriculum in a way that caters to the diverse needs of students. By addressing the digital divide, educators can create a more inclusive and
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equitable educational experience that prepares all students for success in the digital age. The concept of digital inclusion emerged from the recognition of the importance of incorporating digital inclusion policies in public education. It originated during the World Summit on the Information Society in 2003, where it was defined as a set of public policies aimed at constructing, administering, expanding, providing content, and developing local capacity in digital networks. There are two main conceptual trends regarding digital inclusion: a social perspective that focuses on equal opportunities for all, particularly in public education, and a pedagogical perspective that emphasizes the transformative potential of ICTs in educational practices. In the educational context, digital inclusion goes beyond access and usage, placing emphasis on the acquisition of skills and fostering an active and critical approach toward the digital environment. It involves democratizing knowledge, promoting digital literacy, and encouraging the appropriation of digital tools as essential components. Overall, digital inclusion in education represents a complex process that necessitates pedagogical and institutional changes to fully leverage the potential of ICTs in educational practices (Gallegos García & García Ramírez, 2022). Hence, digital inclusion encompasses more than just gaining access to technology; it also involves equipping individuals with the necessary skills to navigate information, acquire knowledge, and effectively utilize ICTs. This aligns with Salinas and De Benito (2020) assertion that digital inclusion can be associated with three levels. The first level pertains to the availability of telecommunications infrastructure and networks within the community, as mentioned earlier. The second level concentrates on ensuring accessibility to technology services. Lastly, the third level underscores the significance of competence and knowledge required to effectively utilize technology, encompassing activities such as utilizing computers for internet browsing, email communication, and creating valuable content with personal, educational, or cultural importance. It is widely believed that the presence or absence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) within educational institutions holds substantial implications that extend beyond technology integration initiatives, permeating the core principles, structure, and objectives of the educational system (Trejo-Quintana, 2020). Digital inclusion in education is crucial as it facilitates and motivates the learning process by providing inventive resources and promoting knowledge exchange, leading to active student engagement in school activities (da Silva & de Oliveira, 2022). To achieve this, educational digital inclusion should be nurtured from within institutions, aligning with their specific needs and available resources. This requires a collaborative effort involving political entities, institutions, teachers, and students, aiming to achieve shared objectives and enable the effective integration of ICTs for optimal resource utilization (Gallegos García & García Ramírez, 2022).
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16.3 Methodology This study presents a systematic literature review focusing on the digital divide, digital inclusion, and global perspective within the Mexican context. The objective of this review is to evaluate the existing research and knowledge in these specific areas pertaining to Mexico. The PRISMA model was adhered to in conducting this systematic review. The subsequent sections provide a comprehensive description of the processes undertaken in each phase of the review’s development. The PRISMA statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), first published in 2009, was devised to aid authors in transparently documenting the rationale, methods employed, and findings obtained in systematic reviews. Over the past decade, substantial advancements have occurred in the methodology and terminology of systematic reviews, necessitating an update to this guidance (Page et al., 2021).
16.3.1 Eligibility Criteria The eligibility criteria for article selection in this systematic literature review encompass multiple aspects. Firstly, the study types considered comprise literature reviews, opinion articles, and congress memoranda. Secondly, articles written in both Spanish and English languages are eligible for inclusion. Thirdly, the publication date ranges from 2002 to the present to ensure the incorporation of recent research. Fourthly, the selected studies must specifically address the context of the Mexican educational system. Lastly, the included articles should primarily focus on the topic of the digital divide within Mexico’s educational systems. The keywords used for the search are “digital divide,” “education,” “Mexico,” “digital inclusion”, “global perspective.” These keywords will help identify relevant articles that address the intersection of the digital divide and education in the Mexican context. The review process involves conducting searches in specified databases using the identified keywords. The titles and abstracts of the articles retrieved will be evaluated for adherence to the inclusion criteria. Selected articles will then be read in full to assess their relevance and quality. The information from the selected articles will be recorded in a table to facilitate the synthesis of results. The synthesis of the results will involve analyzing the collected information to identify trends, patterns, and key findings in the literature. This synthesis will provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of research on the digital divide within the Mexican educational system. By applying these rigorous criteria and a systematic review process, the research conducted for this article aims to ensure comprehensiveness and relevance to the specific context of the Mexican educational systems (Table 16.1).
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Table 16.1 Eligibility criteria Type
Inclusion criterion
Study content
• Studies must specifically address the Mexican educational system • By excluding articles that were not directly applicable to the Mexican context, the analysis focused specifically on the digital inclusion landscape in Mexico and provided insights that are relevant to the country’s educational system
Language of the publication
• Studies in English and Spanish are included • Studies in another language are excluded
Context
• Mexican education system. Higher education • Articles that did not focus on education were excluded from the analysis
Research method
• Studies with qualitative strategies are included • Studies with qualitative strategies are included
Sampling
• Actors involved in the educational system, such as: students: They are the primary recipients of education. They actively participate in the learning process and knowledge acquisition; Teachers; Principals and school administrators; Educational support staff; Parents and guardians; Educational authorities and policymakers and educational institutions • Exclude studies that do not refer to the educational context
Type of publication
• Empirical research, literature reviews,opinion articles, and congress memories
Date of publication
• Studies published between 2002 and 2023 are included
16.3.2 Information Sources To identify the studies, several databases, registries, websites, organizations, reference lists, and other search and consultation resources were used. Searches were conducted in the following databases: Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, Redalyc, and SciELO. The last search in each resource was performed in November 2022. These databases are widely recognized and commonly used in the academic and scientific community. Scopus and Web of Science are multidisciplinary databases that cover a wide range of disciplines and provide a substantial collection of peerreviewed scholarly articles. ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) focuses specifically on educational literature and is a reliable source for research in the field. Redalyc and SciELO are open-access repositories that host a diverse range of scientific journals from Latin America and the Caribbean, offering relevant perspectives for studies related to the Mexican context. The document review was conducted from November 2022 to April 2023, allowing for an up-to-date understanding of the available studies on the topic of digital inclusion in educational systems.
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16.3.3 Search Strategy The search strategy employed in this study aimed to comprehensively explore the existing literature on the topic of digital inclusion and the global perspective, with a specific focus on the context of Mexico. Various databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC, Google Scholar, Redalyc, and SciELO, were searched using specific keywords and filters. The inclusion criteria encompassed empirical studies, literature reviews, and opinion articles published in English or Spanish from 2010 to the present. The search strategy involved combining key terms related to the digital divide, digital inclusion, and global perspective, along with specific mentions of Mexico. By utilizing these search strategies, the study aimed to identify relevant research and provide a comprehensive understanding of digital inclusion in the Mexican educational context from a global perspective. The following comprehensive search strategies were used for each database, registry, and website: • Web of Science (WOS): (((ALL = (“Digital Divide” OR “Technology Divide” OR “Internet Divide” OR “Access Divide” OR “Brecha Tecnológica” OR “Brecha de Acceso” OR “Brecha de Internet”)) OR ALL = (“Digital Inclusion” OR “Digital Literacy” OR “Digital Empowerment” OR “Digital Equity” OR “Alfabetización Digital” OR “Capacitación Digital” OR “Equidad Digital”)) AND AB = (Mexico)) OR ALL = (“Global Perspective” OR “Worldview” OR “Global Outlook” OR “International Perspective” OR “Visión Mundial” OR “Perspectiva Internacional” OR “Enfoque Global”)) AND ALL = (mexico). • Scopus: (TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Digital Divide” OR “Technology Divide” OR “Internet Divide” OR “Access Divide” OR “Brecha Tecnológica” OR “Brecha de Acceso” OR “Brecha de Internet”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Digital Inclusion” OR “Digital Literacy” OR “Digital Empowerment” OR “Digital Equity” OR “Alfabetización Digital” OR “Capacitación Digital” OR “Equidad Digital”) OR TITLEABS-KEY (“Global Perspective” OR “Worldview” OR “Global Outlook” OR “International Perspective” OR “Visión Mundial” OR “Perspectiva Internacional” OR “Enfoque Global”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (mexico)) AND PUBYEAR > 2001 AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”) OR LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “Spanish”)). • ERIC: AB (“Digital Divide” OR “Technology Divide” OR “Internet Divide” OR “Access Divide” OR “Brecha Tecnológica” OR “Brecha de Acceso” OR “Brecha de Internet” OR “Digital Inclusion” OR “Digital Literacy” OR “Digital Empowerment” OR “Digital Equity” OR “Alfabetización Digital” OR “Capacitación Digital” OR “Equidad Digital” OR “Global Perspective” OR “Worldview” OR “Global Outlook” OR “International Perspective” OR “Visión Mundial” OR “Perspectiva Internacional” OR “Enfoque Global”) AND AB (mexico OR mexican OR mexicans).
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• Google Scholar: MEXICO and (“Digital Divide” OR “Digital Inclusion” OR “Global Perspective”) site:redalyc.org. • Redalyc: MEXICO and (“Digital Divide” OR “Digital Inclusion” OR “Global Perspective”) site:redalyc.org. • SciELO: (ab:((digital divide) OR (brecha digital) OR (perspectiva global) OR (Digital Inclusion) OR (Global Perspective) AND (Mexico))). These strategies were utilized to ensure a comprehensive search across multiple resources, databases, and websites. The search was conducted between November 2022 and April 2023 to capture the most recent literature on the topic of interest.
16.3.4 Study Selection Process The review process was conducted collaboratively by all three authors. Using a Google Drive spreadsheet, the retrieved documents from each database were organized and compiled. Duplicate articles across multiple databases were identified and removed. To further refine the selection, the conditional formatting feature of the spreadsheet was utilized to highlight articles that included the established constructs for analysis, such as the digital divide, digital inclusion, and global perspective, within their titles, abstracts, or keywords. Additionally, articles that specifically addressed the Mexican context were identified. Throughout the review process, particular attention was given to ensuring that all selected studies presented a clear methodology and provided information about the participants involved. This meticulous approach aimed to gather a comprehensive and relevant set of articles that met the criteria for inclusion, including their research design and the involvement of participants.
16.3.5 Data Extraction Process The data extraction process involved multiple reviewers who collaborated to collect and analyze data from each publication. Initially, the articles were assigned to individual reviewers for data extraction. Each reviewer worked independently to extract relevant information from the articles based on predetermined criteria. After this initial phase, the reviewers came together to review and discuss their findings. Through consensus and discussion, the final set of articles to be included in the analysis was determined. The data extraction was performed manually, without the use of automation tools. A systematic and standardized data extraction table was created and used to organize the collected data. This table was continuously refined and updated throughout the review process to ensure consistency and accuracy.
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The data extraction table included key information such as author, publication year, title, keywords, central theme, journal, methodology, participants, main results, and observations. These details allowed for a comprehensive analysis of the selected articles and facilitated comparisons and synthesis of the findings. The collaborative approach in data extraction and the iterative refinement of the data extraction table ensured that the final dataset used for analysis was comprehensive, relevant, and met the study’s research objectives.
16.3.6 Methods of Synthesis According to PRISMA guidelines, this research study describes the approach employed to synthesize the collected data. The data synthesis process will involve conducting a thematic analysis, which will be carried out in several steps. Firstly, relevant information, including author, year of publication, title, keywords, central theme, journal, methodology, participants, main findings, and observations, will be extracted from each selected article and recorded in a structured data extraction form. Secondly, a coding framework will be developed based on the research objectives and key themes identified in the literature. Two independent reviewers will then utilize this framework to code the extracted data, resolving any discrepancies or disagreements through discussion and consensus. Next, the coded data will be analyzed to identify common themes and patterns across the selected articles. These themes will be derived from recurring concepts, ideas, and findings within the data. The identified themes will be synthesized to provide a comprehensive overview of the findings from the included studies. This synthesis process will involve comparing the results, identifying relationships between the themes, and highlighting any gaps or inconsistencies in the literature. Finally, the synthesized findings will be interpreted and discussed in relation to the research objectives, providing insights into the current state of knowledge on the topic. The implications of the findings for educational practice and future research will also be discussed. By adhering to the PRISMA guidelines, this approach ensures a systematic and rigorous synthesis of the data, thereby enhancing the credibility and reliability of the research outcomes.
16.4 Results This section presents the findings and results obtained from the research study. It provides a comprehensive overview of the selected studies, their characteristics, and the synthesis of data. The results encompass various aspects, including the selection process, characteristics of the studies, individual study results, and synthesis results. By examining these elements, a holistic understanding of the research outcomes can
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be gained, shedding light on the current state of knowledge in the field and providing insights into the research questions and objectives of the study.
16.4.1 Study Selection This section presents the results of the search and selection process, highlighting the number of identified records and the number of studies included in the review. To provide a clear visualization of this process, a flowchart (see Fig. 16.1) is used to depict the stages and criteria used for inclusion and exclusion. Additionally, the section will mention and explain the exclusion of studies that initially appeared to meet the inclusion criteria but were ultimately excluded. By examining these results, readers will gain an understanding of how the final selection of studies for analysis in this systematic review was determined. It is important to note that this bibliographic review was based on a rigorous and systematic selection of the most relevant and pertinent publications to the research topic. The number of publications obtained reflects the breadth and diversity of the existing literature in the field of study. The analysis of the documents was conducted by thematic areas. This allowed for an expanded scope of research by unit of analysis and provided new comprehensive data on each thematic core. The following four emerging themes arose in response to the research questions: 1. Digital exclusion in higher education in Mexico 2. Digital inclusion in higher education in Mexico
Fig. 16.1 PRISMA Flow diagram of the study selection
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3. Studies and statistics on digital exclusion and inclusion in higher education in Mexico. A table was created for the analysis of the identified works, categorizing them according to thematic area. The table included various characteristics such as reference, publication year, authors, title, DOI, link, abstract, author keywords, publisher, language of the original document, document type, journal name, open access status, source, methodology, and sample. Although the review was conducted considering a timeframe from 2002 to the present, the results of this review indicate that, based on the specified search criteria, there is no evidence of scientific activity published in the selected databases prior to 2011. As part of the findings in the search, a total of 11 relevant documents were identified for this review. Among these, two conference papers and nine scientific articles were found. These publications were selected based on their relevance and contribution to the research topic at hand. The conference papers provided up-to-date information and novel perspectives on the subject, while the scientific articles offered more in-depth research and rigorous analysis. These findings provide a solid foundation for analysis and discussion within the context of this literature review.
16.5 Summary of Results As a result of this systematic review of the literature, the analysis and theoretical construction are presented, providing a critical perspective of the selected papers by thematic area and answering the questions that guided this review. As part of this process, Table 16.2 presents a detailed summary of the eleven selected articles, including the thematic area, the authors of the study, the year of publication, the research method used, the type of sampling and the results.
16.5.1 Digital Exclusion in Higher Education in Mexico It is evident that digital exclusion is a significant issue in higher education in Mexico. One important finding is that internet access plays a crucial role in reducing educational backwardness, particularly in rural areas. The study by Mora-Rivera et al. (2023) emphasizes the positive impact of internet access on educational outcomes, especially for women. Rodríguez et al. (2021) highlight the difficulties rural teachers encountered due to limited infrastructure, internet access, and lack of necessary skills and resources. This emphasizes the importance of providing adequate support and resources to educators to enhance their technical and pedagogical competencies.
Author/Year
Methodology
Development of Garza Sánchez and Qualitative analysis, focus communication, media Saucedo Espinosa (2023) groups literacy and digital literacy
Thematic
Table 16.2 Summary of results of systematic literature analysis Students, employers, and teaching staff of the institution
Sample
(continued)
Education is a dynamic process focused on practical application, not just knowledge accumulation. The Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León has implemented the UANL 4.0 Initiative to develop students and contribute to scientific and technological advancements. The curriculum redesign ensures comprehensive education within a set timeframe. It emphasizes student-centered learning and the development of relevant competencies. Various teaching and assessment methods are utilized to achieve these goals
Results
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Author/Year
Mora-Rivera et al. (2023)
Thematic
Internet access/ educational backwardness, gender, digital divide, digital inclusion
Table 16.2 (continued) Conceptual framework
Methodology The sample used was obtained from Mexico’s National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (ENIGH) in 2020. The sample size was 118,079 rural residents, of which 36,017 (30.5%) have access to the Internet
Sample
(continued)
The main findings of this study reveal interesting differences and similarities among the analyzed groups (total, men, and women). The percentage of individuals experiencing educational backwardness is similar between men and women, with a slight advantage for men. Employment disparity exists, with a higher percentage of employed men due to limited job opportunities for women in rural areas. As education level increases, the proportion of individuals completing it decreases for both genders. Internet access has a positive impact on reducing educational backwardness in rural Mexico, particularly for women, highlighting the need to bridge the digital divide and promote digital inclusion. Improving telecommunications infrastructure and digital skills among students and parents is crucial, as well as addressing gender inequality and expanding the study to encompass other aspects related to internet usage and educational achievements in rural areas
Results
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Author/Year
Rodríguez et al. (2021)
Muñoz Arteaga et al. (2017)
Thematic
Digital divide, covid-19
Digital divide, Digital literacy, librarians
Table 16.2 (continued)
Case study
Triangulation of quantitative and qualitative data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the experiences of rural teachers
Methodology
A learning community composed of 47 librarians in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico
Convenience non-probabilistic sample. A total of 75 educators participated
Sample
(continued)
The main results of the study revealed that the learning community, consisting of 47 librarians in Aguascalientes, Mexico, successfully engaged in the digital literacy informal environment. Through the implementation of new ICT tools, the librarians were able to enhance their ICT skills and bridge the digital divide. The case study demonstrated the effectiveness of the educational paradigm approach in promoting inclusivity and competitiveness in today’s digital world
During the COVID-19 pandemic, rural teachers in Mexico experienced significant changes in their teaching practice, incorporating online tools and pedagogical strategies. However, they faced challenges such as lack of infrastructure, limited internet access, and a lack of electronic devices and necessary skills for online learning. Teachers expressed the need to acquire technical and pedagogical competencies but also highlighted the lack of institutional support and a clear plan to address the changes. Despite the difficulties, they demonstrated commitment and willingness to adapt, emphasizing the importance of support and adequate resources in rural settings
Results
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Author/Year
Villela Cortés and Contreras Islas (2021b)
Thematic
Digital gap, covid-19
Table 16.2 (continued) Essayistic analysis with in-depth interviews
Methodology Participants in the educational field
Sample
(continued)
Access to education and the internet in Mexico are fundamental rights that enable individuals’ holistic development. While the state bears the responsibility to ensure these rights, there exists a digital divide that restricts access to the internet and digital skills, consequently impacting education, and other rights. Addressing this digital gap and promoting digital literacy is crucial to ensure equal access to education and necessary technological resources for personal and professional growth
Results
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Author/Year
Guzman Mendoza et al. (2016)
Thematic
Digital divide, digital literacy, digital skills
Table 16.2 (continued) Mixed method
Methodology 52 librarians in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico
Sample
(continued)
The results of this study on the implementation of an ecosystem approach to digital literacy in the librarian community of Aguascalientes identified both quantitative and qualitative benefits. Quantitatively, all 52 librarians successfully completed the digital literacy process and received diplomas for their participation. Additionally, 48 of them were able to implement pilot projects in their localities, training at least 480 users in ICT skills. Qualitatively, significant progress was observed in the librarians’ use of ICT, as well as a shared interest in applying the acquired skills and collaborative work. The implementation of context-adjusted digital literacy services for librarians was crucial in achieving these results. However, a limitation was identified in internet access in some libraries, requiring connectivity management to improve future implementation of digital literacy programs. In conclusion, the ecosystem and service approach proved effective for digital literacy in this learning community, and future actions are proposed, such as creating a repository of services tailored to different capacities and integrating design patterns for special user interfaces
Results
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Fombona Cadavieco and Qualitative Pascual Sevillano (2011)
ICT, Digital Divide
Descriptive-correlational quantitative methodology
Pérez-Escoda et al. (2021)
Digital divide, digital skills, gender
Methodology
Author/Year
Thematic
Table 16.2 (continued)
192 professors from Schools and Faculties of the UNAM, were randomly selected
969 university students from Spain, Colombia, Mexico, and Ecuador
Sample
(continued)
The results highlight the importance of educational policies that support the use of ICT, but also emphasize the need for adequate technical support for teachers. Additionally, it is evident that closing the digital divide requires addressing not only resource availability but also teacher training and overcoming technological barriers to ensure the successful implementation of ICT in education
The results indicate that, regarding the daily use of the Internet, men feel more up-to-date and informed than women, while women have more skills in terms of security. In terms of using the Internet for learning, the gender digital gap appears evident, as men feel more capable of solving technical problems and sharing content, while women are more concerned about the quality and presentation of academic work and are more cautious when it comes to sharing content. In conclusion, action lines aligned with UNESCO’s objectives on reducing gender differences can be proposed as a necessary area of research
Results
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Author/Year
Varela-Ordorica and Valenzuela-González (2020)
Thematic
ICT, Competencies
Table 16.2 (continued) Qualitative approach, case study method
Methodology
Results
(continued)
13 teachers from The digital divide in education reveals that most different profiles teachers have basic ICT skills, while only a few and academic roles possess advanced knowledge. Teachers primarily rely on Windows and basic Microsoft Office applications, with limited internet and digital tool usage. Training varies, but further preparation is needed. Classroom ICT use is common, mainly with laptops, projectors, and the internet, while other digital resources are less utilized. Challenges include infrastructure, equipment, specialized personnel, and limited connectivity. Students show interest and participation but also distractions and skill differences. To bridge the digital divide, teacher training, infrastructure improvement, and positive attitudes toward ICT usage are necessary for enhanced student learning
Sample
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Author/Year
Tello-Leal (2014)
Murillo González et al. (2017)
Thematic
Digital divide, ICT, Social exclusion
Digital Divide, ICT
Table 16.2 (continued)
Field research methodology:
Methodology
Sample of public sites and spaces in the state of Tabasco, Mexico
Students enrolled in the IT program, with a population size of 4,460 individuals. A sample size was defined with a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 2%. Stratified random sampling with disproportionate allocation was used, and the calculated sample size was 1,566 students
Sample
The Mexico Conectado Project in Tabasco aims to reduce the digital divide and improve internet access in the state. The participation of the Universidad Autónoma de Juarez, Tabasco has facilitated the organization and collection of information on the sites and public spaces that will receive free internet. In the first phase of the project, 59.4% of the registered sites were captured, and it is expected that a total of 6,763 sites will receive broadband internet. This will drive technological development, promote new communication skills, and bring marginalized communities closer to the digital world. The project will also benefit education, e-governance, and healthcare. Despite some challenges, Tabasco is expected to improve its position in terms of internet penetration at the national level
The study found that all students in the sample have access to computer equipment and the Internet at their university. However, most of their Internet usage is focused on communication and leisure activities, such as social networks and email, rather than educational or research purposes. On campus, a significant percentage of students use computers and the Internet for varying amounts of time each week, with a smaller percentage utilizing them extensively. Similarly, at home, a significant proportion of students have Internet access, but the primary usage is still skewed toward communication and leisure rather than educational activities
Results
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Additionally, the studies emphasize the role of digital literacy in promoting inclusivity and competitiveness in today’s digital world. Muñoz-Arteaga (2017) demonstrates the effectiveness of the educational paradigm approach in enhancing ICT skills among librarians, bridging the digital divide within their community. Similarly, Guzmán-Mendoza et al. (2015) emphasize the positive outcomes of implementing an ecosystem approach to digital literacy among librarians in Aguascalientes. Furthermore, the gender gap in digital skills and usage is evident in higher education. Pérez-Escoda et al. (2021) found differences in how men and women perceive and use the internet for learning purposes. This highlights the importance of addressing gender differences and promoting equal access and opportunities in digital education. In summary, the findings from the studies presented in the table underscore the urgent need to address digital exclusion in higher education in Mexico. Bridging the digital divide, promoting digital literacy, and providing equal access to technology are crucial steps in ensuring that all students have equal opportunities to succeed in the digital age. By addressing these issues, Mexico can create a more equitable and inclusive higher education system that prepares students for the challenges of the digital era.
16.5.2 Digital Inclusion in Higher Education in Mexico One key finding is the emphasis on the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León UANL 4.0 Initiative, which aims to develop students and contribute to scientific and technological advancements. The curriculum redesign and student-centered learning approach mentioned in Garza Sánchez and Saucedo Espinosa (2023) indicate a proactive effort to ensure comprehensive education that aligns with the needs of the digital era. The studies also highlight the role of internet access in promoting digital inclusion. The study by Mora-Rivera et al. (2023) reveals that internet access has a positive impact on reducing educational backwardness, particularly in rural areas. Furthermore, the experiences of educators during the COVID-19 pandemic, as highlighted by Rodríguez et al. (2021), emphasize the need for institutional support and resources to facilitate effective online teaching practices. Adequate infrastructure, internet access, and necessary skills and tools are essential for educators to adapt to digital platforms and deliver quality education in virtual environments. The studies also demonstrate the success of digital literacy initiatives in promoting inclusivity. The case study conducted by Muñoz-Arteaga (2017) among librarians in Aguascalientes showcases the positive outcomes of implementing ICT tools to bridge the digital divide and enhance digital skills. The findings suggest that educational paradigms and ecosystem approaches can effectively foster digital inclusion and competitiveness in the digital age. In conclusion, the findings from the reviewed studies highlight the importance of digital inclusion in higher education in Mexico. Efforts should focus on providing equal access to technology and online resources, developing digital literacy programs,
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and supporting educators in adapting to digital platforms. By promoting digital inclusion, higher education institutions can ensure that all students have the necessary skills and opportunities to thrive in a digitally driven world.
16.5.3 Studies and Statistics on Digital Exclusion and Inclusion in Higher Education in Mexico To gain a comprehensive understanding of studies and statistics on digital exclusion and inclusion in higher education in Mexico, it would be necessary to conduct a more extensive literature review beyond the studies listed in the table. However, even the limited information available in the provided table suggests a need for further research and investigation into the extent of digital exclusion and inclusion in higher education in Mexico. It would be valuable to explore studies and statistics that specifically address this issue to understand the challenges and opportunities associated with digital access and participation in the Mexican higher education context. This is a challenge that as researchers must be addressed.
16.5.4 Challenges and Opportunities The integration of technology in education has brought about numerous challenges in the development of digital competences, particularly for educators. Apart from what we have found in the literature what we have learnt while driving the digital transformation during the pandemic, it becomes evident that addressing these challenges is still crucial for the successful implementation of tech-driven education in higher institutions. On the one hand, the lack of Proper Programming of Digital Competencies for Educators is one significant challenge, which means, the absence of well-defined and comprehensive programming of digital competences for educators. While universities may have access to advanced technology, such as learning management systems (LMS), licenses to educational software suites, access to educational repositories, the effectiveness of these tools heavily relies on the proficiency of the educators using them. If professors lack the necessary skills and knowledge to leverage technology for educational purposes, it can hinder the successful implementation of digital competences development. For example, when educators struggle to create coherent and consistent content within the LMS due to their limited proficiency, it affects the overall quality of the learning experience for students. To address this challenge, it is imperative to establish clear guidelines and provide training and support to educators to ensure they can effectively utilize technology in their teaching practices. On the other hand, the lack of a Unified Instructional Design Approach, is another challenge in the development of digital competences that lies in the absence of a
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unified instructional design approach that caters to the diverse needs of different disciplines. Different academic fields may require varying approaches to incorporate technology effectively into their curricula. For instance, disciplines like engineering and computer science may heavily rely on software development and testing, which may not be as relevant or applicable to other fields like humanities or social sciences. This lack of a standardized approach makes it difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of digital competences development across various disciplines and assess the quality of courses consistently. To overcome these challenges and promote the effective development of digital competences in higher education, several strategies can be implemented: • Comprehensive Framework for Digital Competences: Developing a comprehensive framework that addresses the diverse needs of different disciplines is essential. This framework should outline the core digital competences expected from educators across all subject areas, providing a common foundation. Simultaneously, it should allow flexibility for disciplines to adapt and integrate technology in ways that align with their unique requirements. • Educator Support and Training: To empower educators in utilizing technology effectively, institutions must invest in training programs focused on digital competences. Workshops, seminars, and ongoing professional development opportunities should be offered to help educators develop their digital skills and stay up to date with the latest educational technologies and methodologies. • Flexible Instructional Design Approach: Implementing a flexible instructional design approach will accommodate the diverse needs of different disciplines. This involves tailoring technology integration and digital competences development approaches to the specific context and subject matter of each course. By doing so, educators can ensure that technology enhances the learning experience and meets the unique requirements of their students. • Collaborative Efforts and Peer Learning: Encouraging collaboration among educators within and across disciplines can be beneficial. Peer learning and sharing best practices for integrating technology can foster a supportive and dynamic environment for developing digital competences. Overcoming the challenges in digital competences development is vital for ensuring that technology effectively enhances the learning experience in higher education. By providing comprehensive guidelines, educator support, and adopting flexible instructional design approaches, institutions can create a conducive environment for the successful integration of technology in education, ultimately preparing students for the digital demands of the modern world. The implementation of open education resources (OER) repositories as a trend in higher education in Mexico has encountered various challenges, particularly during the pandemic. While OER repositories hold the potential to enhance access to educational materials and foster collaborative learning environments, several perspectives and approaches need to be considered to ensure their successful adoption and utilization. Our main concern is the limited Openness and Sharing Among Educators, one significant perspective that hinders the effectiveness of OER repositories is the reluctance of educators to
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share their created resources openly. Despite the growing popularity of open education and the availability of OER platforms, many educators remain hesitant to adopt the mindset of open sharing, licensing, and building communities of practice. This reluctance may be attributed to concerns about intellectual property, the fear of others misusing their materials, or the lack of incentives for sharing. To address this issue, educational institutions need to cultivate a culture of openness and sharing among their faculty. Providing clear guidelines on licensing, acknowledging, and rewarding educators who contribute to OER repositories, and promoting the benefits of collaborative knowledge exchange can encourage educators to actively participate in sharing their resources. Another challenge is the technology adoption and lack of Infrastructure. Another crucial aspect influencing the effective use of technology in education is the readiness of students and the infrastructure’s adequacy to support digital learning. During the pandemic, the shift to online and remote learning exposed the disparities in internet access and technology availability among students, particularly in rural and marginalized communities. Insufficient infrastructure hampers students’ ability to access online resources, engage in digital activities, and participate in innovative learning approaches. To overcome these challenges, a comprehensive approach is needed. This includes investing in and expanding digital infrastructure to reach underserved areas, providing students with access to affordable or subsidized technology, and designing inclusive learning experiences that consider varying levels of technological readiness among students. On more perspective is the willingness for student Autonomy. One example is by recommending the use of the flipped classroom model, which promotes active learning by having students review content outside of class and engaging in interactive activities during class time, is a powerful pedagogical approach. However, its successful implementation relies on students’ willingness to take a more autonomous and proactive role in their learning. In many cases, students might be accustomed to traditional didactic teaching methods and may initially struggle with the increased responsibility in a flipped classroom setting. To facilitate this transition, educators can gradually introduce students to self-directed learning strategies, provide clear expectations, and offer support and guidance to help students adapt to a more active learning approach. Moreover, based on our experience, it is evident that autonomous online learning has faced challenges in its implementation. One key factor contributing to its limited success is the failure to address the diverse profiles of students adequately. Autonomous learning requires a high level of self-discipline, time management, and motivation, which may not be suitable for all learners. Students with varying learning styles, preferences, and abilities may struggle to engage effectively in autonomous online learning environments. However, in some countries, including our own, online education has unfortunately gained a reputation as a fallback option for those who were rejected in the university admission process. They hardly meet the autonomous student profile, the rate of desertion dramatically increases at our context in online education, even at a rate from two to one. Additionally, the lack of well-designed instructional strategies poses a significant hindrance. Without proper instructional
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design, online courses may lack coherence, interactivity, and engaging learning activities. This deficiency can result in a passive learning experience, hindering students’ active engagement and comprehension of the subject matter. Furthermore, Learning Management Systems (LMS) are often used merely as repositories of materials, overlooking their potential to foster a comprehensive educational experience. A successful online learning environment should utilize LMS features to facilitate communication, collaboration, and assessment. However, in many cases, LMS platforms are not fully leveraged to create interactive discussions, group activities, or meaningful assessments that enhance the learning experience. To address these challenges, a more student-centered approach to online learning is essential. This involves tailoring online courses to meet the needs and preferences of diverse learners, employing effective instructional design methods, and maximizing the potential of LMS platforms to create engaging and interactive learning experiences. By doing so, educational institutions can unlock the full potential of online learning and provide students with a more fulfilling and effective educational journey. In addition, tailoring OER repositories to specific communities. During the pandemic, some efforts were communicated through press stating that universities with OER repositories were willing to share their knowledge. However, our experience was that just URL to those repositories were put online in such communities, but most repositories are close to specific communities. It becomes essential to recognize the diversity of learners and educators in Mexico. Instead of adopting a one-size-fitsall approach to OER repositories, educational institutions should consider tailoring resources and materials to the specific needs and contexts of different communities. This approach can ensure that the content is relevant, culturally sensitive, and aligned with the learners’ backgrounds and interests. Indeed, the reluctance of professors to share their created online courses, even when they are compensated and given a Creative Commons license, poses an intriguing and significant research question. Understanding the reasons behind this behavior can provide valuable insights for educational institutions seeking to promote open education and enhance the adoption of OER formats. Lastly, the Adoption of Massive Open Online Education (MOOCs) and the Need for More Inclusive Communities, in response to the challenges highlighted during the pandemic, the adoption of Massive Open Online Education (MOOCs) has emerged as a prominent trend in higher education, including in Mexico. MOOCs offer the potential to reach many students asynchronously, providing flexibility in accessing educational content. However, despite the promise of MOOCs, several obstacles have been identified, particularly in terms of accessibility, community engagement, and inclusivity. Indeed, the main problem hindering the effective adoption of digital education and MOOCs in Mexico is the lack of adequate infrastructure, technical support, and trained education design instructors. Many institutions struggled to find suitable Learning Management Systems (LMS) capable of accommodating large numbers of learners asynchronously. The lack of adequate technical support and expertise in configuring and managing LMS platforms like Moodle further compounded the issue, we did not find any specialist capable of addressing this challenge, Moodle International helped us in this transition.
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The adoption of MOOCs presents a significant opportunity for expanding access to education in Mexico. However, to fully leverage this potential, there is a need to overcome challenges related to infrastructure, community engagement, and inclusivity. Building more inclusive communities, fostering collaborative efforts, and integrating OER into MOOCs are essential steps toward creating a vibrant and diverse online learning ecosystem in Mexico, accessible to learners from all backgrounds and regions. Through these efforts, MOOCs can become a transformative force in higher education, addressing the evolving needs of learners in the digital age.
16.6 Discussion The dynamics of the information society in Mexico are undergoing significant changes. As technology continues to advance and digital connectivity becomes increasingly accessible, Mexico is experiencing a transformation in various aspects of society. Firstly, internet access and connectivity have become more widespread, enabling greater participation in the digital realm. The expansion of telecommunications infrastructure and the proliferation of mobile devices have facilitated connectivity, bridging the digital divide to some extent. This increased connectivity has led to a rise in digital activities such as online communication, e-commerce, and access to information and educational resources. Furthermore, the education sector is being influenced by the dynamics of the information society. The integration of technology in teaching and learning processes is fostering digital literacy and equipping students with the necessary skills for the digital age. The demand for digital skills is on the rise, and individuals with technological proficiency have a competitive advantage in the job market. The digitalization of industries and the emergence of remote work options are transforming traditional work models and creating new opportunities for economic growth. In terms of governance, the digital realm is influencing how public services are delivered and how citizens interact with the government. E-governance initiatives aim to enhance transparency, efficiency, and citizen participation through digital platforms and services. This shift toward digital governance has the potential to improve access to public services, promote accountability, and empower citizens in decision-making processes. However, it is important to acknowledge that challenges and disparities remain. Despite progress in connectivity, there are still marginalized communities and regions with limited access to digital resources. The digital divide, both in terms of infrastructure and digital skills, poses a barrier to full participation in the information society. Mexico is experiencing transformative changes in the dynamics of the information society. Increased connectivity, the integration of technology in education and employment, and the digitization of governance are reshaping various aspects of Mexican society. Efforts to bridge the digital divide and promote digital inclusion
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will be crucial to fully harness the potential of the information society and ensure that all individuals can benefit from the opportunities it offers.
16.7 Conclusion Digital exclusion in higher education in Mexico exhibits specific characteristics that require attention. One notable finding is the lack of internet access, which particularly affects rural and marginalized communities. This translates into a digital divide between urban and rural areas, where access to technology and digital resources is limited. Moreover, there is a gender gap in digital usage and skills, highlighting the need to address gender differences and promote equal opportunities in digital education. To address digital exclusion, various pathways of digital inclusion have been implemented and shown success in the past decades. Internet access has significantly improved due to the expansion of telecommunications infrastructure and the proliferation of mobile devices. This has enabled greater participation in the digital realm and provided access to online educational resources. Additionally, digital literacy programs have been developed, which have proven effective in bridging the digital divide. These programs utilize student-centered educational approaches and foster the acquisition of technological and digital skills. In addition to access and digital literacy, institutional support plays a crucial role in digital inclusion in higher education. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the need to provide educators with adequate digital resources and tools to facilitate online teaching has been emphasized. The availability of proper infrastructure, internet access, and training in digital skills are essential for educators to adapt to digital platforms and deliver quality education in virtual environments. In conclusion, digital exclusion in higher education in Mexico presents specific challenges related to unequal access, gender gaps, and institutional limitations. However, successful pathways of digital inclusion have been identified, such as improving internet access, implementing digital literacy programs, and providing institutional support. These strategies are crucial to bridge the digital divide and ensure inclusive and equitable higher education in Mexico. Continued research and the development of new strategies are necessary to achieve broader digital inclusion and address ongoing challenges.
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Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. The BMJ (Vol. 372). BMJ Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71 Peña-López, I. (2010). Redefining the digital divide in higher education. Revista de Unidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 7(1), 1–6. http://rusc.uoc.edumonograph Pérez-Escoda, A., Lena-Acebo, F.-J., & García-Ruiz, R. (2021). Brecha digital de género y competencia digital entre estudiantes universitarios. Aula Abierta, 50(1), 505–514. https://doi.org/10. 17811/rifie.50.1.2021.505-514 Rodríguez, B. C. P., Armellini, A., & Traxler, J. (2021). The forgotten ones: How rural teachers in mexico are facing the covid-19 pandemic. Online Learning Journal, 25(1), 253–268. https:// doi.org/10.24059/olj.v25i1.2453 Salinas, J., & De Benito, B. (2020). Competencia digital y apropiación de las TIC: Claves para la inclusión digital competence and appropriation of ICT: Keys to digital inclusion. Campus Virtuales, 9(2), 99–111. www.revistacampusvirtuales.es Tello-Leal, E. (2014). La brecha digital: índices de desarrollo de las tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones en México. Ciencias de la Información, 45(1), 43–50. http://www.redalyc. org/articulo.oa?id=181431233006 Thirión, J. M., & Valle Zárate, J. E. (2018). La brecha digital y la importancia de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación en las economías regionales de México. Realidad, Datos y Espacio Revista Internacional de Estadística y Geografía, 9(2), 38–53. Trejo-Quintana, J. (2020). Digital inclusion public policy in Mexico (2012–2018). Estudios Políticos, 2(50), 53–74. van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements, and shortcomings. Poetics, 34(4–5), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.004 Varela-Ordorica, S. A., & Valenzuela-González, J. R. (2020). Uso de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación como competencia transversal en la formación inicial de docentes. Revista Electrónica Educare, 24(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.15359/ree.24-1.10 Villela Cortés, F., & Contreras Islas, D. S. (2021a). La brecha digital como una nueva capa de vulnerabilidad que afecta el acceso a la educación en México. Academia y Virtualidad, 14(1), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.18359/ravi.5395 Villela Cortés, F., & Contreras Islas, D. S. (2021b). La brecha digital como una nueva capa de vulnerabilidad que afecta el acceso a la educación en México. Academia y Virtualidad, 14(1), 169–187. https://doi.org/10.18359/ravi.5395
Chapter 17
Digital Inclusion in the Moroccan Context: A Review of Research and Educational Initiatives in the Twenty-First Century Imane Bakkali , Ana Belén Pérez-Torregrosa , Violeta Cebrián-Robles , and Manuel Cebrián-de-la-Serna
Abstract Technological changes and their impact are bringing about digital transformations that have advantages for institutions and citizens, but also pose challenges and risks of exclusion. It is necessary to delve deeper into each context to learn about the research and initiatives that are being implemented to improve the digital divide and promote e-inclusion in each period of time, given the speed of these changes. In this sense, the aim of this chapter has been to conduct a literature review on e-inclusion in Morocco and the educational initiatives implemented over the last two decades. The review is carried out in three international databases and official websites of organisations, with criteria of relevance and sufficiency. The findings of this literature review describe the current landscape of this topic, illustrating the educational levels at which e-inclusion initiatives are carried out, the types of educational initiatives and the aspects of e-inclusion that are addressed. In the literature reviewed, the digital divide is addressed in terms of access to technology and infrastructure, technology use skills and digital competences. The review offers conclusions and implications for research. Keywords Digital divide · Morocco · Digital inclusion · Digital competence I. Bakkali ENS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco e-mail: [email protected] A. B. Pérez-Torregrosa University of Jaén, Jaén, Spain e-mail: [email protected] V. Cebrián-Robles University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. Cebrián-de-la-Serna (B) International University of Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_17
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17.1 Introduction Morocco is strategically located in North Africa, very close to Europe and with many connections to other continents. This positioning is an advantage for the country, allowing it to open up to the outside world and making it attractive for international investments and projects. According to the OECD report (2017), the country has been able to attract numerous foreign investments to support the development of promising sectors and job creation. It has also successfully entered certain key international markets, such as the automotive industry, which is now one of its main export sectors. In addition, Morocco is now one of the most important destinations for research and development of new technologies, said the Minister Delegate for Digital Transition and Administration Reform in 2022. All this requires constant economic, social, educational and technological growth and development. In recent decades, there has been a strong mobilisation and transformation in the country, especially at the technological level. Projects and initiatives have been carried out to improve infrastructure, modernise and digitalise administrative services and generalise access to technology and the internet, especially in rural areas. Training and awareness-raising campaigns have also been planned in various media such as radio, television, schools, associations, etc. to promote e-inclusion and to equip citizens with digital skills and prepare them for the use of these technologies. In this regard, based on the orientations of the King of Morocco during the extraordinary summit of heads of state and government of the African Union in 2018, the document “Note d’orientations générales pour le développement du digital au Maroc à l’horizon 2025” was drafted by the Moroccan government in (2020). This document presents the strategic orientations for the country’s digital development along three main axes. The first axis is digital administration, which consists of improving and digitising administrative services and procedures. The second axis addresses the digital economy, which aims to improve the digital infrastructure and the creation of digital jobs. And the third axis focuses on e-inclusion which aims to reduce the digital divide by ensuring access to technologies and the necessary skills for their use). However, despite all efforts and initiatives, the digital divide can be noticed in the lack of use, lack of digital skills or lack of awareness of its importance, specifically in marginalised or rural areas, as well as in some socio-economic contexts. According to the report of the Moroccan Ministry of Economy, Finance and Administration Reform (2021), the digital divide between urban and rural areas excludes the latter from many opportunities. Factors limiting the use of the internet include illiteracy, poverty and the lack of content adapted to local contexts, even if they have a good internet connection. The report of the Economic, Social and Environmental Council (2021) speaks of a deficiency in digital tools, lack of knowledge and skills in the use of digital technologies. On a social level, as in other countries around the world, the integration of technologies and the digitisation of various fields in a rapid manner has unintentionally created resistance to change and social exclusion or unequal access to online services.
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This has particularly affected people in vulnerable situations such as the elderly or people who lack basic digital skills to access essential services online (such as paying bills, or carrying out administrative or personal formalities). Similarly, schools and families with precarious internet access during the COVID-19 pandemic (Reuge et al., 2021) are demanding bandwidth so as not to be left out, and have raised voices around the world in a post-pandemic analysis with the United Nations High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation (UN, 2020). Moreover, at the professional level, it is true that current labour market demand may exclude those with few digital skills. Similarly, at the educational level, education and training without digital skills can limit learners. Students may miss out on many learning opportunities especially in hybrid or distance learning modalities, which can be opportunities for more innovative learning, going beyond the geographical space, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic where the most disadvantaged students and families have seen their basic skills in reading and mathematics affected (AlbanConto et al., 2021). Considering all of the above, and considering the potential of digital competence, its incorporation into the education system is no longer optional but essential in order to train citizens capable of facing the challenges and rapid evolution of the information society and taking advantage of the opportunities of the digital era. Digital competences are an essential requirement for the professional and personal development of individuals. In Morocco, there is a strong mobilisation for the education system, as can be seen through GENIE (Generalisation of ICT in Education). GENIE is a project that equips schools with multimedia classrooms, interactive whiteboards, multimedia cases (containing a computer, video projector and loudspeaker) and tablets. Teachers are also being trained in the pedagogical integration of technology in their classrooms; digital resources are being created and purchased; and meetings and opportunities for communication and ICT skills development are being scheduled. Even so, the results are not satisfactory in terms of ICT integration and use in all schools. According to research carried out by Ismaili (2020), the results show that the GENIE programme in the country is promising, although they state that it does not meet one of its objectives: to involve Moroccan schools in the information society. In the same vein, the report of the Economic, Social and Environmental Council (2021) with regard to the GENIE programme indicates that there are still schools that are not equipped, and those that have digital material and resources face problems of obsolescence and maintenance. Undoubtedly, efforts are being made and initiatives and projects are being implemented to solve the problems related to the issue of e-inclusion in Morocco. However, it is important to identify what has been done, what are the specificities of digital exclusion in the country, what are the most successful forms of e-inclusion in the last two decades? This paper can give a clear picture of the e-inclusion situation in Morocco, and highlight existing strengths and successful initiatives. At the same time identify persistent challenges to improve specific strategies and actions to address them in practice. What it can bring in the future to improve e-inclusion in Morocco.
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17.2 Theoretical Framework This chapter focuses on e-inclusion in the Moroccan context is based on a review of research and educational initiatives implemented over the last two decades. The aim is to present a review of the reforms, strategies and public policies undertaken to promote e-inclusion and bridge the digital divide, as well as to identify the obstacles and challenges faced by the country in this regard. It will also address the current status and educational initiatives that have been carried out to reduce the digital divide in order to equip citizens with the necessary digital skills. To begin with, we present what is known as the “Digital Divide”. According to the OECD (2001), it refers to the difference that exists between individuals, households, businesses and geographic spaces at different socio-economic levels, in terms of their prospects of accessing and using ICT technologies, especially the internet for a wide range of activities. For his part, Kling (1998) proposed two dimensions of the digital divide, one relating to technical access and the other to social access for effective use of technologies. Given that access to ICT, and more specifically to the Internet, does not automatically imply their correct use and application (Oukarfi, 2013), we therefore speak of a first- and second-degree divide. The first-degree gap refers to material aspects such as equipment, telecommunications infrastructure and the internet. The second-degree gap refers to inequality in the use of these technologies related to cognitive skills, services and products, and information available online. In contrast to this division of the digital divide into two dimensions, Ben Youssef (2004) speaks of four dimensions: the first, in relation to access to technologies and infrastructure; the second, in relation to their use; the third, in relation to the effectiveness of the uses; and finally, the fourth refers to the modalities of learning in a knowledge-based economy. On the other hand, Morte-Nadal and Esteban Navarro (2022) differentiate three dimensions of the digital divide: the first refers to the inequality of opportunities in technological access and connectivity to devices and networks (internet); the second is related to computer skills to use technology among those who have access and are connected; and the third refers to the digital skills needed to perform tasks and create content using ICT in different contexts, such as education. In Morocco, as in other countries, the digital divide is related to several factors, not necessarily in order of importance, but the most relevant ones. On the one hand, geographical location affects access to technologies, especially in rural areas. On the other hand, the socio-economic and educational level of citizens also influences their ability to acquire technological skills and have access to technologies and the Internet. Finally, according to the 2014 General Population and Housing Census, the illiteracy rate of the population aged 10 and over in Morocco was 32.2% (Agence nationale de lutte contre l’illphabétisme, 2014) which has a significant impact on the digital divide. To reduce this gap and improve e-inclusion in Morocco, initiatives are being implemented at the state level. These initiatives aim to improve the country’s infrastructure,
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Fig. 17.1 Internet equipment and use 2020 ANRT (2021). Note Figure taken from the ANRT Report (2021)
the services offered and to offer all citizens democratised access to these services, especially in rural areas. First of all, the telecommunications market has undergone significant changes and evolutions in recent years, thanks to the diversity of offers and the growth in the number of operators. In addition to government initiatives, the decisions taken by the National Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (ANRT) have resulted in lower prices and tariffs for telecommunications services, which has led to an increase in the number of users connected to the internet. According to the latest ANRT report of 2021, more than 8 out of 10 households are connected to the internet nationwide. The evolution is more significant in rural areas as can be seen in Fig. 17.1. The number of internet users exceeded 29 million which represents almost 80% of the global population. According to the latest ANRT report (2021) (Fig. 17.2), 90% of citizens have a smartphone in urban areas, and 80% in rural areas. While 70% of households have a computer/tablet. Moroccans’ habits for communicating and carrying out purchases and formalities have changed. According to the same report, by 2021, participation in social networks is widespread regardless of age, gender or environment; and ecommerce is more widely used in urban areas, more specifically in small and large cities than in medium-sized cities (Oukarfi & Bercheq, 2020). A number of initiatives have also been developed, some successful and some still in the process of implementation. Others have led to considerable progress and some need to be boosted. But you can see a strong commitment from the country. And to understand the measures that have been taken, we will present some of the projects that are most relevant in the last two decades. • E-Maroc 2010: launched in January 2005, its vision was to position Morocco on an international scale in the field of ICT by 2010. All this through the generalisation of Internet access for the entire Moroccan population, liberalisation of telecommunications, establishment of the legal and regulatory framework, investment in infrastructure, development and integration of ICT in education, modernisation of the administration and local authorities, dissemination and integration
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Fig. 17.2 Mobile telephony equipment and use 2020 ANRT (2021). Note Figure taken from the ANRT Report (2021)
•
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of ICT in companies and in the economic fabric, development of e-commerce and the fight against the digital divide. National Strategy Maroc Numeric 2013: or Morocco Numeric 2013, developed by the Ministry of Trade Industry and New Technologies, was launched in 2008 to improve the standard of living and social welfare of citizens through an effective and efficient use of information. Its objectives are: to generalise the use of ICT, to position the country among the dynamic emerging countries in ICT and to consolidate Moroccan small and medium-sized enterprises with ICT. This is the reason why several measures have been taken, such as lowering the prices of fixed and mobile telephony tariffs, opening up to new fixed telephony and Internet operators, and granting new licences for the 4G mobile network. The E-GOV (e-government) programme: Launched in 2010, it is administered by the Ministry of Administration Reform and Civil Service. It allows for strengthening governance, modernising and improving the efficiency and transparency of public administrations, and using their services remotely, facilitating access to public information and promoting citizens’ participation in the management of public affairs. Maroc Digital 2020: It represents a continuation of the Maroc Numeric 2013 strategy and aims to: Accelerate digital transformation in the country, strengthen Morocco’s position as a regional digital hub, overcome ecosystem barriers, particularly addressing governance and digital skills. Maroc Digital 2025: Creation in 2017 of the Digital Development Agency (ADD) which is responsible for implementing the digital strategy “Maroc Digital 2025”, which aims to digitise administrative procedures, reduce the digital divide, connect SMEs and strengthen the Kingdom as the first digital hub in Africa.
As can be seen, the strategies in Morocco have been articulated around several priority areas, including: Education. The sector has undergone several reforms over the years: • The National Charter for Education and Training 2000–2010. • The 2009–2012 emergency programme. • Strategic Plan 2013–2016.
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• Strategic Vision 2030. These reforms are designed to improve the education system and correct its weaknesses. The main objectives have been to put the learner at the centre of the reform, equal opportunities and equity, making education compulsory for children up to the age of 15, improving the quality of learning, emphasising language learning, improving governance in the sector and mainstreaming and integrating ICT. In addition, several educational initiatives have been carried out to bridge the digital divide and improve e-inclusion in the country. Some of these initiatives are: • GENIE: Generalisation of ICT in Education, a project launched in 2005. It aims to generalise the integration of technologies in the education system through equipment and infrastructure, training of teachers and administrative actors, development of digital content, development of uses and better governance. As part of this project, the Ministry of Education signed an agreement for the Microsoft certification of all Ministry officials (teachers, administrators, directors, inspectors, etc.). • Nafida: Aims to facilitate the educational community’s access to technologies, to use these tools in the educational system and to access multimedia content. In its latest version, Nafida2 consists of granting an individual subsidy of up to 200 euros for the purchase of a computer, and a 25% reduction in public broadband Internet subscription rates: 4G and fibre optic, through the three telecommunications operators operating in the national market. • E-Himaya: National platform for information and awareness-raising on digital culture and the appropriate use of digital tools by children, young people, families, students and teachers with the aim of protecting them against possible digitalrelated risks and threats. • E-Takwine Tanmia: Distance learning platform for professional development. It is a tool to improve the skills and capacities of educational and administrative actors through courses that facilitate their training and develop their professional competences. • Raqmiya Academy: or “Digital Academy” is a national e-learning platform, free of charge and available to all citizens. It offers specialised training content in basic and new digital skills in the world of technology, for public administration, medium, small and large companies, as well as for the general public. This training leads to a digital passport or document certifying the acquisition of digital skills. In the same vein, and in order to reinforce and consolidate teacher training in digital skills, initial teacher training has been reformed. As of 2018, the preparation of future teachers in Morocco requires a three-year degree in education, which is taught in universities and, in general, in teacher training colleges. And in order to train teachers who integrate ICT in their practices, the subject or ICTE Module “Educational Information and Communication Technologies” has been programmed as a compulsory and annual subject with 100 h and within the degree of Education (Primary and Secondary) in the first and second semester of the first year.
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This training module focuses on the initiation and knowledge of technologies that teachers can use to improve their practice and professional development, learn to use digital resources, know where to find them, how to adapt them to their contexts and innovate in teaching. This was one of the key measures for ICT inclusion in the country, focusing on initial training for the acquisition of basic and necessary technological competences. All in all, these strategies have contributed significantly to improving access to technology and the Internet. But generalising the use of technologies and ensuring e-inclusion for all citizens is a complex and slow process, given that it depends on other factors of a different nature and pace of change. There are many factors that can delay or hinder the process, such as rapid obsolescence of hardware, software and systems, rejection of change, illiteracy and differences in socio-economic levels, among others. In this chapter, our aim is to get an overview of the current e-inclusion landscape in Morocco and the educational initiatives that have taken place over the last twenty years. In order to answer the following questions: At which educational levels have e-inclusion initiatives been carried out? (RQ1) What kind of educational initiatives on e-inclusion have been carried out and who are the people responsible for these initiatives? (RQ2) Which areas/aspects of e-inclusion are being focused on? (RQ3). To answer these questions, we will present the different strategies, reforms, public policies, projects and educational initiatives on e-inclusion that have been implemented in Morocco over the last two decades.
17.2.1 Methodology For this chapter, a literature review was conducted in order to understand the current e-inclusion landscape in Morocco and existing educational initiatives over the last twenty years. This review aims to answer the pre-set research question through a rigorous and transparent process to collect and analyse data from the studies included in the review (Moher et al. 2009), such as those conducted by Valverde-Berrocoso et al. (2022) or Cebrián-Robles et al. (2023). This review has followed the quality standards proposed in the PRISMA 2020 statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses), which specifies the methods for identifying, selecting and evaluating studies (Page et al., 2021). The literature search was conducted in three databases, Web of Science (WOS) (https://www.webofscience.com/), Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/home.uri) and Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) (https://eric.ed.gov/) during the month of February 2023. The keywords used in the search were “digital”, “inclusion” and “Morocco” together with the Boolean operator AND. The initial search strategy was formulated on the titles, keywords and abstracts of the articles but was only carried out in Scopus. In the other databases, the search strategy was adapted to the characteristics of each database. In WOS, the search strategy was extended to all fields; if the search was further restricted, no results were obtained. In ERIC, the
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search was carried out in all fields, but two searches were carried out, the number of records was not related to the Moroccan context, two searches were carried out: “digital” AND “Morocco” and “inclusion” AND “Morocco” in all fields. A total of 46 results were obtained after searching the three databases. Several inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to select the sample of articles. Inclusion criteria were: (1) language (English, Spanish, French or Moroccan) (IC1); (2) period of publication (2000 and 2023) (IC2). Exclusion criteria were: (1) duplicate records (EC1); (2) experiences outside the educational context (EC2); (3) studies with restricted access or full text not available (EC3); (4) studies focused on the computer development of technological tools (EC4). Figure 17.3 shows the stages in the process of identifying and selecting the literature included in this review. The initial search identified 46 records in the databases (24 in WOS, 6 in Scopus and 16 in ERIC) that had been published in the established languages (IC1) and in the last twenty years (IC2), of which 2 were duplicates. In the screening phase, the abstracts of the articles were reviewed and 19 articles addressing e-inclusion outside the educational context were excluded (EC2). Subsequently, 3 articles with restricted access to the full text were removed (EC3). After reviewing the full text of the articles, 7 studies that were not the subject of the review were included (EC4). On the other hand, Fig. 17.3 shows in grey the grey literature, i.e. the 20 records identified by other procedures due to the limited number of articles on the subject under study and the relevance and sufficiency of the information located in other sources. Six records were located on websites, nine in organisations and nine from citation searching that met the inclusion criteria. Once the full text was reviewed, 11 records analysing e-inclusion outside the educational context were excluded (EC2). Two authors verified that the studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The final sample consists of 24 studies, of which 15 were identified in databases and 9 through other procedures. For the analysis of the results, we first made a complete reading and synthesised the information in a Google spreadsheet: authors, year, type of study, institution, subject, key words, educational level, type of educational initiative, persons responsible for the educational initiative, aspects of e-inclusion, conclusions and observations. The information obtained was then analysed to present a general and current overview of e-inclusion in Morocco and existing educational initiatives.
17.3 Results This section presents the results derived from the data analysis. The results are presented according to the three research questions we have previously formulated (RQ1, RQ2, RQ3). Firstly, the level of education on which the studies analysed are focused (RQ1) is analysed, as can be seen in Fig. 17.4, the highest percentage corresponds to Higher Education (63%). Second place goes to Secondary Education (11%), followed by Early Childhood Education and Primary Education (7%), with the same percentage
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Fig. 17.3 Flowchart of the study selection process according to PRISMA checklist
because the two levels are dealt with together in the studies. Nineteen per cent of the studies analysed do not specify the educational level targeted. Table 17.1 shows the level of education on which the authors of the studies and reports focus. With regard to the type of educational initiative on which studies in the Moroccan context focus (RQ2), we find that training programmes predominate (16) (Fig. 17.5). Within the training programmes, we find studies developed in university subjects that analyse the teaching and learning processes during COVID-19, such as Zouiri and
Fig. 17.4 Educational level of the studies analysed
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Table 17.1 Authors classified by the level of education addressed by the studies analysed Educational level
Authors
Early Childhood Education and Primary Education
Summary report of the Emergency Programme (2009), Strategic Vision of the Reform 2015–2030 (2015), Sakr (2016)
Secondary education
Bakkali (2019), Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009), Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015), Sakr (2016)
Higher education
Akhasbi et al. (2022), Alami Talbi and Igamane (2022), Benali et al. (2018), Benmarrakchi et al. (2017), Benaoui and Kassimi (2021), El Bairi et al. (2023), Ismaili (2020), Lamtara (2014), Machwate et al. (2021), Moundy et al. (2021), Ouahbi et al. (2022), Ouiam and Abdelkader (2022), Oussama et al. (2022), Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009), Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015), Szobonya and Roche (2021), Zouiri and Kinani (2022)
General
Ismaili and Ibrahimi (2017), Benali et al. (2021), Dardary et al. (2020), Nejjari and Bakkali (2017), Rochdi (2001)
Kinani (2022), Alami Talbi and Igamane (2022) and Moundy et al. (2021). The remaining studies analyse the use of ICT in the educational context. The second place is occupied by studies addressing educational initiatives addressed in public policies (5), on the one hand, we find articles analysing them, Nejjari and Bakkali (2017), Rochdi (2001) and Benali et al. (2021), and, on the other hand, official studies addressing them (Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence, 2009; Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030, 2015). Projects are the least predominant educational initiatives (4), among which we find two studies (Ismaili & Ibrahimi, 2017; Benali et al., 2018); and two reports addressing developed projects (Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence, 2009; Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015– 2030, 2015).
Fig. 17.5 Types of educational initiatives
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Among those responsible for the educational initiatives analysed above (Fig. 17.5), all the training programmes are carried out by teachers, except for the study by Nejjari and Bakkali (2017) where teachers and government are involved. The following exceptions are found in the studies analysed, the government-led education initiatives in the study by Benali et al. (2021) and the reports Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009) and Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015). We also find educational initiatives carried out jointly between the government and teachers in the studies by Bakkali (2019 ), Nejjari and Bakkali (2017) and Rochdi (2001). Finally, studies have been categorised taking as a reference point the three dimensions of the digital divide (RQ3) established by Morte-Nadal and Esteban Navarro (2022): studies addressing inequality of opportunities in technological access and connectivity to devices and networks; those addressing illiteracy in computer skills to use technology and those addressing digital competences. Figure 17.6 shows that digital competence is addressed in the majority of studies (23), the research and reports (Table 17.2) propose various ways of developing digital competences in the educational context. On the one hand, we have located research focused on the development of students’ digital competence through the use of digital teaching materials, such as the textbook (Moundy et al., 2021) or the use of active methodologies with technology, such as flipped learning (Ouiam & Abdelkader, 2022). On the other hand, we have located research that addresses the digital competence of trainee teachers (Ouiam & Abdelkader, 2022) and in-service teachers (Benali et al., 2021; Benaoui & Kassimi, 2021; Lamtara, 2014; Ouahbi et al., 2022). There are also reports that address its development: Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009) and Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015). Second place goes to the dimension of illiteracy in computer skills to use technology (12), followed by access and connectivity to devices and networks (11).
Fig. 17.6 Dimensions of the digital divide in the sample analysed
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Table 17.2 Authors according to the size of the digital divide Digital competences Authors Akhasbi et al. (2022), Alami Talbi and Igamane (2022), Bakkali (2019), Benali et al. (2018), Benali et al. (2021), Benmarrakchi et al. (2017), Benaoui and Kassimi (2021), Dardary et al. (2020), El Bairi et al. (2023), Ismaili (2020), Lamtara (2014), Machwate et al. (2021), Moundy et al. (2021), Nejjari and Bakkali (2017), Ouahbi et al. (2022), Ouiam and Abdelkader (2022), Oussama et al. (2022), Rochdi (2001), Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009), Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015), Sakr (2016), Szobonya and Roche (2021), Zouiri and Kinani (2022) Illiteracy in computer skills to use technology Authors Akhasbi et al. (2022), Alami Talbi and Igamane (2022), Bakkali (2019), Benmarrakchi et al. (2017), Dardary et al. (2020), Ismaili (2020), Oussama et al. (2022), Rochdi (2001), Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009), Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015), Sakr (2016), Zouiri and Kinani (2022) Access and connectivity to devices and networks Authors Akhasbi et al. (2022), Alami Talbi and Igamane (2022), Benmarrakchi et al. (2017), Ismaili and Ibrahimi (2017), Dardary et al. (2020), Ismaili (2020), Rochdi (2001), Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009), Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015), Sakr (2016), Zouiri and Kinani (2022)
Table 17.2 shows the authors classified according to the different dimensions of the digital divide. Research authors such as Alami Talbi and Igamane (2022) appear in all three dimensions, as they address all three dimensions of the digital divide.
17.4 Discussion and Conclusion This chapter provides information on the levels of education where e-inclusion initiatives are implemented, the types of educational initiatives, who is responsible and what is being worked on in Morocco. Firstly, it is noted that educational initiatives on e-inclusion in the university context are predominant. This may be due to the proliferation of research on student satisfaction with online teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Alami Talbi & Igamane, 2022; or Zouiri & Kinani, 2022) or with the use of active methodologies such as flipped classroom (Ouiam & Abdelkader, 2022). Other aspects that can encourage e-inclusion initiatives in the university context are the availability of greater internet connection and equipment than at other educational levels. However, the generalisation of ICT in the Moroccan education system is a complex process, given that it is a sector with a large number of teachers, students and administrative staff, and requires significant investment in infrastructure, equipment, training, etc. Future research should analyse the other educational levels (pre-school, primary and secondary education) to find out whether e-inclusion initiatives are scarce or not reported in the literature.
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With regard to the type of educational initiatives developed in the education sector, the results show three types of initiatives predominate: training programmes, projects and public policies. The initiatives analysed to make it possible to integrate technologies in schools (Ismaili & Ibrahimi, 2017; Lamtara, 2014; Moundy et al., 2021), develop the digital skills of students and teachers (Benali et al., 2021; Benmarrakchi et al., 2017; Dardary et al., 2020), promote e-inclusion in the education system and reduce the digital divide. Some university initiatives on e-inclusion target future teachers. Ouahbi et al. (2022) analyse the perception of the use of Scratch and the improvement of ICT skills in future teachers. Participants were initially reluctant to implement programming in schools, but after the experience they appreciated Scratch and its educational potential. This kind of initiative can help future teachers to apply it in their future classrooms and foster e-inclusion. Morocco has developed public policies, Rapport résumé du Programme d’Urgence (2009) and Vision Stratégique de la réforme 2015–2030 (2015), to accompany the transformation and minimise the digital divide. The digital divide is to be reduced especially in rural and disadvantaged areas. Despite this, more educational initiatives are needed at all levels of education to prepare citizens and provide them with digital skills so that they can take advantage of digitalisation effectively and efficiently, and be able to use the services offered in an optimal way. In relation to the digital divide, most of the studies analysed address digital competence in teaching. During the COVID-19 pandemic, when face-to-face teaching was stopped and replaced by distance learning, weaknesses were detected in this sector. As the decision for distance learning was taken abruptly and without prior preparation, the Moroccan University was not prepared for distance learning, there was a lack of technical support and there was a digital divide (Akhasbi et al., 2022). In addition, there were problems related to lack of connection means, lack of interaction with teachers or other students (Alami Talbi & Igamane, 2022), lack of skills to use platforms, tutorials, etc., and shortage in some digital skills such as ethics and ICT; use of ICT in the personal, educational and professional field; as well as difficulty in following a hybrid teaching (Oussama et al., 2022). However, there were positive experiences of distance learning, as this modality could favour a virtual journey for students, allowing them to interact with their peers across geographical barriers (Szobonya & Roche, 2021) and also some students have revealed that teachers are more available outside the classroom than inside it (Ouiam & Abdelkader, 2022). During the period of the pandemic, the advantages and possibilities offered by technologies have been discovered and experienced, especially in the field of education (Bautista Flores et al., 2022; Ruiz-Rey et al., 2021). But at the same time, many countries have been exposed to problems related to unequal access to technologies and a large digital divide. For this reason, several decisions have been taken and more research has been carried out to improve the situation and favour equal educational opportunities for all citizens. The studies analysed in this paper propose some solutions to help e-inclusion in the Moroccan educational environment. Most of the studies focus on two important aspects: teacher training and the improvement of infrastructure and equipment.
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Digital competence should be the focus of attention in teacher training institutions, and it is recommended that importance be given to the initial and continuous training of teachers in technological tools (Benaoui & Kassimi, 2021; Nejjari & Bakkali, 2017), not only in terms of the acquisition of ICT skills but also in the pedagogical use of these technologies (Lamtara, 2014). Benaoui and Kassimi (2021) analyse prospective teachers’ perceptions of their level of digital competence. The results show that the level of digital competence was low and conclude that there is a need for more training in digital competences in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, it is recommended that public policies should also provide teachers with training in pedagogical skills to adjust their teaching according to the needs of students, providing them with digital tools to avoid the digital divide (Zouiri & Kinani, 2022). In addition to training, we must also think about the human factor and motivate teachers to integrate technologies into their educational practice, as they are key to change and to the successful integration of ICT in the education system (Gabarda Méndez et al., 2021). Research (Bakkali, 2019) has shown that teachers who want to use ICT to teach do so and find many solutions. However, there are teachers who, despite having received training, having the necessary knowledge to use ICT and having a computer with a subsidy from the Ministry, do not use it. The causes remain to be investigated in depth; however, confidence in digital teaching and teaching experience are also important factors that can positively influence their level of digital competences (Benali et al., 2018). In terms of equipment and infrastructure, the administration proposes providing the necessary material resources and software, especially for rural, peri-urban and low-income areas, such as tablets, computers, Internet, etc., and holding conferences, virtual meetings or workshops to raise awareness of the importance of digitalisation (Moundy et al., 2021). In the same vein, it is proposed to equip schools with video cameras, interactive whiteboards and high internet connection; and to subscribe all students and teachers to internet packages at reasonable cost (Dardary et al., 2020). For people with special needs, it is proposed to use devices such as tablets and smartphones to provide special education solutions and tools (Ismaili & Ibrahimi, 2017). In conclusion, it can be said that the dynamics of the information society in Morocco are constantly evolving. Despite educational efforts and initiatives, much remains to be done. The generalisation of internet access and mobile telephony in Morocco has not led to an effective and efficient use of these technologies. Due to some major challenges and factors such as illiteracy, resistance to change, disparity between the different areas, lack of digital skills, etc., there are still many challenges to be overcome. More efforts are needed at governmental and educational level to reduce the digital divide, equip citizens with technological skills and provide equitable access to technologies across the country. Future lines of research should investigate the digital competence of teachers at all educational levels to enable us to design training adapted to each educational level in order to help the acquisition of digital competences. Finally, another relevant research topic would be to analyse e-inclusion in early
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childhood and primary education, which allows us to know how it is affecting the digital divide.
References References containing * are those included in the literature review *Akhasbi, H., Belghini, N., Riyami, B., Cherrak, O., & Bouassam, H. (2022, August). Moroccan higher education at confinement and post confinement period: Review on the experience. In Computer Supported Education: 13th International Conference, CSEDU 2021, Virtual Event, April 23–25, 2021, Revised Selected Papers (pp. 130–164). Springer International Publishing. https://acortar.link/VEPcjg. *Alami Talbi, L., & Igamane, S. (2022). How do Moroccan higher education students behave during the remote education in time of COVID-19? In C. Hong & W. W. K. Ma (Eds.), Applied degree education and the future of learning. Lecture notes in educational technology (pp. 347–365). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9812-5_19. Alban-Conto, C., Akseer, S., Dreesen, T., Kamei, A., Mizunoya, S., & Rigole, A. (2021). Potential effects of COVID-19 school closures on foundational competences and country responses for mitigating learning loss. International Journal of Educational Development, 87, 102434. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102434. *Bakkali, I. (2019). Factors that may influence the integration of ICT in qualifying secondary education in Morocco. In S. Pérez-Aldeguer & D. Akombo (Eds.), Research, technology and best practices in education (pp. 39–49). Adaya Press. Bautista Flores, E., Loreto Quintana, N., Sánchez Carlos, O. A. (2022). Distance education with higher level students in quarantine period by COVID-19. Innoeduca. International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 8(2), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca.2022. v8i2.12257. Ben Youssef, A. (2004). Les quatre dimensions de la fracture numérique. Réseaux, 127–128, 181– 209. https://www.cairn.info/revue--2004-5-page-181.htm. *Benali, M., Kaddouri, M., & Azzimani, T. (2018). Digital competence of Moroccan teachers of English. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 14(2). https://www. learntechlib.org/p/184691/. *Benali, M., Blej, M., & Zerouali, A. (2021). Mise en œuvre du référentiel UNESCO de compétences TIC pour les enseignants marocains. CORTOBA. https://acortar.link/2wPK1c. *Benaoui, A., & Kassimi, M. A. (2021). Using machine learning to examine preservice teachers’ perceptions of their digital competence. In E3S Web of Conferences. EDP Sciences. https://doi. org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129701001. *Benmarrakchi, F., El Kafi, J., & Elhore, A. (2017). Communication technology for users with specific learning disabilities. Procedia Computer Science, 110, 258–265. https://acortar.link/ KjH79O. Cebrián-Robles, V., Pérez-Torregrosa, A. B., & Cebrián de la Serna, M. (2023). Revisión de la literatura sobre anotaciones de vídeo en la formación docente (Literature review on video annotations in teacher education). Pixel-Bit. Revista de Medios y Educación, 66, 31–57. https://doi. org/10.12795/pixelbit.95782. *Dardary, O., Daaif, J., Tridane, M., & Belaaouad, S. (2020). Distance learning in the age of COVID19: Between perspective and reality. International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology, 5(5), 46–52. https://www.ijeast.com/papers/12-18,Tesma506,IJEAST.pdf. *El Bairi, K., Fourtassi, M., El Fatimy, R., & El Kadmiri, N. (2023). Distance education as a tool to improve researchers’ knowledge on predatory journals in countries with limited resources: tThe
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Moroccan experience. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 19(1), 1–15. https://aco rtar.link/oYbaHP. Gabarda Méndez, V., García Tort, E., Ferrando Rodríguez, M. D. L., & Chiappe Laverde, A. (2021). Pre-school and primary school teachers: Technological training and digital competence. Innoeduca: International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 7(2), 19–31. https:// doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca.2021.v7i2.12261. *Ismaili, J. (2020). Evaluation of information and communication technology in education programs for middle and high schools: GENIE program as a case study. Education and Information Technologies, 25(6), 5067–5086. https://link.springer.com/article/. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 639-020-10224-1. *Ismaili, J., & Ibrahimi, E. H. O. (2017). Mobile learning as alternative to assistive technology devices for special needs students. Education and Information Technologies, 22(3), 883–899. https://link.springer.com/article/. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-015-9462-9. Kling, R. (1998). Technological and social access on computing, information and communication technologies. White paper for Presidential Advisory Committee on High Performance Computing and Communication, Information Technology, and the Next Generation Internet. *Lamtara, S. (2014). Teachers’ ICT practices: A case study of a Moroccan EFL teacher. Arab World English Journal, 5(4), 398–410. https://acortar.link/aEEIfD. *Machwate, S., Bendaoud, R., Henze, J., Berrada, K., & Burgos, D. (2021). Virtual exchange to develop cultural, language, and digital competencies. Sustainability, 13(11), 5926. https://www. mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/11/5926. Ministère de l’Économie, des Finances et de la Réforme de l’Administration. (2021). Le Maroc sur la voie de la transition numérique: Enjeux, risques et opportunités. https://acortar.link/LhNdIz. Moher, D. L., & Tetzlaff, A. J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med, 6(6). Morte-Nadal, T., & Esteban-Navarro, M. A. (2022). Digital competences for improving digital inclusion in e-Government services: A mixed-methods systematic review protocol. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211070935. *Moundy, K., Chafiq, N., & Talbi, M. (2021). Comparative analysis of student engagement in digital textbook use during quarantine. Education in Science, 11(7), 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/edu csci11070352. *Nejjari, A., & Bakkali, I. (2017). L’usage des TIC à l’école marocaine: état des lieux et perspectives. Hermès, La Revue, 78, 55–61. https://doi.org/10.3917/herm.078.0055. *Ouahbi, I., Darhmaoui, H., & Kaddari, F. (2022). Visual block-based programming for ICT training of prospective teachers in Morocco. International Journal of Modern Education & Computer Science, 14(1), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.5815/ijmecs.2022.01.05. *Ouiam, E. & Abdelkader, E. (2022). Flipped learning method: A strengthening or contradiction of the educational governance principles? In O. Noroozi, & I. Sahin (Eds.), Studies on education, science, and technology 2022 (pp. 7–30). ISTES Organisation. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ED623088.pdf. Oukarfi, S. (2013). L’usage de l’Internet au Maroc mesure de la fracture numérique de deuxième degré. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 2(2), 118–130. Oukarfi, S., & Bercheq, A. (2020). Les déterminants socioéconomiques et géographiques de l’achat en ligne au Maroc. Revue D’économie Industrielle, 171, 139–182. https://doi.org/10.4000/rei. 9308. *Oussama, D., Malika, T., & Said, B. (2022). Importance of ICT training for new trainees in Rcetp. Specialusis Ugdymas, 1(43), 6476–6487. https://sumc.lt/index.php/se/article/view/822/637. Page, M. J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 71, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71. Reuge, N., Jenkins, R., Brossard, M., Soobrayan, B., Mizunoya, S., Ackers, J., Jones, L., & Taulo, W. G. (2021). Education response to COVID 19 pandemic, a special issue proposed by UNICEF:
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Chapter 18
Technology and the Digital Divide in Panama Moussa Boumadan , Marlegne Torres , Rusia González Valdés , and Francisco Farnum Castro
Abstract The so-called Information Society and Knowledge (SIC) recognizes ICT as the basic tool for change and adaptation, modifying practices and means of information and communication from the past that currently coexist with new tools. In Panama, it is essential and urgent to establish specific objectives for the appropriation of ICT so that society can understand, adopt, and assume the use of current information technologies to accompany the progress of society on a global level and consequently help improve the lives and well-being of the Panamanian population. It should be recognized that in the last decade, Panama has generated significant initiatives for its incorporation into the Information and Knowledge Society (SIC). Government entities have developed ICT projects, especially led by the Government Innovation Authority (AIG), which shows that the government has been actively involved in innovation and technology. On the other hand, by observing the current progress and reviewing ICT indicators, it must be acknowledged that Panama’s Digital Hub Strategy and the published results allow us to recognize the direction marked by technological advances and government investment efforts. The Panamanian population has made significant progress in the use of ICT, which allows us to observe changes in income levels, connectivity, and especially the geographic location of areas. By analyzing different social situations, parameters regarding the state of the digital divide concerning current communication tools and their uses can be visualized. Keywords Digital divide · Digital inclusion · Education · ICT · Panama M. Boumadan (B) Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. Torres · F. F. Castro Universidad de Panamá, Panama City, Panama e-mail: [email protected] F. F. Castro e-mail: [email protected] R. G. Valdés Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Ł. Tomczyk et al. (eds.), From Digital Divide to Digital Inclusion, Lecture Notes in Educational Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7645-4_18
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18.1 Introduction Panama connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean, assuming an identity as a service country and positioning itself as a strategic point for regional operations. According to OPTIC (2019), the Panama Canal serves as a passage for goods and services produced worldwide and, in addition, it is a transit zone for major international fiber optic cables, making it a strategic hub for international communications that virtually connect the entire globe. According to Castillo and Arrue (2003), Panama is a country located in the Isthmus of Panama, officially known as the Republic of Panama, with a land area of 75,517 square kilometers and a population of over four million inhabitants as of 2022. Since time immemorial, the human beings that make up the global population have gone through different stages of transformation, leading up to the Information Society in the twenty-first century. Panama has not escaped the changes that have occurred in economic structures and productive relationships, resulting in new forms of social and political organization. It generates a society in a constant state of transformation, and with each passing day, it is subjected to increasing demands for updating information systems and speed in its transmission. Currently, Panama is in urgent need and making significant efforts to incorporate the use of new technologies, which forces Panamanians to adapt to unforeseen and unexpected changes on a regular basis (Aguiar et al., 2019; AIG, 2020). This chapter will focus on access to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in relation to the digital divide, as it is a current and highly important issue for the country. According to Jordán et al. (2013), the difficulties in accessing ICT can be grouped into two central aspects: • Connectivity problems in general and in particular. • The resources available to each member of society to access them. Within and between countries, differences arise due to multiple causes, such as levels of education, geographic location (which often results in varying levels of connectivity), and particularly the income disparities among members of society. All the factors mentioned, among others, are central elements that contribute to the digital divide. In the case of Panama, this study focuses on the various aspects that generate the digital divide within its population.
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18.1.1 Digital Divide and Inclusion in Panama: Forms (Types) of Digital Skills Development in the Last Two Decades 18.1.1.1
Challenges for Reducing the Digital Divide in Panama
According to Mendoza and Caldera (2014), conceptually, a digital divide is present when there are differences in opportunities between individuals or groups of populations who have access to ICT and those who do not. In the region of Latin America and the Caribbean, a diagnostic study was conducted in 2003 regarding the development of ICT, which was referred to as the digital divide. Villatoro and Silva (2005) defined it as the gap or space that separates individuals or groups who cannot access and benefit from ICT from those who have facilities to access them. Mendoza and Caldera (2014) also point out that the digital divide can be described as an asymmetry between different regions of the planet, based on classifications such as developed, underdeveloped, or developing areas. It can also be differentiated within a region or country based on factors such as age, gender, social sectors, or other aspects that are considered in the analysis. Currently, Panama is facing the challenge of creating a complex and highly competitive global economic environment. It is imperative to implement public policies to advance modernization and drive economic transformation in society, promoting production, the creation of new qualified job opportunities, and competition to achieve wealth and well-being, leading to a just and balanced society. ICT has been identified by the Information Society and Knowledge (ISK) as the main tool for modernizing and transforming Panamanian society. The country is at a critical moment where it is necessary to create and establish strategies for the appropriation of these technologies. To achieve a politically and socially balanced society, public institutions need to create environments aligned with this objective through the establishment of strategies and goals that guide the achievement of such an end. Panama invests in various types of technological infrastructure development, the use of interoperability platforms, regulatory frameworks, and organizational aspects aimed at increasing the quality of services for citizens and achieving their technical capabilities and sustainability. According to the National Authority for Government Innovation (2020), through its Digital Agenda 2021 report, Panama has achieved milestones such as increased economic development based on knowledge, promoting the use of ICT for the country’s productive development, and driving the generation of high-value-added knowledge-based products. It also fosters the ICT industry and digital content production and their use by Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). Regarding education, efforts are being made to stimulate the use of ICT by providing training on their management and application, promoting content production, and enabling higher-quality evaluation and monitoring of results.
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Panama is working on international articulation to consolidate the country’s integration into the regional and international context, promoting agreements on the necessary regulatory, normative, and standards frameworks for electronic information exchange. Specifically, efforts are being made to bring communication and internet access to remote and hard-to-reach communities through fiber optics. Infrastructure for mobile cellular telephony is being installed in rural communities. Technological and organizational upgrades of the public administration are being pursued, rationalizing, and focusing its resources on electronic services. The logistics sector is one of the country’s main economic segments, thanks to its strategic position and factors such as the efficient management of the Panama Canal, the establishment of different air, sea, and rail hubs, and the dominance in ship management. In this sense, Panama Hubs Digital is a strategic proposal to advance the development of ICT in a way that positions the country as a crucial epicenter and starting point for international digital innovation. To achieve this objective, it is essential to establish concerted efforts across multiple disciplines that prioritize the development of human resources trained and oriented toward the establishment of technology-based business incubators. To narrow the inequality gap, Panama is making efforts to implement plans that introduce the entire population to the knowledge and understanding of digital technology, focusing on three fundamental aspects: • Communication: Promoting effective communication channels that allow access to information and facilitate the exchange of ideas and knowledge. • Connectivity and Internet for All: Ensuring universal access to affordable and reliable internet services, particularly for vulnerable sectors of the population, to bridge the digital divide. • Adequate Use of Digital Tools: Promoting digital literacy and providing training and resources to enable individuals to effectively utilize digital technology. Panama has a legal framework that supports and encourages the expansion of ICT, as well as multimedia channels and virtual systems. It also emphasizes the continuous training of public administration officials. Some of the legal instruments that exist in Panama to support these efforts include: • Ley 65 de 30 de octubre de 2009, “Que Crea La Autoridad Nacional para la Innovación Gubernamental”. • Resolución No. 42 de 07 de enero, 2011, publicado en Gaceta Oficial No. 26697, “Por la cual se aprueban los Estándares para la Estructura, Dominio y Uso del correo electrónico del Gobierno” o vigente • Resolución No. 54 de 01 de marzo, 2011, publicado en Gaceta Oficial No. 26737-C, “Por la cual se aprueban los Estándares de Gobierno para Cableado Estructurado” o vigente.
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• Ley 83 de 9 de noviembre de 2012, “Que regula el Uso de Medios Electrónicos para los Trámites Gubernamentales y modifica la Ley 65 de 2009, que Crea la Autoridad Nacional para la Innovación Gubernamental”. • Ley 144 que obliga el uso de medios electrónicos para trámites gubernamentales y una Agenda Digital. 18.1.1.2
Formation of Digital Competences in the Last Two Decades
ICT has been identified by the Information Society and Knowledge (ISK) as the main tool for modernizing and transforming (García Aguilera & Aguilar Cuenca, 2022), mainly in Panamanian society. Esteve and Cervera (2012) define digital competence as a combination of knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes to access, analyze, evaluate, critically reflect, create, and act in four different areas or literacies: technological, informational, multimedia, and communicative. It is commonly understood that digital competences encompass a variety of elements that enable individuals to handle digital devices, navigate and utilize information networks, share and develop digital content, solve problems, and contribute to effective and creative learning processes and group work. Patiño et al. (2021), in the Report on the main indicators of digital technology adoption within the framework of the Digital Agenda for Latin America and the Caribbean, classified ICT Competences as follows Table 18.1. After analyzing the above information, it can be concluded that digital skills, both basic and intermediate, and advanced, remain a challenge for Panama. According to Patiño et al. (2021), in the region,