Fifty Years Of Soviet Aircraft Cosntruction

Citation preview

A .S . Y a k o v le v

FIFTY YEARS OF SOVIET AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION

TRANSLATED

FROM

RUSSIAN

Published fo r th e National A e r o n a u tics and S p a c e Adm inistration and th e National S c i e n c e Foundation, W a sh ington, D.C. by th e Israel P rogra m f o r S c ie n tif ic T ranslations

A.S. Yakovlev

FIFTY YEARS OF SOVIET AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION (50 let sovetskogo samoletostroeniya)

Izdaterstvo M Nauka’ Moskva 1968

Translated from Russian

Israel Program for Scientific Translations Jerusalem 1970

T T 70-50076 NASA T T F-627 P u b lish ed P ursu ant to an A gre e m e n t with T H E NATIONAL AERON AU TICS AND SP A C E ADM INISTRATION and T H E NATIONAL S C IE N C E FOUNDATION, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Copyright ©1970 Israel Program for Scientific Translations Ltd. IPST Cat. No. 5768

T ra n sla te d by E. V ilim

Printed in Jerusalem by Keter Press Binding: Wiener Bindery Ltd., Jerusalem

A v a ila b le fr o m U.S. D EPA R TM EN T OF C le a r in g h o u se fo r F e d e r a l S cien tific S prin gfield , Va.

IX/16

the CO M M E R C E and T e c h n ic a l In form a tion 22151

T a b le o f C ontents Author’ s Foreword.......................................................................

v

1. A DIFFICULT S T A R T ............................................................

1

2. SOVIET PLANES, SOVIET ENGINES...........................................

8

3.

THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION...................

37

4.

WORLD WAR I I ....................................................................

44

5. AVIATION OUTSIDE THE SOVIET UNION....................................

67

6.

THE VICTORY OF SOVIET TECHNICAL GENIUS............................

94

7. JET AIRCRAFT ....................................................................

99

8. SPORTS PLANES

..................................................................

120

9.

THE CIVIL AIR FLEET............................................................

137

10.

THE SCHOOL OF SOVIET AIRCRAFT DESIGNERS ..........................

159

Layout (I —XI) o f Typical A ir c r a ft...................................................

168

Subject Index

...........................................................................

179

.............................................................................

183

List of A bbreviations...................................................................

186

Name Index

The creation of a powerful aircraft industry, o f a modern air force and a first-class civ il aviation fleet, the development o f aviation scien ce and tech ­ nology, these are some of the greatest historical achievements o f the Communist Party, the Soviet state, the working class, and the scientific and technical intelligentsia, simply of all the Soviet people. The victories in aviation, achieved by the Soviet Union, are o f fundamental importance. They are the result o f practicing the Leninist policy of industrialization which ensures that the USSR will be technically and econom ically independent of the capitalist world. They demonstrated the preponderance of the socialist econom ic system, its ability to liquidate the technical backwardness within the shortest possible time. They convincingly showed the sweep o f the scientific and cultural revolution in the Soviet Union. They are a testimony to the incessant care by the Party and the nation to strengthen the defense potential o f the country.

AUTHOR’ S FOREW ORD T h is b r ie f outlin e o f the d ev elopm en t o f a ir c r a ft co n stru ctio n in the Soviet Union du ring the fifty y e a r s o f Soviet pow er d o e s not c la im to be a co m p re h e n siv e and profound a n a ly sis o f the building up o f the Soviet a ir c r a ft industry. The author a ssu m e d a m o r e lim ited task: to d e s c r ib e the m ain s ta g e s in the p r o g r e s s of a ir c ra ft con stru ctio n by show ing the te ch n ica l grow th o f s c ie n t ific and d e sig n thinking o f S oviet d e s ig n e r s fr o m the O c to b e r R evolu tion to the presen t. The h erita g e o f C z a r is t R u ssia w as nothing ex cep t poverty. The S oviet p e o p le had to build the a ir c r a ft industry anew s o that it would be w orthy of a g r e a t coun try and c o r r e s p o n d to m ilita r y and e c o n o m ic n eeds. And such an in du stry w as created! The fir s t Soviet a irm en w er e su rrou n d ed by the un derstanding and c a r e o f V. I. Lenin, with h is help a ir c ra ft f a c t o r ie s w e r e "put on th eir f e e t, " and the C en tra l A eroh yd rod y n a m ic Institute (TsAGI)*, the c e n te r o f aviation s c ie n c e w as o rga n ized , thus esta b lish in g Soviet a ir pow er. The C en tra l C o m m ittee o f the P arty and the Soviet gov ern m en t devoted s y ste m a tic attention to the a ir c r a ft industry: they d e te rm in ed w ays o f d ev elo p in g S oviet a ir c ra ft produ ction . The s u c c e s s e s o f Soviet a ir c ra ft con stru ction , which w as m o st s e v e r e ly te ste d in W orld War II, a re p a r ticu la rly pron ou n ced when co m p a r e d with the aviation o f the S oviet Union's e n e m ie s and h er a llie s in the la st war. The p rep o n d era n ce is on the sid e o f the Soviet Union, h er a rm ed f o r c e s and h er s c ie n t ific and tech n ica l thinking. T alented d e s ig n e r s and scie n tis ts , edu cated by the Party, founded S oviet aviation fam e. T h eir s u c c e s s e s a re the v is ib le r e su lt o f the s e lf - s a c r if ic in g w ork o f a host o f w ork ers, a d m in istra tiv e and te ch n ica l e m p lo y e e s o f the a ir c r a ft in du stry who alw ays m a rch ed in the fo r e m o s t ranks o f the fig h te r s fo r the stren gth en in g o f the e c o n o m ic and d e fe n siv e p ow er o f the S oviet Union. Soviet a ir c r a ft c o n stru ctio n p a s s e d th rough s e v e r a l m a jo r s t a g e s in its d evelopm en t. The f ir s t sta g e w as the r e co n s tr u ctio n o f p r e r e v o lu tio n a r y plan ts and the p rep a ra tio n o f a ir c r a ft p rod u ction a c c o r d in g to captu red m o d e ls. It c o r r e s p o n d s to the p e r io d o f r e s t o r a t io n and r e c o n s tr u c t io n o f the S oviet Union. The se co n d sta ge w as the cre a tio n o f S oviet a ir c ra ft in d u stry du ring the F ir s t and the beginn in g o f the Secon d F iv e - Y e a r Plan. Then aviation d ev elo p ed on the b a s is o f o r ig in a l Soviet d e sig n s. The third sta g e w as the m a ste r in g o f new tech n o lo g y in the p re w a r y e a r s with a view to the le s s o n s o f the Spanish c iv il war. The fourth sta g e w as W orld W ar II. The fifth sta ge w as the tech n ica l rev olu tion in aviation, con n ected with the advent o f je t a ircra ft. F in ally the p r e s e n t sta g e is the solu tion o f p r o b le m s * [See List o f Abbreviations.]

d icta ted by the m ilita r y and d e fen se n eed s and the ra p id grow th o f Soviet c iv il aviation. It is im p o s s ib le in th is b r ie f ou tlin e to d e s c r ib e o r m ention a ll the d iv e r s e w ork done in ea ch sta g e o f d ev elop m en t o f a ir c r a ft c o n str u ctio n and the w ork o f a ll the d e sig n o f f ic e s and individual d e s ig n e r s who p ro d u ce d o r ig in a l ty p e s and kinds o f a ircra ft, s o m e o f which w er e on ly o f e x p e rim e n ta l in te r e st but e n rich ed ou r k n ow led ge and o th e r s w hich at s o m e tim e r e a c h e d the p rod u ction sta g e in s m a ll s e r i e s but w e r e withdrawn in fa v o r o f b e tte r a ircra ft. H ere w e d ea l on ly with the m ain tren d s at each s ta g e o f a ir c r a ft c o n s tr u c ­ tion d ev elo p m en t w hich w e r e d e c is iv e fo r the c re a tio n o f S oviet a ir pow er, c o r r e s p o n d in g to g e n e r a l p o litica l, m ilita r y and e c o n o m ic ta s k s so lv e d by the P a rty and govern m en t.

i.

A D IF F IC U L T S T A R T

The Soviet state received a poor inheritance in aviation: some hundreds o f old and worn-out airplanes, mostly of foreign-make and obsolete plants and worshops producing aircraft and engines, partly based on dom estic labor. The aircraft industry had to be built from the beginning. From the first days o f Soviet power Lenin concentrated on the creation of a Red air fleet, and according to his instructions, TsAGI was founded in 1918 under the direction of Professor N. E. Joukowski. In 1923 the Society of Friends o f the Air Fleet (ODVF) was founded. This society not only accumulated means for the restoration of plants and the construction of aircraft, it also carried out much propaganda among the masses. The building o f the country’ s aviation becam e a national task.

B e fo r e the rev o lu tio n a ir c ra ft p rod u ction in R u ssia w as con fin ed to about fifteen plants and w ork sh o p s in M oscow , P e tro g ra d , S im fero p o l, T agan rog, Rybinsk, O d essa , and Riga. The la r g e s t o f th em w ere: the b ic y c le plant Duks in M oscow , the Shchetinin and L ebedev plants and the R u sso - B a ltic R a ilroa d C a r Plant in P etro gra d , and Anatra in O d e ssa . A ll the a ir c ra ft plan ts in C z a r is t R u ssia em p lo y ed a com b in ed tota l o f about ten thousand w o r k e r s o f differen t tra d es. At that tim e m o st o f the p la n es built in R u ssia w e r e o f fo reign - m a k e, p r in c ip a lly F ren ch F arm an s, M orans, V oisin s, N ieu ports. R u ssia n m a n u fa ctu rers w e r e reluctan t to a cc e p t o r d e r s fo r R u ssia n - d e sig n e d plan es. Although R u ssia had p la n es o f its own d esign , su ch a s the Lebed, P a r a s o l and S ik orsk ii, the ten d en cy w as to a ccep t fo r e ig n ty p e s m ade a c c o r d in g to d ra w in gs by W estern f ir m s o r p a rtly a s s e m b le d fr o m p a rts p u rch a se d abroad. F o r in stan ce, as e a rly as 1913 the R u sso - B a ltic R a ilroa d C a r Plant built, under the d ir e c tio n o f I. I. S ik orsk ii, the Il’ ya M u rom ets* the fir s t m u lti­ en gin ed h eavy a ir c r a ft in the w orld. D uring W orld War I the front r e c e iv e d s o m e ten s o f th e se plan es. The d e s ig n e r s con stan tly im p ro v ed it, in c r e a s in g its load ca p a city and range. Il'ya M u rom ets, E-type with fou r en gin es, had a sp e e d o f 135 kph and a c e ilin g o f 4000m. Its payload w as 2.5 ton s in clu din g a seven -m a n c re w and 800kg o f bom bs. Its d e fen siv e arm am en t a gain st en em y fig h te rs, sev en m ach in e guns, w as p o w erfu l at that tim e. True, the d e sig n in g o f pla n es in R u ssia and in the W est w as p rim itiv e ; aviation s c ie n c e w as ju st bein g founded. The f ir s t b ra n ch e s o f th is s c ie n c e m ad e th e m s e lv e s felt in the M oscow T e ch n ica l C o lle g e w h ere an aviation c ir c l e w ork ed under the d ir e c tio n o f P r o f e s s o r Joukow ski. M e m b e r s o f th is c ir c le w ere students o f the c o lle g e and a re now fa m ou s S oviet aviation e x p e r ts: T upolev, A rkhangel'skii, Vetchinkin, Stechkin. When w ar b ro k e out in 1914, the R u ssia n a rm y o f the front had ju st o v e r two hundred fifty s e r v ic e a b le plan es. The c a lc u la tio n s o f the C z a r is t gov ern m en t to c o v e r th e ir n eed s o f a ir c r a ft and e n g in e s by p u r c h a s e s abroad * This aircraft was built with the participation o f N.N. Polikarpov who later becam e famous as a designer.

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p ro v ed w rong. During the w ar g r e a t d iffic u ltie s in su pply w e r e en cou n tered. In addition the A llie s tr ie d to delu de R u ssia with o b s o le t e p la n es w hich w e r e a lrea d y u n su itable fo r th eir own a r m ie s. A ll th is m ade it n e c e s s a r y to c r e a te a d o m e s tic a ir c ra ft industry. It is c h a r a c te r is t ic that b e fo r e W orld W ar I R u ssia prod u ced , in total, a p p ro x im a tely fo rty a irp la n e s o f d ifferen t ty p e s p e r month w h e re a s at the end o f the w ar in 1917 the Duks plant in M oscow alone p ro d u ce d sev en ty - fiv e to one hundred p la n es p e r month. Duks p ro d u ced e x c lu s iv e ly landplanes. The Shchetinin plant in P e tro g ra d , in addition to lan d plan es Nieuport, Farm an, and V oisin, a ls o p ro d u ced flyin g b oa ts d e sig n ed ju st b e fo r e the w ar by the fa m ou s R u ssia n d e s ig n e r D. P. G rig o ro v ich . G r ig o r o v ic h ’ s M-5 and M-9 flyin g b oa ts w e r e a g re a t te ch n ica l a ch iev em en t fo r th eir tim e, and they s e r v e d the R u ssia n navy e ffe c tiv e ly in the B altic and B lack sea s. B etw een 1914 and 1917 about two hundred h yd ropla n es w er e built. T h ere w e r e no su ch p la n es in oth er cou n tries. The w ork o f the a ir c r a ft in dustry w as im ped ed at that tim e by a p ro fu sio n o f d ifferen t ty p e s and the frequ en t ch a n ges in d e sig n o f a ir c r a ft by individual plants. During the w ar the plan ts in trod u ced s e r ia l p rod u ction o f m o r e than twenty d ifferen t d e sig n s. In 1917 the m ain a ircra ft, p ro d u ce d in the la r g e s t qu an tities in R u ssian plants, w er e r e c o n n a is sa n c e and b om b in g p la n es Farman-27, Farman-30, V oisin, and d ifferen t ty p e s o f the N ieuport fig h te r plan es. A p a r ticu la r d ifficu lty fo r the R u ssia n a ir c ra ft in d u stry w as the p rod u ction o f en gin es. A lack o f g o o d s t e e ls r e su lte d in a weak m e ta llu r g ic a l base, and th ere w er e oth er d iffic u ltie s in the p rod u ction o f m agn etos, sp a rk plu gs, and v a r io u s in stru m en ts and d e v ic e s. D uring the w ar on ly ten to fifteen p e rce n t o f the r e q u ir e d a ir c ra ft en gin es w er e su p p lied by R u ssia n plants. A fter the F eb ru a ry rev olu tion in R ussia, fr o m m id - 1917, d e liv e r ie s to the a ir c r a ft in d u stry fr o m abroad c e a s e d a lm o st co m p le te ly . In O c to b e r the fleet o f a ir c r a ft had slig h tly e x ce e d e d one thousand m ach in es, m o st o f which w er e a lrea d y in n eed o f rep a ir. T h ere w er e c o n s id e r a b le l o s s e s o f pla n es at the front, and at that tim e a ir c ra ft had a sh ort s e r v ic e life. With the v ic to r y o f the O c to b e r revolu tion , under con d ition s o f the in cipien t fo r e ig n in terven tion and c iv il war, the m o st im portan t ta sk b e c a m e the d e fen se and stren gth en in g o f the r ev o lu tio n a ry a ch iev em en ts. L ite ra lly within the f ir s t few d ay s o f S oviet p o w er the P e o p le 's C o m m is s a r ia t o f D efen se c re a te d the Aviation B oard with nine m e m b e r s (three m ilita r y a v ia to r s and six fr o m a ir c r a ft plants, tra d e unions and w orkers* o r g a n iz a ­ tions). The board w as ch a rged by the S oviet g o v ern m en t to r e o r g a n iz e aviation m a tters and to c o lle c t fr o m all fro n ts a irp la n es, e n g in e s and sp a r e pa rts. It w as n e c e s s a r y to ga th er as m uch as p o s s ib le fo r the d e fe n se o f the S oviet r e g im e . Under the e x istin g con d ition s it w as d ifficu lt to e n su r e p rod u ction in a ir c r a ft fa c to r ie s. The r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f the b oa rd th e r e fo r e a ppealed to Lenin. T h is is what one m e m b e r o f the board, K. V. Akashev, w rote in h is m e m o ir s : ". . . the r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f the boa rd turned to V la d im ir Ilich Lenin. We asked the s e c r e ta r ia t o f the C ou n cil o f P e o p le ’ s C o m m is s a r s to a rra n g e fo r a p e r s o n a l m eetin g v/ith Lenin, and w er e r e c e iv e d that v e r y sa m e day. A fter having b r ie fly ou tlin ed ou r v iew s o f the im p o rta n ce and p la c e o f the a ir fle e t within the cu ltu ra l stru ctu re o f the S oviet rep u b lic, w e asked Lenin

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to c r e a te a P e o p le ’ s C o m m is sa r ia t o f the A ir Fleet. Lenin did not o b je c t to a ssig n in g an im portant r o le to the air fle e t under p e a c e tim e con d ition s o f the country, and he a g re e d to its im p orta n ce as one o f the g re a t cu ltu ra l a ch iev em en ts o f ou r century. " T h is w as p a r ticu la rly p lea sin g, b e ca u se a sh ort tim e b e fo re , when asked to reta in the a ir c ra ft fa c to r ie s, Larin at the P r e s id iu m o f the S u prem e E c o n o m ic C ou n cil r e p lie d that the Soviet state did not need e n t e r p r is e s ' s im ila r to a scen t and ointm ent factor'. "C o n c e r n in g the m ain p r o b le m that in tere ste d us, n am ely the cre a tio n o f a P e o p le 's C o m m is sa r ia t o f the A ir Fleet, Lenin did not r e je c t it in p rin cip le; but he explain ed to us that in the p re se n t situ ation the Soviet sta te had a m o r e urgent ta sk than the th orough r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f the a ir fleet, n am ely that the O c to b e r rev olu tion m ust stren gth en the foundation o f the country, i. e., the econom y. "'N ext tim e we sh a ll d is c u s s the c re a tio n of the P e o p le ' s C o m m is s a r ia t o f the A ir Fleet' w er e Lenin's own w ord s in con clu sion . "O u r m eetin g with Lenin took p la c e in January 1918. At that tim e the situ ation w as e x tr e m e ly se r io u s. The G erm a n s w ere th reaten in g to con q u er P etro gra d , the G overn m en t w as p rep a rin g to m ove to M oscow , in the south the co u n terrev o lu tion took up a rm s. . . *" The c iv il w ar and in terven tion m ade it im p e ra tiv e to d e v e lo p c h ie fly the m ilita r y a ir fo r ce . In May 1918 the Main A d m in istration o f the W orkers' and P easan ts' Red A ir F leet w as created . In June the C ou n cil o f P e o p le 's C o m m is s a r s is s u e d a d e c r e e n ation a lizin g the a ir cra ft fa c to r ie s. It w as the beginn in g o f the r e c o v e r y o f the coun try's a ir c ra ft industry, with the Duks plant in M oscow and the P e te r sb u r g plant, su bseq u en tly nam ed "K ra sn y i letch ik " (Red Flyer), bein g first. That sa m e yea r, 1918, under L enin's d ir e c t p a rticipa tion , T sA G I w as founded, la ter d ev elo p in g into a la r g e cen te r o f a eron a u tica l s c ie n c e o f w orld w id e im p ortan ce. It w as the d ir e c t descen da n t o f the a e ro d y n a m ic la b o r a to r y o f the M oscow T ech n ica l C o lle g e and the C om pu tin g and T e stin g O ffice. T his w as one o f the fir s t p r o o fs o f the c a r e with which the young S oviet state su rrou n d ed its aviation. In D e ce m b e r 1918 the b oa rd o f T sA G I fir s t m et in Jou k ow sk i's apartm ent, under h is chairm an ship. One m ust v isu a liz e the a tm o sp h e re o f th o se days. Many plants had c lo s e d down b e c a u se o f la ck o f raw m a te ria ls; in M oscow th ere w as no ligh t and fuel. Yet the sev en ty - y e a r- o ld Jou k ow sk i initiated and p r e s id e d o v e r a gro u p fo r o r g a n izin g a S oviet aviation center! On J ou k ow sk i’ s in itiative the Aviatekhnikum (in 1922 r e o r g a n iz e d and c a lle d the A cad em y o f the A ir Fleet) w as founded in M oscow . The m e ch a n ica l depa rtm en t o f the M oscow T e ch n ica l C o lle g e in stitu ted a e ro d y n a m ics a s a fie ld o f s p e c ia liz a t io n (on its b a s is the M oscow A viation Institute (MAI) w as founded in 1930). Even under the con d ition s o f e c o n o m ic c o lla p s e the a ir c r a ft plants and w o rk sh o p s gra d u a lly cam e back to life. T h e re w ere no en gin es. A ircra ft m a te r ia ls w er e beyond th eir o r ig in a l worth. In 1919, when the C a u ca su s w as cut o ff fr o m cen tra l R u ssia, a g r a v e c r i s i s eru pted b e c a u s e o f la ck of a ir c r a ft fuel. The situ ation o f the coun try in g e n e r a l w as e x tr e m e ly gra ve. How bad the sh o rta g e o f a r m s w as is illu stra te d by the ca b le that Lenin Samolet, 1924, No. 2, p. 3.

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sent to the R ev olu tion a ry M ilita ry C ou n cil on 9 June 1919, re co m m e n d in g that tw o o r th ree m en should sh a re one rifle. * The su pply situ ation b e c a m e c ritica l. S till under su ch co n d itio n s du rin g the f ir s t y e a r s o f S oviet pow er, in plan ts that had been p r e s e r v e d and p a rtly rebuilt, a ir c r a ft w e r e not only r e p a ir e d but even built and sen t to the w ar fron ts. A fter the co u n terrev o lu tion had been d efea ted and the fo r e ig n in te rv e n ­ tio n is t s ch a sed out, the cou n try w as able to begin p e a ce fu l co n stru ction . The c h ie f ta sk w as the reb u ild in g o f the e co n o m y and d e fe n se o f the state. It w as n e c e s s a r y to en su r e again st any s u r p r is e on the part o f the e n e m ie s su rrou n d in g the country. One o f the im portan t d e fen se m e a s u r e s w as the cre a tio n o f the coun try's own aviation. As e a rly as January 1921 the C ou n cil o f L a b or and D efen se d e cid e d to fo r m a c o m m is s io n fo r d ev elo p in g a m axim u m p r o g r a m o f a ir c r a ft con stru ction . As the reb u ild in g o f the eco n o m y p r o g r e s s e d , the c re a tio n o f aviation b e c a m e lit e r a lly a national con cern . T h e re w e r e m o tto s: "W ork in g men, build an a ir fleet'." "P ro le ta r ia n , into the a irp la n e! " "D on ate an engine! " "W ithout v ic t o r y in the a ir th e re is no v ic t o r y on the ground! " " P r o m m o d e l to g lid e r , fr o m g lid e r to airplane! ". T h ree p r o b le m s fa ce d the S oviet Union: to find the m ea n s fo r bu ildin g an a ir fleet and fo r equ ippin g new a ir c r a ft plants; to build p la n es and tea ch the m a s t e r s o f the country, the w o r k e r s and p ea sa n ts to fly them ; to open up the w o r st b ottlen eck in a ir c r a ft co n stru ctio n - e n g in e produ ction . In M arch 1923 OD V F w as founded. Its a im w as to in s p ir e a national m ovem en t fo r the bu ildin g o f an a ir fleet, to o r g a n iz e the c o lle c t io n o f m ea n s fo r buildin g a ir c r a ft and en gin es, to sp r e a d kn ow ledge o f aviation am on g the population. The S o cie ty p ro m o te d o r g a n iza tio n s o f m a s s a ir c r a ft m o d e lin g and o f g lid e r flying. It m ad e prop aga n da fo r aviation, p u b lish ed the jo u rn a l " S a m o le t , " o r g a n iz e d prop aga n d a fligh ts throughout M o sco w and the country, though s t ill with Ju n kers p la n es bought abroad. The S o cie ty 's n e w sp a p e r s and p e r io d ic a ls s o lic it e d d on ation s fo r the bu ildin g o f the a ir fleet. In 1923 the s o c ie t y D o b ro let w as founded; it d ev e lo p e d la te r into the M in istry o f C iv il Aviation. The Soviet nation had to build its aviation w hile cre a tin g its s c ie n c e and in d u stry and edu catin g its own a eron a u tica l s c ie n t is t s and e n g in e e r s and w o r k e r s and fly e rs. The nation knew that nobody e l s e w ould help with th e se ta sk s, and it r e lie d on ly on its own strength. At f ir s t it w as n e c e s s a r y to p r o v id e a irp la n e s fr o m abroad. T o fo r m r e g u la r a ir f o r c e units, a s m a ll n u m ber o f F okker-D 7 fig h ter p la n es w e r e bought in 1922-23 fr o m H olland (where the G erm an fir m F ok k er m oved a fter the defeat o f Im p eria l Germany), and E n glish M a rtin sid e fig h te rs, Italian A nsaldo r e c o n n a is sa n c e plan es, and G erm an Ju-13 p a s s e n g e r plan es. The coun try did not even d isd ain u sin g captu red a ir c ra ft left behind by the in terv en tion ists. A c co r d in g to captu red E n glish m o d e ls the Duks and A viarabotn ik plan ts in M o sco w began p rod u cin g the De Havilland-4, De Havilland-9, De Havilland-9A and the K ra sn yi letch ik plant in P e tr o g r a d p ro d u ced the Avro-504. ** M oreov er, l ic e n s e s w e r e obtained fo r the * Lenin, V.I. Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Complete C ollected Works), Vol. 35, p. 332. ** An Avro plane was shot down in 1919 near Petrozavodsk. The pilot was a White Guard by the name of Ankudinov. The famous aircraft designer Sergei Vladimirovich Ilyushin was then a m echanic on an aircraft repair train. Ilyushin was ordered to dismantle the plane after it had been shot down and to bring it to Moscow where drawings were made from it at the Duks plant.

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p rod u ction o f fo reign - m a k es. The A viarabotnik plant m ade the F o k k e r - D ll; Ju n kers in M oscow , which had a c o n c e s sio n , p ro d u ce d the Ju-21 in F il and a s s e m b le d the Ju-13 p a s s e n g e r plane. C op yin g fo r e ig n m o d e ls w as a n e c e s s a r y e v il and a te m p o r a r y m e a su re. In the tw en ties S oviet a ir cra ft d e sig n o f f ic e s w ere a lre a d y o r g a n ize d : under T u p olev in T sA G I and under P o lik a rp o v and G r ig o r o v ic h in the Duks plant. The f ir s t b o rn o f S oviet a ir c ra ft p rod u ction w e r e the ligh t s p o r t s m onoplan e ANT-1 and the th r e e - s e a te r p a s s e n g e r m onoplan e AK-1, a ls o c a lle d the "L atvian G u nn er," w hich flew on the f ir s t R u ssia n a ir rou te M oscow -N izh n ii N o v o g o ro d in 1924, and then to o k part in the fligh t fr o m M oscow to Peking. N. N. P o lik a rp o v built the s in g le - s e a t e r 1-1 fig h te r m onoplan e in 1923, and in 1924 fligh t t e s t s began o f the 1-2 s in g le - s e a te r fig h te r d e sig n e d by D. P. G rig o ro v ich . In 1925 T u p olev built the a ll- m e ta l tw o - se a te r A N T -3 (R-3) r e c o n n a is sa n c e plane, and im m ed ia te ly a fterw a rd the tw in -en gin ed heavy b o m b e r ANT-4 (TB-1). R e s e a r ch w ork a ls o bran ch ed into new fie ld s. The a ero d y n a m ic la b o r a to r y o f the M oscow T ech n ica l C o lle g e b e c a m e to o sm a ll, and on 9 May 1924 a new a ero d y n a m ic la b o r a to r y w as founded, now ca lle d the C h aplygin la b ora tory . A lso la b o r a to r ie s fo r r e s e a r c h on a ir c r a ft m a t e r ia ls and en gin es, a tow in g basin, and an ex p erim en ta l plant w er e built. All th e se m e a s u r e s by the Soviet state fo r bu ildin g its own aviation r e q u ir e d an e n o rm o u s e ffo rt and la r g e su m s o f m oney. It r e c e iv e d m uch help fr o m the ODVF. The p r o b le m of bu ildin g an a ir fle e t and the w ork o f the O D V F w e r e d is c u s s e d by the 13th C o n g r e s s o f the B o lsh ev ik party. On 1 June 1924, ODVF, in a c e r e m o n y at the M oscow ce n tra l a irp ort, p r e s e n te d the 13th P arty C o n g r e s s with the "L en in " squadron. F r o m m on ey donated by the population one hundred com bat a ir c r a ft w e r e built and d e liv e r e d to the a ir fo r ce . At that tim e m on^y w as a ls o c o lle c t e d fo r the squ a d ron "U ltim atu m " in r e p ly to the sudden u ltim atum d e liv e r e d by L ord C u rzo n to the S oviet govern m en t, for the squ adron "O u r R ep ly to C h am berlain , " and oth ers. The O D V F o r g a n ize d a n u m ber o f lo n g fligh ts. In 1923 V eilin g in a Ju-13 plane flew 11,000 km o f the rou te M o sco w - T iflis- T a sh k e n t- M o sco w . In 1924 six R -1 p la n es p ilo ted by M ezheraup, Garanin, Arvatov, Goppe, Y akobson and Z a lev sk ii, flew to Kabul in Afghanistan. T h e se p la n es o f Soviet m an u factu re tr a v e r s e d the Hindukush m ountain ra n ge and attained an altitude o f 5000 m. In 1925 K opylov in a Ju-13 plane flew the rou te M oscow -K azan U fa-P erm -V yatk a-U styu g-V ologd a-M oscow , a total o f 10,000 km. That sa m e y e a r the fligh t fr o m M oscow to Peking, f o r that tim e a g r a n d io s e undertaking, to o k p la ce. T h ere w er e six plan es, o f w hich th re e w e r e Soviet m an u factu red (types R - l and R-2), one w as an AK-1 p a s s e n g e r plan e and two Ju-13s. B e ca u se o f the v a riety o f p la n es and the d ifficu lty o f the rou te, th is fligh t w as a s e r io u s ch a llen ge to p ilo ts and m ach in es. The ex p ed ition r e a ch e d P ek in g a fter th irty -th ree days. The p a rticip a n ts o f the flight, G rom ov, V olkovoinov, Ekatov, Naidenov, T o m a sh e v sk ii and P olyakov, r e c e iv e d the title "D istin g u ish ed F lyer. " B eginning in 1925 the o rga n iza tio n o f flig h ts w as taken o v e r by the C o m m is s io n fo r L ong-R ange Soviet F lights, which w as headed by S. S. K am enev, the com m a n d er-in -ch ief. In the su m m e r o f 1926 tw o in tern ation al flig h ts took p la c e with R - l p la n es: the f ir s t p ilo te d by Ya. M o ise e v on the rou te M o sco w - T eh e ra n - M o scow , m o r e

5

than 6000 km and the se co n d p ilo ted by P. M ezheraup, on the rou te M oscow Ankara, a p p ro x im a tely 2000km. F r o m then on a ll the flig h ts w e r e m ade on p la n es which w er e not on ly m ade but a ls o d e sig n e d in R u ssia. A ir cr a ft c o n str u ctio n d ev elo p ed both in quantity and in quality. F r o m p la n es Whose m ain m a t e r ia ls w e r e pinew ood, plyw ood and canvas, the Soviet in du stry m anaged as e a r ly a s in the m id - tw en ties to change o v e r T u p o le v ’ s a ll- m eta l d u ral plan es. A. N. T u polev at that tim e w ro te about the f ir s t S oviet m eta l plane, the ANT-2. nThe 26 May 1924 should b e m arked in the h isto r y o f S oviet a ir c r a ft con stru ction . On that day, o v e r the cen tra l a irp ort, the fir s t S oviet m eta l plane, d e sig n ed and built by the C en tra l A eroh y d rod y n a m ic Institute o f the S cie n tific and T ech n ica l S ection o f the Su prem e E c o n o m ic C ou n cil, c a r r ie d out its te st flight. . . M. . . T he plane w as built by a c o m m is s io n fo r the c o n str u ctio n of m eta l p la n es c o n s is tin g o f the m e m b e r s : C h airm an A. N. Tupolev, the author o f the d e sig n and g e n e r a lly in ch a rge o f the w ork o f the c o m m is s io n ; Deputy C h airm an I. I. Sidorin, who w ork ed out m eth od s o f th e rm a l trea tm en t and p r o c e s s in g o f the m a te ria l and c a r r ie d out stren g th te s t s ; s c ie n t is t s I. I. P o g o s k ii and G. A. O zero v . "E la b o r a tio n o f m eth od s o f a n a lysis, a sso r tm e n t o f pa rts, sh a p e s and d e sig n d e ta ils o f the plan es, te stin g and d ir e c t s u p e r v is io n o f prod u ction w er e in the hands of T sA G I e n g in e e r s A. I. Putilov, V. M. P etlyakov, 1.1. P o g o sk ii, B. M. K on dorskii, N. S. N ekrasov, N. I. P etrov, E. I. P o g o sk ii, A. I. Z im in and oth ers. "T h e te st fligh t w as p e r fo r m e d on 26 May by T sA G I e n g in e e r N. I. P etrov, with sand fo r ballast. The fligh t w as not ex p erim en ta l, th e r e fo r e it w as not tim ed ; its aim w as to find out the m ain fligh t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f the plane. "T h e plan e took o ff th ree tim e s a ltogeth er and a c c o m p lis h e d fiv e o r six c i r c l e s at an altitude o f up to 500 m. Both by its b eh a v ior in the a ir and by its sp eed the m ach in e p r o v e d its worth, and in the opin ion o f the m any o n lo o k e r s it is a valu able con tribu tion to S oviet a ir c r a ft co n stru ction . "* The A N T-2 is the fir s t- b o r n am ong the R u ssia n a ll- m e ta l plan es. In sp r in g 1926 the fir s t o ffic ia l t e s t s w ere con clu d ed o f the f ir s t com bat plane d e sig n ed by A. N. Tupolev. T his w as the ANT-3, o r R-3, an a ll- m eta l tw o - se a te r r e c o n n a is sa n c e biplane, p ro v id ed in s e r ia l p ro d u ctio n with a 400 hp, M-5 engine. In 1926 M. G r o m o v a s the p ilot and E. R o d zev ich a s the fligh t en gin eer, in a R-3 plane ca lle d P r o le t a r ii c a r r ie d out a fligh t w hich at that tim e w as an outstanding feat. T hey sta rted fr o m M oscow on 31 August and retu rn ed on 2 S eptem ber, having flow n the rou te M o s c o w - K o n ig sb e r g - B e r lin - P a r is R om e-V ien n a-W arsaw -M oscow , i.e., 7000km in 34 h ou rs fly in g tim e. On that fligh t the plane had a c r u isin g sp e e d o f 200kph. G r o m o v ’ s fligh t ca u sed a sen sa tio n in Europe. In A ugust 1927, a ls o in a R-3 plane, nam ed Our Reply, Shestakov a s the pilot, with flight e n g in eer Fufaev, flew the rou te M osco w - T ok y o- M o sco w , about 22,000km, in 153 h ou rs flyin g tim e. T h is w as an ou tstan ding a ch ie v e ­ m ent and c h a r a c te r iz e d not on ly the high le v e l o f the b u ild e r s o f a ir c r a ft and en gin es, but a ls o the cu ltu re o f prod u ction which e n su re d a high d e g r e e o f Samolet No. 8 , p. 12, 1924.

r e lia b ilit y in the o p era tio n o f all p a rts o f the a ir c r a ft and e n g in e s and the sk ill o f the co u n try ’ s p ilots. G r o m o v with a gro u p o f c o r r e s p o n d e n ts o f M oscow n e w sp a p e r s c a r r ie d out a fligh t in 1929 in a th ree-en gin ed ANT-9, sea tin g ten p e r s o n s , v isitin g the c a p ita ls o f E uropean cou n tries, landing in B erlin, P a ris, H om e, London and W arsaw . The length o f th is fligh t w as 9000 km, a v e r a g e sp e e d w as 180kph. The en tire S oviet and w orld p r e s s ga v e the h igh est p r a is e fo r plane and pilot. A fter that the plane w as put into s e r ia l produ ction . F o r s e v e r a l y e a r s it w as u sed on the r o u te s o f the C iv il A ir F leet. A trium ph o f S oviet aviation w as the fligh t o f p ilo ts Shestakov and B olotov, n av iga tor S terligov , and e n g in e e r Fufaev in a m e ta l a irpla n e A N T-4, c a lle d Soviet Land, fr o m M o sco w to New Y ork in the fa ll o f 1929. Although th is fligh t took m o r e than a m onth b e c a u se out o f a tota l length o f the rou te o f 21,500 km, 8000 km w er e o v e r the o ce a n and m uch tim e w as spent on r e p la c in g the w h eel-type landing g e a r by floa ts, th is w as the f ir s t fligh t o f Soviet fly e r s in a S oviet plane with a S oviet en gin e to A m erica . Thus it w as an outstanding ach ievem en t. The flig h ts o f Soviet a v ia to r s in v a r io u s p la n es o f Soviet m an u factu re w e r e a strin gen t test, and th ey p ro v ed that S oviet te ch n ica l thinking and p rod u ction know-how did not la g behind the West. Now e m e r g e d the p r o b le m o f s e le c tin g fo r m a s s p rod u ction th o se p la n es and en gin es o f S oviet d e sig n w hich had w ith stood the te s ts . T h is w as v e r y im portan t fo r d efen se. In 1927 in its appeal nT o a ll o r g a n iza tio n s o f the VKP(b), to a ll w o r k e r s and p e a sa n ts”the C en tra l C o m m itte e o f the P a rty said : ,fIt is n e c e s s a r y to im p r o v e s o c ia lis t industry, r a is e p ro d u ctiv ity o f lab or, r e s o lu te ly c a r r y out s o c ia lis t ra tio n a liza tio n o f prod u ction , im p r o v e a gricu ltu re, im p r o v e and stren gth en tra n sp ort, it is n e c e s s a r y to r a is e and d ev elo p the m ilita r y in du stry fo r the d e fe n se o f the country. . . ”* A m ong the k ey n otes to the "D e fe n s e Sunday,”o r g a n iz e d in 1927, the C en tra l C o m m itte e o f the P arty in clu ded the a p p ea ls: "L e t u s build up the m ilita r y in d u stry ’ . We w ill g iv e e n tire units o f p la n es and ta n k s’ . We w ill r a is e the output o f r if l e s and m ach in e g u n s ’ . T he S oviet land m ust b e c o m e an im p regn a b le fo r tr e ss '. ” "W o r k e r s and peasants'. Join the ranks o f Osoaviakhim'. H elp defen d the S oviet Union in an o r g a n iz e d manner'.”** T ow ard the end o f the tw en ties con d ition s w e r e fa v o ra b le fo r the b ro a d d ev elop m en t o f the prod u ction o f a irp la n es, en gin es, in stru m en ts, and o f new a ir c r a ft m a teria ls. The p r o b le m o f bu ild in g a p o w erfu l a ir c r a ft in d u stry had to be so lv e d in all its r a m ifica tio n s. It w as s o lv e d in the y e a r s o f the F ir s t F iv e- Y ea r Plan.

* KPSS o vooruzhennykh silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza (The CPSU on the Armed Forces o f the Soviet Union).— Moskva), Gospolitizdat, p. 295. 1958. ** Ibid, p. 297.

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2.

S O V IE T P L A N E S, S O V IE T ENGINES

In the years o f the prewar five-year plans a powerful aircraft industry was created in the Soviet Union thanks to the unstinting efforts o f the Party, the government and all the people. The Red Air Fleet was com pletely equipped with Soviet-made machines. Modern plants were built, research institutes and design offices were organized, and scientists, designers and aviation specialists were trained. On the basis of m odem scien ce and technology new types of fighter, attack and bomber aircraft were developed and put into serial production in the early forties. The war found the aircraft industry engaged in developing mass production o f modern types.

Although at the begin n in g o f the F ir s t F iv e- Y ea r Plan the S oviet a ir c r a ft in d u stry had a lrea d y c o m p le te ly abandoned the cop y in g o f ca p tu red p la n es and p rod u ction under lic e n s e , and had changed o v e r to the p ro d u ctio n o f R u ssia n a ircra ft, en gin es and in stru m en ts, the ch ief ta sk in the F iv e - Y e a r Plan w as im p ro v em en t and p rep a ra tio n o f m a s s produ ction . In June 1929 in its r e so lu tio n "On the state o f d e fe n se o f the USSR" the C en tra l C o m m itte e o f the P a rty noted: "It m ust be co n ce d e d that one o f the m o st im portan t r e s u lt s o f the past fiv e y e a r s is the c re a tio n o f a Red a ir fleet. An im portan t ta sk in the c o m in g y e a r s in bu ildin g up the R ed aviation w ill be a rapid im p ro v em en t o f its quality to the le v e l o f the m o st advanced b o u r g e o is co u n tries, and e v e r y e ffo rt m ust be m ade to plant the s e e d s , cultivate and d ev elo p our own, S oviet s c ie n t ific and d e sig n c a d r e s, e s p e c ia lly in en gin e c o n s tr u c tio n ."* Under th e se c ir c u m s ta n c e s it w as found that the F iv e- Y ea r Plan o f E c o n o m ic D evelopm en t p ro v id ed fa v o ra b le con d ition s fo r c o n s id e r a b ly in c r e a s in g the d e fen se poten tia l o f the USSR. D uring the p r e v io u s fiv e y e a r s fir m o rg a n iza tio n a l fou ndations o f the a rm y w ere laid; now the m o st urgent ta sk w as the crea tio n o f a m od ern b a se of m ilita r y tech n ology. The C en tra l C o m m ittee o f the P arty found it c o r r e c t and tim e ly "to d e v e lo p on a broa d fron t the w ork o f stren gth en in g and im p ro v in g the te ch n ica l equ ipm en t o f the arm y. At the begin n in g o f the F ir s t F iv e- Y ea r Plan both d e sig n c e n t e r s o f the coun try w e r e c o n s id e r a b ly stren gth en ed : TsAGI, w hich w as h eaded by A. N. T upolev, and the D esig n B ureau headed by N. N. P olik arp ov. In the e a rly th ir tie s T u p o le v ’ s d e sig n o ffic e w as re m o v e d fr o m T sA G I and e s ta b lish e d a s an independent ex p erim en ta l and d e sig n orga n iza tion . T sA G I continued with s c ie n t ific r e s e a r c h w hile T u p olev's d e sig n o f f ic e w ork ed out new ty p e s o f a ircra ft. T u p olev attra cted and tra in ed an e n tire g ro u p o f s c ie n t is t s : A. A. A rkhan gel'skii, V. M. M yasish ch ev, V. M. Petlyakov, A. I. P utilov, P. O. Sukhoi and oth ers. L a ter on they th e m s e lv e s d e v e lo p e d and d e sig n ed new ty p e s o f a ircra ft. * KPSS o vooruzhennykh silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza (The CPSU on the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union), p. 320. ** Ibid., p. 319.

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T u p olev 's d e sig n o ffic e s p e c ia liz e d in bu ild in g m u ltien gin ed du ral b o m b e r s and p a s s e n g e r plan es. P o lik a rp o v 's o f f ic e d e sig n ed new figh ter m o d e ls. A p p rox im a tely fo r ten y e a r s Soviet figh ter units w er e equ ipped a lm o st e x c lu s iv e ly with h is m ach in es. In addition to the pow erfu l o f f ic e s h eaded by T u p olev and P o lik a rp o v th ere w e r e a ls o s m a lle r d e sig n o ffic e s. A tea m headed by D. P. G r ig o r o v ic h w ork ed on ty p e s o f en gin es su ita ble fo r figh te rs. S om e o f them , e . g . , 1-2 and I-2B, w e r e p ro d u ced in sm a ll qu an tities during the la te tw en ties. In the U kraine K. A. K alinin d e sig n ed and su p e r v is e d c o n stru ctio n o f the K-5 p a s s e n g e r plane. A. S. Y akovlev's d e sig n o ffic e w ork ed on lo w - p ow ered plan es. P ro d u ctio n o f the fo llo w in g e n gin es a ls o w as in trod u ced : M-22, radial, a ir - c o o le d , 480hp and M-17, w a te r- co o le d , 500hp. By 1930 the b a s ic ty p es o f a ir c r a ft and a ir c ra ft en gin es had been te ste d in o p era tio n and w er e b ein g p ro d u ced in S oviet plan ts fr o m S oviet m a te r ia ls by the hands o f S oviet w o r k e r s and tech n icia n s. The a rm y a ir f o r c e r e c e iv e d sm a ll n u m b ers o f 1-3 figh ter p la n es and R-5 r e c o n n a is sa n c e plan es, d e sig n e d by P olik arp ov, and TB-1 b o m b e rs, d e sig n ed by T upolev. P r o to ty p e s o f new and im p ro v ed ty p e s o f com ba t a ir c ra ft w er e b ein g p r e p a r e d fo r s e r ia l prod u ction . One o f the f ir s t S oviet figh ters, the 1-3, a w ooden biplane, w as built as e a r ly a s 1927. With a M-17 en gin e it d ev elo p e d a sp e e d o f 280kph. Its a rm a m en t c o n s is te d o f two m ach in e guns. A ltogeth er fou r hundred p la n es o f th is type w e r e prod u ced . The 1-5, p ro d u ce d in 1930, w as a fu rth er d ev elop m en t of the biplane. It w as a light, m an eu v era b le figh ter p o w ered by a M-22 engine, with a s p e e d o f 286kph. It w as a ls o a rm ed with two m ach in e guns. The 1-5 w as p ro d u ced in l a r g e r n u m bers, about eigh t hundred. P o lik a rp o v 's ou tstan ding d esign , the tw o - se a te r R-5 r e c o n n a is s a n c e plane, p o w ered by a M-17 engine, w as w id ely u sed by the a rm y a ir fo r c e . T h is w ooden biplan e with fa b ric w ing c o v e r in g and plyw ood fu se la g e skin p ro v e d e x ce p tio n a lly s u c c e s s fu l. F o r its tim e it had an e x ce lle n t m ax im u m speed , 230kph. The w in gs w e r e con n ected by N -shaped str e a m lin e d str u ts and s t e e l b ra cin g. The u pper wing w as fix ed to the w ing ce n te r sectio n , m ounted on the fu se la g e by two p a ir s o f d rop -sh aped , c r o s s s e ctio n e d stru ts. The a e ro d y n a m ica lly refin ed shape red u ced r e s is ta n c e , y ie ld in g e x ce lle n t m ech a n ica l and flyin g c h a r a c te r is t ic s . The R-5 was. an outstanding com b in a tion o f adaptability to fu lfill ta c tic a l ta sk s, r e lia b ilit y and te c h n o lo g ic a l d esign , g o o d sta b ility and d ir ig ib ility , s im p lic it y o f p ilo tin g and opera tion . F ligh t t e s t s o f the R-5 began in 1928, and in 1931 s e r ia l p rod u ction o f the plane began. Within six y e a r s about sev en thousand p la n es o f d ifferen t v e r s io n s w e r e built. The S oviet a ir f o r c e r e c e iv e d a sp len d id r e c o n n a is sa n c e plane w hich had no equal anyw here in the w orld. In S ep tem b er 1930 a g ro u p o f R-5 p la n es e x c e lle d in c a r r y in g out a fligh t on the ro u te Mo s co w - A n k a r a - T b ilisi- T e h e r a n - T e rm e z - K a b u lT ash k en t-O ren bu rg-M o scow . The d ista n ce o f 10,500 km w as c o v e r e d in 61 h ou rs 30 m in u tes flyin g tim e, at an a v e r a g e s p e e d o f 171 kph. At that tim e the Iranian gov ern m en t is s u e d an in tern ation al ten d er fo r r e c o n n a is s a n c e a ir c ra ft fo r the Iranian a ir fo r c e . In co m p e titio n flig h ts the R-5 w on f ir s t p la ce, ou tstrip p in g the b e st B ritish , French, and Dutch a ircra ft. The R-5 w as w id ely u sed in m ilita r y and c iv il aviation fo r m any y e a r s, in clu d in g th o se o f W orld W ar II. A fter having flow n fo r a lo n g tim e

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and having been u sed fo r v a r io u s p u r p o se s, the plane w as even tu ally s u p e r se d e d by another e x ce lle n t a ir c ra ft d e sig n e d by P olik arp ov , the U-2 (Po-2). The b a s ic v e r s io n o f the R-5 a s r e c o n n a is sa n c e plane o r light b o m b e r c a r r ie d th r e e m ach in e gu n s and could take on 500 kg o f bom bs. O ther m ilita r y v e r s io n s w er e the s e a r e c o n n a is sa n c e plane fitted with floats, the R-5Sh attack plane with sev en m ach in e guns and the m o d e r n iz e d v e r s io n with c o v e r e d cock p it, the R-Z. C iv il aviation u sed w id ely the P-5 and P-5a m a il and p a s s e n g e r v e r s io n s. In 1934 R-5 p la n es p a rticip a te d in sa v in g the m e m b e r s o f the C h elyuskin expedition . The p ilo ts in th e ir twos e a t e r s took o ff f r o m the ic e with fiv e o f six p a s s e n g e r s on board. In 1925 T u p olev 's plane TB-1 (ANT-4) underw ent te s t s ; th is w as the fir s t S oviet-bu ilt h eavy b o m b e r and one o f the la r g e s t p la n es built in the tw en ties. The o v e r a ll d e sig n o f th is plane w as a v e r ita b le r e v e la tio n to w o r ld aviation. The TB-1 w as an a ll- m e ta l m onoplan e p o w ered by tw o M-17 w a te r- co o le d , w ind-m ounted en gin es. The m ain innovations w e r e the ca n tile v e r wing with fiv e s p a r s and c o rr u g a te d d u ral c o v e r in g and its th ick p r o file . A n aly sist and d e sig n o f the w ing w e r e the w ork o f V. M. P etlyak ov who s u c c e e d e d in e n su rin g high stren gth and r ig id ity o f that la r g e w ing w h ose span w as 28.7 m. The low w in gs m ad e it p o s s ib le to em p lo y a co m p a r a tiv e ly s m a ll landing g e a r with w ide track. By fillin g the th ick w ing with a la r g e amount o f fuel, the d e s ig n e r s endow ed the a ir c r a ft with ou tstan ding load ca p a city and range. With a m axim u m ta k e- o ff w eight o f about 7.8 tons, the TB-1 cou ld c a r r y a payload o f 3.5 tons. The n o rm a l w eight o f b o m b s w as 1000kg and the ra n ge w as then 1350km. The plane had a g o o d speed , 200 kph. It c a r r ie d a c re w o f fou r and its d e fen siv e a rm am en t c o n s is te d o f fou r m ach in e guns. The TB-1 w as the fir s t plane to be fitted with b o o s te r s , which c o n s id e r a b ly re d u ce d the ta k e-off d ista n ce and fa cilita ted lift- o ff o f the o v e r lo a d e d a ircra ft. B etw een 1928 and 1932 the TB-1 w as s e r ie s - p r o d u c e d in land and sea p la n e v e r s io n s. It m ark ed the beginn in g o f a new e r a in the d ev elop m en t o f heavy a ir c r a ft and is c o n s id e r e d a s the f ir s t gen uin e b om b er. S im ila rly , all heavy, n on m a n eu vera ble a ir c r a ft (bom bers and tr a n sp o rt plan es) w ere built a s m on op la n es with ca n tile v e r w ings. A lo g ic a l d ev elop m en t fr o m the d e sig n o f the TB-1 w as the g ig a n tic b o m b e r type TB-3 (ANT-6), f ir s t built in 1930 and s e r ie s - p r o d u c e d fr o m 1932 to 1937. T h is plane w as a fou r-en gined, ca n tile v e r- w in g e d m onoplane. The fou r e n gin es (first M-17, then M-34) w e r e m ounted on c o n s o le t r u s s e s on the lea d in g e d g e o f the w ings, tw o on ea ch sid e o f the fu se la g e . The w ings, fu se la g e and ta il unit w ere m ade fr o m duralum in; the fix ed landing gea r, en gin e t r u s s e s and oth er p a r ts fr o m ste e l; the ou ter c o v e r in g o f the en tire a ir c r a ft w as, a s b efo re, co rr u g a te d duralum in. C o m p a re d with the TB-1, the w ing span w as a lm o st h alf a s la r g e , attaining the e n o rm o u s m agnitude o f 40.5 m, and the w ing a r ea w as d ou bled to 230 m 2. D urin g d ev elop m en t and p ro d u ctio n T u p olev im p ro v e d th e d e sig n o f the a ir c r a ft and in c r e a s e d the en gin e pow er. He th ereb y s u c c e e d e d in r a is in g the ta k e- off w eight o f the TB-3 to 19 — 21 to n s and the sp e e d to 288 kph, ea ch en gin e p ro v id in g 970hp. The TB-3 cou ld c a r r y 5 ton s o f b om bs. With a bom b load o f 2 ton s the TB-3 had a ra n ge o f a lm o st 2500km. It had a c re w o f eight, its d e fen siv e a rm a m en t w as eight m ach in e guns. D uring the m id - th ir tie s the USSR w as the on ly cou n try m a s s p ro d u cin g such huge a ir c r a ft a s the TB-3. T u p olev h im s e lf s u p e r v is e d the p re p a r a tio n s fo r produ ction , having b een nom inated ch ief e n g in e e r o f the a d m in istra tion

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o f the a ir c ra ft in d u stry o f the P e o p l e d C o m m is s a r ia t of H eavy Industry. The TB-1 and TB-3 had a d e c is iv e in flu en ce on the fu rth er d ev elop m en t o f b o m b e r a ircra ft, both in the Soviet Union and abroad, e s p e c ia lly in the United States. T h ese b o m b e r s b la zed the tr a il fo r bu ildin g heavy lan dplan es and they p r ed eterm in ed for many y e a r s the m o st ra tion a l con figu ration . In th e ten y e a r s p r e c e d in g the w ar the S oviet b o m b e r f o r c e w as su p p lied with 216 TB-1 and 818 TB-3 plan es. They w e r e a ls o u sed in c iv il aviation a s tra n sp o rt p la n es (G-l and G-2) fo r heavy and bulky load s, e s p e c ia lly th eir a r c t ic v ersio n . In an AN T-4 p ilo t A. V. L y a p id ev sk ii r e s c u e d the f ir s t g ro u p of the C h elyuskin crew in 1934. In 1937 I. D. Papanin's ex p ed ition to the North P o le took p la c e in fou r A N T-6 plan es. M a ss prod u ction o f a ir c r a ft r e q u ir e d the p ro d u ctio n b a se to be e n la rg e d and new, la r g e a irc ra ft plants to be built; the C en tra l C o m m itte e o f the P arty th e r e fo r e adopted a r e so lu tio n on the bu ildin g o f la r g e a ircra ft, en gin e and in stru m en t plants. By 1933 th e se plants, which had been sta rted at the begin n in g o f the F ir s t F iv e- Y ea r Plan, a lrea d y su p p lied a ir c r a ft in la r g e n u m b ers: the 1-5 figh ter, the R-5 r e c o n n a is sa n c e plane, and the TB-3 bom ber. The a ir c r a ft in du stry g rew out o f the in d u stria l b a se o f the country, a ss im ila tin g its fo r e m o s t a ch iev em en ts, m ain ly in the fie ld s o f f e r r o u s and n o n ferro u s m eta llu rgy, ra d io and e le c t r ic a l en gin eerin g, m e ch a n ica l en gin eerin g, in stru m en t m anufacture, and ch e m istry . The qu alitative and quantitative le v e l o f aviation at that tim e w as th e r e fo r e a lu cid r e fle c tio n o f the grow th o f the en tire national econ om y. The country, how ever, cou ld not r e s t s a tis fie d with its a ch iev em en ts. The r e so lu tio n of the 16th P a rty C o n g r e s s noted with s a tisfa c tio n the h eightened figh ting e ffic ie n c y o f the Red Arm y. On the oth er hand the c o n g r e s s pointed em p h a tica lly to "the n e c e s s it y o f co n ce n tra tin g the P a r ty ’ s attention on an even g r e a te r m o b iliz a tio n o f a ll the f o r c e s o f the w ork in g c la s s and the m a s s o f sm a ll and m ediu m p e a sa n ts upon stren gth en in g the d efen se poten tial o f the USSR, the p ow er and figh ting e ffic ie n c y o f the Red A rm y, Navy and A ir F o r c e . "* The fu rth er stren gth en in g o f the d e fen se poten tial o f the cou n try r e q u ir e d even g r e a t e r a ctiv ity o f the b r o a d e st m a s s e s o f w ork e rs. The r e so lu tio n o f the C en tra l C o m m itte e "T en Y ea rs o f D e fe n se " said that it is e s s e n tia l " to turn the attention of the w ork in g p e o p le to the p r o b le m s o f bu ild in g c iv il aviation, a ir sh ip con stru ction , m ech a n iza tion and m o to r iz a tio n o f the W ork ers' and P easan ts' Red A r m y ," and to "stre n g th e n in g the o rg a n iza tio n o f O soa v ia k h im (cadres, grow th, m a te ria l ba se, e tc . ) . " * * The n e c e s s it y o f con sta n tly im p r o v in g aviation tech n iq u es r e q u ir e d a b ro a d d ev elop m en t o f s c ie n t ific r e s e a r c h in aviation. TsAGI, w h ere r e s e a r c h on a ero d y n a m ics, aviation m a te ria ls, and a ir c r a ft e n g in e s w as c a r r ie d out, w as a u n iv e r sa l s c ie n t if ic o r g a n iza tio n in it s field, and it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y to sp lit it up into independent s p e c ia liz e d r e s e a r c h in stitu tes. In addition to the S p e c ia l D e sig n B ureau under ch ie f d e s ig n e r T upolev, two oth er d ep a rtm en ts a ls o left T sA G I and b e c a m e independent. The d epa rtm en t o f aviation m a te r ia ls b e c a m e the A ll-U nion Insitute o f * KPSS o vooruzhennykh silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza (The CPSU on the Armed Forces o f the Soviet Union), p. 322. ** Ibid., p. 328.

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A viation M a teria ls (VIAM) and the a ir c r a ft engine d epartm ent b e c a m e the C en tra l Institute o f A ir c r a ft Engine C o n stru ctio n (TsIAM). Within an e x ce e d in g ly sh ort tim e th e se o r g a n iza tio n s attained a high s c ie n t ific lev el. The q u estion o f p e r so n n e l w as o f d e c is iv e im p o rta n ce fo r the plants, in stitu tes and a ll o th er in stitu tion s o f the a ir c r a ft industry. T h e re w as a sh o rta g e o f p r e r e v o lu tio n a r y s p e c ia lis t s a s w e ll a s o f young gra d u a te s o f the M ilita ry A viation A cadem y. M ost gra d u a te s o f the a ca d e m y jo in e d the flight units o f the a ir fo r ce . In 1930 MAI w as founded. Within a sh ort tim e it b e c a m e on e o f the b est in stitu tion s o f h igh er lea rn in g in the country; it tra in ed aviation e n g in e e r s fo r the m o st d iv e r s ifie d fie ld s. When su m m in g up the r e s u lt s o f the F ir s t F iv e- Y ea r Plan, the P arty p rou d ly noted the s u c c e s s a ch iev ed in the bu ildin g o f the a ir c r a ft industry. The r e so lu tio n o f the join t s e s s io n o f the C en tra l C o m m itte e and the C en tra l C o n tro l C o m m is s io n of 10 January 1933 m en tion ed am ong the g ig a n tic e n gin eerin g w ork s the a ir c r a ft and a ir c ra ft en gin e plan ts in M oscow , Gorki, V oronezh, S ib e r ia .* The r e so lu tio n o f the 17th P arty C o n g r e s s (January— F eb ru a ry 1934) counted the bu ildin g o f a ir c ra ft and a ir c r a ft en gin e plants, one o f the new b ra n ch es o f prod u ction , as one o f the p a r tic u la r ly g r e a t s u c c e s s e s o f industry. ** A s a r e su lt aviation w as able to d e v e lo p fu rth er qu antitatively and qu alitatively. D uring the S econ d F iv e-Y ea r Plan (1933 — 37) the a ir c r a ft in d u stry a cq u ired a ll the n e c e s s a r y s c ie n t ific know-how, b a se d on h igh ly tra in ed p e r so n n e l and p ow erfu l p rod u ction w hich in c r e a s e d in s iz e e v e r y y e a r as new plan ts w e r e built. A ircra ft plants w e r e planned by a s p e c ia l p r o je c t in stitute which had been o r g a n ize d within the fra m e w ork o f the a ir c ra ft industry. W h erever it w as p o s s ib le , prod u ction o f a ir c r a ft and e n g in e s w as o r g a n ize d in flow lin e s and on co n v ey o r belts. P r e s s in g and ca stin g o f p a r ts w er e in trod u ced on a la r g e sca le . T h is led to a c o n s id e r a b le in c r e a s e in the p ro d u ctiv ity o f la b o r and output. S im ultaneously, ow ing to the a ch iev em en ts o f the r e s e a r c h in stitu tes and d e sig n o ffic e s, the fligh t and ta c tic a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f the a ir c ra ft w er e a ls o g r e a tly im proved . Until the m id - th irtie s the USSR d ev elo p ed both heavy, n onm aneu ver able m on op la n es with fix ed landing g e a r and c o rr u g a te d skin (bom bers TB-1, TB-3, and p a s s e n g e r planes) and light m an eu vera ble b ip la n e s (fighters and r e c o n n a is sa n c e planes). In the m id d le th ir tie s a d e c is iv e and final ch a n ge­ o v e r fr o m b ip la n es to m on op la n es took pla ce. T h is w as b e c a u se o f the a ch iev em en ts o f a ero d y n a m ics, m e ch a n ics and en gin e con stru ction , a ccu r a te m eth od s o f s t r e s s a n a ly sis, and the in trodu ction o f new h igh -stren gth m a teria ls. F o r s o m e tim e m an eu v era b le b ip la n e s s till e x is te d in the figh ter f o r c e to g e th e r with fa st m on op la n es, but by the end o f the th ir tie s the only b ip la n es built w e r e the U-2 tra in in g planes. The ch a n geov er to m on op la n es with ca n tile v e r w in gs w as an im portan t sta ge in the te c h n ica l p r o g r e s s o f a ir c r a ft con stru ction . The m on oplan e is a e r o dyn am ic ally s u p e r io r to the biplane, but at fly in g s p e e d s o f 200 kph — 250kph th is advantage is sm a ll. F u rth er the su fficie n tly r ig id and str o n g * KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh i resheniyakh s” ezdov, konferentsii i plenum ov TsK (The CP5U in Resolutions and Decisions o f Congresses, Conferences, and Plenary Session), Part II, p. 719. Moskva, Gospolitizdat. 1953. ** Ibid., p. 745.

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a ir f o ils in the fo r m o f the biplane c e ll have a sm a ll span and a re s im p le in produ ction . As flyin g sp eed in crea sed , the a ero d y n a m ic advan tages o f the m onoplan e b e c a m e m o r e predom inant, and new a ir cra ft w e r e built in c r e a s ­ in gly as m on oplan es. At fir s t m on op la n es w ere p ro v id ed with b ra cin g o r in clin ed stru ts, taking s o m e s t r e s s o ff the w ings; but b r a cin g and in clin ed stru ts, p la c ed in the air strea m , ca u sed c o n s id e r a b le head r e s is ta n c e . A s s t r e s s a n a ly sis w as p e r fe c te d and e x p e r ie n c e in d e sig n w as gained, fa st m on op la n es with ca n tilev er w in gs w ere built, w h ere the w in gs had no ou ter su p p orts. An im portan t fa cto r w as the in c r e a s e d w ing loading: 140kg/m 2— 170kg/m 2 in stead o f 70 k g/m 2— 100 k g/m 2 in m on op la n es around 1930. Although lead in g speed, ta k e-off d ista n ce and landing d ista n ce have in c r e a s e d g rea tly , a s e r io u s d ete r io r a tio n in ta k e-off and landing c h a r a c t e r is t ic s w as a v erted by the in trodu ction o f brake w h eels and h igh -lift d e v ic e s (flaps and slats). F lyin g sp eed w as in c r e a s e d by red u ced r e la tiv e w ing th ic k n e ss and the a p p lica tion o f b icon v ex p r o file s ; str ea m lin ed f u s e la g e s and c lo s e d co ck p its; f ille t s to r e d u c e the d e le t e r io u s in te r fe r e n c e at the join t o f w in gs and fu se la g e ; u se o f sm ooth, th ick wing c o v e r in g (plywood o r m etal) in stead o f the thin c o rr u g a te d c o v e r in g on heavy p la n es and fa b r ic c o v e r in g on ligh t plan es. By coun tersu nk rivetin g, the u se o f sh eet butt join ts, the p o lish in g o f the co v erin g, the a ero d y n a m ic fr ic tio n d ra g w as g r e a tly redu ced . One o f the m o st im portant a ch iev em en ts o f a e ro d y n a m ics w as the solu tion o f the p r o b le m o f r e tr a ctin g the landing g e a r in flight. The r e s is t a n c e o f a fixed landing g e a r r e p r e s e n t s twenty to tw en ty-five p e rce n t o f the total r e s is t a n c e of the a ircra ft. The d e s ig n e r s th e r e fo r e en d ea v ored to r e tr a c t the landing g e a r c o m p le te ly o r p a rtly in flight, even at the p r ic e o f a c erta in in c r e a s e in the w eight o f the a ir c ra ft (by one to tw o p ercen t and a m o r e c o m p lica ted d esign . T his p r o b le m w as p r a c tic a lly so lv e d in 1935—36. The f ir s t sta g e w as a fix ed c a n tile v e r landing g e a r with sp a ts (reducing the d ra g o f the landing g e a r by about th irty percent), then the m ain stru ts w e r e re tra cted , and fin a lly a ls o the ta il w h eel w hich r e p la c e d the skid. A fu lly r e tr a c ta b le lan din g g e a r m eant an in c r e a s e of fifteen to twenty p e rce n t in m axim u m flyin g sp e e d without in c r e a s in g engine pow er. F lyin g sp eed w as a lso in c r e a s e d by the in trodu ction o f co w lin g fo r e n g in es and r a d ia to r s. On a ir - c o o le d en gin es w here the cy lin d e r h ea d s p ro tru d e into th e a ir s tr e a m they w er e c o v e r e d with n arrow p r o file d str e a m lin e d r in g s (Townend rings), w hich red u ced drag. Then s p e c ia l c o w ls w e r e d e sig n ed w hich red u ced d ra g even m ore. On liq u id - co o le d en gin es the n o se ra d ia to r s, which w ere situated im m o v a b ly in the a ir strea m , w er e r e p la ce d by slid in g r a d ia to r s w h ose a r ea cou ld be re d u c e d with in c r e a s in g flyin g sp e e d when the c o o lin g action b e c a m e m o r e in ten sive. The next ste p w as d u cted ra d ia to rs, with the d u cts lo ca te d in the w in gs, the fu sela ge, o r the en gin e n a celle. All th e se m e a s u r e s r ed u ced d ra g by on e-th ird to one-half. F lyin g sp e e d in c r e a s e d by tw enty to th irty p ercen t with en g in e s o f equ al pow er. The a p p ea ra n ce o f co n tro lla b le - p itc h p r o p e lle r s a lso m eant a qu alitative im p ro v em en t in a ir c r a ft con stru ction . The fix ed - p itch p r o p e lle r s , u sed until the th irties, w e r e d e sig n ed fo r s o m e d efin ite flyin g con d ition s. Under d ifferen t flyin g con d ition s the e ffic ie n c y o f the p r o p e lle r w as red u ced . At

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flyin g s p e e d s o f 200kph — 250kph the l o s s e s w e r e sm a ll, but with in c r e a s in g s p e e d s the d iffe r e n c e betw een m axim u m and ta k e- off sp e e d in cr e a se d , and th is ca u se d a c o n s id e r a b le in c r e a s e in l o s s o f th ru st o f the p ow er plant. The f ir s t solu tion w as a tw o-pitch p r o p e lle r w h ose b la d e s cou ld be a dju sted to a s m a ll pitch fo r ta k e- o ff and clim b in g and to a la r g e pitch fo r m ax im u m flyin g speed . Then a pp ea red p r o p e lle r s with con tin u ou sly a d ju sta b le pitch, c o n tro lle d by a s p e c ia l lev e r, and fin a lly a u tom atic p r o p e lle r s w h ose b la d e s a re a u tom atically adju sted su ch that the en gin e ru n s at the m o st advan tageou s sp eed a ll the tim e. Although c o n tro lla b le pitch p r o p e lle r s a re c o n s id e r a b ly h ea v ier and m o r e c o m p lic a te d than fix ed - p itch p r o p e lle r s , they w er e u sed in h ig h - sp eed a ir c r a ft b e c a u s e m ax im u m sp e e d in c r e a s e d by sev en to ten percen t, the c e ilin g by eigh teen to tw enty p ercen t, ta k e-off th ru st by fo rty to fo rty - fiv e percen t, and ra n ge and ra te o f c lim b a ls o in cr e a se d . T ech n ica l p r o g r e s s o f aviation w as bound up with the in c r e a s e in m a x im u m -p ow er altitude and engine pow er. The p o w e r o f p isto n en g in e s is g r e a tly re d u c e d at e x tr e m e altitudes, b e c a u se the d en sity o f the a ir is redu ced . E n gin es w er e th e r e fo r e p ro v id ed with s in g le - s t a g e o r tw o - sta g e s u p e r c h a r g e r s , in c r e a s in g the p r e s s u r e o f a tm o sp h e r ic a ir b e fo r e it en tered the c y lin d ers. Thus it w as p o s s ib le to m aintain en gin e p o w e r up to the ra ted altitude. S u p erch a rged en gin es a ls o r a is e d the m axim u m flyin g speed. Further, the p o s s ib ilit y o f en gagin g the s u p e r c h a r g e r low above the ground m ad e it p o s s ib le to b o o st the en gin e fo r a sh ort tim e in c a s e o f need (difficult ta k e- o ff con d ition s, a e r ia l com bat at low altitude). D uring the late th ir tie s en gin e pow er w as ra p id ly in cr e a se d , to g e th e r with a red u ctio n in the s p e c if ic w eight o f the en gin es. The p o w er o f s e r ie s p ro d u ced en gin es r o s e fr o m 700hp o r 800hp to 2000hp and the s p e c if ic w eight d rop p ed fr o m 0.9kg/hp to l e s s than 0.5kg/hp, i. e., a lm o st by onehalf. At the sa m e tim e c o n s id e r a b le s u c c e s s w as ach ieved in re d u cin g the s p e c if ic d im e n sio n s o f the en gin es. All th is con tribu ted to in c r e a s e d speed , c e ilin g and ra n ge o f Soviet a ircra ft. The m otto o f the Soviet gov ern m en t to Mfly highest, fu rth est and fa s t e s t " m et with an en th u sia stic r e s p o n s e fr o m s c ie n t is ts , d e s ig n e r s and e m p lo y e e s o f the a ir c ra ft industry. New a ir c r a ft con sta n tly app ea red on the ex p e rim e n ta l a ir fie ld s: 1-15, 1-16, SB, DB-3, AN T-25 and oth er outstanding m a ch in es with which the S oviet a v ia to r s en su red a n u m ber o f the h igh est a e r ia l a ch ie v e m e n ts fo r the S oviet Union. In 1933— 34 P o lik a rp o v d e sig n ed and c o n str u cte d a m an eu v era b le biplan e figh ter, the 1-15, with m axim u m sp eed o f 360 kph, and a m on oplan e fig h te r 1-16 with r e tr a cta b le landing g ea r, having a m axim u m sp e e d o f 454 kph. Both p la n es w er e p o w ered by a a ir - c o o le d r a d ia l M-25 engine, 715 hp, with a w e ll- d e sig n e d cow lin g and c o n tro lla b le - p itch p r o p e lle r . The a ir c ra ft w as o f m ix ed d esign , ty p ic a lly P olik a rp ov : wood, s t e e l p ip es, can va s skin, and in lim ite d am ounts duralum in. F o r the f ir s t tim e th e r e w as a r m o r plating behind the pilot. The a rm a m en t c o n s is te d o f two sy n ch ro n iz e d 7.62 m m m ach in e guns. The 1-15 and 1-16 a pp ea red a lm o st sim u lta n e o u sly and w e r e a ls o sim u lta n eo u sly in action. At that tim e it w as b e lie v e d that b e c a u s e o f th eir in su fficien t h orizo n ta l m an eu verability, m on op la n es w ould have to o p e r a te to g e th e r with biplan es. The f o r m e r would catch up with the en em y and p a r a ly z e h is a ctio n s w hile the la tter w ould d e s t r o y him. T h is co n ce p t

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w as m aintained until it w as put to the p r a c tic a l te s t in Spain and on the Khalkhin-Gol, w here it w as found how d ifficu lt it is to o r g a n iz e the c o o p e r a tio n o f fig h te r s o f d ifferen t ty p es under the ra p id ly changing con d ition s o f a e r ia l com bat. In 1940 new h igh -sp eed m on op la n es with pow erfu l en g in e s app eared : Yak-1, MiG-1, and LaGG-3; they w ere m uch s u p e r io r to the b e st b ip la n es in sp e e d and v e r tic a l m an eu verability, m aking the r e je c tio n o f b ip la n es final. B etw een 1934 and 1939, how ever, the 1-15 and 1-16, o f which 6519 and 6555 m ach in es (in d ifferen t v ersion s) , r e sp e c tiv e ly , had been built, r e p r e s e n te d the stren gth o f the S oviet a ir fo r ce . They both underw ent a lon g d ev elop m en t and w er e e x ce lle n t figh ter plan es. The 1-15 had outstanding m an eu verability. The tim e n eed ed to ex e cu te a turn at 1000 m w as eight se co n d s, w hich w as a r e c o r d fo r fig h te rs. The plane r e q u ir e d six m in u tes to c lim b to 5000 m and the s e r v ic e c e ilin g w as m o r e than 9000 m. R ega rd in g fligh t and tech n ica l sp e c ific a tio n s , e s p e c ia lly v e r tic a l s p e e d and h orizo n ta l m an eu vers, the 1-15 w as b e tte r than co m p a r a b le ty p es abroad. It w as c o n s id e r e d the b e s t biplan e figh ter. In N ov em b er 1935 V. K. Kokkinaki b rok e the w orld r e c o r d when he attained an alitude o f 14,575 m with a ligh ten ed 1-15. In the co n stru ctio n o f the 1-15 new m a te r ia ls w ere used, su ch a s ch ro m em olybden u m p ip e s and sh eet electro n . T h is e n su re d a c o m p a r a tiv e ly low w eight o f the a ir c ra ft while the stren gth rem a in e d su fficien t. The d e sig n o f th is plane o ffe r e d g r e a t p o s s ib ilit ie s fo r fu rth er d e v e lo p ­ ment. In 1936 the 1-15 b is with a m ax im u m sp e e d o f 370kph m ad e its appearan ce. It w as fitted with fou r sy n ch ro n ize d m ach in e guns, and unlike the 1-15 its upper w ing w as straigh t. In 1938 the 1-15 Z w as built; it had in cip ien t gu ll w in gs (and w as la ter known a s Chaika (gull)), and with its M-62 en gin e it attained 443 kph. Although it w as a biplane, the a ir c r a ft e x c e lle d b e c a u s e o f its stre a m lin e d shape and r e tr a c ta b le landing gea r. It p ro v e d its worth on the Khalkhin-Gol, w h ere fo r the fir s t tim e in addition to the fou r m ach in e guns r o ck e t m is s i l e s w er e a ls o used. The 1-15 Z w as the on ly s e r ie s - p r o d u c e d Soviet biplan e with r e tr a cta b le landing gea r, and it w as the b e st biplan e figh ter e v e r built. The 1-16 d ev elo p ed sim ila rly . P o lik a rp o v did not lik e ’ ’ tr a n sp o rtin g a i r , ” s o he d esign ed an o r ig in a l plane with m in im u m d im e n sio n s and low fly in g w eight, 1422 kg. The 1-16 w as c h a r a c te r iz e d by a stu rdy fu se la g e o f c ir c u la r c r o s s section , ’ ’ tr im m e d ”in front, and s m a ll low w ings. The plane had a w in gspan o f 9 m and w as in tota l 6 m long. The d im e n s io n s and sh ape o f the plane rem a in ed unchanged fo r y e a r s o f developm en t, on ly in the la st s e r i e s w as the cock p it fitted with a m ov a b le canopy. The 1-16 w as the f ir s t h igh -sp eed m onoplan e with r e tr a c ta b le landing g e a r and a c o n tro lla b le - p itc h p r o p e lle r a ccep ted by the S oviet a ir fo r ce . With a M-25 en gin e its sp e e d w as 170 kph g r e a t e r than the sp e e d o f the 1-5 and 90kph g r e a t e r than the sp eed o f its co n te m p o ra r y m an eu v era b le biplane, the 1-15. Its s p e e d a ls o e x c e e d e d the sp e e d o f c o n te m p o ra r y figh ter p la n es in oth er co u n trie s. In the su bsequ en t y e a r s the p o w er o f the en gin es, fitted in the 1-16, w as g ra d u a lly in c r e a s e d up to lOOOhp and th e m axim u m sp e e d o f the plane to 525 kph. New s e r i e s with m o r e p ow erfu l a rm a m en t w e r e p rod u ced . The attack plane v e r s io n o f the 1-16 cou ld c a r r y up to 200 kg o f b om bs, and its a r m o r - p la tin g w as r e in fo rc e d . A fter fou r o r fiv e y e a r s o f d evelopm en t, h ow ever, the ta k e- o ff w eigh t and w ing loa d in g in c r e a s e d by about th irty p e r c e n t som ew h at red u cin g the p la n e’ s m an eu verability. A s h o r tc o m in g o f

15

the 1-16 w as its sm a ll r e s e r v e o f sta tic stability, m aking the plane d ifficu lt to c o n tro l and r e q u ir in g high ly sk ille d p ilo ts. N e v e r th e le ss in the f ir s t y e a r o f W orld W ar II the S oviet a irm en flyin g 1-16 p la n es s e lf - s a c r if ic in g ly took on M e s s e r s c h m itt s w hich had a s u p e r io r speed. Many fa m ou s a irm en began th eir c a r e e r s in 1-16*s, in Spain, in M ongolia, at the fro n ts in W orld W ar II. A m ong them a re G. P. K ravchenko, tw ice r e cip ie n t o f the H ero o f the Soviet Union, B. F. Safonov, and A. V. V orozheikhin. The f ir s t s e r ie s - p r o d u c e d Soviet fron tlin e b o m b er w as the SB, d e sig n ed and c o n stru cte d in 1934 by Tupolev. It had tw o M-100 e n g in e s o f 860hp each, w as c o m p le te ly m ad e o f duralum in, with sm ooth co v e rin g , unlike the e a r lie r T u p olev p la n es w hich had co rru ga te d skin. M axim um sp e e d o f the SB w as 420kph, ra n ge 1000 km, bom b load 500 kg, and it c a r r ie d a c re w o f th ree. Only a y ea r after the SB the h igh -speed , lo n g - ra n g e b o m b e r DB-3, d e sig n ed by S. V. Ilyushin, m ade its a pp earan ce; it w as p o w e re d by two a ir - c o o le d M-85 en gin es. The DB-3 w as.an a ll- m eta l plane, with a stre a m lin e d fu se la g e , a m o n o co q u e o f ov a l c r o s s sectio n , at the r e a r sm o o th ly b len d in g into the keel, in front into a s e m isp h e r e . The tw o - sp a r c a n tile v e r w ing had a sm ooth du ral skin. In sid e the w in gs th e r e w e r e la r g e fu el tanks, and the w eight o f the fu el r ea ch ed a s m uch a s tw en ty-sev en p e r c e n t o f the flyin g w eight. The plane had a c re w o f th ree and its a rm am en t w as th re e m ach in e guns. The DB-3 b e c a m e the m ain S oviet lo n g - ra n g e b om b er, flyin g s u c c e s s f u lly throughout W orld War II, ren a m ed the 11-4; h ow ever, the 11-4 c le a r ly d iffe r e d fr o m the DB-3. Instead o f M-85 e n g in e s o f 765 hp each it w as fitted with M-88B en gin es o f llO O hp, and its sp e e d in c r e a s e d fr o m 320 kph to 445 kph. F o r the s a m e d ista n ce, 4000 km, the 11-4 cou ld take on 1000kg o f bom bs, i. e., tw ice as m uch as the DB-3, its ta k e - o ff w eight in c r e a s e d som ew hat, rea ch in g 10 ton s, and wing lo a d in g w as in c r e a s e d fr o m 140kg/m 2 to 150kg/m 2. E a rly in W orld W ar II, when th ere w e r e d iffic u ltie s in the su pply o f m etal, the d e s ig n e r s s u c c e e d e d in r e p la c in g s o m e o f the m eta l a s s e m b lie s o f the 11-4 with w ooden o n e s without h arm in g the fligh t p erfo rm a n ce. The 11-4 w as b etter in e v e r y r e sp e c t, e s p e c ia lly in range, than its coun terpart, the G erm an HE-111 b o m b e r which had a ran ge o f 2300km. In tota l 6784 planes, type DB-3 and 11-4, w e r e built. B e fo r e the w ar V. K. Kokkinaki e sta b lish e d s e v e r a l outstanding height r e c o r d s in a DB-3, e x ce e d in g with a load o f 500kg and 1000kg 12 km, and with a load o f 2000kg 11 km. He a ls o c a r r ie d out s e v e r a l lo n g fligh ts, the m o st fa m o u s o f which w as h is fligh t to the United States, a d ista n ce o f 8000 km. 11-4 b o m b e r s w e r e the f ir s t to ra id B erlin in August 1941. In 1932 T u p o lev ’ s d e sig n o ffic e began w ork on the ANT-25 (or RD) w hich later, in the s u m m e r o f 1937, ga in ed w orld renow n when Chkalov, B aidukov and B elyak ov flew n on stop fr o m M oscow to the United States, c o v e r in g a d ista n ce o f m o r e than 9000km in 63 h ou rs flyin g tim e. The fa m e o f the RD a ir c r a ft w as enhanced by G rom ov, Y um ashev and Danilin, who a m onth la ter rep ea ted th is feat but c o v e r e d m o r e than 11,000 km in 62 h ou rs flyin g tim e. The s u c c e s s o f the fligh t w as m ainly due to the high r e lia b ilit y o f the engine. The RD is an a ll- m eta l m onoplan e with a la r g e w ingspan, p o w e re d by one AM-34 en gin e d e sig n ed by Mikulin. T h ere w e r e a ttem pts to u se th is a ir c r a ft

16

a s a lo n g- ra n ge bom b er, but th is w as not s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e o f the plan e's low sp e e d at a p p rox im a tely 200 kph. B etw een 1930 and 1938 T u p olev s u p e r v is e d the d e sig n and c o n stru ctio n o f p r o to ty p e s o f a ll- m eta l m ultien gin ed a ircra ft, the A N T-14, A N T -16, A N T-20. An e x tr e m e ex am p le o f th is tren d in Soviet a ir c r a ft c o n stru ctio n w as the eigh t-en gin ed g ig a n tic AN T-20, c a lle d the M axim G orki, w hich m ad e its f ir s t te s t flight in June 1934, p ilo te d by M. M. G rom ov. The load c a p a city o f the M axim G ork i w as eigh ty p a s s e n g e r s , m axim u m sp e e d 280 kph, ra n ge 2000 km. During the th ir tie s S oviet aviation and its p eo p le, d e s ig n e r s and e s p e c ia lly p ilo ts, ga in ed m uch fam e, having p ro v id ed outstanding e x a m p le s o f c o u r a g e and h er o ism . In 1934 the d is a s t e r with the ic e b r e a k e r C h elyuskin o c c u r r e d . The ship w as lo s t in the A r ctic ice, and m o r e than one hundred p e r s o n s spent the w in ter in the ic y " Shmidt cam p. " The p o la r e x p lo r e r s w e r e in d ead ly danger. The w hole country, the w hole w orld w atched the r e s c u e operation . A fter th e inhabitants o f the ic e f lo e s had been flow n to the Continent, the S oviet gov ern m en t fo r the fir s t tim e b esto w ed the h igh est award, the title H ero o f the S oviet Union, on sev en a v ia to r s who had d istin g u ish ed th e m s e lv e s in the r e s c u e o f the C h elyuskin ex ped ition : L yapid evsk ii, L evan ev sk ii, M olotov, Kamanin, Slepnev, Vodop'yanov, and Doronin. T h is w as an e r a o f aviation trium ph s. At no tim e b e fo r e had aviation e v e r o c cu p ie d such a p la c e in the life o f the S oviet Union. Soviet p ilo ts en tered the w orld aren a of a e ria l com p etition . The s u c c e s s e s o f S oviet aviation w e r e founded on the c re a tiv e en d ea v o rs o f d e s ig n e r s and on the ra p id ly gro w in g a ir c ra ft industry. , On 21 May 1937 Vodop'yanov landed fo r the fir s t tim e in h isto r y in the v icin ity o f the North P ole. The popu lar S oviet p ilot V la d im ir K okkinaki e sta b lish e d s e v e r a l height r e c o r d s in Ilyushin's plan es. T h re e w om en, p ilo ts G rizo d u b o v a and O sip en k o and n a v iga tor R askova, e s ta b lis h e d the w om en 's w orld r e c o r d o f lo n g - d ista n ce n onstop fligh ts. As happens s o m e ­ tim e s in su ch c a s e s , the en o rm o u s a ch iev em e n ts in aviation ca u se d not on ly a natural fe e lin g o f p rid e but a ls o ga v e r i s e to sm u g n e ss. It w as w id ely b e lie v e d that both s p o r ts aviation and com bat aviation w ere fir m ly en tren ch ed a s the w o rld 's best. T h is m ood found its e x p r e s s io n in the sp e e c h by the P e o p le ' s C o m m is s a r o f D efen se at the 18th P arty C o n g r e s s in M arch 1939. "A ir F o r c e p erson n el, " sa id the P e o p le 's C o m m is s a r o f D efen se K. E. V o ro sh ilo v , ’ ’ in c r e a s e d sin c e 1934 by 138 p ercen t, i. e., a lm o st two- anda-half tim e s . The n u m ber o f a ir c ra ft in c r e a s e d by 130 p ercen t, i.e., it m o r e than doubled. ”lf w e e x p r e s s the gro w in g m ight o f the a ir fle e t in h o r s e p o w e r s o f a ir c r a ft e n gin es in c o m p a r iso n with 1934, w e obtain an in c r e a s e by 7,900,000 hp, i.e., an in c r e a s e o f 213 p e r c e n t o v e r that o f fiv e y e a r s ago. "W ith the quantitative grow th o f the a ir fle e t its q u alitativ e a sp e ct a ls o changed. "H e r e a re s o m e data to su pport th is (see ta ble next page). "What is v e r y im portant, du ring that tim e the p r o p o r tio n s o f the d ifferen t ty p e s o f a ir c r a ft within the a ir f o r c e a ls o changed. H eavy b o m b e r s in c r e a s e d f r o m 10.6 p e r c e n t to 20.6 p ercen t, an in c r e a s e o f tw ic e the f o r m e r sh are.

17

Light b o m b e r s and attack and r e c o n n a is sa n c e p la n es d rop p e d fr o m 50.2 p e r c e n t to 26 p ercen t, a red u ction o f one-half. F ig h te rs in c r e a s e d fr o m 12.3 p e r c e n t to 30 p ercen t, a tw o-an d-a-h alf-fold in c r e a s e . Thus the p r o p o r tio n o f ty p e s o f a ir c r a ft doubled in fa v o r o f b o m b e r s and fig h te rs.

I n cr e ase in speed

o f c eilin g

F ig h te r s ....................................

by 56.5%

21.5%

o f range

Bombers (short-range)...................

by 88*70

83%

50%

Bombers (long-range).....................

by 70%

77%

61%

Reconnaissance and attak planes

by 67%

23%

45%

....

"T hat m ea n s that S oviet aviation h as b e c o m e m o r e p o w e rfu l and it s strik in g p o w er has in c r e a s e d c o r r e s p o n d in g ly . . . " . . . I m ay announce that frequ en tly now one fin ds on ou r m ilita r y a ir fie ld s not on ly fig h te r s but a ls o b o m b e r s with s p e e d s fa r e x ce e d in g 500kph and a c e ilin g o f 14 — 15 thousand m e te r s. . . "* T h e se data, h ow ever, did not r e f le c t a ccu r a te ly the sta te o f the Soviet m ilita r y aviation. That the p r o p o r tio n o f ligh t b o m b e r s and attack and r e c o n n a is sa n c e p la n es had been cut to on e-h alf w as r e p r e s e n t e d a s an a ch iev em en t d e m o n str a te s th is in a ccu ra cy. A heavy p r ic e had to be paid du rin g the w ar fo r having u n derra ted th is kind o f a ircra ft. D uring the Spanish c iv il w ar the f ir s t s e r io u s s ig n a ls in d ica tin g the d a n ger o f b o a stfu ln e ss and s m u g n e s s w ere r e c e iv e d , w arn in g the w o r k e r s in the a ir c ra ft industry. When G en era l F ra n co, su p p orted by in terv en tion ist a rm y units and a r m s o f H itler and M u ssolin i, u n leash ed the c iv il war, the S oviet p eop le, to g e th e r with p r o g r e s s i v e p e o p le fr o m m any co u n tries, ca m e to the aid o f R epu blican Spain. S oviet v o lu n teers with th eir arm am ent, in clu din g aviation, left fo r Spain in fa ll 1936 in o r d e r to figh t in the ranks o f the In tern ation al A n tifa scist B rigade. In th eir book "986 Fightin g D ays" the Spanish au th ors M. A sca r a te and H. Sandoval w rote about th is p e rio d : "In the d a y s o f the m o st t e r r ib le d an ger M adrid r e c e iv e d u n ex p ected help. " " F o r the f ir s t tim e p la n es a pp ea red in its sky w hich did not sp r e a d death; th ey brought salv a tion fo r the ch ild ren and w om en o f M adrid; th ey w ere ch a ttos (snubnoses) and m o s c a s (midges). "A sce n d in g to the r o o f s o f th eir h ou ses, standing on b a lc o n ie s and lean ing out o f w indow s, M adrid's inhabitants waved with sh a w ls to w e lc o m e the frien d ly p ilo ts, and they c r ie d —th is tim e fo r joy'. "A t the end o f O c to b e r the f ir s t pla n es a r riv e d in Spain, and a few d ays la te r they a lrea d y flew o v e r M adrid; thanks to th em the Spanish and S oviet a irm en o f the 'Celebrated' squ adron w e r e able to r e p u ls e the c rim in a l r a id s o f the Italian and G erm an a ir fo r c e s . "T hat sa m e month the f ir s t fifty tanks a rriv ed ; now the R ep u blican infantry had a rm o r, en abling attack on the enem y. * XVIII s” ezd Vsesoyuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (b), Stenograficheskii otchet (The 18th Congress o f the All-Union Communist Party (b), Shorthand Protocol). —Politizdat, p. 194— 195. 1939.

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MThe Soviet v o lu n teers who ca m e to Spain r e n d e re d the p e o p le 's armyinvaluable h elp b e ca u se o f th eir ex p e r ie n c e, with th e ir a d v ice and th eir g r e a t h er o ism . Am ong a h ost o f h e r o e s the follow in g w ere p a r ticu la rly outstanding: V oronov, Batov, M alin ovskii, Pavlov, K uznetsov, M eretskov, R odim tsev, Serov, Sm ushkevich, Khol'zunov, M inaev who fe ll in the d e fen se o f M adrid, G orev, Ptukhin, K rivosh ein, Sm irnov, N esteren k o and m any o th ers. At fir s t the R epu blican a irm en fought s u c c e s s f u lly in 1-15 and 1-16 figh ters, c a lle d Ms n u b n o sesM by the Spaniards, and SB b o m b e r s w hich r e c e iv e d the nam e "Katyusha. M The G erm an and Italian a ir f o r c e s , r e p r e ­ sen ted du ring the fir s t sta g e o f the w ar by o b s o le t e Fiat and H einkel fig h te r s and Ju-86 b o m b e rs, su ffered m uch dam age. In 1936 the I-15s and I-16s en cou n tered M e s s e r s c h m itt s fo r the f ir s t tim e. T h e se w e r e the f ir s t Me-109B fig h te r s p o w ered by 610 hp Ju n kers Jumo-210 en gin es. T h eir sp eed did not e x c e e d 470kph. The S ov iet fig h te r s w er e a s fa st a s the M e s s e r s c h m itt s and th e ir a rm a m en t w as about equal, 7.62 m m m ach in e guns. The S oviet p la n es w ere m o r e m an eu verable, and the M e s s e r s c h m itt s su ffe r e d s e r io u s l o s s e s . T h is situ ation stren gth en ed the fe e lin g o f sa tisfa ctio n , and the m o d e r n iz a ­ tion o f the S oviet figh ter f o r c e w as not c o n s id e r e d urgent. The H itle rite s, on the oth er hand, b a sed on the f ir s t a e r ia l b a ttle s in Spain, began im p ro v in g th eir aviation with fe v e r ish haste. T hey r a d ic a lly im p ro v e d th eir M e-109, p ow erin g it with a D a im le r - B e n z-6 01 en gin e o f llO O hp, which in c r e a s e d the sp e e d o f the plane to 570 kph, and a rm in g it with a 20 m m cannon, in c r e a s in g the fir in g p ow er o f the figh ter. T h is v e r s io n o f the M e sse r sc h m id t, the Me-109E, went into s e r ia l production . S om e o f the f ir s t Me-109Es w e r e sent in A ugust 1938 to Spain, w h ere they took part in a e r ia l figh ts o f the final ph a se o f the Spanish tr a g e d y under the com m an d o f the b e st G erm an figh ter p ilo t M eld ers. The Me-109E had a d e cid e d advantage o v e r the 1-16, both in sp e e d (100kph fa ster) and c a lib e r and ra n ge o f its fir e a r m s . The G erm a n s m ade b etter u se o f the e x p e r ie n c e gain ed in the Spanish w ar than the S oviet Union. New figh ters. Yaks, M iGs, LaGGs, able to hold th eir own again st the M e s s e r s c h m id ts , a pp ea red as late a s 1940 as p rototy p es. A c o m p a r iso n o f the SB b o m b er in sp e e d and bom b load with the Ju-88 w as a ls o u n favorable to the USSR. The H itle r ite s had s u p e r io r b o m b e rs. The S oviet d iv e - b o m b e r Pe-2, lik e the new fig h te rs, had on ly its p rototy p e re a d y in 1940. A plane co o p e r a tin g with grou n d fo r c e s , s im ila r to the G erm an Ju-8 7 d iv e- b o m b er, p r a c tic a lly did not e x ist in the S oviet a ir fleet. At that tim e A. B. Y um ashev and oth er p ilo ts b rok e s e v e r a l w orld r e c o r d s fo r load s, flyin g S oviet-m a d e heavy b o m b e rs. T h e se r e c o r d s o f having the la r g e s t load ca p a city w ere c h a r a c te r is t ic fo r the heavy S oviet a ir c r a ft and w e r e c r e a tin g a g r e a t sen sa tion . The ta sk o f the b o m b e r is not on ly to lift the b o m b s but a ls o to d e liv e r th em qu ick ly to the ta rget; yet the heavy S oviet b o m b e r s w er e v e r y slo w and th eir ra n ge w as a ls o in su fficien t. Further, e v ery b o d y at that tim e w as ov e rw h e lm e d by the m a n eu v era b ility o f the figh ters, b eliev in g that th is w as the d e c is iv e quality. Yet it w as not taken into accou n t that a figh ter plan e m ust f ir s t o v erta k e the a d v e r s a r y and then d e s t r o y him. What is r e q u ir e d is not s o m uch m a n eu v era b ility a s • • Ascarate, M. and Kh. Sandoval. 986 dnei bor'by (98$ Fighting Days), pp. 76, 77 —79. —Moskva. Izdatel'stvo Progress. 1964. [Russian translation. ]

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sp eed and fir in g pow er, but the Soviet p la n es in s e r ia l p ro d u ctio n fr o m 1937-38 had neither. At the begin n in g o f 1939 anxiety a r o s e in the S oviet Union b e c a u s e o f the b a ck w a rd n ess o f the air fo r ce . The ca p a city o f the a ir c r a ft plants, built in the two f ir s t fiv e - y e a r plans, w as su fficien t fo r the m a s s prod u ction o f planes, e n g in e s and in stru m en ts. The poten tia l o f the S oviet a ir c r a ft in du stry w as su fficien t r e g a r d in g the n u m ber o f com ba t a ir c ra ft prod u ced . The p r o b le m w as that th e se a ir c ra ft w er e o b s o le t e and w er e in fe r io r to the sta n d a rds r e q u ir e d by m od ern w arfare. When we c o m p a r e the m ain ty p es o f Soviet p la n es in s e r ia l p rod u ction at the begin n in g o f W orld W ar II, i. e., in 1939, with the c o r r e s p o n d in g G erm an typ es, the Soviet Union a p p ea rs to be the w orst. MThe com b a t and ta c tic a l q u a lities o f the G erm an p la n es w ere m uch b e tte r than o f the S oviet p la n es which had been p ro d u ced during the S econ d F iv e - Y e a r Plan . . . Our 1-16 figh ter had a m axim u m sp e e d o f 462 kph, and thus it w as no m atch fo r the G erm an b o m b e r s .. . n* The le s s o n s o f Spain ca u sed the gov ern m en t g r e a t anxiety. Only e x tra o rd in a ry m e a s u r e s could sav e the situation. At the beginn in g o f 1939 the C en tra l C o m m ittee o f the P arty and the gov ern m en t ca lled a b ro a d ly attended c o n fe r e n ce o f lea d in g p e r s o n a lit ie s con n ected with aviation: d e s ig n e r s , in ven tors, m a n a gers, s c ie n t is ts , e n g in e e r s and a ir f o r c e p ilots. The c o n fe r e n ce w as attended by d e s ig n e r s V. Ya. K lim ov, A. A. Mikulin, A. D. Shvetsov, S. V. Ilyushin, N. N. P olik arp ov, A. A. A rkhangel'skii, the co m m a n d er o f T sA G I M. N. Shul'zhenko, the author o f the p r e se n t book, and m any oth ers. T h o se p re se n t w e r e fa ced with the p r o b le m o f how to o v e r c o m e q u ick ly the b a ck w a rd n ess in aviation. A s a r e su lt o f the c o n fe r e n ce a ll th o se p r e se n t w e r e en join ed to c o n s id e r the situ ation and to m ake c o n c r e te r e co m m e n d a tio n s c o n c e r n in g the p r o b le m s d is c u s s e d . In sp r in g of that sa m e yea r, 1939, the se co n d c o n fe r e n c e of a ir c r a ft d e s ig n e r s took p la ce in the K rem lin. The ex act w ork o f ea ch d e sig n o ffic e w as d is c u s s e d and c o r r e s p o n d in g d e c is io n s w ere adopted. C on d ition s fo r the ra pid d esig n in g and co n stru ctio n o f v a rio u s ty p e s o f a ir c r a ft w e r e e n su red fo r the d e sig n e r s . The fo llo w in g took part in d e sign in g fig h te r s: Mikoyan, G urevich, Lavochkin, Sukhoi, Pashinin, F lorov, B orovkov, Shevchenko, K ozlov, P olik arp ov, Grushin, Y akovlev and Yatsenko. In 1939 the D efen se C o m m ittee o f the C ou n cil o f P e o p le 's C o m m is s a r s o f the USSR adopted two e x tr e m e ly im portan t re so lu tio n s. One co n ce rn e d the bu ildin g and r e c o n s tr u c tio n in 1939-41 o f e n t e r p r is e s p ro d u cin g a ir c ra ft p ow er plan ts and p r o p e lle r s . The seco n d r e so lu tio n dealt with the d e v e lo p ­ m ent o f a ir c r a ft en gin e plants. P la n s w ere m ade fo r bu ildin g new plan ts and fo r the r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f e x istin g plan ts which should p r o d u ce e n g in es fo r com bat a ircra ft. It w as n e c e s s a r y at the beginn in g o f 1941 to dou ble the nu m ber o f a ir c r a ft en gin e plants o v e r that o f 1939. T o h elp en gin e con stru ction , s o m e e n t e r p r is e s w er e tr a n s fe r r e d fr o m oth er b ra n c h e s to the a ir c r a ft industry, and prod u ction o f a ir c r a ft e n g in es w as o r g a n ize d in s o m e a u tom ob ile plants. ** * Istoriya Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny Sovetskogo Soyuza 1941—45 (History of the Great Patriotic War o f the Soviet Union 1941 — 1945), Vol. 1, p. 453. —Moskva, Voenizdat. 1960. ** Ibid, pp. 412—414.

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