Forest Science: Sustainable Processes and Wood Products (Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes) 9819928451, 9789819928453

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Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes

Elias Costa de Souza Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu   Editors

Forest Science Sustainable Processes and Wood Products

Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes Series Editor Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Head of Sustainability - SgT Group and API, Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Indexed by Scopus This series aims to broadly cover all the aspects related to environmental assessment of products, development of environmental and ecological indicators and eco-design of various products and processes. Below are the areas fall under the aims and scope of this series, but not limited to: Environmental Life Cycle Assessment; Social Life Cycle Assessment; Organizational and Product Carbon Footprints; Ecological, Energy and Water Footprints; Life cycle costing; Environmental and sustainable indicators; Environmental impact assessment methods and tools; Eco-design (sustainable design) aspects and tools; Biodegradation studies; Recycling; Solid waste management; Environmental and social audits; Green Purchasing and tools; Product environmental footprints; Environmental management standards and regulations; Eco-labels; Green Claims and green washing; Assessment of sustainability aspects.

Elias Costa de Souza · Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editors

Forest Science Sustainable Processes and Wood Products

Editors Elias Costa de Souza Federal University of the South and Southeast of Pará São Félix do Xingu, Brazil

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Green Story Inc. Toronto, Canada

ISSN 2345-7651 ISSN 2345-766X (electronic) Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes ISBN 978-981-99-2845-3 ISBN 978-981-99-2846-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Contents

Perspectives and Challenges of World Charcoal Production in Technological, Social, and Climate Change Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck Cupertino, Álison Moreira da Silva, Tayná Rebonato Oliveira, Marina Passos de Souza, Fabíola Martins Delatorre, Luis Filipe Cabral Cezario, João Gilberto Meza Ucella Filho, Gabriela Aguiar Amorim, Elias Costa de Souza, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior Wood-Based Materials for Sustainable Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ivana Amorim Dias, Rosinaldo Rabelo Aparício, Izabelli Cristiani Barcelar Zakaluk, Tawani Lorena Naide, Lincoln Audrew Cordeiro, Débora Caroline Defensor Benedito, and Pedro Henrique González de Cademartori The Volumetric Sustainability of Timber-Based Tropical Forest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caio de Oliveira Loconte Insights About the Use of Wood for the Generation of Clean and Sustainable Energy in Thermoelectric Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Álison Moreira da Silva, Fabíola Martins Delatorre, Miquéias de Souza Reis, Fernanda Aparecida Nazário de Carvalho, Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Elias Costa de Souza, Artur Queiroz Lana, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck Cupertino, José Otávio Brito, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior

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Bamboo-Based Medium Density Particleboards: Studying the Different Compositions of the Core Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Mário Vanoli Scatolino, Danillo Wisky Silva, Joabel Raabe, Lourival Marin Mendes, Marina Resende Ribeiro de Oliveira, Francisco Tarcisio Alves Júnior, and Gustavo Henrique Denzin Tonoli

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Potential of Non-wood Fibers as Sustainable Reinforcements for Polymeric Composites—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Edgley Alves de Oliveira Paula, Rafael Rodolfo de Melo, Talita Dantas Pedrosa, Felipe Bento de Albuquerque, Fernanda Monique da Silva, and Alexandre Santos Pimenta Forest-Based Polymeric Biocomposites: Current Development, Challenges, and Emerging Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Fabíola Martins Delatorre, Álison Moreira da Silva, Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck Cupertino, Bruna da Silva Cruz, Marina Passos de Souza, Tayná Rebonato Oliveira, Luis Filipe Cabral Cezário, João Gilberto Meza-Ucella Filho, Elias Costa de Souza, Michel Picanço Oliveira, Josinaldo de Oliveira Dias, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior Changes in Land Use and Occupation and Their Implications for the Production Chain of Non-forest Timber Products from Babassu (Attalea speciosa) in the Cocais Region, Maranhão State, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Bruno Araújo Corrêa, Alexandre Santos Pimenta, Rafael Rodolfo de Melo, Pedro Nicó de Medeiros Neto, and Tatiane Kelly Barbosa de Azevedo Brazilian Resin Method: Handmade, Sustainable and Profitable . . . . . . . 183 Samara Lazarotto, Luana Candaten, and Rafaelo Balbinot Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources in Brazilian Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Ageu da Silva Monteiro Freire, Fernanda Moura Fonseca Lucas, Francival Cardoso Félix, Kyvia Pontes Teixeira das Chagas, and Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira

About the Editors

Dr. Elias Costa de Souza is Assistant Professor at the Federal University of the South and Southeast of Pará (UNIFESSPA), based in São Félix do Xingu, in the Brazilian Amazon. He is Forestry Engineer, Master in Forestry Sciences, who received his PhD from the University of São Paulo, in the area of Forest Resources, with emphasis on Forest Energy Resources. Currently, he develops research in the area of sustainability of natural resources, working with timber and non-timber forest products. His research is mainly focused on the development of products with industrial applications using natural resources. Dr. Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu is currently the Chief Sustainability Officer at Green Story Inc, Canada, based out of Hong Kong. He earned his PhD from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and is a renowned expert in the areas of environmental sustainability in textiles and clothing supply chain, product life cycle assessment (LCA) and product carbon footprint assessment (PCF) in various industrial sectors. He has five years of industrial experience in textile manufacturing, research and development and textile testing and over a decade’s of experience in life cycle assessment (LCA), carbon and ecological footprints assessment of various consumer products. He has published more than 100 research publications, written numerous book chapters and authored/edited over 150 books in the areas of carbon footprint, recycling, environmental assessment, life cycle assessment and environmental sustainability.

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Perspectives and Challenges of World Charcoal Production in Technological, Social, and Climate Change Fields Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck Cupertino, Álison Moreira da Silva, Tayná Rebonato Oliveira, Marina Passos de Souza, Fabíola Martins Delatorre, Luis Filipe Cabral Cezario, João Gilberto Meza Ucella Filho, Gabriela Aguiar Amorim, Elias Costa de Souza, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior

Abstract Charcoal is the main renewable fuel used in the world, and its production and consumption date back to the beginnings of society. Currently, it is estimated that one-third of the world’s population depends on biomass as a primary energy source, A. K. S. Pereira (B) · Á. M. da Silva · E. C. de Souza Departament of Forests Sciences, University of São Paulo, “Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture (USP/ESALQ), Av. Pádua Dias, 11, Piracicaba, São Paulo 13418-900, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] Á. M. da Silva e-mail: [email protected] E. C. de Souza e-mail: [email protected] G. F. M. Cupertino · T. R. Oliveira · M. P. de Souza · F. M. Delatorre · L. F. C. Cezario · J. G. M. Ucella Filho · G. A. Amorim · A. F. Dias Júnior Department of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES). Av. Governador Lindemberg, Jerônimo Monteiro, Espírito Santo 316, 29550-000, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] T. R. Oliveira e-mail: [email protected] M. P. de Souza e-mail: [email protected] F. M. Delatorre e-mail: [email protected] L. F. C. Cezario e-mail: [email protected] J. G. M. Ucella Filho e-mail: [email protected] G. A. Amorim e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_1

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making discussions about the use of charcoal a recurring topic. Decades have passed and the production of this fuel has reached all homes, mainly in developing countries, through varied production processes and with different technological levels. In this context of importance, this chapter has as its main question: “How was charcoal production characterized in the past and how is it today, in technological, social, and environmental aspects?”. Climate change and countries’ energy security are topics that have been discussed for a long time and need to be increasingly expanded, either through scientific publications or through classes and lectures to local and scientific communities. However, some questions are repeated in debates but still do not bring in-depth answers, such as the impacts caused by the use of charcoal in domestic environments and the main challenges of the sector to present technological innovations. Thus, with this chapter, we want to bring a historical retrospective about the production and use of charcoal in the world and show how this sector has behaved in terms of social and environmental aspects. From this, we will be able to provide important contributions for the deepening of debates involving the production and consumption of charcoal in the world, as well as a scientific basis for pointing out the main innovations acquired so far and the bottlenecks that permeate the technological advancement of the sector. Keywords Renewable energy · Thermochemical process · Energy security · Sustainability · Technological innovation

1 Introduction What is charcoal? Some define it as a highly porous, soft, and black solid material resulting from heating materials containing carbon and removing water and other volatile constituents from biomass [2]. It is also characterized as an amorphous carbon in the form of highly porous microcrystalline graphite [91]. In practice, there are many terms used to refer to this product, but there are substantial differences, for instance: “Coal” refers to the material characterized as a sedimentary rock, the result of heat and pressure on organic sediments, and is also a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems mined from the ground [105]; “biocarbon” is a generic term used in the literature to refer to a porous, carbon-rich solid, produced through the thermal decomposition of biomass [75, 121]; “biochar” refers to stable, carbon-rich solid material obtained through thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-restricted environment, whose application is primarily intended for soil environmental remediation [17, 68]; and “charcoal” is used to describe coal produced by “slow pyrolysis” or “carbonization” when the intended use is as a fuel or as a thermo-reducing agent in the steel industry [84]. E. C. de Souza Department of Technology and Natural Resources (DTRN), State University of Pará (UEPA), Campus VI, Highway PA-125, Angelim, Paragominas 68625-000, Brazil

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Charcoal has advantages as fuel compared to the original raw material (biomass), such as higher calorific value and ease of storage [8], presenting secular use as an energy input. However, despite decades of production, it has a process considered archaic, using low-efficiency technologies without strict control of important variables such as temperature, with little discrimination of the quality of the raw material and low technification regarding the cooling process of the kilns [18, 66, 86]. These factors contribute to the large generation of air pollutants, such as particulate matter, black carbon, and sulfur dioxide [54], further aggravating climate change through gas emissions. In developed countries, the application of technologies such as burners, condensers, and filters helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to circumvent this problem. Even so, in countries with developing economies, these technologies are not used [5, 39], demonstrating that financial resources are essential when it comes to the environmental efficiency of charcoal. About a third of the world’s population still depends on the use of firewood and charcoal for cooking and heating, in addition to small businesses that use these fuels as their primary sources of energy for purposes such as pottery, and bakery, and processing herbs and teas [41, 57, 74]. In emerging countries, such as Nigeria and Thailand, the use of charcoal for cooking, heating, and lighting is a necessity, given that the cost of acquiring this fuel is low, often done in an exploratory way, and associated with low family income [4, 51]. In Brazil, the country with the most significant production of charcoal in the world, the steel sector is its primary consumer, using charcoal as a substitute for coal as a raw material to produce pig iron [57]. On the other hand, in the USA, charcoal is widely used in the preparation of gourmet dishes, such as dirty steak, in which the meat is cooked over charcoal embers [120]. This reality shows that, although contemporary energy planning indicates that the demand for charcoal as a fuel is associated with the lack of access to modern energy alternatives, the basis of the notion of “energy poverty”, the consumption of charcoal is not exclusive to regions with deficiencies in access to electricity [47, 83]. The charcoal production process used by ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Persians, and Chinese remains almost unchanged today [116], especially in rural communities and in developing countries, whose technologies are very similar to those used in the last century. This reality strongly contributes to climate change, promoting substantial emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere and directly affecting people’s health through exposure to harmful components such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and particulate matter. In the short and long term, this exposure to domestic pollution promotes respiratory diseases that can cause various complications and lead to death [51, 60, 65, 108, 114]. Despite that, advances in the charcoal production sector have encompassed the use of pyrometers to measure the temperature of kilns, recovery circuits, and burning of gases emitted during the carbonization of wood [18, 36, 45]. Charcoal produced efficiently and sustainably, with optimized resource management and technologies, significantly contributes to mitigating climate change and harmful effects on human health. However, there are still many challenges to be overcome. Thus, this chapter aims to support debates and discussions about the past and future of using this very relevant fuel for society. For this, this chapter brings a historical retrospective on the production and use of

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charcoal in the world, demonstrating its aspects and behaviors in the social and environmental spheres, in the context of climate change, including the main advances in industry and research.

2 The Charcoal Production Process in the Global Context The carbonization of wood to obtain charcoal has existed since the earliest records of humanity. Charcoal was used to paint caves around 38,000 years ago. The Romans produced charcoal for melting iron around 2000 years ago [52]. Some records show that China used charcoal for medical purposes around 2000 years ago [24] and for melting iron around 300 BCE [119]. In Japan, coal production dated back to 12,000 BCE [95] and was the primary fuel source for smelting copper, tin, bronze, silver, and iron by 1000 BCE [27]. In the USA, charcoal production dates from colonial times to part of the twentieth century, especially for iron processing [87]. Indigenous peoples in Brazil’s Amazon basin have been using charcoal to improve soil quality for over 1000 years, known as “Terra Preta” [48]. Charcoal is generated from the incomplete combustion of biomass, in the absence or controlled presence of oxygen. The thermal degradation of the main components of wood (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) occurs from a set of reactions that occur in parallel, consecutively, and competitively. Several models describe the carbonization of wood, but they generally converge in four stages. The first stage is wood drying, which occurs at temperatures between 100 and 200 °C. Subsequently, at temperatures between 200 and 275 °C, roasting occurs. The third stage is characterized by carbonization, with temperatures between 275 and 400 °C, and the fourth is carbon fixation, with temperatures between 400 and 500 °C [58, 96, 97]. The rate of degradation, as well as the quality of the charcoal generated, depends mainly on the carbonization temperature, the heating rate of the wood, the pressure, the reactor (furnace) configuration, and the raw material used. Despite years of activities, production is currently still developing in technology. The carbonization process used by ancient civilizations remains practically unchanged, with systems of low-energy efficiency, reaching more than 50% loss of energy content of the biomass [116]. In practice, the kilns do not perform as planned, causing changes to the charcoal. In countries like Brazil, where charcoal is part of a large production chain, investments in technologies that improve aspects related to energy efficiency and process control are encouraged. However, development requires significant capital, limiting it to large companies. About 80% of all coal produced in the country comes from low-tech furnaces [116]. More efficient, low-cost kilns with smoke burners are being developed aimed at small producers, inserting them competitively into the market. The “hot tail” kilns are the main ones used in the carbonization process, having low efficiency in the percentage of mass produced (25–30%) [10, 88]. In addition, other low-income countries that consume charcoal also use inefficient technologies during their production process [41, 96]. Trench-type kilns consist of opening a

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trench in the ground that is later filled with wood and then covered again with earth, to start the process of carbonization of the wood. In this method, the main problem, in addition to contamination of the charcoal produced by the soil, is the difficulty in controlling the circulation of gases through the ditch. This causes a large part of the wood to be lost, leaving only the ashes, or they may contain large amounts of firewood (semi-carbonized wood) [40, 70]. Mound kilns have a circular base with the presence of a central pole. In sequence, wood piles are placed vertically around this central post, while small logs are placed in the gaps. After completing this stage of wood allocation, the central post is removed, making room for a chimney and then the external side is covered with plant material (straw, grass, leaves) and clay mortar. The material is ignited through the chimney opening, requiring daily supervision of carbonization. After the process is completed, the kilns are coated with a new layer of earth to help cool the material [99]. Masonry kilns are those made of clay bricks, the most common being: “hot tail”, surface kiln, rectangular masonry kiln, slope kiln, Missouri kiln, and Argentine kiln. The “hot tail” type kiln has clay bricks and mortar as its main material. These kilns do not have a chimney; instead, they have holes along their structure to control the inlet and outlet of oxygen. Each kiln can produce around 72 tons of charcoal annually and has a lifespan of 10 years [10, 79]. Slope kilns are widely used for charcoal production in Brazil. This furnace is considered low cost during its construction process, due to the use of part of slopes. In addition, these thick walls made from the slopes help to reduce heat loss from the kiln. Generally, the process control of these kilns is done through the color of the smoke expelled during the carbonization of the wood, and as the main disadvantage of this system, we can mention the time-consuming process of cooling the material [70, 97]. Rectangular kilns are commonly used in the production of charcoal for steelmaking purposes, where the mechanization of operations becomes possible. The average yield of these furnaces increased in mass, due to the technology used to control the process, which is carried out through a combustion chamber [29, 30]. An improvement adaptation of the rectangular kilns is the FAP 2000 kiln, considered the largest carbonization kiln in the world, intended for producing charcoal. The efficiency of the kilns in production is due to the increase in productivity, in addition to having a gas burner, thus contributing to the reduction of gas emissions into the atmosphere. However, due to the larger size of the kiln and the greater amount of material being carbonized, it is common for the product to have quality with higher rates of variations, given the difficulty in monitoring the kilns [96]. In addition to the kilns described above, there are other technologies related to kilns to produce charcoal, which are characterized by metal kilns. Among them, we can list the container kilns, Magnien, and DPC kilns. In container kiln, the gases are burned to create steam that will be used to drive the turbine, thus generating electricity, and the gases that are exhausted are used in the pre-drying of the wood, allowing for faster carbonization and greater mass yield [10]. Magnien-type kilns are made of metal and bricks for better thermal insulation. They are considered partial combustion kilns, and, around the kiln, there are eight holes, for controlling the inlet

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and outlet of oxygen [97]. DPC kilns are equipped with portable carbon steel plates that serve as aids in the drying process of the material. The main advantages of these kilns are the production of more homogeneous charcoal and higher levels in terms of gravimetric yield [70, 96, 116]. During the charcoal production process, the techniques used must analyze not only the know-how (process knowledge) but also other factors that aim to satisfy human needs in an economically viable way, to optimize their production processes, in addition to meeting other characteristics such as sustainability, encompassing social, environmental, and economic aspects [123]. The charcoal production process depends on the type of kiln to be used. However, the traditional nine stages are identified in most kilns [96]. The first stage is characterized by the acquisition of wood. The wood can be acquired from forests planted by the producer, third parties, or from sustainable forest management, with duly certified native wood [96]. The second stage takes place after harvesting. The wood undergoes an open-air drying process for approximately 120 days [96]. Drying is necessary because wood moisture is a fundamental variable influencing yield and quality of the generated charcoal [101]. At this stage, the logs are cut into sizes that vary according to the size of the kiln used. In the third stage, the logs are placed inside the kiln, always vertically, with those of larger diameter in the center of the kiln [15], where the temperatures are higher, since the heat needs to reach the center of the piece. After adjusting the pieces, the fourth stage is to heat the kiln [96]. Heating can be carried out in the kiln itself, with ignition starting at the top, or in an external chamber, with the external combustion of wood and heat dissipation by the flow of hot gases generated [15]. In both cases, all the inlet and outlet openings of the furnace must remain open, so that smoke can be exhausted, and oxygen can enter [96]. The dynamics of opening and closing gaps in the furnace directly influence the temperature and heating rate of the process, influencing the quality of the generated charcoal. When starting the burning process, the fifth stage begins, corresponding to the drying of the wood. The permanence time in this stage will depend on the moisture found in the wood. The higher the initial moisture content of the wood, the longer the dewatering time [96]. After the water evaporates, the thermal degradation of the material to be carbonized occurs. Then, the sixth stage of the process begins: carbonization of the wood. The main form of control of the carbonization process is empirical most of the time, based on the color of the smoke that leaves the kiln [96]. Initially, the smoke has a whitish color, indicating the evaporation of the water present in the wood. Once the smoke darkens, the ignition hole is sealed. The kiln has several rows of holes, through which the smoke starts to emerge. As the smoke becomes bluish, meaning that carbonization is occurring in that row, the holes in the row are sealed, causing carbonization to be conducted to the lower region. After all the holes are sealed, with the reduction of the smoke level, it is kept at the desired carbonization temperature, and later, the cooling process begins [15, 96], constituting the seventh stage. As it occurs naturally, it can last for several days. The “barrela” method is the most used for cooling in traditional kilns, in which a mixture of clay

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and water is applied to the wall of the kilns [15, 96]. After cooling, the eighth stage consists of unloading the furnace, and, finally, the charcoal is packaged and marketed. At all stages, material is lost in the form of fines. Considered residues of carbonization, this material can reach 30% of the total production of charcoal, mainly because of the low density and high friability of this fuel. In general, the characteristics of the wood, the control of the carbonization process, and the technology used directly influence the yield and quality of the charcoal produced.

3 Charcoal in the Social Context and Climate Change Globally, more people are using solid biomass fuels, such as firewood and charcoal, than at any other time in human history. The use of these materials dates back centuries. The importance of using this material was such that even with the advancement over the years and the discovery of new energy sources, along with kerosene, it remains the primary source of energy generation, food cooking, and heating for about 3 billion people around the world [106]. Charcoal as a primary energy source is concentrated in less developed countries. This is not surprising given that data from the World Health Organization (WHO) show that more than half of all households living in low-income countries rely on energy from solid fuels to meet their daily cooking needs [118]. Cooking and heating every day with solid fuels have been linked to low household income [13, 51]. However, it is worth mentioning that the use of charcoal is not exclusive to underdeveloped and “poorer” countries. Advanced technologies for converting this material into energy are highly employed in developed countries, for instance of countries in Europe [47, 83]. It is estimated that around 65 million direct heating appliances (such as fireplaces, stoves, and kilns) and 8 million indirect heating appliances (such as boilers) use charcoal as a power source on the European continent. In addition to using, it for heating in cold countries, a small portion of the population, in this case with a better social status, also uses charcoal in a more “gourmet” way of cooking, such as in barbecues, pizzerias, and other dishes considered valued by the fuel, such as the “dirty steak” made with the food directly over the charcoal embers. Cultural differences define a variety of charcoal uses in the domestic context. In Brazil, for example, the use of firewood and charcoal varies according to the climatic, socioeconomic, and cultural characteristics of its geographic regions [47], and, in the domestic context, charcoal is commonly used in the traditional Brazilian barbecue. There are concerns about the use of charcoal and other energy sources from biomass. Several studies correlate exposure to biomass smoke, such as firewood and charcoal, with respiratory diseases that can cause various complications and death [43, 71, 78, 81, 117]. What has raised concern about the use of these materials is incomplete burning, which generates smoke with large amounts of pollutants. The combustion of charcoal in domestic environments, whether in stoves, fireplaces, or low-energy heaters, is considered one of the leading causes of air pollution in homes

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[50, 111]. The use problem related to cooking food is not due to the material used but the designed shape of the stove or combustion equipment. Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and particulate matter (PM) were the gases that most appeared when evaluating emissions from biomass combustion. The daily use of charcoal is associated, in most cases, with women and children, who usually perform domestic duties more frequently, being responsible for running the household. This is a worrying reality, as this exposure brings several dangers to human health because these fuels and technologies produce high levels of domestic air pollution, including soot particles, which can penetrate the lungs [49]. Some references indicate that prolonged exposure to air pollutants generated by biomass (as either charcoal or firewood) as solid fuel in domestic environments increases the risk of developing chronic respiratory diseases [53, 59, 60, 108, 113]. In closed environments and with poor ventilation, this exposure can reach 100 times more than the acceptable level, causing an even greater risk to human health [81]. Air quality directly interferes with respiratory health due to the large area of contact between the environment and the surface of the respiratory system [72]. There is evidence linking indoor emissions to the development of several diseases that include respiratory tract infections, exacerbations of inflammatory lung conditions, cardiac events, stroke, eye disease, tuberculosis, and even cancer [73, 76, 80, 85]. Studies report that acute respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer are associated with household charcoal use, with children and women being most affected by these pollutants [28, 107, 112]. The development of these diseases is caused by airborne particulate matter (PM) originating from the burning of biomass, which is one of the six pollutants monitored by the United States Environmental Protection Agency—EPA [6]. Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies PM as a significant air pollution component and a human carcinogen [20]. The situation is worrying. According to WHO [118], about 4.3 million premature deaths worldwide were due to exposure to PAHs, which are also responsible for about 4% of the global burden of disease [63]. People with chronic diseases show a higher risk (2.7 times) of developing other diseases than the healthy population, which puts the lives of these populations at imminent risk in the event of contact with viruses or bacteria [44]. Therefore, a person under direct exposure to high concentrations of pollutants is more likely to develop severe respiratory problems and risk of any infectious disease [35]. Thus, we know that biomass, in general, can increase levels of air pollution in closed environments, making people who use these spaces extremely vulnerable to respiratory infections. Moreover, the social impacts go far beyond that. A study conducted in the city of New Taipei, Taiwan, investigated the use of charcoal as a mechanism for suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning [22]. Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea have lost 50,000 lives in 11 years from charcoal poisoning [21]. The situation is worrying. In the 1990s, charcoal suicides accounted for about 1% of all suicides in these countries. While in the 2000s, there was a significant increase, particularly in Singapore (about 5%) and Taiwan (about 25%) [21]. Overall, the increase in suicide by burning charcoal was more pronounced in urban areas than in rural areas, attributed

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to the more accessible access to charcoal for barbecue in urban areas [23]. Within this context, the city of Taiwan initiated a policy restricting charcoal for barbecue to prevent suicides with this material [11]. To circumvent the problems involving the emissions of gases harmful to human health, alternatives that aim to develop new technologies for the generation of safer charcoal, which would release a reduced concentration of carbon monoxide when burned, are being taken into consideration [64]. Furthermore, with growing concerns about the quality of solid fuels such as charcoal and the effect on the quality of flue gases and, eventually, human health and air pollution, some countries have adopted quality standard measures for charcoal. Thus, knowing the efficiency of charcoal in terms of energy generation, researchers from all over the world have joined forces around the possibility of generating kilns, stoves, and fireplaces with greater capacity to filter these gases in order to mitigate the emissions that can pose a risk to human health. In addition, there is political pressure on the use of clean domestic power generation systems, as it is necessary to meet Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7 of “universal access to modern, reliable, and affordable energy services” [55]. SDG 7 promotes efforts to switch to cleaner fuels as well as cleaner-burning stoves. It should also be noted that there are numerous and varied synergies linked to SDG 7, such as SDG 3, which aims to “ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”, as well as SDG 13, “take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts” [46, 77]. Charcoal produced efficiently and sustainably, with resource management and optimized technologies, becomes a low emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG), which significantly contributes to climate change mitigation. This fact has made charcoal a good product. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shows that much still needs to be done to control climate change [56]. This reality leads to even more studies on using this material as an energy generator to reduce the demand for fossil fuels. The main aspects of the charcoal production chain to make it sustainable are the source of origin of its raw material, production parameters, type of transport, commercialization, and use of charcoal. The charcoal production chain is generally considered to be low carbon and resource-efficient, with an estimated emission of 1–2.4 Gt of CO2 per year [41], unlike inefficient technologies that can emit up to 9 kg of CO2 per kg of charcoal produced [41]. Promoting production sustainability by the charcoal sectors is vital to reducing GHG emissions along its chain since they play an essential role in low carbon production. Yes, this material has enormous potential for sustainability and mitigation of GHG emissions. Strategies such as raw materials of sustainable origin and better management of traditional kilns to improve efficiency and reduce consumption of fossil fuels in transport can be adopted to promote the sustainability of charcoal production.

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4 Advances in Industry and Research There is still a recent and growing interest in the world focused on the use of charcoal applied to soil correction and carbon sequestration in order to mitigate the action of climate change [96, 97]. Based on this, studies with charcoal are mainly aimed at optimizing its production, as well as techniques that can mitigate the impacts of production and use of charcoal on the environment and human health. Recent improvements in knowledge on the production and properties of charcoal, regarding its use as a renewable fuel, reducer, adsorbent, and soil corrector are reported by Antal and Grønli [8]. Considering the importance of charcoal in the world, it is natural that new technologies aimed at carbonization and new interests in using charcoal have emerged over the years. To improve the quality and yield of charcoal, it is necessary to invest in studies continuously and systemically on carbonization kilns and control the process [96, 97]. The choice of raw material for charcoal production is one of the most important parameters to obtaining a product with acceptable qualities for commercialization and application in industries and domestic use. According to Kabir et al. [61], woods with high density are the most desirable raw materials for making charcoal, due to the high flammability and high resistance of the material. However, dense woods are mostly obtained from native species in irregular shapes. Thus, the need to reduce the suppression of native species has led research to advance to obtain alternative sources of biomass to produce charcoal. Species of the genus Eucalyptus stand out as a commercial alternative to produce charcoal, because their wood has physical and energy properties necessary for the development of a quality product [31, 103]. Associated with this, parameters such as heartwood and sapwood ratio, age of individuals, spacing between trees, impact of biomass moisture, among others, are investigated to improve the charcoal characteristics of different Eucalyptus species [16, 19, 89, 90, 93]. The choice of biomass for charcoal production is still an existing gap in this niche, so there is a need for further research that can study potential biomass for charcoal production as well as its respective properties that can affect the quality of the product. The heating rate during biomass carbonization determines the amount of products generated during the process, as well as the quality of the charcoal. Higher heating rates result in a reduction in charcoal yield and quality, while slower rates favor charcoal yield and improve product characteristics, as it directly influences the design of structural elements [92, 104]. In addition to this parameter, the pyrolysis temperature is also responsible for impacting the energetic and physical–mechanical properties of charcoal. [33], investigating how the pyrolysis temperatures of 450, 550, 650, 750, 850, and 950 °C affect the properties of Eucalyptus saligna charcoal, found that as the temperature increases, the yield and calorific value of the product decrease, emphasizing that charcoal intended for steelmaking and barbecue should be produced up to a pyrolysis temperature close to 600 °C since density, mechanical strength, calorific value, and hygroscopicity show variable trends in pyrolysis from 650 °C. Research focused on evaluating the effects of these parameters during the

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biomass carbonization process has contributed and is still contributing to technological innovations and optimization of charcoal production intended mainly for the steel and barbecue industries. Regarding the perspective of energy loss, the carbonization process used in antiquity, whether by Macedonian, Persian, Chinese or Egyptian peoples, is similar to that of current times, reaching a loss greater than 50% of the energy content of biomass [116]. The gravimetric yield of charcoal generally reaches up to 25%, the time of each operating cycle is longer than 7 days, and less than 50% of the biomass is converted into charcoal, with most of the remainder discarded material in some way [116]. Assuming that the lower the yield of a process, the greater the amount of raw to be used in it, the low efficiency in the production of charcoal becomes a contributor to the misuse and excessive use of wood, which increases deforestation and intensifies the effects of climate change. Charcoal is produced in carbonization kilns, which use the so-called discontinuous (or “batch”), “semi-continuous”, or “continuous” processes. Although continuous and semi-continuous systems generally result in higher yields and productivity, discontinuous systems are mainly applied in the more traditional production of charcoal [96, 97]. The continuous and semi-continuous processes use gas burners to generate heat and feed a battery of kilns, which enables the drying and heating of the raw material, saves fuel, reduces the emission of gases, and reduces the demand for labor [96, 97]. Among the continuous carbonization technologies, retorting is the standard method of industrial coal production in western countries. It has an efficiency of 35–40% compared to earth kilns, an ancient technology that dates back to the Middle Ages but is still widely used today. In addition, retort furnaces have a much shorter run time (about 12 h plus 12 h of cool down) (Adam 2009). This kiln also reduces air pollution by up to 75% by partially burning the smoke released during the carbonization process. However, retorting is a technology with a high investment cost, which is not viable for traditional charcoal makers (Adam 2009) [96, 97]. On the other hand, Carboval is a continuous carbonization reactor responsible for supplying coal to the blast furnace (steel mill), recycling wood biomass residues, and generating carbonization gases used in the thermal plant. The charcoal produced through the Carboval system has a higher gravimetric yield. It transforms all the wood into charcoal and generates a lower production of fines; that is, it requires a smaller amount of wood for charcoal production [42]. The emission of greenhouse gases from charcoal production, estimated by Chidumayo and Gumbo [25], was approximately 71.2 million tons of carbon dioxide and 1.3 million tons of methane. Since the efficiencies of traditional methods of charcoal production vary in the range of 10–22%, Vicente et al. [114] state in a review that retort furnaces increase energy efficiency, while reducing the effects of atmospheric pollution. On the other hand, the efficiency of these kilns is lower due to the consumption of wood for the beginning of the process. Currently, there are several methods to control the carbonization process. To control this process, it is necessary to manage the internal temperature and heating rate of the kiln, which can be done by managing the flow of gases. According to

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Rodrigues and Braghini Junior [96, 97], in a patent study, the carbonization process by managing the flow of gases was controlled through the following alternatives: The kiln has a gas and vapor recirculation system; gas circuit; gasification and combustion system; the kiln has a structure for the circulation of gases; the kiln has a structure for gas circulation and gas control; the kiln has tubes for heat transfer and gas circulation; the kiln has several valves to control the air flow; and the kiln has several valves to control the flow of air and tubes for heat transfer and gas circulation. In this context, at least 60% of the patents highlight the treatment and/or reuse of gases; and among these, 48% say that the reuse of gases in the form of heat for drying and/ or heating the wood is beneficial; thus, resulting in mitigation of the environmental impact [96, 97]. In addition to issues related to the carbonization process, there is also a concern about the origin and demand of the raw material. While the demand for charcoal has growth projections in this region, the availability of woody biomass has been decreasing due to the high rate of deforestation [34]. There is a greater chance that charcoal production will be sustainable if countries dependent on this resource implement policies that explicitly and practically support sustainable production and promote incentives for landowners to maintain forests for this purpose [34]. The idea of the unsustainability of charcoal tends to be related to low-efficiency technologies, unprepared labor, inadequate forest management practices, and inappropriate cooking processes. However, before resolving these issues, it is necessary to consider charcoal within its historical, social, and environmental contexts and the power relations underlying its production technologies [14]. • Overview of research conducted with a focus on charcoal in the world Seeking to understand the progress of research over the years on techniques for obtaining and characterizing charcoal around the world, a bibliometric analysis was carried out on the subject under study and ascertained: (i) number of publications over the years; (ii) countries and institutions that do the most research on the topic under analysis; (iii) most cited articles; and (iv) keywords as indicative of the most studied topics. Scopus was used as a data source for bibliometric analysis because it is one of the largest international and multidisciplinary databases of scientific publications [109]. The keywords were defined considering the central theme of the present study. For that, the command “(TITLE (“Charcoal” OR “Charcoal production”) AND TITLE (“Pyrolysis” OR “carbonization” OR “carbonization kilns” OR “domestic charcoal” OR “characterization” OR “biomass” OR “quality”)” was used. Data collection was carried out in June 2022, then processed using the “biblioshiny” function in the “bibliometrix” package [9] of the R Core Team software (2021). A total of 580 documents were quantified, divided into research and review articles, chapters, conference papers and letters, wrote by a total of 2132 authors, 29 of which were single-authored documents and 2103 were multi-authored. The first article with a focus on charcoal was published in the year 1950, with the years 2020 and 2021 being the ones with the highest number of documents, totaling 61 and 65 manuscripts, respectively. The dissemination of research on the subject under study

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became continuous and increased from the year 1980 onwards, as can be seen in Fig. 1. In all, the published documents already add up to 10,116 citations, with the years 2020 and 2021 representing the highest numbers, 1112 and 1485, respectively. The reference average for published documents is estimated at 1.44, and the average per year of concentration is 17.44, with the most cited articles concentrated between the years 2000 and 2010. Table 1 shows the ten most cited articles. From this survey, it is clear that there is no pattern of studies among the most cited articles, as each one has a different focus of research, evidencing the complexity, versatility, and the need to define different applications of charcoal, in addition to works focused on alternative methodologies for characterizing the different parameters of charcoal. The first published article was published by Shibamoto et al. [102] focused on a study on the carbonization of Quercus wood and the relationship between wood moisture content and charcoal yields and properties, having as main observations: (i) The moisture of the wood intended for the manufacture of charcoal directly influences the yield and quality of charcoal; and (ii) the water content in the wood to produce charcoal must be between 30 and 35%. These results guided the ideal moisture content that wood should have for the manufacture of charcoal, contributing to technological advances in the sector. From this research, studies on the quality of wood of different tree species intended for the production of charcoal became increasing and necessary, aiming at the optimization of the production of this product. In all, 66 countries that have already conducted research related to the topic under study were identified (Fig. 1). Brazil, the USA, and China stand out as the territories that most contributed to studies with charcoal in the world, with a frequency of scientific production of 472, 455, and 165, respectively (Fig. 2). Brazil is considered one of the largest producers of charcoal in the world; in 2020 alone, there was a production of more than 6 thousand tons of this input, representing 8% of the entire energy

Fig. 1 Number of publications per year about charcoal. Source the authors (2022)

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Table 1 Most cited articles about charcoal Authors

Article title

Total citations

[69]

The Charcoal Vision: A Win–Win–Win Scenario for Simultaneously Producing Bioenergy, Permanently Sequestering Carbon, while Improving Soil and Water Quality

659

[122]

Characterization of aromatic compound sorptive interactions with black carbon (charcoal) assisted by graphite as a model

351

[67]

Effect of charcoal quantity on microbial biomass and activity in temperate soils

316

[62]

Microstructural evolution during charcoal carbonization by X-ray diffraction analysis

243

[98]

Characterization of charcoal adsorption sites for aromatic compounds: Insights drawn from single-solute and bi-solute competitive experiments

172

[110]

Preparation and characterization of charcoals that contain dispersed aluminum oxide as adsorbents for removal of fluoride from drinking water

157

[7]

High-yield biomass charcoal

150

[82]

Formation of Charcoal from Biomass in a Sealed Reactor

145

[38]

Evaluating levoglucosan as an indicator of biomass burning in Carajás, 143 Amazo˚nia: A comparison to the charcoal record

[32]

Carbonization ranking of selected biomass for charcoal, liquid and gaseous products

132

matrix in the country (EPE 2021) [12]. Forestry, mainly the use of species of the genus Eucalyptus, is responsible for much of the production of charcoal consumed in the country and exported. However, it is estimated that 75% of the country’s charcoal is still produced by the traditional artisanal method and half of the input used comes from native forests, mainly in the northeast region, accentuating the deforestation of the Caatinga, an exclusively Brazilian biome [26, 115]. Zhejiang University (n = 32), Federal University of Viçosa (n = 31), and University of Shanghai for Science and Technology (n = 28) stand out as the institutions that most contribute to research focused on charcoal. Both institutions are in the most influential countries in the subject under study. A total of 4879 keywords determined by the authors for indexing the articles in the databases were quantified, the most frequent terms being charcoal (n = 542), biomass (n = 189), pyrolysis (n = 131; 6%), carbonization (n = 121; 5%), wood (n = 83; 4%), adsorption (n = 69), and carbon (n = 59) (Fig. 3). The visualization of keywords contributes to a better understanding of the focus of most studies with charcoal. From this analysis, it is evident that the research is being directed mainly to the techniques of obtaining from pyrolysis and carbonization, as well as studies with different biomasses for the production of charcoal, especially from woody species and the use of charcoal as an adsorbent product. Activated

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Fig. 2 Scientific production on charcoal in the countries. Source the authors (2022)

Fig. 3 Keywords determined by the authors for indexing articles on charcoal in the databases. Source the authors (2022)

carbon, the porous form of carbon, has excellent adsorbent capacity, being widely used for the purification of drinking water, air, and gases [1, 94, 100]. This characteristic of charcoal justifies the high number of articles focused on its application as an adsorbent product. The bibliometric analysis focused on evaluating the history of research conducted with charcoal in the world evidenced the constant search to better understand the best ways of obtaining, characterizing, and applying this product. In addition, to the discovery of alternative biomasses that can be used to manufacture charcoal, given that it is a product of great economic and social interest, it is used since the beginning of time and standing out to the present day as one of the main sources of energy of the in different countries.

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5 Final Considerations Although charcoal has been widely used since the dawn of humanity, its production process is still based on the methods used by ancient civilizations, especially in lowincome communities and rural communities. However, its relevance and growing demand demonstrate that charcoal also plays a fundamental role in urban centers (the iron ore industry and cooking) not being linked only to countries that embrace energy poverty. Due to the low level of technology, exposure to polluting gases and particulate materials can cause many respiratory diseases and increase the mortality rate. Even the largest producers tend to use low-tech kilns because of cost-effectiveness or the lack of consolidation of new technologies in the market. The reality shows that economically viable technologies are lacking for most charcoal producers worldwide. Charcoal will continue to be a crucial part of global energy consumption for many decades. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage more and more studies aimed at the development of the energy sector. Such action could result from the continued formalization of charcoal as a sustainable product from forest management, the supply of quality wood for the energy sector, and the well-structured world market. Furthermore, new paths and technological innovations in the charcoal sector can be obtained through organizational and research institutions. Sustainable development, in its environmental, social, and economic aspects, requires charcoal production technologies that are viable for producers and consumers to allow greater efficiency, productivity, and mitigation of the harmful effects of gas emissions.

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Wood-Based Materials for Sustainable Applications Ivana Amorim Dias , Rosinaldo Rabelo Aparício , Izabelli Cristiani Barcelar Zakaluk , Tawani Lorena Naide , Lincoln Audrew Cordeiro , Débora Caroline Defensor Benedito , and Pedro Henrique González de Cademartori

Abstract Making different products out of lignocellulosic biomass is not just a good idea, but it is also a crucial step to reduce our dependence on fossil resources and contribute to society’s decarbonization and sustainable growth. Lignocellulosic biomass offers a sustainable and non-competitive alternative that can be used to create high-value compounds without compromising food security. Valuing the lignocellulosic base is not only good for the environment, but it is also an excellent way to create sources of income, develop new sectors, add value to products, and promote job creation. By adopting a circular economy, we can use lignocellulosic biomass to create opportunities, optimize traditional products, and explore new applications in a variety of industries. Lignocellulosic biomass is made up of a variety of components, including structural components such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin as well as non-structural components like extractives, ash, proteins, and other smaller components such as tannins. This chapter addresses some selective fractionation compounds of the lignocellulosic base used in specific applications, making it a highly versatile and adaptable feature. Products obtained from some lignocellulosic components, like cellulose in its nanometric fraction, kraft lignin, and tannins, as I. A. Dias (B) · I. C. B. Zakaluk · T. L. Naide · L. A. Cordeiro · D. C. D. Benedito Post-Graduate Program of Forest Engineering, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] L. A. Cordeiro e-mail: [email protected] D. C. D. Benedito e-mail: [email protected] R. R. Aparício Post-Graduate Program of Engineering and Materials Science, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil P. H. G. de Cademartori Department of Forest Engineering and Technology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_2

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well as lignocellulosic biomass bio-oil by rapid pyrolysis, offer enormous potential in a range of applications. For example, nanocellulose can be used to optimize traditional products such as packaging and cardboard, while tannins can be used as a coagulant in wastewater treatment or as a bio-oil to provide various components of various applications. Given the vast range of potential applications for lignocellulosic biomass components, this resource has an enormous potential to both mitigate the adverse impacts of using fossil fuels and provide a wide range of valuable goods. By embracing this alternative, we can take a crucial step toward a more sustainable future and improve the world for both present and future generations. Keywords Biomass lignocellulosic · Nanocellulose · Tannin · Kraft lignin · Bio-oil · Wood-based materials · Sustainable production · Biorefinery

1 Introduction: Wood-Based Materials The current demand for energy is mainly based on non-renewable sources, and many questions have arisen regarding the sustainability and economic stability in the world’s energy supply [25]. Over the course of the last decades, worries about climate change and energy security have grown, causing a rise in the demand for renewable sources to diversify the global supply of energy and other industrial products {119]. At present, fossil fuels represent around 80% of the primary energy consumed in the world [81], and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions have increased significantly in recent years, causing environmental problems such as climate change and pollution [6]. Many countries attempt to minimize these issues, and biomass arises as a renewable energy alternative with great potential. Biomass is under discussion and research, causing the pressure on fossil fuels to decrease [25]. Due to climate change, biomass is being considered as an alternative to polluting energy sources [17]. Brazil stands out for having favorable environmental conditions to produce biomass, such as large portions of arable land and abundance of sunlight [26]. Biomass can be defined as any organic matter of animal or vegetable origin, capable of producing electric, thermal or mechanical power by means of transformation of such matter [33]. The main sources of biomass include wood, crops, production process’ residues, processed food and residues of animal origin [33]. During the processing of wood biomass, chemical energy absorbed during photosynthesis is transformed in another type of energy, by means of chemical, physical and/or biological conversion processes able to separate its components, which are basically cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose, and transform into fuel and biobased products [108]. Following the separation of biomass components, they may be individually used in different routes in production, such as those of chemicals and polymers [47]. Cellulose is the principal and most abundant component in wood, accounting for almost 40–45% of dry weight. It is a linear polysaccharide with a high polymerization

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rate, and due to its crystal structure, it is easily hydrolysable [35, 86]. Hemicellulose is a set of amorphous and branched polymers, with a low polymerization rate, accounting for 20–30% of the dry weight of wood; it is directly linked to cellulose, and it is easily hydrolysable [81, 86]. Lignin is the most hydrophobic component present in wood; it is an amorphous compound, with highly branched chains and complex structure, and adhesive function among its fibres [11]. Besides cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, wood is composed of other substances, at lower rates, such as extractives and ashes. Extractives are chemical compounds that don’t integrate the basic essential structure of wood, such as oils, resins, polyphenols and other organic compounds [41, 87]. Ashes are residues of mineral oxides, and inorganic compounds that do not integrate in the process of biomass combustion. Ashes account for 0.2–1% of dry weight of wood [114]. The usage of wood in bio-based products and bioenergy production may be carried out in its brute or residue forms, which enables the repurpose of raw materials from other industrial processes. The enhancement of the components of the wood may be done in different ways, and selecting the method that will be adopted may vary with the expected outcome. This enhancement, usually, happens through thermochemical, biochemical or physical–chemical processes [117]. In biorefineries, just as in usual refineries, original raw material is fractioned into carbohydrate, lipids, proteins, and other compounds, all of which may be converted into value-added products [88]. Many combinations among biomass compounds bring. Companies from different sectors have invested in the use of green chemistry in their production chain, with emphasis on the food, energy and agribusiness industries [77]. Thus, the research and development of bioproducts is increasingly necessary, especially in Brazil, due to the high agricultural productivity. This emerges as an opportunity to redefine and refine the national green economy [8]. Research about the application of wood chemical components as building blocks precursors, and diverse bioproducts has generated interest from the scientific community, due to the growing concern with the sustainability of industrial processes for the availability of similar products of non-renewable origin. This chapter brings forward a literature review of innovative applications from the natural polymer’s cellulose, lignin and tannin, as well as the bio-oil originated from the fast pyrolysis of wood.

2 Wood-Based Nanocellulose Cellulose is the world’s most abundant natural polymer and has interesting characteristics such as biodegradability and sustainability. Its common sources are plants, algae, certain marine animals and some specific bacteria [15]. However, extracting cellulose from plants remains a more viable route. The properties of cellulose are directly related to the source and extraction method. When obtained from higher plants, it has high tensile strength, crystallinity and mechanical properties, but when obtained from lower plants, such as agricultural

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byproducts and residues, it has lower tensile strength, crystallinity and mechanical properties, in addition to having larger diameters [16, 22]. So-called nanocellulose is the generic name for cellulose nanomaterials (CNs). This term includes the entire range of materials composed predominantly of cellulose with at least one external dimension at the nanoscale, implying a length in the range of 1–100 nm [15, 16]. Because of the increasing number of published works using nanocellulose, definitions and related nomenclatures have become numerous and ambiguous. To avoid this, TAPPI W13021 aims to standardize the terminology of nanomaterials originating from cellulose an example is shown in Fig. 1. The top-down approach is used to obtain two dominant forms of wood-based nanocellulose. The nanoparticles can be achieved by mechanical processes to obtain long fibrils consisting of both crystalline and amorphous regions known as cellulose nanofibrils (CNF), or by means of acid hydrolysis resulting in the isolation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) [23]. Figure 2 shows the crystalline and amorphous regions in cellulose microfibril. This brief review is limited to the top-down route to obtain cellulose nanomaterials and some of their applications, consequently excluding bacterial cellulose (BC). In lignocellulosic natural fibers, cellulose is arranged in microfibrils bound with hemicellulose and lignin (Fig. 3). In addition to waxes, pectin and other watersoluble components [79]. These non-cellulosic compounds, especially lignin and hemicellulose, both amorphous, have been shown to negatively reduce crystallinity, affecting mechanical properties [22]. Thus, the removal of these cementing materials will increase the crystallinity index and thermal stability [23]. It is important to emphasize that the nanocellulose extraction process consumes a lot of energy, in addition to the mechanical process remaining with residual hemicellulose and lignin, with some pre-treatments and surface modifications, an optimal point can be reached.

Fig. 1 Standard terms for cellulose nanomaterials reproduced from TAPPI W13021

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Fig. 2 Crystalline and amorphous regions in cellulose microfibril. Adapted with permission from Rajinipriya et al. [79]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society

Fig. 3 Arrangement of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in lignocellulosic fiber. Adapted with permission from Rajinipriya et al. [79]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society

For a more in-depth discussion of nanocellulose isolation, pretreatments and surface modifications, the reader is encouraged to read other recent and comprehensive review papers [22, 48, 50, 72, 79, 110]. Even if there is more than one type of nanocellulose, applications are targeted based on their favorable properties (i.e., aspect ratio, flexibility, self-assembly behavior or mechanical strength) [46]. The great application potential of nanocellulose is related to the development of successful research in the design of biomaterials, which has been a step towards a better sustainable future [16]. Nanocellulose is increasingly used for a variety of applications (Fig. 4), including packaging, paper industry, biomedical, adsorbent, paint and coatings, electronic sensors, etc.

2.1 Packaging Packaging is a significant component of our daily lives, and over time, consumer use of packaging materials has increased consistently to replace the petro-based polymers, which are non-degradable and have limited recycling potential [44]. One of the most significant industries where nanocellulose is used is packaging, widely used in food packaging, through solution casting, extrusion, gel-forming, nanoemulsion, adsorption, electrostatic spinning, Layer-by-Layer (LBL) assembly, coating, spray drying and other techniques [50]. Many polymeric composites use nanocellulose as

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Fig. 4 Applications of nanocellulosic materials. Reprinted with permission from Thomas et al. [110]. Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society

a reinforcing component to improve their mechanical and functional properties to fulfill the specifications of packaging applications [5]. Composites based on nanocellulose are also easily adaptable in terms of their mechanical and barrier qualities to suit the demands of a packaging application. CNFs have become interesting packaging materials because of their superior mechanical and film-forming capabilities, as well as their strong oxygen barrier performance. CNFs acylated using 10-undecylenoyl chloride demonstrated increased hydrophobicity and mechanical properties in packaging films [49]. Yang et al. [128] developed a surface-modified nanocellulose to impart or improve hydrophobicity in composite packaging materials.

2.2 Paper Industry At different stages (refining, formation, pressing and drying) of paper production, nanocellulose has been used as a strengthening agent, a retention system component, a printing quality aid, a coating binder, and a barrier agent controlling water vapor and oxygen transfer, for example. The problems associated with utilizing inorganic filler in the papermaking industry can be resolved by using nanocellulose as a filler and coating component [19]. Further evidence of the high level of efficacy of nanocellulose in strengthening paper and cardboard was provided by Barbash and Yashchenko [7]. To replace the

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synthetic reinforcing elements now used in the paper industry. Therefore, nanocelluloses can be used as a more environmentally eco-friendly substitute. Salas et al. [89] recently compiled numerous other state-of-the-art uses of nanocellulose in the paper industry, and readers are referred to this compilation.

2.3 Biomedical Nanocellulose has a wide range of applications in the biomedical area, including in implants, biosensors, drug delivery vehicles, wound dressing materials, as well as in biosensors and diagnostics, whether it is used as an individual component, part of mixtures, or in composites [131]. Abdi et al. [1] demonstrated a biosensor built on nanocellulose and using enzymatic stimulation to detect cholesterol in the range of 1–12 mM rapidly with 0.5 mM precision. Gold nanoparticles and nanocellulose were combined to create an effective transdermal device for medication delivery applications that releases diltiazem hydrochloride [3].

2.4 Adsorbent (Environmental Remediation) Nanocellulose is also believed to have great potential as adsorbents and filter membranes due to their high-water permeability, high surface area, good mechanical properties and versatile surface chemistry [110]. Abouzeid et al. [2] present in their article some applications of nanocellulose for wastewater treatment industries. Wei et al. [125] showed that grafting nanocellulose with 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid led to better oil recovery. Fabrication of CNFs with ultrathin layers of graphene oxide has also reached higher separation performance sustained by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions and molecular size exclusion [52]. The findings imply that this type of bio-based composite is a viable adsorbent.

2.5 Paints and Coatings In the paint and coatings industry, NC is a material of great interest due to the high surface area that helps to retain water, acting as a highly viscous material [79]. Other point is the possibility of reinforcement in composite materials, but it depends on adequate dispersion in the medium [40]. Veigel et al. [118] studied the mechanical behavior of wood varnishes using cellulose nanofibrils as a reinforcing agent. The authors highlighted the improvements in the mechanical properties of the coating containing cellulose nanofibrils when compared to the standard coating. According to Dufresne [23], in addition to the improvement in mechanical properties and UV protection, the durability of water-based paints and varnishes can be

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improved, as well as the stabilizing and thickening properties. Due to the viscosity recovery effect (thixotropy) induced by the presence of nanocellulose, sag resistance can be obtained.

3 Wood-Base of Lignin Kraft 3.1 Composition and Structure of Lignin Lignin is one of the major components of lignocellulosic biomass, together with cellulose and hemicellulose, with high constituent complexity and is responsible for the rigidity in the plant cell wall and resistance to microbial attacks 94, thus playing a fundamental role in the recalcitrance of biomass. In relation to its chemical structure, it has phenylpropane units derived from three aromatic alcohols (monoligonols): paracumarylic alcohol (H), coniferyl alcohol (G) and synaptyl alcohol (S) 45, represented in Fig. 5. These phenolic substructures derived from these monoligons are called ρ-hydroxyphenyl, guayacil and syrinx fractions from alcohols H, G and S [102], respectively (shown in Fig. 5). In the process of biological lignification, the monoligonic structures are connected, in varying proportions, via radical coupling reactions [80] to form complex molecular structures. These structures have several types of connections but have mostly β-Oether [66] others are indicated in Fig. 5. The composition and lignin content are strongly affected by the type of wood and the environment [94, 102]. Conifer-derived lignin (gymnosperms), for example, Pinus, has mainly Guayaquil units and very low amounts of ρ-hydroxyphenyl [47, 94]. In hardwood lignin (angiosperm), for example, eucalyptus is found major levels of guaiacyl and syrincy and very little ρ-hydroxyphenyl [47, 71]. Grasses, for example, sugarcane (Saccharum), have equivalent units of ρ-hydroxyphenyl, guayacil, and syrinx [47]. In addition, lignin stands out as a branched polymer with large varieties of functional groups, such as carbonyl, carboxylic groups, methoxy, phenolic and aliphatic hydroxyls [47, 71, 94]. Thus, a rich chemical structure and several active chemical sites open several possibilities for chemical modifications and indicate that lignin can play an essential role in the development of aromatic chemicals, leveraging sustainable development, circular economy and application in a biorefinery process.

3.2 Extraction of Lignin Kraft Lignin can be extracted from several lignocellulosic biomasses on a laboratory scale through established and consolidated protocols, but it is unfeasible for its industrial application. For this industrial purpose, we have the technical lignins that

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Fig. 5 Lignin precursors and some common bonds between phenylpropane

derive from the chemical processes of pulping and vary the chemical properties of lignin according to the separation process [45, 94]. They can be classified as kraft lignin, lignosulfonates, lignin soda, and lignin organossolve [66, 94] the latter being produced only on a pilot scale [101]. Worldwide, approximately 50 million tons of lignin derived from the pulp and paper industry are produced [102]. About two-thirds of this global industry uses the kraft pulping method [55] and thus will have as a by-product the kraft lignin. Lignin is solubilized in black liquor—a by-product of the process of obtaining cellulose extracted by the aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide NaOH and sodium sulfide (Na2 S) [94]—and can be isolated by acidification [47]. Kraft lignin is highly condensable with strong ether bonds, a large number of phenolic hydroxyls, carboxylic groups, and a high number of C–C bonds [101]. Unfortunately, much of this by-product is used for steam and energy generation for the pulping process [43]. Applying the biorefinery concept, this by-product will be a raw material to produce value-added products. In this line, the patented Lignoboost® process methods of Valmet Corporation (Finland) and LignoForce SystemTM marketed by NORAM engineering (Canada) are viable commercial technologies for precipitating the kraft lignin of black liquor in a yieldable manner and can assist in the conversion of kraft lignin into high added value products.

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3.3 Kraft Lignin Applications The industry-derived kraft lignin is mostly intended for power generation through burning. Although this application is to come for the pulp and paper industry, this by-product can generate high-added value products and technological applications. In this section, we mention some recent developments involving kraft lignin in the development of materials and applications.

3.3.1

Resins

Phenol–formaldehyde resin is commonly used in the wood adhesive industry due to its good physical–chemical and mechanical performance [101]. However, its market value is linked to the price of oil, and phenol and formaldehyde are toxic and carcinogenic. Thus, the use of lignin-phenol–formaldehyde adhesives may be a better alternative, since lignin contains phenol groups [100]. In this case, lignin is used as a partial or complete phenol substitute in the resin formulation. To make lignin a suitable adhesive for wood panels, several of its properties must be considered, including its chemical heterogeneity. Many studies have been conducted to improve lignin-phenol–formaldehyde synthesis and its applicability [100]. For example, it was observed in lignin-phenol–formaldehyde resins prepared with 40% phenol weight replaced by pine kraft lignin improvements in water absorption properties, thickness swelling, and mechanical properties, such as bending resistance, modulus of elasticity and relative impact energy [30].

3.3.2

Sensors

Sensors are analytical devices that contain a certain component that ensures specificity to detect and respond effectively to some stimulus [66]. In this line, some sensors derived from kraft lignin proved quite attractive due to their ability to generate results quickly and reliably. Gonçalves et al. [31] synthesized solid-state potentiometric sensors using kraft lignin obtained by the LignoBoost process® and multilayer carbon nanotubes. The sensors showed high selectivity for Cu ions (II) and long-term stability. The results of impedance spectroscopy and electrical conductivity measurements indicated that the interaction between nanotubes and lignin molecules in the polymer increases its electrical conductivity. On the functional group present in lignin, it was observed that the presence of the phenolic hydroxyl group in higher content compared to hydroxyl quinone resulted in improved ion exchange properties. Also, for application in sensors, Wang et al. [123] produced piezoresistive sensors based on kraft lignin for the detection of arm flexion movements and finger pressure. First, they produced ultra-thin carbon fibers via electrospinning using kraft lignin from sugarcane and eucalyptus from the LignoBoost® process as precursors, and then the wire was encapsulated for mounting the wearable sensor. The sensors were

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tested through electrical signals recorded through an electrochemical workstation and indicated promising responses to their applicability.

3.3.3

Chemicals

Kraft lignin can be used as a substitute for petroleum-derived aromatic monomers. Lignin depolymerization is a promising method for the production of low-molecularweight compounds for industrial use [66] Pyrolysis, catalytic hydrogenolysis, solvent depolymerization, alkaline oxidation, supercritical water, and alkaline hydrolysis are effective depolymerization [101]. Compounds such as vanillin, ferulic acid, hydroxybenzaldehyde, syllaldehyde and guaiacol can be obtained by breaking larger molecules into smaller ones [66]. Vanillin is of significant interest for use in polymer synthesis due to its potential applications. Kraft lignin can be a more ecological and economical source to produce this chemical. The main challenge in the use of kraft lignin for vanillin production is to purify lignin so that it meets natural flavor patterns. Different strategies are being investigated to find a way to produce vanillin from kraft lignin [101].

4 Products from Fast-Pyrolysis Bio-oil 4.1 Bio-oil Fast pyrolysis consists of a technique a fast thermal decomposition of biomass at a temperature permeating 500 °C in an environment with low oxygen content, capable of converting all biomass carbon into new material, being a majority product is composed of a dark and viscous liquid analogous to oil, bio-oil oil [18, 132]. The characteristics of the bio-oil are defined by pyrolysis parameters, such as temperature, heating rate, residence time, pressure and gaseous environment, and biomass subjected to thermal degradation. However, in general terms, bio-oil is an emulsion with complex chemical composition, about 400 chemical compounds (Table 1), among them ketones, organic acids, alcohol esters, furans, sugar derivatives, phenols, as well as aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, derived from the thermal degradation of wood components [133]. Fast pyrolysis bio-oil is a promising material for a thermochemical biorefinery platform that optimizes the production of heat, energy, fuels and green chemical compounds [121]. The use of bio-oil as fuel is made possible by the large concentration of energy and can be applied directly in boilers and turbines, and for the production of secondgeneration fuels, as an environmental advantage, bio-oil generates significantly less NOx and SOx when burned in the engine compared to the oil-based fuel, in addition

36 Table 1 Main compounds of Eucalyptus pyrolysis bio-oil

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Compounds

Biological assignment

Levoglucosan

Carbohydrates

g/L 0.1

Furanone

0.2

Furfural

0.4

Furfuyl alcohol

0.4

Dihydro-methyl-furanone

1.7

4-Hydroxy-5,6 dihydro-(2H)-pyran-2 one

8.9

C2-guaiacol

Lignin

Eugenol

0.7 1.0

Syringaldehyde

1.5

4-Vinyl-syringol

14.2

C1-syringol

14.5

Syringol

19.0

4-Allyl-syringol

2.1

Vanillin

2.7

Guaiacol

4.0

Isoeugenol (trans)

4.6

4-Propenyl-syringol (trans)

5.4

4-Vinyl guaiacol

7.6

Dihydroxy-benzene

Carbohydrates, lignin

1.1

Adapted from Matos et al. [58]

to being neutral in CO2 a biodegradable material [39]. As a logistical advantage, the storage and transport of bio-oil are facilitated compared to gaseous products. One potential of bio-oil is its use as an antimicrobial agent [59]. The bio-oil of yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) of Peng et al. [75] prevented up to 80.6% of fungal growth, while Sanson et al. [90] applied a soluble phase of bio-oil to the rotting fungi of wood, Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum inphyll um and vitro found growth inhibition. When treating pine with eucalyptus bio-oil, Lourençon et al. (2016) did not detect mass loss of wood attacked with the same fungi. As for bactericidal activity, [14] detected Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus by applying algaroba bio-oil (Prosopis juliflora) and Patra et al. [73] found antimicrobial activity for bacillus cereus and listeria monocytogenes bacteria with pine bio-oil (Pinus densiflora). The antimicrobial activity of bio oil occurs due to phenolic chemical composition, derived from lignin thermal degradation, which acts as a natural biocide that inhibits the growth of fungi and bacteria, preventing metabolism through the enzymatic attack of fungi and disrupting the cell wall structure of bacteria [14, 59].

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Bio-oil has application potential for the most diverse purposes, being a good substitute for oil in a biorefinery platform [34]. However, the high water content and the presence of organic acids in the chemical composition of bio-oil limit the application as biofuel, due to low calorific value, high viscosity, high acidity, immiscibility with fossil fuels and mainly the high reactivity of the material [135].

4.1.1

Bio-oil Fractionation

The method of adding cold water during fractionation is based on the intensification of the polarity difference between the constituents of each phase, so that the emulsion becomes unstable and breaks with the agitation applied in the system. Next occurs the flocculation of pyrolytic lignin, which agglomerates and decants, while the derivatives of wood carbohydrates and single-ring phenolics remain soluble in water [134]. The breakdown of the bio-oil emulsion breaks down the polar and nonpolar phases, which results in the stabilization of the phases since the reactivity is caused by the interaction between them. In addition, the addition of bio-oil in cold water allows efficient access to the phases of chemical compounds according to polarity; about 80– 90% of polar compounds can be recovered, allowing the use in bioproducts similar to those of fossil origin [121].

4.1.2

Pyrolytic Lignin

Pyrolytic lignin consists of the water-insoluble phase and comprises about 30% of the total weight of the bio-oil. It is a largely aromatic hydrophobic chemical compound with aliphatic ligands derived from lignin thermal degradation. Comparatively, pyrolytic lignin has a lower molecular weight than lignin. The lower molecular weight compared to lignin obtained from other industrial processes, such as the kraft process, is also noted by a relatively high phenolic OH content, since the native ether bonds of lignin are cleft in phenols [28]. The pyrolytic lignin particle has a granular or viscous aspect, and morphologically presents a smooth and uneven surface, varying according to the fractionation parameters used (Fig. 6). Several studies have focused on studying chemical characteristics and suggesting possible applications for pyrolytic lignin and its applications. Matos et al. [57] determined the chemical composition of lignin and detected the presence of several groups of compounds, such as stilbenoids, phenols, fatty acids, ketones, carbohydrates and aldehydes. The chemical composition of pyrolytic lignin is complex and allows its application in varied products. As potential applications, Figueirêdo et al. [28] described the methods of oxidation, hydroprocessing, and esterification of pyrolytic lignin as means of obtaining additives for food, beverages, and medicines, fuels, Qu et al. [78] developed low-cost carbon fibers, while Matos et al. [57] suggested the application of pyrolytic lignin

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Fig. 6 Morphological characteristics of pyrolytic lignin

as antibacterial and to obtain products linked to green chemistry, requiring further research of cytotoxicity.

4.1.3

Soluble Bio-oil Phase

The polar phase of bio-oil comprises sugars derived from cellulose thermal degradation and phenols of lower molecular weight that remain in the aqueous phase due to chemical affinity; this material occupies about 70–80% of the weight of bio-oil [84]. The chemical composition of the aqueous phase of the bio-oil may vary according to biomass and the parameters of pyrolysis applied; however, in general terms, the main compounds are anhydrous sugars, mostly levoglucosan, and other sugars, hexoses and pentoses are recognized as key to the production of added-value furan derivatives, such as furfural and hydroxymethylfurfural, products of high industrial valuation, in addition to organic acids [24]. The main composition of the aqueous phase was described via CG-MS of the bio-oil by Sanson et al. [91] and is described in Table 2. The most abundant compound of the soluble phase is levoglucosan; this is one with high added value post due to the possibility of being converted into hydrocarbons, alcohols, sugar monomers, and green chemicals that can be later converted by hydrolysis, fermentation, and hydroprocessing. These processes allow the aqueous phase that can be used bioreactor platform [85]. Other advantages are linked to the use of the aqueous phase of bio-oil, among them the production of biofuels from fermentation [42] and hydrogenation [120]. There is good acceptance of the industry to receive biobased products, such as biooil and its derivatives, increasing interest in research that contributes to the reduction of environmental pollution [13]. An alternative suggested by most research is to

Wood-Based Materials for Sustainable Applications Table 2 Main compounds of aqueous phase from bio-oil

Compound

39

% area

Furfural

0.40

Catechol

3.18

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural

0.47

1,2-Benzenediol, 3-methyl-

0.70

1,2-Benzenediol, 3-methoxy-

1.54

Phenol, 2,6-dimethoxy-

7.05

3,5-Dimethoxy-4-hydroxytoluene

5.71

Levoglucosan Vanillin

26.11 2.04

Adapted from Sanson et al. [91]

explore this low-cost waste in the context of biorefineries to obtain biofuels and bioproducts, adding value to the industry and contributing to sustainability [21].

5 Tannin-Based Products Tannins are polyphenolic macromolecules, not classified as a specific chemical expression because they are mixed with simple polyphenols, carbohydrates, amino acids, and hydrocolloid gums [124]. They are generally classified as hydrolysable (formed from gallic or ellagic acid) and condensable (formed from flavonoid units) [4, 124]. They are noteworthy for their economic and/or industrial importance through the bark of Black Acacia (Acacia mearnsii), Quebracho wood (Schinopsis balansae or lorentzii), oak bark (Quercus spp.) and other species [76]. The use of this resource dates back to the beginnings of a civilization hundreds of millennia ago through the activity of tanning leather, through remnants that were left in leather articles as well as in wells used during tanning [76, 98]. However, with the advancement of science and technology, in addition to its application in the tanning industry, this compound has interesting properties both in water and effluent treatment, wood adhesives, packaging, bactericides, civil construction, wood preservatives, composite materials, etc.

5.1 Leather Tanning Leather tanning is the conversion of animal skins into leather that produce the products. In industry, leather is applied to the production of shoes, clothing, upholstery, and sporting goods, among others, and such skins are obtained mainly from horses, goats, deer, cattle, sheep, and pigs, for example [115]. In Brazil, especially in the

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northeast region, the use of tannins is a traditional practice in the tannery in making cowboys’ clothing, a practice associated with informal extractive activity [61]. Generally, the tanning process is carried out in three main steps: (I) beamhouse, (II) tanning and (III) wet finishing. Tanning is where the collagen is ready to be transformed into leather, where collagen fibers are stabilized by crosslinking agents, exemplified by materials of plant origin, causing the leather to acquire stability against heat, thermomechanical stress, and enzymatic biodegradation [9, 115].

5.2 Effluent and Wastewater Treatment Care with the management of water resources has been a concern for everyone. The lack of adequate sanitation in several regions of the planet, the demand for water in the main sectors of the economy (agriculture, industry and formal or informal services) and public supply associated with water scarcity have worried the United Nations and the Organization World Health Organization on how to manage this resource. It is known that contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to the transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio [126, 127]. In this way, water treatment is normally dependent on the coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection processes. Coagulants play an important role in water and wastewater treatment and sludge treatment and disposal, with common chemicals used in this step including specific types of salts such as aluminum and iron [12, 109]. However, some literatures shows evidence that the presence of aluminum traces in treated water can cause impacts on human health, such as Alzheimer’s disease [29, 56]. Thus, it is necessary to replace the coagulants of inorganic origin with alternative coagulants of natural, biodegradable and sustainable origin, such as tannin. In addition to these advantages, tannin, mainly associated with condensable classification and the presence of phenolic groups of anionic nature (deprotonation and formation of resonance-stabilized phenoxides) allows its use as a natural coagulant for the treatment of effluents [32]. Therefore, there are already commercial products that use tannin as a raw material. In Brazil, there are already 3 registered trademarks, TANFLOC S/G and TANFLOC S/L in the form of liquid and powder (introduction of quaternary nitrogen in the tannin that confers cationic character), supplied by TANAC S.A and AQUAPOL C1 (in powder) and S5T (solution), both supplied by Sociedade Extractiva Tanino de Acacia (SETA S.A). Both companies use Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii) in their production processes. There is also in Italy, from the Silvateam group, the product named SilvaFLOC, the tannin from this solution being extracted from the bark of Quebracho (S. balansae) [10, 95, 105]. In addition, there are other methods already reported in the literature by which tannin is used for effluent treatment and metal recovery, in this case for its use as biosorbent materials, whether for chromium and copper-based contaminants [68, 69, 83, 127], gold [26–38], drugs and surfactants [103, 104, 112], dyes [74, 122].

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5.3 Wood Preservatives Wood is a material widely used in various industrial sectors. It is a renewable, biological and organic material, and because of these properties, it can be deteriorated by biological agents, chemical reactions and other agents, which cause damage to those who work with this material. Over the years, many processes have been developed in order to protect wood against xylophagous agents and severe environmental restrictions have been reported in the use of toxic preservatives, such as creosote, chromated copper arsenate (CCA) and chromated copper boride (CCB) [64, 96]. In this way, investigations using organic products have been made, whether for oils, plant extracts, resins, tannins, for example [96, 97, 113]. Using Scotch pine (Pinus sylvetris L.) as substrate to be impregnated with aqueous solutions of tannins from valonia, chestnut, tara and sulphited oak proved to be efficient without leaching test against brown fungi of Coniophora putanea and Postia placenta species [111]. In another reference, black wattle wood (Acacia mearnsii) was used, and commercial tannin was also extracted from the same species. The tannin solutions with concentrations of 5% and 10%, when impregnated in the wood, presented similar results to the treatments applied with CCB in the biological resistance when exposed to the white rot fungus of the species Pycnoporus sanguineus [96].

5.4 Tannin Foams Tannin has been the subject of discussions in the use of applications in construction systems. There was the development of foams based on Quebracho tannin (Schinopsis lorentzii and Schinopsis balansae) mechanically designed for walls based on the firefighting principle. The same presented encouraging results regarding the problem of shrinkage, for which it is not seen, through its mechanical preparation [92]. In another reference using tannins of the same species as in the previous literature but sulphited, through a combination of mechanical and chemical expansion, the foams present thermal and mechanical properties within the standards established by the Federation of European Rigid Polyurethane Foam Associations, being also considered as good insulators [93].

5.5 Composite Materials The use of tannin in composite materials is taking place due to environmental awareness as a way to develop biodegradable biopolymers, which have physical–mechanical properties similar to polymers from petroleum. In the literature, we can find examples of the application of this compound as part of the constitution of composite materials.

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In the study attributed to the addition of tannin from the bark of Black Acacia (Acacia mearnsii) incorporated into Wood Plastic Composites (WPC’s) caused the spaces between polypropylene and the lignocellulosic matrix, greater hydrophobicity and comparable mechanical performance. In this way, it showed that the flavonoids present in this type of tannin were a good physical compatibilizer, guaranteeing a better distribution of polypropylene over the lignocellulosic load. Furthermore, the authors suggested that higher hydrophobicity increases the lifespan of the WPC in an outdoor application [62]. The addition of Black Acacia tannin as reinforcement components to polypropylene (PP) via mechanical extrusion was also evaluated. The tannin cross-linked with hexamine (TH) in the polypropylene matrix, improved Young’s modulus, crystallinity and thermal stability in addition to reinforcing the internal polypropylene network. In addition, the PP/TH composites (5%, 10%, 15%, and 30% dry pre-reacted tannin-hexamine), among their results, had greater resistance to photodegradation [51].

5.6 Tannin-Nanocellulose Films The literature has shown the use of tannin in the development of sustainable and smart packaging. One of the studies verified the production of films with the addition of tannins from the bark of Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii) and nanofibrillated cellulose (CNF-T). The authors found an antioxidant activity in up to 48 h in addition to being resistant to organic solvents such as distilled water having wide potential applications in packaging technology, it may be possible to increase the shelf life of dry foods such as rice and pasta, fruits, vegetables, preserved meat, as well as external packaging of pharmaceuticals or cosmetics sensitive to oxidation [65]. In another reference, tannins were incorporated into CNF, using a non-ionic surfactant to adjust the interactions between these two compounds. The films acquired more hydrophobic characteristics, antioxidant properties, and UV protection, which results in a possible path in the applicability of sustainable packaging [63].

5.7 Bactericidal Activities Studies have also been carried out on the use of tannin or its compounds isolated in the middle area, showing the efficiency that such a compound may have due to its bactericidal nature. In an investigation of a new anti-acne agent, five compounds isolated from tannin from the wood Terminalia laxiflora Engl a Diels (Combretaceae) were used. Terquebulin showed good antibacterial activity against Propionibacterium acnes with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) at 125 μg/ml and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) at 250 μg/ml [67].

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In other literature, it is possible to observe the action of tannin as a caries inhibitory agent. Anacardium occidentale L and Anadenanthera macrocarpa (Benth.) Bernam tannin extracts were used, and the antibacterial activity against bacteria with cariogenic relevance, that is, Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus sanguinis and Streptococcus sobrinus. In one of its in vitro and in vivo results, it was shown that Anacardium occidentale L was able to inhibit all strains tested, with Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus mitis being the most susceptible to the action of this extract [20].

5.8 Other Tannin Applications Tannin, especially its condensable classification, also has properties largely in the taste and color characteristics of red wine [60]. This factor is the result of the combination that tannin has with other polymers, such as proteins and polysaccharides, which determines its astringent power during the wine maturation process [82]. There is also the application of tannin for cosmetics, being a powerful sealing agent and nutrient enhancer for hair and beard and wood adhesives [76, 106].

6 Conclusions Biomass has proven to be a viable option to mitigate environmental problems and the growing demands for products and energy around the world. Therefore, there is a great and continuous interest in research related to the development of new products using biomaterials due to the need for sustainability and environmental preservation. The peculiar characteristics of wood components make it a material of extreme interest for application in several areas, as it has high versatility in the development of several sustainable products without carbon emissions, avoiding the use of fossil products. In addition, wood derivatives, such as cellulose, lignin, fast pyrolysis biooil and tannins tend to have unique physical, chemical and mechanical properties that can add value to products from different sectors of the economy. The large-scale production of lignocellulosic biomaterials is still economically challenging due to high production costs. Thus, the development of advanced production technologies and the adoption of public policies that encourage the production and consumption of biomaterials can contribute to expanding the use of these sustainable resources. To conclude, the great interest in research related to the development of new biomaterials, as long as they are based on an integrated basis with industry and government, added to their high application versatility, avoids the use of obsolete sources that generate environmental impact, especially those derived from oil and coal.

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The Volumetric Sustainability of Timber-Based Tropical Forest Management Caio de Oliveira Loconte

Abstract The conservation of tropical forests is a necessity at global and national scales. The Amazon forest is possibly the largest stock of tropical timber in the world, and timber-based forest management is an alternative that allows to promote economic development and guarantee the integrity of natural resources. However, the effectiveness and continuity of this activity depend on the volumetric sustainability of the production. So that, the process of forest regeneration must be monitored to ensure that the natural forest increment is composed of an economically acceptable proportion of species of commercial interest, and active seek to promote the establishment of stocks of high commercial interest, either through optimization in the harvest and by the application of silvicultural treatments. Silvicultural treatments involve the domestication of forests, and the challenge of tropical forestry is to determine the acceptable limit of this forest transformation. To a certain point, this domestication is not incompatible with conservation objectives, and the sustainability of the application should be guided by the limit where the changes do not compromise ecological functions, forest productivity, and ecosystem resilience. Keywords Tropical forest management · Tropical silviculture · Amazon forest · Sustainable forestry · Tropical forestry · Timber-based forest management · Tropical silvicultural treatments · Forest domestication

1 Introduction The importance of the Amazon forest for mankind depends on the maximum maintenance of the environments in their conserved state. As most of it is covered by forests, it is clearly a forest vocation, and wood is the product exploited on a larger scale [38] and the main generator of economic return from forests [1]. C. de Oliveira Loconte (B) “Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_3

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It is estimated that the Amazon region has a stock of about 60 billion cubic meters of roundwood of commercial interest, possibly the largest stock of tropical wood in the world [71]. However, deforestation and illegal logging are still marked: It is estimated that just over 36% of the total wood produced is illegal [47], whose evaded taxes were equivalent in 2009 to about 477 million reais [1]. Most deforestation of tropical forests is related to the conversion of these areas for agriculture and cattle ranching (in temperate regions, the pressure occurs only by the interest in wood stock, with no intention of further use of the area). However, all over the world, it is observed that forest exploration by itself carries two antagonistic roles: that of facilitating deforestation and occupation of forest areas by facilitating access, or that of providing forest conservation and maintenance of its structure and biodiversity, when the management is well done [46]. Forest management is an alternative that seeks to make economic development and natural resource conservation compatible [57], aiming to provide a constant flow of products and income while maintaining forest cover, biodiversity, and ecosystem integrity [49]. Currently, it is considered the “second best option” for forest conservation, surpassed only by the absolute preservation of these formations [18]. To meet these demands, the use of reduced impact logging (RIL) techniques is an important step in the transition from unnecessarily destructive logging to responsible forest management [50]. RIL is a key piece to ensure the sustainability of forest management, as its application results in less damage and increased growth rates of the residual forest, both in terms of biomass and commercial timber volume [70]. However, exploiting forest services and products in tropical areas of high diversity is a highly complex task, and it is believed that science has not yet advanced enough to answer many questions on this topic [21]. There are many questions about how these practices (as currently practiced) can actually continuously allow for commercially interesting exploitation rates [76]. Davis et al. [15] state that forest management activities, whether in contexts aimed at timber production, non-timber production, biodiversity conservation, or any other goal are always subject to demands for goods, services, and human values. These values may change over time or space, but in all situations, good management is considered to be that which achieves the current goal while conserving or reestablishing the functionality and productivity of the forest for future generations. According to Sist [63], even with the environmental gains promoted, the simple use of RIL in harvesting is neither much more profitable than other land uses nor ecologically sustainable for most tropical forests. Reducing damage to the remaining forest should not be the goal of management but only one of several requirements to maintain forest productivity and ecological functions. Thus, other silvicultural interventions are necessary to maintain timber production and financial income, because forest management will only succeed in providing conservation if the operations are profitable [50]. Several authors [7, 51, 61] state that timber forest management in natural forests that provides regular yields (or achieves volumetric sustainability) seems to be

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directly dependent on the periodic application of silvicultural treatments. According to Peña-Claros et al. [48], these interventions are desirable and effective, significantly influencing the basal area and volume of managed forests. In this sense, advances in tropical forestry are demanded that allow the adjustment of operational models to promote regeneration of managed forests and increase growth rates of commercially desirable species, allowing timber production to occur within economically attractive cycles [23, 48, 65]. This anthropocentric bias, which points to the need for a certain degree of domestication of forests to meet economic demands, does not devalue ecological parameters and processes that make ecosystems functional and even allow the development of forests with valuable wood stocks. By understanding how human interventions of exploitation, even if done well, result in impacts on the forest [28] and modify its economic value, it becomes possible to outline ways, or highlight methods and work, that seek, through human interventions of regeneration, to maintain and value natural capital. Chazdon [13] consolidates the idea that the dynamics of tropical forests are closely linked to human activities. If the results of ancient peoples’ actions shaped ecosystems to the way we know them today, with all their biodiversity and ecological services [16, 34, 52], the intentional use and conduct of forest stands for economic purposes are not necessarily controversial options to natural resource conservation. Moreover, the encouragement of highly productive systems that are environmentally appropriate is not just a matter of esthetics and morality, but something of society’s highest priority interest, since the greater the population pressure on natural resources, “the more the limits of prosperity become determined by natural capital rather than industrial capacity” [27]. In this context, this chapter presents a literature review on how timber management alters the dynamics of forest ecosystems, and how this change may require human intervention to ensure that forest regeneration is economically interesting. The chapter will address the context of Brazilian forest management and the need for a forestry culture in society for the understanding and acceptance of forest management, moving on to the discussion of the need for interventions in the forest to meet the economic and social needs of forest management. Finally, it will be discussed the limits of this forest domestication in order not to mischaracterize it as a native forest with ecological role.

2 Brazilian Context Brazil is a country with a great forest vocation, having about 53.6% (456 million hectares) of its territory covered by natural forests. Of this total, approximately 71.3% of the native forest area (325 million hectares) is in the Amazon biome [57]. In global terms, the Amazon corresponds to one third of the world’s reserves of humid tropical forests, sheltering something close to 25% of all species on Earth,

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besides providing significant environmental services (usually ignored in their importance and devoid of economic value, but vital for the ecological balance and the development of productive activities) and presenting the possibility of expansion of production chains (such as timber activity, medicinal flora, and aquaculture) present in a multitude of goods and products of routine use [1, 38, 68]. The timber sector, even with all its recognized irregularities, is a very important source in the economy of the Legal Amazon, being vital for the development of the region [36]. This activity is responsible for something between 2 and 3% of GDP and officially occupies about 2% of the economically active population of the North region—quite significant numbers for the place, which has about 8.3% of the national population, an average HDI of 0.683 and total of 5.3% of the national GDP [31, 47]. Considering the possibility (and perhaps the trend) of conversion of forested areas to other land uses, particularly agriculture and cattle ranching, the feasibility and incentive of forest-based activities are important for the valorization of the remaining forests. In this scenario, timber management stands out as a productive system that enables economic development and the conservation of natural resources, in addition to social insertion when associated with fostering programs [39, 57]. The term “forest management” refers to many different types of activities and can mean very different things to different people (the same is true for “forest conservation”). However, all interpretations of forest management involve the understanding that a forest will be managed and used (directly or indirectly) to achieve the objectives of the landowner and/or the society that is related to that area to varying degrees [15, 75]. Higuchi [29] defines that forest management “(…) deals with the set of principles, techniques, and norms that has the purpose of organizing the actions necessary to organize the production factors and control their productivity and efficiency to reach defined objectives.” In this sense, forest management is always subordinated to an efficient planning, oriented to obtain from a forest the greatest possible benefits by ensuring the maintenance of the forest structure and development, if its improvement cannot be achieved [67]. It is critical not to confuse the terms “sustainable forest management” (SFM), “reduced impact logging” (RIL), and “sustainable yield logging” (SRM), recurrent nomenclatures in the scientific literature of the area. Sustainable forest management is the most common and perhaps least precise term [9] for the set of management activities, planning, and field operations for exploration and/or use of forest resources, seeking to meet society’s expectations and needs [15] within the natural limits of forest recovery [53]. The name reduced impact logging (RIL) is applied to improved planning and operational techniques that aim to reduce the damage of logging activity on the remaining forest and increase the efficiency of labor and financial return. It is worth emphasizing that RIL is not a silvicultural system, but rather the methodology by which logging itself is planned and executed. Thus, RIL is a necessary prerequisite but is usually insufficient to guarantee sustainability of forest management [9, 23, 26, 30]. Finally, in forests whose main objective is to obtain regular supplies of timber over time, one seeks to establish a management system that allows for sustainable

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yield logging (SFM). As described by Davis et al. [15] and Wadsworth and Zweede [74], SFM relates to the management, harvesting, and stewardship of forests in a manner that matches harvest rates to the regeneration potential of the timber stock— thus making use of both the natural resilience of the forest (natural regeneration) and external investments (silvicultural interventions) to ensure regularity in the volume and financial value produced at each harvest. In this chapter, the term “forest management” will be used to define forest management that aims for EMRS and carries out the logging activity in a planned and rational manner to ensure the maintenance of the ecological and economic values of the forest, while also making efforts to promote the social compatibility of forest use. The theory of a management system that would allow the rational exploitation of forest resources in perpetuity was only put into practice in Brazil in the 1990s. Based on experiences of low-impact logging in Southeast Asia, the Amazon Research Institute (INPA) proposed in 1991, the management system called Selection of Listed Species (SEL) and, in 1993, the Institute of Man and Environment of the Amazon (Imazon) implemented the Pilot Project of Forest Management in Paragominas, western region of the state of Pará [7, 9]. Since then, Sabogal et al. [58] mention that several research programs have been conducted to promote forest management—with emphasis on the work developed by the Tropical Forest Institute (IFT), Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa), Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Technology Foundation of the State of Acre (FUNTAC) and Imazon itself. The Brazilian legislation considers legal the roundwood obtained through Sustainable Forest Management Plans, which is a technical document that contains procedures and guidelines for forest management, or Deforestation Authorizations, a document that allows the clear cutting of a certain area for alternative land use purposes [11]. However, Higuchi [29] points out that the term “sustainable forest management” adopted by the legislation is mistaken and should be replaced by “forest management under a sustained yield regime"—since in the legislation itself, the Management Plan is established “aiming at obtaining economic, social, and environmental benefits” and should determine the existing stock, make the exploitation intensity compatible with the cutting cycle and the forest capacity, adopt a silvicultural system, and promote the forest’s natural regeneration, among other obligations [11, 12]. Thus, the very legal principle of Brazilian forest management indicates that harvesting must be done at the same intensity that the forest regenerates, and when the values are incompatible, the growth rate of the plot and/or the cutting cycle must be adjusted. Therefore, clearly, the term “forest management under a sustained yield regime” proposed by Higuchi is technically more appropriate and assertive than that used in the legislation. Currently, even with all the legal mechanisms for regulation and monitoring, a large part of logging is illegal, and although forest management techniques have been intensively improved in the Brazilian Amazon in recent decades, progress in their adoption by timber companies is still modest, and approximately, all logging in

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the Brazilian Amazon still occurs without significant forest management, with low quality operations [58, 75]. With an abundant supply of timber originating from illegal activities or through conventional logging (CE, also called predatory logging), there is no incentive to practice sustainable forest management and forest conservation [76]. To avoid the negative effects (on forests and society) of predatory logging, several authors have prescribed the adoption of forest management [58]—which makes a lot of sense because, while large portions of the Brazilian Amazon are open to logging, working with logging entrepreneurs to improve their practices becomes an extremely important public policy [75]. The strengthening of the National Forest System is one of the main strategies for offering areas for sustainable exploration, increasing government control over the sector in order to curb illegality and informality in the timber sector. The passage in 2006 of the Public Forest Management Law, related to Brazil’s ambitious National Forest Program, has great potential to promote good forest management, monitoring and implementation of the laws, and provide land titles in a region where 45% of the territory is vacant or disputed land—thus offering an opportunity for widespread reform in the timber sector [38, 58, 75].

3 Forestry as Cultural Pratice The understanding of whether forest management is a viable strategy to achieve conservation and development objectives depends on the interpretation of this activity as something natural or as actions external to nature [75]. The dynamics of tropical forests is intimately linked to human activities. Although some regions have apparently not been occupied, recent scientific work has revealed that the current structure, composition, and geographic distribution of tropical forests have significant heritages from prehistoric societies [13]. The changes and impacts on the environment caused by these societies had, and continue to have, an important co-evolutionary role in the process of adaptation of humanity, shaping landscapes, and ecosystems to the forms we know today. In this way, forest management has had (and continues to have) an important social role in the development of societies [52]. Throughout history, different societies have recognized the importance of forests as a generator of multiple resources [15], and their management and the regulation of this exploitation were more or less assertive (from the point of view of sustainability) depending on the availability of natural resources and the incorporation of the forest in the culture of these peoples. It is possible that the first colonizations of tropical forests occurred in the lowlands and near water bodies. Over time, these societies structured their livelihoods on the exploitation of forest resources and ecosystem management—in particular, by increasing the abundance and geographic extent of many species (arboreal or otherwise) considered useful [13].

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Dean [16] apud Paiva [45], in a study of the history of use and occupation of the Atlantic Forest region, states that pre-agricultural peoples already had knowledge about several plant species that could be used for various purposes besides food. With this, there may have been a more or less long period during which the occurrence of certain species may have been stimulated or hindered by human initiative. Levis et al. [34] state that the same has occurred in the Amazon, with the current composition and structure of the forests belonging to the biome being significantly influenced by activities of pre-Columbian societies. The researchers found a positive correlation between richness and dominance (absolute and relative) of domesticated or semi-domesticated species and proximity to archaeological sites distributed throughout the Amazon, leading to the conclusion that human groups enriched ecosystems and selected species of interest, such that current floristic surveys may be indicating the result of centuries of such management—and thus, “strongly refuting the idea that Amazonian forests are untouched by man” [34]. Chazdon [13] point out that the current ecology of certain forest species must consider knowledge of ancient uses and their semi-domestication. According to the same authors, even if many of the species used were not, fully domesticated, the landscapes certainly were. The gradual transition from essentially hunter-gatherer societies to itinerant farmers (based on the coivara or slash-and-burn system) led to an intensification of forest resource management, since (...) the regeneration that grew on the old agricultural plots was not entirely abandoned but was taken care of in order to exploit several useful species common to secondary forest. Numerous “wild” trees were transplanted during the cultivation phase and protected from competition as the forest recovered [16], p. 46.

However, intensification was not accompanied by greater efficiency in the exploitation of the agroecosystem. Coivara is extremely reductive as virtually all the biomass that existed on the site to be exploited is turned into ash, resulting in greater waste of forest resources. In addition, it is likely that the increased population would not allow a rest interval of the area long enough to fully restore the original forest, reducing the regeneration capacity of the forest and making this traditional farming system unsustainable [13, 16]. According to Dean [16], this method of forest transformation may have resulted in modification, selection, and/or reduction of complexity, diversity, and biomass over considerable territorial extensions during the more than a thousand years that this agriculture was practiced before the arrival of Europeans. Thus, it is understood that tropical forests are semi-domesticated, the result of the frequent impact of subtle management whose effects are still noticeable even centuries after human intervention has ceased. However, this is still not recognized by certain social and scientific groups—which is justified, in a more philosophical approach, by the fact that the pristine myth is destroyed, and the concepts of “nature” and “wilderness” are deconstructed [75]. Attiwill [5] even points out an interesting psychological issue: Large trees convey the feeling of a static environment, of little change, resulting in feelings of tranquility

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and security. Believing that this environment is dynamic and not untouchable (and that the forest is only static within the human time scale) ends up confronting this feeling of security. Zarin et al. [75] suggest that one way to avoid the polarizing reasoning of classifying areas as natural or altered is to recognize that the nature of an ecosystem is actually a continuum between a fully domesticated areas to a wild area. In this sense, the spread of the term “productive forests” should be encouraged—understood as forests that regenerate naturally and are used for economic purposes such as logging and other extractive activities. In the Latin American forestry literature, the idea of productive forests emphasizes the simultaneous promotion of conservation and rural development, which includes ecological, economic, and social sustainability. This multidimensional idea tends to focus on environmental services, financial competitiveness (with regard to alternative land uses), and equitable distribution of costs and benefits among resident populations. In the United States, the concept is defined as forests designated for economic exploitation, but with environmental easement and wildlife habitat (which may or may not also be recreation areas), with an important role in protecting against urbanization and suburbanization [75]. The growing recognition that the dichotomy created between the “natural” and the “altered” is artificial and often obstructive [51] results in the need to understand that not always anthropic activities, modifying the environment, are degrading nature. Using ecological principles, management activities can be incorporated within the dynamics of ecosystems, which are composed of mosaics at different stages of recovery from natural disturbances [75]. Assuming also the fact that there are limits on the area of forests that can be fully protected, tropical biodiversity conservation will occur significantly in forests designated for timber management [22], both in public areas and on private properties. Forest management with a focus on timber production, biodiversity conservation, or any other primary objective always requires decision-making that is invariably based on societal values in addition to technical knowledge [15]. Recognizing the importance of forest management for the conservation of natural forests [57] and distinguishing predatory logging from responsible forest management makes it possible to focus efforts on improving and optimizing management practices [51], and while there is much to be done to increase the compatibility of forest operations with conservation and development objectives, it seems difficult to claim that these activities are essentially degrading these ecosystems.

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4 Forestry Management Conduction the Natural Regeneration In view of the constant evidence that a large part of the composition and structure of current ecosystems has resulted from human interventions about which modern science had no knowledge, it is imperative not to interpret all interventions as causing environmental degradation [75], and to start considering that forest exploitation is necessary and should continue, constantly seeking technical and political improvement of its norms and guidelines to ensure the sustainability of the activity. Tropical forests are often seen as vulnerable ecosystems due to their complex vertical structure, high species diversity, and intricate network of inter- and intraspecific interactions. However, what makes a forest ecosystem fragile is actually the interference with its intrinsic resilience [13]. Indeed, managing a forest while ensuring that ecological sustainability is maintained requires that essential resources, and ecosystem sustaining processes are not irreversibly disrupted. Nutrient cycling, soil and water conservation, natural regeneration, and the process of ecological succession are considered particularly important to achieve this goal [28]. Although there is no consensus on its exact definition, it is accepted the understanding that ecological succession (term coined by John Adlum in the nineteenth century) is the set of specific modifications, structural, and processes of a community in a given area over time, which may or may not be the consequence of some kind of external disturbance, and promotes the development of an ecosystem [45]. This dynamic can be driven by both biological community and abiotic factors (including phenomena with significant variance, such as annual precipitation), independently or causally: living things modify the physical environment, and these modifications result in new physical, chemical, and/or ecological niche compositions, thus selecting new species [41, 66]. Like all ecosystems around the world, tropical forests are naturally and constantly being affected by a variety of disturbances such as fires, winds, storms, clearing dynamics, fungal and insect attacks, earthquakes, invasion by exotic species, floods, and human-caused alterations—factors that occur in wide variations in intensity (or magnitude), duration, size, predictability, and time interval of impact recurrence [5, 13]. Disturbance, defined as any event that promotes opening in the forest canopy [19], makes up the basic ecological principle of rational forest exploitation, as it is based on the fact that development, structure, and ecological functions are shaped by these phenomena. The dynamics of recovery of tropical forests after a disturbance can be simplified through a five-phase model [5]: (a) the moment when the disturbance occurs, promoting an immediate drop in accumulated biomass, (b) the reorganization phase, marked by high rates of respiration, decomposition, and soil water availability; (c) the development phase, when accumulated biomass reaches a maximum; (d) the transition phase, with elimination of pioneer individuals in the succession; (e) the dynamic

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equilibrium phase of the forest, characterized by mosaics of vegetation (“all-aged forest” or “inequiet forests”) that form a structural unit. The disturbance processes of an ecosystem can be classified in a continuum between endogenous occurrences, caused by agents internal to the ecosystem and that promote autogenic or self-generated succession, and exogenous occurrences, caused by agents external to the ecosystem that stimulate allogenic succession [5, 41]. The great variation (in time and space) of the forces that influence and direct the development of the structure, composition, and functioning of biological communities characterizes forest formations as dynamic entities that are always in flux, subject to so many unpredictable variables in their development process that science uses the term “stochastic succession” [13, 54] to describe the dynamics and/or the response of a plant community to a disturbance. It is important to point out that the idea of stocativity does not disregard that there is a trend in the succession process but only indicates that there is no preferential direction, and several new climactic stages are possible [10]. Thus, the degree of stability achieved by an ecosystem varies greatly, depending on the stringency of the external environment and the efficiency of internal controls in keeping entropy low [41]. In general, the process of recovery of an ecosystem after a disturbance can be described in terms of resistance and resilience. Resilience refers to the degree, manner, and rate at which impacts are absorbed by ecosystem structures and functions so that the system remains constant even after a disturbance. This concept is related to dissipative forces, rapid cycling, low storage, and short turnover times [5, 19, 41] The resilience of an ecosystem is a characteristic of complex adaptive systems and is related to how quickly the variables of a system return to equilibrium after a disturbance. This ability is a result of accumulated structure, significant amounts of cycling, and long rotation periods. It is believed, despite little scientific evidence, that the resilience of a plant community increases with species diversity and redundancy of ecological functions [5, 13,19] Some theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that resistance and resilience are inversely proportional, or even mutually exclusive [41]. In general, ecosystems located in favorable environments tend to exhibit stability more due to resistance than resilience, with the opposite occurring in uncertain physical environments. Furthermore, resistance is believed to decrease and resilience to increase with increasing supply of limiting nutrients—which occurs in mature forest ecosystems characterized by well-established nutrient cycling [40, 41]. In this sense, it can be interpreted that timber management acts in ecosystems that respond to disturbances more by resilience than resistance. Since the relative state of maturity of tropical forests (probable maximum resilience) occurs at the point where the respiration rate is equivalent to the photosynthesis rate, and consequently, the net change in biomass in a given period of time tends to zero [5, 41], and considering that the sustainability of logging aims to maintain harvested stands with the same ecological and wood production capacities of unmanaged (mature) forests, the resilience variable seems to relate directly to biomass.

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This statement can be confirmed by the work of [55], whose results from 32 years of monitoring in managed forests in Suriname point out that timber stock recovery is essentially provided by the growth of residual trees, and the probability of this recovery occurring decreases with increasing harvest intensity. Mazzei et al. [37] monitored the biomass dynamics of managed upland forests in Pará state for four years and also found a positive relationship between annual biomass gain and residual basal area in the forest. Vidal [71], comparing the development of commercial species after thinning of 25%, 50%, and 75% of the basal area of natural forest stands, reported that the volumetric increment of commercial species decreased with increasing intensity of thinning—being 1.3 m3 /ha/yr for the 25% reduction, 0.9 m3 /ha/yr for the 50% reduction, and 0.1 m3 /ha/yr for the 75% reduction. Working in Amapá state, Azevedo et al. [7] compared the dynamics of forest stands managed via RIL at different cutting intensities and post-harvest silvicultural treatments. As main results, it was observed that logging combined with silvicultural treatments had a positive effect on basal area growth, with higher means found in treatments of lower intensity (lower basal area removal). Thus, if resilience is related to biomass, and biomass recovery is related to basal area, it seems possible to use basal area as a reference variable for the maintenance of resilience in managed stands. Basal area (G) is defined as the cross-sectional area of the trunk at 1.30 m above ground level. The sum of the basal areas of all individuals results in the basal area of the community, a variable interpreted as the degree of forest land cover or stand density. G values for tropical forests generally range between 20 and 45 m2 /ha [17, 35]. Therefore, the use of basal area, especially when related to diametric distribution [35], seems to be more appropriate to describe the structure of the forest community than volume, since the latter also reflects the vertical growth of the forest (associated with site quality, a variable that the forest manager cannot manage) and is not directly related to land occupation. By monitoring the basal area of stands, besides tracking resilience, it also becomes possible to manage the diametric distribution of the stand, and as it is an index that highlights large trees (the basal area increases exponentially with the linear increase in diameter), it can be used to direct management actions, avoiding the devaluation of timber stock by excessive harvesting and/or reduction of the average diameter of commercial individuals. CONAMA Resolution No. 406, which currently defines the technical parameters for timber forest management, highlights the importance of the basal area, because it is this variable that should be analyzed for the projection of the harvest cycle. According to Article 7 of the Resolution, "the reduction of the cutting cycle will depend on evidence of recovery of the basal area in diameter classes equal to or greater than the MCD [Minimum Cut Diameter] (...) [12]

Several studies use basal area as a reference for timber management planning: Gardingen et al. [24] state that forest harvesting should not exceed approximately

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22% of the basal area of the commercial stock (harvestable), Zimmerman and Kormos [76] recommend that this value does not exceed 15% of the total forest, Mazzei et al. [37] indicate insufficient forest biomass recovery rates for a second cutting cycle in plots whose basal area is less than 19.4 m2 /ha; finally, Alder and Silva [2] point out that forest management in Pará would be sustainable for 200 years if harvesting made a maximum reduction in basal area of 2 m2 /ha. On the other hand, De Graaf et al. [25] indicate that in Suriname, thinning that reduces the total basal area to approximately 10 m2 /ha (reduction of 70% of the initial basal area, but only of non-commercial species) is essential to maintain timber increment at commercially desirable rates. Despite this disagreement, the results of these authors agree with those cited above because they also state that this variable is directly related to the capacity for forest regeneration. The use of basal area as a guide for the selection of trees to be cut necessarily results in an exploration with less impact on the forest structure. This occurs because, considering a ceiling for changes in basal area, the selection of large trees would result in fewer felled individuals, since each individual tree has a higher G value. Since basal area limits the change in forest structure, and most of the physical impacts of logging—impacts on forest structure that can affect forest resilience—can be controlled by RIL techniques, the next major challenge of forest management is to ensure regular yields of commercial timber [48]. To expect all populations of species harvested for timber to recover their precut volumetry (without any intervention being made and under the prescription of equal cutting and retention rates for species with distinct biologies) is to believe that the floristic and structural composition existing before logging was necessarily the only acceptable climax state of that community, and that the process of ecological succession is unidirectional-both concepts that are widely considered erroneous. The dynamics of managed and unmanaged forests are different, and therefore, “maintenance of species composition (volume or number of trees) is not a reasonable criterion for [assessing] the sustainability of forest management” [24]. Many management concepts are based on the expectation that if a forest is abandoned and no degradation factors exist, it will gradually return to its natural state. Several technical terms used, such as “climax forest,” evoke this notion [5]. However, Rodrigues et al. [54] point out that this way of thinking, despite having once guided the science and practice of forestry projects, is outdated, because To rely exclusively on a phytosociological survey to characterize an environment [which, in the reality of timber management, can be understood as the Forest Census] can lead to the error of portraying the structural characteristics of a single moment in the natural history of that fragment studied. By understanding that ecosystems are open systems and that floristics and structure are also influenced by factors external to that community (...), the possibility of different final communities in the same environment was admitted (...) [Thus], it is accepted today the idea of the absence of a single equilibrium point: in a natural community, the “climax” is constantly changing and natural systems could present climax communities with different characteristics, including floristic and structural [54], pp. 35–37.

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In this sense, the current forest stand composition and structure—usually taken as the ideal of a “healthy” forest and therefore desired after the management rotation cycle—are actually a product of land use history and socio-political contexts, the impact of vines on tree growth, and other secondary effects on biodiversity [75]. Therefore, the successional process is recognized as a universally occurring phenomenon that all vegetation is subject to and that, although it tends to be directional, does not have a preferred direction [10]. Since succession can occur following multiple trajectories and reach different “climaxes,” whose final community has floristic and structural particularities defined by the history of natural and human disturbances [54], a timber management plan could be considered sustainable if the remnant forest possesses the same or more (or rather, with greater resistance and/or resilience) ecological and economic functions and processes as the original forest, even if it presents changes in floristic composition. According to Higman et al. [28], the first timber harvest in native forests consists of the removal of accumulated timber capital, which has been built up over a large period. After this first harvest, there is a change in species composition and tree size classes, which influence the growth of the remaining forest. Therefore, managed forests show different growth and development patterns than those observed in mature forests— suggesting that the community will reorganize itself differently and will not develop, at least in the first moment, the same structure that existed before logging. After the disturbance, “(…) nature produces a recovery of vegetation that maintains, in general terms, the pre-existing physiognomy, but does not recreate a composition and structure identical to the initial ones (…) because the conditions that arise after a change are never exactly the ones that led to the emergence of the vegetation that pre-existed” [10]. As presented, a different structural formation of that forest community does not necessarily mean ecological or functional losses and therefore does not by itself make the logging activity unsustainable. This interpretation can be supported by Odum and Barret [42] and Odum [41]. The authors state that it is natural that the development of the community results in a forest structure different from the one existing before the disturbance. This fact is a consequence of ecological succession and is related to changes in energy distribution, species structure, and community processes, which seek different ways to decrease the entropy of the disturbed ecosystem. The term “entropy” (from en, in; trope, transformation) is defined as a measure of the unavailable energy (thermal energy) that results from the transformations or degradation of energy in concentrated forms to more dispersed forms, that is, a general index of the disorder associated with energy degradation [41]. Entropy is an essential factor in understanding the dynamics of the forest regeneration process because, like the entire biosphere, forest communities (...) have the following essential thermodynamic characteristic: They are able to create and maintain a high degree of internal order, or a condition of low entropy (small amount of disorder or unavailable energy in a system). Low entropy is achieved through a continuous and efficient dissipation of high-utility energy (e.g., light or food) to give low-utility energy (e.g., heat). In the ecosystem, the “order” of a complex biomass structure is maintained by the

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Therefore, it seems plausible to interpret that logging is a disturbance that promotes, through the opening of clearings, yards, and roads, a decrease in the interception of solar radiation (“high-utility energy”) and therefore increases its availability in the forest. When the intervention does not affect the resilience (ability to repair the damage) of the forest, the plant community responds to this sudden increase in entropy through the successional process, which tends to re-establish the canopy. Since more direct radiation is available, and there are no other limiting factors (such as water deficit), increased respiration and plant growth occurs at higher rates than the pre-disturbance situation—thus favoring species that respond well to direct solar radiation and that have high growth rates (such as pioneer species). The opening of the canopy also promotes microclimatic alterations due to the transformation of part of this energy into heat (increase in the entropy of the system) which, consequently, will reduce the relative humidity of the forest. These environmental modifications also impact the growth pattern of the vegetation. Therefore, ensuring that after the harvest cycle, the forest floristically and volumetrically contains the same timber stock as pre-harvests, or a stock dominated by a certain group of commercial species, are variables of economic interest and are not necessarily aligned with ecological processes. In this sense, volumetric sustainability will possibly only be achieved through silvicultural interventions that favor the development of individuals of interest—and thus ensure EMRS.

5 Social Importance of Forest Domestication A properly managed forest should provide regular yields equivalent to the production of the forest. This regularity is important to ensure a steady supply to industries as well as to provide sustained income [67] to the society that is involved with the forest. Gardingen et al. [24] state that forest management should explore ways to increase the productivity of forests to achieve the economic objectives of harvesting and at the same time meet the demands of society in terms of social and environmental standards. Managing the forest under a sustained yield regime is an intelligent form of Amazonian land use [29], particularly because of the effect that regulating the structure of native forests can avoid the “boom-bust”1 cycle characteristic of the history of logging centers in the Brazilian Amazon [9, 60]. The management plan should 1

THE “boom-bust” effect is described as a consequence of uncontrolled logging. Typically, logging centers begin their activities with selective logging, extracting only the most profitable species and individuals. As the most valuable timber becomes rarer in the areas adjacent to the sawmills, loggers have the option to either expand their radius of action (to explore intact areas, but where infrastructure and transport costs become more significant) or to return to the forests already exploited before the

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seek to achieve an approximately regular yield per harvest year (or income offered by the “forest” capital. This stabilization does not mean simplification of the forest structure or its transformation into equatorial forests, according to Taylor [67], what is necessary is to balance the increment in the different species and diameter classes, even retaining part of this increment in the forest itself to consolidate the capital represented by the growing trees. Taylor’s concern with “retaining part of the increment in the forest itself” is in line with discussions presented in more recent work [6, 18, 28, 37, 56], in which the authors state that the increment and recovery of commercial wood stock in forests essentially depends on extracting less product than the economic optimum, aiming to decrease changes in forest structure (controlling basal area reduction and minimizing physical impacts on the remaining forest) and maintaining or favoring the development of larger individuals in the forest—factors that, as already presented, can be important to not affect resilience and maintain forest productivity in the stand. The term “forest productivity” is used to refer to the concept of net community productivity, which, according to Odum [41], is the rate at which plants store organic matter that is not used by heterotrophs. Simply put, we can understand it as the accumulation of plant biomass that will not suffer herbivory or be used for respiration and metabolism of individuals—resulting, in the context of timber management, in the increment of standing stock of wood. Forest productivity, or net community productivity, is important for timber forest management because it represents the actual increase in the biomass of the plant community. Since productivity always expresses a rate and, therefore, we have the variable “time” in its denominator, the average growth rate (or increment) of that community is given by dividing the biomass (wood volume) accumulated during the rotation cycle by time—thus composing the medium annual increment (MAI). The forest management model executed today in Brazil is based on the concept of applying cutting rates and waiting periods equivalent to the AAI of the forest as a whole. In practice, it is believed that the forests of the Amazon region after intervention (harvest) grow between 0.86 and 1.00 m3 /ha/year—and therefore, for extractions ranging from 25 to 30 m3 /ha, the average cycles are 25–35 years [12]. In the macro-context of tropical forest conservation through responsible use, logging based on RIL techniques substantially maintains the biodiversity and carbon of the areas [43, 56]. However, from an ecological point of view, determining the cutting rate by the average forest growth may not make much sense mainly due to the fact that determining an exploitation system by the average forest increment ignores the individual behavior of species or groups of species that present distinct silvicultural (and successional) behaviors. Thus, despite theoretically guaranteeing the volumetric recovery of the ecosystem, this generalization compromises or even

established rotation cycle—extracting individuals that were spared during the cutting operation and beginning to exploit species of less economic value. Thus, from a rapid and prosperous development, the timber market in that region becomes decadent and bankrupt, until the moment when companies migrate to new frontiers and abandon the area for good [9, 60].

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makes impossible the volumetric recovery of species of interest and the establishment of forest production oriented to EMRS. The protection of managed and/or accessible forest areas will only be effective when management provides economic returns competitive with other land uses [50, 73]. Thus, Reducing the impact of harvesting, while desirable and necessary, will not by itself ensure acceptable future tropical forest productivities. Forest productivity is not a simple function of the proportion of the stand left untouched by harvesting. In totally “untouched” forests, the net increment tends to zero [73], p. 51.

Therefore, for timber production, the system will only be sustainable if forest productivity ensures and/or is oriented to the increment of commercial species. In other words, the recovery processes of a managed forest should be carried out, in an economically interesting proportion, by species of timber interest. Since natural succession is stochastic and non-commercial species may occupy these niches, possibly ensuring the reestablishment of timber populations will only occur through silvicultural interventions [25, 48].

6 Tropical Forestry Systems Regulation of timber production through silvicultural systems is a necessity for forest management planning and should be applied in the Brazilian Amazon [24, 29]. Silvicultural systems are defined as sequences of inventories (sampling) and intervention operations [53] that aim to drive forest regeneration and form commercially valuable stocks. They were initiated in tropical environments only in the second half of the nineteenth century through adaptations of classical models developed for temperate forests. Table 1 lists eleven different silvicultural systems applied in tropical moist forests in Asia, Africa, and America, as pointed out by Higuchi [29], Ribeiro et al. [53], Vidal [71], Azevedo et al. [7] and Souza and Jardim [64]. Despite some variations among the authors in the nomenclatures used, the guiding concepts of each system are similar, allowing the grouping into four categories. The first system, called the “clear cutting system,” is a monocyclical model that is based on total exploitation of available resources at a single time (stock depletion) and conduction of natural regeneration and/or implementation of artificial regeneration with the objective of creating equatorial tall forests [53]. This system was considered inadequate for the tropical environment, and currently, only an experiment started in Peru, called the “harvesting banding system,” works with a variation of this methodology [29]. The enhancement cutting, transformed into the Malayan Uniform System (SMU), was the first silvicultural system applied in tropical forests and consists of the complete elimination of individuals larger than a certain diameter (in the case of SMU, DBH > 45 cm)—and therefore, the total removal of the forest canopy aiming

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Table 1 Basic concepts of silvicultural system applied in tropical forests Basic system concepts

Asia

Cutting down the forest, and covering the area with natural or artificial regeneration

Flush cutting system

Intensive exploration of the forest, seeking to homogenize the floristic composition and the age of the remaining trees (conduction of homogeneous natural regeneration)

Improvement cutting; Malaysian uniform system

Selective felling of trees with a minimum diameter in a polycyclic system (area harvested periodically); silvicultural treatments to favor regeneration and growth of commercially desirable individuals

Africa

Stand improvement techniques

Tropical America

Adapted Malaysian uniform system

Roofing system in the tropics Selection system

Selective logging and enrichment of the No data forest through artificial regeneration, mainly to improve the floristic composition or maintain species with scarcity of natural regeneration

Selection system; CELOS system; SEL system; Brazilian silvicultural system for the Amazon Dryland Forests (SSB) Enrichment system

for large openings to favor the development of natural regeneration that would later be selected to maintain only commercially desirable individuals [29, 53]. Similar models were developed in Africa and America, until the development of the tropical shelterwood system. This system, unlike the one described above, does not seek to homogenize the forest structure but rather to favor the development of regeneration of desirable species under matrix trees. Therefore, unlike the SMU, the tropical shelterwood system already stipulates that the favoring of regeneration should not originate by eliminating the canopy, but rather by localized openings, generally carried out by poisoning of non-commercial species and cutting of vines [29]. An ecological advantage of this system is that the canopy is removed gradually, allowing regeneration to adapt to new solar radiation conditions. This system has achieved technical success in plots with advanced regeneration. However, it is complicated and relatively expensive to implement, which, coupled with administrative inadequacy and demographic pressure, has resulted in discontinuity of research and data collection in old areas [53, 71]. Selective systems, on the other hand, are more recent and currently more recommended for tropical forests (especially in the Americas), even though each management operation occurs in forests whose particularities should be considered when

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preparing the management plan [64]. The selection systems (SSE) are not oriented toward the structural and floristic simplification of the stand and use advanced natural regeneration as the stock to be managed. This model has been used “in countries with difficulties in financing forestry activities and with high labor costs” [53] and generated some variations, such as CELOS (developed in Suriname), SEL, and SSB (developed in Brazil). However, all the proposals present in common the presence of two well defined phases: (a) Selective logging, planned so as to minimize canopy opening. By maintaining a relatively closed canopy in the forest, but with areas with greater incidence of solar radiation reaching the understory of the formation, heterogeneity and irregularity of the forest are created, favoring mainly species in the young phase that regenerate under the canopy; (b) Post-harvesting activities, to be applied with greater or lesser intensity depending on the needs of each particular stand: correction of damage from harvesting, elimination of regeneration of undesirable individuals, and (mechanical or chemical) thinning to release medium and large-sized individuals. The first item of SSE, which aims to minimize canopy opening, is a widespread concept in RIL techniques. In turn, the post-exploitation activities described in the second item are almost non-existent in Brazil [65] and are basically aimed at reducing competition to favor forest productivity of commercial species—thus inducing the development of commercial stock. Finally, the enrichment system2 basically aims at artificial regeneration in exploited stands. These plantings, which can be combined or not with the other systems, allow for the introduction of species not originally present in the stand or to guarantee the establishment of juveniles of species with problems in natural regeneration. The work on silvicultural systems applied to natural forests has suffered constant problems of continuity due to lack of financial resources and/or turnover of professionals in research institutions, so that tropical silviculture in America has not yet passed the stage of research [64]. Despite the wide variety of possible silvicultural treatments, tropical forest managers rarely see these techniques applied outside of experimental plots [50]. In fact, there is only a single study on silvicultural treatments being developed at an operational scale in the Brazilian Amazon [24], and the experiments in Suriname on the CELOS system are probably the oldest work still underway [55]. 2

According to Brancalion et al. [10], the theory surrounding forest restoration differentiates the technique of introducing individuals, through planting or seeding, in two terms: “enrichment,” to refer to the artificial regeneration of native or non-native species of plant physiognomy that, for various reasons, are not present in a given fragment or forest plot. In turn, the term “densification” is used to refer to the increase in the number of individuals of species that already exist in the stand. In the scientific literature on timber forest management, the concept of “enrichment system” encompasses both techniques. Although we agree with the differentiation presented, in this paper, the term “enrichment” will be used to refer to artificial regeneration in a generalized way, without regard to the presence or absence of introduced species in a given stand.

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7 Silvicultural Treatments: Technical and Socio-economic Aspects Several studies [4, 9, 48, 49, 56, 61] indicate that in both CE and RIL managed forests, tree growth rates are too low to ensure a relatively regular flow of timber (at least for the currently planned cutting cycles) and the natural frequency of commercially interesting trees entering the canopy is extremely rare—thus promoting “commercial species extinction.” Wadsworth and Zweede [74] estimate that current management using RIL techniques in the eastern Amazon (…) leaves more than half of the trees in the next harvest growing at rates corresponding to a rotation of more than a century to reach 60 cm diameter at breast height. Thus, volumetric sustainability (and therefore recruitment and population increment of commercially interesting trees) will likely only be achieved through periodic application of silvicultural treatments to the remaining forest. These activities are effective and desirable, significantly influencing the basal area and volume of managed forests and bringing timber management closer to sustainability [7, 25, 33, 48, 51, 61]. Implementing silvicultural treatments that involve thinning or other forms of canopy openings does not, by itself, make management unsustainable, since the dynamics of clearings are the essence of the dynamic equilibrium state of multistemmed forests [5]. By ensuring the functionality and biological efficiency of the system, favoring certain species over others does not become a problem, as “the relationship between species diversity, and the stability of an ecosystem is complex, and a positive relationship can sometimes be secondary rather than causal” [42]. Thus, silvicultural treatments on the remaining stock should promote the development of commercially interesting individuals, and the operations of de-favoring noncommercial species should be done up to the point that the ecological processes that ensure the sustainability and productivity of the forest community are not affected. In other words, the sustainability of the application of treatments is guided by the limit at which changes in forest composition and structure do not compromise the ecological functions, forest productivity, and ecosystem resilience—factors that [29] summarized as “continuous operation of the installed capacity for harvesting the forest product (…) without compromising its natural structure and initial capital.“ This statement highlights the thermodynamic justification of silvicultural treatments—and the objective that should guide their planning: the favoring of the allocation of energy available in the ecosystem for a given set of species of interest, in order to stimulate their development and/or establishment in that environment [41]. Combining field activities (which promote the management of biotic components) with predictions about abiotic variables (such as predictions of drought periods, related to lower forest increment, which can guide when activities should occur), it becomes possible a certain adjustment, or at least a restriction, of the direction taken by the successional process [13, 66]—and, therefore, the conduction of ecosystem development toward the formation of more commercially interesting stocks.

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Forest management oriented toward sustained timber yields demands “(…) the conversion of a heterogeneous, complex, and irregular forest to a more homogeneous, less complex one—without endangering biodiversity—and one that has a greater amount of commercially desirable species” [29]. However, since they involve the intentional domestication of the forest, the silvicultural interventions required for EMRS are “hardly accepted by many environmentalists” [76]. Silvicultural treatments should be understood as an intensification of the forest production system—an intensification that should not result in overexploitation of natural resources, but rather in better efficiency in the ecosystem, so that the ecological processes are oriented to favor the production of the goods of interest. Despite recognizing the importance of ecological processes and encouraging studies that seek to identify, quantify, and determine management methods for these processes, it is not the object of this work to deal with this subject. The last item of this chapter will point out some aspects considered important to guide the environmental sustainability of forest management, but the development of this text will focus on the description and understanding of silvicultural treatments as interventions that aim to ensure the maintenance of timber production and, consequently, the economic value of the forest. Among the options of silvicultural treatments, enrichment and thinning aimed at favoring commercial individuals are the most common operations. However, although enrichment allows domestication with minimal changes in stand structure [53], this technique has proven to be economically unfeasible. This occurs mainly because most forest species, including all species of high timber value, have high mortality of seeds and seedlings in natural environments [76] which leads to the need for sowing or planting of a large number of individuals and/or in extensive areas, in addition to maintenance and periodic monitoring of seedlings and, eventually, replanting—activities that represent significant financial investments, whose possible return will occur only in the long term. Araújo and Silva [4], working in managed forests in the state of Acre, enriched 100 clearings with 1273 seedlings of 10 forest species. The areas had four annual maintenances and were monitored over 48 months. The results show that about 66% of the seedlings were weakened or dead after the first year—a percentage that increased to 76% after four years; only three of the 10 species had a survival rate above 50%. The average total height was 1.52 m, and the average stem diameter (10 cm above ground) recorded was 1.88 cm. The authors point out that the main causes of the lack of vigor of the seedlings were mechanical damage and insect attack. Evaluating seedlings of five forest essences planted for enrichment purposes of altered natural forests in the state of Pará, Erdmann [20] found after 19 months average mortality of approximately 25% and average total height of 66 cm. The author pointed out as factors related to seedling establishment problems herbivory, competition with other plants, and exposure to solar radiation (higher amount of diffuse radiation and direct exposure to solar radiation favored plant development). Ribeiro et al. [53] point out that the survival and development of seedlings in commercially acceptable time intervals are related to the incidence of solar radiation,

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making it necessary to open (completely eliminate competition) strips at least 5 m wide, which should then be subjected to intensive cultural treatments. Thus, the same authors state that these activities, essential for the success of enrichment, present high costs and end up creating favorable locations for the presence and passage of fauna, which can cause considerable damage to seedlings by trampling and herbivory. Also in Pará state, Jennings et al. [32] planted 2700 seedlings of six forest species (one pioneer, three light-demanding, and two shade-tolerant, of approximately equal height) in an artificially created solar radiation exposure gradient (4–18%). The authors observed, after 25 months of experimentation, higher mean survival rates in the condition of greater exposure to direct solar radiation (mean mortality 47% when canopy opening was 4% (control plot) and mean mortality 15–18% canopy opening). In addition, the highest average seedling height increments occurred at canopy openings between 14 and 18% (the two classes of highest exposure to solar radiation), where seedlings ranged from 100 to 240 cm in height versus the 20– 100 cm height achieved by individuals planted under the highest shading condition (control plot). Schwartz et al. [62] used the clearings originated by reduced impact management as the study site for the following treatments: T1: enrichment planting of 1520 seedlings of 10 commercial species (152 seedlings per species) and subsequent cultural treatments (50 cm crowning around the seedlings and removal of any spontaneous vegetation with a height of less than 2 m), T2: only conduction of natural regeneration (same cultural treatments described above) and; T3: monitored clearings as a witness. After four years of evaluation, the main results of the authors were (a) the lowest mortality rates occurred at T2 (3%), and mortality at T1 was similar to T3 (about 10%); (b) the need and frequency of silvicultural treatments decrease at T2 over time but increase at T1; (c) average rates of diametric increment at T2 compared to T1 are about 35 to 100% greater for dominant individuals and approximately 35% greater when all individuals are evaluated. Outside of Brazil, results from 15 years of monitoring by Putz and Ruslandi [50] in Indonesia indicate that 70% of seedlings established in the enrichment system will reach 40 cm DBH in 25 years, provided they are deployed in 3-m-wide strips completely “cleared” of other individuals. In the Bolivian Amazon, Peña-Claros et al. [49] evaluated the growth of natural regeneration of seedlings (< 30 cm tall), saplings (between 30 and 150 cm tall), and poles (greater than 150 cm tall and DBH < 10 cm) in forest stands subjected to different intervention intensities, dividing the species into three groups (shadetolerant, intermediate, and pioneer). The results indicate that for all three groups, greater exposure to solar radiation promoted greater height growth: under full shade, shade-tolerant, and pioneer species grew 2 and 4 cm per year, respectively; when fully exposed to solar radiation, regenerants from these groups showed height increases of 30–65 cm per year. All the results presented point out that the success of enrichment seems to be inversely related to the maintenance of forest structure: the more intensive the opening of the canopy and the reduction of competition with spontaneous individuals, the more satisfactory is the development of the implanted seedlings.

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However, these intensive alterations are contrary to RIL principles of diminishing damage, compromise stand resilience, make management more expensive (because they demand more operations to conduct the forest), and can make the sustainability of the forest project impossible [8, 21, 23, 48]. Thus, enrichment has been considered an expensive silvicultural treatment, with insufficient productivity and low overall growth, and should be established only in forests whose natural regeneration is sparse, the stock of young commercial trees is low or non-existent, and/or the canopy is sufficiently open to favor seedling development and the establishment of high stem stands [53, 56, 62, 64, 71]. For forests with abundant regeneration of commercial species, enrichment planting is recommended only for juvenile patches (dominated by trees with DBH between 5 and 15 cm) whose density of commercial species is less than 30% of the individuals [3]. The age and species heterogeneity characteristic of tropical forests strongly suggests that timber management should focus on managing the remaining stock [25], and it has been recommended that “(…) more use be given to natural regeneration than to [enrichment] planting” [50], so that the management of advanced regeneration, recommended by the selection system, seems to be the most viable technique for conducting forest stands. The silvicultural treatments recommended in SSE are also the most recurrent in the scientific literature of the area, with chemical thinning, via poisoning, being preferred to mechanical thinning by cutting or ringing the competing trees [6, 48, 56]. Tested in tropical forests since 1930 (in Brazil, as of 1980), chemical thinning is also recommended for presenting greater effectiveness, especially for species that present indentations in the stem and/or with high regeneration capacity from mechanical damage [14]. This technique, which can be applied uniformly throughout the stand (“refinement thinning”) or only around selected trees (“release thinning”), is cheaper than mechanical thinning and keeps the dead tree standing, avoids damage to the remaining individuals [6], ensures greater effectiveness of the operation (low or zero percentage of trees that survive), accelerates the response time of the treatment (rapid mortality, compared to mechanical ringing), and allows the surroundings to gradually adapt to the new conditions of incidence of solar radiation. The work of Souza et al. [65] confirms some of these assertions. Presenting data from plots that were treated with mechanical release thinning via ringing, the authors show that in the year following treatment, only 32% of the trees had died, a percentage raised to 69% after 4 years. The treated plots showed a statistical difference in growth with untreated plots (witness and management only), but there was no difference between the increment of plots that had the ringing and plots that were treated only with vine cutting. Thus, these results suggest that mechanical girdling was not effective in silvicultural and economic terms, because the investment made in this operation not only promoted little gain (because the plot with only vine cutting resulted in the same growth), but was also partly lost (31% of the trees did not die). However, even with this issue, the treated plots showed larger increments than plots in which only harvesting guided by reduced impact techniques occurred, so that the use of silvicultural interventions aimed at raising the commercial productivity of

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the forest can represent a silvicultural tool of great relevance for the sustainability of forest production [65], and recent literature has presented several studies showing the success of forest management with silvicultural treatments oriented to favor commercial species. Using chemical thinning, Peña-Claros et al. [48] obtained increases in commercial tree growth rates of 9–27% as a response of the RIL management system with silvicultural treatments compared to forests managed by RIL guidelines alone. Results also indicate greater diametric increments, in all successional groups, of trees more exposed to solar radiation and with lower loads of lianas. According to the authors, “disregarding potential soil competition effects, the increase in growth rates can be attributed to greater light availability in the canopy of the trees of interest and less competition from vines and lianas.” Wadsworth and Zweede [74] obtained similar results, recording a 20% increase in volumetric increment and 25% increase in basal area increment after 5.7 years of chemical release thinning operation to favor commercial individuals in a managed stand in Pará state. In the Bolivian Amazon, Villegas et al. [72] reported an average increase of 22– 27% (maximum of 58%) in growth rates of favored individuals in stands subjected to silvicultural treatments (vine cutting and chemical release thinning) after low-impact harvesting, when compared to stands only harvested via RIL. The light treatments (7.1 trees/ha released from lianas and chemical thinning on 2.6 non-commercial trees/ ha) promoted equal or greater rates of diametric increment than the more intensive treatments and were therefore more efficient. Avila et al. [6] indicate that the best volumetric recoveries of commercial species stock 30 years after logging occurred in plots that underwent light and medium silvicultural treatments (chemical thinning eliminating 0.9 and 4.7 m2 /ha, respectively), which recovered 48% and 57% of the volume of managed species and 143% and 101% of the total volume of commercial species in the plot. The forest that had no intervention other than harvest and the stand with heavy silvicultural treatment (chemical thinning eliminating 9.2 m2 /ha) recovered, respectively, only 28% and 19% of the volume of managed species, and 83% and 27% of the total volume of commercial species in the stand. Vidal [71] presents data from mechanical thinning (one and two operations) in clearings, aiming to reduce competition to favor trees of timber value. The results indicate a good response of individuals to silvicultural treatment, with an increase of 115% in the diametric growth rate—favoring shade-tolerant species. Statistical analysis of the study indicated that the observed growth was not related to the size of the clearing, but to the treatment applied. In a long-term experiment in Suriname, researchers compared various programs of chemical thinning in managed stands (logging + treatment) with a plot that was only logged. The main results were that basal area increments were on average twice as large in plots that received silvicultural treatments (2–4% per year) as in the untreated plot (harvested only, with an increment of 1– 2% per year). The more intensive treatments promoted higher growth rates, but also higher mortality—so that the best technical efficiency occurred in the treatment with an initial heavy refinement

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thinning (70% reduction in total basal area, 100% in non-commercial species) and a release thinning 8 years after the previous treatment [25]. Souza et al. [65] present results from plots in Paragominas (Pará state) that were managed with RIL and some plots submitted to mechanical thinning (via ringing) and vine cutting in different combinations. The authors concluded that plots that had silvicultural treatments (girdling + vine cutting, and vine cutting only) showed diametric growth rates from 11 to 21% higher than control plots (no management) and plots with RIL only (no subsequent treatments), with this difference being statistically significant. In Bolivia, Peña-Claros et al. [49] carried out silvicultural treatments of chemical release thinning, vine cutting, soil scarification in clearings, and refinement thinning at different intensities and combinations, following the plots for 4 years. The most intensive treatment promoted incremental gains of 25% in height and 34% in diameter when compared to the stand subjected only to RIL harvesting. Compared to the control (unmanaged field), the variables were 47% and 51% greater, respectively. The authors point out that the treatments are important because they provide greater exposure to solar radiation—a variable that explained 26% of tree growth. Although the pioneer trees showed greater response to the treatments, the successional grouping accounted for only 0.3% of the variation in increments. In Amazonas state, stands thinned by girdling showed an average annual diameter increment about 1.8 times greater than the control plots (Higuchi et al. 1997 apud) [7]. Some experiments in tropical forests outside the Amazonian domain have also shown similar results, despite floristic differences. Working in Indonesia, Krisnawati and Wahjono [33] followed for 7 years the development of a managed stand submitted to subsequent chemical thinning and found an increase of 62–97% in diametric increment of commercial individuals. Although the largest increases occurred in dipterocarp species (dominant in that formation), commercial species not belonging to this group also responded satisfactorily to silvicultural treatments. The authors state that the increase in growth rates can be explained mainly by the greater exposure of the crowns to solar radiation, promoting better growth conditions. Regarding the cost of chemical thinning, only two studies were found that published this information. Costa et al. [14] point out that chemical thinning has an average total cost (arboricide + labor) of R$ 4.67 ± 3.23 per tree, at current values. In turn, Oliveira et al. [44] arrived at the value of R$ 9.12 per tree effectively killed, and R$ 6.30 per tree treated (about 39% of treated trees did not die). These costs are higher than those obtained in studies conducted in Indonesia and Suriname, where the average total cost of thinning was R$ 3.17 ± 1.62 in corrected currency [14]. Since the effects of logging on growth rates in tropical forests seem to be no longer significant after a decade, with low growth over time, periodic silvicultural treatments in this interval may be important to maintain these variables at commercially coherent rates and ensure the technical–economic viability of harvesting [6, 7, 25, 33, 37, 65]. The reference of a decade as the ideal interval between silvicultural treatments to maintain high stand growth rate was already recommended for the Brazilian Amazon

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by Amaral et al. [3]. The authors state that (…) young stands (trees with DBH between 5 and 25 cm) possibly require treatments twice before felling the trees, whereas intermediate stands (25–45 cm) only one treatment which is sufficient. In socio-economic terms, we can also understand that, since silvicultural treatments demand financial investments (which will only be redeemed in future), their execution represents a commitment by those responsible for the management to that forest project—something important to ensure the permanence of the enterprise in the region and, in fact, the sustainability of the management [28]. Furthermore, investment in silvicultural treatments results in the valuation of natural capital, and assuming that these interventions provide improvement in the wood stock without compromising the forest’s ecological functions and services, we have the formation and maintenance of forests with significant economic interest and potential for long-term income generation—which favors the development of a forest-based economy. The intensification of management systems in natural forests can promote conservation since they increase the financial value of the forest and decrease the attractiveness of converting this area to plantations or other non-forest land uses [6, 56]. If the forest works are regular over time and actually result in a valuation of the wood stock, we have the interest of the “stakeholders” in keeping the forest standing—and therefore, the area as a whole will be protected, creating a “forest culture” (Fig. 1) like the one existing in several countries around the world. The “forest culture” is defined by Meirelles Filho [38] as the set of knowledge that enables man to use and transform the rainforest environment for his survival and the production of goods and services. In this scenario, natural resources are no longer considered as simple raw materials and are now interpreted as factors of production

Fig. 1 Concept of the impacts of the forest management for the conservation of the natural capital. Schema created by the author

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that contain, supply, and sustain the economy as a whole, being limiting factors for economic development [27]. Maintaining and increasing the “flow of services of industrial systems in future, to serve a growing population” depend essentially on conserving the productive capacity of living systems, and orienting part of their productivity to favor the goods of interest—which will only be possible with investments in natural capital [27] that manipulate natural environments to a certain limit in which their resilience and sustaining mechanisms are not affected. Within this discussion on the limit of forest domestication, Putz and Ruslandi [50] state that “the end of a continuum of silvicultural intensification is the conversion of natural forests to monocultural plantations, which we consider deforestation (…). Between conversion to plantations and the selection of individual trees using RIL, there is a wide variety of silvicultural interventions (…)” possible to be applied in managed stands. Zarin et al. [75] state that we can never technically prove that a forest is managed in a truly sustainable manner, but sustainable forest management should always be a goal to which those engaged in this activity should strive when using the reduced impact harvesting techniques and other silvicultural treatments necessary to achieve an EMRS. The complexity of biotic and abiotic factors interacting with each other in distinct ways between years and between sites affects ecological succession, regeneration, and the growth of remnant trees, so ensuring that a forest achieves a specific floristic composition can become a challenge for the manager of that landscape and for the science of tropical forestry [6, 66]. It is recognized that when the management of a forest is oriented toward a single product, it can affect the ability of that forest to provide other services or products. However, it is not possible to maximize the production of all goods and services at the same time, so it becomes the responsibility of forest managers and legislation to define a balance between the different management objectives to be achieved [28].

8 Negative Aspects of Silvicultural Treatments There is consensus among researchers that silvicultural treatments significantly increase tree increment in tropical forests, so that these techniques can be of great relevance to the sustainability of forest production [65]. However, the complexity of factors affecting forest regeneration in the postmanagement period is a challenge for tropical forestry, and very little is known about the medium-term effects of harvesting and silvicultural treatments on the regeneration of commercially interesting timber stocks (Petrokofsky et al. 2015 apud) [6]. However, information on species behavior is still scarce, making it difficult to prescribe more appropriate silvicultural treatments [65], and the relative low density that most species occur results in significant spatial variations in forest composition

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and dynamics, which can lead to errors in interpretation and silvicultural recommendations when the forest community is assessed by small or statistically invalid plots [49]. Assuming the effectiveness and technical recommendation of chemical thinning over mechanical thinning [6, 14, 48, 56], it becomes necessary to understand the cycle of chemicals in the forest environment, preventing possible contamination and/or drift, and ensuring the safety of the workers involved. Finally, another recurring question about silvicultural treatments, which is more managerial than technical, is how to define, in the long term, which species will not be of commercial interest? The option to disfavor a particular group of species should be done with caution, assuming the risk of eliminating individuals that in future could be of commercial interest. Silvicultural intensification is a demand (perhaps even essential) to ensure the regularity of logging and promote the conservation of tropical forests [22, 51, 50, 69–74]. Thus, the topics pointed out as current problems or doubts regarding silvicultural treatments should not be interpreted as impediments to their application and recommendation, but as issues that forest science should be concerned about answering to promote the sustainability of forest management.

9 Guiding Parameters for Silvicultural Interventions Forest management will always have some impact on the forest, no matter how well it is done [28]. Judging and rating the effects of human interventions (management and/or stewardship) on natural ecosystems will always carry a degree of uncertainty and subjectivity, related to the acceptability and socio-economic benefits of the interventions [5]. The stability and development of an ecosystem are related to the actual functionality of ecological niches that, when interacting with the ecosystem, alter the distribution of energy, species structure, and processes in the community—thus resulting in ecological succession and the perpetuation of a functional forest [42]. In this sense, it is believed that a sustainable logging plan should focus on maintaining and/or improving the ecological functions and forest productivity of species of commercial interest. Since the latter is an artificial demand, it requires external energy input in the ecosystem (represented in this work by silvicultural treatments), which should increase the availability of energy and decrease competition for commercial species—thus guiding the forest regeneration process. It is important to emphasize that the intensification of the silvicultural system should not imply in excessive or indiscriminate use of resources, but rather in efficiency and rationality of forest exploitation. The objective of these treatments should be to establish timber stocks of high economic interest. To this end, in addition to favoring the increase of commercial species, forest managers should also pay attention to the average diameter of the stand, seeking to conduct forest communities with a good proportion of large trees.

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These measures favor the regeneration of properly managed forests, which do not have exactly the same parameters, composition and structure of the situation before management, but establish forest communities that maintain resilience (consequently, the ecological functions) and have high commercial value for the short, medium, and long term. Assuming that silvicultural treatments somehow imply forest domestication, the challenge of tropical forestry is to determine what is the acceptable limit of forest transformation. Driving a forest community to provide for human needs within ecological criteria does not necessarily imply harm to environmental conservation. Forest management focused on timber yields is questioned about the dilemma of maintaining the pre-intervention forest structure (and supposedly conserving biodiversity but not guaranteeing production) or driving the forest to maintain regular timber flows. However, the goals of these two objectives are not incompatible, and the implementation of “responsible management” will not involve drastic changes to current timber management practices or unrealistic costs [22]. This theoretical definition that is being proposed consists, therefore, in the evaluation of managed stands through the relationship, over the years, between the basal area of commercial and non-commercial species—as presented in Fig. 2. In this model, there is a region delimited by the angle α whose scarcity of commercial individuals makes timber management economically unviable. On the other

Fig. 2 Theorical model for the recovery of the stock of managed forests. Schema created by the author

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hand, the region defined by angle β indicates stands dominated by commercial individuals—which may occur naturally in some localities but, for the reality of the Brazilian Amazon, would be obtained through intensive silvicultural treatments, possibly leading to excessive simplification of the forest and compromising ecological functions. Between these two regions of the model, there is the area defined by angle θ, whose value is given by [θ = 90º—(α + β)] and ideally represents the range in which economic return and forest domestication are feasible and acceptable. Thus, the region (α + θ) meets ecological needs and is bounded by the “maximum ecologically acceptable change.“ In turn, the region (β + θ) meets production needs and is limited by the “minimum commercially viable recovery”. Therefore, a stand that, during the cycle interval, exhibited stock development within this zone could be considered a well-managed stand, as it ensured the desired timber production and, at the same time, the ecological integrity of the forest—thus approaching the definition of “sustainable forest management.” The angles α and β, which define θ, can vary depending on the successional stage of the managed forest, landscape, species, or families that dominate the forest, and the economic uses given to the species. In other words: forests in which most of the species or in which the naturally dominant species have commercial interest (as occurs in Indonesia, for example), the value of β is higher and these stands consequently demand less intensive interventions. On the other hand, forests with a scarcity of individuals or commercial species have higher α values and require more intensive silvicultural treatments to meet economic demands. Silvicultural intensification in natural forests should be interpreted as an effort for forest conservation [75]. Indeed, the maintenance, in the most natural state possible, of approximately 400 million hectares of tropical forests around the world officially designated for timber production will depend on silvicultural intensification in these stands [50]. Since a difference in the structure of the remaining stock is expected in relation to non-exploited forests, the sustainability of forest management should be evaluated through criteria that indicate a new relative balance of the forest structure [24]. Three parameters are suggested in this work that can guide the planning and intensity of application of silvicultural treatments in stands intended for timber production: (a) the use of ecological indices to avoid oversimplification of the community; (b) classification of species into management groups (that are approximately homogeneous as to biological and silvicultural behavior); and (c) regionalization of rules and standards that legally guide forest management.

9.1 Ecological Indices of Diversity It is known that forests managed for timber production by appropriate technical guidelines retain most of their biological diversity, as well as their ecological functions of sustaining the ecosystem [18, 51]. However, in general, stands tend to vary significantly in composition and structure when compared to undisturbed forests,

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since plant diversity in tropical forests is directly related to the process of natural regeneration of species [43]. Assuming that forest management demands further changes in the remaining stock as a function of silvicultural treatments to ensure the maintenance of the economic value of that forest, a current challenge is to define up to what limit it is acceptable to alter the composition of the forest [24]. The large number of species in tropical forests makes it difficult to visualize the structure and trends of populations, so the use of quantitative ecological indices becomes a useful tool [59]. These indices allow the identification of key species and comparison of diversity between areas through richness and evenness, variables corresponding, respectively, to the diversity of species, and how individuals are distributed among species [43]. In the scientific literature, there are several indexes and parameters that can be used to evaluate populations or plant communities, and the choice of the method to be adopted depends essentially on the questions that one intends to answer [17]. However, among the existing options, the Shannon Index (H’) is the most widely used because it combines richness and uniformity. Originated from the information theory, it assumes that all species were represented in the sample and will have its maximum value when each individual in the sample belongs to a different species [43]. The same authors point out that, despite being essential information for the sustainability of forest management, there is still little knowledge about how logging impacts floristic composition and species diversity in the medium and long term. In this sense, ecological indices, besides presenting potential to support and guide policies [59] that regulate forest activity, can also be used as parameters for managing forest stands. Within the theme of this work, the indices could be used as criteria, in conjunction with other parameters, to evaluate the quality of forest operation, in order to avoid excessive floristic simplification and/or to point out the acceptable limit of domestication of stands submitted to silvicultural treatments.

9.2 Management by Species Groups The life cycle characteristics of wood species vary significantly, both between species and in the life stages of individual trees: Different species may behave in different ways, and a given tree will require different amounts of light and other resources throughout its life [9]. Attiwill [5] considered that three attributes of plants are essential to their role in plant community development: (a) the method of arrival and persistence of species before and during a disturbance, (b) their ability to establish and grow to maturity in a competitive plant community; (c) the time required for species to reach critical life states (such as time until a tree is able to reproduce). In this sense, a fundamental step in planning sustainable forestry systems is to know the ecology of the species [75]. Tree growth rate responds at the species level,

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followed by patterns described by functional groups [48]. Since it is possible that the ecological requirements of wood species and their silvicultural behaviors are similar at certain life stages [9], forest management should seek to use these data to categorize “species groups” that can be managed by the same silvicultural system, thus optimizing the harvesting process. According to Vasconcelos Neto et al. [69], the functional grouping of species can also facilitate the modeling of stand dynamics and simulations of forest production—tools capable of producing information that effectively contribute to the definition and operationalization of forest management practices, for both productivist and conservationist aspects. Despite all the technical benefits, there is still no consensus on the criteria to be used in the process of grouping species. The lack of information on the ecology of timber species [9, 75] and their potential for development under silvicultural treatment conditions [49] also increase the challenge of this practice. However, some initiatives have already been made in theoretical terms [13, 69, 71], so that these studies should be stimulated and tested in the field for validation.

9.3 Regionalization of Rules and Standards Forestry companies alone cannot meet all of society’s expectations, especially regarding the issue of development of the rural environment where their activities are inserted. Such objectives are mainly of the governmental scope and also affected by factors external to the management enterprise [28]. Sustainable yield-oriented forest management is a desirable form of Amazonian land use and is applicable in many subregions of the Amazon, but not for its entire extent [29]. Furthermore, it is not possible that a single regulatory system will be sufficient for the adequacy of forest management to the varied ecological, environmental, and social contexts of the Amazon [24]. Although Brazilian legislation prohibits exploitation of any species that occurs (in that forest) at a density lower than 0.03 commercial individuals/ha, it is important to understand the density pattern of species at local and regional scales to avoid that species that occur at low density have their population viability jeopardized by management [9]. In general, greater species’ range of distribution implies greater resilience to exploitation. However, since a given species may present high density in one part of its area of occurrence, but be rare in another, knowing in which area of the landscape the species occurs with greater or lesser density guides how silvicultural practices should be spatially concentrated [9]. According to the same authors, forest governance is complex, because it involves different stakeholders, involving various sectors of society. This is because forests are resources used to obtain goods and services in many ways by groups in society— including their conversion into other forms of capital. Thus, forest policy must be grounded in technical bases that safely and effectively guide the existence and maintenance of a forest estate [67]. The success of the

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Brazilian government’s pro-forest agenda depends on effectively dealing with the land tenure issue (still a serious problem in the Amazon region) and the inefficiencies of the regulatory system [9]. There is a pressing need for management objectives to be defined for each context of the Amazon region, and the balance point between production and preservation can (and probably will) vary depending on the type of property and the definition of “sustainability” adopted [9]. The Legal Amazon covers about 5 million square kilometers, with high spatial heterogeneity of ecological, environmental, and social and economic conditions. There is no scientific basis for a single prescription of a management regime to be applied throughout the region; the limits and methods of forest exploitation should be flexible, based on growth rates and forest production potentials at smaller scales, and adapted to the specific objectives of each management [24]. In this sense, it is believed that a technically optimal forest management regime should be tailored to each particular stand. Following some basic guidelines, forest managers should have greater flexibility in forest management, and biophysical conditions should be the indicators of the limit of possible intervention in each stand—including indicating forests or species whose harvest intensity could be higher or lower than currently planned. Thus, the generalization of rules seems to keep Brazilian forestry below its potential by over-exploiting some stands and under-exploiting the productive potential of others. Therefore, it is suggested that technical-scientific justifications should be used to regionalize rules and standards, adapting silvicultural systems to local realities. An interesting fact is that this adjustment of forest regulation does not require great efforts: Assuming that each active forest enterprise already accumulates a large amount of data (as a function of permanent plots and forest censuses), the adequate use of this information could subsidize these regional refinements of rules and standards, encouraging the development of tropical forestry.

10 Conclusion and Next Steps Forest management will always have some impact on the forest, no matter how well it is done [28]. Judging and rating the effects of human interventions (management and/or stewardship) on natural ecosystems will always carry a degree of uncertainty and subjectivity, related to the acceptability and socio-economic benefits of the interventions [5]. Forest conservation is a need that must be aligned with the growing demand for wood. Tropical forests are renewable resources, which within certain criteria can be managed and still retain important ecological functions and almost all of their diversity and species richness [5, 51]. In addition, selectively logged forests have significant environmental and conservationist values (perhaps the conservation of large, well-managed areas is even more effective than intact but fragmented forests), so that forest management is the

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“middle way” between land use conversion soil protection and total protection and deserves more attention from researchers, conservation organizations, and legislators [18, 43, 51]. Managing natural forests, in addition to being an activity of economic interest, is also a way of valuing (culturally and socially) this resource and can promote its conservation. However, the effectiveness and, mainly, the continuity of this forest management depends on the volumetric sustainability—that is, the regularity of the wood production. To this end, silvicultural systems adapted to tropical forests must be designed and implemented, making it necessary for forest managers to monitor the forest regeneration process, in order to guarantee that the community increment is composed of a certain proportion of species of commercial interest, in order to that forest regeneration must have a “minimum commercial value” that economically justifies the continuity of logging. When the regeneration process does not meet economic demands, silvicultural treatments must be carried out to favor the development of species of commercial interest. The objective of these treatments should be to establish wood stocks of high economic interest. For this, in addition to favoring the increase of commercial species, forest managers must also be aware of the average diameter of the stand, seeking to lead forest communities with a good proportion of large trees. These measures favor the regeneration of properly managed forests, which do not have exactly the same parameters, composition, and structure of the situation prior to management, but establish forest communities that conserve resilience (consequently, ecological functions) and have high commercial value for the short, medium and long term. Assuming that silvicultural treatments imply, in some way, the domestication of forests, the challenge of tropical silviculture is to determine what is the acceptable limit of transformation of forests. Within ecological criteria, conducting a forest community to provide for human needs within ecological criteria does not necessarily imply damage to environmental conservation. Forest management focused on timber yields is questioned regarding the dilemma of maintaining the pre-intervention forest structure (and supposedly conserving biodiversity, but without guaranteeing production) or managing the forest to maintain regular wood flows. However, the goals of these two objectives are not incompatible, and the implementation of “responsible management” will not imply drastic changes in current timber management practices or unrealistic costs [22]. The silvicultural intensification in natural forests must be interpreted as an effort for forest conservation [75]. With the intensification of silvicultural practices in natural areas, seeking to use natural resources within limits that do not affect the ecological processes of the forests, it will be possible to socially and economically develop the Amazon region, which still has economic sectors far below its potential [38].

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21. Espada ALV et al (2012) Manejo florestal e Exploração de Impacto Reduzido em florestas naturais de produção da Amazônia. Informativo Técnico 1. Instituto Floresta Tropical, Belém, p 31 22. Fredericksen TS, Putz FE (2003) Silvicultural intensification for tropical forest conservation. Biodivers Conserv 12:1445–1453 23. Freitas JVF, Pinard MA (2008) Applying ecological knowledge to decisions about seed tree retention in selective logging in tropical forests. For Ecol Manage 256:1434–1442 24. Gardingen PR, Valle D, Thompson I (2006) Evaluation of yield regulation options for primary forest in Tapajós National Forest, Brazil. For Ecol Manage 231:184–195 25. De Graff NR, Poels RLH, Van Rompaey RSAR (1999) Effect of silvicultural treatment on growth and mortality of rainforest in Surinam over long periods. For Ecol Manage 124:123–135 26. Grogan J, Vidal E, Schulze M (2006) Apoio científico para os padrões de manejo de madeira na Floresta Amazônica: a questão da sustentabilidade. Ciência & Ambiente 32:103–117 27. Hawken P, Lovins A, Lovins LH (1999) Capitalismo Natural: criando a próxima Revolução Industrial. Editora Cultrix, São Paulo, p 358 28. Higman S et al (2015) Manual do Manejo Florestal Sustentável. Editora UFV, Viçosa, p 398 29. Higuchi N (1994) Utilização e manejo dos recursos madeireiros das florestas tropicais úmidas. Acta Amazon 24:275–288 30. Holmes TP et al (2001) Financial and ecological indicators of reduced impact logging performance in the eastern Amazon. For Ecol Manage 5583:1–18 31. IBGE. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Censo Demográfico 2010: Sinopse do Censo e Resultados Preliminares do Universo. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 2010. Disponível em: . Acesso em 11 de junho de 2015 32. Jennings SB et al (2001) Desempenho comparativo de mudas de espécies florestais em gradiente microclimático criado experimentalmente. In: Silva JNM, Carvalho JOPC, Yared JAG (eds) A silvicultura na Amazônia oriental: contribuições do projeto Embrapa/DFID. Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, Belém, p 459 33. Krisnawati H, Wahjono D (2010) Effect of post-logging silvicultural treatment on growth rates of residual stand in a tropical forest. J Forestry Res 7(2):112–124 34. Levis C et al (2017) Persistent effects of pre-Columbian plant domestication on Amazonian forest composition. Science 355:925–931 35. Machado, S. A.; Figueiredo Filho, A. (2009) Dendrometria. 2ª edição. Guarapuava: Editora Unicentro, 316 p. 36. Macpherson AJ et al (2009) Eficiência de serrarias na Amazônia: uma análise por envoltória de dados. Scientia Forestalis 37(84):415–425 37. Mazzei L et al (2010) Above-ground biomass dynamics after reduced-impact logging in the Eastern Amazon. For Ecol Manage 259:367–373 38. Meirelles Filho, J. (2006) O livro de ouro da Amazônia. 5ª edição. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Ediouro, 442 p. 39. Noce R et al (2010) Brazilian sawn wood price and income elasticity. Revista Cerne, Lavras 16(3):259–265 40. Noss RF (2001) Beyond Kyoto: forest management in a time of rapid climate change. Conserv Biol 15(03):578–590 41. Odum EP (2012) Ecologia. Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro, p 460 42. Odum EP, Barrett GW (2011) Fundamentos de Ecologia, 5ª edição. Cengage Learning, São Paulo, p 612 43. Oliveira LC et al (2005) Efeito da exploração de madeira e tratamentos silviculturais na composição florística e diversidade de espécies em uma área de 136ha na Floresta Nacional do Tapajós, Belterra, Pará. Scientia Forestalis 69:62–76 44. Oliveira LC et al (2009) Eficiência de anelamento aplicado como tratamento silvicultural em florestas manejadas na Amazônia ocidental. Comunicado Técnico 172. Embrapa Acre, Rio Branco, p 9 45. Paiva JB (2015) A regeneração natural em plantios com Cabreúva (Myroxylum peruiferum L.f.). p 85. Trabalho de Conclusão de Curso (Bacharel em Engenharia Florestal)—Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”, Universidade de São Paulo. Piracicaba, 2015

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46. Pearce D, Putz FE, Vanclay JK (2003) Sustainable forestry in the tropics: panacea or folly? For Ecol Manage 172:229–247 47. Pereira D et al (2010) Fatos Florestais da Amazônia: 2010. Instituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente da Amazônia (Imazon), Belém, p 124 48. Peña-Claros M et al (2008) Beyond reduced-impact logging: silvicultural treatments to increase growth rates of tropical trees. For Ecol Manage 256:1458–1467 49. Peña-Claros M et al (2008) Regeneration of commercial tree species following silvicultural treatments in a moist tropical forest. For Ecol Manage 255:1283–1293 50. Putz FE (2015) Intensification of tropical silviculture. J Trop For Sci 27(3):285–288 51. Putz FE et al (2012) Sustaining conservation values in selectively logged tropical forests: the attained and the attainable. Conservation Letters 1–8 52. Reyes-Garcia V et al (2017) Small-scale societies and environmental transformations: coevolutionary dynamics. Ecol Soc 22 53. Ribeiro NR et al (2002) Manual de silvicultura tropical. Universidade Eduardo Mondlane/FAO, Maputo, p 123 54. Rodrigues RR, Brancalion PHS, Isernhagen I (2009) Pacto pela restauração da Mata Atlântica: referencial dos conceitos e ações de restauração florestal. Laboratório de Ecologia e Restauração Florestal (LERF), Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” (ESALQ); Instituto BioAtlântica, São Paulo, p 264 55. Roopsind A et al (2017) Quantifying uncertainty about forest recovery 32-years after selective logging in Suriname. For Ecol Manage 391:246–255 56. Ruslandi, Cropper JR, WP, Putz FE (2017) Effects of silvicultural intensification on timber yields, carbon dynamics and tree species composition in a dipterocarp forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia: and individual-tree-based model simulation. Forest Ecol Manage 390:104–118 57. SFB. Serviço Florestal Brasileiro (2013) Florestas do Brasil em resumo—2013: dados de 2007–2012. Serviço Florestal Brasileiro, Brasília, p 188 58. Sabogal C et al (2006) Manejo florestal empresarial na Amazônia brasileira: restrições e oportunidades. CIFOR, Belém, p 72 59. Salomão RP, Santana AC, Costa Neto SV (2012) Construção de índices de valor de importância de espécies para análise fitossociológica de floresta ombrófila através de análise multivariada. Revista Floresta 42(1):115–128 60. Schneider RR et al (2000) Sustainable Amazon: limitations and opportunities for rural development. Partnership Series, n. 1, World Bank and Imazon, Brasília, p 63 61. Schulze M et al (2008) How rare is too rare to harvest? Management challenges posed by timber species occurring at low densities in the Brazilian Amazon. For Ecol Manage 256:1443–1457 62. Schwartz G et al (2013) Post-harvesting silvicultural treatments in logging gaps: a comparison between enrichment planting and tending of natural regeneration. For Ecol Manage 293:57–64 63. Sist P (2001) Why RIL won’t work by minimum-diameter cutting alone. ITTO Tropical Forest Update 11(2):5 64. Souza AL, Jardim FCS (s/d) Sistemas silviculturais aplicados às florestas tropicais. Departamento de Engenharia Florestal—Universidade Federal de Viçosa (DEF/UFV), Viçosa, p 63 65. Souza DV et al (2015) Crescimento de espécies arbóreas em uma floresta natural de terra firme após a colheita de madeira e tratamentos silviculturais, no município de Paragominas, Pará, Brasil. Revista Ciência Florestal, Santa Maria 25(4):873–883 66. Stuble KL, Fick SE, Young T (2017) Every restoration is unique: testing year effects and site effects as drivers of initial restoration trajectories. J Appl Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1111/13652664.12861 67. Taylor CJ (1969) Introdução à Silvicultura Tropical. Editora Edgard Blücher Ltda, São Paulo, p 200 68. Uehara THK et al (2011) Poder público e consumo de madeira: desafios e alternativas para a gestão responsável da madeira amazônica. Programa Gestão Pública e Cidadania, Fundação Getúlio Vargas, São Paulo, p 128

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69. Vasconcelos Neto EL et al (2016) Ecological and functional clustering of forest species in the South western Amazonia. Revista Árvore 40(6):1093–1100 70. Vidal E, West AP, Putz FE (2016) Recovery of biomass and merchantable timber volumes twenty years after conventional and reduced-impact logging in Amazonian Brazil. For Ecol Manage 378:1–8 71. Vidal EJ (2004) Dinâmica de florestas manejadas e sob exploração convencional na Amazônia Oriental. Tese (Doutorado)—Escola de Engenharia de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, f 148 72. Villegas Z et al (2009) Silvicultural treatments enhance growth rates of future crop trees in a tropical dry forest. For Ecol Manage 258:971–977 73. Wadsworth FH (2001) Not just reduced but productive logging impacts. Int For Rev 3(1):51–53 74. Wadsworth FH, Zweede JC (2006) Liberation: acceptable production of tropical forest timber. For Ecol Manage 233:45–51 75. Zarin DJ et al (2005) As florestas produtivas nos neotrópicos: conservação por meio do manejo sustentável? IEB—Instituto Internacional de Educação do Brasil, São Paulo, Peirópolis, Brasília 76. Zimmerman BL, Kormos CF (2012) Prospects for sustainable logging in tropical forests. Bioscience 62(5):479–487

Insights About the Use of Wood for the Generation of Clean and Sustainable Energy in Thermoelectric Plants Álison Moreira da Silva, Fabíola Martins Delatorre, Miquéias de Souza Reis, Fernanda Aparecida Nazário de Carvalho, Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Elias Costa de Souza, Artur Queiroz Lana, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck Cupertino, José Otávio Brito, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior

Abstract For years, wood was the main source of energy for mankind, and nowadays there has been a greater appreciation for this energy matrix, due to environmental and strategic issues. This research paper presents an analysis of the current situation Á. M. da Silva · A. K. S. Pereira · E. C. de Souza · J. O. Brito University of São Paulo, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (USP/ESALQ), Av. Padua Dias, 11, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] A. K. S. Pereira e-mail: [email protected] E. C. de Souza e-mail: [email protected] J. O. Brito e-mail: [email protected] F. M. Delatorre (B) · M. de Souza Reis · G. F. M. Cupertino · A. F. D. Júnior Department of Forest and Wood Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES), Av. Governador Lindemberg, 316, Jerônimo Monteiro, Espírito Santo 29550-000, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] M. de Souza Reis e-mail: [email protected] A. F. D. Júnior e-mail: [email protected] F. A. N. de Carvalho Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Minas Gerais—IFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil E. C. de Souza Department of Technology and Natural Resources (DTRN), University of the State of Pará (UEPA), Campus VI, Highway PA-125, Angelim, Paragominas 68625-000, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_4

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of the feasibility of using wood for the generation of electric energy in Brazil, a developing country. Technical and economic elements are addressed, based on the use of wood for this purpose. Thus, aspects of wood are highlighted, seeking to elucidate its importance and advantages among renewable sources, as well as the costs involved in energy generation, compared to other fuels. Similarly, it includes surveys involved in the use of biomass for the generation of thermoelectricity, culminating in a mention about the perspectives of the forestry sector on the granting of new licenses for the installation of new thermoelectric plants in the country. There was a growing interest in the inclusion of forest biomass in the generation of thermoelectricity in Brazil, considering the incentives of environmental and economic nature, which can be considered the main drivers for the use of biomass for electricity cogeneration. Regarding the advancement of the forestry sector, the perspective is that there will be an intensification of the use of forest residues already available, as well as the establishment of forests specifically destined for the generation of thermoelectricity. Future scenarios will depend mainly on governmental decisions related to the tariff policies associated with the generation and distribution of electric energy in the country. Keywords Biomass · Forest biomass · Electricity · Thermal power plant · Fuel · Thermochemical conversion

1 Introduction The production of energy through the use of fossil fuels culminated in an unsafe and extremely harmful matrix to the environment. With regard to the environmental factor, since 1970, the concern about the greenhouse effect and the resulting climatic emergency, associated with volatility in the supply and price of fossil fuels, highlight the importance of making renewable sources more representative in the world energy matrix and have raised discussions on sustainable development and the future of human life on the planet. Thus, many countries began to consider the need for changes, intensifying the inclusion of other energy sources, especially renewable ones, including wood [3, 43, 51, 57]. For thousands of years, the wood used as firewood was the main source of energy. Historically, this contributed to the development of humanity in all aspects, having been its first source of energy, initially used for heating and cooking food, and later being present in the evolution of technologies [3, 14, 54]. Over the years, not only solid fuels but also liquid and gaseous fuels started being used, mainly in processes for the generation of thermal, mechanical and electrical energy [3, 54].

A. Q. Lana Gerdau Aços Brasil, Bioreducer Specialist, Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

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Recently, there has been a quest to resume the generation of energy from wood. Several industries and agricultural sectors are opting for forest biomass to produce thermal energy instead of fossil fuels [11, 54], for example, the complementation of hydroelectric generation by thermoelectric plants with the combustion of wood produced by sustainable management of forests [52]. The forms of biomass that deserve special mention in terms of importance in the national context are charcoal, briquettes, pellets, and chips. Charcoal in Brazil, in addition to still being used in some regions for obtaining residential and urban energy, has great relevance in several segments of the industry, mainly steel, metallurgy, and cement. In steel industry, a quarter of pig iron production and half of the ferroalloy production is based on charcoal [40, 55]. However, one must consider the obstacles to be overcome, related to the institutional area arising from the very nature of this form of energy, such as the implementation and continuity of thermoelectric plants, the balance between supply and demand, increased use, and, consequently, benefits of socio-environmental issues related to the development of more advanced technologies. Thermoelectric generators are being spread worldwide as a promising source of energy, operating alongside domestic heating devices, such as wood pellets, which are widely spread in Europe, for having half the price when compared to fossil fuels, high calorific power, easy transport and storage, besides being 100% ecological [23, 35]. The most consolidated technology in Brazil for generating electricity from biomass is the steam cycle on small scales (thermoelectric), with the exclusive burning of waste or combined with other fuels [13, 50]. Therefore, forestry crops have very promising potential as a source of electricity. The high productivity obtained by commercial plantations, mainly of Pinus and Eucalyptus, can reduce costs for electricity generation, making it a more attractive investment [13, 52, 56]. Forest biomass has characteristics that allow it to be used as an alternative source of energy, either by burning wood directly, or as charcoal, or by using waste and using essential oils, tar, and pyrolytic acid [9, 36]. In this work, we review the sustainable use of wood for power generation and thermoelectricity, approaching the current scenario of the application of wood for energy, weighing the competitive and economic advantages and disadvantages of using wood for energy purposes, wood as a raw material for generation and thermoelectricity, and the sustainability of the use of wood for energy generation.

2 Methodology The study was conducted with data collected in the specialized literature of the related area. Different sources were established to generate the databases. Information made available by official sources such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Brazilian Tree Industry (IBÁ), Energy Research Company (EPE), National Energy Policy Council (CNPE), National Electric Energy Agency

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Fig. 1 Methodological summary applied to obtain data and information. Source Authors (2022)

(ANEEL), US Energy Information Administration (EIA), World Health Organization (WHO), and Brazilian Society of Pneumonia and Phthisiology (SBPT). In addition, reference journals were investigated, such as Nature Energy and the Science Direct and Springer database. The focus was given to the survey of aspects related to the use of wood for energy generation purposes, with an emphasis on thermoelectricity, investigating the main advantages and disadvantages of this raw material, the costs involved and the prospects for the growth of this sector in the view of the main national agents. The data obtained were organized and analyzed with a view to detailing, application, and better understanding for readers (Fig. 1).

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Current Scenario of the Application of Wood for Energy The global energy matrix has changed in recent decades, mainly due to environmental problems generated by the use of fossil fuels, which emit significant amounts of sulfur, which causes acid rain, and CO2 , which is the most common greenhouse gas (GHG) and the main contributor to the average rise in global temperature and climate emergency [37]. Due to these harmful environmental effects, the participation of alternative sources, mainly from forest biomass, due to its simplicity and tradition of use, has received special attention. In the last few years, there has been a growing production of wood for energy purposes (Fig. 2), in 2021, the use of biomass for industry and residence was 43.6% and 10.8%, respectively [17, 19], unlike the last century, which had been marked

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Fig. 2 Evolution of world production of wood for energy. Source Adapted from IEA [28]

by a worldwide reduction in the supply and consumption of biomass, and in particular wood for energy, since the growing global consumption of energy had been substantially met by the use of mineral coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear sources, and hydroelectricity [24, 25]. Driven by crises involving the price of oil and associated with the announcement that this would be a finite resource [2], energy consumption worldwide grew 2.3% in 2018 (Fig. 3), almost double the average growth rate for 2011, driven by a robust global economy that expanded 3.7% in 2018, a higher pace compared to the average annual growth of 3.5% observed in 2011, due to greater heating and cooling needs in some parts of the world [29].

Fig. 3 Average annual growth in demand for primary energy for fuel, 2011–2018. Source Adapted from IEA [29]

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The biggest energy gains came from natural gas, which emerged as the fuel of choice last year, accounting for almost 45% of the increase in total energy demand. Demand for all fuels has increased, with fossil fuels reaching almost 70% of growth for the second consecutive year. Renewable energies have grown at a double-digit pace, but are still not fast enough to meet the growing demand for electricity worldwide [29]. According to the U.S Energy Information Administration, in 2019, renewable energies, which grew more than 4%, met about a quarter of the growth in total primary energy demand. This was largely due to the expansion in electricity generation, where renewable energies accounted for 45% of growth in 2018. Demand for oil grew 1.3% and coal consumption grew 0.7%; together, oil and coal were responsible for a quarter of the growth in global demand [29]. Coal-fired power generation increased by 3% in 2018 (similar to the increase in 2017) and for the first time surpassed the 10,000 TWh mark. Coal remains the largest source of energy, with 38% of total generation [29]. About 50% of all Latin America uses wood as fuel [21, 22], and the areas composed of trees planted in Brazil correspond to the majority of landowners who allocate wood to the pulp and paper sector, followed by the steel industry and charcoal, which correspond to the second largest landowners with planted trees. Other products of wood origin that plan their planting in a diversified way, take the largest share of the demand for land with planted forests on the market (Fig. 4). Certainly, official data on the supply and consumption of wood for energy in Brazil refer to partial accounting, since part of this fuel is not computed, as it is obtained and applied informally in the residential sector, agricultural sector and part of the industrial sector, mainly in more remote areas, in which the fuel used comes from native forests, exploited legally or not. Sectors that occupy the use of the so-called industrial wood, in which biomass is used to sustain the supply, are a good means of obtaining greater precision regarding the statistical data on wood for energy in Brazil and abroad [45, 12]. According to the Brazilian Tree Industry—IBÁ [26], in 2020, total wood consumption from planted trees reached 216.6 million cubic meters Fig. 4 Composition of the area of trees planted by type of owners. Source Adapted from IBÁ [26]

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Fig. 5 Wood consumption by the Brazilian industrial sector. Source Adapted from IBÁ [26]

(Fig. 5). The pulp and paper sector was the main consumer of this wood (51.4%), with the generation of energy, represented by industrial firewood and charcoal, in second place, with 36% of the total.

3.2 Competitive and Economic Advantages of Using Wood for Energy Realistically, in addition to environmental advantages, the use of wood as an energy source is associated with economic advantages, as shown in Table 1. It presents average values of fuel prices, correlated with the energy contained, in which it is possible to notice a great competitive potential for wood. By using consumption data for some fossil fuels and transforming them into wood equivalents, according to the method proposed by Miranda [42], it is found that an annual total of about 100 thousand cubic meters of this biomass would be necessary (Table 2). When considering only half of consumption, that is, about 50 million cubic meters, it would be necessary to plant about 2.78 million hectares of forests to sustain the supply, according to productivity data of 36.8 m3 ha−1 year−1 provided by IBÁ [26]. This would represent around 39% of the already existing area of planted forests in the country, or about 1.5% of the area destined for pasture that is largely degraded [16] and could be recovered by the commercially planted florets. In the social aspect, there

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Table 1 Average cost of the Giga Joule contained in the fuel Bulk density (kg m−3 )

U$

Firewood

23 m−3

390

0.33321

0.01293*

25.770

Fuel oil

575 t−1

1000

7.96154

0.04015

198.295

Diesel oil

846 m−3

840

5.43857

0.04229

128.602

Natural gas

519 ×

0.74

3.78729

0.04158

91.084

10–3

m3

Price (R$ kg−1 )

NHV (GJ kg−1 )

R$ GJ−1

Fuel

Source Energy Research Company—EPE [17, 19] Commercial dollar = R$ 5.40, year-based data 2022 * Considered at 30% moisture Where: NHV = net heating value

Table 2 Fuel consumption by the industrial sector and equivalence in forest biomass

Source

Consumption (103 toe)

Equivalence t. wood (103 )

m3 . wood* (103 ) 70,169.36

Natural gas

8701

35,084.68

Diesel oil

1095

4415.32

Fuel oil

1508

6080.65

Liquefied petroleum gas

1087

4383.06

8766.12

Total

12,391

49,963.71

99,927.42

8830.64 12,161.3

Where: values at Toe = ton of oil equivalent Source Energy Research Company—EPE [17, 19]. Miranda [42] *Density considered to be 0.5 t m−3 103 .

would be the potential to generate more than 536 thousand direct and 1.5 million indirect jobs with the implementation of the activity, based on data from IBÁ [26]. Miranda [42] explains that the generation of thermal energy through the use of fossil fuels, when compared to the use of forest biomass, would have a higher cost of at least 34%.

3.3 Wood as a Raw Material for the Generation of Thermoelectricity The guidelines and bases of energy policy in Brazil are established by the National Energy Policy Council (CNPE), which aims through Law No. 12.490 of 2011 to encourage the generation of electric energy from biomass and by-products of biofuel production, which are clean, renewable, and complementary to the hydraulic source. With this reference in mind, interest in the use of biomass to generate thermoelectricity is increased.

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EPE [17, 19], in 2021, transport, industries, the energy sector, residences, services, and the agricultural sector were responsible for 0.4, 37.4, 6.8, 26.4, 15.7, and 5.9% of energy consumption in Brazil, respectively. In 2021, the internal energy supply (total energy available in the country) reached 301.5 Mtoe, an increase of 4.5% in comparison to the previous year [17, 19]. The share of renewables in the energy matrix was marked by the drop in the supply of hydraulic energy, associated with water scarcity and the activation of thermoelectric plants [17, 19]. The increase in water and wind sources in the generation of electricity (zero loss) and biodiesel contributed to the matrix Brazilian energy sector remained at a renewable level of 44.7%, much higher than that observed in the rest of the world [17, 19]. In the case of electricity, there was a growth in domestic supply of 25.7 TWh (+ 3.9%) compared to 2020. The main highlight was the advance generation based on natural gas (+ 46.2%). Hydraulic generation reduced 8.5%, following the drop in imports (− 6.5%), whose main origin is Itaipu [17, 19]. In the same period, electricity in the country increased by 1.4%. The sectors that contributed the most to this increase in absolute values were the residential sector, which expanded its consumption by 1.8 TWh (+ 1.3%). followed by energy, which grew 1.7 TWh (+ 5.4%), industrial. 1.2 TWh (+ 0.6%), and agriculture, 1.1 TWh (+ 3.9%) [18]. For comparison, the generation of electricity from firewood for the industrial sector between 2017 and 2018 increased by 0.5%. In the internal energy supply in 2017, firewood and charcoal accounted for 8%, and in 2018, there was an increase to 8.4% [18] due to global electricity generation and for playing a crucial role in sectors such as iron and steel. The share of thermal generation from biomass in Brazil is in second place (33.9%), with natural gas (34.0%) coming first as a source of energy generation [18]. It is important to note that the lye corresponds to the biomass residue contained in the black liquor, a result of the cellulose production process, which essentially consists of lignin, and this biomass is, therefore, part of the wood obtained from the forests planted for that purpose [38]. So, considering the addition of the energy generated from the direct use of wood in the production plants and that from the combustion of lye, the contribution of total forest biomass to electricity generation in 2021 was 52.416 GWh, occupying the third place, coming from the hydroelectric plant (362.818 GWh) and natural gas (86.957 GWh) [17, 19]. The important inclusion of electrical energy of thermal origin in Brazil reflects the number of thermoelectric plants installed in the national territory (Fig. 6a). According to the National Electric Energy Agency—ANEEL [1], there are 566 plants in Brazil using this type of fuel, the majority of which are from sugarcane bagasse. Also according to ANEEL, there are about 58 thermoelectric plants using forest waste, 18 using lye (black liquor), 8 using charcoal and 404 using sugarcane bagasse, among others (ANEEL, 2019). Figure 6b shows the thermoelectric plants of forest biomass (wood residues and charcoal) existing in Brazil, with the greatest powers being the Guaçu Thermoelectric Plant, located in Mato Grosso, and the Lages Thermoelectric Plant in Santa Catarina, with powers of 30.000.00 KW and 28.000.00 KW, respectively. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) projects that renewable energy will provide nearly half of the world’s electricity by 2050, collectively increasing to 49% in electricity generation by 2050 [27].

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Fig. 6 Thermoelectric plants in the Brazilian Energy Sector, where a = all thermoelectric plants in Brazil; and b the wood waste and charcoal plants present in Brazil. Source EPE [17, 19]

The share of each source in thermoelectric generation in 2022 is shown in Fig. 7; Brazil has a predominantly renewable electricity matrix, and represents 78.1% of the domestic supply of electricity in the country, which results from the sum of the values referring to national production plus imports, which are essentially of renewable origin. Biomass ranks second with 27% of the importance level [17, 19]. In general, both industrial and forest waste, commonly called forest biomass, until recently had no use. However, with the progressive increases in fossil fuel prices, forest biomass, due to its characteristics, has come to be seen not as an undesirable material, but as a source of energy, mainly by the industries that use wood as a raw material. The energy crisis in the country, due to the low reservoir level of hydroelectric plants resulting from the lack of rain, may represent a good opportunity for forestry. One of the alternatives would be the generation of thermoelectric energy using forest biomass, which has an average cost of 40% less than the fossil fuels used in thermal plants, in addition to generating less environmental impact [40, 49]. Fig. 7 Participation of each source in thermoelectric generation in 2021. Source Adapted from EPE [17, 19]

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In 2018, the total anthropogenic emissions associated with the Brazilian energy matrix reached 416.1 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (Mt CO2 -eq), the majority (192.7 Mt CO2 -eq) being generated in the transport sector. In terms of emissions per inhabitant, each Brazilian, producing and consuming energy in 2018, emitted an average of 2.0 t CO2 -eq, that is, about 7.5 times less than an American and 3 times less than an European or a Chinese, according to the latest data released by the International Energy Agency [29]. Despite further progress in energy efficiency and the decarbonisation of power generation, these measures have so far been insufficient to contain the rise in CO2 emissions from construction operations, which have averaged around 1% per year over the past decade [28]. 2020 was an exception when direct and indirect CO2 emissions from construction operations dropped to around 9 Gt, mainly due to the negative impact of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on business activity [28]. However, this drop is temporary as global CO2 emissions from the construction sector rebound in 2021 to levels above 2019 as lockdowns are lifted. The rapid deployment in the construction industry of clean energy technologies and behavioral changes, supported by innovation strategies, has the potential to significantly reduce carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions by 2030 and paves the way to achieving building inventory targets, with zero carbon under the IEA Zero net emissions by the 2050 scenario (NZE scenario). Figure 8 shows that by 2050, the global construction area will grow by 75%, with about 80% of the increase in emerging markets and developing economies.

Fig. 8 Global buildings sector CO2 emissions and floor area in the Net Zero Scenario, 2020–2050. Source Adapted from [28]

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The Brazilian electricity sector emitted, on average, only 88.0 kh CO2 to produce 1 MWh, a low rate when compared to countries in the European Union, USA, and China [18]. It is crucial to highlight that according to the World Health Organization (WHO), 90% of the world population is exposed to concentrations of pollutants above the recommended limits. Air pollution, both outdoors and indoors, causes approximately 7 million deaths each year. Around 80% of deaths are due to noncommunicable diseases and 20% due to respiratory infections, mainly pneumonia. Of this total, about 3.8 million deaths are attributable to the inhalation of smoke produced by the burning of biomass (wood and other organic wastes) inside the homes. The most affected populations are women and children from rural areas or the urban periphery, with 90% of these deaths occurring mainly in the poorest countries in Asia, Africa, and America [53, 58]. It is also important to mention that investments in thermoelectric plants increase every year, given the search by companies for self-sufficiency in their processes [39, 46]. An example of this is the company Innova, a resin manufacturer located in Triunfo, RS, which has approved with ANEEL a thermoelectric plant for 30 Mw based on wood chips as the main fuel. Although this generation represents less than 1% of the energy demand in Rio Grande do Sul, for biomass plants (burning organic matter), it is considered a large complex [32, 33, 48]. Also noteworthy is the Onça Pintada Project located in Três Lagoas, MS, which will have the capacity to make 50 MWh of electricity available to the national system in January 2021. In comparative terms, this generation will have the capacity to supply approximately 300 thousand inhabitants based on eucalyptus trunks and roots [4, 6, 8].

3.4 The Sustainability of the Use of Wood for Energy Generation In the current scenario, the pressure made by some institutions in favor of a cleaner energy matrix has been gaining strength, fueling a greater search for the use of renewable fuels such as biomass [7]. The evolution of the energy policy of the countries, because of the growing demand, made these sources become a sustainable alternative for the generation of energy, replacing fossil fuels. Biomass is one of the most important renewable energy sources in the world [44] being used by man since the beginning. The use of forest biomass, especially wood from planted forests, is an important means of supplying the energy sector for industrial and domestic use [34]. The use of wood for energy generation contributes to the environment and to the fulfillment of the “2030 Agenda”, proposed by the United Nations (UN) in 2015, in three of its 17 Sustainable Development Goals, namely: “7—Clean Energy”, “11—Sustainable Cities and Communities” and “13—Action Against Global Climate Change”. In terms of sustainability, Brazilian forest production is one of the largest in the world ranking, presenting favorable conditions for growth and investment in lignocellulosic

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biomass for energy purposes [5], leaving the uncertain energy matrix of fossil fuels in the background, adopting clean and renewable practices. Although energy forests for logging are deployed to the detriment of economic interests, they also offer a combination of ecosystem services. Forests have an important capacity to accumulate carbon (carbon sequestration) in the form of biomass [59], which is a fundamental function to minimize the impacts that promote climate change [41]. Even in the face of some research that proves the efficiency of wood for the energy sector, the adoption of this practice still generates resistance. In this sense, the adoption of public policies that encourage the use of renewable energy sources is a promising alternative to mitigate the problems of energy insecurity and acceleration of environmental impacts. Fostering research that makes it possible to improve techniques for better employability.

4 Conclusion The interest in the inclusion of forest biomass in the scope of thermoelectricity generation in Brazil is growing, with environmental and economic incentives being the main responsible. It was detected that in the last few years there has been an increased production of wood destined for energy purposes, and in 2018 the generation of energy from charcoal increased by 3%. Considering only half of the consumption, that is, about 55 million cubic meters, it would be necessary to plant about 3.06 million hectares of forests to sustain the supply, representing around 39% of what already exists. In the social aspect, there would be potential to generate approximately 400 thousand direct and indirect jobs with the implementation of the activity. Finally, the use of wood for energy generation can increase the energy supply from renewable sources and, at the same time, reduce environmental impacts.

References 1. Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica—ANEEL (Brazil). Matriz de Energia Elétrica. http:// www.aneel.gov.br/aplicacoes/capacidadebrasil/OperacaoCapacidadeBrasil.cfm/. Accessed 29 Oct 2019 2. Antwi-Boasiako A, Acheampong BB (2016) Strength properties and calorific values of sawdust-briquettes as wood-residue energy generation source from tropical hardwoods of different densities. Biomass Bioenerg 85:144–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2015. 12.006 3. Brito JO (2007) O uso energético da madeira. Estudos Avançados 21:59 4. Bolsão em destaque. Projeto Onça Pintada realiza primeira fundação e deve gerar 1500 postos de trabalho em Três Lagoas. https://bolsaoemdestaque.com.br/index.php/2019/05/16/projetoonca-pintada-realiza-primeira-fundacao-e-deve-gera-1500-postos-de-trabalho-em-tres-lag oas/. Accessed 29 April 2020

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Bamboo-Based Medium Density Particleboards: Studying the Different Compositions of the Core Layer Mário Vanoli Scatolino , Danillo Wisky Silva , Joabel Raabe , Lourival Marin Mendes , Marina Resende Ribeiro de Oliveira , Francisco Tarcisio Alves Júnior , and Gustavo Henrique Denzin Tonoli

Abstract The use of alternative raw materials to improve the properties of engineered materials has been the subject of considerable research on new materials development. As alternative raw materials, the literature suggests using agricultural wastes, urban residues, and non-traditional woods. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of associating bamboo (Bambusa gigantea) with pine (Pinus oocarpa) particles for the production of medium density particleboard (MDP) and how this association affects the material properties. For comparison, MDP composed only of pine, and only bamboo was produced. The percentages of bamboo added in the MDP were 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the core layer. The particles were bonded by urea–formaldehyde adhesive, separately applied to the face and core particles in 8 and 11%, respectively. The MDPs were evaluated by physical–mechanical properties such as thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) after 2 and 24 h of immersion, internal bond (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity M. V. Scatolino (B) Department of Agronomic and Forest Sciences, Federal Rural University of the Semi-Arid—UFERSA, Av. Francisco Mota, 572-Bairro Costa E Silva, Mossoró, Rio Grande Do Norte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] D. W. Silva · F. T. A. Júnior Department of Production Engineering, State University of Amapá—UEAP, Av. Presidente Getúlio Vargas, N. 650, Bairro Centro, Macapá, Amapá, Brazil J. Raabe Department of Forest Sciences, State University of Tocantina Region Maranhão—UEMASUL, Godofredo Viana Street, 1300, Imperatriz, Maranhão, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] L. M. Mendes · M. R. R. de Oliveira · G. H. D. Tonoli Department of Forest Sciences, Federal University of Lavras—UFLA, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] G. H. D. Tonoli e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_5

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(MOE) in static bending. The MDPs of higher percentages of bamboo in the core layer (100 and 75%) showed the lowest values for the physical properties. MDPs composed only of bamboo stood out, with 75.8% for WA and 15.9% for TS 24 h. No statistical difference was observed among the treatments for IB, MOR, and MOE. Particular characteristics of bamboo allowed the production of MDPs with mechanical strength similar to those produced with commercial species, besides a significant gain in dimensional stability. Bamboo appears as an important raw material for the production of MDP, relieving exploitation pressures on forests, mainly the native. Keywords Bamboo waste · Lignocellulosic composites · Physical–mechanical properties

1 Introduction One of the main advantages of particleboard regards the possibility of using several kinds of lignocellulosic sources as raw material, which provide good mechanical and biological resistance [36, 49]. Particleboard is a material produced with vegetal particles or fibers bonded by a synthetic adhesive with hot pressing [41]. The Brazilian particleboard sector uses wood from planted forests, mainly of the gender Pinus and Eucalyptus, in their production process. Wood from other species is also used to produce particleboard in other countries. Nonwoody species have also been used for their production in China, Turkey, India, and others. The growing demand for renewable materials, population increase, and consumption patterns contribute to the depletion of the planet’s natural resources, especially native forests [28]. Numerous research has also evaluated the feasibility of using diversified lignocellulosic materials to produce high-added value materials, such as special nanopapers, composites, particleboards, and electronic devices. Among the available wastes, the literature reports cotton wastes [52], sugarcane bagasse [37], rice husks [15], castor husks [56], corn straw [55], cocoa wastes [4, 59], maize cob [51, 53], soybean particles [29], cellulose pulping waste [3], alternative species as Acrocarpus fraxinifolius [48], and bamboo particles [20]. The research results obtained from agricultural residues have been promising for the production of particleboards (Fig. 1). In work conducted by Scatolino et al. [52] involving cotton wastes, the maximum cotton waste content that could be added to reach the requirements for modulus of rupture (MOR) was 9%. One of the significant challenges for using agricultural residues is the low basic density, which consequently requires a large number of particles to equal the same mass of material required by wood. A greater amount of particles may require a large amount of adhesive, which in some cases can make the production of the material unfeasible in terms of costs and environment. None of the treatments met the requirements of the standard for modulus of elasticity (MOE). In general, particleboards with the addition of agricultural waste may be indicated for manufacturing furniture, such as doors and sides.

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Fig. 1 Agricultural wastes studied as raw material in the production of particleboards; a cocoa wastes; b castor husk; c coffee parchment; d sugarcane bagasse; e rice husk; f cotton wastes. (Source: authors)

Castor husk, studied by Silva et al. [56], significantly improved the physical properties of water absorption and thickness swelling of particleboards. The panels made totally with castor husk wastes presented better physical properties. Analyzing the values of chemical components found in this research, the higher amount of extractives and ashes of castor husk compared to pinewood was considerable. Extractives are hydrophobic compounds of low molecular weight that can occur at minimal or significant levels and depend on the species and geographical location of plants [25]. Similarly, the anatomical arrangement of the waste acted as a barrier to water penetration. It may also hamper the penetration of the adhesive and its connection with the hygroscopic regions of cellulose. Castor husk particles are suberized; thus, it is very likely that the glue could not properly penetrate the particle structure, hindering the mechanical hooks of the adhesive and decreasing the mechanical properties. Additionally, further studies need to be carried out in the following fields; (1) feasibility studies on the economic status of castor husk particleboards; (2) studies on the properties of castor husk when mixed with other agricultural wastes such as maize cob and coffee husks. In another research performed by Scatolino et al. [50], the authors aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using coffee parchment to produce particleboard. The following waste percentages were used: 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% in association with eucalyptus wood. The parchment, known as “thin rind” for being an anatomical pellicle that covers the grain, is part of the waste generated by the coffee processing obtained

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when the pulping occurs by the wet method [13]. According to Vilela et al. [61], coffee processing produces wastes such as husk and parchment, which yield approximately 50%. Therefore, processing two tons of coffee produces a ton of waste. After the grain processing, the leading destination given to the coffee parchment is the briquettes and pellets production for burning and energy generation [45]. Veloso et al. [59] stated that the cocoa waste particles show a porous structure, which may contribute to reduced strength and increased water absorption of the particleboards. The authors analyzed the replacement of pine wood with cocoa residues in the core layer of medium density particleboards (MDP). Nevertheless, considering the studied variables, it can be concluded that the inclusion of up to 21% of cocoa waste in substitution of pine wood in the core of the panels achieves the standardization for all the physical and mechanical properties of the MDP for use in furniture for internal environments. Melo et al. [36] evaluated the properties of particleboard panels in which rice husk and eucalyptus wood were associated (0–100%). Because it is difficult to decompose and the high percentage of silica it contains, this residue constitutes an environmental and health problem, especially in regions where rice is cultivated on a large scale. When this material is incorporated into a production process as an alternative raw material to the manufacture of panels, it will be valued and no longer be a waste. This technology of manufacturing particle boards using rice husk has gained an important focus, especially in Asian countries, which are the primary rice producers. In addition to the sustainable raw material, the authors evaluated the insertion of tannin– formaldehyde in the adhesives, which can contribute to the eco-friendly essence of the material. The values of MOE decreased from 1225 to 196 MPa, and values of MOR ranged from 14.7 to 3.9 MPa, as the amount of rice husk added was increased. Particleboards glued with tannin–formaldehyde showed superior quality to those in which urea–formaldehyde was used. Agricultural residues can also be applied to structural materials, such as cement composites. Lisboa et al. [29] produced cement composites aiming to use soybean pod wastes in combination with eucalyptus wood as a raw material. According to the obtained results, the material’s chemical composition characteristics significantly influence its properties. The insertion of different proportions of soybean pods greatly affected the physical property of WA but did not affect the swelling of the composites produced. The addition of a soybean pod resulted in a decrease in the mechanical properties of the cement composites made. The microscopy images showed the existence of regions with empty spaces in the composites produced with the higher insertion of soybean waste. Gong et al. [22] report that the compression strength values required for the material to be used as pavements ranged from 20 to 25 MPa. Therefore, this panel would not be applicable for this purpose, being restricted to partition walls or thermal and acoustic insulation walls. Another way to create materials with renewable potential is to use alternative sources of wood from planted forests, reducing pressure on native forests. Due to the great species diversity, Brazil shows a great variety of native and exotic woods with the potential to be sustainably exploited to produce engineered materials. The rubber tree is natural from the Amazon region, and there are 10 of the 11 known

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varieties in Brazil. The expansion of the rubber tree plantation offers a significant supply of wood at the end of the rotation (25–30 years), which leads to interest in studies about this raw material. In Brazil, Hevea wood obtained at the end of the productive cycle of latex is used, in most cases, to produce energy in the form of coal, although the good characteristics of workability (gluing, nailing, drilling, among others) [18]. Based on these characteristics associated with the preservative treatment, some research indicates the possible use of rubber wood as a substitute for wood [35]. The rubber wood is feasible for wood cement panel production, having good dimensional stability, even when exposed to water immersion [43]; oriented strand board with properties that reached the minimum standardized values for commercialization [44] and particleboards [39]. Analyzing these studies, it can be inferred that rubber wood shows potential for different uses, including glulam beam production. It is a structural product composed of selected wood pieces arranged so that the fibers are parallel and bonded with adhesives under pressure ranging from 0.7 to 1.5 MPa [54]. One of the advantages of glulam beams is the possibility of using small pieces, enabling the manufacture of structural beams [40]. Bamboo is a fastest-growing species with high specific strength (strength/density) [27, 30, 64]. Classified as belonging to the Poaceae family, bamboo is not precisely a woody species, as it does not present secondary growth. The high tensile and compression strength values of bamboo fibers result in the excellent quality of particleboard produced from this lignocellulosic biomass [60]. High specific mechanical properties are observed due to the longitudinal alignment of fibers, which include a relatively small microfibril angle and a cellulose content of around 60%, with great content of lignin [31, 32]. The bamboo industry has generated over 16.3 billion dollars annually in countries like China. Brazil has a high diversity of bamboo species and the greatest rate of endemic bamboo forests in Latin America. In this context, it can be considered an exciting and versatile vegetal raw material for the development of new products. Some examples of bamboo-based products are flooring, plywood, glue-laminated composites, and fine wood-based composites [63]. Among the products of high material value, the medium density particleboard (MDP) stood out, and it can be perfectly produced with bamboo, which has a fast growth rate and can support intensive and sustainable use in the MDP industry [33, 58]. However, the potential of using bamboo to produce MDP still needs to be explored [14]. One of the most significant challenges when working with bamboo is its processing due to its highly rigid structure and difficulty of being disintegrated. Few information is currently available in the literature about important issues regarding the improvement of the production process, for example, the pressing of each layer in a consecutive way [41], bamboo hydrothermal properties, and these effect on the panel production process [26], mechanical and thermal properties of bamboo reinforced extruded particleboard [66], use of bamboo wastes for particleboard production [5], xylanase–laccase pretreatment on self-bonded bamboo particleboards [57], and citric acid-bonded particleboard made from bamboo [62]. This study brings innovations from the current works because it evaluated the performance of the MDP with several proportions of bamboo particles in the core layer, showing that little changes in the composition process may achieve different

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results on the properties without significant modification in the production parameters. This fact may occur due to the considerable variation in chemical and anatomical characteristics of the lignocellulosic biomasses. The combination of different raw materials in the final composition of the panel could cause substantial changes in mechanical properties, more precisely in the internal bond, since it is evaluated in the internal layer of the MDP. In this context, the present research aimed to assess the physical–mechanical properties of MDP produced with bamboo particles and the effect of the association of bamboo particles with pine particles in the core layer.

2 Material and Methods 2.1 Obtainment and Characterization of the Lignocellulosic Materials A 3-year-old Bambusa gigantea stem and a 25-year-old Pinus oocarpa tree were harvested from experimental planting. The basic density of the bamboo stem and pine wood was determined by the methods described in NBR 11,941 [8] standard. For the chemical characterization, the material retained between the sieves of 40 (0.420 mm) and 60 mesh (0.250 mm) was used for both lignocellulosic materials. The total extractive content was obtained according to the procedures described in NBR 14,853 [12]. Mineral/ash and lignin content followed the NBR 13,999 [9] and NBR 7989 [11] standards, respectively.

2.2 Processing the Lignocellulosic Particles Pine trees were sectioned in small logs with a length of 550 mm and steamed at 60 °C for 24 h before being subjected to the lamination process, obtaining veneers with 2 mm of thickness. The bamboo stem and pine veneers were ground in a hammer mill. Both materials were separately classified through a combination of three superposed sieves, with an opening of 1 mm (top), 0.5 mm (middle), and 0.25 mm (bottom), to remove the fine content (lower than 0.25 mm). Particles retained from the sieves were classified between 1 and 0.5 mm and used in the core of the panels, whereas particles retained between the sieves of 0.50 and 0.25 mm were used in the faces of the MDPs (Fig. 2). Finally, the particles were dried at 70 °C until they reached moisture 3% (dry basis).

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Fig. 2 a and b Bambusa gigantea stem; c particles produced for the composition of the face and core of the MDPs; d sample for the internal bond, composition 50/50 of pine and bamboo in the core layer; e sample for static bending, a cross-section of sample from the composition 50/50 of pine and bamboo in the core layer (Source: authors)

2.3 Production of the MDPs Four different percentages of bamboo particles in the core layer of MDP in combination with pine particles were evaluated (Table 1). It was also assessed that MDP

112 Table 1 Different compositions of the MDPs

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Treatment

Composition of the core (%) Bamboo

Pine wood

MDPB25%

25

75

MDPB50%

50

50

MDPB75%

75

25

MDPB100%

100

0

MDPBamboo

100% bamboo

MDPPinus

100% pine wood

produced only bamboo (100% bamboo) and pine (100% pine) particles. The MDPs were built with a nominal density of 0.700 g cm−3 and a face/core/face ratio of 20/ 60/20. Urea–formaldehyde adhesive (solid content 57%, viscosity 261 cP, and pH 9.5) was separately applied to the core and face particles in the range of 8 and 11%, respectively (based on the dry mass of particles) by a rotating mixer. The mixture of particles and adhesive was deposited in a box (480 × 480 mm) and forwarded to pre-pressing in the manual press under the pressure of 0.4 MPa. The “mattress” formed was placed into a hot press for 8 min at 160 °C with a pressure of 3.94 MPa. The MDPs were conditioned until constant mass at room temperature of 20 ± 2 °C and relative humidity of 65 ± 5% before obtaining the samples to evaluate each property. Three replicates of each treatment were produced, totaling 18 MDPs.

2.4 Characterization of the MDPs The experiment adopted a completely randomized design. Bulk density, water absorption after 2 and 24 h of immersion (WA2h and WA24h), thickness swelling after 2 and 24 h of immersion (TS2h and TS24h), and internal bond (IB) of the specimens were determined following the procedures depict in ASTM D1037 [1]. Modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) were determined by DIN 52,362 [42]. The bulk density of the MDPs was determined using the average density of each specimen used in determining the physical and mechanical properties. Ten samples were tested for each property. The compression ratio was obtained through the relation between the MDP density and raw material density. Analysis of variance and Tukey test, both at the 5% significance, were carried out to investigate the effect of various mixtures of bamboo particles on the properties of MDPs.

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3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Water Absorption and Thickness Swelling After 2 and 24 h of Immersion There was a downward trend in the values of WA2h and WA24h (Fig. 3) and TS2h and TS24h (Fig. 4) with the increase of bamboo particles in the MDPs core layer. The WA of the composites depends on the availability of free hydroxyl groups (OH) on the bamboo fiber surface. [53], studying the increase of several percentages of maize cob (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%) in MDP mixed with pine wood, observed the same trend of TS obtained in this study. The mentioned authors argue that this trend is related to the gradual increase in the compression ratio and the high number of extractives in the maize cobs. A pattern was similar to the results found for the panels produced here. The numerous free hydroxyl groups of hemicellulose, lignin, and cellulose in the cell wall are responsible for forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules [17, 67]. The addition of bamboo particles in the MDPs core layer improved the physical properties due to the gradual increase in compression ratio with higher percentages of bamboo particles in the core (Table 2). A greater compression ratio may result in a reduction of the MDPs porosity. The average basic density values for bamboo and pine wood were 0.263 and 0.500 g cm−3 , respectively. Low basic density means more particles being compacted to achieve the pre-determined mass of the layer, which may result in a gradual reduction in the number of pores in the MDPs as the bamboo particles are added. There was no statistical difference among the average bulk densities of the panels with different compositions. The bulk density of the MDPs ranged from 0.670 to

Fig. 3 Water absorption of the MDPs after 2 and 24 h of immersion

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Fig. 4 Thickness swelling of the MDPs after 2 and 24 h of immersion

Table 2 Average bulk density and compression ratio of the MDPs

Treatment

Bulk density (g cm−3 )

Compression ratio

MDPPinus

0.669 ± 0.015*

1.30 ± 0.31 a

MDPB25%

0.693 ± 0.030

1.50 ± 0.06 b

MDPB50%

0.684 ± 0.044

1.60 ± 0.12 b

MDPB75%

0.680 ± 0.018

1.70 ± 0.46 c

MDPB100%

0.715 ± 0.018

2.00 ± 0.49 d

MDPBamboo

0.688 ± 0.019

2.60 ± 0.11 e

Averages followed by the same letter in the column do not differ statistically by the Tukey test at 5% significance; * standard deviation

0.720 g cm−3 , which are values that classify the panels as medium density (0.590 to 0.800 g cm−3 ), according to the NBR 14,810–2 [7] standard. On the other hand, there was a significant difference in the compression ratio of the different treatments. The treatments with bamboo composing 25 and 50% of the core layer showed values within the range indicated by Maloney [34], from 1.3 to 1.6. The other compositions extrapolated these values until they reached a compression ratio of 2.6 for MDPs composed only of bamboo. A high compression ratio can affect the physical properties of the MDPs, forming a physical barrier against the water with a reduced number of pores. The contents of lignin for bamboo and pine wood were similar (Table 3). In contrast, the content of extractives of bamboo was higher than that found for pine wood, which may interfere with MDPs properties, depending on the kind of extractives present. Regarding the ash content, bamboo presented higher content when

Bamboo-Based Medium Density Particleboards: Studying the Different … Table 3 Chemical composition of the raw materials

Component

Pine wood (%)

Extractives

5.20 ± 0.25*

Lignin Ash *

115

Bamboo (%) 9.24 ± 0.27

28.30 ± 0.67

24.06 ± 0.37

0.40 ± 0.10

1.34 ± 0.05

Standard deviation

compared to pine wood, however no significant difference in the extent of influencing the properties. The values for chemical composition found for pine wood in the present work were consistent with that found by [38], studying the macromolecular constituents of Pinus oocarpa (25% of lignin, 4.4% of extractives, and 1.3% of ash). Bonfatti Jr. [6] studied the chemical, anatomical, and physical properties of the Bambusa vulgaris stem and found a similar chemical composition (22% of lignin and 12% of extractives) found in this study. This finding could be due to two factors: the densified bamboo milled tissue and the wettability of the adhesive on bamboo particles. The first factor is the crushing of the parenchyma cells and vessels during pressing. The second factor is the formation of covalent bonds between the adhesive and the hydroxyl groups present in the bamboo chemical structure during the hotpressing process [16, 65]. In addition, the lengthwise elongation is prevented by the stiffness of cellulose fibers, mainly caused by the high content of lignin. However, across the width, the fibers do not offer any constraint [21]. The MDPs are graduated in particle size along their cross-section, using particles with small size and high concentration of adhesive on the surface, which leads to improved physical performance. Suitable physical properties may be a consequence of the high particle packing and hydrophobicity of the urea–formaldehyde on the MDP surface. The adhesive spread per particle unit area could be a controlling factor in the strength and dimensional stability properties of the MDPs. Higher particle dimension in the particleboard core provides higher porosity, which is an advantage for improving the thermal and acoustic insulation properties of the MDP, although it can impair physical properties.

3.2 Mechanical Properties of the MDPs The results for MOE and MOR did not differ significantly at the level of 5% for the different gradations evaluated (Fig. 5). Therefore, the substitution of pine particles with bamboo in the core of the panels led to similar mechanical properties for the MDP. MOE is an important parameter that provides information on the material stiffness, usually measured in the “elastic zone”, where the material does not undergo permanent deformation. On the other hand, MOR provides information on the mechanical strength of the MDP until the “final rupture” of the sample. Pirayesh et al. [46], evaluating walnuts shell in association with hardwood for the production of MDP (0, 10, 20, 30, and 40%), obtained MOE values ranging from 2309

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Fig. 5 Average values for a MOE; and b MOR

to 1868 MPa, as the shells were added. Similarly, Grigoriou and Ntalos [23] studied the association of Ricinus stalks with pine wood, obtaining MOR values between 16 and 12 MPa, with a downward trend for MOR, as the stalk content increased. Low-size particles and a high concentration of adhesive on the MDP surface provide high packing of the particles, leading to a stiffer surface. In static bending of MDPs, the sample fracture starts at the bottom layer, subsequently extending the fracture to the core layer. Therefore, stiffer faces provide more expressive values for MOE and MOR. According to the values obtained for MOE and MOR in static bending, the results were consistent with the EN 312 [19] standard for use indoor. The results for IB did not differ significantly at 5% of significance for the different gradations evaluated (Fig. 6). The values for internal bond ranged from 0.65 to 0.83 MPa. The internal bond evaluates the bonding strength among the particles that compose the core layer of the MDP. The lignin present in lignocellulosic materials, considered a natural adhesive, is a crucial component of this property. Therefore, high values are desirable for the production of reconstituted panels [47]. As previously mentioned, the bamboo

Fig. 6 Average values for the internal bond

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presented significant lignin content (see Table 3), which strongly favored an excellent performance of the MDPs in internal bond. Güler and Buyüksari [24] found values close to 0.3 MPa for internal bonding when evaluating particleboards produced with 100% peanut shell, using 10% of urea–formaldehyde adhesive on the faces and 8% in the core layer. The results for IB in the present study were also consistent with the EN 312 [19] standard, as well as the results of MOE and MOR. The satisfactory results for mechanical properties show that bamboo can replace pine wood without problems of strength loss. Regarding the environmental points, the adhesive is the only chemical agent used in the production of the panels, in low proportions (7– 12%), according to the regulatory standard for these materials. In addition, vegetal biomass and its derivatives are classified as non-hazardous and inert waste according to the NBR 10,004 [10] standard. Thus, MDP is considered a non-potential environmental pollutant after disposal. Studies have been performed to address the possible ways for panel recycling, emphasizing energy generation [2], and the production of new reconstituted panels [68] or reusing for the production of new materials for construction.

4 Practical Applications Bamboo is a fast-growing species that is well adapted to the climate and soil conditions found in Brazil. Using this raw material to produce higher-value materials would help to alleviate some of the exploitation of native forests, particularly illegal exploitation. This measure could reduce the cost of the final product’s preparation and provide a low-cost material to the population. Several lignocellulosic agricultural residues have already been tested in the production of particleboards, with promising results in terms of quality and resistance. Still, some logistic and transport problems make it challenging to definitively adopt these residues as raw materials. A point worth mentioning is the aesthetic quality of some bamboo panels, such as oriented strand boards. The difficulty of processing, which necessitates solid and robust machinery due to the high resistance of the cell wall, must be overcome to perform more work with this raw material.

5 Conclusion Brazil is, in essence, an agro-industrial country. Consequently, it has several types of lignocellulosic residues with potential for use, including maize cob, husks of rice, coffee, peanut, coconut, and castor oil plant as banana stem, cassava stem, and sugarcane bagasse, among others. Crop residues need to be recycled somehow, and directing such waste material to the production of particleboard is a possible alternative, given that, as a rule, particleboard can be produced from any lignocellulosic material capable of providing them with high mechanical strength and a

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pre-established specific weight. Accordingly, it is possible to use alternative woods to the traditional pine and eucalyptus, such as rubber wood and Amazonian parica. Regarding this specific study, MDPs were produced with alternative raw material, bamboo, in the core layer and were evaluated through their physical and mechanical properties. The chemical composition of the bamboo did not impair the adhesive cure or the pressing and production of the MDPs. The basic density of the bamboo was lower than the basic density of the pine wood, which resulted in a decreased number of pores due to greater compaction in the MDPs produced with bamboo. MDPs composed of 50% bamboo in the core layer, or more, had lower WA and TS, showing greater dimensional stability than the control (100% pine wood). Extractives can be crucial in obtaining better physical properties for MDPs with a higher percentage of bamboo. No significant differences were observed in the mechanical properties of the different treatments evaluated. All mechanical properties considered in this study, MOR, MOE, and IB, were consistent with the minimum required by European standards regarding MDPs for internal use. The results show that bamboo could be a feasible alternative raw material to replace pine wood particles in the core layer of the MDPs, systematically reducing pressure on native forests. Future studies would be interesting to develop new methods and machinery for disintegrating bamboo, a lignocellulosic material that presents difficulties in processing. Acknowledgements This study was partially funded by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brazil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001. The authors are also grateful for the support of Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, finance code 300985/2022-3), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), and to the graduate program in Wood Science and Technology at the Federal University of Lavras (UFLA), Brazil. Likewise, Klabin S.A. for the supply of commercial pulps and their characterization. To the Microscopy Center of the Federal University of Minas Gerais (http://www.microscopia.ufm g.br) for technical support. Finally, thank the State University of Amapa (UEAP) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amapá (FAPEAP) (finance code 0022.0279.1202.0016/2021— Edital 003/2021).

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Potential of Non-wood Fibers as Sustainable Reinforcements for Polymeric Composites—A Review Edgley Alves de Oliveira Paula, Rafael Rodolfo de Melo, Talita Dantas Pedrosa, Felipe Bento de Albuquerque, Fernanda Monique da Silva, and Alexandre Santos Pimenta

Abstract The irresponsible disposal of synthetic materials in nature and their harmful environmental effects have increasingly motivated interest in developing products from renewable materials. Using natural fibers derived from plant species has been presented as an interesting alternative for reinforcement in polymeric composites. In this chapter, an approach is made to some social, environmental, and economic benefits that have motivated replacing synthetic fibers with fibers of plant origin in polymeric composites. The main elements that constitute a vegetable fiber are presented, as well as the potential of this fiber for use as a reinforcement with E. A. de Oliveira Paula · F. B. de Albuquerque · F. M. da Silva Graduate Program in Development and Environment, Universidade Federal Rural Do Semiárido, Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] F. B. de Albuquerque e-mail: [email protected] F. M. da Silva e-mail: [email protected] R. R. de Melo (B) Department of Agronomic and Forestry Sciences, Center for Agrarian Sciences, Universidade Federal Rural Do Semiárido, Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] T. D. Pedrosa Department of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Engineering Center, Universidade Federal Rural do Semiárido, Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] F. B. de Albuquerque Instituto Federal de Educação Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio Grande do Norte, Mossoró, RN, Brazil F. M. da Silva Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Ceará, Limoeiro Do Norte, Ceará, Brazil A. S. Pimenta Graduate Program in Forest Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte—UFRN, Macaíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_6

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polymeric matrices. The types of vegetable reinforcements most studied and used in composites are reported, highlighting the fibers of vegetable sponge, carnauba, hemp, sugarcane bagasse, banana tree, coconut, curauá, linen, bamboo, jute, ramie, and sisal. For each type of fiber, information such as the central growing regions is presented; physical, chemical, and mechanical properties; properties that the fibers promote to the manufactured polymeric composites; some applications of manufactured composites; benefits generated by the use of vegetable fibers in the formation of polymeric composites. Keywords Lignocellulosic fibers · Natural products · Sustainability · Research and development

Adapted from[16, 40, 62, 106, 143].

1 Introduction The manufacturing process of composites reinforced with synthetic fibers increases energy consumption, in addition to generating a significant environmental loss to society, due to the stages of production and recycling of these synthetic materials

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[48]. Other factors are that synthetic fibers are non-biodegradable materials that have a high cost of obtaining and promote an increase in the weight of the materials manufactured. These characteristics, together with the strictness of environmental laws, have motivated many researchers in recent decades to develop green composite materials developed from plants, sustainable, renewable, and biodegradable, to be used in domestic and industrial applications [22, 48]. The use of vegetable fibers has become increasingly attractive for reinforcement in polymeric composites [73]. According to Tanobe et al. [128], these natural fibers are renewable and come from abundant sources distributed worldwide. Their biodegradable characteristics can positively contribute to a healthier ecosystem, presenting a low economic cost and an excellent performance for several applications in different industrial sectors. Still, [135] state that natural lignocellulosic fibers have become one of the most popular choices for use as reinforcement of bio-composites in applications in structures, construction, shipbuilding, and automotive. According to Krishnudu et al. [46], when used as reinforcement in polymeric composites, natural fibers provide the material with low density, high biodegradability, and improved strength and rigidity. For Madhusudhana et al. [61], the growth of environmental awareness has contributed to the development of composite materials with natural fibers. Other important factors are low cost, low density, acceptable specific properties, CO2 neutrality, improved energy recovery, recyclable properties, and biodegradability [61]. Natural fibers from plants such as jute, flax, hemp, kenaf, cotton, sisal, pineapple, ramie, bamboo, and banana, have good mechanical properties, renewability, biodegradability, availability in nature, low density, and low price [31], exposes that. It could be an interesting alternative for replacing synthetic glass and carbon fibers in polymer matrix composites [31]. Plant fibers (lignocellulosic) can be subdivided into woody and non-woody. Natural non-wood fibers can be divided into fibers taken from the stem, leaves, seeds, straw, and grass [80]. All these fibers are widely used as reinforcing materials in composites in industries [80]. The present work aimed to carry out a literature review to illustrate the potential of different types of fibers of plant origin for use as reinforcement in polymeric composites, as well as to present some applications where these sustainable materials are being increasingly employed. In this chapter, we will discuss plant fibers and their uses as reinforcement in polymeric composite materials, addressing the main materials and their main characteristics that indicate their possibilities of use.

2 Vegetable Fibers and Their Use as Reinforcement in Polymeric Composite Materials Plant-derived fibers are low-density materials obtained from plant seeds, roots, stems, leaves, and fruits [39]. These types of fibers have cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin as the main elements in their chemical composition, and the amounts of these constituents vary widely from plant to plant. This variation is due to age, species,

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and the part of the plant where the fiber is removed [104]. According to Ismadi and Nurindah [37], most polymer matrices used in manufacturing composite materials reinforced with natural fibers are thermoplastic and thermoset. There are several methods for manufacturing composites using thermoset polymers. However, the most common are hand lay-up (hand lamination), spray lay-up, compression molding, and filament winding [37]. As Kumre et al. [50] stated, using natural fibers as reinforcement in composites can be an essential alternative for solving environmental and ecological problems. According to Ibrahim et al. [34], natural fibers have some advantages over synthetic fibers, as they are renewable, biodegradable, and biostable materials with little or no environmental impact. According to Jariwala and Jain [39], natural fibers have characteristics that promote significant benefits for use as reinforcement in polymeric composite materials, which may be used in commercial applications in automotive, aerospace, sports equipment, constructions, and marine structures. According to Santhi et al. [117], factors such as the abundance, availability, and low cost of fibers such as jute, coconut, sisal, ramie, bamboo, banana, and hemp, among others, motivated the production of polymeric composites, since these materials can be applied in civil construction and construction industry (panels, false ceilings, partitions), packaging manufacturing, storage device manufacturing, components for the interior of buses, and rail transport. For Kaur et al. [45], natural fibers are materials that have low density, high tenacity, high specific strength, low cost, easy decomposition, are not harmful to health, have excellent thermal properties, and are even better in energy recovery. Praveena et al. [98], despite the good properties presented, expose that these natural fibers have low fire resistance, and the presence of moisture can directly influence the mechanical and thermal properties. However, these adverse effects can be mitigated using chemical treatments and adding appropriate additives [98]. According to Sekaran et al. [119], the mechanical properties of composites can be improved by using the correct method and performing treatments on the fibers. The topics presented later present some of the main characteristics of plant fibers, as well as their potential for reinforcement and some applications in composite materials.

2.1 Vegetable Sponge (Luffa cylindrica) Various plant fibers are found in nature, each with its characteristics and properties. The so-called vegetable sponge (Luffa cylindrica) is one of these renewable fibers that make up this large group of natural fibers. Also known as loofah, sponge gourd, or vegetable loofah, this plant is part of the Cucurbitaceae family. It is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and is commonly found in Brazil, China, Korea, Japan, and some countries in America. Central [129]. Luffa cylindrica is a fast-growing vine in the same family as the cucumber, and its fruit is widely cultivated to be consumed as a vegetable. When the fruit reaches the state of full ripeness, it has a very fibrous characteristic (Fig. 1) [99].

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Fig. 1 Plant of Luffa cylindrica; a ripe vegetable sponge, and b fibrous material obtained after processing (Source [89])

The genus Luffa comprises a group of 5–7 species, the main ones being: Luffa acutangular, Luffa aegyptiaca, Luffa cylindrica, Luffa operculate, and Luffa sepium. Among the cited species, the most widely known and used are Luffa acutangular and Luffa cylindrica [3]. However, the same authors highlight that for the research and development of new composite products, the species Luffa cylindrica is the most used. The Luffa species have a density of 0.92 g cm−3 , tensile strength of 178.20 MPa, and a modulus of elasticity equal to 4,263.84 MPa [118]. Concerning chemical properties, they present an average chemical composition with values of 57–74% of cellulose, 14–30% of hemicelluloses, 1–22% of lignin, and up to 12.8% of other constituents [3]. Kalusuraman et al. [43] state that loofah fiber is rich in cellulose. It has properties such as high moisture content and low density when compared to synthetic glass fibers. Saw et al. [118], explain that, unlike fiberglass, which presents a single filament, the Luffa fibers are formed by a tangle of cellulose fibrils that form a fibrous vascular system as a hierarchical structure. Due to its properties, Luffa cylindrica became one of the most used natural fibers as reinforcement in developing polymeric composites. Mohanta and Acharya [76] show that the increase in the fiber layers of the vegetable loofah promotes a decrease in the density of polymeric composites with epoxy resin, leaving the material lighter when compared to the pure matrix without reinforcement. This decrease is a factor due to the low density presented by the fibers of the plant loofah, which corresponds to 0.56 g cm−3 [76]. According to Alhijazi et al. [5], the poly-porous structural morphology of the vegetable loofah promotes better lightness to the fibers. It can also positively contribute to better adhesion at the fiber-matrix interface. According to Melo et al. [73], the use of loofah fibers as reinforcement in forming polymeric composites is economically viable, in addition to promoting good mechanical properties, thermal stability, and waterproofing characteristics, which can qualify these materials for applications in furniture and components developed in the automotive industry. Additionally, Tanobe et al. [129], exposed that polymeric composites of polyester resin reinforced with carpets with short fibers of Luffa cylindrica

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treated with NaOH have good mechanical tensile properties, and their good appearance allows the use of these composites in applications such as ornamental panels, linings, and other products. Due to its favorable characteristics, Luffa cylindrica is considered one of the most promising plant fibers for reinforcement in polymer composites [3].

2.2 Carnauba (Copernicia prunifera) The carnauba (Copernicia prunifera) is a xerophytic species of palm originating from and belonging to the Palmae family. This palm has opaque green leaves on the crown, arranged in a spiral around the stem (Fig. 2a). This plant has roots widely used to manufacture medicinal products and is resistant to drought and flood environments. Carnauba fibers have a density of 1.34 g cm−3 , tensile strength ranging from 205 to 264 MPa, and an elastic modulus between 8200 and 9200 MPa. Its chemical composition presents 36.9% of lignin, 40.9% of hemicelluloses, and 20.2% of cellulose, in addition to 7.2% moisture [74, 92]. According to Melo et al. [74], wax is among the top products extracted from carnauba, widely used for applications in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics, electronic components, greases, lubricants, and mold-release industries. After removing the leaves and stem rich in cellulose, the other carnauba constituents become wastes that are usually discarded in the environment or burned. A sustainable destination

Fig. 2 Carnauba (Copernicia prunifera); a a natural occurrence in forest formations, and b carnauba fibers (Source [92])

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for this waste produced would be the use as reinforcements in polymeric composites [91]. Still, according to Melo et al. [74], with the growth in the use of natural fibers to replace synthetic fibers, fibers extracted from carnauba (Fig. 2b) began to gain space in use as reinforcement in polymer matrices, aiming at the development of a new biodegradable composite. Carnauba fibers with the polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB) polymer matrix improves the stiffness property at high temperatures. Also, it reduces the propagation of cracks in the matrix [74]. When used as reinforcement in an epoxy matrix, carnauba fibers improve the storage modulus and thermal stability above 300 °C, thus being a viable alternative for replacing glass fibers in polymeric composites [91].

2.3 Hemp (Cannabis sativa) Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is one of the non-edible plants cultivated for at least 6000 years. It is considered one of the oldest crops in the world (Fig. 3). This plant has a high biomass yield, has an interesting efficacy against weeds, and is little affected by diseases and pests [65]. Hemp has a density ranging from 1.4 to 1.5 g cm−3 , and for the mechanical properties of tensile strength, a tension between 270 and 900 MPa and an elastic modulus between 23,500 and 90,000 MPa [23]. In terms of chemical composition, the fiber has 78.15% cellulose, 6.06% lignin, 10.72% hemicelluloses, 1.39% pectins, and 0.69% fats and waxes [90]. Sepe et al. [120] highlight that hemp fibers have been employed successfully in manufacturing composites due to their excellent properties, availability in nature, renewability, and reasonable benefit/cost. So, sectors like the textile and automotive

Fig. 3 Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) a occurrence in nature, and b hemp fibers (Source [27, 42])

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industries, composites, fiber panels, thermal and acoustic insulations, musical instruments, sportive gear, and still, reinforcement in brake pads [64]. The same authors emphasize that industrial hemp fibers have been increasingly investigated for developing new natural materials because they are low-density, 100% biodegradable, and have high specific resistance and rigidity. Due to their excellent mechanical properties, hemp fibers are the most employed for structural applications [127]. According to Shahzad [121], these fibers present properties able to replace fiberglass reinforcements in polymeric composites. Using up to 15% of hemp fibers applied as reinforcement in a polyurethane matrix can produce an excellent insulating composite being ecological, low-cost, high-value-added, and competitive in the market.

2.4 Sugarcane Bagasse (Saccharum officinarum) Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) is an abundant semi-perennial plant belonging to the grass family and originally from the hot and tropical regions of the Asian continent, specifically India (Fig. 4a). This plant is a high-quality raw material, wellknown worldwide because of its high productivity, participation in high technology processes, and potential for the production of sugar and ethanol [71]. The sugarcane fibers obtained after the agro-industrial process are considered waste and often used as fuel (Fig. 4b) [58]. However, [25] explain that despite the sugarcane bagasse being burned after sugar extraction, it has a low energy value for such a harnessing. The sugarcane fibers have a density of 1.20 g cm−3 , and for the mechanical properties of tensile strength, a tension between 20 and 290 MPa with a modulus of elasticity ranging from 19,700 to 27,100 MPa [41]. According to Guimaraes et al. [28], sugarcane fibers have their chemical composition as follows, 54.87% of cellulose, 23.33% of lignin, 16.52% of hemicelluloses, and 2.75% of ash, in addition to a moisture content equal to 9.21%. Researchers have studied

Fig. 4 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), a freshly harvested sugarcane, b fibers extracted from sugarcane bagasse (Source [48])

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the agricultural culture of sugarcane to use this material to obtain desirable properties. The natural fibers produced by sugarcane can be used in the form of woven mats, chopped fibers, and powders, together with polymeric matrices, to manufacture composite materials [21]. Kumar et al. [48] point out that these natural lignocellulosic fibers are abundant raw materials, renewable, strong, light, and still have a low cost of obtaining. In several studies using up to 20% of bagasse fibers reinforced both with synthetic matrices of polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester, and phenolic resin, as well as natural matrices of corn starch with fructose as a plasticizer, starch, and polylactic acid, showed improvements in the mechanical properties of flexural strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, flexural modulus, and impact resistance [21]. Also, Carvalho Neto et al. [18] stated that the inclusion of sugarcane bagasse and a high-density polyurethane matrix stepped up the tensile and bending modulus of composites produced with acetylated and non-acetylated fibers. Still, Monteiro et al. [77, 78] indicated that the natural fibers extracted from sugarcane bagasse and the epoxy matrix could form an advantageous composite for use in the second layer of ballistic vests since, in addition to being a cheap waste, it also reduces environmental impacts. According to Yadav et al. [140], the union of the epoxy resin with the sugarcane fibers can result in a light natural composite for possible applications in automobiles (interior parts and cabins) and civil construction.

2.5 Banana Tree (Musa Spp) The banana tree (Musa spp.) is a perennial monocotyledonous plant species originating from the forests of Southeast Asia, specifically in Southern China and Northeast India (Fig. 5a). Nowadays, many parts extracted from the banana tree are used, among them: the fruit, the leaves, and the pseudostem for fiber extraction, among other organs that are used for the manufacture of medicinal products and also for the elaboration of ceremonies and rituals [38]. The fibers extracted from the banana tree are abundant residues in many parts of the world (Fig. 5b), and due to its high mechanical properties of resistance and good flame-retardant properties, this natural material has been widely used for applications such as reinforcement in polymeric composites [85]. Lignocellulosic fibers extracted from the pseudostem of one banana tree species (Musa sapientum) are a waste product obtained from commercial cultivation. Due to their excellent mechanical properties, these fibers have been extensively studied for industrial applications [63]. According to Rao et al. [108], bananas are abundant plants in nature, and their stems produce strong and resistant fibers that farmers do not widely use in agricultural and domestic applications. Banana fibers have a density of 1.35 g cm−3 , and mechanical properties of tensile strength are as follows, a tension of 600 MPa and a modulus of elasticity between 3480 MPa [108]. Still, banana fibers have a chemical composition: 50.15% of cellulose, 0.77% of hemicelluloses, 17.14% of lignin, and 4.14% of ash, in addition to 8.57% of moisture [28]. According to Gupta

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Fig. 5 Banana tree (Musa spp.): a natural occurrence, b banana tree fibers (Source [13, 125])

et al. [29], composites reinforced with banana fiber have good mechanical properties, which qualify them for applications in the construction industry and manufacturing parts in the automotive industry. The same authors highlight that to increase the applicability of banana fibers in more technical situations, it is necessary to improve the physical, structural, and mechanical properties through surface treatments, such as ultraviolet (UV) treatment, ultrasound treatment, and chemical treatment with NaOH, among others. According to Priyadarshana et al. [100], because banana fibers have a low density, a high tensile strength, a high modulus of elasticity during traction, and low elongation at break, composite materials reinforced with these fibers have great potential for applications in industries. Construction, machinery, automotive, medical, packaging, and other conventional products. Another critical point is that since banana fibers are biodegradable and ecological materials used in polymeric composites, they cause less environmental impact than synthetic fibers [100]. Analyzing from a thermal point of view, Kusic et al. [51], states that banana fibers are suitable for use in polymeric composite materials, as it does not influence the thermal properties of the matrix and does not worsen the material’s degradability.

2.6 Coconut (Cocos nucifera) The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is a tropical plant belonging to the Arecaceae family with origin in the regions covering the territory of Peninsular Malaysia and the Archipelagos, New Guinea, and the Bismarck Archipelago. From these regions, it spread to other tropical areas [139]. According to Prades et al. [97], coconut is a plant with a versatile production system, as it has a duality in the cultivation method being propagated by seeds and plant tissue culture. The same authors emphasize that coconut has essential characteristics for commercial purposes as a food crop, such as adapting to different types of soils and climates and being a plant resistant to extreme growth conditions (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6 The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera): a coconut tree in nature, b coconut fibers (Source [1, 57]

The production of coconuts in the green state has been growing in recent years, and consequently, there has been an increase in planted areas for the production of coconut water for human consumption. In Brazil, the most significant production is coconut in the dry state to remove coconut meat and milk to manufacture industrial products [112]. Still, Krueger et al. [47] state that the high consumption of coconut water has generated a high amount of waste, of which 70% corresponds to green coconut shells produced on beaches in the Northeast region of Brazil. According to Robert et al. [111], coconut trees are also planted because of the economic and medicinal values linked to the fruit. Coconut fibers have a density of 1.30 g cm−3 , mechanical properties (tensile strength) of tension ranging from 210 to 250 MPa, and a modulus of elasticity between 4600 and 4900 MPa [132]. According to Narendar and Dasan [83], coconut fibers have the following chemical composition: 27.41% cellulose, 14.63% hemicelluloses, 42.0% lignin, and 10.16% pectin/waxes. Barbosa et al. [10] determined that the fibers still have about 3.55 and 10.2% of ashes and moisture, respectively. The coconut husk has a low added value and is usually thrown or subjected to direct combustion. One of the ways to minimize the impacts generated by coconut husks disposal is by using their fibers to make polymeric composite materials. According to Adeniyi et al. [2], coconut fiber-reinforced composites have the potential for several applications, including manufacturing particle boards, sound absorption panels, structural beams, decks, and thermal insulation. Venkatarajan and Athijayamani [134] commented that lignocellulosic fibers used with particles or fibers are abundant, biodegradable, renewable, light, and ecologically correct materials, and composites reinforced with these natural materials have been widely used for making parts in industrial sectors. And also for commercial applications. According to Sundarababu et al. [126], composites reinforced with natural fibers are critical because they have low cost, low density, are recyclable, and have good tensile and bending properties that can replace traditional synthetic fibers in polymer matrices.

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Also, according to Pisanu et al. [96], when employed as reinforcement, coconut fibers promote the improvement of morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of composites and still positively contribute to a reinforced and sustainable appearance for applications in structures, furniture, decks, automotive parts, and other appliances. The use of coconut husk fibers as reinforcement in composites, besides providing a significant decrease in environmental impacts, also contributes to income generation in small communities [96]. Coconut fibers are environmentally friendly materials, have an excellent strength-to-weight ratio, and have a lower thermal conductivity, in addition to being an interesting alternative to replace materials harmful to the environment [67].

2.7 Curauá (Ananas erectipholius) The so-called ‘curauá’ (Ananas erectipholius) is a species belonging to the Bromeliaceae family native to Northern Brazil in the Amazon region (Fig. 7) and also found in some countries of South America. This plant produces textile lignocellulosic fibers and can be found in two distinct species, one with purple-reddish leaves and the other with green leaves, known as white ‘curauá’ [95]. Curauá fibers have a density of 1.4 g cm−3 , mechanical properties of tensile strength equal to tension from 87 to 1150 MPa, and a modulus of elasticity between 11,800 and 96,000 MPa [23]. According to Azevedo et al. [7], curauá fibers have the following chemical composition: 56.43% cellulose, 26.10% lignin, 13.51% hemicellulose, 0.98% waxes, and 2.71% ash. Curauá fibers are known to the Amazon natives for their excellent mechanical properties, tensile strength, and deformation capacity, so they are widely used to produce nets, ropes, fishing lines, and tools [72]. As pointed out by Costa et al. [19], when compared with traditional jute, sisal, and

Fig. 7 Curauá (Ananás erectipholius), a natural occurrence, and b curauá fibers (Source [68, 77, 78])

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hemp fibers, curauá is still little known. However, the tensile strength properties presented by these fibers are among the highest among plant fibers, which makes them promising for use as reinforcements in polymer matrix composites for different engineering applications [19]. Polymeric-epoxy composites reinforced with curauá fibers are low-weight and present high rigidity when subjected to tensile and bending strength tests [6]. They are also low-weight, recyclable, and ecologically correct, a viable alternative to replacing synthetic composites in traditional engineering applications. Lenz et al. [55] state that curauá fibers significantly increase tensile strength properties when used together with the starch matrix. According to Bispo et al. [14], using curauá fibers in a polypropylene matrix improved the material’s thermal stability, qualifying it for applications at high temperatures. Using curauá fibers together with the polypropylene matrix, according to Aguilar et al. [4], resulted in an increase in both tensile strength and modulus of elasticity as a function of fiber content, as well as a good dispersion of fibers and intentions at the fiber-matrix interface. Compared to the fiberglass-reinforced composite, the curauá fiber-reinforced materials showed similar behavior and even reduced by 20% in weight compared to the entirely synthetic material, thus leading that the replacement by curauá fibers is feasible and reduces impacts on the environment [4]. Zah et al. [142] demonstrated that replacing synthetic glass fibers with natural curauá fibers in the automobile industry is a small step toward sustainability and that the low price presented by natural fibers tends to provide many social advantages.

2.8 Linen (Linum usitatissimum) Flax or linen fibers (Linum usitatissimum) are among the oldest and most popular natural fibers in the world. They are widely cultivated in regions with moderate and temperate climates (Fig. 8). However, they are also produced in countries such as Argentina, India, China, and Canada, among others located in Southern Europe [12, 79, 80]. Fibers from flax have high strength, stiffness, and low elongation and are collected in the form of fibrous bundles inside a stem plant’s bark [80]. According to Yan et al. [141], flax was the first fiber extracted and spun into textile fabrics. Flax is the primary phloem fiber that originate in the procambium in a region close to the apical. The stem fibers are organized with the formation of other tissues, which contain both xylem and leaf primordia components [9]. According to Lazic et al. [52], flax fibers have cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, and waxes as their main chemical components. The fundamental constituents that determine the fiber properties are the first three. Linen fibers have a density of 1.50 g cm−3 , a rupture tension of 216.93 MPa, and a modulus of elasticity of 14,880 MPa [12]. Dittenber and Gangarao [23] reported the following ranges of values for the chemical composition of flax fibers: 62–72% cellulose, 18.6–20.6% hemicelluloses, 2–5% lignin, 2 0.3% pectin, and 1.5–1.7% waxes. According to Baley et al. [8], the cultivation of flax as a material used as reinforcement in polymeric

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Fig. 8 Linen (Linum usitatissimum), a linen plantation, and b processed linen fibers [66, 70] (Source

composites has contributed positively to the emergence of a new market. However, flax fibers have been used in manufacturing aircraft parts since the 1939s. With the evolution in the forms of cultivation, optimization, and automation of extraction techniques, these fibers have been showing better performance and more excellent mechanical resistance, disease resistance, and adaptations to different regions, which qualify these fibers for applications in composites [8]. Using flax fibers reinforcement as short tows in manufacturing composite materials with geopolymers presents a greater capacity for residual loads. It maintains the integrity of the material during tensions, and these characteristics can be important for earthquake resistance applications [53]. According to Sanivada et al. [116], modifications in flax fibers with the performance of treatments can improve the fibermatrix interactions and contribute to the increase of impact resistance and energy absorption properties, in addition to improving the thermal performance of composites. According to Huang et al. [33], flax fiber-reinforced composites and hybrids have increased their applications in the construction and automobile industries due to their excellent mechanical properties and compatibility with environmental issues. According to Rahman [103], the reinforcement of flax fibers can promote improvements in damping and stiffness properties, in addition to having a lower density and cost, compared to glass fibers. According to Müssig and Haag [82], flax fiberreinforced composites can be used for the development of sports products (tennis rackets, surfboards, helmets, bicycles, racing sailboats), automotive components (wheel housings, shelves, etc.) rear windows panels, back shelves, front seat, and door inserts), construction (decks and window profiles), transportation (body parts of a three-wheel scooter), consumer goods (lipstick cases, smartphone cases, and suitcases), and design (chairs and lamp holders).

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2.9 Bamboo Bamboo is a plant with woody stems belonging to the unique group of tall grasses and the grass family Poaceae and subfamily Bambusoideae (Fig. 9). About 75 genera of bamboo are known worldwide, divided into 1300 species that can grow either singly (leptomorph type) in cold and temperate regions located in Central Asia or clusters (pachymorph type) in warm and tropical areas located in Central Asia. In parts of West Asia, Southeast Asia, and South America [56]. According to Muhammad et al. [81], the average density of a cut bamboo is 1.16 g cm−3 at 7% of moisture content. There is a relationship between the diameterdensity of the bamboo fiber, so the smaller the diameter, the greater the fiber density. Bamboo fibers have tensile strength ranging from 372 to 751 MPa and a modulus of elasticity between 14,000 and 32,500 MPa [32]. Concerning the chemical composition of bamboo, Qi et al. [101] determined the following distribution of components: 46.94% cellulose, 15.59% hemicelluloses, 25.96% lignin, 8.39 ash, and 11.54% extractives. Bamboo fibers are environmentally sustainable materials that, due to their low cost, fast growth, lightness, good thermal properties, good mechanical properties, and easy machinability, have been widely used for applications in civil construction [86]. According to Lokesh et al. [59], the use of the reinforcement of bamboo fibers chemically treated with NaOH in an epoxy matrix increases the properties of tensile strength and flexural strength of the manufactured composites. According to Buson et al. [17], bamboo fibers promote greater surface roughness after performing treatments, positively contributing to better adhesion between the fibers and the composite material matrix. To Hu et al. [32], the fibers retained from the outside of bamboo have better performance and advantages for reinforcement in composite materials. As Wang and Chen [136] commented, due to the excellent mechanical properties in the longitudinal direction, bamboo fibers have been used to make veneered laminates for structural applications, such as pillars, beams, and walls. The same authors also highlight that fiber-reinforced composites have been widely used for

Fig. 9 Bamboo (Bambusoideae), a bamboo in nature, and b bamboo fibers (Source [110, 113]

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making products such as cell phone cases, electronic boxes, and interior panels for various transport and storage containers. Bamboo is commonly used in manufacturing materials and devices for everyday applications because of its high quality and weight. The use of bamboo fibers as reinforcement in composites has been the subject of several research works. It has become an undeniable option to compete with materials from the chemical and oil industries [45].

2.10 Jute (Corchorus spp) Jute (Corchorus spp) is a plant of the Corchorus that belongs to the Tiliaceae family, universally known for its fiber. In the world, there are more than 30 species belonging to the genus Corchorus. However, the most commercially known Jutes are Corchorus capsularis (white jute) and Corchorus olitorius (Tossa jute) [35, 131]. According to Roy and Lutfar [114], jute species seem to be of African origin and are found in the most diverse warm regions of the world, mainly in tropical and subtropical climates. The species Corchorus capsularis is widely cultivated in Burma, southern China, India, and Bangladesh (Fig. 10). Corchorus olitorius has Africa as its main production center [114]. According to [26], the joint fiber has a density of 1.30 g cm−3 , a tensile strength between 393 and 773 MPa, a modulus of elasticity of 26,500 MPa, and an elongation from 1.5 to 1.8%. As for chemical properties, the joint fiber has a composition of 64 to 71% cellulose, 14 to 20% hemicelluloses, 12 to 13% lignin, and 0.5% waxes [26]. According to Pereira et al. [94], the addition of continuous jute fiber reinforcement in the formation of epoxy matrix polymeric composites increases the tenacity property and more excellent energy absorption of other composite materials reinforced with lignocellulosic fibers. The increase in tenacity may be a factor due to the low interfacial shear stress of the jute fibers with the epoxy matrix [94]. Luz et al. [60] verified through research that jute fibers could replace aramid fibers in epoxy matrix

Fig. 10 Jute (Corchorus spp), a jute in natural occurrence, and b jute fibers (Source [36, 106])

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composites for use in multilayer shielding systems since they are a natural material and their use provides socio-environmental benefits. According to Wang et al. [137], the chemical treatment of jute fibers promotes improvements in fiber-matrix adhesion and consequently improves tensile strength properties. Tejyan et al. [130] reported that the reinforcement of jute fibers brings high mechanical properties, a factor that may be due to the good fiber-epoxy matrix interaction. Still, Rafiquzzaman et al. [102] pointed out that jute fibers have great potential for partial replacement of high-cost glass fibers in composite materials for low-load applications. They added that composites reinforced with these fibers also appear as an alternative for structural applications and applications in automobiles and railroad cars. The interest in composite materials of polymeric matrices reinforced with natural fibers has been growing because these materials are sustainable and ecologically correct. Among these natural fibers are jute fibers, which despite having its largest field of use in textile applications, the development of green composites reinforced with these fibers has been gaining ground in automotive and structural applications, as well as for the manufacture of furniture and toys [123].

2.11 Ramie (Boehmeria nivea) Ramie (Boehmeria nivea) is a plant belonging to the Urticales family widely cultivated in Asia by countries such as India, Korea, and China [54]. This plant species (Fig. 11) is very versatile for cultivation in tropical and temperate regions and has the potential to be used in the replacement of animal feed, production of medicines, and production of fibers, in addition to being significant for the conservation of the environment [109]. Benin et al. [11] emphasize that ramie fibers are materials widely used for fabrics, paper-making, and agrochemicals and composites. According to Dittenber and Gangarao [23], ramie fiber has a density with values that can vary from 1.00 to 1.55 g cm−3 ; as for the chemical composition, ramie fibers present the components as follows: 68–85% cellulose; 13.0–16.7% hemicellulose; 0.5–0.7% lignin; 1.9% pectin, and 0.3% waxes. The mechanical properties of ramie fibers present tensile strength of 397.72 MPa and a modulus of elasticity of 10,450 MPa [30]. Dawit et al. [20] point out that natural fibers’ mechanical properties and biodegradability depend on their chemical composition. Djafar et al. [24] expose that the total layers and the weight of the ramie fabrics influence the tensile and bending properties when used as reinforcement in the form of composite materials. According to Kumar and Anand [49], ramie-reinforced epoxy matrix composites have a higher environmental and mechanical performance than unreinforced epoxy polymers. According to Ismadi and Nurindah [37], ramie fiber promotes greater strength in mechanical properties in epoxy matrix composites, being an interesting alternative for the production of green composites. Based on some research carried out with ramie-reinforced epoxy matrix composite materials, Pereira et al. [93] comment that ramie fabric as reinforcement presents itself as a promising material to compose the second layer of multilayer ballistic

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Fig. 11 Ramie (Boehmeria nivea L.), a rami in nature, and b ramie fibers (Source [15, 122])

armor for personal protection. Widi et al. [138] highlight that ramie fibers have some advantages, such as mechanical strength, resistance to bacteria, moisture resistance, and water absorption compared with other threads in certain situations. According to Ramesh et al. [107], composite materials reinforced solely with ramie fibers or hybrids are widely used for applications such as wall coverings, door panels, external coverings of appliances, construction of partition rooms, and electrical boxes. These natural fibers have the potential to develop materials that can be substituted for traditional synthetic composites, contributing to more significant savings in the materials market [107].

2.12 Sisal (Agave sisalana) Sisal (Agave sisalana) is a perennial plant belonging to the Asparagaceae family with a culture developed mainly in tropical and subtropical regions (Fig. 12) [44, 124]. According to Veerasimman et al. [133], the native species of this plant are from the southern region of Mexico. Its fibers are known and cultivated in several parts of the world, with Brazil as one of the leading producers. According to Oliveira et al. [87], there is a growing interest in the use of sisal fibers as reinforcements in composites for applications in furniture, automobiles, and construction materials. According to Kumre et al. [50], sisal fibers have a density of 1.45 g cm−3 and chemical composition in percentage with values: 65–78% of cellulose, 10–14 hemicelluloses, 10% of pectin, 9% lignin, and 2% waxes. For the mechanical properties obtained from tensile strength tests, sisal fibers have a maximum tension with values between 400 and 700 MPa and a modulus of elasticity ranging from 9000 to 38,000 MPa [84]. According to Veerasimman et al. [133], the nature, as well as the physical–mechanical properties of these fibers may vary due to their origin, region where the plants grow, age, location, diameter, and temperature [84, 133]. According to Martin et al. [69], sisal fibers have the potential to be reinforcements for polymeric composites, as they have good mechanical strength and thermal

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Fig. 12 Sisal (Agave sisalana), a sisal in nature, and b sisal fibers (Source [84, 133])

stability. Melo et al. [75] state that the use of sisal waste from industries has an exciting potential to be used as reinforcement in polymeric polyester composites for the development of tiles, pallets, partition panels, and coatings. Due to constant concerns about the environment and the impositions made by government regulations, many automotive industries try to replace conventional materials with biodegradable materials [88]. Ramesh et al. [105] reported that hybrid composites reinforced with sisal, jute, and fiberglass can also be an alternative for use in structural applications of medium loads and still have their properties improved without generating significant impacts on the environment. Sahu and Gupta [115] explain that due to their excellent mechanical properties, sisal fibers have been widely accepted as reinforcements in composites for the manufacture of building materials, packaging, automobile components, locomotive components, and sports utensils, as well as applications in the aerospace sector. These fibers also have a low cost, easy processing, low density, high specific strength, and modulus, in addition to being an interesting alternative for replacing asbestos and glass fibers in the manufacture of tiles [115].

3 Final Considerations Before the socio-environmental problems resulting from the incorrect use and disposal of composite materials reinforced with synthetic fibers in the environment. The literature review verified that a wide variety of plant fibers are adapted to the most different types of soils and climates in other regions. Vegetable fibers (lignocellulosic) are natural materials used for various purposes in people’s lives. Due to their physical, chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties, they can be a sustainable and economically viable alternative to be used as partial or total reinforcement materials in polymeric composites.

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The studies carried out by several researchers on the different types of vegetable fibers showed that despite coming from the same natural source, the fibers have different chemical compositions and, consequently, other properties. These characteristics promote different specified properties that qualify each plant fiber for the applications in which it will offer the best performance. Vegetable fibers are low-density materials, and among the various properties highlighted by each plant material, it was noted that there are fibers with more excellent resistance to mechanical stress. In contrast, others already have better thermal and acoustic insulation. And so, the applications are defined according to the need of each situation. Plant fibers tend to transfer their properties to the new material developed when used as reinforcement in polymeric composites. These factors and socioenvironmental and economic issues have motivated the development of research for using these materials to replace synthetic fibers in industrial products. However, some vegetable fibers are already used to manufacture products and equipment in industrial plants. More in-depth studies are still needed to improve the properties of the previously used fibers and the other potential existing plant fibers. Another exciting and essential factor would be encouraging the sustainable cultivation of plant fibers for use as polymeric composite reinforcements, given that they are abundant, sustainable, biodegradable materials with good physical, chemical, mechanical, acoustic, and thermal properties. In general, plant fibers have the innovative potential for developing polymeric composites.

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Forest-Based Polymeric Biocomposites: Current Development, Challenges, and Emerging Trends Fabíola Martins Delatorre, Álison Moreira da Silva, Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Gabriela Fontes Mayrinck Cupertino, Bruna da Silva Cruz, Marina Passos de Souza, Tayná Rebonato Oliveira, Luis Filipe Cabral Cezário, João Gilberto Meza-Ucella Filho, Elias Costa de Souza, Michel Picanço Oliveira, Josinaldo de Oliveira Dias, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior

Abstract Biocomposites first began to attract attention from the climate movement that gained traction after the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in 2009, bringing to the fore discussions on three fundamental aspects of modernity: sustainability, bioproducts, and renewable materials. Global concern about the depletion of fossil fuels and the gradual increase in plastic waste has whetted interest in the use of environmentally friendly alternative materials. In this context, in recent decades interest in forest-based biocomposites has grown. They are defined as composites derived from a polymer matrix with bioreinforcements from renewable resources. F. M. Delatorre (B) · G. F. M. Cupertino · B. da Silva Cruz · M. P. de Souza · T. R. Oliveira · L. F. C. Cezário · J. G. M.-U. Filho · M. P. Oliveira · J. de Oliveira Dias · A. F. D. Júnior Department of Forest and Wood Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES), Av. Governador Lindemberg, 316, Jerônimo Monteiro, Espírito Santo 29550-000, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] J. de Oliveira Dias e-mail: [email protected] A. F. D. Júnior e-mail: [email protected] Á. M. da Silva · A. K. S. Pereira · E. C. de Souza Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (USP/ESALQ), University of São Paulo, Av. Padua Dias, 11, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] A. K. S. Pereira e-mail: [email protected] E. C. de Souza e-mail: [email protected] E. C. de Souza Department of Technology and Natural Resources (DTRN), University of the State of Pará (UEPA), Campus VI, Highway PA-125, Angelim, Paragominas 68625-000, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_7

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Researchers have proposed the potential of these composites for many uses, especially in the automotive and civil construction sectors. Thus, this work highlights some important advances associated with biocomposites in terms of sustainability, circular economy, and future prospects and challenges in the materials market. These are some aspects that are still vague in the technical and scientific literature, and this chapter examines key issues that need to be addressed to stimulate further research and promote the use of biocomposites in various industrial sectors. Keywords Polymers · Circular economy · Polymer matrix composite

1 Introduction The search for the manufacture of technologically strategic materials with a wide field of application is increasing. In recent years, there has been rapid progress in materials science, favoring the development of composite materials that have various applications in the field of engineering. Given the great benefits of these materials, the following question arises: What are composite materials? These materials come from combining two or more components that results in a material with properties superior to those of the individual components [13]. They are of particular importance as engineering materials, which are produced to enable the combination of multiple attributes, with the advantages of high impact resistance, toughness, low density, hardness, and resistance to high temperatures and corrosion [19, 40]. These characteristics make these composite materials suitable for use in the structure of aircraft, such as the Boeing B787 and Airbus A350, and even in the manufacture of ships [18]. With a wide range of applications, composites are considered milestones of current materials engineering. However, there are problems regarding the disposal of these materials after use. Waste from composite materials has attracted the attention of scholars and environmentalists regarding the negative environmental impacts these materials can have. Most of the composite materials on the market have synthetic materials in their composition, such as polymeric resins and non-renewable substances obtained from petroleum [48]. This is the reason for environmental concern about composites. These synthetic materials, mainly polymers, constitute one of the main factors of environmental deterioration, since their production, application, and disposal lead to pollution by adding non-degradable materials to the soil and toxic gases to the atmosphere [15]. This situation became more evident to society in general in 2017 when the BBC broadcast a documentary series that presented disturbing images of the impact of plastic pollution on various ecological habitats [38]. This reliance on plastics is hampering sustainable future development. Therefore, there is a need to produce innovative and renewable materials that are a sustainable alternative to reduce the impacts caused by petroleum-derived materials, contributing positively to the environment.

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With respect to sustainability, there is an impulse, especially after the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in 2009, for the development of innovative, sustainable, and renewable materials that are alternatives to replace materials derived from petroleum [48, 49]. The solution to this issue lies in producing a non-fossil biodegradable material. Scientists and policymakers are focusing their attention on developing materials that come from waste and are also renewable [15]. This action promotes the so-called industrial symbiosis, a concept present in industrial ecology that encourages the use of waste from one sector as raw material for producing a product from a different sector, favoring the environment, developing a circular economy, and improving economic sustainability [11]. Within this perspective, abundant renewable materials should be better investigated as potential alternatives for the production of biocomposites. In this context, alternatives that aim to use forest-based materials as reinforcements, favoring the production of biocomposites, are a potential opportunity [7]. The development of these sustainable and innovative materials must be designed in a flexible way for different manufacturing methods. The final product must be versatile enough to meet the diverse demands of the market [39]. For good acceptance in a sector, it is essential for renewable waste materials to have comparable characteristics (mechanical, chemical, thermal, etc.) to materials derived synthetically or from inorganic sources. Several studies have found that lignocellulosic materials (wood, charcoal, and cellulose) improve the tensile, bending, and thermal properties of various matrices (such as polymers), giving rise to biocomposite materials with important final applications [1, 6, 8]. In this work, we review various forest-based materials for the manufacture of biocomposites and their characteristics, enabling them to replace composites derived from fossil fuels, and report the challenges and perspectives of biocomposites in the materials market.

2 Polymeric Biocomposites People’s growing awareness of eco-friendly materials and government efforts to replace plastics with biodegradable and environmentally friendly alternatives are the main trends responsible for the market’s growth. The main advantages of composite materials are their high specific strength and rigidity [60], which are classified based on the physical morphology of the reinforcement particles, with dimensions in the micron (µm) and nanoscale (nm) range embedded in a matrix, in the form of flakes or powder [60, 62]. Fiber-reinforced composites are made from continuous or discontinuous strands of reinforcing fibers [54]. According to Callister and Rethwisch [10], it is possible to measure the properties of composites according to the formation of the constituent phases, their relative amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed phase. The dispersed phase geometry encompasses all the characteristics in terms of size, shape, distribution, and orientation of the particles employed in the arrangement of the material. With this, it is possible to obtain multiple characteristics among the different materials that will be unified to enhance the final properties of the composite so that it

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Fig. 1 Classification of composites. Source Adapted from Callister and Rethwisch [10]

is superior to those of its separate constituents. Based on geometry, composite materials are divided into fibrous, structural, and particulate materials, as can be seen in Fig. 1. Composite materials can also be classified based on their matrix materials: metallic, ceramic, and polymeric. Examples of polymer matrices are polyester and epoxy resins, among others, while metallic ones include magnesium, copper, titanium, and aluminum [33, 60]. The most common methods used in the manufacture of composite materials are pultrusion molding, lamination, manual processing, resin transfer molding, injection molding, and filament extrusion [3, 62]. Natural fiber/fine reinforced polymer composite materials have attracted great interest among researchers and engineers. [3, 64]. Natural fibers or particles are increasingly being considered as environmentally friendly substitutes in polymer composites [22, 38]. Population growth, especially from the twentieth century onwards, has resulted in a significant increase in the production and application of synthetic polymers. The big question today is how to advance technologically with the concept of environmental and economic sustainability. Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers and/or fine particles are attracting attention. Figure 2 shows advances in these composite materials. The global biocomposites market was $24.40 billion in 2021 and is projected to grow to $90.89 billion by 2030. The biocomposites market is growing due to the demand for environmentally friendly materials for construction, transportation, consumer goods, and other end uses. The construction and automotive segments accounted for a moderate share of revenue in 2021, but a large increase is expected in these segments [56]. The production of biocomposites in Europe was around 480 thousand tons in 2020. The forecast is 590 thousand tons in 2028 [24]. There are several studies showing favorable results of biocomposites. This is due to the union of different materials that together achieve better properties in a new material, such as better mechanical characteristics and biodegradability. They also have high potential for retention of carbon and reduced emission of CO2 during production

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Fig. 2 Advances in the use of composites. Source Adapted from Khalid et al. [33]

and use, with added economic potential by the possibility of trading carbon credits during the production chain [55, 59]. Indeed, many researchers claim that using biocomposites is a key to reducing the ecological imbalance of the environment. Various studies have indicated that they can reduce problems of residues in agriculture, environmental pollution, disposal of solid residues derived mainly from packaging, among other benefits. Furthermore, these new materials have various potential applications in the fields of engineering, electronics, and automotive production. Their benefits include low weight, reduced machine wear, low abrasiveness, and low health risk during production [3], in addition to minimum density, maximum specific strength, low cost, and wide availability, making them suitable for many applications [3, 29, 37, 65]. Another branch with substantial progress is that of green polymers, or bioplastics, which are sustainable alternatives to petroleum-based plastics because they are derived from renewable raw materials. The potential reduction in carbon dioxide emissions is 30–70%. This represents a reduction of around 42% in carbon footprints. Compared to conventional petroleum plastics, bioplastics require 65% less energy to produce (Report Ocean, 2022). In the global bioplastics market, companies are increasingly focused on strengthening and consolidating research and development to increase production capacity. The use of bioplastics in various applications has increased due to their advanced properties and good functionality. In recent years, bioplastics have practically dominated the plastics market. Such achievements are due to the implementation of public policies by governments around the world. Global bioplastics production capacity is expected to increase significantly, from around 2.4 million tons in 2021 to 7.5 million tons in 2026 [23] (Fig. 3). The great advance of the bioplastics market is well-known, by managing to directly and indirectly reduce negative environmental impacts, in favor of the economy and society. Research is ongoing to find other efficient alternatives from using bioplastics. It is no different for biocomposites. Researchers are carrying out studies to improve and consolidate the use of biocomposites as well as bioplastics.

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Fig. 3 Global bioplastics production and forecasts. Where: (B) = Biodegradable, (NB) = Non-biodegradable. Source Adapted from [23]

3 Forest-Based Bioreinforcements as Alternatives for the Production of Biocomposites Increasing concern over environmental pollution and awareness of resource exhaustion have been major drivers in the search for renewable alternatives to replace traditional fossil-based composites with bio-based materials (e.g., forest-based bioreinforcements) derived from neutral raw materials containing carbon [12, 35]. Forestbased bioreinforcements have several advantages, including good mechanical properties, no emission of toxic substances, and low cost [27, 32, 44, 57]. In addition, fiberreinforced biocomposites and forest-based fine particles have attracted increasing attention due to various beneficial properties, such has low cost, good mechanical properties, and light weight. Forest biomass bioreinforcements are promising for the sustainable development of new bio-based materials. Studies have been investigated them as renewable alternatives for the production of biocomposites, specifically the use of charcoal, wood, and cellulose [16, 41, 57, 64]. Table 1 shows the main studies of forest-based bioreinforcements. Akaluzia et al. [3] observed that charcoalreinforced biocomposites from forest biomass with the largest particles (300 µm) had high impact energy before fracture. However, composites with smaller particle sizes (75, 150, and 250 µm) had high hardness values with increasing weight percentage of reinforcements incorporated in the polyester matrix composite. These higher values obtained were attributed to better interfacial union due to better mechanical interlocking. Another study, by Delatorre et al. [16], found that the flexural strength of biocomposites with charcoal fines from forest biomass, when subjected to UV-C radiation with 20% filling of charcoal fines at a temperature of 400 °C, were more resistant than synthetic composites. Wood and cellulose biocomposites and charcoal have been heavily studied by researchers and engineers. Samanta et al. [58] reported that wood biocomposites with melanin formaldehyde showed interesting synergies, attracting practical interest for

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Table 1 Examples of forest-based bioreinforcements Bioreinforcement Purpose of the study

Authors

Charcoal

Investigate the influence of different particle sizes of hardwood charcoal on impact strength, hardness, and structure of polyester matrix composite

[3]

Analyze the addition of charcoal fines in the production of polymeric biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers subjected to UV-C radiation

[16]

Investigate the potential of melamine formaldehyde resins as a matrix for transparent flame-retardant wood biocomposites

[58]

Investigate fracture toughness of wood polymer biocomposites defined by a cohesive zone model

[32]

Evaluate the effect of the incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) on polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposites reinforced with cellulose microfibers (MFCs)

[57]

Wood

Cellulose

Evaluate the incorporation of carrageenan with carboxymethyl [27] cellulose (CMC) and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) to toughen carrageenan-based biocomposite films and hard capsules

civil construction applications. Ruz-Cruz et al. [57] demonstrated that the replacement of polylactic acid reinforced with 1–5% cellulose nanocrystals increased the thermal stability of materials, modified the polylactic acid crystallization process, and played a role as adhesion promoters since the flexural strength increased on the order of 40% and storage modulus increased on the order of 35% at room temperature. Furthermore, the addition of cellulose nanocrystals increased the relaxation temperature of the material from 50 to 60 °C, thus expanding the temperature range for its use.

4 Differential Compared to Composites from Fossil Fuels The use of synthetic polymers, such as polyethylene (PET), as the basis for the manufacture of composites requires special attention since the negative environmental impact of incorrect disposal is significant due to low biodegradability and biocompatibility. On the other hand, biocomposites produced from natural bases, such as plant-based fibers and fine particles, can have the same functionality and durability as synthetic composites, while they can be discarded or composted without risk to the environment. Research is ongoing to improve their mechanical, chemical, and physical properties [26, 46]. Natural fibers/fines have certain advantages when compared to conventional reinforcement materials, such as low cost, high tenacity, substantial resistance to corrosion and fatigue, free formability, low self-weight, ease of separation, biodegradation, and greater energy recovery [36, 46]. Although they are alternatives to polymers

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derived from fossil fuels, natural fibers are not a complete solution, since they have a highly anisotropic nature and high moisture absorption, making some applications difficult [26, 30, 53]. The mechanical performance of biocomposites increases with the use of fibers/ fines as their constituents, generating better tensile and bending strength [53, 54 55]. Even after immersion in water and the beginning of degradation, biocomposites’ mechanical properties can remain unchanged. The best performance is obtained by incorporating 20% by weight of fibers. Studies have proved that the addition of wood fibers improves both the mechanical and physical characteristics of these biocomposites. However, if a very high fiber content is added, the strength begins to decrease, causing a difference in the stress distribution and therefore lower impact resistance [43, 52]. In view of the great environmental challenge of replacing fossil fuels, the use of biocomposites has been investigated to develop biodegradable, nontoxic, and even edible packaging. Most biocomposites are made from starch and cellulose due to their nontoxicity, abundance, biodegradability, low cost, and antimicrobial properties [28]. However, to use natural fibers as bioreinforcements, it is necessary to submit them to pretreatment, because they have a large amount of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, and pectins in their composition, making them active polar hydrophilic materials, with a weak interfacial bond between the highly polar natural fiber and the nonpolar matrix, while synthetic polymeric materials are polar and exhibit hydrophobicity, adhering well to the composite matrix [30, 31]. Therefore, before being used as a polymeric reinforcement, natural fibers need chemical treatments and structural modifications through purification and modification of their surface, seeking to improve the bond between fiber/matrix fines [4]. Some of the existing methods include treatment by plasma, enzymes, fungi, bacteria, and alkali materials, with alkalization being the most common treatment, to promote reduction in the proportions of lignin and hemicellulose and improvement in surface roughness so that the treatment obtains hydrophobicity, greater porosity, wettability, adhesion, and resistance [2, 5, 26, 28, 45, 59, 64]. Thus, composites reinforced with treated fibers present better mechanical properties than raw fibers [20]. Another alternative is the production of biocomposites with the inclusion of fine charcoal particles as filler to reinforce the polymer matrix [21]. Charcoal has relatively low cost and high availability, making it a material with great potential for use in the production of biocomposites, including with a macromolecular, threedimensional, heterogeneous structure composed of fused aromatic rings with volatile components trapped in their pores [63]. In addition to its low cost, charcoal mixed with other polymers can provide the composite with mechanical, electrical, flammability, and magnetic properties, as well as improve the impact strength, hardness, and structure of the resin used, without the need for specific technologies due to compatibility with traditional polymer manufacturing processes such as molding and extrusion [3, 51]. The production of charcoal-based biocomposites should receive attention when choosing the polymer to which the charcoal will be incorporated, so that the charcoal particulate material and the polymer have good reactivity, to tailor the material for

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different uses. If the goal is thermal stability and chemical resistance, thermoset polymers are more suitable, whereas for high impact resistance and recyclability, thermoplastic polymers are more advantageous [3, 21, 51]. In addition to paying attention to the type of polymer chosen, it is also necessary to observe the preparation of the charcoal that will be used as a filler. During the carbonization process, care must be taken to obtain better efficiency of the material used. Carbonization temperature and the type of biomass used can determine the chemical, structural, and elemental properties of the charcoal produced, reflected in the mechanical, thermal, and water absorption properties of the composite material. Charcoals produced at lower temperatures tend to have higher strength properties compared to those produced at higher ranges (600–900 °C). However, charcoal produced at higher temperatures have better hydrophobicity and electrostatic properties when added to composites [34, 47]. The addition of charcoal in composites has been increasingly studied, producing relevant information regarding the benefits when combined with composites. Studies have reported that by incorporating charcoal into composites, they tend to have better flammability, tensile and flexural strength, lower moisture absorption, and increased thermal conductivity [14, 15]. Furthermore, the addition of charcoal can help mobilize the polymer chain and increase the glass transition temperature of the polymers, as well as acting as a flame retardant and natural antifungal without the need for additive treatments or coatings [49, 50]. Diverse materials are sent for disposal in dumps and landfills, culminating in an unprecedented environmental impact. In deposits like these, impacts are related to soil contamination by release of CH4 , CO2 , tannins and polyphenols, among other chemicals, into the environment [25]. Finding ways for the reintroduction of waste into product life cycles has become one of the main objectives of developed countries. The European Commission, a politically independent institution that represents and defends the interests of the European Union, adopted an action plan that determines guidelines on the circular bioeconomy to increase the recycling of waste. The aim is to implement and foster sustainable development in the long-term future, through the achievement of a circular economy. With increasing global attention to sustainability, biocomposites emerge as solutions to problems of unsustainable production and disposal of plastic materials and biological materials (Fig. 4). The use of natural resources for the manufacture of biocomposites satisfies the tenets of the circular economy, mainly by allowing recycling and reuse. The purpose of the circular economy is to achieve sustainability by minimizing waste and keeping resources valued [17, 59]. The objective of the circular economy is to reduce the carbon footprint at all stages of a product’s life cycle [59], and using wastes in biocomposites is a way of applying the concept, to reduce society’s compulsion to wildly discard products that no longer perform their role satisfactorily. Adherence to the circular economy improves the diversity of materials used in the production of biocomposites and optimizes use of energy and resources, and promotes recycling efficiency. When composite waste is used, it needs to be recycled to conform to the circular economy model [42]. Thus, attention must be paid to environmental standards and cost [59, 61]. A major obstacle to the application of the circular economy concept with polymeric biocomposites is the separation of

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Fig. 4 Benefits of producing and using biocomposites. Source The authors (2022)

fibers for reintroduction into the system. The variety of materials with different chemical compositions, along with varied manufacturing processes, makes it difficult to separate constituents from composite waste without damaging the fibers [9]. The development of new fiber recovery and recycling technologies is needed, but their application involves large investments, both in time and money. The advantage of recycling processes lies in the recovery of materials with high embodied energy, representing a way to reduce both energy consumption and the impact on the environment as an additional advantage. However, the barrier that research institutions and industries face is that most materials become outdated before their recycling technologies mature for industrial applications [59]. However, the demand for bulk materials necessary to commercialize the technologies is not fed by the industries. One option for the problem is the development of technology with a more generalized approach, capable of being tailored to process materials with a wide range of properties.

5 Challenges and Future Perspectives of Biocomposites in the Materials Market In reaction to the environmental catastrophes experienced in recent decades, the search for sustainable and efficient materials has grown in the industrial sector. This is due to the new global economy, in which biodegradable substances have become a central issue to reduce disposal of materials such as plastic polymers, which have a negative impact on the environment. A vital aspect of the solution

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to replace polymers derived from fossil fuels is the use of forest-based materials, which is a potential alternative to help achieve the circular economy and a practical form of industrial symbiosis. In this sense, emerging economies such as Brazil and South Korea have advocated the implementation of industrial symbiosis to reduce environmental impacts and improve product viability and profitability (Kim et al. 2018; Sellitto et al. 2021). In 2015, the United Nations proposed to its member countries a new sustainable development agenda for the next 15 years, the “2030 Agenda”, comprising 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs seek to address all the main challenges, including infrastructure innovation, sustainable cities and communities, and action against climate change, which involve three SD goals, “9–Industries, Innovation, and Infrastructure”, “12–Sustainable Consumption and Production”, and “13–Action Against Global Climate Change” (Fig. 4). Producing and using biocomposites will help to achieve this goal by 2030. Still, the awareness of private and public bodies and further studies of new bioreinforcements are necessary to achieve these goals. In this respect, research on the use of forest-based bioreinforcements for the manufacture of biocomposites as an alternative to replace polymeric composites has grown steadily. The use of these materials as raw materials is encouraged by the abundance and low cost and obtainment of efficiency as high as that of materials derived from petroleum.

6 Conclusions According to the findings of this study, it is clear that the use of biocomposites filled with wood, charcoal, and cellulose particles can be a component to achieve the circular economy. Despite the existence of research that proves their suitability in various sectors, their insertion in the market is still incipient in relation to composites with polymeric resins. This situation may be related to the fact that these biocomposite materials are relatively new and innovative, still requiring studies to fill in some gaps about their characteristics and prove their functionality. In the coming years, more studies of these materials will be developed, ensuring their applicability in the materials sector and favoring the use of environmentally friendly materials.

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Changes in Land Use and Occupation and Their Implications for the Production Chain of Non-forest Timber Products from Babassu (Attalea speciosa) in the Cocais Region, Maranhão State, Brazil Bruno Araújo Corrêa , Alexandre Santos Pimenta , Rafael Rodolfo de Melo , Pedro Nicó de Medeiros Neto , and Tatiane Kelly Barbosa de Azevedo

Abstract With an emphasis on its kernels, the babassu palm (Attalea speciosa) is considered one of the main non-timber trees in Brazil. The main babassu forest stands are located in Maranhão and Piauí, in a region known as ‘Cocais’ (coconut region). Despite the species’ regional relevance, these areas have been suffering from the advance of deforestation and the transformation of land use and occupation. Therefore, this work analyzed the shifts that have occurred in Maranhão State, Brazil, in four municipalities of the Cocais Region: Coroatá, Timbiras, Codó, and Caxias concerning the changes in land use and their influence in the production chain of nonforest timber products such as kernels and oil. Data from MapBiomas from 1987, 2003, and 2019 were interpreted for the land cover assessment. Also, population and economic data from the literature were employed to support the evaluation. The state of Maranhão is the country’s leading producer of babassu kernels, with a total yearly output of 44 thousand tons and an approximate value of US$ 15 million. Understanding the changes in production and landscape is necessary to determine how B. A. Corrêa · A. S. Pimenta (B) · T. K. B. de Azevedo Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Florestais-PPGCFL, Engenharia Florestal, Escola Agrícola de Jundiaí, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Norte, EAJ-UFRN, RN 160, Km 03, Distrito de Jundiaí, Macaíba, RN, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] R. R. de Melo Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal do Semiárido—UFERSA, Av. Francisco Mota, 572, Costa e Silva, CEP 59.625-900, Mossoró, RN, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] P. N. de Medeiros Neto Engenharia Florestal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, UFCG, Campus Patos, Rodovia Patos-Teixeira, Km 1, Av. Universitária, s/n, Sta. Cecília, CEP, Patos, PB 58708-11058708-110, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_8

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these can affect extractivism, an important economic activity among small farmers, helping to reduce rural poverty. In the years evaluated, there were significant land use and occupation changes, mainly replacing natural areas with pastures, leading to conflicts between family farmers and large landowners. Keywords Extractivism · Family farming · Non-wood forest products · Babassu coconut · Cocais Region · Maranhão State · Communities development · Circular economy

1 Introduction Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) represent an essential source of income worldwide for rural and urban populations [1]. NTFP is defined as products extracted from biological sources other than wood. Thus, they are products from forests and livestock produced for the subsistence of families and communities [2]. Such products include seeds, resins, rubber, fruits, and bark [3]. Regarding the NTFPs marketed in Brazil, açaí (Euterpe oleracea), yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis), latex from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), and babassu stand out. Babassu (Attalea speciosa Mart. ex Spreng) is a species of the palm family (Arecaceae), endowed with drupaceous fruits with edible seeds from which oil is extracted, used mainly in food and medicine, in addition to being the target of advanced research for the manufacture of biofuels. Babassu is a robust palm tree with a single trunk up to 20 m in height and 25–4 cm in diameter. Usually, the plant presents 7–22 leaves measuring 4–8 m in length. The species is present in the most significant concentrations in the ‘Mata dos Cocais’ (coconut forest) or ‘Zona dos Cocais’ (coconut zone), which covers a large portion of the states of Maranhão and Piauí [4]. Further, according to the author, in Maranhão, the babassu palm is one of the primary sources of income for ‘quilombolas’ (communities of the descendants of runaway slaves with origin as early as the sixteenth century) and other rural communities. Women usually collect the babassu coconut from one of the poorest regions of Brazil [5]. Those women are called ‘coconut crackers.’ They typically do not own land, instead of collecting the coconuts from private properties and public areas where the tree thrives naturally [6]. According to the same author, those women play simultaneous roles of working in small family plantations, collecting coconuts, and serving as housewives. Because of this, they make an essential contribution to household income by extracting babassu coconuts. These women break the nuts with an ax to extract the oil from the seed kernels. Coconuts fall from the trees when they are ripe and are collected in small areas of land collectively worked by local communities and landless workers [5, 7]. There is a large number of coconut crackers in the regions of Maranhão, mainly in the municipalities of Médio Mearim, Codó, Caxias, Pindaré, Baixada Maranhense, and Chapadinha. Besides a source of income, the babassu fruit is an essential dietary supplement for families in rural communities

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in the region. Overall, the tree yields a large number of by-products. From the kernels, babassu oil is produced, which has a hazelnut aroma and is used in regional dishes, especially fish stews. The babassu production chain encompasses a wide range of products. The leaves are used to manufacture utensils, handicrafts, and roofing. Babassu oil and milk are extracted from the kernels. The mesocarp is used to produce a type of flour, and the endocarp or the whole coconut serves as an energy source in charcoal [8]. Around 70 products can be extracted from the babassu palm [9]. However, one of the main obstacles to the babassu production chain is the lack of specific technologies and innovations involving the processing of the kernels [10]. Another critical point is the threats to this type of extractivism. This includes competition with babassu oil from other oils produced from more productive plant sources [11–13]. In this context, in social and economic terms, the production of the babassu coconuts has always had significant importance, especially in the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, with the leading states being Maranhão and Piauí [10, 14]. The babassu areas cover around 196,000 mil km2 . This plant species from the Cocais Region is considered one of the world’s primary sources of natural oil [8, 15]. The extractivism of babassu trees has passed through different periods of economic and social importance. After the First World War, and more so after the Second World War, babassu became significant enough for extractive communities to continue their traditional way of life [16, 17]. In 2020, the value of babassu kernels reached around US$ 17 million, with 98.24% of this revenue coming from the two mentioned states [18–22]. Another critical factor in this chain is the relationship with traditional populations, such as the emergence of social movements, the most representative of which is the MIQCB—Movement of Babassu Coconut Crackers, which supports guidelines for the standardization of production and access of crackers to babassu palm stands [23]. The collection of the babassu coconuts is a longstanding activity, dating back many centuries by traditional rural communities in Maranhão. As time passed, the babassu areas became private properties, resulting in severe conflicts between large landowners and babassu collectors. ‘Free Babassu’ is the name of a group of eleven state laws that ensures the entry of crackers in babassu stands in some places [16, 24]. However, of the 217 municipalities in Maranhão, only 15 have local laws that guarantee free access to babassu stands [25]. Unfortunately, none of these laws are respected or enforced in the Cocais Region. Usually, the walk to the palm stands to collect the babassu is accompanied by singing traditional songs. But in some farms, singing is prohibited, and in others, people cannot even enter. Unfortunately, this is the story of activity in decline, caused chiefly by land conflicts, cultural and racial bigotry, and the clearance of babassu forests to grow seasonal crops, causing the migration of rural dwellers. Previous studies have analyzed the negative changes in the babassu production chain and the development of agricultural and livestock activities as if they were separate events [7, 11, 23, 26]. Nevertheless, there is an undeniable correlation between the decrease in babassu extractivism and the expansion of areas used to grow seasonal crops, mainly soybean and pastures for cattle grazing. Thus, this study aimed to

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correlate the changes in land use and occupation in the Cocais Region in the state of Maranhão and how these changes interfere with the babassu production chain with social, environmental, and economic scope. For this purpose, we focus on four municipalities in this region. In this chapter, we will discuss about the coconut palm region, the economic importance of the babassu production chain, then we will talk about land use in this region and its implications. Later, we evaluate the evolution of the productive chain of this product in four studied cities and we will approach the practical applications and the future researches that can be related with the subjects treated in our chapter.

2 Material and Methods 2.1 Study Area The present study was conducted in the Cocais Region, the eastern region of Maranhão. This region is divided into 17 municipalities, of which we selected four: Coroatá, Timbiras, Codó, and Caxias (Fig. 1) since they are the leading producers of babassu coconut kernels in that region. The study area covers 13,262.3 km2 , representing 4.02% of Maranhão’s territory [27].

2.2 Data Source and Assessment The data on the production of babassu coconut used for historical series comprised 33 years (1987 to 2020) and were obtained from the Agricultural Census (SIDRA) of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), which contains a complete historical series, in terms of quantity and values. For the assessment of land cover, data from MapBiomas (collection 5) for the years 1987, 2003, and 2019 in raster format were used, which corresponded to a time interval of 16 years in the period evaluated, allowing for a more conclusive view of the transformations that have taken place in the region. The maps were prepared with the Qgis 3.14 program. The processing of raster data was divided into two stages: the first stage was the pre-processing, which consisted of the acquisition of data, clipping the shapefile of the municipalities (municipal grid and national units), followed by the conversion of the raster files to vectorial layers of the projected system UTM 23s, making it possible to extract data with classification in distinct and respective areas of occupation. The second stage was post-processing data after compilation from the established historical series. Thus, it was possible to create a classification of land use and land cover and proceed with the preparation of maps and data extraction, enabling the diagnosis of land use and occupation changes.

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Fig. 1 Detail of the study area—the Cocais Region, state of Maranhão

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Additionally, other statistical data were obtained from official sources, such as the IBGE, National Forestry Information System (SNIF), Ministry of Environment (MMA), and Ministry of Agriculture (MAPA). Bibliographic and documentary research was also carried out with specialized search engines such as Scopus, Science Direct, Scielo, CAPES Periodicals, and Academic Google, thus allowing a broad analysis of the topic and development of results and discussions. These data sources were also used to understand the babassu production chain and the agents involved, such as its primary products and by-products.

3 Results 3.1 Cocais Region The Cocais Region changed its population from 2000 to the last census in 2010, as can be observed in Table 1. Those censuses demonstrated a drop in the rural population of 35 to 30% in that decade.

3.2 Economic Importance of the Babassu Production Chain In 1987, the total production of the municipalities in the Cocais Region represented around 20% of the total amount produced in Brazil and 27.77% in Maranhão. In 2020, the values were 7.96% for Brazil and 8.57% for Maranhão, as shown in Fig. 2 [27]. As also depicted in Fig. 2, the annual production of babassu kernels, which was close to 200 thousand tons in 1980, decreased to 60 thousand tons in 2016.

3.3 Land Use and Occupation in the Cocais Region To summarize and illustrate the current use coverage of the land in the studied area, Fig. 3 contains the maps generated based on the data presented in Table 2, which reports the classes of land use and occupation and their respective regions in 1987, 2003, and 2019. Figure 3 expresses the composition of the natural areas and areas subjected to anthropic action in the studied period (1987–2019). Among the classes represented, savannas, open fields, and forests are the main types of land cover still prevalent but are subjected the most to predatory actions. Figure 4 illustrates the annual revenues generated by extractivism of babassu kernels from 1995 to 2020 in Brazil, Maranhão, and, more specifically, the four municipalities assessed here (Caxias, Codó, Coroatá, and Timbiras). There was a

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Table 1 Changes in the population structure in the municipalities of the Cocais Region, state of Maranhão, Brazil Municipalities

Population (2000)

Population (2010)

Urban

Urban

Rural

Rural

Codó

75,093

36,053

80,875

36,993

Coroatá

33,419

22,257

43,057

18,668

Caxias

103,485

36,271

118,534

36,595

Timbiras

13,954

12,447

17,471

10,526

Aldeias Altas

7375

11,452

13,634

10,318

Matões

6905

12,326

13,635

17,380

Parnarama

11,007

21,462

12,815

21,056

Buriti Bravo

14,886

6,560

16,969

5885

Timon

113,066

16,626

134,792

20,327

Afonso Cunha

2255

2425

3234

2671

Coelho Neto

3747

7467

38,729

8021

Duque Bacelar

4173

5240

5340

5309

Fortuna

9128

5468

9504

5594

Senador Alexandre Costa

4944

3627

6164

4092

São João do Soter

4442

10,392

6646

10,592

Peritoró

6527

10,809

7752

13,449

Lagoa do Mato

2695

6751

4453

6481

Total

417,101

227,633

533,604

* Source

233,957

IBGE—Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2000–2010)

Fig. 2 Annual production (tons) of babassu kernels in Brazil, in the state of Maranhão, and the Cocais Region

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Fig. 3 Land use and occupation in the Cocais Region in the 1987, 2003, and 2019

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Table 2 Classes of land use and occupation (values in km2 ) Classes

Year 1987

Forest Open field vegetation Savanna Planted forest Urban infrastructure Pasture

Percentage difference 1987/2019 2003

2019

8220.4

7883.7

7253.0

−11.77

342.4

275.6

274.0

−19.98

4271.5

40,095

3270.7

−23.43

0.006

20.1

18.8

32.7

338.6

991.9

5.84 47.2 2237.7

97.30 60.17 560.87

River, lake, and ocean

30.6

21.2

18.5

−39.54

Non-vegetated areas

86.2

74.6

66.6

−22.74

0.385

82.7

689,006.67

Seasonal crops

0.012

Soybean

–

–

32.8

100

Sugarcane

–

–

32.84

100

Semi-perennial crops

0.01

–

–

−100

significant spike in the production of kernels during the interval between 2003 and 2012 since there have been successive declines. Between 2013 and 2021, the relationship between exported quantity and revenues obtained stands out, based on the increased value of babassu oil in the international market, as displayed in Fig. 5. In terms of exported tonnage, in 2001 and 2002, the amounts were 809 tons, generating annual revenues of US$ 785,433.

Fig. 4 Annual value from the production of babassu kernels for Brazil, state of Maranhão, and municipalities covered in the present study

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Fig. 5 Value of the export of babassu oil from Brazil between 1997 and 2021

4 Discussion 4.1 Cocais Region In Brazil, the economic and social development process has always been uneven concerning ‘quilombolas,’ indigenous communities, and other traditional communities. Reducing social inequality has caused profound transformations in all aspects of human development. Thus, the Cocais Region Program was created to promote regional development and provide social assistance and guarantees of civil and social rights through integrated actions from the three spheres of government: federal, state, and local [28].

4.2 Economic Importance of the Babassu Production Chain The extractivism of babassu has always been mainly a family subsistence activity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, rural communities already had an organized collection of babassu coconuts. From the early colonial period in the seventeenth century until the early twentieth century, coconut extraction was used to support low-income households [29]. At the end of the First World War, the commercial harvesting of babassu coconuts for the international market began, mainly for energy production and applications in the cosmetics industry [16]. Among all the productive chains of plant extractivism in Brazil, the most important is that of babassu coconuts, with an estimated 18 million hectares, covering about 279 Brazilian municipalities in 11 states. According to Porro [7], projections based on a socio-economic survey in 2017 applied in over 1.000 households in 18 municipalities of the Mearim Valley indicated

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that the annual monetary value of babassu products in this area alone was over US$ 17 million, three times the value of the kernels in official data sources. The author pointed out the need to understand the economic importance of babassu products to develop tools to strengthen this economic activity and improve the conservation of natural babassu stands and the way of life of agro-extractive communities. The babassu palm is an important income source for several municipalities in Maranhão (Fig. 2). The state’s population was 6,574,789 in 2010, with 36.89% classified as rural dwellers. This is the highest percentage of the rural population in the country. According to estimates of the IBGE [22, 27], the state population is now over 7 million people, but the information on the rural percentage has not been released yet. Babassu kernels have always been concentrated in Maranhão, although babassu palms occur naturally or in planted groves in other states. According to Porro [7], until 2011, in terms of production value, babassu was considered the second NTFP in Brazil after acai (Euterpe oleracea). That year, the production was worth US$ 85 million [22]. From 2012 ahead, the value reached by other NTFPs, like Brazil nuts, mate herb, and carnauba, surpassed babassu. The decline in the production of babassu coincides with the changes in the population structure (Table 1) and land use and occupation (Table 2 and Fig. 3).

4.3 Land Use and Occupation in the Cocais Region Table 3 presents the percentage variation of each land use and occupation class during the studied years (1987, 2003, and 2019). Among the different courses, the most significant increases were for other seasonal crops and pastures, with 689,006.67 and 560.87%, respectively. This reveals the substantial expansion of agricultural and livestock production in the region. Meanwhile, urban areas followed by planted forests and soybean and sugarcane farms increased by 60.17, 97.30, 100, and 100%, respectively. These gains were accompanied by declines in natural savannas, open fields, and forests of 23.43, 19.98, and 11.77%, respectively. In this respect, the map in Fig. 3 shows that in 1987, the principal land coverages were forests, open fields, and savannas, which together represented 96.44% of the total area of the Cocais Region. This characteristic continued from 2003 to 2019 but with a significant decrease in the respective regions. The central part of the Brazilian savanna is its vegetation composition, formed mainly of grasses, small shrubs, and trees with distinct trunks, denoting the existence of large arboreal concentrations [30– 32]. This type of formation has been severely affected by fires, the most destructive anthropic action in the Cocais Region. However, savannas are negatively affected not only by this deleterious burning but also the other type of plant formations. In 1987, no large-scale burning was detected, but in 2003, the number of burned foci reached 3655; in 2019, the number rose to 8870 [33]. Historically, Brazil’s primary production of babassu kernels was concentrated in Maranhão and Piauí. These two states produced 47,030 tons annually, generating US$ 17.4 million of value-added. In the municipalities of the Cocais Region alone,

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the production reached 3793 tons and US$ 900 thousand. The values of the cities analyzed here were 2248 tons and US$ 520 thousand. As demonstrated by the data and maps presented here, there is a strong correlation between the decrease in extractivism of babassu with the expansion of agricultural and livestock activities from 1987 until 2019. According to Gehring et al. [23], Gouveia [34], and Santos Filho et al. [35], the areas with the natural occurrence of babassu have been severely depleted by deforestation, soil degradation, and fires. Such phenomena are closely related to the expansion of plantations of seasonal crops and pastures, with is corroborated by the data presented in this work. Traditional populations are being forced to emigrate to urban centers since their activities have been supplanted by others that do not require a large-scale workforce, as is the case of the mechanized monoculture of soybean, for instance, and the expansion of cattle breeding. Without jobs and with access to land prohibited, there is no alternative for the babassu crackers other than abandoning their traditional homelands and migrating to other places. Also, Hecht et al. [36] highlighted the beginning of that year an adverse effect of the anthropic actions cited above on babassu extractivism in the states of Maranhão, Mato Grosso, and Pará. This degradation of the natural environment where babassu used to occur is especially prevalent in Maranhão, which has undergone considerable expansion of the agricultural frontier in the last 10–20 years, with the farmland taking the place of areas with natural occurrence of babassu [26, 37]. The areas of babassu forests mainly have flat terrain suitable for cattle grazing and seasonal crops after forest clearance. The results of this study corroborate those of Gouveia [34] by highlighting the decrease in babassu extractivism and other traditional lifestyles in 290 municipalities of 8 Brazilian states.

4.4 Evolution of the Babassu Production Chain in the Four Studied Municipalities The situation of the four municipalities chosen to exemplify the changes in the babassu production chain is a microcosm of the overall picture discussed above regarding Maranhão and the Cocais Region. It is essential to highlight that the four municipalities were the largest producers of babassu kernels in the early 1980s, emphasizing Codó, Coroatá, and Timbiras. As pointed out, the productive chain underwent severe changes, with the increased use of other natural oils and the advance of annual crops such as soybean, corn, and cotton. Modifications followed these changes in the occupation and use of lands where the babassu kernels were initially collected [38]. The change in the former social structure of the collection of babassu kernels is described by Silva et al. [39] as one of the factors in the decline of the production, not only in Maranhão but also in Piauí and other producer states. According to the authors, the low profitability of the extractive activity, the difficulties in trading the products, and the change in the mindset of the new generations, who

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migrate to find job opportunities in large farms and urban areas, had the most significant contribution to that decline. Together with the large farms, livestock grazing has also expanded, encroaching in areas where babassu palms grew naturally or were managed on a small scale. All those factors can together explain the substantial rural exodus experienced by the four municipalities and others in the Cocais Region. The rural exodus becomes apparent when the numbers are assessed. For instance, the municipality of Codó produced 14,530 tons of babassu kernels in 1987 when the population was 75,000. In 2010, the population decreased to 36,000, and the babassu production reached only 802 tons. Coroatá, Caxias, and Timbiras also experienced the same rural exodus, where most of the populations lived in rural areas but now have forgone babassu collection to work in other higher-paying activities, such as cattle and annual crop farming. Another critical factor is the lack of adequate public policies to protect and encourage the babassu productive chain. Without any positive intervention from the state and federal governments, this critical NTFP chain is declining steeply along with the degradation of forests and decreased biodiversity in the Cocais Region and all over the babassu production areas.

4.5 Practical Applications and Future Research In the context presented above, this work is significant since it quantifies the evolution of changes in the land occupation that affected babassu extractivism resulting in the loss of biodiversity and traditional jobs. Therefore, actions from state and federal governments to mitigate the problem could include social programs directed to big, medium, and small farmers aiming to establish some financial compensation to keep the natural babassu forests standing. In this sense, the first approach is Provisional Measure 1151/2022 issued by the Brazilian Government which intends to stimulate the carbon credit market and take advantage of the potential for biodiversity conservation in the country. A carbon credit is a certificate certifying and recognizing the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions responsible for global warming which could also be applied to the babassu forests.

5 Conclusions The need for policies and actions to sustain the traditional activity of babassu production is urgent since it can improve the way of life of poor communities, integrate their inhabitants into everyday work, and increase income. Additionally, when the babassu forest areas are preserved, many other plant and animal species still inhabit their natural environment, preventing ecological imbalance, and maintaining biodiversity. We believe the expansion of mechanized plantations and cattle farming is harmful. Ways must be found to enable the harmonious coexistence between modern and traditional activities. This requires studies to find ways to prevent land conflicts

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and environmental impacts. The importance of the babassu production chain in the studied region is beyond doubt, so actions to improve and recover its former importance are necessary, given the decrease in the activity during the period assessed in this work. Besides this, the movement has yet to be adequately valued since several products from babassu are not included in the official statistics, as is the case of the oil. The key point in favor of establishing laws and policies to support the activity is that the babassu production chain helps reduce rural poverty in the Cocais Region. Acknowledgements We are thankful to the Forest Engineering Department of the Jundiaí School of Agriculture, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), and the Maranhão Foundation to Support Scientific and Technological Development (FAPEMA) for research grants.

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Brazilian Resin Method: Handmade, Sustainable and Profitable Samara Lazarotto, Luana Candaten, and Rafaelo Balbinot

Abstract Brazil is the second largest producer of pine resin in the world, and in the country, the state of Rio Grande do Sul is in second place in terms of production scale. Different techniques and management are used to obtain the resin; therefore, the objective of the present work was to technically describe the method of obtaining Pinus resin in the state of RS, Brazil. The different moments involved in resin collection, tree selection and care for the quality of life of the workers involved in the process are of fundamental importance for the sustainable final quality of the product obtained. The detailed methodology on resin collection described in this work can help for the same practice in other places, worldwide speaking. Keywords Resin · Tapping · Pinus elliottii · Forest product non-wood · Technical description · Production sustainable

1 Introduction Brazil is one of the countries with large areas of forest plantations in the world, risen to important places in the production of raw material sources in the industry. For 2016, the country presented an area of 7.84 million hectares of forestry in which by the date were distributed among eucalipto (Eucalyptus sp.) with an area of 5.67 million hectares, pines (Pinus sp.) with 1.58 million hectares and other genres with 0.59 million hectares [1, 2]. Forestry activity with pine plantations reach in average 30.5 m3 ha−1 per year in increments [1]. In addition to pine timber production, it also stands out for resin production [2]. According to data on forest production, Brazil is part of the main forest producers, standing out in the production of pulp, roundwood, fibers, among others [3]. Today the country stands out as the world’s second largest producer of Pinus sp. Resin. At S. Lazarotto · L. Candaten (B) · R. Balbinot Forest Policy and Management Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Maria Campus, Frederico Westphalen, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_9

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the national level, São Paulo is the leading state in production with 91.940 tons of Pinus elliottii and 18.260 tons of tropical pine, in total production is 110.200 tons. The state of Rio Grande do Sul in south Brazil is the next state with larger production in pine resin, 45.720 tons is the actual production. In general, the country has a total production of 185.692 tons of resin according to the Brazilian tapper’s association [4]. The forestry in the middle coast of Rio Grande do Sul is remarkable, for this research was taken two cities of references, they are São José do Norte and Tavares. The first one has a planted forest area of 14.172 ha, of which 14.076 ha are Pinus; the second one has a planted area with 3.218 ha of Pinus [5]. Currently, the base of the economy in these cities is the production and extraction of natural resins, coming from planted Pinus forests, being this, one of the only livelihoods in the region [6]. In this case, the resin activity has had a rapid growth, displacing other economics activities such as livestock production fishing, onions and rice cultivation that are also important in the economy of these places. Nevertheless, in other southern European countries, resin works play important roles om the economic and social development of many rural areas, generating employment and being considered as a natural and renewable raw material required by chemical industry [7]. The ecological conditions that southern Brazil has are favorable for the growth of P. elliottii and are used for timber production and the extraction of resin, which makes a very lucrative species [8]. According to the literature, non-timber forest products, over time, have increased in relevance to the economy and have shown potential in the international market [9]. In Rio Grande do Sul, the most used species is P. elliottii, which has good, qualities and yields in its extraction, resulting in a product widely used in the industry as rosin and turpentine [10]. These can be used as raw material in the preparation of different substances and products even in pharmacology [11]. With the interest of determining how the pine resin tapping contributes, not only in the economic growth of the regions, but also in the realization of job opportunities, according to the needs of the resin tappers, which led to a better quality of life and job satisfaction [12]. It’s important to highlight the social importance of the resin activity and the tapper workers, the environmental impact, the economy that generates, as well as the advantage of the human potential, its time to make an analysis of the autonomous tapper in the middle coast of Rio Grande do Sul and its social, technical and productive aspects [6]. The resin activity is developed in a few countries in the world, among the most prominent worldwide, according to the order of production from the largest to the smallest resin producer, among these we have China, Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Mexico, Argentina, Spain, Portugal, among others [13]. Conferring to global trends, the resin sector is directly associated with the world leader, which for several decades has been considered the first resin producer. This situation is still present today, which generates uncertainties regarding the potential of this country, as well as its participation rates in the world market. Within the main resin-producing countries, among these are China, Brazil and Indonesia [14, 15]. Compliant with the information presented by Susaeta [16], world resin production was approximately 1.1 million tons produced by China, Brazil and Indonesia,

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these being the three largest producers in the world, led by China with a production of 907.200 tons for the years 2007–2009 [17]. Followed by Brazil with a resin production of 95.961 tons for the years 2015–2016 [18], presenting an increase in its production capacity in an ascending way, where for the years 2017–2018 it presented a production of over 200.000 tons of resin by this date. According to the major world importers, the consumer market can be divided into three parts: Japan, which is the main importer from Indonesia and other emerging Asian countries; USA is supported by self-consumption with its tall oil resin production; The European Community, which is supplied by exports from Brazil, Portugal and part of Indonesia and China, which has a separate part, in accordance with its production capacity and market dominance [19]. As a result, to the current situation regarding the commercialization of resin, it is estimated that in China and Indonesia they have their resource compromised and unsustainable, as a result of excessive exploration and little respect for the pine tree, while in Brazil production is more established, as for Spain, France and Portugal, they are currently major consumers of resin products and are the main importers from China [20]. The resin is a complex terpene mixture produced by specials cells dedicated to the tree defenses [21], is characterized as non-wood forest product with high added value in the industrial market. According to the Brazil Resin Tappers Association (ARESB), the 2017/2018 harvest produced a total of 185.692 tons of resin marketed in an average price of R$ 2.83562/tons, increasing the average standard for R$ 8.00000/tons in the first 2022 semester [4]. The resultant products from the resin practice have countless uses, placed in the most different economies sectors, like paper production, hygiene and cleaning products just like soaps and sanitizing’s, printers’ ink, oil paint, synthetic rubber, stickers, electronics and even in foods, medicinal products, pesticides, spices herbs [22]. In the course of history, there have been several techniques to extract resin from the trees. Among them, we can mention the Chinese method used in China and Southeast Asia, which does not use chemical stimulants for the extraction process, this method consists of wide, deep cuts that facilitate drainage [23]. The Hugues method, also known by French method applied in Indonesia and Mexico, consists in a clay collecting vessel for storing the resin and also does not use chemical stimulants [13]. With chemical stimulants, the MAZEK method applied in India is prepared with little grooves (2–3 mm) in shape of “V” [14]. Still according to the same author, a method widely used nowadays is named “American” where ascending horizontal grooves are made (from the base to the top of the tree) with the application of stimulants. However, regardless of the method used, resin tapping has always been a manual activity (artisanal), being influenced by several factors during the harvests. The height of the resin tappers, the diameter of the trees, the seasons (abundant rainfall or drought) among others factors, can determine the adaptation of the resin tapping. Each region and/or company has perfected the techniques to better fulfill its purpose, therefore, the description process of the resin techniques adapted and used in Brazil becomes so important.

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In this work, we will address resin-bonding techniques applied in southern Brazil; the ergonomics of the work and worker involved; resin in Brazil in numbers; resin production recommendations.

2 Objective In view of all commented above, the objective of this research work is to characterize and inform the innovations in the method of resin tapping used in the coastal region of the state of Rio Grande do Sul.

3 Substantiation The Brazil economy in the recent years has experienced strong variations in its productive sources. In the case of resin activity and the resin tappers dedicated to resin production have not been far from this variation, where aspects such as lack of training, production instability and projection, represent certain limitations for resin production [6]. For this same reason, it is necessary knowledge production and proposals that can help to potentiate resin production in this region of the country, through alternatives that provide sustainability to the resin activity, with emphasis on the linkage of the independent resin producer as a fundamental part of the regional economy, highlighting his experience, opinion and experience in resin extraction. Founded on the results of this study, the knowledge of the resin sector and how it has been developing was obtained. According to the information analyzed, it was evidenced the will on the part of the resin tappers to continue working in this activity and to potentiate the sector, through the willingness to receive information, training and any contribution that can help improve the sector. On the other hand, it was perceived that the resin activity in this part of the country is significant, becoming one of the main productive activities in the region, fulfilling an important social task, being an activity that is basic manual and important in generating employments. Likewise, based on the productivity data, the two cities presented a significant productive capacity, taking into account that the pine forests have high regeneration potential, where it reflects the importance of the independent resin tappers in the productive scenario of the country [6]. Related to the knowledge of the people involved in the activity, understanding the process of obtaining resin itself is of fundamental importance, due to its wide participation in the economy of the country and the world.

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4 Literature Review 4.1 The Species Pinus elliottii This species—P. elliottii Engelm—is named after Stephen Elliott, a South Carolina botanist who distinguished it as a botanical variety of Pinus taeda [24]. It is commonly associated with P. taeda, however, the length and number of leaves (needles leaves) per fascicle, cones and bark can differentiate them [25]. Similarly, according to the authors cited above, P. elliottii is naturally found in the coastal plains from South Carolina to Central Florida and western Louisiana. Due to its productive potential and adaptation, it was introduced on a large scale in different countries (Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, China, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia) for timber production and in most cases produces seeds where natural regeneration is possible [26]. In Brazil, the P. elliottii was introduced more precisely in 1948 by initiative of the Forestry Service of the State of São Paulo, as well as the P. taeda stood out for the ease in cultural treatments, rapid growth and intense reproduction [27]. The law Nº 1.506 [28] of tax incentives to forest enterprises, boosted the development of a forest sector in the country. Intensive 21 plantations of Pinus were carried out as an alternative way to ensure the supply of wood for general uses, in view of the depletion of commercially viable reserves of Araucaria angustifolia wood, until then widely used [29]. From this moment on, the forestry industries as a whole developed, establishing themselves in domestic and foreign markets very competently [30]. Currently, Pinus plantations occupy 1.6 million hectares and are concentrated in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul and São Paulo, the planted area of this genus has remained practically stable over the last seven years and concentrated in these four states [31]. Also, according to the Brazilian Tree Industry, the Pinus Forest sector in Rio Grande do Sul in the year 2019 represented 12% of planted hectares, contributing positively to the state. According to AGEFLOR [32], the forest-based sector provides jobs and income, it is estimated to maintain 62.6 thousand direct jobs, 110.5 thousand indirect jobs and 195.3 thousand resulting from the income effect, totaling 368.4 thousand jobs.

4.2 Environmental Issues About the Species The Brazilian Forest Code established by Law No. 4.771 [33], currently withdrawn by Law No. 12.651 [34], provided in Article 38 that planted or natural forests were declared immune to any taxation. In the second paragraph thereof, it states that the amounts employed in afforestation and reforestation shall be deducted in full from income tax and specific taxes related to reforestation. In view of this statement made by the second section of the 1965 Forest Code, there is now Law nº 5.106 [28] that provides tax incentives granted to forest enterprises that seek to advance in this

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area. The amounts employed in forestation and reforestation could be deducted or deducted in the income statements of individuals and legal entities, expanding Art. 38 of Law No. 4.771 of 1965 and creating a market opportunity for the forest sector. The tax incentive was realized when a person (natural or legal) income tax payer allocated part of this tax to certain projects developed by another legal entity [35]. The moment that the productive activities of man acquired an organized form, there was the growth of economic activity that consequently has always been associated with an increase in the use of resources [36]. Resulting in a model of unbridled production that used and polluted the environment excessively, and also there began to be environmental movements that debated concepts for its preservation, demanding effective measures by the leaderships of their countries [30]. Thus, the creation of environmental policies in Brazil was encouraged by global events such as the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, which was a milestone in the global environmental agenda. The year after the Conference, with Decree Nº 73.030 [37], the Special Secretary for the Environment—SEMA was created at the federal level (currently revoked). At this moment the first discussions about the environment and the impact of human activities on it became official. However, a more effective environmental system was only established in 1981 with the creation of Law No. 6938 [38] on National Environmental Policy (PNMA). The wording of this law states Single paragraph—The public or private business activities will be exercised in consonance with the guidelines of the National Environmental Policy. Correspondingly, to the PNMA, the construction, installation, expansion and operation of establishments and activities that use environmental resources, that are effectively or potentially polluting or capable, in any way, of causing environmental degradation, will depend on prior environmental licensing. With these objects the PNMA was an important event with regard to the use of natural resources. Its composition constituted the National Environmental System (SISNAMA) and the National Environmental Council (CONAMA), an advisory and deliberative body. At the state level, Rio Grande do Sul contemplates with Law number 10.330 [39] the State System of Environmental Protection (SISEPRA). It is composed of the State Environmental Council (CONSEMA), a deliberative and normative body, responsible for the approval and monitoring of the implementation of environmental policies. More specifically, the institution responsible for environmental licensing is the State Foundation for Environmental Protection Henrique Luis Roessler— FEPAM, established by Law 9.077 [40]. FEPAM has its origins in the Coordination of the Control of Ecological Balance of Rio Grande do Sul and the former Department of Environment and is one of the executives of SISEPRA. In 2005, FEPAM, considering the art. 12 of CONAMA resolution No. 237 of 1997, which establishes the competence of the responsible environmental agency to define, if necessary, the specific procedures for obtaining environmental licenses, promulgates Ordinance No. 22 [41], which is considered the beginning of environmental licensing for forestry activities in Rio Grande do Sul. Therefore, before this exact moment in 2005 the forestry present in the state occurred without legal basis. Among the discussions about the forestry sector in the

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state of Rio Grande do Sul, regarding the implantations, the species used and the areas occupied, the Ordinance nº 22/2005 is revoked and in 2006 the FEPAM Ordinance nº 068 comes into existence. In particular, art. 8, which configures the enterprises in high or medium polluting potential, according to the amount of planted area. Subsequently, the silviculture activity with exotic species would be categorized by SEMA Ordinance No. 79 of 2013 as to two categories: 1—species that have prohibited its cultivation, transport, propagation, trade, donation or intentional acquisition in any form; 2—species that can be used under controlled conditions, with restrictions, subject to specific regulations. The Pinus spp. was allocated in category 2, so its cultivation must encounter the standards and procedures for licensing, monitoring and inspection, listed more precisely in SEMA Normative Instruction No. 14 of 2014. In 2007, FEPAM promulgated 3 Ordinances (nº 32, nº 035 e nº 55), considering that the guidelines for the Environmental Zoning of the Activity—foreseen by Law nº 11.520 [42]—had not been submitted to public hearings nor approved by CONSEMA. Therefore, it was necessary to improve the environmental licensing process for forestry, which presented flaws and was causing economic losses. The Environmental Zoning for Silviculture Activity (ZAS) in the State of Rio Grande do Sul was approved by CONSEMA Resolution No. 187 of 2008 and amended by CONSEMA No. 227 of 2009. The ZAS is an environmental management instrument, which determines how forestry development should occur in the State, considering the Hydrographic Basins and the natural Landscape Units. A complex document based solely on describing the amount of silviculture that each UPN can admit. The environmental licensing of silviculture activity itself, is regulated by FEPAM Ordinance No. 51 of 2014, which canceled FEPAM Ordinances No. 68/2006, 32/2007, 35/2007 and 55/2007. 28 And if considered the history of Ordinances, Standards and Instructions about silviculture and its licensing, it, disposes more clearly on the step by step of this process. In the year 2018, the CONSEMA resolution No. 390 was instituted, which provides on the procedures and criteria for the licensing of silviculture of planted forests in the state. Relatively recent in terms of legislation, it considers that for the purposes of environmental licensing, plantations will be classified into: I—low polluting potential; II—medium polluting potential; and III—high polluting potential. Currently, the proposal of the New Environmental Code of the State was approved in a vote, which intends to update the state legislation, adopting new procedures such as the Environmental Licensing by Compromise (LAC). This is an electronic procedure that authorizes the installation and operation of the activity or undertaking, through a declaration of adherence and commitment of the entrepreneur to the environmental criteria, preconditions, documents, requirements and conditions established by the licensing authority [43]. Given this situation, a certain concern is expressed so that these jobs are maintained and improved. In view of this, the Pinus sector, more precisely the resin extraction, occupies a large amount of this labor force, because the resin extraction from trees is a manual activity [30]. The use of resin is historically related to the development of man, being used since biblical times to the present day [44]. Resin is probably one of the oldest natural products used on a large scale by humans [45].

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4.3 Resin Extraction The first concept of resin extraction was given by US Forest Service researcher Eloise Gerry: “The resin consists of compounds known as terpenes and their oxidized derivatives, both in the horizontally extended fusiform rays and exposed on a freshly cut tangential surface, the vertical extension of aggregates and parenchyma are exposed in the cross section where oleoresin droplets can be seen exhaling. The depth of the cut in relation to the sapwood is a significant fact with reference to the yields obtained, a successful operation keeps the sapwood able to respond to normal inducements” [46]. As society has advanced, many techniques have been used to extract resin from living trees, all of which involve human labor under the tree. The historical line of resin extraction can be divided into three moments: Primitive System; without application of stimulants and with application of stimulants, defined below: o Primitive System: The operation consists of making in the trunk of the tree wide and deep cuts that facilitate the flow of resin into an opening previously made in the soil, near the base of the tree [23]. According to the same author, the rules for resin extraction emerged to keep the Pinus forests healthy, such as making an incision at a time from the base toward the top of the tree: As the practice of resin tapping advanced, methods emerged that facilitated the removal of resin from trees and offered greater purity than ground drilling method, one of them is the Hugues Method. According to Muñoz [47], at this time a wide metal element was used, such as the opening made in the tree, which led the resin to a collector made of baked clay, both fixed to the tree to store the resin exuded. This method is based on the stimulation of resin through incisions in the trunk of the tree and with the assistance of environmental heat, in the warmer months the resin flows better and a better use is obtained.

4.4 Historical Context of Resin Methods The utilization of resin is historically related to the development of the community, being used from biblical times to the present day [44]. Resin is probably one of the oldest natural products used on a large scale by humans [45]. However, the first concept of resin extraction was described by Gerry [46], where he pointed out that resin consists of compounds known as terpenes and their oxidized derivatives, both in the horizontally extended fusiform rays and exposed on a freshly cut tangential surface, the vertical extension of aggregates and parenchyma are exposed in the cross section where oleoresin droplets can be seen exhaling. The depth of the cut relative to the sapwood is a significant fact with reference to the yields obtained, a successful operation keeps the sapwood able to respond to normal stimuli [48].

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As society has advanced, many techniques have been used to extract resin from living trees, all of which involve human labor under the tree. The historical line of resin extraction can be divided into three moments as shown in Fig. 1. The primitive system consists of operations that do not take the utilization of the wood or the health of the tree into consideration. The Pit method (Fig. 2a), for example, consists of making a very “beaten” opening at the base of the tree, where the resin was deposited after making a notch in the tree bark, then the resin was collected and transported [13]. According to Duarte [13], with the advancement of thinking about the process and idealizing greater profitability and elimination of resin impurities, the method of Boxes (Fig. 2b), in this new phase, the opening where the resin was deposited was held in the tree itself reducing the use of wood. For the second moment, we perceived methods that facilitate the removal of resin from the trees and present, contained but significant technological advances in the use of resin tapping on trees. The Huguês method (Fig. 3a) and Fig. 4 showing the field, consists of placing a wide metal element at the base of the opening made for

Fig. 1 Historic line of resin extraction, represented by three important moments. Source Adapted of Candaten et al. [48]

Fig. 2 a Representative image of the Pit method of extracting resin. b Representative image of the boxes method of extracting resin. Source Duarte [13]

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Fig. 3 a Representative image of the Huguês method of extracting resin. b Representative image of the Portuguese method of extracting resin. Source Duarte [13]

resin flowing, this element conducts the resin to a container that stores the resin, both fixed to the tree [47]. The Portuguese system (Fig. 3b), on the other hand, was characterized by the discontinuity of the cuts, the grooves made on the tree had their vertices facing the base, and the distance between one groove and another could be up to 10 cm, the resin drained into a container attached to the tree. The third moment is strongly characterized by the influence of chemistry on the activity, in the form of base gums and stimulants so that the resin flow is continuous. The use of these, aims to increase the resin flow rate and its duration time, in Brazil since the beginning of resin exploration is used sulfuric acid as a stimulant [49]. The German method (Fig. 5a) sprayed the grooves on the trees with acid solution increasing the production without affecting the growth of the tree [13]. The resin activity performed by the American method (Fig. 5b) and Fig. 6 representing the field application, benefited from the improvement of stimulants, this process according to [13], allowed to make grooves less deep into the wood, enhancing the wood product and even so provide optimum production of resin. From this context of the methods evolution, it can be seen that the evolution of resin systems occurred due to the need for greater efficiency in the process. As the extraction systems have been improved, the market has adapted and several uses of the resin-based product have arisen, all with an interdisciplinary knowledge areas and industrial processes [48]. According to Medeiros [50], besides the productive aspects, social and economic importance, the resin represents an invaluable and renewable source of components with various applications. These elements, coming from the resin are a great source of terpenes, the liquid fraction called turpentine (mono and sesquiterpenes) and the solid fraction called rosin (diterpenes) are valuable sources for chemical industries [51].

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Fig. 4 Huguês method in the field

The percentage of rosin after processing is approximately 80% and the percentage of turpentine around 20% [52]. Brazil is the world’s second largest producer of Pinus sp. resin, and in the country, this product is at the top of the stand as the most important Brazilian forestry product for the forestry sector [53]. The production of resin has shown vast growth in recent years, with the technologies of applications of differentiated methods of extraction and collection, as well as, with the use of stimulant pastes. The largest producers of resin gum in Brazil are the states of São Paulo, generating from 91.940 tons of P. elliottii and 18.260 tons of tropical pine (total 110.200 tons), Rio Grande do Sul is the second producer with a production of 45,720 tons of P. elliottii resin, and Paraná is in third place [4, 27]. Overall, the country has a total production of 185.692 tons of resin according to the Association of Refiners of Brazil [4].

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Fig. 5 a Representative image of the German method of extracting resin. b Representative image of the American method of extracting resin. Source Duarte [13] Fig. 6 Illustrative image of how the resin activity by the American method occurs in the field

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The forestry sector in Brazil represents 6% of the Gross Domestic Product of the country, where exports in the branch were $10 billion in the year 2019, being a remarkable success in the Brazilian economy. According to the literature, non-timber forest products over time have had an increase in relevance in the economy and has shown potential in the international market [9]. Among the divisions of the large forest niche, resin tapping has received prominence in recent years, according to the Association of Resiners of Brazil (ARESB), the production of resin gum between the 2016 to 2018 harvests totaled more than 350 thousand tons. With this, Brazil has become the second largest resin producer in the world, followed by China which ranks first [27, 54]. This survey made it possible to observe that since 2017, the production of resin per crop has been increasing in the country, and the previous harvests proved to be stagnant below 100 tons of product per crop. The growth observed in recent harvests is due to increased production, coupled with genetic improvement factors and improved techniques. For example, in 2016, the state government of Espirito Santo launched the Pró-resina program, and with this, actions such as advertising, technical assistance and research have been periodically expanded, consequently increasing local production numbers [55]. According to the data collected, it can be observed that the year 2018 stood out with respect to the price per ton, however, in general, there was no trend or discrepancy of the values in these 5 years. Also, the increasing production is a result of the proposed implementation of programs aimed at the improvement of Pinus species in the country, with specific objectives for each sector, called the Cooperative Program for Improvement of Pinus, which has a specific niche for studies focused on greater productivity and higher resin quality, this has been carried out in partnership between companies with common interests in the area and Embrapa Forestry [29]. Observing the average value per month, it can be seen a considerable economic increase for both, especially in the second half of 2020 [48]. This growth also generates a social impact, since resin production is an activity with direct use of labor, and producing more than 100 thousand tons/year of resin, which is extracted from more than 45 million trees, generates more than 15 thousand direct jobs, which gives the production even more prominence in the country [56]. On the other hand, the resin has contributed in the last 30 years, with the boost of economic growth in rural regions, with the use of Pinus forests for this activity in different states of Brazil [57]. Despite the increase in the price paid per ton of resin observed in recent months, it is important to note that the value received by the country for its product is lower than the foreign market, the justification for such a factor is due to the quality of the product offered by Brazil, still, the production followed by the export of resin is so wide, that the lower value paid has not been noticed by the Brazilian market [58]. This information highlights the importance of the incentive on this theme, in order to improve the methodologies and consequently, the final product obtained in the cycle of Pinus resin extraction in Brazil.

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Such variation in the price of resin has been observed over the years, however, currently presents itself in a rising market that stands out when compared to previous decades [59]. The same authors addressed that this instability in the value paid for gum resin is due to the market where there are few buyers, that is to say, these end up offering the value they consider fair. The resin activity has been explored for many years and with this, it has managed to evolve both in the productive context and in the transformation of the raw material, allowing countries such as China, Brazil and Indonesia, to be positioned within the international market, it is clear to highlight that resin production is an activity that if done in an extractive way, can generate productive risks, so that to maintain and increase the production ranges it is necessary to be produced in a sustainable way. This situation of risk, not only due to the production system, but also to issues related to the lack of labor, has caused countries with considerable production volumes to disappear from the international market, as in the case of Portugal, France and the USA, among others. Currently, Brazil is going through a very important productive moment, a situation that makes it the second largest producer of resin in the world, with a considerable production and an outstanding participation in the international market. Resin production has become a source for the economic and social development of the regions where it is produced, so that to maintain and increase production levels it is necessary to move the forest thickets that are in the cutting process areas, promote a productive management plan for these forests, as well as to give free rein to this activity that generates great contributions to the country. The reforestation work that began in the 1960s and 1970s played an important role in the forestry increase and the economic development that is currently evident in this sector, where there is a need to strengthen the sector’s initiatives. P. elliottii is currently considered an invasive exotic species because of its ability to disperse and invade natural areas. Instead, it is also considered one of the main economic sources in some regions of the country, given its productive potential for resin and wood, providing a social and economic contribution, but at the same time it does not have a sectoral productive organization that can be managed in a sustainable manner in all regions. In contrast, the resin sector presents discouraging situations such as: lack of fiscal incentives; high tax burden with respect to forest production in other countries; production costs that are affected in times of low product prices; as well as legal and environmental restrictions for the expansion of planted areas, a situation that can affect the development of resin production. According to what was found, in the different States of the country, the resin activity is carried out in an extractive way, where the Pinus areas are exploited for extraction, after which the activity is often unsustainable and sometimes even ignored. Likewise, the lack of clear and specific information on production, commercialization, productive capacity and other issues, in the different information sites of the State Forest Associations, generates uncertainties regarding the resin activity [6].

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5 Material and Methods The resin harvest coming from P. elliottii has been carried out for over 20 years in the middle coast of Rio Grande do Sul state. After many years adapting methodologies, inserting new methods, researching ways to obtain the largest amount of resin per groove in the shortest time, taking in consideration the costs and being concerned about maintaining the wood quality. Inspired by the Spanish resin extraction method, also used in Argentina, the method that will be described below was built and has been used in large scale in the more than 30.000 ha of Pinus plantations located in the area. The harvest occurs permanently in the forest stands, where the ripping activity takes place every day of the year, with the exception of some Sundays and the recess period, normally, the harvest ends in the second half of November of each year.

5.1 Method Description 1º Tree Selection: All the selection is based on a direct measurement of the man on the standing tree, known as diameter at breast height (DBH), usually measured at 1.30 m. When a diameter between 16 and 18 cm is reached, the trees are marked to begin resin tapping. 2º Collector Bag Installation: The collector bag is made of polyethylene and its added protection to the ultraviolet rays in his manufacturing process, thus guaranteeing a protection layer for the resin that stays inside and has the capacity to receive up to 4 kg of resin. After the selection of the trees the bag is installed (Fig. 7) where the resin will be deposited. The placement is done by passing the wire of the bag around the tree and tying it on the other side. As the harvest progresses and new grooves are being made, the bag collector must be moved to successfully collect the exuded resin. However, the maximum height of the collecting bag is 1.70 m while the groove occurs up to an average height of 3.5 m that is, in high panels the proximity of the groove with the bag collector does not occur. 3º Implementation of the Groove: The groove is made with the help of a toll called “groove maker”, which is standardized and has a width of approximately 2.5– 3.0 cm, which determines the size of the groove on the trees. The quality of this process is very important for the final product whether the resin or the wood that will be processed in the future. Therefore, when making the groove the depth must be cautious, perforating the bark of the tree up to the cambium film not reaching the wood. Regarding the resin method, the “V” method is used with approximately 15 cm on each side and idealizing a 45° angle (Fig. 8). The methodology of this stage is adapted according to the cylindrical format of each tree, with the “V” of the method being

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Fig. 7 Resin collector bag installed in the Pinus tree

more or less open, varying according to the evaluation of the resin tapper. Also, the way the groove is made depends on the height at which the resin is being resinated at the moment, and in some cases, the V-shaped groove is more open, almost horizontal, thinking about the ergonomics of the work ergonomics of the work and the quality of the groove. The employee responsible for this activity works standing and moving among the trees and carries with him the “groove maker” (Fig. 9) and a plastic tube with stimulating paste, which is attached to his waist by a belt.

Fig. 8 Demonstration of the “V” method that is idealized

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Fig. 9 Groove maker used by the resin tappers

These procedures occur in a few steps, which are described by moments: Moment 1—Low groove: The first groove of the tree is made approximately 20 cm from the ground (space occupied by the collection bag). The opening of the channels occurs from the inside out, due to the position that the employee is in to perform this activity; Moment 2—Medium groove: Following the direction of the opening of the grooves (from the base of the tree to the treetop) where it occurs up to 1.0 m in height, approximately. At this height, the employee is in a different position and the opening of the groove is performed from outside to inside as a continuation of the panel; Moment 3—High groove: Succeeding with the resin extraction, the high groove occurs up to 1.80 m of height approximately. At this moment the groove is made from the outside to the inside. Moment 4—Very high groove: It occurs approximately from 1.80 to 3.5 m. At this time, the tool used—groove maker—is attached to the end of a rod with the appropriate length to perform the grooves. At this point, the grooving is performed from the inside to outside again, due to the position in which the employee finds himself. One tapper worker performs an average of 18 grooves per harvest, so the resin panel per harvest could be an average of 50 cm. The resin harvest occurs from September of one year until June of another year, during this period the tappers does the grooves with a range of 15–18 days, with the goal of making 20.000 grooves on 10.000 trees per month. This exact number can fluctuate depending on the volume of grooves already obtained in the harvest. Each newly opened groove is filled with stimulating paste to prevent the channels from closing and the resin from continuing to exude. On average each groove made on the tree exudes 200 g. This period of days between one groove and another is only possible due to the quality of the resinous stimulating pulp used in the process, which underwent for studies followed by changes in its composition, arriving at the ideal final product for this species in the region in question. This point is important, because the interval between one groove and another reflects directly on the demand of tappers and employees to perform the grooves and harvest the resin. Also consequently implies

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in the entire production scale, because it is a detailed work that requires adequate staff. 4º Resin Harvest: The harvest operations depend on the company’s need to ship resin. More precisely the harvesting occurs by untying the wire that supports the plastic bag in the tree, if there is water under the resin, it is removed from the bag, and after this movement, only the resin is deposited in the 20-L plastic buckets. The presence of water in the collecting bag is interesting due to the possibility that the impurities (particles and tree bark) are more easily eliminated and it maintains the properties of rosin and turpentine over time. After this stage, the tapper placed and ties the bag collector again on the tree and restarts the operation. When the bucket is complete it is emptied into a 200-L capacity barrel stationed strategically at one point of the forestry plantation. On the other hand, the resin is collected by a “Rasta” (wooden equipment that hold the drum and the operator), pulled by horses to the road (Fig. 10). There, with the help of tractors, the barrels are drain off into the truck for transportation. The buckets and barrels used in the resin harvesting phase are food standard, non-toxic and have single and exclusive use for this operation. It is also the harvester’s responsibility to replace the damaged plastic bags and remove them from the interior of the plot to the road where they will later be collected and sent to their final destination. Extracting pine resin is an activity that demands perception about the trees, when the increase in diameter does not occur in the time required to perform a resin tapping in its 3rd or 4th moment, the continuation is given on the other side of the tree. For example: trees that did not increase enough in diameter in the first years of the activity have their second face fully resin-coated before finishing the first, aiming always a better development for the tree.

Fig. 10 Demonstration of the wooden equipment that make the transport of the resin—named Rasta

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6 Results and Discussion The profile of the forestry employee of resin tapping is a young person, approximately 36.2 years old, mostly (87.7%) male and 58.5% have incomplete elementary school [6]. Most of the employees are allocated in the making of grooves and in resin harvesting, have been with the company an average of 48 months. Their families consist of an average of 3.5 people per family unit. The resin tappers are satisfied with their co-workers and the structures offered by the company, but are less satisfied with the remuneration they receive. This state of contentment is a consequence of the entrepreneur’s vision and is fundamental for the success of the activity. The satisfaction reported by employees should be understood as a process, which involves a constant advancement in issues related to people and work, along with compliance with labor laws [6]. It is possible to notice that there is a significant evolution regarding the methods of resin extraction, and that there is a tendency to adapt these techniques, the resin extraction carried out through this method offers benefits to the resin tappers and the trees. The definition of the method starts from the choice of the trees to be resinated, respecting the development of each one. The collection bag assembly has the same additions and does not damage the trees. On the other hand, the grooves and the application of the stimulating pulp are very important for the flow of the resin to be constant and for the wood to be widely used after the end of the resin cycle. The resin collectors are benefited because the method takes into consideration the field observation and social learning. The moments described as low groove; medium groove; high groove and very high groove were elaborated from an adequate ergonomics point of view. In the resin harvesting process, the barrels are placed in strategic positions to facilitate the collection work, is also important to emphasize that the harvest planning is done by work front considering the particularities. The applications of the products generated from the Pinus resin has shown a linear growth in the market in Brazil and worldwide, where more and more of them are being seen in the most varied sectors. Therefore, the incentive and knowledge of this production are necessary in order to improve the performance of this forest niche. The types and methods of resin tapping described in this chapter serve both for knowledge and to observe the evolution of this practice in the world. Furthermore, it demonstrates the use of these techniques depending on what will be the final product, being only resin or this allied to wood, adapting to the needs of each sector. With the demand coming from the constantly growing market, the production can also be observed and concomitantly linked to this factor, the leverage of the price paid per ton of resin in recent times makes the market receive even more the necessary incentive to continue seeking innovations and technologies that improve the quality and expansion of production [48].

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7 Conclusions This method adaptation may be employed in the near future in other areas of Pinus forestry, thus the advantages obtained will be multiplied to other companies and also to small resin tappers. Understanding the relationship between resin production × methods applied × personnel involved provides better quality to the final product, adding value and ensuring sustainable production of greater proportions. Always placing the resin tapper in a central point because he plays a fundamental role for the success of the method and quality of the extracted resin. This is because as it is a meticulously handcrafted work, the labor involved in the process is the guarantee of the production rates and quality of the products. Likewise, the research initiatives must be incentivized because it is a market that has presented significant development and innovation in the methods used for this activity. It is recommended to pay attention to research in this sector, globally speaking, as well as in the specific case of Brazilian research, where despite the country being prominent in the resin world scenario, the literature regarding Brazilian resin-producing species and other approaches are scarce in the information search channels. In view of this, research on this topic is highly encouraged, aiming at greater resin production without neglecting sustainable production and care for the labor involved. Also, it is very important to characterize the products generated from obtaining the resin, as well as the final use of post-extraction stands.

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31. IBA (2019) Tree Brazilian Industry; PÖYRY, Management and Business Consulting Ltda. Report. Tree Brazilian Industry, Basília 32. AGEFLOR (2018) Associação Gaúcha de Empresas Florestais. Setor de Base Florestal, 00 33. Brazil Constitution (1965) Law no. 4771 of September 1965. Establishes the new Forestry Code. Brasilia 34. Brazil Constitution (2012) Law no. 12651, 25 May from 2012. Provides for the protection of native vegetation. Brasilia, RS 35. Bacha CJC (2008) Analysis of the development of reforestation in Brazil. Agric Econ 55(2):5– 24. Sao Paulo 36. Magrini A (2001) Environmental policy and management: concepts and instruments. Brazilian Energy Mag 8(2) 37. Brazil Constitution (1973) Decree no. 73,030, of October 30, 1973. Creates, within the scope of the Ministry of the Interior, the Special Secretariat for the Environment - SEMA, and other measures 38. Brazil (2012) Lei Nº 12.651/2012. PALACIO DO PLANALTO. Dispõe sobre a proteção da vegetação nativa; altera as Leis nºs 6.938, de 31 de agosto de 1981, 9.393, de 19 de dezembro de 1996, e 11.428, de 22 de dezembro de 2006; revoga as Leis nºs 4.771, de 15 de setembro de 1965, e 7.754, de 14 de abril de 1989, e a Medida Provisória nº 2.166-67, de 24 de agosto de 2001; e dá outras providências 1981 39. Rio Grande do Sul (State) (1994) Constitution (1994) Law no. 10,330, of December 27, 1994. Provides for the organization of the State System of Environmental Protection, the elaboration, implementation and control of the State’s environmental policy and other measures 40. Rio Grande do Sul (state). Constitution (1990). Law No. 9077, of June 04, 1990. Establishes the state foundation for environmental protection and other provisions. Porto Alegre, RS 41. FEPAM—State Foundation for Environmental Protection Henrique Luís Roessler (State). Constitution (2005), Ordinance no. 22, of 15 Mar 2005 42. Rio Grande do Sul (State) (2000) Constitution (2000) Law no. 11520, of August 3, 2000. Establishes the Environmental Code of the State of Rio Grande do Sul and other measures. Porto Alegre, RS, 3 Aug 2000 43. Rio Grande do Sul (2020) Cartilha – Proposta do Novo Código Ambiental, Porto Alegre, RS 44. Villegas SMP et al (2017) Man and pine resin: from its past use to the present with special attention in Spain. Ambiosciences: Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Leon. vol 21, no 15, pp 21–30 45. da Rodrigues-Corrêa KCS, de Lima JC, Fett-Neto AG (2013) Oleoresins from pine: production and industrial uses. Nat Prod 4037–4060. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-642-22144-6_175 46. Gerry E (1922) Oleoresin production: a microscopic study of the effects produced on the woody tissues of southern pines by different methods of turpentining, 1064th edn. Washington Government Printing Offic, Washington, p 46 47. Muñoz LH (2006) El Antiguo Oficio de Resinero. Madrid: I.g. Saljen S.l, 2006. 32 p. Technical report developed with the support of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Available at: https://www.sdlmedioambiente.com/ficheros/hojadivulgativaresinero.pdf 48. Candaten L, Lazarotto S, Zwersch AP, Rieder E, Silva MD, Machado G, Balbinot R, Trevisan R (2021) Pinus resin in Brazil: general aspects, methods used and market. Cap. 03. Non-timber Forest Products: technology, market, research and news 49. Fusatto ALM et al (2013) Stimulating pastes in Pinus elliottii var. elliottii. Forest Science, Santa Maria, vol 23, no 3, pp 483–488 50. Medeiros GIB, Florindo TJ, Schultz G, Talamani E (2017) Análise da competitividade da cadeia produtiva de oleoresina de Pinus Brasileira. Revista Espacios 39:29 51. de Lima JC et al (2016) Reference genes for qPCR analysis in resin-tapped adult slash pine as a tool to address the molecular basis of commercial resinosis. Front Plant Sci 7(849):1–13. Frontiers Media SA 52. Salvador VT et al (2020) Biomass transformation: hydration and isomerization reactions of turpentine oil using ion exchange resins as catalyst. Sustain Chem Pharmacy 15:100214

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53. IBGE (2019) Instituto Brasileiro De Geográfia E Estatística. Produção da extração vegetal e da Silvicultura 54. Lin Z et al (2017) Effects of different biochars on Pinus elliottii growth, N use efficiency, soil N2 O and CH4 emissions and C storage in a subtropical area of China. Pedosphere 27(2):248– 261. ISSN 10020160. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(17)60314-X 55. Godinho TO, Moreira DAF, Moreira SO, Caldeira MVW (2018) Pinus planting expansion program for the production of gum resin and wood in Espírito Santo. Periodicals 29th SEAGRO, Cap. 02. Available at: https://biblioteca.incaper.es.gov.br/Busca?b=ad&id=211 05&biblioteca=vazio&busca=autoria:%22MOREIRA,%20D.%20A.%20F.%22&qFacets= autoria:%22MOREIRA,%20D.%20A.%20F.%22&sort=&paginacao=t&paginaAtual=1 56. Oliveira YMM, Oliveira EB (2017) Forest plantations: generation of benefits with low environmental impact. Embrapa Florestas-Scientific Book (ALICE), 1st ed. Brasilia DF 57. de Lima O (2018) S. Pinus—the oil-resin product in Brazil 58. de Medeiros GIB et al (2017) Analysis of the competitiveness of the Brazilian pine oleresin production chain. Spaces 38(27):1–13 59. Moreira JMMAP, O EB (2017) Importance of the Brazilian forest sector with emphasis on commercial forest plantations. Embrapa Forests, Brasilia, vol 1, no 1, pp 1–26

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources in Brazilian Forests Ageu da Silva Monteiro Freire, Fernanda Moura Fonseca Lucas, Francival Cardoso Félix, Kyvia Pontes Teixeira das Chagas, and Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira

Abstract All plants that contain substances with therapeutic action are considered medicinal plants. The use of these plants to treat diseases is one of the oldest human practices, and these species are widely used to manufacture phytotherapics. In Brazil, healing practices involving plants are popular due to the country’s great biodiversity, with plants that are adapted to the different characteristics of each region of the country. However, the exploitation of these plants without adequate management can cause population reduction or increase the risk of extinction of endangered species. Thus, we gathered information on some of the best-known medicinal plants and their classification regarding risk of extinction and analyzed the conservation status of those plants. In addition, we gathered information from the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia on 85 species of medicinal plants, and found that of these only 25.9% are classified as native. Besides various existing threats, such as deforestation and other land use changes that directly impact these plants, for some species overexploitation in the medicinal trade is also of concern. Thus, to establish conservation strategies for the species, studies of medicinal plants have considered several socioenvironmental issues, including the sustainable use of natural resources. However, research is advancing slowly compared to the quantity and potential of medicinal plants found in Brazilian forests. Thus, technical and scientific research on the species and their use by the local population is fundamental to guarantee the discovery of new phytotherapic compounds that can prevent or treat diseases. Based on this

A. da S. M. Freire (B) · F. C. Félix · K. P. T. das Chagas Department of Forest Engineering, Federal University of Paraná, UFPR, Av. Prefeito Lothário Meissner, 632, Curitiba, PR 80210-170, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] F. M. F. Lucas Department of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santos, UFES, Av. Governador Lindemberg, 316, Jerônimo Monteiro, ES 29550-000, Brazil A. K. Pereira Department of Forest Sciences, University of São Paulo — Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, USP—ESALQ, Av. Pádua Dias, 11, Piracicaba, SP 13418-900, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 E. C. de Souza and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Forest Science, Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2846-0_10

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information, there is a need to assure the sustainability of extraction and cultivation, including through legislation to prevent uncontrolled exploitation and preserve associated traditional knowledge. Keywords Ethnopharmacology · Plant drugs · Native plants · Indigenous knowledge

1 Introduction A medicinal plant is considered to be any plant that contains in one or more of its parts substances or classes of substances responsible for therapeutic action (Fig. 1). The use of plants for medicinal purposes is one of the oldest practices of mankind, with wide use in traditional communities. Substance from these plants are widely also used to manufacture phytotherapics, a practice that is expanding due to advances in science and technology. When a plant contains substances that, when administered to humans, can demonstrably prevent, cure, or treat diseases, it is considered medicinal, and when a medicine is obtained from a medicinal plant, it is called herbal medicine [1]. The phytotherapics can refer both to the phytotherapic medicine, which through clinical studies is proven to be safe and effective, and to traditional phytotherapics, whose efficacy is demonstrated by the longtime use, as indicated in the technicalscientific literature. In addition, any herbal drug can be obtained from a plant drug or a plant derivative, in which the plant drug is always obtained from a medicinal plant, while the plant derivative can be obtained directly from the medicinal plant or the plant drug [6]. In this chapter, we describe the potential of medicinal plants from Brazilian forests, highlighting the main characteristics of these plants in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia, and address the question of how to ensure sustainability of the cultivation and production practices. Special emphasis is given to Brazilian legislation and the main challenges associated with deforestation and other changes in land use, as well as climate change, exploitation, and cultural loss. Finally, we also examine the main strategies needed for the conservation of medicinal species and future prospects.

2 The Medicinal Potential of Brazilian Forests Brazil has the richest flora in the world, with 43,448 endemic vascular plant species and an estimated flora of about 56,000 species [17]. The country has continental dimensions, and a wide range of folk medicine practices are common due to its great biodiversity of plants that are adapted to the different characteristics of each region, such as climate and soil (Fig. 2). However, the exploitation of these plants can cause population reductions, mainly by predatory practices without proper management. Brazil has two world hotspots, the Cerrado biome (Brazilian savanna) and the Atlantic

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources …

209

Fig. 1 Concept of phytotherapics

Forest biome (Rainforest), both with high biodiversity of species and endemism, but with high percentages of habitat loss [27]. This fact has led to the extinction of several species. Globally, the rate of extinction is now estimated to be at least 1000 times higher than the historical rates. Furthermore, many species have not yet been described or identified [25]. In the case of the Atlantic Forest biome, currently only about 10% its original forest cover remains, mainly in small fragments. Thus, many populations of plant species have been reduced or eliminated since the European colonization of the country starting in the sixteenth century, mainly due to urbanization, industrialization and population growth. Many of Brazil’s largest cities are located in areas in the Atlantic Forest biome (e.g., São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Salvador). The Cerrado biome, on the other hand, has been undergoing a process of economic expansion, mainly through agricultural and livestock development (soybeans and cattle), causing rapid deforestation. Today, this practice is also expanding to the Amazon region, which is leading to a marked decline in populations of important plant species. Currently, climate change also threatens biodiversity [38]. In particular, the increase in the global average temperature can cause physiological changes in plants, mainly in their reproductive aspects. This casts doubt about the future of plants with medicinal properties and how many therapeutic compounds will be lost. It is also important to note the establishment in Brazil of many exotic species with therapeutic properties, increasing the availability of medicinal substance, but that can become

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Fig. 2 Distribution of Brazilian ecoregions (biomes) and current land use and occupation (Data Mapbiomas [23]. Forested areas (forest formation, savanna formation, mangroves), agricultural areas (agriculture, pasture, forestry), non-forest natural formation (flooded fields, grasslands), nonvegetated area (urbanized areas)

invasive species causing negative environmental effects. Therefore, conservationist measures are needed to protect native forest areas and carry out proper management. In addition, more investment in research on the characterization, identification and ecology of species is necessary. In Brazil, the National Center for the Conservation of Flora (CNCFlora) provides a “red list” of Brazilian plant species at risk of extinction. It works in partnership with

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources …

211

a network of botanical specialists, who analyze and assess the risk of extinction of the evaluated species, categorized by botanical family [12]. The resulting “Extinction Risk Assessment” of species follows the system of extinction risk categories and criteria established by the International Union for Conservation of Nature [19], as described below: (EX)—Extinct (EW)—Extinct in the Wild (RE)—Regionally Extinct (CR)—Critically Endangered (EN)—Endangered (VU)—Vulnerable (NT)—Near Threatened (LC)—Least Concern (DD)—Data Deficient (NA)—Not Applicable (NE)—Not Evaluated The Brazilian Sanitary Surveillance Agency (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária—ANVISA) has the purpose of promoting the protection of the health of Brazil’s population. The Brazilian Pharmacopoeia (FB) is a national pharmaceutical compendium that establishes the minimum standards of quality, authenticity and purity of pharmaceutical ingredients, medicines, and other products subject to health surveillance [7]. The document identifies the main medicinal plants, describing the morphology of the species and the quality standards of plant drugs. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the drugs described in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia. According to data from the REFLORA Program [31], there are native and foreign (exotic) species. In addition, a survey of the classification of the IUCN and CNCFlora extinction risk categories was carried out to establish the conservation status of the listed plants. In the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia survey (Table 1), 85 species were identified as medicinal plants, with descriptions of the plant drugs used in Brazil. Of these species, only 22 are native, 23 cultivated, 7 naturalized and the others have no information in REFLORA, indicating that they are exotic. Only 7 are endemic, and the lack of information on native species in the country with the greatest biodiversity on the planet is notorious. Therefore, more investment is needed in research on the ecology and conservation of these species, as well as studies on their use in traditional medicine. Aesculus hippocastanum and Hydrastis canadenses are classified as Vulnerable (VU) and Vanilla planifolia, Atropa belladonna and Crataegus nigra are classified as Endangered (EN). Of the others, 42 species are classified as Least Concern (LC), demonstrating the need for advances in identifying the conservation status of medicinal plants. Examples of native and exotic medicinal plants cultivated in Brazilian botanical gardens, vegetable gardens and yards can see in Fig. 3.

Ranunculaceae

Aconitum napellus L.

Cynara cardunculus L.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Aconiti radix

Cynarae folium

Liquiritiae radix

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Lauraceae

Persea americana Mill

Persea folium

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

ni

Tree

Life form

Dry roots and stolons, whole or fragmented, containing at least 2.5% glycyrrhizic acid (C42 H62 O16 , 822.94), calculated in relation to the dried material

ni

Dry leaves, whole or Herb fragmented, containing at least 0.7% chlorogenic acid (C16 H18 O9 , 354.31)

Tuberous roots containing at least 0.5% total alkaloids expressed as aconitine (C34 H47 NO11 , 645.74), calculated in relation to the desiccated material

Dried leaves containing at least 0.4% total flavonoids expressed in apigenin (C15 H10 O5 , 270.24) and 0.14% volatile oil

Plant drug features

Table 1 Characteristics of medicinal plants in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia

ni

Cultivated

ni

Naturalized

Origin

ni

ni

ni

No

Endemism

ni

Cerrado, Atlantic forest, Pampa

ni

Atlantic forest

Phytogeographic domain

LC

LC

LC

LC

IUCN

(continued)

ni

NE

ni

NE

CNCFlora

212 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Amaryllidaceae

Asparagaceae

Malvaceae

Allium sativum L.

Aloe L. sp.

Althaea officinalis L.

Allii sativi bulbus

Aloe exudatum siccum

Althaeae radix

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued) Life form

Dried root fragments

Thick juice from leaves of Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f., Aloe ferox Mill., Aloe africana Mill. and Aloe spicata L. f. or their interspecific hybrids, or even their mixture, heat desiccated, containing at least 18% hydroxyanthracene derivatives, expressed as barbaloin (C21 H22 O9 , 418.39) ni

Herb

Bulbs or bulbils, mature Tree freeze-dried or dried at a temperature below 65 °C, devoid of roots, stem, normal leaves, scaly protective leaves and scarious prophylls, containing at least 0.45% allicin (C6 H10 OS2 , 162,26)

Plant drug features

ni

Cultivated

Cultivated

Origin

ni

No

No

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

LC

ni

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

NE

NE

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 213

Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan

Pimpinella anisum L.

Illicium verum Hook.f Schisandraceae

Anadenantherae cortex

Anisi fructus

Anisi stellati fructus

Apiaceae

Fabaceae

Rosaceae

Prunus domestica L.

Prunum fructus

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued) Life form

Herb

Shrub, Tree

Dried fruits, containing Tree at least 7.0% volatile oil, with at least 80% trans-anethole

Dried fruits, containing at least 2% volatile oil, with at least 87% trans-anethole

Dried bark from the stems, containing not less than 6% total tannins and not less than 0.19% catechin (C15 H14 O6 , 290.27)

Dried fruits of Prunus Tree domestica L., containing at least 0.70% chlorogenic acid (C16 H18 O9 , 354.31), calculated on the dried material

Plant drug features

Cultivated

Cultivated

Native

Cultivated

Origin

No

No

No

No

Endemism

ni

ni

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

ni

LC

DD

IUCN

(continued)

NE

NE

LC

NE

CNCFlora

214 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Schinus terebinthifolia Anacardiaceae Raddi

Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms

Schinus terebinthifolii cortex

Balsamum tolutanum

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Arnica montana L.

Arnicae flos

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued) Life form

Oleoresin obtained from the stem. It contains no less than 25% and no more than 50% free or combined acids, expressed as cinnamic acid (C9 H8 O2 , M 148.16)

Dried bark from the stems containing at least 8% total tannins, at least 0.20% gallic acid (C7 H6 O5 , 170.12), and at least 0.65% catechin (C15 H14 O6 , 290.27) Tree

Shrub, Tree

Dried, entire or partially ni fragmented inflorescences, containing at least 0.4% (w/w) total lactone sesquiterpenes expressed as dihydrohelenalin tiglate (C20 H26 O5 , 346.42)

Plant drug features

Native

Native

ni

Origin

No

No

ni

Endemism

Amazon

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

ni

Phytogeographic domain

LC

ni

LC

IUCN

(continued)

LC

NE

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 215

Species

Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville

Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews

Aloe L. sp.

Plant drug

Barbadetimani cortex

Vanillae fructus

Aloe vera folium

Table 1 (continued)

Asparagaceae

Orchidaceae

Fabaceae

Botanical family

Life form

Herb

Colorless, mucilaginous Herb gel obtained from the parenchymal cells of fresh leaves of Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. containing at least 0.3% total carbohydrates

Immature, dried fruits, containing at least 12.0% dry hydroalcoholic extract

Dried stem bark, Shrub, containing at least 8% Tree total tannins, expressed as pyrogallol (C6 H6 O3 ; 126,11), of which at least 0.2 mg/g is gallic acid (C7 H6 O5 ; 170,12) and 0.3 mg/g galocatechin (C15 H14 O7 ; 306,27), on the dried plant drug. Stem bark is the tissue located externally to the vascular cambium of the organ

Plant drug features

Cultivated

Native

Native

Origin

No

Yes

Yes

Endemism

ni

Amazon, Atlantic Forest

Caatinga, Cerrado

Phytogeographic domain

ni

EN

ni

IUCN

(continued)

NE

ni

LC

CNCFlora

216 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Monimiaceae

Boldus folium

Peumus boldus Molina

Styracaceae

Solanaceae

Atropa belladonna L.

Belladonnae folium

Benzoe sumatranus Styrax L. sp.

Fabaceae

Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms

Balsamum peruvianum

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

ni

Tree

Life form

Dried leaves, containing at least 0.1% total alkaloids expressed as boldine (C19 H21 NO4 327,37)

ni

Balsamic resin, obtained ni by incision of the stem, containing not less than 25% and not more than 50% total acids, calculated as benzoic acid (C7 H6 O2 , 122,12)

Dried leaves, entire or chopped, containing at least 0.25% atropine (C17 H23 NO3 , 289,37)

Balsam obtained from the heat scarified stem, containing at least 45.0% and at most 70.0% esters, mainly benzyl benzoate and benzyl cinnamate

Plant drug features

ni

ni

ni

Native

Origin

ni

ni

ni

No

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

Amazon

Phytogeographic domain

LC

ni

EN

LC

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

LC

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 217

Calendula officinalis L.

Matricaria chamomilla L.

Calendulae flos

Matricariae flos

Cinnamomi cassiae Cinnamomum cassia cortex (L.) J.Presl

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

Lauraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Botanical family

Life form

Herb

Dried husks, containing ni at least 1.0% volatile oil, consisting of 70.0–90.0% trans-cinnamaldehyde

Dried floral capitula, containing at least 0.4% volatile oil, and at least 0.25% apigenin-7-O-glucoside (C21 H20 O10 , 432,38)

Completely open ligulate Herb flowers, separated from the receptacle, dried, entire or fragmented, obtained from single or semiduplicate capitula of Calendula officinalis L., accompanied by scanty tubular flowers, involucral bracts and rare fruits. It should contain no less than 0.4% total flavonoids, calculated as hyperoside (C21 H20 O12 , 464,38), relative to the dried material

Plant drug features

ni

Cultivated

Cultivated

Origin

ni

No

No

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

ni

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

218 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Species

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton

Baccharis crispa Spreng

Plant drug

Cinnamomi zeylanici cortex

Cymbopogonis folium

Cardamomi semen

Baccharis trimerae herbae

Table 1 (continued)

Asteraceae

Zingiberaceae

Poaceae

Lauraceae

Botanical family

Life form

ni

Herb

Winged, dried and Shrub fragmented stems, containing at least 1.7% total caffeic acids, expressed as chlorogenic acid (C16 H18 O9 , 354,31)

Seeds, marketed still inside the fruit. The seeds should be used immediately after breaking the fruit. It contains at least 5.0% volatile oil

Dried leaves containing at least 0.5% volatile oil

Dried bark, free of Shrub, periderm and outer Tree cortical parenchyma, from the main stem and its branches, containing at least 1.2% volatile oil, in turn containing at least 60% trans-cinnamaldehyde

Plant drug features

Native

ni

Naturalized

Cultivated

Origin

No

ni

No

No

Endemism

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

ni

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

ni

ni

ni

IUCN

(continued)

NE

ni

NE

NE

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 219

Apiaceae

Acanthaceae

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb

Justicia pectoralis Jacq

Echinodorus grandiflorus (Cham. & Schltr.) Micheli

Centellae folium

Justicia pectoralis folium

Echinodorus folium

Alismataceae

Sapindaceae

Aesculus hippocastanum L.

Hippocastani semen

Botanical family

Rhamnaceae

Species

Rhamni purshianae Frangula purshiana cortex (DC.) A.Gray

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

Herb

Tree

ni

Life form

Dried leaves, containing not less than 2.8% hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, expressed as verbascoside (C29 H36 O15 , 624,59)

Herb

Dried leaves, chopped or Herb pulverized, containing at least 0.2% coumarin (C9 H6 O2 , 146,15)

Dried leaves, containing not less than 2.0% asiaticoside relative to the dried material (C48 H78 O19 , 959,12)

Mature, dried seeds containing at least 3.0% triterpene glycosides, calculated as anhydrous aescin

Dried bark of stems and branches containing at least 8.0% hydroxyanthracene glycosides, of which at least 60.0% are cascarosides, expressed as cascaroside A (C27 H32 O14 , 580,54)

Plant drug features

Native

Native

Native

Cultivated

ni

Origin

No

No

No

No

ni

Endemism

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa, Pantanal

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

ni

LC

VU

LC

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

220 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Coriandrum sativum L.

Crataegus monogyna Jacq

Coriandri fructus

Crataegi folium cum flore

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

Curcuma longa L.

Caryophylli flos

Curcumae longae rhizoma

Zingiberaceae

Dried rhizomes, containing at least 2.5% volatile oil and at least 2.5% dicinnamoylmethane derivatives expressed as curcumin (C21 H20 O6 , 368,4)

ni

Dried flowers containing Tree at least 15.0% volatile oil

ni

ni

Tree

ni

ni

Herb

Life form

Crataegus azarolus L.

Dried, entire or chopped flowering tops, containing at least 1.5% total flavonoids expressed as hyperoside (C21 H20 O12 ; 464,38), relative to the dried plant drug

Dried fruits, containing at least 0.3% volatile oil

Plant drug features

ni

Myrtaceae

Rosaceae

Apiaceae

Botanical family

Crataegus nigra Waldst. & Kit

Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd

Crataegus laevigata (Poir.) DC

Crataegus rhipidophylla Gand

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

ni

Cultivated

ni

ni

ni

Cultivated

ni

ni

Cultivated

Origin

ni

No

ni

ni

ni

No

ni

ni

No

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

ni

ni

EN

LC

LC

LC

LC

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 221

Dried leaves containing at least 12.0% total carbohydrates and 4.0% stevioside (C38 H60 O18 , 804,87) Dried leaves containing at least 0.25% total alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine (C17 H23 NO3 , 289,37)

Asteraceae

Maytenus Molina

Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) Bertoni

Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae

Eucalyptus globulus Labill

Foeniculum vulgare Mill

Steviae folium

Stramonii folium

Eucalypti folia

Foeniculi amarus fructus

Apiaceae

Myrtaceae

Celastraceae

Life form

Tree

Shrub

Shrub

Shrub, Tree

Dried fruits containing at Herb least 4.0% (w/p) volatile oil

Mature, dried, entire or chopped leaves containing at least 2.0 and 1.5% volatile oil

Dried leaves containing at least 2.0% total tannins, expressed as pyrogallol (C6 H6 O3 126,11), and at least 0.28% epicatechin (C15 H14 O6 , 290,27)

Dried fruits containing at Herb least 2.0% volatile oil, 30.0% carvone, and 30.0% dillapiole

Mayteni folium

Apiaceae

Anethum graveolens L.

Plant drug features

Anethi fructus

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

Cultivated

Cultivated

Naturalized

Native

Native

Cultivated

Origin

No

No

No

No

No

No

Endemism

ni

ni

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

Cerrado

Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Phytogeographic domain

LC

LC

ni

ni

ni

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

LC

ni

CNCFlora

222 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Zingiberaceae

Myrtaceae

Zingiberis rhizoma Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Psidium guajava L.

Mikania laevigata Sch.Bip. ex Baker

Guajavae folium

Mikania laevigatae folium

Asteraceae

Gentianaceae

Gentiana lutea L.

Gentianae rhizoma et radix

Apiaceae

Pedaliaceae

Foeniculum vulgare Mill

Foeniculi dulcis fructus

Botanical family

Harpagophyti radix Harpagophytum procumbens (Burch.) DC. ex Meisn

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued) Life form

Herb

ni

Herb

Dried leaves containing at least 0.15% coumarin (C9 H6 O2 , 146,15)

Liana/ fickle/ creeper

Dried leaves containing Tree at least 10.0% total tannins and at least 0.3% glycosylated quercetin derivatives calculated as quercetin (C15 H10 O7 , 302,24)

Dried rhizomes containing a minimum of 0.6% gingerols and a maximum of 0.4% shogaols

Dried, fragmented rhizomes and roots containing at least 3% gentiopicroside (C16 H20 O9 , 356.33)

Dried and fragmented or pulverized tuberous secondary roots containing at least 1.2% harpagoside (C24 H30 O11 , 494,49)

Dried fruits containing at Herb least 2.0% (w/p) volatile oil

Plant drug features

Native

Naturalized

Cultivated

ni

ni

Cultivated

Origin

Yes

No

No

ni

ni

No

Endemism

Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

ni

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

LC

DD

LC

ni

LC

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 223

Hamamelis virginiana Hamamelidaceae L.

Hydrastis canadensis L.

Mentha arvensis L.

Hamamelidis folium

Hydrastidis rhizoma et radix

Mentha arvensis herbae

Lamiaceae

Ranunculaceae

Sapindaceae

Paullinia cupana Kunth

Paulliniae semen

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

ni

Shrub, Liana/ fickle/ creeper

Life form

Dried aerial parts, entire, ni broken, cut, or pulverized, containing at least 0.8% volatile oil in entire aerial parts and at least 0.6% volatile oil in chopped aerial parts. The percentage of stems should not exceed 20%

Dried and fragmented ni rhizomes and roots containing at least 2.5% hydrastine (C21 H21 NO6 , 383,39) and at least 3.0% berberine (C20 H18 NO4 , 336,36)

Dried entire or fragmented leaves containing at least 3.0% tannins, expressed as pyrogallol (C6 H6 O3 , 126,11)

Dried seeds, lacking aril and integument (husk), containing at least 4.0% total tannins, at least 5.0% methylxanthines and at least 3.5% caffeine (C8 H10 N4 O2 , 194,19)

Plant drug features

ni

ni

ni

Native

Origin

ni

ni

ni

Yes

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

Amazon

Phytogeographic domain

LC

VU

LC

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

224 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Lamiaceae

Mentha × piperita L.

Operculina macrocarpa (L.) Urb

Libidibia ferrea (Mart. Fabaceae ex Tul.) L.P.Queiroz

Libidibia ferrea (Mart. Fabaceae ex Tul.) L.P.Queiroz

Citrus aurantium L.

Menthae piperitae folium

Operculina radix

Libidibiae cortex

Libidibiae fructus

Aurantii amari exocarpium

Rutaceae

Convolvulaceae

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

ni

Life form

Exocarp, corresponding to the flavedo of the ripe fruit, free from most of the mesocarp, corresponding to the albedo, containing at least 2.0% volatile oil

Dry pods containing at least 9.0% total tannins and at least 1.0% gallic acid (C7 H6 O5 , 170.12)

Dried stem bark containing at least 8.0% total tannins and at least 0.02% gallic acid (C7 H6 O5 , 170.12)

Tree

Tree

Tree

Dried roots containing at Lliana/ least 6.4% total fickle/ polysaccharides, creeper expressed as d-maltose (C12 H22 O11 , 342.30)

Dried, entire, broken, cut, or pulverized leaves containing at least 1.2% volatile oil in entire leaves and at least 0.9% volatile oil in chopped leaves, relative to the dried material

Plant drug features

Cultivated

Native

Native

Native

ni

Origin

No

No

No

No

ni

Endemism

ni

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

LC

LC

ni

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

LC

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 225

Malva sylvestris L.

Passiflora edulis Yess

Passiflora alata Curtis Passifloraceae

Malvae flos

Passiflorae acetum folium

Passiflorae dulcis folium

Passifloraceae

Malvaceae

Asteraceae

Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC

Achyroclines flos

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued) Life form

Dried leaves containing at least 1.0% total flavonoids, expressed in apigenin (C15 H10 O5 , 270.24)

Dried leaves containing at least 1.0% total flavonoids, expressed as apigenin(C15 H10 O5 , 270.24)

Dried flowers, whole or fragmented

Liana/ fickle/ creeper

Liana/ fickle/ creeper

Herb, Shrub

Dried inflorescences Herb containing at least 3.0% total flavonoids calculated as quercetin, at least 0.8% quercetin (C15 H10 O7 , 302.24), and at least 0.6% 3-O-methylquercetin (C16 H12 O7 , 316.27)

Plant drug features

Native

Native

Cultivated

Native

Origin

Yes

No

No

No

Endemism

Amazon, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa, Pantanal

ni

Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Phytogeographic domain

ni

LC

LC

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

LC

ni

ni

CNCFlora

226 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Species

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Melissa officinalis L.

Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl

Strychnos nux-vomica L.

Plant drug

Hyoscyami folium

Melissae folium

Colae semen

Strychni semen

Table 1 (continued)

Loganiaceae

Malvaceae

Lamiaceae

Solanaceae

Botanical family

Life form

Herb, Shrub

Dry seeds containing at least 0.5% strychnine (C21 H22 N2 O2 , 334.42)

ni

Cotyledons containing at ni least 1.7% total tannins expressed in pyrogallol (C6 H6 O3 ; 126.11) and 2.0% methylxanthines expressed in caffeine ((C8 H10 N4 O2 , 194.19)

Dried leaves containing at least 4.0% total hydroxycinnamic derivatives and at least 2.0% rosmarinic acid (C18 H16 O8 , 360.31) and at least 0.6% volatile oil

Dried leaves containing ni at least 0.05% total alkaloids expressed in hyoscyamine (C17 H23 NO3 ; 289.37). The alkaloids are mainly hyoscyamine accompanied by scopolamine (hyoscine) in varying proportions

Plant drug features

ni

ni

Cultivated

ni

Origin

ni

ni

No

ni

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

LC

LC

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 227

Plantago ovata Forssk Plantaginaceae

Polygala senega L.

Phyllanthus niruri L.

Quillaja saponaria Molina

Plantaginis ovatae seminis tegumentum

Senegae radix

Phyllanthus niruriae herbae

Quillaiae cortex

Quillajaceae

Phyllanthaceae

Polygalaceae

Myrtaceae

Eugenia uniflora L.

Eugeniae folium

Botanical family

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

Shrub

Life form

Herb, Shrub

ni

Dry and fragmented bark ni devoid of periderm

Dry aerial parts containing at least 6.5% total tannins and 0.15% gallic acid (C7 H6 O5 , 170.12)

Roots and short knotty rhizome containing at least 6.0% saponins expressed in oleanolic acid derivatives (C30 H48 O3 , 456.70)

Seed coat that swells and ni takes on a colloidal consistency when mixed with water

Dry leaves containing at least, 5.0% tannins, 1.0% total flavonoids, expressed in quercetin; and 0.8% volatile oils. The volatile oil consists of at least 27.0% curzerenes (cis and trans)

Plant drug features

ni

Native

ni

ni

Native

Origin

ni

No

ni

ni

No

Endemism

ni

Amazon, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

ni

ni

Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Phytogeographic domain

LC

ni

ni

LC

LC

IUCN

(continued)

ni

LC

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

228 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Species

Cinchona calisaya Wedd

Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & B.B.Simpson

Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz

Rheum palmatum L.

Plant drug

Cinchonae cortex

Ratanhiae radix

Rauvolfiae radix

Rhei rhizoma et radix

Table 1 (continued)

Polygonaceae

Apocynaceae

Krameriaceae

Rubiaceae

Botanical family

Life form

Dried and fragmented rhizomes and roots containing at least 2.2% hydroxyanthracene derivatives, expressed in rhein (C15 H8 O6 , 284.22). The rhizomes must be devoid of the bases of the leaf petioles

Herb, Shrub

Dried roots containing at ni least 0.15% alkaloids of the reserpine group (C33 H40 N2 O9 , 608.68)—rescinamine (C35 H42 N2 O9 ,634.72)

Dried roots containing at ni least 5.0% total tannins, expressed as pyrogallol (C6 H6 O3 , 126.11)

Dried husks containing ni at least 6.0% total alkaloids, of which 30 to 60% are from the quinine group (C20 H24 N2 O2 , 324.42)

Plant drug features

ni

ni

ni

ni

Origin

ni

ni

ni

ni

Endemism

ni

ni

ni

ni

Phytogeographic domain

ni

ni

ni

LC

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 229

Salix alba L.

Senna alexandrina Mill

Salicis cortex

Sennae folium

Fabaceae

Salicaceae

Adoxaceae

Sambucus nigra L.

Sambucus nigra flos

Botanical family

Adoxaceae

Species

Sambucus australis Sambucus australis flos Cham. & Schltdl

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued) Life form

Dried leaflets containing at least 2.5% hydroxyanthracene derivatives expressed in sennoside B, and 0.6% sennoside B (C42 H38 O20 ; 862.74) and 0.5% sennoside A (C42 H38 O20 ; 862.74)

Shrub, Herb

Whole or fragmented Tree dried bark of young shoots containing at least 1.5% salicin derivatives expressed as salicin (C13 H18 O7 , 286.28)

Dried flowers containing Shrub, at least 1.5% total Tree flavonoids, expressed as quercetin and at least 1.0% rutin

Dried flowers containing Shrub, at least 2.0% total Tree flavonoids, expressed in quercetin and at least 0.8% rutin

Plant drug features

Naturalized

Cultivated

Naturalized

Native

Origin

No

No

No

No

Endemism

Caatinga

ni

ni

Atlantic Forest, Pampa

Phytogeographic domain

LC

LC

ni

ni

IUCN

(continued)

ni

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

230 A. da S. M. Freire et al.

Senna alexandrina Mill

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng

Sennae fructus

Uvae ursi folium

Caprifoliaceae

Ericaceae

Fabaceae

Botanical family

Life form

Subterranean organs (roots, rhizomes and stolons), dried, whole or fragmented, containing at least 0.3% essential oils and at least 0.17% total sesquiterpenic acids, expressed as valerenic acid (C15 H22 O2 , 234.34)

Herb, Shrub

Dry, intact or shredded ni leaves containing at least 7.0% anhydrous arbutin(C12 H16 O7 , 272.25)

Dry pods containing at Shrub, least 2.2% Herb hydroxyanthracene derivatives expressed in sennoside B and at least 0.92% sennoside B (C42 H38 O20 , 862.75) and 0.49% sennoside A (C42 H38 O20 , 862, 75). It should not be used before one year after harvest

Plant drug features

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature CNCFlora Centro Nacional de Conservação da Flora/National Center for Conservation of Flora ni No information

Valerianae rhizoma Valeriana officinalis L. et radix

Species

Plant drug

Table 1 (continued)

Cultivated

ni

Naturalized

Origin

No

ni

No

Endemism

ni

ni

Caatinga

Phytogeographic domain

LC

LC

LC

IUCN

ni

ni

ni

CNCFlora

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources … 231

232

A. da S. M. Freire et al.

a

e

i

b

f

j

c

g

k

d

h

l

Fig. 3 a–h pictures—native and exotic medicinal plants cultivated in Brazilian botanical gardens, vegetable gardens and yards: Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze (a); Equisetum giganteum L. (b); Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (c); Aloe arborescens Mill. (d); Mentha suaveolens Ehrh. (e); Matricaria chamomilla L. (f); Laurus nobilis L. (g); Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (h). i– k pictures—medicinal trees native to Brazil: Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) resin, located in the Atlantic Forest biome (i); leaves and flowers of Sarcomphalus joazeiro Mart., located in the Caatinga biome (j); Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir. bark located in the Caatinga biome (k). l picture—a plant naturalized in Brazil: Sambucus nigra L. flowers located in Atlantic Forest biome

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources …

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3 How to Guarantee Sustainability in the Production Process Sustainable exploitation, production and cultivation practices of medicinal plants combined with efficient national legislation is fundamental to perpetuate the longterm use of the species. Uncontrolled exploitation and changes in the forest environment are risks to the maintenance of native species populations in their natural habitat. In addition, the loss of traditional knowledge associated with potentially native medicinal species is irreversible.

3.1 Sustainable Cultivation, Farming, and Production Practices The consumption and marketing of medicinal plants have occurred for many centuries in the country, leading to the development of propagation and cultivation techniques that have become specialized over the years. In the past, the plants were generally propagated randomly, without supervision or control, which caused the wide geographic distribution of many species, most of them the leading plants marketed for pharmaceutical purposes today. This distribution has intensified the cultivation of exotic plants in the country (and the world), and it is also possible to find several species native to Brazil in commercial plantations in Africa. The most useful plants are now propagated worldwide through seedling production and marketed as dry material, promoting dispersion of exotic species without basic information. In certain cases, the propagation of exotic plants is not a problem, but it can become one, depending on the species in question. Some exotic species have invasive potential, i.e., have high development/vegetative growth, and spontaneously colonize surrounding areas due to high seed production. Thus, they may have greater territorial gain by competing for a niche with native species. Invasive species are classified as cultivated, acquired, or spontaneous. Invasive species are often not thought to be dangerous by society, exactly because they are used for various purposes, but in some cases, they cause damage to the environment that is hard to repair [32]. Another aspect of risk is the genetic bottleneck in native species cultivation, caused in most cases by the propagated material having origin from related individuals, which results in genetically close populations grown in distant locations [37]. Usually, related individuals are selected because they have characteristics of interest, such as high growth and production of the vegetative or reproductive parts. Thus, segments of branches are collected, in the case of vegetative propagation, or seeds are collected from the same individuals for propagation via planting. Initially, this strategy does not bring direct risks, but over the years the crossing between related plants becomes increasingly restrictive, reducing diversity and the chances of survival in case of environmental adversities [14, 15].

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To avoid risks, some practices are necessary, especially when it comes to cultivation. In general, growing practices can be divided into three types: large-scale crops for sale, small-scale crops for sale, and small-scale crops for consumption. To obtain success in production, all these categories take into consideration various aspects: correct botanical identification; choice of quality plant material; knowledge of proper planting and harvest times; an adequate place for planting; necessary crop treatments; care in the execution of harvest [24]. The large-scale and small-scale cultivation of crops for sale involves consideration of these factors so as the maximize productivity and generate more financial return, like any other type of economic activity. Mention should also be made of the post-harvest stage, where the harvested material is processed, i.e., dried and ground according to the needs of each species. At this stage, reducing costs of the drying process and avoiding loss of harvested material to pests and diseases are important [24]. In contrast, the cultivation for consumption is performed in a more artisanal way, in gardens or fields close to houses, to meet the family demand. Generally, this cultivation has less specificity of species, where the farmer plants several species together, aiming to meet the family demand. Thus, it is commonly possible to observe herbs and trees with great diversity and distinct characteristics. In the case of managed vegetation, some problems can occur, such as the elimination of natural vegetation and the inclusion of exotic species, causing intense erroneous vegetation enrichment and vegetation suppression, risking the elimination of species endemic to the site. Thus, to avoid problems of this kind, guidance is needed to help producers and responsible entities to have sustainable cultivation and production practices. For example, the cultivation of medicinal plants that can help combat diseases and illnesses in urban back and front yards, promotes the ex situ conservation of agroforestry biodiversity, as well as the quality of life of residents by improving the landscape, microclimate ambiance, and recreational space [36].

3.2 Brazilian Legislation The importance of natural products, including those derived from plants for the development of modern therapeutic drugs, is recognized worldwide. The importance of medicinal plants for pharmacological research and development is emphasized, not only for direct use of their constituents as therapeutic agents, but also as raw materials for synthesis [8, 40]. In Brazil, it is estimated that 25% the US$ 8 billion of the pharmaceutical industry’s gross revenue in 1996 was generated by drugs derived from plants [18]. Therefore, policies that correctly direct the cultivation, inspection, and trade are necessary because the industrial sector generates large revenues. Regarding the Brazilian regulations and legislation applied to medicinal plants, initially these were absent, since until the first half of the twentieth century Brazil was essentially rural and the people relied heavily on medicinal flora. However, currently the country’s folk medicine is a reflection of the ethnic unions that spread the knowledge of local herbs and their uses, transmitted and improved between generations [5,

Plants that Heal: The Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Resources …

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20]. Over the years, various Brazilian Constitutions conferred on the federal government the competence to promulgate and execute national policies for economic and social development. Thus, to establish the guidelines for government action in the area of medicinal plants and herbal medicines, the National Policy of Medicinal Plants and Herbal Medicines was elaborated, one of the fundamental elements to govern the actions in Brazil. Some fundamental principles were taken into consideration, such as improvement of health care, sustainable use of Brazilian biodiversity, strengthening of family agriculture, generation of employment and income, industrial and technological development, and perspective of social and regional inclusion, in addition to popular participation and social control over all actions resulting from this initiative [5]. Besides the factors previously defined, the current need to minimize technological dependence was emphasized, as well as the establishment of a prominent position in the international scenario. Thus, the National Policy on Medicinal Plants and Herbal Medicines, approved by Decree 5813 of June 22, 2006, establishes guidelines and priority lines for the development of actions around common objectives related to ensuring safe access and rational use of medicinal plants and herbal medicines in Brazil, as well as the development of technologies and innovations, strengthening of production chains and arrangements, sustainable use of Brazilian biodiversity, and development of the Brazilian Health Production Complex [5]. The general objective of this law is to guarantee the Brazilian population’s safe access to and rational use of medicinal plants and herbal medicines, promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity, the development of the production chain, and the national industry. To complement this, the specific objectives refer to the expansion of therapeutic options for users; the construction of a regulatory framework for production, distribution, and use of medicinal plants; and the promotion of research, technological and sustainable development. In addition, the following guidelines were established: 1. Regulate the cultivation, sustainable management, production, distribution, and use of medicinal plants and phytotherapics, considering the experiences of civil society in its different forms of organization; 2. Promote technical and scientific training and capacity building in the medicinal plants and herbal medicines sector; 3. Encourage the formation and training of human resources for the development of research, technology, and innovation in medicinal plants and herbal medicines; 4. Establish communication strategies to promote the medicinal plants and herbal medicines sector; 5. Foster research, technological development, and innovation based on Brazilian biodiversity, including adapted native and exotic plant species, prioritizing the epidemiological needs of the population; 6. Promote the interaction between the public sector and the private sector, universities, research centers and nongovernmental organizations in the area of medicinal plants and phytotherapic development;

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7. Support the implementation of pilot technological platforms for the integrated development of medicinal plant cultivation and phytotherapic production; 8. Encourage the rational incorporation of new technologies in the production process of medicinal plants and phytotherapics; 9. Ensure and promote safety, efficacy and quality in the access to medicinal plants and herbal medicines; 10. Promote and recognize the popular practices of using medicinal plants and home remedies; 11. Promote the adoption of good practices in the cultivation and handling of medicinal plants and the handling and production of phytotherapics, according to specific Brazilian legislation; 12. Promote the sustainable use of biodiversity and the sharing of benefits derived from the use of associated traditional knowledge and genetic heritage; 13. Promote the inclusion of family farming in the productive chains and arrangements of medicinal plants, inputs, and phytotherapies; 14. Stimulate the production of phytotherapics on an industrial scale; 15. Establish an intersectoral policy for socioeconomic development in the area of medicinal plants and phytotherapics; 16. Increase the exports of phytotherapics and related inputs, prioritizing those with higher added value; 17. Establish incentive mechanisms for the insertion of the phytotherapic productive chain in the process of strengthening the national pharmaceutical industry. Guideline 7 involves one of the most worrying points in terms of Brazilian biodiversity, the concern with local flora. It states the importance of the integrated development of medicinal plant cultivation and phytotherapic production; with details in: 7.2 Encourage the development of appropriate technologies for small enterprises, and family farms, and stimulate the sustainable use of national biodiversity; 7.3 Encourage research aimed at increasing the number of native species of Brazilian flora in the Brazilian Pharmacopoeia. This excerpt (guidelines 7.2 and 7.3) is one of the few moments in which the concern and the incentive to local flora are mentioned without being associated with exotic flora. Thus, the importance of encouraging and having more projects that also involve small enterprises and family farms, and the sustainable use of the national biodiversity is considered. The related actions can intensify the investment in research of native species of Brazilian flora and development by the private sector, often making it possible to find species with high potential that were not previously known or exploited. Moreover, the construction and detailing of the established guidelines show the need for a complementary process to its implementation, in line with another criterion established in the legislation: monitoring and evaluation. Only through the set of steps established in the legislation is it possible to achieve success in the implementation

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of the policy, generating formal responsibilities that will bring penalties if not satisfied. At the national level, the responsibility for the inspection of products obtained from medicinal plants (phytotherapics) rests with the National Sanitary Surveillance System (SNVS), coordinated by the National Sanitary Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) [4]. There are some possible forms of regulation for herbal medicines, including medicinal plants. ANVISA exercises the sanitary control according to how the product obtained from plants is prepared and the degree of safety required, which varies according to the pre-established process. However, for the sale of plant parts without prior processing, such as leaves, bark and roots, whether fresh or dried, there is still a glaring lack of specification of regulatory policies. Because of the numerous forms of products, they regulations are still not sufficient to encompass the various forms of production.

4 Main Challenges Although Brazil is rich in biodiversity, some problems plague the survival and distribution of species and consequently become barriers to knowledge of the application and use of several medicinal plants. Among the existing threats, we can mention deforestation and other land use changes (agriculture, urbanization, mining, cattle raising and logging), which directly impact forest habitats. Other factors, such as the occurrence of fires, have become a concern in Brazil, as well as events resulting from climate change. For some localities and species, overexploitation for the medicinal trade is also a critical issue. Studies of medicinal plants have considered several socio-environmental issues, including the sustainable use of natural resources. Given this reality, we present some comments on the challenges associated with ensuring sustainable consumption of medicinal plants in Brazil.

4.1 Challenges Associated with Deforestation and Other Land Use Changes Deforestation can affect the quality of life of the human population by reducing the ecosystem services provided by forests that are essential to people’s well-being. Loss of forest cover reduces functional richness and may decrease the range of medicinal species or drive them to extinction. Deforestation also poses an imminent risk to public health of traditional communities in more remote areas or with deficient public health systems where people make direct use of these plants [30]. Tropical rainforests are home to most of the world’s plant species and are the main targets of deforestation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 16.8 million hectares/year of tropical forests are lost, and Brazil faces a critical scenario since deforestation has increased again in recent

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years (Fig. 2). Activities associated with the loss of this forest cover, such as overexploitation of forest species (mainly through logging), mining, and agricultural conversion, trigger extensive changes in the structure of ecosystems and make them more susceptible to disturbances such as forest fires. These actions put pressure on the occurrence, distribution, and diversity of medicinal plants, reducing the population’s access to forest-based medicines. At the beginning of this century, the unavailability of certain natural medicinal resources was already reported. A survey conducted among shopkeepers over a nine-year period (1994–2002) in the eastern Amazon revealed that although the demand for medicinal plants had increased over the years, the availability of some native species had decreased, probably because of deforestation. The scenario was even more critical for species that occurred in low density in mature forests [35]. The Brazilian semiarid region, located in the northeast of the country, also suffers from the degradation of natural resources. Several areas are undergoing intense desertification due to inadequate land use management. The decline of woody medicinal species in this region is also closely associated with the extraction of firewood [3]. In a study conducted in a Caatinga area, a low number of medicinal species was observed due to environmental degradation and intense use for other functionalities, which can also lead to the gradual loss of genetic variability of species in the biome [34].

4.2 Climate Change Challenges It is known that in the current scenario of climate change accelerated by anthropic actions, many species, including medicinal plants, are threatened or will undergo changes in their population distribution. Even in situations where climate change does not affect the distribution area of the species, the phenology, productivity, and quality of bioactive materials may be affected, which can have effects on its medicinal and/or commercial potential [2]. According to scientists, the geographic range of species native to the Cerrado will drastically decline, affecting communities that are highly dependent on their ecosystem services [13]. Medicinal plants from arid and semiarid environments (such as the Brazilian Caatinga) may be subject to even higher risk due to the greater pace of climate change in these environments and the difficulty of species migration [2], especially endemic species. Several studies conducted of native Brazilian species have identified the reactions of their ecological niche because of future climate scenarios and predicted whether the species will undergo expansion or retraction. A reduction of more than 60% the area of climatic suitability was found for Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir. [10], a native Caatinga species that has anti-inflammatory medicinal properties. And a 60% reduction in suitable climate area was predicted for Sarcomphalus joazeiro Mart. [21], also a Caatinga species, with promising potential for antibiotic development [29].

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Although studies of species distribution in the face of future climate change scenarios have been widely conducted in the world, research on the behavior of bioactive components of medicinal plants is still insignificant compared to other commercial crops [26].

4.3 Challenges Associated with Exploitation Medicinal plants have various methods of use and applications for ailments. The different plant structures, such as roots, bark, leaves, and resins, can be exploited in mixed proportions depending on the species and type of consumption. However, the lack of sustainability in the production chain can affect the ecology and conservation of these species, where the increase in demand for medicinal plants can increase indiscriminate extraction and cause extinction in nature. Regarding the uncontrolled exploitation of medicinal plants, a study in Nigeria [11] reported that many species used in traditional medicine are approaching total disappearance due to human practices contrary to sustainable collection and conservation. In Brazil, there is no adequate data to address this issue due to the marginalization of ethnobotanical and phytosociological studies. The expansion of the consumer market for timber also is causing a decline for some species with high medicinal and timber potential, requiring the collection of byproducts in sawmills to supply the herbal medicine market [35]. A consequence of the high diversity existing in tropical forests is precisely the low density of some species, which makes the overexploitation to supply the medicinal market an unsustainable practice for species extracted from forests, especially those that are in high demand and are not managed sustainably. Another problem that we can highlight is the part of the plant that will be extracted. A survey conducted in a township in Ethiopia found that about 34% herbal preparations used roots [22]. The researchers stressed the impact of exploitation without a proper management plan, since the extensive harvesting of roots can affect the survival and continuity of the plants. Roots are fundamental structures, and their partial removal has a high impact on the plant. Cultural or environmental factors are the local culprits that drive preferences for certain parts of the plant [28]. The collection of perennial plant structures (outer bark, inner bark, and roots) can affect the regenerative process, compromising the conservation of the species, since improper management practices are often adopted [34]. The collection of perennial structures happens mainly in deciduous and semideciduous forests, where these plant structures are used due to the absence of leaves during the dry season and the availability of fruits only in irregular and often short periods [28]. Also, the fact that bark and roots are preserved for longer periods contributes to greater exploitation. A study conducted in a Caatinga area reported that the practice of removing perennial structures can be responsible for the scarcity of some species that were previously plentiful in the region [34].

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4.4 Challenges Associated with Cultural Losses The use of medicinal plants is part of the natural and cultural heritage of many regions. The loss of indigenous and other traditional peoples’ knowledge about the potential of medicinal plants is a problem [11]. Currently, the interaction of deforestation, climate change and pandemics such as COVID-19 threaten the existence of these groups, and consequently the future of ethnopharmacology in Brazil and worldwide [30]. This is because the knowledge of traditional peoples is passed down between generations, and the premature death of elders puts the culture of these populations at risk, as does the advance of ethno-phytomedicine. The trend in this respect is for researchers to have fewer medicinal species for ethnobotanical studies [30]. However, perhaps the greatest threat to the use of medicinal plants is cultural change under the influence of modernization. An survey conducted in communities in the Western Amazon indicated a relatively small number of native Amazonian species in folk medicine (7 out of 53 identified species), which may reflect the loss of knowledge about regional natural remedies due to migration, reduction, or extinction of local indigenous groups, advancing urbanization, and new lifestyles influenced by globalization [33], culminating in acculturation. This loss of cultural transfer has also been reported in studies conducted in the Caatinga biome, a semiarid Brazilian region in the northeast of the country [39], and in the Cerrado biome, in central region where the urban and commercial character of medicinal plants has replaced the traditional feature of the activity, reducing the ecological and biological information about species [9]. In the Amazon, medicinal plants are widely used by all socioeconomic classes, in part due to the easy availability, good efficacy, low cost and cultural preferences compared to manufactured pharmacological products [35]. Given this, the rational use of medicinal plants can provide sustainable development, since folk medicine is accessible, preserves the culture and knowledge of traditional peoples, and when properly encouraged can promote the care of natural resources [16].

4.5 Strategies for the Conservation of Medicinal Species Indigenous and traditional knowledge can be used by ethnobotanical researchers to develop management plans associated with the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Brazil. Ensuring sustainability in the consumption of medicinal plants can also be encouraged by adopting a set of strategies (Fig. 4) including in situ and ex situ conservation practices. Urban gardens—Urban gardens promote ex situ conservation by using urban and periurban spaces to plant different species for popular consumption. The practice has numerous environmental benefits, including the recovery of areas, social inclusion, and environmental education.

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Fig. 4 Set of strategies to ensure the sustainability of medicinal plant consumption

Reforestation/restoration activities—Environmental restoration and reforestation contribute to climate change mitigation and the maintenance of forest communities, allowing the occurrence and in situ development of many medicinal species. Accreditation of extractors—The regularization of extractors is an important step toward controlling the exploitation of medicinal plants. The accreditation can also help by directing campaigns and orientations, to guarantee the sustainable management of resources. Germplasm banks—They are essential for the sustainability of medicinal plants by preserving genetic materials of different species ex situ in the long term. These may be seeds, in vitro material, or species grown in fields, among others. Development of research—The development of new research contributes to the cultural transfer and fills existing gaps in knowledge about techniques, uses, and cultivation of medicinal plants. Legal programs—Public policies are necessary to ensure sustainable exploitation of medicinal plants and to provide incentives for the development of the strategies listed here (and penalties for failure to act). From these programs, it will be possible to develop instruments to promote research, regulation of the production chain, and

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the insertion of medicinal plants and phytotherapics products in the public health system.

5 Future Perspectives Scientific research in Brazil advances in slow steps in comparison with the amount of potential medicinal plants found in Brazilian forests. Furthermore, the dissociation of local peoples and the loss of traditional knowledge caused by the reduction of forests or local customs threaten ethnobotanical studies. Although existing legislation encourages the use of native species, there is little oversight and effective application. Native vegetation occupies 61% Brazilian territory, while 18% the country’s land is located in conservation units and 14% is reserved for indigenous peoples, theoretically guaranteeing protection of one-third of the national biodiversity, if these areas were not under intense anthropic threat. The advance in forest fires and deforestation can reverse a favorable situation of the country as an important supplier of medicinal plants to the world. Therefore, the conservation of existing forests, access to traditional knowledge, investments, and diffusion of technical and scientific research on the species and their use by local populations are fundamental to guarantee the discovery of new phytotherapic compounds that can prevent and cure existing diseases and those that will occur in the future, as well as minimize the effects of new pandemics.

6 Conclusion The lack of information about the medicinal potential of native species in the country with the greatest biodiversity on the planet is notorious. The information presented here shows there is still a long way to go in identifying the conservation status of medicinal plants. Therefore, more investment is needed in research on their use in traditional medicine, as well as studies on the conservation of the species. Allied with this information, there is a need to guarantee sustainability of the processes of extraction and cultivation, along with legislation aimed at assuring the long-term use of the species. In addition, another approach related to conservation is to investigate socio-environmental issues, enabling more practical sustainable use of natural resources. However, research on conservation aspects advances slowly compared to studies of potentially beneficial medicinal properties. Thus, it is important to emphasize that technical and scientific research on the ecology of species and their use by the local population is fundamental to ensure the discovery of new phytotherapic compounds that can prevent or treat diseases, as well as contribute to the conservation of biodiversity.

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