Fiber Ingredients Food Applications and Health Benefits 1420043846, 978-1-4200-4384-6

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FIBER INGREDIENTS Food Applications and Health Benefits

FIBER INGREDIENTS Food Applications and Health Benefits SUSAN SUNGSOO

EDITED BY C H O AND P R I S C I L L A

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

SAMUEL

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-4384-6 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fiber ingredients : food applications and health benefits / editors, Susan Sungsoo Cho and Priscilla Samuel. p. ; cm. “A CRC title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-4384-6 (alk. paper) 1.  Fiber in human nutrition. 2.  Food--Fiber content.  I. Cho, Sungsoo. II. Samuel, Priscilla. III. Title. [DNLM: 1.  Dietary Fiber--therapeutic use. 2.  Food, Fortified. 3.  Nutritive Value. 4.  Polysaccharides--therapeutic use.  WB 427 F443 2009] QP144.F52F53 2009 613.2’63--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

2008050642

Contents Preface ........................................................................................................ vii About the Editors ........................................................................................ix Contributors .................................................................................................xi

1

Functional and Dietary Fibers: An Introduction .......................... 1 Susan Cho

Section I 2

Soluble Fibers

Alpha-cyclodextrin ............................................................................. 9 Jonathan David Buckley, Alison Mary Coates, and Peter Ranald Charles Howe

3

NUTRIOSE ® Soluble Fiber .............................................................. 19 Catherine Lefranc-Millot, Daniel Wils, Jean-Michel Roturier, Catherine Le Bihan, and Marie-Hélène Saniez-Degrave

4

Inulin .................................................................................................. 41 Anne Franck and Douwina Bosscher

5

Fibersol® -2 Resistant Maltodextrin: Functional Dietary Fiber Ingredient ................................................................................ 61 Chieko Hashizume and Kazuhiro Okuma

6

Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum Dietary Fiber............................ 79 Mahendra P. Kapoor and Lekh R. Juneja

7

Acacia Gum...................................................................................... 121 Sebastien Baray

8

Pectin ................................................................................................ 135 Hans Ulrich Endress and Frank Mattes

9

Polydextrose .................................................................................... 173 Julian D. Stowell

v

Contents

vi

Section II 10

Resistant Starch

Resistant Starch (RS)...................................................................... 205 E. Terry Finocchiaro, Anne Birkett, and Monika Okoniewska

Section III 11

Conventional Fibers

Oat Fiber from Oat Hull ................................................................ 249 Jon Bodner and Susan Sungsoo Cho

12

Cellulose .......................................................................................... 263 Toru Takahashi

13

Oat β-Glucan ................................................................................... 283 Niina Tapola and Essi Sarkkinen

14

Rice Bran: Production, Composition, Functionality and Food Applications, Physiological Benefits .......................... 305 Talwinder S. Kahlon

15

Barley Fiber ..................................................................................... 323 Christine E. Fastnaught

16

Sugar Beet Fiber: Production, Characteristics, Food Applications, and Physiological Benefits.................................... 359 Marie-Christine Ralet, Fabienne Guillon, Catherine Renard, and Jean-Francois Thibault

17

Psyllium ........................................................................................... 393 Seyed Ali Ziai

Section IV 18

New Development

Fruit Fibers ...................................................................................... 427 Jürgen Fischer

19

Aleurone Flour: A Novel Wheat Ingredient Rich in Fermentable Fiber, Micronutrients, and Bioavailable Folate ... 439 Michael Fenech, Peter Clifton, Manny Noakes and David Topping

Appendix: Suppliers of Dietary Fiber Ingredients ............................ 455 Index .......................................................................................................... 467

Preface The Adequate Intake (AI) of total dietary iber for children, adolescents, and adults was set to 14 g dietary iber/1000 kcal by the Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, USA, to reduce the risk of chronic diseases. In many developed countries, iber is recognized as a shortfall nutrient that is low in daily diet. A majority of Western people do not meet recommended intakes, indicating a need for consuming more iber-rich foods. Health professionals should recommend foods high in iber to improve public health. It is imperative that food product developers formulate foods with iber to improve iber intake status of the population. In this book, various iber ingredients available at the marketplace have been reviewed. Each chapter includes characteristics, functionality, and health beneits of each ingredient. The book describes details of claim opportunities for iber ingredients and iber-containing foods, such as gastrointestinal health, cardiovascular health, weight management, satiety, glycemic control, and prebiotic effects. This book can be a useful reference for product developers, nutritionists, dieticians, and regulatory agencies.

vii

About the Editors Susan Cho, Ph.D., M.B.A., is the President of NutraSource, a nutrition and food safety consulting irm (www.consult-nutrasource.com; ssch0397@ yahoo.com). She was Director of Nutrition at Kellogg until 2005. She received her Ph.D. (with a major in food science and a minor in biochemistry) and her M.S. in nutrition from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison. She has her M.B.A. from the University of Chicago. Dr. Cho is a well-known expert in dietary iber research. She has written 4 books and published more than 50 articles in the areas of carbohydrates, iber, and functional foods. Priscilla Samuel, Ph.D., is Director of Nutrition Sciences, Scientiic & Regulatory Affairs with Solae, LLC. She worked previously at Mead Johnson Nutritionals, Quaker Oats, Tropicana, and the Kellogg Company. Under her leadership at Quaker, health claims were obtained for oats soluble iber internationally, and for Oatrim™ in the U.S. Dr. Samuel holds a Ph.D. in human nutrition with minors in public health and marketing from the University of Tennessee–Knoxville, her M.S. in human nutrition from the University of North Carolina–Greensboro, and her B.S. in nutrition and child development from Bangalore University, India.

ix

Contributors Anne Birkett National Starch Food Innovation Bridgewater, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Christine E. Fastnaught PhoenixAgri Research Fargo, North Dakota, U.S.A.

Jon Bodner JRS USA Schoolcraft, Michigan, U.S.A.

Michael Fenech CSIRO Human Nutrition, Food Science Australia Adelaide, Australia

Douwina Bosscher Orafti Active Food Ingredients Tienen, Belgium

E. Terry Finocchiaro National Starch Food Innovation Bridgewater, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Sebastien Baray Colloïdes Naturels, Inc. Bridgewater, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Jürgen Fischer Herbafood Ingredients Havel, Germany

Jonathan David Buckley School of Health Sciences University of South Australia Adelaide, Australia

Anne Franck Orafti Active Food Ingredients Tienen, Belgium

Susan Cho Nutrasource Clarksville, Maryland, U.S.A.

Fabienne Guillon UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages INRA Nantes Cedex 03, France

Peter Clifton CSIRO Human Nutrition, Food Science Australia Adelaide, Australia

Chieko Hashizume Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. Itami City, Hyogo, Japan

Hans Ulrich Endress Pektin-Fabrik Neuenbuerg Herbstreith & Fox KG Neuenbuerg, Germany

Peter Howe School of Health Sciences University of South Australia Adelaide, Australia

xi

Contributors

xii Lekh R. Juneja Interface Solution Division Taiyo Kagaku Co. Ltd. Yokkaichi, Mie, Japan

Kazuhiro Okuma Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. Itami City, Hyogo, Japan

Talwinder S. Kahlon Western Regional Research Center USDA, ARS Albany, California, U.S.A.

Marie-Christine Ralet UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages INRA Nantes Cedex 03, France

Mahendra P. Kapoor Interface Solution Division Taiyo Kagaku Co. Ltd. Yokkaichi, Mie, Japan

Catherine Renard UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages INRA Nantes Cedex 03, France

Catherine Lefranc-Millot Nutrition Management Roquette Freres Lestrem, France Frank Mattes Pektin-Fabrik Neuenbuerg Herbstreith & Fox KG Neuenbuerg, Germany Manny Noakes CSIRO Human Nutrition, Food Science Australia Adelaide, Australia Monika Okoniewska National Starch Food Innovation Bridgewater, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Jean-Michel Roturier Nutrition Management Roquette Freres Lestrem, France Priscilla Samuel Nutrition Department The Solae Company St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. Marie-Hélène Saniez-Degrave Nutrition Management Roquette Freres Lestrem, France Essi Sarkkinen Foodiles Kuopio, Finland

Contributors Julian D. Stowell Danisco Sweeteners Redhill, Surrey, U.K. Toru Takahashi Mimasaka University Tsuyama City, Japan Niina Tapola Foodiles Kuopio, Finland Jean-Francois Thibault UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages INRA Nantes Cedex 03, France

xiii David Topping CSIRO Human Nutrition, Food Science Australia Adelaide, Australia

Daniel Wils Nutrition Management Roquette Freres Lestrem, France

Seyed Ali Ziai Department of Pharmacology Faculty of Medicine Shaheed Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Tehran, Iran

1 Functional and Dietary Fibers: An Introduction Susan Cho

CONTENTS Dietary Fiber Intake Levels around the World ...................................................1 What Is Dietary Fiber?............................................................................................2 Approved Health Claims .......................................................................................3 Potential Health Claim ...........................................................................................4 Potential Structure Function Claims ....................................................................4 High-Fiber Foods/High-Fiber, Low-Fat Foods and Satiety and/or Weight Control ...................................................................................4 High-Fiber Foods/High-Fiber, Low-Fat Foods and Glycemic Control ..5 Dietary Fiber and Intestinal Regularity .....................................................5 References ................................................................................................................5

Dietary Fiber Intake Levels around the World Based on studies done in rural Africa, Burkitt and Trowell proposed that the consumption of diets deicient in iber is associated with an increased incidence of chronic diseases such as diverticulitis, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer. In the past 35 years, evidence of the beneicial effects of dietary iber (DF) in chronic diseases has been accumulated (Bingham et al. 2003; Kokke et al. 2005; Lopez-Miranda et al. 2007; Marlett et al. 2002; Zhang et al. 2006). Reports of various government agencies noted that there has been great interest in the speciic effects of dietary iber on several chronic diseases. Recommendations for adult dietary iber intake generally are in the range of 20 to 35 grams per day. Children over age 2 should consume an amount equal to or greater than their age plus 5 grams per day (Williams et al. 1995). Despite dietary guidelines (DG), dietary iber intakes of the general public are well below the recommended levels. In the United States, the average American adult consumes only 14 to 15 grams of dietary iber a

1

2

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

day (Cho et al. unpublished data). Approximately 75% of Americans do not have adequate dietary iber intake. Dietary iber intake levels in the AsiaPaciic region and in most industrialized nations in Europe are also far below the recommended levels (Galvin et al. 2001; Lairon et al. 2003; Murakami et al. 2007).

What Is Dietary Fiber? In the early 1970s, Burkitt and Trowell deined DF as plant cell wall polysaccharides and lignin that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes (Burkitt et al. 1974; Burkitt and Trowell 1975). Recently, the Institute of Medicine (IOM; 2002) deined total iber as the sum of functional and dietary iber, that is, the sum of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and non-digestible oligosaccharides. The IOM deinition is in line with the deinition proposed by Lee and Prosky (1995) based on the survey results of AOAC International. Two international surveys were conducted by the AOAC International in order to fulill two objectives: (1) to determine if a consensus could be reached on the deinition of DF and associated methodologies; and (2) to consider appropriate classiication of oligosaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes (Lee and Prosky 1995). The irst survey was initiated in December 1992, and 144 professionals participated. A large majority of participants (70%) supported the idea that the DF deinition should relect both chemical and physiological perspectives. The survey results indicated that 65% of people supported the current DF deinition as polysaccharides and lignin that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes. However, 59% supported a future expansion of the DF deinition to include oligosaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes. In December 1993, a follow-up survey was sent out, speciically addressing the issue of a new deinition that may include oligosaccharides that are not hydrolyzed by human alimentary enzymes, along with the results from the irst survey for conirmation (Lee and Prosky 1995). The second time, 65% of the participants supported the inclusion of these oligosaccharides, while 80% supported the inclusion of resistant starches and lignin in the DF deinition beyond NSP. It is noteworthy that only 6% believed that DF includes only NSP or plant cell wall components. Based on these survey results, Cho (formerly Lee) and Prosky have proposed the expansion of the deinition of DF to include resistant oligosaccharides, in addition to the currently included NSP, resistant starch, and lignin (Lee and Prosky 1995). This proposal was adopted at the AOAC Workshop on Complex Carbohydrates held in Nashville, Tennessee, in October 1995 (Cho and Prosky 1999).

Functional and Dietary Fibers: Introduction

3

Approved Health Claims The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990 provides rules regarding health claims used on labels that characterize a relationship between a food, a food component, dietary ingredient, or dietary supplement and risk of a disease. So far, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved several health claims related to dietary iber and risk reduction of chronic diseases, such as coronary heart disease (CHD) and cancer (FDA 1993; FDA 1998). Table 1.1 summarizes approved health claims and model health claims. It should be noted that these health claims have been approved for foods and may or may not be applicable to dietary supplements.

TABLE 1.1 FDA-Approved Health Claims for Fiber Risk Reduction

Type of Fiber

Model Health Claim

Cancer

Fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables (101.76)

Low-fat diets rich in iber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors.

CHD

Diets rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain iber, particularly soluble iber (101.77)

Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary iber, particularly soluble iber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors.

CHD

Soluble iber from certain foods (oats and/or psyllium) (101.81)

Soluble iber from psyllium and foods such as [Product Name], as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of [Product Name] supplies __ grams of the ___ grams soluble iber from psyllium seed husk necessary per day to have this effect. Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that include 3 g of soluble iber from whole oats per day may reduce the risk of heart disease. One serving of this whole-oats product provides ___ grams of this soluble iber.

4

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Potential Health Claim In addition to already approved health claims, it may be possible to make a claim for iber’s role in risk reduction of diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. It tends to develop when the body can no longer produce enough of the hormone insulin to lower blood sugar to normal levels or cannot properly use the insulin. There are several important risk factors for type 2 diabetes, such as being overweight, being physically inactive, smoking, and some dietary factors. Among dietary factors, a high-iber diet and foods with a low glycemic index do not quickly raise blood sugar levels and are associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes. The 2004 report of the USDA DG Expert Panel (USDA 2004) stated that the “intake of iber has been inversely associated with type 2 diabetes in a number of epidemiological studies.” In response to the question, What are the major health beneits of iber-containing foods?, the DG report concluded that “Diets rich in dietary iber have a number of important health beneits including helping to promote healthy laxation, reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes, and decreasing the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD).” Also the 2002 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report stated that “There is evidence on risk of reduction of diabetes as a secondary endpoint to support a recommended intake level for total iber that is primarily based on prevention of CHD.” Overall, strong scientiic evidence is available to support a relationship between iber intake and prevention of diabetes.

Potential Structure Function Claims High-Fiber Foods/High-Fiber, Low-Fat Foods and Satiety and/or Weight Control Both observational and clinical studies suggest that intake of certain iber may be useful in controlling body weight (Lindstrom et al. 2006; Murakami et al. 2007). The 2000 and 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (USDA) stated that high-iber content of foods, in particular whole grains, help “you feel full with less calories.” In a report deining the term iber, the NAS stated that high-iber diets delay stomach emptying, which increases the time energy and nutrients are absorbed from the digestive tract. Additionally, several important review articles provide direct support for high iber intake and satiety/weight control. However, the 2002 IOM report states that “Although the inding that the overall data on dietary iber intake are negatively correlated with BMI are suggestive

Functional and Dietary Fibers: Introduction

5

of a role for iber in weight control, the studies designed to determine how iber intake might impact overall energy intake have not shown a major effect.” High-Fiber Foods/High-Fiber, Low-Fat Foods and Glycemic Control Both epidemiological and intervention studies suggest that intake of certain iber may delay glucose uptake and attenuate insulin responses (Lindstrom et al. 2006; Murakami et al. 2007). Various functional and dietary ibers, such as resistant starch, resistant maltodextrins, oat beta-glucans, pectins, hydroxymethylpropyl cellulose (HMPC), psyllium, and guar gum, have been found to be eficacious in signiicantly reducing glycemic responses (Brouns et al. 2007, Institute of Medicine 2002). Dietary Fiber and Intestinal Regularity This dietary iber can help relieve constipation by inluencing stool consistency, increasing stool bulk, making the stool softer, and decreasing fecal transit time through the bowel (Marlett et al. 2002; IOM 2002). The gastrointestinal tract is highly sensitive to dietary iber, and consumption of iber seems to relieve and prevent constipation. The iber in wheat bran and oat bran seems to be more effective than similar amounts of iber from fruits and vegetables. The 2002 report of the IOM concluded that functional and dietary iber increase fecal weights and increase the number of fecal movements per day, and improve the ease with which a stool is passed.

References Bingham SA, Day NE, Luben R, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Norat T, Clavel-Chapelon F, Kesse E, Nieters A, Boeing H, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Martinez C, Dorronsoro M, Gonzalez CA, Key TJ, Trichopoulou A, Naska A, Vineis P, Tumino R, Krogh V, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Berglund G, Hallmans G, Lund E, Skeie G, Kaaks R, Riboli E (2003) Dietary iber in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): an observational study. Lancet 361:1496 –501. Erratum in: Lancet 362:1000. Brouns F, Arrigoni E, Langkilde AM, Verkooijen I, Fässler C, Andersson H, Kettlitz B, van Nieuwenhoven M, Philipsson H, Amado R. (2007) Physiological and metabolic properties of a digestion-resistant maltodextrin, classiied as type 3 retrograded resistant starch. J Agrid Food Chem. 55:1574–81. Burkitt DP, Trowell HC (1975) Reined Carbohydrate Foods and Disease: Implications of Dietary Fiber. London, England: Academic Press. Burkitt DP, Walker AR, Painter NS (1974) Dietary iber and disease. JAMA

229(8):1068–74.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Cho SS, Prosky L (1999) Complex carbohydrates: Deinition and analysis. In: Cho SS, Prosky L, Dreher M, eds. Complex Carbohydrates. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, 131–144. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (1993) Food labeling: general provisions; nutrition labeling; label format; nutrient claims; ingredient labeling; state and local requirements; and exemptions: inal rules. Fed. Register 58:2302–906. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (1998) Food labeling: health claims; soluble iber from certain foods and coronary heart disease. Fed Register 63(32):8103. Galvin MA, Kiely M, Harrington KE, Robson PJ, Moore R, Flynn A (2001) The North/ South Ireland Food Consumption Survey: the dietary ibre intake of Irish adults. Public Health Nutr 4(5A):1061–8. Institute of Medicine (2002) Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrates, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Kokke FT, Taminiau JA, Benninga MA (2005) The role of dietary iber in childhood and its applications in pediatric gastroenterology. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program 56:111–20; discussion 120–6. Lairon D, Bertrais S, Vincent S, Arnault N, Galan P, Boutron MC, Hercberg S (2003) Dietary ibre intake and clinical indices in the French Supplementation en Vitamines et Mineraux Antioxydants (SU.VI.MAX) adult cohort. Proc Nutr Soc 62(1):11–55. Lee SC, Prosky L (1992) Dietary iber analysis for nutrition labeling. Cereal Foods World 37:765–71. Lee SC, Prosky L (1995) International survey on dietary iber: deinition, analysis, and reference materials. J AOAC Int 78:22–36. Lindstrom J, Peltonen M, Eriksson JG, Louheranta A, Fogelholm M, Uusitupa M, Tuomilehto J (2006) High-ibre, low-fat diet predicts long-term weight loss and decreased type 2 diabetes risk: the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Diabetologia 49(5):912–20. Lopez-Miranda J, Williams C, Lairon D (2007) Dietary, physiological, genetic and pathological inluences on postprandial lipid metabolism. Br J Nutr 98(3):458–73. Marlett JA, McBurney MI, Slavin JL (2002) Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary iber. J Am Diet Assoc 102:993–1000. Murakami K, Sasaki S, Okubo H, Takahashi Y, Hosoi Y, Itabashi M (2007) Dietary iber intake, dietary glycemic index and load, and body mass index: a cross-sectional study of 3931 Japanese women aged 18–20 years. Eur J Clin Nutr 61(8):986–95. U.S. Department of Agriculture (2004) Expert Panel Report on Dietary Guidelines. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Ofice. Williams CL, Bollella M, Wynder EL (1995) A new recommendation for dietary iber in childhood. Pediatrics 96:985–8. Zhang C, Liu S, Solomon CG, Hu FB (2006) Dietary iber intake, dietary glycemic load, and the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 29(10):2223–30.

Section I

Soluble Fibers

2 Alpha-Cyclodextrin Jonathan David Buckley, Alison Mary Coates, Peter Ranald, and Charles Howe

CONTENTS Characteristics .........................................................................................................9 Functionality and Food Applications ................................................................ 11 Physiological Beneits ........................................................................................... 11 Safety/Toxicity ....................................................................................................... 13 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 14 References .............................................................................................................. 15

Characteristics Alpha-cyclodextrin (α-CD) contains six glucopyranosyl units linked by α-1,4glycosidic bonds and is one of a family of three cyclodextrin molecules (α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrin) (see Figure 2.1). In nature, the cyclodextrins are produced as a storage form of carbohydrate by some microorganisms, but they can also be produced industrially by the enzymatic degradation of amylose by cyclodextrin-glucosyltransferases (CGTs), a group of amylolytic enzymes belonging to the class of α-amylases. CGTs cleave the helical amylose molecule at regular intervals of 6, 7, or 8 glucose units forming at the same time a ring by an intramolecular glucosyltransferase reaction, resulting in the formation of α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrin, respectively [1]. More than 80 years ago it was discovered that α-CD is resistant to digestion by the pancreatic juice of dogs [2]. This resistance to hydrolysis by pancreatic amylase was conirmed in subsequent studies, which also identiied a resistance to hydrolysis by salivary amylase [3–5]. This resistance to hydrolysis may be partly due to α-CD itself being an inhibitor of pancreatic amylase activity [6]. While the resistance of α-CD to hydrolysis by pancreatic and salivary amylase means that it remains almost undigested in the small intestine, it is completely fermented in the large intestine [7, 8]. 9

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

10

OH

OH

O

O O

HO

O O O H H

HO O HO

O OH OH H H O O O

O OH

O

O H

O

HO

O OH

O HO

H O O O

HO

HO

H H O O O

H O

O

O

O HO O HO

OH O OH

OH

OH

HO O

O H

OH

HO HO O

O HO

OH O

OH

O

HO

α-CD

OH O

OH

β-CD OH HO

O

O

O O O H H

O OH OH

O HO O HO

HO O OH

HO

O HO O HO

OH

O

OH

OH O OH O

H H O O O OH H O O

O

OH O

OH

HO

γ-CD FIGURE 2.1 Chemical structure of the cyclodextrins. (From Biwer et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotech. 59:609–17, 2002. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.)

As a result of α-CD’s chemical structure (i.e., α-glucan), combined with its non-digestibility and fermentability, it resembles retrograded or crystalline non-granular starch, or so-called “resistant starch” of the RS3 type according to Englyst’s classiication [9]. However, unlike resistant starch, it is freely soluble in water (145 g ⋅ l-1) yielding clear low-viscosity solutions [5]; is resistant to heat (i.e., pasteurization); and is stable at pH levels generally encountered in food manufacture. While α-CD resembles resistant starch, its water solubility, resistance to digestion in the small intestine, and fermentability in the

Alpha-cyclodextrin

11

large intestine mean that it is by deinition a form of soluble, fermentable, dietary iber.

Functionality and Food Applications Due to the steric arrangement of the glucopyranosyl units of α-CD, the inner side of the torus-like molecule is less polar than the outside, which allows for the formation of inclusion complexes with non-polar organic compounds of appropriate size by incorporating them into the cavity of the ring structure [5]. The formation of these inclusion complexes can improve the aqueous solubility, chemical and physical stability, and therefore the bioavailability of the sequestered molecule [10]. The ability of α-CD to form inclusion complexes has attracted the interest of the food industry for some time [11, 12], and α-CD has previously been used in foods to protect volatile compounds from evaporation, and chemically sensitive products from oxidation or photodegradation [13, 14]. It has also been proposed that, because α-CD is tasteless and odorless, water-soluble, and stable under most temperatures and pH conditions generally encountered in food processing, it may be particularly suitable for addition to liquid and semisolid foods and to beverages for the purpose of iber supplementation [15, 16]. α-CD is currently used in food manufacturing as a carrier for lavors, colors, and sweeteners in foods such as dry mixes, baked goods, and instant teas and coffee, and as a stabilizer for lavors, colors, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids in dry mixes and dietary supplements (< 1% of the inal product), as a lavor modiier in soya milk (< 1%), and as an absorbent (breath freshener) in confectionery (10% to 15% of the inal product) [17].

Physiological Benefits Studies in rats have demonstrated that α-CD reduces plasma triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations [18, 19], effects similar to those seen with other dietary ibers and which may provide protection against the development of cardiovascular disease [20, 21] and colorectal cancer [22]. Like other indigestible dietary ibers, α-CD can also be fermented by the microbiota of the large intestine to yield short-chain fatty acids [23], some of which might provide additional protection against colorectal cancer [24]. While α-CD can provide many of the beneits of other dietary ibers in terms of improved blood lipids and increased fecal bulk, its ability to inhibit pancreatic amylase activity [6], and thereby potentially inhibit the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates in the small intestine, has led to interest in the pos-

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

12

Area under Plasma Glucose Curve (m mol.l–1.min1)

160 140 120 100

* †

80 60 40 20 0

0

2 5 10 Dose of α-cyclodextrin (g)

FIGURE 2.2 Dose-dependent reduction in plasma glucose following incorporation of α-cyclodextrin into a standard carbohydrate meal. (From Buckley et al., Ann. Nutr. Metab. 50:108–14, 2006. With kind permission of S Karger AG Basel.)

sibility that α-CD can reduce carbohydrate digestion and thereby attenuate the postprandial glycemic response to carbohydrate-containing foods [25]. Postprandial elevations in blood glucose are associated with an increased risk of developing metabolic disease (e.g., diabetes), cardiovascular disease, and some cancers [26–30], and foods that elicit lower postprandial blood glucose excursions, such as low glycemic index foods (i.e., foods that elicit a low postprandial glycemic response per unit of available carbohydrate), reduce the risk of developing these diseases [31–35]. It was recently shown that the addition of α-CD in doses ranging from 0 g to 10 g to a standard meal of boiled white rice containing 50 g of available carbohydrate resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of the postprandial blood glucose response, as evidenced by a progressive reduction in the area under the postprandial plasma glucose curve [25] (see Figure 2.2). Thus, it appears that the addition of α-CD to carbohydrate-containing foods may effectively reduce their glycemic index, enabling the food industry to produce lower glycemic index versions of existing foods so that people can consume a lower glycemic index diet without having to alter their food choices. While the consumption of a low glycemic diet can reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain cancers [31–35], there is also evidence that consuming a low glycemic index diet can reduce body fat [36–39], which is of particular importance given the current global obesity epidemic [40]. More than 20 years ago Suzuki and Sato [41] reported small weight-loss effects of substituting α-CD for carbohydrate in the diet, but the substance used by Suzuki and Sato was actually a mixture of n-dextrin, α-CD, β-cyclodextrin, and γ-cyclodextrin (50:30:15:5) so it was not possible to determine what effects the individual components had contributed to the weight-loss effect. However, recently, Artiss et al. [42] showed that feeding

Alpha-cyclodextrin

13

rats for six weeks ad libitum a high-fat diet containing α-CD (10% w/w of the fat in the diet) reduced weight gain (7.4% lower body weight) and body fat mass (22% lower body fat) compared with rats fed a high-fat diet without α-CD. In fact the weight gain in the rats fed the high-fat diet with α-CD was not different from that of rats fed a low-fat diet. The lower body weight and body fat in the rats that consumed the high-fat diet with α-CD compared with rats fed just the high-fat diet occurred despite there being no difference in energy intake or quantity of food consumed between these two groups. The addition of α-CD to the diet also reduced plasma triglyceride concentrations by 30%, cholesterol by 9%, normalized serum leptin concentrations, and improved insulin sensitivity compared with rats on the high-fat diet without α-CD. While the mechanism of the body fat reduction could not be completely determined, the addition of α-CD to the high-fat diet was associated with a ~20% increase in the fat content of the feces (without steatorrhea), although this increased fecal excretion of fat accounted for only some, not all, of the reduction in body fat accumulation. Based on the amount of weight gain and the amount of fat consumed, the authors were able to calculate that 1 g of α-CD prevented the absorption of the equivalent of some 9 g of dietary fat in this animal model.

Safety/Toxicity The safety of α-CD as a food ingredient was recently assessed by the World Health Organization [43] then subsequently by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) [17] and was given an acceptable daily intake of “not speciied.” α-CD was also recently awarded Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States [44] and has been approved for use as a novel food by Food Standards Australia and New Zealand [45]. The approval of α-CD for use as a food in the USA and Australia has been underpinned by safety data from numerous studies that have shown that the only adverse effects associated with the consumption of α-CD are minor gastrointestinal complaints associated with the consumption of any non-digestible, fermentable dietary iber (e.g., bloating, nausea, latulence, diarrhea). A number of studies have been conducted to test the maternal and embryonic/fetal safety of α-CD consumption during pregnancy and have found no evidence of any harmful effects. Waalkens-Berendsen et al. [46] showed, using artiicially inseminated New Zealand white rabbits, that feeding α-CD at doses of 5%, 10%, and 20% (w/w) of diet during the irst 29 days of gestation was well tolerated with no adverse effects on maternal reproductive performance, and no embryotoxic, fetotoxic, or teratogenic effects were found. Similar studies have been carried out in both rats and mice [15, 16, 47–49],

14

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

as well as dogs [49], with no evidence of any maternal toxicity, fetotoxicity, embryotoxicity, teratogenicity, or other adverse effects. Mutagenicity (i.e., carcinogenicity) of α-CD has also been assessed using Ames tests with α-CD concentrations of up to 20 mg and gave negative results [50]. The Ames test is based on the assumption that any substance that is mutagenic (for the bacteria used in the test) may also be carcinogenic. While some substances that cause cancer in laboratory animals do not necessarily give a positive Ames test, the potential for α-CD to damage DNA (and therefore its carcinogenic potential) was also tested using in vivo micronucleus tests on mouse bone marrow and these tests showed no evidence of any chromosomal damage or damage to the mitotic apparatus [51]. It may therefore be concluded that α-CD does not appear to cause DNA damage and is not carcinogenic. The only adverse effect of consuming α-CD, which has been shown consistently, is the occurrence of minor gastrointestinal complaints (bloating, nausea, diarrhea). Lina et al. [16] administered α-CD to rats at dietary rates of 1%, 5%, and 15% for four weeks and persistent diarrhea was the most prominent treatment-related effect in the 15% group, especially in the male animals. In association with this diarrhea, food consumption and food conversion eficiency were decreased. The weight of the full and empty cecum was increased in the 5% and 15% α-CD groups. A similar inding occurred in Beagle dogs that consumed diets consisting of 0, 5%, 10%, or 20% α-CD for 13 weeks [49], with diarrhea occurring in all groups that consumed α-CD. The incidence and severity of the diarrhea increased with increasing doses of α-CD and were more pronounced in males than females. Signiicant cecal enlargement also occurred in the males in the 10% and 20% α-CD groups. While these studies establish that diarrhea and cecal enlargement occur with the consumption of α-CD, these effects are not speciic to α-CD and are known to occur following ingestion of other poorly digestible carbohydrates [52–55]. It is generally accepted that these effects represent a well-recognized physiological response to the presence of high amounts of non-digestible, fermentable carbohydrate in the lower gut and have no relevance to human safety [56, 57].

Conclusions α-CD is a type of soluble, fermentable dietary iber that is tasteless, odorless, resistant to heat, stable at pH levels generally encountered in food manufacture, and able to form inclusion complexes with appropriately sized non-polar organic compounds. These properties have allowed it to be used in foods to protect chemically sensitive products from degradation, as an absorbent, and as a carrier for a range of lavors, colors, sweeteners, and fatty acids. While the consumption of α-CD is associated with many of the same physi-

Alpha-cyclodextrin

15

ological beneits that can be achieved from the consumption of other dietary ibers (e.g., blood cholesterol and triglyceride lowering, increased fecal bulk), it is also able to inhibit salivary and pancreatic amylase, and thereby reduce carbohydrate digestion and the postprandial glycemic response to the consumption of carbohydrate-containing foods. Reducing the glycemic response to carbohydrate foods can potentially reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and certain cancers, and α-CD has the potential therefore to allow for the production of healthier carbohydrate-based foods. There is also some evidence that consuming α-CD can reduce body fat accumulation and might therefore also be useful as a treatment for preventing or reducing obesity. As may occur with the consumption of any non-digestible, fermentable dietary iber, the consumption of α-CD is associated with minor adverse gastrointestinal complaints such as bloating, nausea, and diarrhea, with the incidence being dose related and particularly evident in males. However, α-CD does not exhibit any toxic or teratogenic effects and has been awarded GRAS status by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States, and has been approved for use as a novel food by Food Standards Australia and New Zealand.

References 1. Schmid, G., Cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase production: yield enhancement by overexpression of cloned genes, TIBTECH, 7, 244, 1989. 2. Karrer, P., Polysaccharide. XX. Zur Kenntnis polymerer Kohlenhydrate, Helv. Chim. Acta., 6, 402, 1923. 3. French, D., The Schardinger dextrins, Adv. Carbohydr. Chem., 12, 189, 1957. 4. Kondo, H., Nakatani, H., and Hiromi, K., In vitro action of human and porcine α-amylases on cyclo-maltooligosaccharides, Carbohydr. Res., 204, 207, 1990. 5. Szejtli, J., Chemistry, physical and biological properties of cyclodextrins, in Comprehensive Supramolecular Chemistry, Atwoods, J., Ed., Pergamon, Oxford, 1996, 5. 6. Koukiekolo, R., et al., Mechanism of porcine pancreatic α-amylase. Inhibition of amylose and maltopentaose hydrolysis by α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins, Eur. J. Biochem., 268, 841, 2001. 7. Andersen, G., et al., The utilization of Schardinger dextrins by the rat, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 5, 257, 1963. 8. van Ommen, B., de Bie, A., and Bär, A., Disposition of 14C-α-cyclodextrin in germ-free and conventional rats, Regulat. Toxicol Pharmacol., 39, S57, 2004. 9. Englyst, H., Kingman, S., and Cummings, J., Classiication and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 46, S33, 1992. 10. Saenger, W., Cyclodextrin inclusion compounds in research and industry, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 19, 344, 1980. 11. Pszczola, D., Production and potential food applications of cyclodextrins, Food Technol., 42, 96, 1988.

16

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

12. Szejtli, J., Cyclodextrins in foods, cosmetics and toiletries, in Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cyclodextrins, Szejtli, J., Ed., Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1982, 469. 13. Allegre, M., and Deratani, A., Cyclodextrin uses: from concept to industrial reality, Agro. Food Ind. Hi. Tech., 5, 9, 1994. 14. Nagatomo, S., Cyclodextrins—expanding the development of their functions and applications, Chem. Econ. Eng. Rev., 17, 28, 1985. 15. Waalkens-Berendsen, D.H., and Bar, A., Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity study with [alpha]-cyclodextrin in rats, Regulat. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 39, 34, 2004. 16. Lina, B.A.R., and Bar, A., Subchronic oral toxicity studies with [alpha]-cyclodextrin in rats, Regulat. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 39, 14, 2004. 17. World Health Organization, Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants: alpha-cyclodextrin, in WHO Food Additives Series: 48; Geneva, 2004. 18. Kaewprasert, S., Okada, M., and Aoyama, Y., Nutritional effects of cyclodextrins on liver and serum lipids and cecal organic acids in rats, J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol., 47, 335, 2001. 19. Shizuka, F., Hara, K., and Hashimoto, H., Dietary iber-like effects of orally administered cyclodextrins in the rat, in Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Cyclodextrins, Szejtli, J., and Szente, L., Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1996, 157. 20. Hokanson, J.E., and Austin, M.A., Plasma triglyceride level is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease independent of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level: a meta-analysis of population-based prospective studies, J. Cardiovasc. Risk, 3, 213, 1996. 21. Di Mascio, R., Marchioli, R., and Tognoni, G., Cholesterol reduction and stroke occurrence: an overview of randomized clinical trials, Cerebrovasc. Dis., 10, 85, 2000. 22. McPherson-Kay, R., Fiber, stool bulk, and bile acid output: Implications for colon cancer risk, Prevent. Med., 16, 540, 1987. 23. Antenucci, R., and Palmer, J., Enzymatic degradation of α- and β-cyclodextrins by bacteroides of the human colon, J. Agric. Food Chem., 32, 1316, 1984. 24. Nkondjock, A., et al., Speciic fatty acids and human colorectal cancer: an overview, Cancer Detect. Prevent., 27, 55, 2003. 25. Buckley, J., et al., Dose-dependent inhibition of the post-prandial glycaemic response to a standard carbohydrate meal following incorporation of alphacyclodextrin, Ann. Nutr. Metab., 50, 108, 2006. 26. Augustin, L., et al., Glycemic index, glycemic load and risk of prostate cancer, Int. J. Cancer, 112, 446, 2004. 27. Dickinson, S., and Brand-Miller, J., Glycemic index, postprandial glycemia and cardiovascular disease, Curr. Opin. Lipidol., 16, 69, 2005. 28. Gerich, J., Clinical signiicance, pathogenesis, and management of postprandial hyperglycemia, Arch. Intern. Med., 163, 1306, 2003. 29. Hodge, A., et al., Glycemic index and dietary iber and the risk of type 2 diabetes, Diab. Care, 27, 2701, 2004. 30. Silvera, S., et al., Dietary carbohydrates and breast cancer risk: A prospective study of the roles of overall glycemic index and glycemic load, Int. J. Cancer, 17, DOI: 10.1002/ijc.20796, 2004. 31. Brand-Miller, J., Glycemic load and chronic disease, Nutr. Rev., 61, S49, 2003.

Alpha-cyclodextrin

17

32. Frost, G., et al., Insulin sensitivity in women at risk of coronary heart disease and the effect of a low glycemic diet, Metab. Clin. Exp., 47, 1245, 1998. 33. Opperman, A., et al., Meta-analysis of the health effects of using the glycaemic index in meal-planning, Br. J. Nutr, 92, 367, 2004. 34. Rizkalla, S., Bellisle, F., and Slama, G., Health beneits of low glycaemic index foods, such as pulses, in diabetic patients and healthy individuals, Br. J. Nutr, 88, S255, 2002. 35. Roberts, S., and Pittas, A., The role of glycemic index in type 2 diabetes, Nutr. Clin. Care, 6, 73, 2003. 36. Brand-Miller, J.C., et al., Glycemic index and obesity, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 76, 281S, 2002. 37. Ludwig, D., Dietary glycemic index and the regulation of body weight, Lipids, 38, 117, 2003. 38. Pawlak, D., Kushner, J., and Ludwig, D., Effects of dietary glycaemic index on adiposity, glucose homeostasis, and plasma lipids in animals, Lancet, 364, 778, 2004. 39. Ebbeling, C., et al., Effects of an ad libitum low-glycemic load diet on cardiovascular disease risk factors in obese young adults, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 81, 976, 2005. 40. World Health Organization (WHO) International Obesity Task Force (IOTF), Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1998, 276. 41. Suzuki, M., and Sato, A., Nutritional signiicance of cyclodextrins: indigestibility and hypolipemic effect of a-cyclodextrin, J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol., 31, 209, 1985. 42. Artiss, J.D., et al., The effects of a new soluble dietary iber on weight gain and selected blood parameters in rats, Metabolism, 55, 195, 2006. 43. World Health Organization, Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants (α-cyclodextrin), WHO Food Additives Series, 49, 111, 2002. 44. US Food and Drug Administration, Agency Response Letter GRAS Notice No. GRN 000155 Nutrition, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 2004, http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~rdb/opa-g155.html. 45. Food Standards Australia and New Zealand, Final assessment report, Application A494, Alpha-cyclodextrin as a novel food, 2004. 46. Waalkens-Berendsen, D., Smits-van Prooije, A., and Bar, A., Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity study with α-cyclodextrin in rabbits, Regulat. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 39, S40, 2004. 47. National Technical Information Service, Final report on the developmental toxicity of alpha-cyclodextrin (CAS No. 10016-20-3) in Sprague–Dawley (CD) rats, United States Department of Commerce Technology Administration, Springield, 1994. 48. National Technical Information Service, Final report on the developmental toxicity of alpha-cyclodextrin (CAS No. 10016-20-3) in Swiss (CD-1) mice, United States Department of Commerce Technology Administration, Springield, 1994. 49. Lina, B.A.R., and Bar, A., Subchronic (13-week) oral toxicity study of [alpha]cyclodextrin in dogs, Regulat. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 39, 27, 2004. 50. Blijleven, W., Examination of alpha-cyclodextrin for mutagenic activity in the Ames test, TNO-CIVO Institute, Zeist, the Netherlands, 1991. 51. Immel, H., Examination of α-cyclodextrin in the micronucleus test TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, Zeist, the Netherlands, 1991.

18

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

52. Til, H., et al., Subchronic toxicity study of lactitol in dogs, J. Am. Coll. Toxicol., 11, 219, 1992. 53. El-Harith, E., Dickerson, J., and Walker, R., Potato starch and caecal hypertrophy in the rat, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 14, 115, 1976. 54. Sunvold, G., et al., Dietary iber for dogs. IV. In-vitro fermentation of selected iber sources by dog fecal inoculum and in-vivo digestion and metabolism of iber-supplemented diets, J. Anim. Sci., 73, 1099, 1995. 55. World Health Organization, Polydextroses modiied, in WHO Food Additive Series No. 16, 144, 1981. 56. Newberne, P., Conner, M., and Estes, P., The inluence of food additives and related materials on lower bowel structure and function, Toxicol. Pathol., 16, 184, 1988. 57. World Health Organization, Principles for the safety assessment of food additives and contaminants in food, Environ. Health Criteria, 70, 39, 1987.

3 NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber Catherine Lefranc-Millot, Daniel Wils, Jean-Michel Roturier, Catherine Le Bihan, and Marie-Hélène Saniez-Degrave

CONTENTS Introduction ........................................................................................................... 19 Production and Description ................................................................................ 21 Dietary Fiber Content ...........................................................................................22 Digestive Tolerance ............................................................................................... 25 The Composition of the Fiber..................................................................... 27 The Type of Food Matrix in Which They Are Included......................... 28 The Intestinal Bacterial Adaptation .......................................................... 28 Digestion and Absorption in the Small Intestine: Associated Physiological Effects .................................................................................... 28 Glycemic Response ............................................................................................... 29 Gut Well-Being ...................................................................................................... 31 Caloric Value ..........................................................................................................34 Technical and Physicochemical Properties Allowing Various Food Applications .................................................................................................. 35 Powder’s Properties ..................................................................................... 35 Resistance to Various Industrial Processing ............................................ 35 Taste and Mouthfeel ............................................................................................. 36 Safety, Regulation, and Labeling ........................................................................ 37 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 37 References .............................................................................................................. 38

Introduction The history of dietary iber consumption is closely associated with the history of human evolution. The human diet has changed from a plant-based non-puriied regimen to a few cereal-based puriied diets. The irst consequence of this change is the decline of dietary iber consumption. The association of health effects with dietary iber was described as early as the 4th 19

20

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

century BCE by Hippocrates, when talking about the laxative effect of the coarseness of cereal grains [1]. The long-standing deinition of dietary iber referred to “plant substances undigested by human enzymes” including lignin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses. In the 1970s [2], the deinition of dietary iber was broadened to include soluble substances (non-cell wall derived materials) such as pectin, gums, and mucilage. In other words, dietary iber consists of both insoluble components of plant origin, and of soluble components, both of them resistant to the action of endogenous human enzymes of the small intestine. Soluble dietary ibers irst studied for their physiological effects, as explained previously. Viscous dietary ibers have been distinguished from the non-viscous ones. Yet, the irst studied were those extracted from plants, such as oat bran, barley, soy beans, gum arabic, and guar gum. The use of conventional soluble ibers in processed foods has been limited due to their gel-forming properties, leading to excessive viscosity, even though the data suggest a physiological effect on satiety and on lowering cholesterol absorption [3]. On the contrary, non-viscous soluble ibers like oligosaccharides and resistant dextrins can be introduced quite easily in a large number of foods, at rates suficient enough to promote health through speciic effects. These effects are mainly related to promoting colonic fermentation inducing • A decrease of the colon pH, limiting the growth of potentially harmful bacteria • A production of short-chain fatty acids: acetic, propionic, and butyric acids • An increased absorption of minerals (Ca++ and Mg++) • An increase of energy expenditure • Positive impacts on glucose and lipid metabolisms • A probable impact, when included in foodstuffs, toward satiation and satiety [4] As soluble dietary ibers are fermented in the colon, particular attention should be focused on the possible digestive effects that can be encountered following ingestion. These effects are latulence, rumbling, and sometimes abdominal pain and diarrhea. It is therefore very important to know the highest dose that can be consumed without inducing complaints. In fact, if health effects are targeted, the level of ingestion must be in accordance with the tolerance threshold of the iber. NUTRIOSE® can be considered a non-viscous soluble dietary iber. It was designed to be incorporated in a large number of foodstuffs either in solid or liquid form. It has been clearly demonstrated that this resistant dextrin is stable through various food-processing conditions including sterilization or high temperatures, and very low pH.

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

21

The particular proile of NUTRIOSE® confers to this dietary iber an outstanding digestive tolerance that is in agreement with its health-promoting effects. Particularly, as a carbohydrate with low content in mono- and disaccharides, this iber is very apt to meet the WHO’s recommendations concerning diet, nutrition, and the prevention of chronic diseases [5]. All the previously described properties will be developed hereafter.

Production and Description Dextrins have the same basic chemical formula as starch but are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates, composed of shorter chains. They are mixtures of D-glucose polymers, soluble in cold water. Resistant dextrins are partially hydrolyzed starches converted by heating in the presence of small amounts of food-grade acid. Raw material can be potato, wheat, and corn but also pea, sorghum, and cassava root [6]. Production of food-grade dextrins generally consists of a dextrinization step followed by a puriication process rising active carbon and exchange resins. During dextriniication or pyroconversion, a dry roasting of starch is applied in highly controlled conditions [7]: Starch is dried to about 5% moisture and a food-grade acid is added; pyroconversion occurs with the heating at high temperature and during cooking. The dextrin is then quickly cooled. Starch molecules are in fact randomly hydrolyzed by acid and high temperature to produce short-chain oligosaccharides that randomly rearrange during cooling. Therefore, in addition to the digestible glycosidic linkages of starch α 1-4 and α 1-6, non-digestible glycosidic bonds, such as β 1-4, β 1-6, α and β 1-3, 1-2 are produced. Resistant dextrins are therefore more ramiied than starch. Hydrolysis and recombination are well described [8, 9]. Table 3.1 shows the type and amount of glycosidic linkages found in starch, in standard maltodextrins, and in dextrins. Chromatography can be utilized to further increase the iber content and tailor the molecular weight distribution. Different kinds of resistant dextrins, making up a range (branded NUTRIOSE® FB when from wheat or NUTRIOSE® FM when from maize), are produced after the chromatographic step used to control the polydispersity of the molecular weight distribution. The cut-off is determined according to the rheological behavior and the high digestive tolerance threshold to be achieved. Figures 3.1a and 3.1b show the respective structural formulas of starch and of NUTRIOSE® 06, a iber-rich product of the resistant dextrins range. Figures 3.2a and 3.2b represent the molecular weight distribution of NUTRIOSE® 06 and of a standard dextrin. Polydispersity is 1.8 in the chromatographied dextrin versus 4.1 in the native dextrin. The molecular weight is decreased about twofold by the chromatographic step.

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

22

TABLE 3.1 Results of Interlaboratory Study for the AOAC 2001.03 Method

Mean g/100 g D.S.a Sr RSDr % rb SR RSDR % Rc

NUTRIOSE® FB06

70% Fiber Dextrin

70% Fiber Dextrin

60% Fiber Dextrin

NUTRIOSE® FM06

95 % Fiber Dextrin

84.7

72.3

72.8

59.9

84.4

97.3

0.61 0.71 1.70 2.80 3.29 7.85

1.42 1.96 3.96 2.76 3.82 7.73

0.46 0.67 1.30 1.46 2.00 4.08

0.89 1.48 2.48 1.52 4.26 2.54

1.06 1.25 2.96 2.57 3.05 7.21

1.43 1.47 4.01 2.80 2.88 7.83

Note: D.S.: dry substance. Average of values obtained from the interlaboratory study. b 2.8 x Sr. c 2.8 x SR. a

At the end of the process, demineralization resins and activated carbon are used to purify the product before spray drying. The inal products are ine powders entirely soluble in cold water.

Dietary Fiber Content As proposed in the 1980s, dietary ibers are the remnant of the edible part of plants resistant to human digestion in the small intestine. This resistance to digestion is the basic principle used for analytical methods. Several methods have been developed for dietary iber determination, but the irst consensual oficial method was the enzymatic-gravimetric AOAC 985.29 [10]. The result obtained depends on the iber fraction after enzymatic degradation by amylase, amyloglucosidase, and protease, and being insoluble in a mixture of four parts alcohol and one part water. The precipitated residue is collected after iltration, then dried, and weighed. In the early 2000s, the deinition of dietary iber was reviewed and enlarged by the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) and received support from the scientiic community. Oligosaccharides, which are resistant short-chain polysaccharides with a degree of polymerization conventionally between 3 and 10, are included in the deinition. Such oligosaccharides do not precipitate in alcohol solution because of their low molecular weight and thus cannot be quantiied with the historical AOAC 985.29 and 991.43 methods.

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber CH2OH

CH2OH O

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

O

O

OH O

CH2OH

OH CH2OH OH

O

OH CH2

OH CH2OH

O

O

O

O

OH CH2OH OH

O

OH

O

OH

23

O

OH

O

OH CH2OH

O

OH

O OH

OH CH2OH

O

CH2OH

CH2

O

OH

O

OH

O

OH

O

O

OH

O

OH

O

O OH

CH2OH O

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

OH

O

O

O

OH OH

OH

1a: Starch (a) Starch

CH2OH OH

CH2OH

O

OH

O

O O

O OH

OH CH2 OH

CH2OH O

OH

O

OH CH2OH

CH2OH

O

O

OH

OH CH2OH

O

OH

O

O OH CH2 OH

OH

O

O

OH

CH2OH

O

O

OH

O

OH

OH O

O CH2OH OH

O

O

O

HO

O OH CH2

O

O OH CH2OH

O

OH

CH2 O

O OH CH2OH O OH

O O OH

O

HO OH

OH

®

1b: NURIOSE 06 (b) Nutriose® 06 FIGURE 3.1 Respective structural formulas of starch (a) and NUTRIOSE® 06 (b) one type of resistant dextrin of the NUTRIOSE® range.

In 2001, an enzymatic-gravimetric-HPLC method was proposed to the AOAC for the determination of total dietary iber (TDF) in foods containing resistant maltodextrin (reference AOAC 2001–03) [11]. This method, which also determines low-molecular-weight resistant oligosaccharides using HPLC, is an improvement of the conventional AOAC 985.29 method, which does not take into account these molecules. Briely, the principle is: The digestible part of the sample is irst converted to glucose using enzymatic hydrolysis. The high-molecular-mass soluble dietary iber is then precipitated in ethanol and weighed. After iltration, a liquid chromatography determination is conducted on the iltrate to obtain

24

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits MW = 9610

®

TACKIDEX DF 165

Mn = 2440

105

104

103

Masses Molaires (Daltons) (a)

MW = 5000

®

NUTRIOSE 06

Mn = 2650

105

104

103

Masses Molaires (Daltons) (b) FIGURE 3.2 Molecular weights distribution of a raw dextrin (a) and of a food dextrin (b).

the quantity of low-molecular-weight resistant oligosaccharides that have not precipitated in the alcohol preparation. Both values are summed for obtaining the total dietary iber content. An interlaboratory study has been set up for evaluating the performance and the appropriateness of the AOAC 2001–03 methods on different kinds of foodstuffs having variable iber content from 60% to 95% (see Table 3.1).

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

25

Six products analyzed in duplicate were tested. Seven laboratories from the United States (two laboratories), Italy, the Netherlands, Japan, Germany, and France have participated. The repeatability standard deviations (RSDr) are 0.7% to 2.0% and the reproducibility standard deviations (RSDR) 2.9% to 4.2%. These results are in accordance with literature data [10] where RSDr and RSDR are respectively 1.3% to 6.1% and 1.8% to 9.4% (see Table 3.1 and Figure 3.3). According to these reference methods, the total iber content of NUTRIOSE® 06 is 85% per dry substance including 50% of ibers insoluble in ethanol [11] and 35% resistant oligosaccharides.

Digestive Tolerance The beneicial effect of iber can be of interest only if its digestive tolerance threshold is fully compatible with the recommended daily intake inducing the claimed beneicial effect. This is especially so in the case of the resistant dextrin described in this chapter, which exhibits an outstanding tolerance. The digestive tolerance can be deined as the individual’s ability to tolerate digestive troubles induced after ingestion of a foodstuff. The digestive tolerance threshold is the highest ingested dose inducing no major gastrointestinal trouble in speciic clinical studies in comparison with a placebo. It has to be clearly distinguished from the mean laxative threshold, which is the dose inducing diarrhea in half of the subjects and which is sometimes used to characterize tolerance of other ibers. Soluble ibers are mainly fermented in the colon, therefore offering prebiotic beneits. The fermentation results in the production of gas (mainly CO2, CH4, and H2) naturally excreted in both breath air and latulence. With consumption of high doses of fermentable carbohydrates, the quantity of produced gas can exceed the capacity of breath excretion; therefore tolerance threshold knowledge is needed in order to conirm that the required physiological impact on the body (like the prebiotic effect for example) is obtained at a dose that doesn’t induce digestive discomfort. The digestive tolerance of our indigestible dextrin was very precisely studied, following acute as well as chronic administration protocols, after or without a progressive adaptation period [12, 13]. In one study publishing the outcomes of a short-term digestive tolerance trial in 20 healthy volunteers [12], successive periods of one-week administration of increasing amounts of 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 80 grams indigestible dextrin or placebo per day were tested. The placebo was a standard maltodextrin of equivalent molecular weight. None of the doses of the food dextrin, even 80 g/d, resulted in diarrhea. Only increased (“more serious”) latulence was observed with the highest dosages of 60 and 80 g/d. Increased frequency of bloating was recorded the last day with 80 g/d. In this study, tolerance,

110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Product n°2

Black bars: Low molecular weight fiber

Product n°1

Product n°3

Product n°5

Gray bars: High molecular weight fiber (alcohol precipitated)

Product n°4

Product n°6

FIGURE 3.3 Histogram of the results: inter-laboratory study for the 2001-03 AOAC iber determination. Products: n°1, NUTRIOSE® FB 06; n°2 and 3, 70% iber dextrin; n°4, 60 % iber dextrin; n°5, NUTRIOSE FM 06; n°6, 95 % iber dextrin. Black bars: HPLC determination. Gray bars: alcohol precipitated.

Fiber Content % DS

26 Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

27

deined as abdominal discomfort threshold, was consequently determined as being 45 g/d for healthy adults. To explore the long-term digestive tolerance, the soluble dietary iber was tested on 48 volunteers [13]. After a one-week run-in period, about 16 volunteers per group received for four weeks either 30 g/d or 45 g/d of the resistant dextrin or the placebo, a standard maltodextrin. No serious adverse event occurred. No diarrhea was reported, and both food dextrin dosages were well-tolerated. It has been also demonstrated that ingestion of 100 g of the soluble iber did not cause severe digestive disorders [14], due to a progressive adaptation and distribution in six equal doses per day. Only excessive latus was recorded after intakes above 50 g/d. It is possible to conclude from these previously reported studies that the mean laxative threshold dose of NUTRIOSE® 06 is above 100 g/d. According to these experimental data, the digestive tolerance threshold has been set, as a “no symptom” dose, at 45 g/d. Different factors can explain this outstanding digestive tolerance for this resistant dextrin. The Composition of the Fiber Low-digestible carbohydrates differ concerning their degrees of absorption, fermentation, and osmotic effect, inluencing their metabolism and/or their tolerance [15]: • Absorption and Fermentation Rates: The larger the part fermented, the greater the risk of discomfort. Resistant dextrins like this one, which are partially digested (15%) in the small intestine, are very well tolerated. • Molecular Weight and Fermentation Rate: Smaller molecules give higher osmotic pressure in the colon and slower fermenting compounds are more easily tolerated than faster ones. The higher degree of polymerization of this resistant glucose polymer compared to that of other non-digestible carbohydrates, and hence lower osmotic pressure and slower fermentation, may thus explain its high tolerance threshold even at high dosages. • Way of Fermentation: This food dextrin is fermented throughout the colon, allowing the short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced to be progressively absorbed and thus inducing few osmotic effects. On the contrary, dietary ibers like fructans can be quickly fermented in the proximal colon. They consequently induce a rapid decrease in pH, due to lactic acid and SCFA production, leading to possible osmotic effects and laxativity.

28

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

The Type of Food Matrix in Which They Are Included Liquid food products, such as beverages and ice cream, are more likely to induce a discomfort than a solid product (bread, biscuit, cookies), partly because of the rate of gastric emptying (faster with liquid food and slower with solid food). However, in the short-term tolerance study [12], the tolerance threshold of this resistant dextrin was assessed on the basis of unfavorable conditions (i.e., incorporated in grape juice or fruit yogurt). As previously mentioned, the tolerance was very good, at doses up to 45 g/d. The Intestinal Bacterial Adaptation The colonic lora can evolve depending on the type of indigestible carbohydrate present in the environment. An improvement of the tolerance can be observed in cases of daily consumption of the same dosage, with decreasing symptoms over the course of time. In the short-term tolerance study, subjects ingesting daily 60 grams of resistant dextrin for six days experience latulence as more severe than those of the maltodextrin group. Surprisingly, this was no longer the case during the last 24 hours, suggesting an adaptation to the food dextrin [12]. In this study, latulence occurred more frequently in the 30, 60, and 80 g/d food dextrin groups (p < 0.05), bloating occurring more often during the last day with 80 g/d resistant dextrin (p < 0.05), with none of the doses resulting in diarrhea, even at more than 80 g/d. Adaptation was observed with a decrease in the symptoms’ intensity after 20 days. During the long-term tolerance study [13], both doses of 30 and 45 g/d were very well tolerated with no diarrhea reported due to resistant dextrin supplementation. In the course of the study, some habituation and adaptation of gastrointestinal symptoms were found.

Digestion and Absorption in the Small Intestine: Associated Physiological Effects Invasive tests can be used to quantify the intestinal digestibility in humans. These methods are mainly developed in ileostomized patients or using technical intubations in healthy subjects. Not only may these methods lead to biased results due to the non-physiological conditions of testing, but also, and mainly, they are ethically dificult to manage because of pain-generating situations. The intestinal digestibility of NUTRIOSE® 06 was consequently assessed through in vitro techniques and in vivo animal studies. It allowed evaluating

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

29

the percentage of resistant dextrin ingested that could resist the action of human digestive enzymes. In vitro tests were used based on previous publications [16, 17]. These kinds of tests consist in exposition of the dietary iber to different enzymes that simulate the small intestine digestion. As the resistant dextrin is a glucose polymer, hydrolysis of the iber is assessed by the dosage of the glucose that is delivered through the action of the enzymes. TNO intestinal model allows the measurement of the small intestine digestibility in a more complex system that is quite well recognized by the scientiic world [18]. A digestibility test by intestinal infusion in rats was implemented. This test, based on a continuous circulation of the dextrin solution between the duodenum and the ileum in situ in the abdominal cavity of anaesthetized animals, allows the estimation of the intestinal hydrolysis by assaying the amount of residual food dextrin after a two-hour infusion [19]. The results of the studies obtained with the three previously described models indicated a small intestine digestibility in the range of 8.7% to 19% for this indigestible dextrin. In this context, a mean digestibility of 15% was set.

Glycemic Response The rate of absorption of the resistant dextrin at the different stages of the gastrointestinal tract plays a major role in determining its metabolic effect. This soluble iber is weakly digested in the small intestine (15% of the ingested dose evaluated in vitro) and largely fermented in the colon. This weak absorption in the small intestine induces a low glycemic response (GR = 25) and a low insulinemic response (IR = 13) (see Figures 3.4 and 3.5) as demonstrated by following the FAO/WHO methodological recommendations [20]. The low IR of the food dextrin probably contributes to a better feeling of satiety than after glucose ingestion. As another consequence of this weakly insulogenic effect, no postprandial hypoglycemia is observed on the blood glucose curve after 120 minutes as can be the case after glucose ingestion (Figure 3.4). Finally, incorporation of this soluble iber as an ingredient of a foodstuff can reduce the glycemic response of a meal. For example, the dextrin was incorporated into pasta, beverages, and biscuits [21]. The glycemic responses to all these foodstuffs were low according to the classiication previously proposed [22] and fully agree with the WHO recommendations [20].

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

30 10

Glycaemia (mmol/L)

9 8

®

NUTRIOSE FB 06 Dextrose

7 6 5 4 3 0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

Time (minutes) FIGURE 3.4 Evolution of glycemia after ingestion of 50 g dextrose or 50 g NUTRIOSE® FB in 250 mL potable water (after overnight fasting).

50 45

Insulinaemia (mUI/L)

40 35 30

®

NUTRIOSE FB 06 Dextrose

25 20 15 10 5 0 0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

Time (minutes) FIGURE 3.5 Evolution of insulinemia after ingestion of 50 g dextrose or 50 g NUTRIOSE® FB in 250 mL potable water (after overnight fasting).

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

31

Gut Well-Being Soluble dietary ibers reach the colon almost unchanged where they can induce “prebiotic effects” characterized by (a) an increase in “beneicial bacteria” and/or a decrease in “harmful bacteria,” (b) a decrease in intestinal pH, (c) production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and (d) changes in bacterial enzymes concentrations [23]. NUTRIOSE® 06, as a resistant dextrin, is mostly resistant to digestion in the small intestine and largely fermented in the colon. It is a soluble dietary iber [24]. It also shows [5] an outstanding digestive tolerance, allowing its consumption in amounts fully compatible with beneicial changes in the gut ecosystem, described hereafter. The resistant dextrin induces an increase of the colonic saccharolytic lora and a decrease in potentially harmful Clostridium perfringens in human feces. These effects have been noticed in two different clinical studies. In the irst study (study 1) [unpublished results], 48 volunteers were randomly included and distributed into four parallel groups. During the 14-day study, the irst group consumed 20 g/d glucose (placebo) and the three others respectively 10, 15, or 20 g/d of the food dextrin. At the end of the experiment, an increase in the saccharolytic lora was observed with 10 g/d resistant dextrin consumption (p < 0.05; Table 3.2). A decrease of the genus Clostridium perfringens was seen following 15 g/d consumption (p < 0.05; Table 3.2). In the second study (study 2) [13], 43 volunteers randomly assigned to three parallel groups (placebo, 30, and 45 g/d resistant dextrin) completed the clinical trial. A signiicant increase in the mean Lactobacilli numbers was observed after a 35-day consumption of 45 g/d food dextrin (p < 0.05; Table 3.2). During the study, a decrease in the genus Clostridium perfringens was observed again, conirming the beneicial effect previously described on potentially harmful bacteria. The soluble iber is able to induce a decrease in the fecal pH of human volunteers. In the two previously described trials, pH measurements were TABLE 3.2 Signiicant Differences (p < 0.05) Observed in Many Types of Flora Quantiied in Human Feces before and after Administration of NUTRIOSE® at Different Doses and during Different Durations. Amount of NUTRIOSE® Administered; Duration of the Diet

Type of Flora Quantiied in the Human Feces

Before

10 g/d – 14 days 15 g/d – 14 days

Bacteroides (Log CFU/g) Clostridium perfringens (Log CFU/g) Lactobacilli (Log CFU/g)

8.543 ± 0.51 3.521 ± 1.65

8.958 ± 0.68 2.360 ± 1.53

7.2 ± 1.4

8.2 ± 1.2

45 g/d – 35 days

After

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

SCFAs (mg/caecum)

32 70

(**): P < 0.01

60

(***): P < 0.005

*** **

50 40 30 20 10 0 Control

2.5% 5% 10% NUTRIOSE 06 NUTRIOSE 06 NUTRIOSE 06

®

®

®

FIGURE 3.6 Total amount of SCFAs in rat’s ceca after a 14-day administration of NUTRIOSE® 06 in feed.

performed at the end of the administration period. We noticed a signiicant decrease of the fecal pH following either the short or the long period of indigestible dextrin consumption. In study 1, fecal pH was 6.67 before the intervention phase and 5.99 after a 14-day administration period of 20 g/d (p < 0.05). In the long-term study (study 2) [13), fecal pH decreased at a nearly dose-dependent rate with treatment duration in both treated groups (30 and 45 g/d) unlike what happened in the placebo group, with a signiicant difference for the pH at day 21 of the 45 g/d resistant dextrin group compared to the placebo group (p < 0.05). The food dextrin increases production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in rats. Animal models are described as the only way to study production of colonic SCFAs because they are likely absorbed by the gut mucosa essentially to produce energy after metabolism [25]. The resistant dextrin was administered during 36 days to Sprague-Dawley laboratory rats. The total amounts of cecal SCFAs (acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) after 14 days were 36.04, 38.63, 51.10, and 62.39 mg/cecum for respectively the control group, the rats treated with 2.5%, with 5%, and with 10% resistant dextrin in feed (Figure 3.6). In the 10% group, the 108% increase observed for the propionic acid was signiicant (p < 0.005). The resistant polysaccharide induces changes in fecal bacterial enzyme concentration. In study 1, administering the resistant dextrin to human volunteers promoted changes in fecal bacterial enzyme concentration. Speciically, fecal concentrations of β-glucosidase, an inducible enzyme, were respectively 12.9 for the control group, 24.4, 22.6, and 31.4 UI/min/g for the 10 g/d, 15 g/d, and 20 g/d groups after 15 days administration. The concentra-

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber 35

33

(*): p < 0.05

bglucosidase (U/min/g)

30 *

25

*

20 15 10 5 0

Control

10g

15g

20g

FIGURE 3.7 Fecal β-glucosidase production after a 14-day administration of NUTRIOSE® 06 in humans.

tion was signiicantly higher for the 10 and 15 g/d groups as compared with the placebo group (p < 0.05; Figure 3.7). In a previous short-term tolerance study in 20 humans [12], where the food dextrin was administered at daily levels of 10 and 15 g up to 60 and 80 g, a similar signiicant increase of β-glucosidase fecal concentration (p < 0.05) had been already observed in all dextrin groups (10 to 80 g/d) as compared with the placebo, even at the lowest dose of 10 g/d. This clearly indicates that signiicant changes of the gut microlora occur early after the beginning of resistant dextrin consumption. In study 2 [13], a signiicant increase of β-glucosidase production (p < 0.05) was observed at the irst observation (21 days) and still maintained after a 35-day consumption of 30 and 45 g/d (p < 0.05), showing a modiication and a stabilization of the colonic lora. Results presented above show the speciic fermentation pattern of resistant glucose polymer in humans. It is related to the molecular structure of this dietary iber and to its speciic physicochemical characteristics. As a glucose polymer, it likely stimulates the proliferation of colonic bacteria able to adapt to non-digestible carbohydrates [26], among which is the genus Bacteroides. This is a well-known producer of glucosidases, which is seen through the production of β-glucosidase in the previously described experiments. This enzyme [26] clearly indicates that oral consumption of as little as 10 g/d induces deep changes in the metabolic activity of the colonic lora. Glucosidases can act in the gut on residual polysaccharides coming from diet and remaining undigested, as for example vegetable residues. As a result, end products as minerals and other micronutrients can become available for the colon and the body [14]. An increase in Lactobacilli was also observed. These are classiied as desirable colonic bacteria. They contribute to maintaining a healthy colon.

34

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

SCFAs production is dificult to monitor in human clinical studies mainly for technical reasons [25]. Animal models are usually used in this context for studying SCFAs production following dietary iber consumption. In all animal studies conducted, an increase in SCFAs production was observed. SCFAs and gases were indicators of the fermentation processes occurring after resistant dextrin consumption. As a result of these colonic fermentations, a pH decrease of the colonic content is visible through the fall in the fecal pH. This point is very interesting in terms of colonic health as a weak decrease in gut pH, coupled with propionic acid production (powerfully inhibiting enterobacteria in acidic conditions) is associated with a decrease in potentially harmful gram-negative bacteria. This is the case with 15 g/d resistant dextrin consumption as displayed by a decrease of the species Clostridium perfringens. The results presented show that the consumption of 10 grams or more per day of the soluble iber produces positive observable changes in the gut microlora [27]. Bacteria that may ferment the food dextrin are likely bacteria from the glucidolytic lora. These bacteria are thus increasing in number to the detriment of proteolytic species such as Clostridium perfringens because of the promotion of acidic conditions in the gut. The enzymes produced by the saccharolytic lora are enzymes that can play an ultimate role in the production of end products of interest in terms of colonic health, like vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Recently published results [28, 29] indicate that the gut microbiota may be a contributing factor to the physiopathology of obesity. Among the dominant bacterial division, Bacteroidetes are decreased in obese people by comparison with what occurs in lean people. Moreover, the soluble iber is outstandingly well-tolerated, even at high dosages, which should be used in order to reach such a type of goal in obese people. According to all these observations, and based on the deinition given above, the convergent changes observed in the colonic environment globally allow concluding that NUTRIOSE® 06 can be considered as a prebiotic iber.

Caloric Value By application of the equation published by Roberfroid [30], the caloric value of the resistant dextrin is 1.7 kcal/g (commercial base). This value of 1.7 can be used for the foodstuffs energy content determination in Europe [31]. In the United States, where the FASEB equation [32] is much more recognized, the caloric value has been estimated at 2.1 kcal/g (dry substance). The caloric value of the resistant dextrin was determined in healthy young men [14]. The authors concluded that the net energy value of NUTRIOSE® is 2.0 kcal/g; this is fully in agreement with the consensual caloric value of soluble dietary ibers [33]. It should be kept in mind that soluble dietary ibers may have a positive impact on the total daily energy expenditures through the colonic fermenta-

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

35

tions and the rheological modiications of the gut contents. The impact of low-digestible carbohydrates consumption on the energy expenditures of healthy volunteers was studied [34]. The positive impact was explained by the increase of the gastrointestinal tract motility, the increase of the digestive tissue weight, and a lower energetic eficiency of short-chain fatty acids utilization compared with glucose. All these parameters were positively altered in animals fed with the resistant dextrin [13, 14, 35].

Technical and Physicochemical Properties Allowing Various Food Applications Thanks to stability towards industrial processing, neutral taste, and ease of use, the indigestible dextrin can be added or incorporated for nutritional or technological objectives in a very wide range of food and beverage processing, while preserving organoleptic characteristics and consumers’ pleasure. Powder’s Properties Thanks to its particle size and molecular coniguration, dry NUTRIOSE® products are free lowing, easy to disperse, rapid to dissolve, and soluble. They can be used in dry mixes as well as alone, or used as carriers for tabletop sweeteners or lavors. Their theoretically unlimited solubility added to their low viscosity in solution allow their use at very high dosages during processing and in inished products. In products like reduced-sugar beverages or fruit illings, reduced-sugar or low-fat biscuits, bars, and toppings, they will allow balancing the dry matter, and also enhance texture. Among ibers launched under powdered forms, this soluble iber is one of the lowest in hygroscopy: It can resist up to 80% relative humidity (24h, 20°C) before clumping occurs. This characteristic is highly important on production lines, in warehouses, and for use in tropical countries. As it does not provide cloudiness in solution, it is dedicated for applications like beverages, some confectioneries, bouillons, and lavorings. It can be used as binder for granulation and has an excellent ability for compression, which allows its use in tablets both in food and pharmaceutical areas. Resistance to Various Industrial Processing The resistant dextrin’s product range is stable in high-temperature processing conditions, including sterilization, UHT treatment, or baking. It remains stable in acidic conditions, such as fruit and vegetable juices. These properties have been validated through measurement of the change in molecu-

36

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

lar weight distribution (expressed as a ratio Mw/initial Mw*100) over time. After 90 days’ storage at 20°C, the molecular weight of the resistant dextrin remains unchanged or almost unchanged at any pH during storage (93% at pH 2, 100% at the other pH, tested until 8), and this result is also valid for higher temperatures as no hydrolysis occurs. This point has also been demonstrated in inished products. For example, in bread cooked at 200°C for 10 minutes, the percentages of soluble iber, respectively on the one hand calculated for incorporation in bread and on the other hand analyzed after fermentation and cooking, go from 2.5% to 2.8% in a control (conventional) bread and from 8.1% to 8.2% in a resistant dextrin enriched bread, demonstrating the good stability of the soluble iber towards fermentation and cooking. Similar results have been found for hardboiled candies cooked in an open pan at 180°C, UHT beverages sterilized at 140°C for two seconds, fruit illings pasteurized at 95°C for ive minutes, and soups sterilized at 110°C for 50 minutes. The resistant dextrin even remains stable when inished products are fried, frozen, or produced by extrusion, like cereal lakes, for example. This stability is very interesting for product formulations and quality maintenance over time. Indeed, no additional dosage is needed to guarantee the iber content of the inished product after processes with potential impact on stability. The resistant dextrin is not fermented by S. cerevisiae and is easily processable on traditional equipment. Even if some recipe adjustments may be needed at the highest rates of incorporation, it will not affect the process. Softness, taste, and appearance of end products will be preserved during shelf life. The resistant dextrin is not fermented by most dairy strains and can be used in all kinds of dairy products for iber or other health beneits claims, thanks to its stability to heat and acidity. In milk, it will not provide viscosity but will contribute to mouthfeel. As an example, enrichment with the indigestible dextrin (15 g/l) will provide to skimmed milk the creamy and smooth texture of the half skimmed one, together with fat reduction and iber enrichment.

Taste and Mouthfeel The resistant dextrin NUTRIOSE® has a very slightly sweet taste depending on the grade (from 0.1% to 0.2% compared to sucrose) and can be used both in sweet and salty goods. It will provide no speciic taste to inished products

NUTRIOSE® Soluble Fiber

37

while contributing to or enhancing a nice mouthfeel. This can be achieved thanks to its bulking agent, mainly in liquid foodstuffs (beverages, dairy) as described previously, but also in semisolid goods. For example, the resistant dextrin can impact positively the chewiness of chewy sweets or the softness of some reduced-fat baked goods. Results of experiments performed on heattreated soups point out a recovered mouthfeel in reduced-fat versions using resistant dextrin. Thanks to its sugar-free reference, the resistant dextrin can be used in sugar-free confectionery, beverages, and lavors.

Safety, Regulation, and Labeling The resistant dextrin has been recognized as a soluble dietary iber by the French Food Safety Agency [36] and by the Italian Ministry of Health. Therefore the range is also recognized among proposed constituents of dietary ibers by ILSI’s experts in the recently updated ILSI Europe monograph [37]. Products of this range are deined as food ingredients labeled as dextrins. Depending on local regulations, the vegetable origin of the raw material has to be declared if wheat. NUTRIOSE® can be safely used with no limitations because of its harmlessness [38]. The resistant dextrin is prepared from conventional (non-GMO) maize or from wheat. On top of all nutritional beneits previously described, use of NUTRIOSE® 06 is compatible with sugar(s)-free claims or no-sugar(s)-added claims, while the whole range can be used for low-sugar or reduced-fat claims as well as for any claims on ibers.

Conclusion NUTRIOSE® 06, as a soluble dietary iber, very easily incorporated in foodstuffs, has an outstanding tolerance. Therefore, it can be used without digestive side effects at the dosage that is recommended for reaching some nutritional goals, such as, for example, prebiotic-type effects or decreased glycemic responses. It is therefore a key ingredient and a very useful tool for the food industry in the context of epidemic obesity and type 2 diabetes, and in accordance with many of the WHO/FAO nutritional recommendations for less sugar, and more iber.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

References 1. Burkitt, DP, and Spiller, GA. Dietary iber: From early hunter-gatherers to the 1990s. In: Spiller GA, CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition, 3rd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1986, pp. 3–6. 2. Trowell, HC, Southgate, DA, Wolever, TM, Leeds, AR, Gassull, MA, and Jenkins, DJA. Letter: Dietary iber redeined. Lancet, 1976, 1, p. 967. 3. Oakenfull, D. Physical chemistry of dietary iber. In: Spiller, GA, CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition, 3rd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1986, pp. 33–44. 4. Schneemann, BO. Dietary iber and gastrointestinal function. In: McCleary, BV, and Prosky, L, Advanced Dietary Fiber Technology, Blackwell Science, London, 2001, pp. 168–176. 5. Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation on Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases. Geneva, 28 January–1 February 2002. 6. Tharanathan, RN. Starch-value addition by modiication. Critical Reviews in Food Science Nutrition 2005, 45 (5), pp. 371–384. 7. Laurentin, A, Cardenas, M, Ruales, J, Perez, E, and Tovar, J. Preparation of indigestible pyrodextrins from different starch sources. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry, 2003, 51 (18), pp. 5510–5515. 8. Kerr, RW, and Cleveland, FC. Chemistry of dextrinization. Stärke, 1953, 5, pp. 261–266. 9. Srivastava, HC, Parmar, RS, and Dave, GB. Studies on dextrinization. Stärke, 1970, 2, pp. 49–54. 10. Prosky, L, Asp, NG, DeVries, JW, Schweizer, TF, and Harland, BF. Determination of total dietary iber in foods and food products: collaborative study. Journal Association of Oficial Analytical Chemists, 1985, 68(4), pp. 677–679. 11. Van Den Heuvel, EGHM, Wils, D, Pasman, WJ, Bakker, M, Saniez, MH, Kardinaal, AFM. Short-term digestive tolerance of different doses of NUTRIOSE® FB, a food dextrin, in adult men. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2004, 58, pp. 1046–1055. 12. Gordon, DT, and Okuma, K. Determination of total dietary iber in selected foods containing resistant maltodextrin by enzymatic-gravimetric method and liquid chromatography: collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International, 2002, 85(2), pp. 435–444. 13. Pasman, W, Wils, D, Saniez, MH, Kardinaal, A. Long-term gastrointestinal tolerance of NUTRIOSE® FB in healthy men. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2006, 60(8), pp. 1024–134 Epub 2006 Feb 15. 14. Vermorel, M, Coudray, YC, Wils, D, Sinaud, S, Tressol, JC, Montaurier, C, Vernet, J, Brandolini, M, Bouteloup-Demange, C, and Rayssiguier, Y. Energy value of a low-digestible carbohydrate, NUTRIOSE® FB, and its impact on magnesium, calcium and zinc apparent absorption and retention in healthy young men. European Journal of Nutrition, 2004, 43, pp. 344–352. 15. Marteau, P, and Flourié, B. Tolerance of low-digestible carbohydrates: symptomatology and methods. British Journal of Nutrition, 2001, 85, Suppl. 1, S17–S21. 16. Dahlqvist, A. Method for assay of intestinal dissacharidases. Analytical Biochemistry, 1964, 7, pp. 18–25.

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17. Englyst, HN, Kingman, SM, and Cummings, JH. Classiication and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1992, 46 (Suppl. 2), pp. 533–550. 18. Minekus, M. Development and validation of a dynamic model of the gastrointestinal tract. Ph.D. thesis, 1998, Utrecht University Elinkwijk b.v, Utrecht, Netherlands. 19. Barr, WH, and Riegelman, S. Intestinal drug absorption and metabolism. I. Comparison of methods and models to study physiological factors of in vitro and in vivo intestinal absorption. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1970, 59(2), pp. 154–163. 20. FAO/WHO carbohydrates in human nutrition. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO expert consultation FAO, Roma, 1998. 21. Lefranc-Millot, C, Wils, D, Henry, J, Lightower, H, and Saniez-Degrave, MH. NUTRIOSE®, a resistant dextrin and MALTISORB®, a sugar alcohol, two key ingredients for healthy diets and obesity management. Obesity Reviews, 2006, 7(suppl 2), p. 269. 22. Livesey, G. Low-glycaemic diets and health: implications for obesity. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 2005, 64, pp. 105–113. 23. Woods, MN, and Gorbach, SL Inluences of ibers on the ecology of the intestinal lora. In: Spiller, GA. Handbook of dietary iber in human nutrition, CRC, New York, USA, 2001, pp. 257–270. 24. Roberfroid, MB. Introducing inulin-type fructans. The British Journal of Nutrition, 2005, 93, Suppl 1, pp. S13–S25. 25. Roberfroid, M, and Slavin, J. Nondigestible oligosaccharides. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2000, 40, pp. 461–480. 26. Marteau, P, Pochart, P, Flourie, B, Pellier, P, Santos, L, Desjeux, JF, and Ramboud, JC. Effect of chronic ingestion of a fermented dairy product containing Lactobacillus acidophilus and Biidobacterium biidum on metabolic activities of the colonic lora in humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1990, 52, pp. 685–688. 27. Lefranc-Millot, C, Wils, D, Neut, C, Saniez, MH. Effects of a soluble iber with excellent tolerance, NUTRIOSE® 06, on the gut ecosystem: a review. Dietary Fibre 2006, Helsinki, Finland, 12–14 June. 28. Turnbaugh, PJ, Ley, RE, Mahowald, MA, Magrini, V, Mardis, ER, and Gordon, JI. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity of energy harvest. Nature, 2006, 444 (7122), pp. 1027–1031. 29. Ley, RE, Turnbaugh, PJ, Klein, S, and Gordon, JI. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity. Nature, 2006, 444 (7122), pp. 1022–1023. 30. Roberfroid, MB. Caloric value of inulin and oligofructose. The Journal of Nutrition, 1999, 129, pp. 1436S–1437S. 31. Coussement, P. Regulatory issues relating to dietary iber in the European context. In: McCleary and Prosky, Eds. Advanced Dietary Fiber Technology, Blackwell Science, New York, 2001, pp. 139–145. 32. FASEB/LSRO. The evaluation of the energy of certain sugar alcohols used as food ingredients. Life Sciences Research Ofice, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Bethesda, MD, 1994. 33. Livesey, G. The energy values of dietary ibres and sugar alcohols for man. Nutrition Research Review, 1992, 5, pp. 61–84.

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34. Sinaud, S, Montaurier, C, Wils, D, Vernet, J, Brandolini, M, Bouteloup-Demange, C, and Vermorel, M. Net energy value of two low-digestible carbohydrates, Lycasin HBC and the hydrogenated polysaccharide fraction of Lycasin HBC in healthy human subjects and their impact on nutrient digestive utilization. The British Journal of Nutrition, 2002, 87(2), pp. 131–139. 35. Van den Heuvel, EGHM, Wils, D, Pasman, WJ, Saniez, MH, and Kardinaal, AF. Dietary supplementation of different doses of NUTRIOSE® FB, a fermentable dextrin, alters the activity of faecal enzymes in healthy men. European Journal of Nutrition, 2005, 44, pp. 445–451. 36. Saisine n0 = 2005 —SA— 0283 Aois de l'Agence Frangaise de securite sanitaire des aliments relatif à l’évaluation de la qualiication comme ibre alimentaire soluble dúne dextrine et des justiicatifs des allegations nutritionnelles qui lui sont anocies. Published the 30/07/2007. 37. Gray, J. Dietary iber: Deinition, analysis, physiology and health, 2006. In: ILSI Europe Concise Monograph Series. ILSI EUROPE Eds. 38. Wils, D, Scheuplein, RJ, Deremaux, L, and Looten, P. Oral sub-chronic 90-day study of NUTRIOSE® (a food dextrin) (submitted to Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology).

4 Inulin Anne Franck and Douwina Bosscher

CONTENTS Introduction ........................................................................................................... 41 Chemical Structure ...............................................................................................42 Natural Occurrence ..............................................................................................42 Quantitative Determination of Inulin in Food .................................................43 Production .............................................................................................................. 45 Properties ............................................................................................................... 45 Physical and Chemical Properties ............................................................. 45 Material Properties ...................................................................................... 46 Nutritional Properties ................................................................................. 47 Non-Digestibility ............................................................................. 47 Caloric Value ..................................................................................... 47 Improvement of Lipid Metabolism................................................ 47 Effects on Gut Function................................................................... 48 Modulation of Gut Microlora ........................................................ 49 Resistance to Infections and Inlammation ................................. 49 Suitable for Diabetics ....................................................................... 50 Modulation of Appetite and Food Intake ..................................... 51 Reduction of Cancer Risk................................................................ 52 Increase in Mineral Absorption ..................................................... 52 Intestinal Acceptability ................................................................... 53 Food Applications .................................................................................................54 Outlook and Perspectives .................................................................................... 55 References .............................................................................................................. 56

Introduction Inulin, a non-digestible carbohydrate, is a fructan that has been part of our daily diet for some centuries and naturally occurs in many plants as storage carbohydrate. It is present for example in leeks, onions, garlic, wheat, chicory, 41

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

artichokes, and bananas. On an industrial scale, it is obtained mainly from chicory roots and used as a functional food ingredient that offers a unique combination of nutritional properties and technological beneits. In food formulations, inulin improves the organoleptic characteristics, upgrading both taste and mouthfeel in a wide range of applications. In particular, this tastefree fructan increases the stability of foams and emulsions and shows an exceptional fat-like behavior when used under the form of a gel in water. Additionally, the nutritional properties of inulin offer a wide range of beneits on health and well-being. In certain ields, such as gut function and health, increase in mineral aborption, reduction of colonic cancer risk, and modulation of appetite, data on the effects of inulin are well documented. Others, such as modulation of lipid and sugar metabolism and the effects on immunity, show promising data, and more evidence on the beneicial effects of inulin in these areas is expected. So, inulin as a functional food ingredient offers opportunities for fat and carbohydrate replacement without compromising on taste and texture, while delivering nutritional beneits to the inal product. Inulin, therefore, represents a key ingredient offering new opportunities to the food industry looking for healthy and well-balanced, and yet better tasting, products for the future.

Chemical Structure Inulin is a polydisperse carbohydrate material consisting mainly, if not exclusively, of β(2-1)-fructosyl-fructose links [1]. A starting glucose moiety can be present but is not necessary. Fructan is a more general name, used for any compound in which one or more fructosyl-fructose links constitute the majority of linkages (i.e., covering both inulin and levan). Referring to the deinition of inulin, both GFn and Fm compounds are considered to be included under that same nomenclature. In chicory inulin, n, the number of fructose units linked to a terminal glucose, can vary from 2 to more than 60 units [2]. This means that inulin is a mixture of oligomers and polymers. The molecular structure of inulin compounds is shown in Figure 4.1. Native chicory inulin also contains glucose, fructose, sucrose, and oligosaccharides. Native refers to inulin that prior to its analysis is extracted from fresh roots, taking precautions to inhibit the plant’s own inulinase activity as well as acid hydrolysis [3].

Natural Occurrence After starch, fructans are the most abundant non-structural polysaccharides found in nature. They are present in a wide variety of plants. Fructan-producing

Inulin

43 HOCH2 O

O OH HO CH2

OH HO

HO HO

HOCH2

OH HOCH2

O O HO

HO

HO

CH2

HOCH2

O O

O

HO

CH2

n–1

O

HOCH2

HO

O O HO

CH2OH HO

m–2

CH2OH HO

(GFn)

(Fm)

FIGURE 4.1 Chemical structure of inulin.

plants are commonly present among the grasses (1200 species), whereas 15% of the lowering plants produce them in signiicant amounts. They are widely spread within the Liliaceae (3500 species) and most frequently among the Compositae (25,000 species) [4]. Strictly β(2–1) deined inulin is typical for the Compositae. Inulin-containing plants that are commonly used for human nutrition belong mainly to either the Liliacea (e.g., leek, onion, garlic, and asparagus), or the Compositae (e.g., Jerusalem artichoke, dahlia, chicory, and yacon).

Quantitative Determination of Inulin in Food The AOAC method 997.08 [5] was developed because inulin and oligofructose are classiied as dietary ibers but cannot be measured by the classical AOAC iber method. An overview of the method is given in Figure 4.2. If inulin is the only compound present in the sample, the method consists only of steps 1 and 3. The inulin is extracted from a substrate at 85°C for 10 min; part of the extract is put apart for determination of free fructose, glucose, and sucrose by any reliable chromatographic method available (HPLC, HGC, or HPAEC-PAD); the other part is submitted to an enzymatic hydrolysis. After the hydrolysis step, resulting fructose and glucose are determined again by chromatography. By subtracting the initial glucose, fructose, and sucrose contents from the inal ones, the following formula can be applied: Inu = k (Ginu + Finu), where k (10%), dahlia, Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), and chicory (Cichorium intybus) could be considered good candidates for industrial production in temperate regions. However, most inulin produced for commercial applications is derived from chicory. Chicory is a biennial plant. During the irst season, the chicory plants remain in the vegetative phase and make only leaves, taproots, and ibrous roots. The roots look like small oblong sugar beets. Their inulin content is high and fairly constant from year to year for a given region (between 16.0% to 17.6%). The production of inulin goes through two phases. The irst step includes the extraction and a primary puriication and results in a raw syrup; the second step is the reining phase which results in a commercial product that is more than 99.5% pure. The resulting inulin (Orafti® inulin) has a degree of polymerization (DP) that relects the original DP present in chicory, varying between 3 and 60. A special-grade long-chain inulin (Orafti® HP) with DP > 23 is also available. It is made by physical elimination of the small DP fraction [7]. By partial enzymatic hydrolysis of inulin, oligofructose (Orafti® oligofructose) is obtained. A puriied endo-inulinase is used since the aim is to produce inulin oligomers with the least possible formation of mono- and disaccharides. Oligofructose contains smaller inulin fractions with DP varying between 3 and 8. More recently a patented combination of carefully selected chain lengths of oligofructose and long-chain inulin (Orafti® Synergy1) has been developed with enhanced nutritional properties (see further).

Properties Inulin offers technological properties for a wide scope of food applications as well as important nutritional beneits, which makes it a unique food ingredient. Physical and Chemical Properties Chicory inulin is available as white and odorless powders. The taste is neutral, without any off-lavor or aftertaste. Native inulin is slightly sweet (10% sweetness compared to sugar), whereas long-chain inulin has no sweetness [8]. It behaves like a bulk ingredient, contributes to body and mouthfeel, provides a better-sustained lavor with reduced aftertaste (e.g., in combination with high-potency sweeteners), and improves stability. Inulin is moderately soluble in water (maximum 10% at room temperature), which allows its incorporation into watery systems where the precipitation

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of other ibers often leads to problems. The viscosity of inulin solutions is rather low (e.g., 1.65 mPa.s at 10°C for a 5% dry matter (d.m.) solution and 100 mPa.s for a 30% d.m. solution) [3]. In very acidic conditions, the β(2–1) bonds between the fructose units in inulin can be (partially) hydrolyzed. Fructose is formed in this process, which is more pronounced under low pH, high-temperature, and low drysubstance conditions. Inulin is stable in applications with a pH higher than 4. Even at lower pH values, the hydrolysis of inulin can be limited to less than 10% if the products have high dry-matter content (>70%), are stored at a low temperature (25% in water for native inulin and >15% for longchain inulin), inulin has gelling properties and forms a particle gel network after shearing. When inulin is thoroughly mixed with water, or another aqueous liquid, a white creamy structure results that can easily be incorporated in foods to replace fat [8]. Inulin also improves the stability of foams and emulsions, such as aerated dairy desserts, ice creams, table spreads, and sauces. It can, therefore, replace other stabilizers in different food products. Material Properties Inulin products are available as powders with different particle size distribution and density. The content of the different chain length components also differs depending on the target application and desired nutritional effect. The longer chains behave more like polysaccharides and exhibit fatTABLE 4.1 Physicochemical Properties of Chicory Inulin Inulin Chemistry DPav Inulin content (% dry matter) Dry matter (%) Sugars (% dry matter) pH (10% in H2O) Ash (% dry matter) Heavy metals(% dry matter) Color Taste Sweetness vs. sucrose (%) Water solubility (% at 25°C) Water viscosity (5% at 10°C)

GpyFn DP 3-60 12 92 95 8 5-7 sugar beet iber > pea iber > oat iber. Bourquin et al. (1993) also studied in vitro fermentability of various iber sources with human colonic bacteria obtained from each of three adult male subjects. Substrates tested were two varieties of oat hull iber, gum arabic, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), soy iber, psyllium, and six blends containing oat iber, gum arabic, and CMC in various proportions. All substrates contained greater than 900 g/kg of total dietary iber except for CMC (816 g) and soy iber (778 g). In vitro organic matter disappearance during fermentation was less than 20% for the two oat ibers, CMC, and psyllium; intermediate for soy iber (56.4%); and the greatest for gum arabic (69.5%). Averaged across substrates, acetate, propionate, and butyrate were produced in the molar proportion of 64:24:12. Roland et al. (1995) also conirmed that the lowest amounts of gases and SCFA were found in rats fed on wheat bran, pea, and oat iber. Cameron et al. (1991) reported that heifers fed larger amounts of treated oat hulls had higher molar percentage acetate, and greater acetate:propionate ratios than controls.

Effect of Oat Fiber on Nitrogen Metabolism The availability of fermentable carbohydrates could inluence the digestive degradation and urea excretion (Cameron et al. 1991; Roland et al. 1995; Younes et al. 1995). Cameron et al. (1991) reported that heifers fed larger amounts of treated oat hulls had lower ruminal pH and ammonia N concentrations than controls. Roland et al. (1995) compared the effects of a poorly fermented cellulosic oat iber, a soluble fermentable iber (gum arabic) or one of two oligosaccharides (fructooligosaccharide or xylooligosaccharide) on nitrogen excretion in male Wistar rats (control: a wheat starch-based diet). The ibers and oligosaccharides were added to the semipuriied diets at 7.5 g/100 g in place of wheat starch. Compared with rats fed the oat-iber-based diet, urea lux from blood to cecum was nearly 50% greater and more than 120% greater in those fed the gum arabic and oligosaccharide diets, respectively. A rat study of Younes et al. (1995) also indicated that as a percentage of total excreted nitrogen, fecal nitrogen was 20% in the oat iber group,

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compared with only 10% in iber-free controls. However, in grower pigs, the addition of oat hulls (3.6% to 5.0% crude iber) did not affect N excretion patterns and plasma urea (p > 0.10; Zervas and Zijlstra 2002). Overall results indicate that the addition of oat iber to the diet induced a decrease in blood urea and renal and renal nitrogen excretion relative to the control, indicating a potential for oat iber diet therapy in chronic renal disease.

Morphology of Large Intestine Thomsen et al. (2006) reported that both T. suis infection and dietary carbohydrates signiicantly inluence the morphological architecture and the production and composition of mucins in the large intestine of pigs. An experiment was performed to study the inluence of Trichuris suis infection and type of dietary carbohydrates on large intestine morphology, epithelial cell proliferation, and mucin characteristics. Two experimental diets were based on barley lour; oat hull meal was supplemented with oat hull meal, while sugar beet iber/inulin meal was supplemented with sugar beet iber and inulin. In this experiment, 32 pigs were allocated randomly into four groups. Two groups were fed oat hull meal and two groups sugar beet iber/ inulin meal. Pigs from one of each diet group were inoculated with a single dose of 2000 infective T. suis eggs and the other two groups remained uninfected controls. All the pigs were slaughtered eight weeks post-inoculation (p.i.). Pigs fed oat hull meal had larger crypts both in terms of area and height than pigs fed sugar beet iber and inulin, and T. suis infected pigs on both diets in Experiment 1 had larger crypts than their respective control groups. The area of the mucin granules in the crypts constituted 22% to 53% of the total crypt area and was greatest in the T. suis infected pigs fed oat hull meal. Epithelial cell proliferation was affected neither by diet nor infection in any of the experiments. The study suggests that both diet and infection factors are important in large intestine function and that ibers may play a role in the susceptibility to intestinal helminth infections.

References Anderson JW, Hamilton CC, Horn JL, Spencer DB, Dillon DW, Zeigler JA. 1991. Metabolic effects of insoluble oat iber on lean men with type II diabetes. Cereal Chem. 68: 291–294. Berry BW. 1997. Effects of formulation and cooking method on properties of low-fat beef patties. J Food Serv Sys. 9: 211–228.

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Bollinger H & Noll B. 1999. Oat iber — second generation dietary iber Food Marketing Technol. 13:2, 5–6,8. Bourquin LD, Titgemeyer EC, Fahey GC Jr, Garleb KA. 1993. Fermentation of dietary iber by human colonic bacteria: disappearance of short-chain fatty acid production from, and potential water-holding capacity of, various substrates. Scand J Gastroenterol. 28(3):249–255. Cameron MG, Cremin JD Jr, Fahey GC Jr., Clark JH, Berger LL, Merchen NR. 1991. Chemically treated oat hulls in diets for dairy heifers and wethers: effects on intake and digestion. J Dairy Sci. 74:190–201. Cherney DJ, Siciliano-Jones J, Pell AN. 1993. Technical note: forage in vitro dry matter digestibility as inluenced by iber source in the donor cow diet. J Anim Sci. 71:1335–1338. Dougherty M, Sombke R, Irvine J, Rao CS. 1988. Oat ibers in low calorie breads, soft type cookies, and pasta. Cereal Foods World 33:424–427. Fernandez-Garcia E, McGregor JU, Traylor S. 1988. The addition of oat iber and natural alternative sweeteners in the manufacture of plain yogurt. J Dairy Sci. 81: 655–663. Galdeano MC, Grossmann MVE. 2005. Effect of treatment with alkaline hydrogen peroxide associated with extrusion on color and hydration properties of oat hulls, Brazilian Arch Biol Technol. 48: 63–72. Garleb A., Bourquin LD, Hsu JT, Wagner GW, Schmidt SJ, Fahey GC Jr. 1991. Isolation and chemical analyses of nonfermented iber fractions of oat hulls and cottonseed hulls. J Anim Sci. 69:1255–1271. Gould JM, Jasberg BK, Dexter LB, Hsu JT, Lewis SM, Fahey GC Jr. 1989. High-iber, noncaloric lour substitute for baked foods. Properties of alkaline peroxidetreated lignocellulose, Cereal Chem. 66: 201–205. Hetland H, Svihus B. 2001. Effect of oat hulls on performance, gut capacity and feed passage time in broiler chickens. Br Poult Sci. 42:354–361. Hocking PM, Zaczek V, Jones EK, Macleod MG. 2004. Different concentrations and sources of dietary iber may improve the welfare of female broiler breeders. Br Poult Sci. 45:9–19. Inglett GE. 1995. Dietary iber gels for preparing calorie reduced foods, U.S. Patent application serial number 08/563,834, November 28, 1995. Kapadia SA, Raimundo AH, Grimble GK, Aimer P, Silk DB. 1995. Inluence of three different iber-supplemented enteral diets on bowel function and short-chain fatty acid production. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 19:63–68. Larrea MA, Grossmann MVE, Beleia AP. 1997. Changes in water absorption and swollen volume in extruded alkaline peroxide pretreated rice hulls, Cereal Chem. 74: 98–101. Lee S-F. 1990. The utilization of oat iber and sodium erythorbate for the improvement of PSE pork quality. Thesis (M.S.), Iowa State University. Lopez-Guisa JM, Harned MC, Dubielzig R, Rao SC, Marlett JA. 1988. Processed oat hulls as potential dietary iber sources in rats. J Nutr. 118:953–962. Mateos GG, Martin F, Latorre MA, Vicente B, Lazaro R. 2006. Inclusion of oat hulls in diets for young pigs based on cooked maize or cooked rice. Animal Sci Intl J Fund Appl. Res. 82:57–63. McPherson-Kay R. 1987. Fiber, stool bulk, and bile acid output: implications for colon cancer risk. Prev Med. 16:540–544. Ramaswamy SR. 1988. Fiber and method of making. 07/285,356, December 14, 1988.

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Roland N, Nugon-Baudon L, Andrieux C, Szylit O. 1995. Comparative study of the fermentative characteristics of inulin and different types of iber in rats inoculated with a human whole faecal lora. Br J Nutr. 74:239–249. Steenblock RL, Sebranek JG, Olson DG, Love JA. 2001. The effects of oat iber on the properties of light bologna and fat-free frankfurters. J Food Sci. 66:1409–1415. Stephen AM, Dahl WJ, Johns DM, Englyst HN. 1987. Effect of oat hull iber on human colonic function and serum lipids. Cereal Chem. 74: 379–383. Sunvold GD, Titgemeyer EC, Bourquin LD, Fahey GC, Garleb KA. 1995. Alteration of the iber and lipid components of a deined-formula diet: effects on stool characteristics, nutrient digestibility, mineral balance, and energy metabolism in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 62:1252–1260. Thomsen LE, Knudsen KE, Hedemann MS, Roepstorff A. 2006. The effect of dietary carbohydrates and Trichuris suis infection on pig large intestine tissue structure, epithelial cell proliferation and mucin characteristics. Vet Parasitol. 142:112–122. Titgemeyer EC, Bourquin LD, Fahey GC, Garleb KA. 1991. Fermentability of various iber sources by human fecal bacteria in vitro. Am J Clin Nutr. 53:1418–1424. Wang Y, Funk MA, Garleb KA, Chevreau N. 1994. The effect of iber source in enteral products on fecal weight, mineral balance, and growth rate in rats. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 18:340–345. Weber CW, Kohlhepp EA, Idouraine A, Ochoa LJ. 1993. Binding capacity of 18 iber sources of calcium. J Agric Food Chem. 41:1931–1935. Weickert MO, Mohlig M, Koebnick C, Holst JJ, Namsolleck P, Ristow M, Osterhoff M, Rochlitz H, Rudovich N, Spranger J, Pfeiffer AFH. 2005. Impact of cereal iber on glucose-relating factors. Diabetologia 48: 2343–2353. Younes H, Garleb K, Behr S, Rémésy C, Demigné C. 1995. Fermentable ibers or oligosaccharides reduce urinary nitrogen excretion by increasing urea disposal in the rat cecum. J Nutr. 125:1010–1016. Yu P, Maenz DD, McKinnon JJ, Racz VJ, Christensen DA. 2002. Release of ferulic acid from oat hulls by Aspergillus ferulic acid esterase and trichoderma xylanase. J Agric Food Chem. 50(6):1625–1630. Zarling EJ, Edison T, Berger S, Leya J, DeMeo M. 1994. Effect of dietary oat and soy iber on bowel function and clinical tolerance in a tube feeding dependent population. J Am Coll. Nutr. 13:565–568. Zervas S, Zijlstra RT. 2002. Effects of dietary protein and oat hull iber on nitrogen excretion patterns and postprandial plasma urea proiles in grower pigs. J Ani Sci. 80:3238–3246.

12 Cellulose Toru Takahashi

CONTENTS Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 263 Functionality and Food Applications .............................................................. 264 Functionality .............................................................................................. 264 Effects of Cellulose on Stool Output and Constipation............ 264 Fermentation in the Large Intestine ............................................ 265 Dilution Effect ................................................................................ 266 Effects on Carcinogenesis and Cell Proliferation ...................... 266 Effects on Fats ................................................................................. 267 Effects on Carbohydrates .............................................................. 267 Effect on Water Absorption in the Intestine .............................. 269 Effects on Proteins ......................................................................... 270 Physiological Beneits of Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose ....... 270 Food Applications ...................................................................................... 271 Physiological Beneits ......................................................................................... 272 Signiicance of Mixing-In Behavior of Nutrients in the Lumen ......... 272 Flow Behavior in the Lumen of the Intestine Produced by Peristalsis ........................................................................................ 275 Flow Behavior of the Intestinal Contents with Segmentation ............ 276 Interrelationship between the Behavior of Nutrients and Cellulose . 276 Safety and Technology ....................................................................................... 277 References ............................................................................................................ 277

Characteristics Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-1,4-d-glucopyranose units. Natural cellulose can be divided into two groups: crystalline and amorphous. The overall structure of natural cellulose is crystallized. Cellulose is one of the most common biopolymers on earth because it forms the primary structural component of all green plants, including vegetables.1 Accordingly, cellulose is a common component of our diet. 263

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Modiied celluloses and cellulose derivatives are also used as food ingredients. Cellulose and its derivatives include physically modiied celluloses such as powdered and microcrystalline cellulose and chemically modiied cellulose derivatives such as hydroxypropylmethyl, methyl, and carboxymethyl celluloses.2 The difference between cellulose and its derivatives is the extent of crystallization with crystal-forming hydrogen bonds. The water insolubility of cellulose is caused by its crystalline structure, which is tightly packed with intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. To convert cellulose into its derivatives, which are water soluble, it is necessary to break hydrogen bonds and disturb the crystalline structure of cellulose.3 Cellulose derivatives have high solubility, and their solutions are viscous.3 Although powdered and microcrystalline celluloses have high crystallization, their suspensions in water, dough, and intestinal contents can change their rheological properties.3–5 The shape, particle size, surface activity, and water-holding capacity of such celluloses are important factors determining their properties and functionality.3, 5–7 Powdered and microcrystalline cellulose are thought to be relatively inert, with the exception of effects caused by adsorption and dilution. In this chapter, I discuss the functionality and application of celluloses and cellulose derivatives. I also describe the properties of microcrystalline cellulose in the gastrointestinal tract.

Functionality and Food Applications Functionality Effects of Cellulose on Stool Output and Constipation Epidemiologically, a lack of iber (cellulose and pentose) may play an important role in the etiology of chronic idiopathic constipation in children.8 Cellulose is dificult for human enzymes to digest. Since large amounts of cellulose are not degraded in the gastrointestinal tract, the intestinal content and feces volume increase with cellulose intake. This may lead to increasing stool output with a shorter transit time and decreased stool pH in humans ingesting crystalline cellulose.9,10 In 80% to 90% of obese patients, the administration of 2.4 or 3.6 g of microcrystalline cellulose leads to defecation improvement.11 Daily consumption of 16 g of cellulose for one month signiicantly increased daily wet stool weight and frequency of defecation in healthy women.12 Consequently, cellulose can be used to improve defecation.13 Transit time in the gastrointestinal tract, the time to the irst appearance of indigestible markers in feces, may be independent of microcrystalline cellulose ingestion. Studies have indicated that a single 5-g dose or a daily 16-g dose of microcrystalline cellulose for one month does not affect transit time, but improves defecation in healthy men14 and women,12 respectively.

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The frequency of defecation and weight of feces are associated with mean retention time in the digestive tract in dogs.15 Theoretically, increased feces weight should be more closely associated with a longer mean retention time than with transit time.16 In dogs, feces quality depends on the iber length of cellulose, which might be related to water-holding capacity.17 Fiber length6 and water-holding capacity of insoluble iber (Takahashi et al. unpublished data) are important factors affecting the physical properties of intestinal contents. Crystalline cellulose longer than 120 µm has a higher water-holding capacity than ibers shorter than 100 µm in vitro.4 Increased length and water-holding capacity of cellulose might be important to feces quality by improving the physical properties of feces. The addition of microcrystalline cellulose increases the viscosity and water content of rat intestinal contents,5 water content of rat feces,18 and human masticatory substances (Takahashi et al. unpublished data). The relationship between the alteration of the physical properties of the intestinal contents or masticatory substances by adding microcrystalline cellulose and the improvement of defecation is still unknown. Chemically modiied cellulose derivatives also control constipation. Methylcellulose improves occasional constipation among patients using iber therapy.19 Methylcellulose, in a daily 1-g dose, can be used as an effective laxative.20 Fermentation in the Large Intestine Microcrystalline cellulose is an energy source in humans21,22 as well as in herbivorous animals.23 Some species of bacteria such as Ruminococcus albus, Bacteroides succinogenes, and Clostridium lochhradii can metabolize crystalline cellulose in the gastrointestinal tract.23 Kelleher et al.24 reported that fecal recovery of insoluble 14C was 51% (34% to 72%) after administration of powdered 14C-cellulose. Cellulose is metabolized in the large intestine, and its end products are short-chain fatty acids,10 which are absorbed in the wall of the large intestine.25 The yield of short-chain fatty acids averages 1.05 mol for each 1 mol of hexose equivalent.26 Short-chain fatty acids correspond to 1200 kJ/mol (286 kcal/mol).27 If 51% of cellulose is fermented to short-chain fatty acids24 and 99% of short-chain fatty acids are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract,27 cellulose should result in digestible energy of 3.4 kJ/g (0.81 kcal/g). Although fermentation of cellulose in the hindgut depends on the timing and chemical composition (particularly of ß-starch) of the diet, 4.0 g of inely powdered A4 copy paper (Biznet, Tokyo, Japan) might yield 14 kJ (3.3 kcal). Short-chain fatty acids modulate colonic motility,28 decrease lipolysis,29 stimulate the proliferation of gut epithelial cells,30 control appetite,31 and might affect colon tumorigenesis.32 Short-chain fatty acids from cellulose may have these effects.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Dilution Effect Powdered and microcrystalline celluloses are widely used as bulking agents.4 Although crystalline cellulose can be fermented, cellulose provides less energy than proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The use of microcrystalline cellulose in foods reduces its energy content.4 The addition of cellulose to foods compensatorily increased the intake amount, but still reduced the daily energy intake in cats,33 dogs,34 and rats.18 Hence, the dilution effect of cellulose might result in reduced energy intake by reducing total energy intake. Johnson et al.35 reported that the food conversion (weight gain/food intake) in rats whose diet was supplemented with 10% puriied cellulose was lower than control rats due to the dilution effect of cellulose. Indeed, cellulose has recently become a popular form of weight control in humans.36 Effects on Carcinogenesis and Cell Proliferation Birkitt37 hypothesized that dietary iber increases fecal bulk, dilutes intestinal contents, and shortens intestinal transit time (or mean retention time), which reduces the contact of carcinogens with the colorectal mucosa. This effect should occur in the intestinal lumen because the hypothesis refers to carcinogens in the lumen. However, carcinogens are usually injected subcutaneously in most studies.38 When carcinogens are administered orally, there is a protective effect of 4% powdered cellulose for 28 weeks.39 However, the protective effect of cellulose (4%) on carcinogenesis was smaller than that of wheat bran (10%) in rats.39 The consumption of microcrystalline cellulose with subcutaneous injection of carcinogens in rats also suppresses carcinogenesis.38 The protective effect of microcrystalline cellulose might have other explanations in addition to the hypothesis of Birkitt.37 Another protective mechanism of microcrystalline cellulose may occur. However, numerous epidemiological studies assessing the inluence of dietary iber on colon cancer are not all in agreement.40 Microcrystalline cellulose (10%)5 and kaolin (10%)41 in the diet and glass beads (2.5 mm diameter) injected into the ileal istula (Takahashi unpublished data) enhanced the mass of the distal colon mucosa in rats, but did not stimulate the proximal colon. Digesta in the distal colon is usually a hardened residue rather than a luid, whereas digesta in the cecum and proximal colon is more pliable and lows.42 Hence, the transport of intestinal contents in the distal colon should be different from that in the cecum and proximal colon. Hardened residue in the distal colon slips on the luminal mucin layer covering the mucosa,43 whereas such slipping of digesta in the cecum and proximal colon is poor because of its plasticity. Kaolin and glass beads should cause more friction on the mucosa of the distal colon, indicating that rubbing of the mucosa by indigestible solids such as cellulose might stimulate hyperplasia of the mucosa in the distal colon.

Cellulose

267

Effects on Fats Epidemiologically, there is no relationship between cellulose intake and serum lipid levels in diabetic subjects.44 The administration of 10% microcrystalline cellulose over 12 weeks has no effect on type 2 diabetic patients.45 However, human fecal bile acid excretion increases with cellulose intake.46 Bile acids do not bind to cellulose in vitro.47 The binding effect of cellulose might not explain the high fecal bile acid excretion with cellulose. The reducing behavior of substances such as bile acids in the lumen with cellulose intake48 might explain the high fecal bile acid excretion with cellulose. Microcrystalline cellulose can interfere with lipase activity in the small intestine in rats.49 Microcrystalline cellulose delays triglyceride absorption and increases lipid absorption in the ileum of rats fed a 20% cellulose meal for 20 days.49 Microcrystalline cellulose (2%) decreases the absorption of linoleate after massive small-bowel resection in rats.50 If the effects of microcrystalline cellulose are exaggerated by increasing the intake of cellulose or shortening the small intestine in rats, powdered cellulose might decrease blood lipids. The effects of powdered cellulose on blood lipids do not seem to be completely negative. Modiied cellulose derivatives such as hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and methylcellulose show high viscosity.51 Hamsters fed diets containing 4% hydroxypropylmethylcellulose for four weeks52 and rats fed 8% methylcellulose for 10 days51 showed lower plasma cholesterol concentrations through reduced cholesterol absorption eficiency and lowered plasma triacylglycerol levels compared to controls, respectively. The high viscosity of the supernatant of the intestinal contents slows the digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine.51 Effects on Carbohydrates Few studies of the relationship between microcrystalline cellulose ingestion and blood glucose have been performed because cellulose is normally used in the control diet for animals.5 The effects of cellulose on blood glucose are summarized in Table 12.1. Long-term53–55 and acute48,56 (Takahashi et al. unpublished data) administration of microcrystalline cellulose decreased postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels changed in some cases (Table 12.1), whereas in other studies, postprandial blood glucose and insulin levels did not change signiicantly.14,52,55,57–59 The time to gastric emptying, which is an important factor inluencing postprandial blood glucose levels, was delayed with the administration of microcrystalline cellulose in some studies and did not change in others (Table 12.1). However, there are no reports indicating that cellulose increases blood glucose and insulin or decreases gastric emptying time (Table 12.1). Following the intake of 45 g of different types of iber in an oral glucose tolerance test, blood glucose levels were lowest in those that ate pectin, were

268

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

TABLE 12.1 Effects of Cellulose on Gastric Emptying Blood Glucose, and Insulin. Cellulose Type Cellulose

Duration of Dose Single dose 5 weeks

Cellulose

8 months

Puriied cellulose (15%)

1 week

Cellulose

4 weeks

Cellulose

4 weeks

Microcrystalline cellulose Microcrystalline cellulose Crystalline cellulose

One shot in the SI One shot in the SI Single dose

Wood cellulose

Single dose

Microcrystalline cellulose Cellulose phospate and crystalline cellulose

Single dose

Carboxymethylcellulose and crystalline cellulose Solubilized cellulose

10 days

Carboxymethylcellulose Methylcellulose

2 weeks

Single dose (OGTT)

Single dose

Single dose

Effects

Species

Reference

No effect on blood glucose Decreased blood glucose Decreased blood glucose No effect on insulin No effect on blood glucose, insulin, GIP and glucagons Decreased blood glucose No effect on blood glucose, insulin, and gastric empty Decreased blood glucose Decreased blood glucose Decreased blood glucose

Rat

Schwartz & Levine 1980

Dog with DM

Nelson et al. 1998

Pig

Nunes & Malmlof 1992

Cat with DM Healthy volunteers

Nelson et al. 2000 Schwartz et al. 1982

Pig

Low et al. 1987

Rat

Delayed gastric empty No effect on gastric empty Cellulose phosphate decreased blood glucose; No effect on blood insulin Both delayed gastric empty. Only CMC decreased blood glucose No effect on blood glucose; Decreasde blood CCK Decreased blood glucose Decreased blood glucose and insulin

Pig Healthy volunteers Patients with DM

Takahashi et al. 2005 Takahashi et al. unpublished data Johansen & Knudsen 1994 Bianchi & Capurso 2002 Monnier et al. 1978

Rat

Begin et al. 1989

Hypercholesterolemic volunteers Rat

Daniela Geleva et al. 2003

Healthy volunteers

Healthy volunteers

Vachon et al. 1988 Jenkins et al. 1978

Notes: SI: Small intestine; DM: Diabetes mellitus; GIP: Gastric inhibitory polypeptide; OGTT: Oral glucose tolerance test.

Cellulose

269

intermediate in those that ate cellulose phosphate, and were highest in those that ate crystalline cellulose.61 Obviously, the effect of cellulose on blood glucose is smaller than for soluble ibers such as pectin,61 guar gum,59 and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose.65 However, 45 g of pectin are more dificult to consume in a normal diet than are 45 g of microcrystalline cellulose. The relationships among the effects of different ibers, dosage, and palatability must be considered when planning the administration of iber for prevention or treatment of diabetes mellitus. Microcrystalline cellulose administration increases the viscosity of gastric, small intestinal, and cecal contents in rats.5 Glucose does not bind to microcrystalline cellulose in vitro.48 Microcrystalline cellulose in the small intestine injected via a catheter diminishes plasma glucose increases.48 Microcrystalline cellulose diminishes glucose absorption by retarding diffusion within the luminal contents because of the high digesta viscosity with cellulose intake.48 Several studies have estimated the effect of microcrystalline cellulose on digestibility in the small intestine. The ingestion of microcrystalline cellulose with a meal does not affect digestibility from the oral to the distal end of the small intestine in rats with operationally bypassed large intestines (Takahashi et al. unpublished data). Most carbohydrates are digested in the proximal part of the small intestine.62 The digestion ability in the small intestine might result in similar digestibility with cellulose and in a control. Ingested microcrystalline cellulose can produce short-chain fatty acids in the human colon. A short-chain fatty acid, butyrate, appears to increase the plasma concentration of glucagon-like peptide-2 in rats.63 The infusion of short-chain fatty acids other than acetate raises the blood insulin level in lambs.68 These studies suggest a relationship between short-chain fatty acids and blood glucose levels. However, acute ileal and rectal perfusion of shortchain fatty acids does not signiicantly alter the blood glucose or insulin concentrations in healthy humans.28,69 Effect on Water Absorption in the Intestine In general, water moves from areas of higher to lower water potential,70 and water transport in plant tissue and soil can be explained by the water potential.71,72 Water absorption in the intestine can also be estimated by examining the water potential in the intestinal lumen.48,70 The water potential is calculated by subtracting the solute potential from the pressure potential.70 Therefore, high pressure in the intestinal lumen should induce water absorption.48,70 Dietary microcrystalline cellulose increases the viscosity and elasticity of the intestinal contents,5 which require more pressure in the intestinal lumen to move. In fact, the pressure potential caused by segmental contractions and peristalsis in the small intestinal lumen with microcrystalline cellulose ingestion is estimated to increase based on a mathematical model48 developed from the Hagen-Poiseuille law.6 Consequently, the water potential in the small intestinal lumen with microcrystalline cellulose should increase,

270

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

which would stimulate water absorption.48 Indeed, water absorption from the rat small intestine has been observed with microcrystalline cellulose ingestion.48 Therefore, microcrystalline cellulose stimulates water absorption from the rat small intestine by creating a higher water potential in the intestinal lumen.48 The ingestion of cellulose with a meal produces a high antral motility index and a high proportion of propulsive duodenal contractions, which is consistent with the higher pressure and water potential with microcrystalline cellulose ingestion. The addition of powdered cellulose to the diet increases water absorption in the jejunum of pigs with two re-entrant cannulas.56 The addition of powdered and microcrystalline cellulose, which increases digesta viscosity, is likely to reduce the incidence of diarrhea associated with enteral nutrition.48 Effects on Proteins The ingestion of cellulose increases or does not affect protein eficiency ratios,73,74 but increases fecal protein excretion in rats due to increased fecal bacterial nitrogen.73,75 Cellulose is fermented in the large intestine,24 which increases bacterial abundance in the large intestine. The true eficiency of bacterial protein synthesis was 5.2 g bacterial protein/100 g supplementary cellulose in rats.70 Extra bacteria will be excreted in the feces. Increased fecal protein excretion is also observed in humans fed dietary iber.76 In contrast, urinary nitrogen decreases with cellulose consumption in rats, indicating a shift in nitrogen excretion from urine to feces with cellulose intake.70 Such a shift can be explained largely by the degree of microbial fermentation in the large intestine caused by the addition of dietary iber.77 Microbial fermentation in the large intestine reduces blood urea.77 Hence, the ingestion of cellulose can affect nitrogen metabolism and can change the nitrogen excretion route. Physiological Benefits of Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) is a high-viscosity food gum produced from cellulose. Health beneits of HPMC include cholesterol-lowering actions and attenuating postprandial glycemic reponses. High-molecularweight HPMC is not metabolized by the microbiota in the human colon and may therefore be tolerated better.78 In hamsters, adding 4% HPMC to the diet for four weeks decreased body weight, plasma and liver cholesterol,79 and cholesterol absorption52 and increased the viscosity of the supernatant of the small intestinal 79 compared to adding cellulose. In mid- to moderate hypercholesterolemia, 5 or 7.5 g HPMC per day signiicantly reduced total cholesterol and LDL (approximately 12% 20 mg/dL reduction at both levels of HPMC) without altering HDL levels.79 Accordingly, HPMC has a lipidlowering effect in animals and humans.

Cellulose

271

TABLE 12.2 Food Application of Cellulose and Its Derivatives Cellulose/Derivatives Powdered cellulose Microcrystalline cellulose Methylcellulose Sodium carboxymethylcellulose Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose

Application Breads, beef burgers, doughnuts, pasta, imitation cheese, cereal Dressings, beverages, whipped toppings, reduced-fat foods, ice cream, tablets Sauces, soups, breads, fried foods, reduced-fat foods, gluten-free bakery products Frozen desserts, dressings, sauces, syrups, beverages, reduced-fat foods Whipped toppings, mousses, frozen desserts, dressings, sauces, gluten-free bakery products, reduced-fat foods

HPMC also lowers blood glucose levels. In a 2007 study of Maki et al.,61 meals containing 75 g of carbohydrate plus 4 or 8 g of high-viscosity HPMC showed a reduced peak and incremental areas from 0 to 120 min of the glucose and insulin concentrations in overweight or obese men and women without diabetes.61 Peak glucose was signiicantly lower (P < 0.001) after HV-HPMCcontaining meals (7.4 mmol/l [4 g] and 7.4 mmol/l [8 g]) compared with the control meal (8.6 mmol/l). Peak insulin concentrations and the incremental areas for glucose and insulin from 0 to 120 min were also signiicantly reduced after both doses of high-viscosity HPMC versus control (all P < 0.01). The authors concluded that high-viscosity HPMC may favorably alter the risks for diabetes and cardiovascular disease.61 HPMC shows promise as a dietary intervention for reducing cardiovascular and diabetes risk. Food Applications Celluloses have many uses as emulsiiers, stabilizers, dispersing agents, and thickeners. Powdered and microcrystalline celluloses have been used to enhance textural attributes and as bulking agents due to their rheological properties. The addition of natural crystalline cellulose increases cake volume, reduces shrinkage, and improves the texture of beef burgers (Table 12.2).7 Powdered cellulose is also added to pasta, imitation cheese, and cereal (Table 12.2). The microcrystalline celluloses Ceolus and Avicel have diameters of 6 to 10 µm and 40 µm, respectively.80 Very ine microcrystalline cellulose with a smaller diameter has been developed. A water suspension of 10% very ine microcrystalline cellulose has a creamy texture.3 This suspension is used as an oil replacement agent, which can be added to dressings, sauces, beverages, and whipped toppings.81 Microcrystalline cellulose is also formed into tablets and used as a binding agent due to its excellent compression properties.80

272

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Acetobacter xylinum produces bacterial cellulose with a width of approximately 25 nm from glucose,82 and this material is used to make “nata de coco.” In water, this iber has a viscosity that is not lost at high temperatures. Dried bacterial cellulose ilms have very high elasticity, suggesting applications in techniques involving electronic speakers and ilter paper.80 Food applications of cellulose derivatives such as HPMC, methylcellulose, and carboxymethylcellulose are shown in Table 12.2.

Physiological Benefits Significance of Mixing-In Behavior of Nutrients in the Lumen The physical properties of cellulose and cellulose derivatives are important for determining their physiological beneits. Insoluble particles such as powdered and microcrystalline cellulose, as well as soluble components, generally elevate the viscosity of luids with suspended particles, such as blood,82 iber suspensions,83 and coal-oil mixtures.84 Indeed, insoluble particles of both smaller and larger (> 1 mm) sizes and microcrystalline cellulose increase the viscosity of the digesta, including particulate matter, in the stomach, small intestine, and cecum of pigs,6,85 chickens,86 and rats.5 The viscosity of the intestinal contents is critical for understanding the effects of cellulose on the mode of digestion and absorption. Previous studies5,6,85,86 have led to the hypothesis that the viscosity of the digesta inluences absorption by affecting the behavior of nutrients in the intestinal lumen.85,87 The behavior of nutrients in the lumen is directly involved in the “micromixing” of nutrients and enzymes in the lumen.85 Micromixing is the molecular-scale mixing of digesta that directly inluences chemical reactions and absorption.88 The extent of nutrient micromixing can be estimated by the low pattern of digesta in the lumen,85 which can be estimated from the Reynolds number.86 There are two possibilities involving the micromixing of digesta in the lumen: rapid mixing by turbulence and poor mixing by diffusion.88 Turbulence in the lumen can rapidly mix the intestinal contents at a molecular scale, while diffusion induces much slower micromixing, which occurs only when laminar low exists in the lumen.85 In the rapid micromixing with turbulence, the inluence of the translocation rate of a nutrient in the lumen on the overall absorption rate can be ignored, since the rapid micromixing of digesta can translocate the nutrient to the epithelial surface at a rate exceeding that of absorption. In other words, the overall absorption rate should depend on the transepithelial transport rate (Equation 12.1). (Overall absorption rate) = (Transepithelial transport rate) × a

(12.1)

Cellulose

273

where a is a constant. This should result in a homogenous concentration of nutriLumen ents across the intestine. However, in vivo Intestinal wall measurement of the short-chain fatty acid concentration across the contents of the cecum and colon does not support such homogenous concentration. The shortLumen (Laminar flow) chain fatty acids concentration is higher in the core than in the periphery of the Nutrient contents.90 Conversely, nutrients can reach the Diffusion epithelium by diffusion in laminar low (Figure 12.1).85 If the diffusion rate of a nutrient in the lumen is lower than its transepithelial absorption rate, the overall absorption rate of the nutrient should Trans epithelial be proportional to either its diffusion transport rate in the lumen or its membrane transEpithelium port rate. The slower of these two factors is the rate-limiting factor for the over- FIGURE 12.1 all absorption process. Considering the Schematic drawing of the possible above-mentioned short-chain fatty acid translocation of nutrients to the epithelium in the intestinal lumen. gradient across the intestinal lumen,90 the diffusion rate in the lumen should be slower than the membrane transport rate. Therefore, the diffusion rate of nutrients in the lumen should correlate with the overall absorption rate in laminar low (Equation 12). (Overall absorption rate) = (Diffusion rate in lumen) × b

(12.2)

where b is a constant. In this regard, when deining the mode of digestion and absorption, it is important to know whether the low behavior in the intestinal lumen is turbulent or laminar. The low pattern of digesta in the lumen can be estimated using the Reynolds number, which expresses the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in a luid.89 The inertial force is the tendency of the luid to stay in motion or at rest unless acted upon by an outside force.91 Viscous force is an internal property of a luid that offers resistance to low.91 The ratio, the Reynolds number, is used to determine whether a low will be dominated by inertial or viscous forces (i.e., whether it is turbulent or laminar). A Reynolds number below 2300 indicates that viscous force predominates over inertial force to keep the low laminar (a in Figure 12.2), which results in poor micromixing along the transversal axis. A Reynolds number exceeding 2300 indicates that inertial force dominates and that low becomes turbulent89 (b in Figure 12.2), which mixes digesta in a molecular level completely.88

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

274 a. Laminar flow

Circular tube No radial mixing

Direction of flow

Poor micromixing with diffusion 0

Reynolds number 2300

Velocity

c. Karman vortex

Moderate micromixing with folding

40< Reynolds number Cellulose >> Pectins and Xyloglucans

Cellulose ~ Heteroxylans >> Glucomannans

Source: Adapted from Harris and Smith, 2006 [8]

brans (commelinid monocotyledons) contain both primary and secondary cell walls. This leads to very different cell wall architectures, polysaccharide compositions, and physicochemical properties. Sugar Beet Fiber Composition Sugar-beet pulp has a high dietary iber content, typically >75%, and is known for its high soluble iber content (Table 16.2) (9–11). The AOAC method, because of its lengthy enzyme incubations at pH close to neutral and at high temperature, may however overestimate the amount of iber actually solubilized in the upper parts of the digestive tract. Lignin content of beet iber is low (< 5%) (12–14). The remainder of the iber preparations consists of pro-

Sugar Beet Fiber

363

TABLE 16.2 Dietary Fiber (Total, Insoluble and Soluble, % Dry Weight) of Native and Modiied Sugar Beet Fiber Preparations Native sugar beet iber Autoclaved at 122°C Autoclaved at 136°C Native sugar beet pulp Fibrex® Native sugar beet iber H2O2-treated

TDF

IDF

SDF

87.1 78.4 78.6 76.9 73.0 70.0 94.3

71.7 52.5 48.9 52.1 49.0 57.8 61.1

15.4 25.9 29.7 24.8 24.0 12.2 33.2

Ref. (9)

(10) Data provided by the supplier (Danisco) (11)

teins (< 10%) (13–15); ash (3% to 8%) (13–15); and lipids (< 2%) (15). Some sugar beet pulp fractions may be high in ash (16) arising from contamination by soil particles. In detailed studies of their composition, beet cell walls, and therefore sugar beet iber, are characterized by very high pectin content, with about 20% each of galacturonic acid (GalA) and arabinose (Ara) (Table 16.3) (17–20). This amount of pectin and more speciically of Ara is exceptionally high, even in comparison to cell walls from other dicotyledons. Arabinans, which are part of pectins, are still often mistaken for hemicelluloses. Sugar beet iber also contains approximately 20% of glucose (Glc), mainly of cellulosic origin. In total, sugars account for about 80% of the dry weight, with remarkably low amounts of xylose (Xyl) and mannose (Man). Several non-sugar constituents are also present: methanol, acetic acid, phenolic acids, proteins, lignin, and ash (Table 16.3). There are little differences in global sugar composition between cell wall material directly isolated from raw beets and sugar beet pulp (Table 16.3). Le Quéré et al. (21) found 4.5% of water-soluble pectin from beet slices alcoholinsoluble solids (AIS) and, surprisingly, still 3.3% from AIS arising from beet pulp after diffusion. Fares et al. (22) also showed that few polysaccharides, mainly of pectic origin, are extractable from sugar beet by water in the sugar factory. This low extraction of pectins could be due to physical limitations to diffusion of the pectic polymers from the cell wall network or to the structure of beet cell walls. Little material is extracted from beet cell walls in mild, non-degradative conditions. Dea and Madden (23) extracted only a total of 5% dry matter from whole beets by successive cold and hot water treatments at pH 3.7. Renard and Thibault (24) and Levigne et al. (19) extracted only 5% to 5.6% of whole beet AIS by buffer or water at pH 4.5 and room temperature. This extracted material is of pectic nature, rich in GalA and Ara. As pointed out above, the AOAC method leads to higher extraction yields with SDF values around 20%. Compositional analysis reveals that sugar beet SDF is also of pectic nature. Sugar beet IDF still contains large quantities of pectic material and is rich in Glc of cellulosic origin (Table 16.3).

Native pulp Acid- and alkali-treated pulp Native pulp Acid- and alkali-treated pulp Native iber Acid- and alkali-treated iber AIS from fresh roots Water-extraction at 20°C Residue Soluble (polymeric) IDF SDF

1.4 1.0 2.4 2.3 1.5 1.2 2.0 1.2 1.2 1.6 0.9

82 2 60 13

Rha

100 35 100 53 100 46 4

Yield (%)

19.2 16.1 24.6 7.9

19.1 11.0 19.6 10.0 23.6 5.3 17.2

Ara

1.4 tr 1.6 tr

1.6 3.6 1.4 2.1 1.4 2.5 1.1

Xyl

1.0 tr 1.4 4.2

1.3 2.7 1.3 2.1 1.4 2.6 1.0

Man

Sugar Composition of Different Sugar Beet Fiber Preparations (% dry weight)

TABLE 16.3

4.9 6.1 6.1 3.1

4.6 2.3 5.5 5.7 5.4 4.5 4.5

Gal

22.2 1.2 29.6 0.6

20.6 54.2 21.5 38.9 24.3 51.0 18.8

Glc

21.7 31.6 19.6 43.4

20.2 4.9 20.6 16.0 23.2 12.0 20.0

GalA

71.6 56.2 84.5 60.1

68.8 69.8 72.3 77.1 80.8 79.1 64.6

Total sugars

20

20

19

17

18

17

Ref.

364 Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Sugar Beet Fiber

365

Structure of Sugar Beet Fiber Polysaccharides Sugar beets are mainly composed of parenchymal tissue with thin, supple, and hydrophilic cell walls. Typical primary cell walls of dicotyledonous plants are composed of almost equal amounts of three types of polysaccharides: (1) pectin, rich in GalA, Gal, Ara, and Rha; (2) hemicelluloses, typically xyloglucans with minor amounts of (gluco)-mannans; and (3) cellulose. The structure of these cell walls can be summarized as three interlocking networks, namely cellulose/xyloglucans, pectin, and cell wall glycoproteins. Sugar beet cell walls differ from this blueprint in a number of key points, which will be discussed in the following. Pectins Most of the data on the structure of the constitutive polysaccharides of sugar beet cell walls and iber deal with the pectic fraction, as it represents more than 50% of the iber (Table 16.4) (19, 24–29). Pectin is an extremely complex polysaccharide that can be viewed as a multiblock co-biopolymer. The simplest, and the most abundant, of these blocks is homogalacturonan, an unbranched polymer of (1→4)-α-d-GalpA residues that are partly methylesteriied and sometimes partly acetyl-esteriied. A second major block, rhamnogalacturonan I, is mainly composed of a repeating disaccharide unit (→2)-α-l-Rhap -(1→4)-α-d-GalpA-(1→)n decorated with arabinan and (arabino)-galactan side-chains. Assemblies of RG, arabinan, and (arabino)galactan are often referred to as pectic “hairy” regions in which arabinan and (arabino)-galactan are the “hairs.” A fourth minor block, rhamnogalacturonan II, is a highly complex molecule made of a short homogalacturonan backbone with four conserved side chains consisting of 12 different monosaccharides. Sugar beet pectins have distinctive features, notably low average molar mass, high acetic acid contents, and presence of phenolic esters on their side chains. They also contain a high proportion of hairy regions, with very high Ara contents. Oosterveld et al. (29) reported that approximately 70% of the pectin in sugar beet pulp consists of hairy regions. Backbone Controlled acid hydrolysis of beet pectins (30) led to isolation of almost pure homogalacturonans. The degree of polymerization of sugar beet homogalacturonans is only slightly lower (70–100) than that of citrus or apple homogalacturonans (100–120). The Rha residues are concentrated in rhamnogalacturonans I, where they alternate with the GalA residues (31, 32). Beet pectins, with a Rha:GalA ratio > 1:10 in the cell wall, are particularly rich in Rha (Table 16.2). About 40% of the Rha residues are further substituted at position 4 by neutral sugars, mainly arabinan, side chains. Rhamnogalacturonan II, a small complex pectic polysaccharide, and its boron-cross-linked dimer, can be isolated from beet after enzymatic digestion (33).

2.2 0.5 19.9 11.1

6.4 17.8

Water 20°C Autoclave pH 5.2 121°C

5.6 28.9 7.1 27.5 13.6 2.5 28.0 5.6 35.0 19.9 —

Yield (%)

Water 20°C NH4 oxalate 1% 20°C HCl 0.05M 85°C NaOH 0.05M 4°C

Sequential Extraction Scheme

Buffer pH 4.5 20°C Buffer pH 6.5 80°C CDTA pH 4.5 20°C CDTA pH 6.5 80°C EDTA 2% 85°C HCl pH 3.0 75°C HCl pH 1.0 75°C HCl pH 3.0 95°C HCl pH 1.0 95°C NaOH 2% 45°C NaOH 0.05M 4°C

Single Extraction

Extraction Conditions

7.6 39.9

54.4 77.9 65.1 54.9

51.3 45.6 48.4 48.4 55.2 44.5 29.5 44.5 45.5 42.4 58.9

GalA

0.3 2.1

0.9 0.9 2.3 3.2

1.3 1.9 1.1 1.6 1.9 1.1 2.8 1.4 4.1 1.9 2.6

Rha (%)

7.3 26.7

8.4 1.9 10.0 12.5

10.1 16.4 8.2 14.3 33.7 11.4 29.4 15.9 3.1 8.1 20.1

Ara

Extraction Conditions and Characteristics of Sugar Beet Pectins

TABLE 16.4

4.0 3.9

6.5 2.4 5.9 8.1

5.1 5.5 4.6 4.8 7.3 3.3 6.8 2.7 8.5 3.7 5.5

Gal

41 70

76 60 62 8

63 52 52 55 — 94 34 83 65 — 16

DM

41 48

31 15 35 4

32 34 27 35 — 39 37 36 28 — 19

DAc

0 0.61

0.10 0.04 0.48 0.57

— — — — — 0.26 0.80 0.35 0.60 — —

FeA (%)

— —

259 57 225 181

187 70 257 100 — 454 342 351 304 — —

[] (mL/g)

29

28

24 24 24 24 25 19 19 19 19 26 27

Ref.

366 Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Sugar Beet Fiber

367

Side Chains In beet pectins, the side chains are composed of Ara and Gal; other sugars (Xyl, Glc, Man) are present in negligible amounts (19, 28, 34, 35). Methylation analysis shows a predominant presence of arabinans with a backbone of linked α-(1→5)-Araf residues carrying ramiications predominantly on O-3. Oosterveld et al. (29) used an alkali and a combined autoclave and alkali extraction of sugar beet pulp to extract arabinans. A degree of polymerization of 130 to 170 residues was calculated for those arabinans (36). Methylation analysis and enzymatic degradation using an α-arabinofuranosidase, showed that sugar beet arabinans have a backbone of 60 to 70 residues and that more than 45% to 65% of the Ara residues are present as single unit or oligomeric side group of the arabinan main chain (29, 36). The Gal residues are mostly present as type I galactans, linear chains of β-(1→4)-linked Galp residues, but the partially methylated derivatives also indicate the presence of type II galactans (29, 34). Sugar beet type I galactans are most likely almost linear and of low degree of polymerization (34). NMR analysis of the sugar beet pectin supports the evidence of methylation analysis with presence of α-(1→5)-linked Araf residues and β-(1→4)linked Galp residues (37). Non-Sugar Substituents In sugar beet, pectin’s backbone carries both methyl esters (on the carboxylic group) and acetyl esters on the secondary alcohols. Sugar beet pectins are not very highly methylated, having a degree of methylation of about 50 to 60 (Table 16.4). The degree of acetylation of the extracted beet pectins is generally 20 to 30 (Table 16.4). Several studies about the exact location of acetyl groups on pectins have been carried out. Comparison of pectic fragments isolated after enzymatic hydrolysis of various tissues from different plant species suggests a high diversity in the degree, distribution among homogalacturonan and rhamnogalacturonan I, and location of acetyl groups. Keenan et al. (37) presented a 13C NMR study of sugar beet pectin and concluded that both of the available ring positions (O-2 and O-3) of GalA residues can be acetyl esteriied. Kouwijzer et al. (38), on the basis of energy calculations, also concluded that acetyl groups at both O-2 and O-3 of GalA in the backbone of homogalacturonan and rhamnogalacturonan I are energetically favorable. In sugar beet pectins, around 75% of the acetyl groups appear to be attached to homogalacturonan (39). Only 10% of the GalA residues are present in the rhamnogalacturonan I region (30, 39, 40) so that rhamnogalacturonan I, which carries only 25% of the acetyl groups, is inally very highly acetylated (DAc ~ 60) (39). No methyl esteriication was detected on sugar beet rhamnogalacturonan I (39), in agreement with studies on other plant species (41, 42). In sugar beet homogalacturonan, it was shown by mass spectrometry that (a) O-2 and O-3 acetylation are present in roughly similar amounts, (b) 2,3-di-O acetylation is absent, and (c) GalA residues that are at once O-acetyl

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and methyl esteriied are rare so that unsubstituted GalA residues are present in limited amounts (~10%) (39). Among dicotyledons, in species of the family Amaranthaceae, pectins carry phenolic acids (Table 16.4) (43). These include mainly ferulic acid, which represents about 0.8% of the beet cell walls, and to a lesser extent p-coumaric acid (28). In beet and spinach cell walls, ferulic acid mainly esteriies neutral sugars (Ara and Gal) of pectic side chains (28, 34, 44, 45). More precisely, ferulates are linked for about 50% to 60% to the O-2 position of Ara moieties and for 40% to 50% to the O-6 position of Gal residues (46–48). Structural analysis of longer oligosaccharides (up to DP 8) showed that the feruloyl groups are mainly linked to Ara residues of the core chain of arabinans and to Gal residues of the core chain of type I galactans (47). Recently, minor amounts of ferulic acid linked to O-5 of the Ara residues of the main core of arabinan chains were detected, indicating a potential peripheral location of some ferulic acid on pectic hairy regions (49). Feruloyl esters are not randomly distributed among the different pectic polysaccharides in the sugar beet cell wall (50). Phenolic acids are bifunctional and thus a potential cross-linking element in beet cell walls (51). Indications in favor of that role are the presence of dehydrodimers of ferulic acid in sugar beet pulp (52–57) and the possibility of cross-linking extracted beet pectins in vitro by oxidation of their feruloyl groups (53, 58–62). Distribution of Pectic Structural Elements After degradation of partly demethylated sugar beet pectin with polygalacturonase (39, 40, 63), most of the GalA (~90% of the GalA initially present in pectin) is recovered as oligogalacturonates of low degree of polymerization arising from homogalacturonans. The remaining GalA is recovered in a high molar mass fraction corresponding to hairy regions and composed mostly of neutral sugars, notably Ara, Gal, and Rha. Distribution of arabinans and galactans in the hairy regions has been studied by degradation with dilute acids (34) or speciic enzymes (64, 65). Digestion by a mixture of endo-arabinase and arabinofuranosidase can lead to complete separation of the Ara while the Gal is retained with the rhamnogalacturonan I. These results indicate that galactan chains are directly linked to the backbone while arabinans might be connected through an interposed Gal unit or short galactan chain (64, 65). Extraction and Molar Mass Sugar beet cell walls contain a very low amount of readily extractable pectin (by water, buffer, or chelating agents at room temperature) even prior to the diffusion step. Though calcium is present in sugar beet in amounts suficient to neutralize most of the non-methylated GalA (Fares et al., unpublished results), calcium cross-links do not seem to be the main mechanism holding the pectins in the beet cell wall.

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369

Eficient extraction can be obtained either by heating or by alkaline treatments (i.e., demands a degradation of the pectin). Autoclaving as well as heating at pH circa 6.5 (either with buffer, EDTA, or CDTA) leads to degradation of the pectic backbone through β-elimination and therefore to extraction. This causes the presence in the extract of two populations, namely a high molar mass neutral sugars-rich fraction (analogous to the hairy regions obtained after enzymatic degradation) and a lower molar mass fraction, almost exclusively composed of GalA (24, 29, 34, 63). Hot acid treatments, comparable to those used for industrial extraction of pectins, have been studied using an experimental design (19). The type of acid used (HCl or HNO3) had no effect on the characteristics of extracted pectins. pH was shown to be the main parameter inluencing extraction yield. At pH 1, degradation of the arabinan side chains took place. Depending on the extraction conditions used, intrinsic viscosity of the acid-extracted pectins varied from 172 to 493 mL/g and weight-average molar masses from 70 to 355 kDa (19). Hemicelluloses Hemicelluloses can be deined as cell wall polysaccharides that have the capacity to bind strongly to cellulose microibrils by hydrogen bonds (66). The common structural features of hemicelluloses are a main chain with a structural resemblance to cellulose and either short side chains that result in a pipe-cleaner-shaped molecule or a different sugar interpolated in the main chain, both modiications preventing further aggregation (67). In the cell walls of land plants, three classes of polymers correspond to that deinition, namely xyloglucans, heteroxylans, and mannans. In the primary cell wall of dicotyledons, the main hemicellulose is usually xyloglucan, which accounts for 15% to 20% of the dry weight of the wall. Beet cell walls have very low concentrations of the sugars that denote hemicelluloses (i.e., Xyl, Man, non-cellulosic Glc and Fuc; Table 16.3), and their hemicelluloses have been very little studied. Oosterveld (68) isolated from a 4 M NaOH extract from beet a fraction enriched in hemicelluloses, and methylation analysis of this material indicated presence of xyloglucans and mannans. Degradation by a puriied endo-glucanase of this fraction allowed identiication of xyloglucan oligomers, which conirmed presence, though in very low amounts, of a standard fucogalactoxyloglucan in beet cell walls. Fares et al. (69) identiied fucogalactoxyloglucans and xylans in alkali extracts from sugar beet AIS. Cellulose Cellulose is the world’s most abundant naturally occurring polymer, rivalled only by chitin. Cellulose is a homopolymer of (1→4)-β-d-Glcp. The β-1,4 coniguration results in a rigid and linear structure for cellulose. Cellulose chains exhibit a strong tendency to form intra- and intermolecular hydrogen

370

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

bonds resulting in the formation of microibrils whose length, width, and crystallinity differ much depending on the cellulose origin. Cellulose arising from primary cell walls are particularly thin (2 to 3 nm width) and of low crystallinity. This has been conirmed by solid-state NMR for beet cellulose (70). Following the initial work of Weibel (71, 72), Weibel and Myers (73), and Dinand et al. (13, 74) puriied and evaluated the application potential of sugar beet cellulose. Sugar Beet Fiber Physicochemical Properties The expression “physicochemical properties” is a generic term, involving structural parameters such as particle size and shape, surface properties and porosity, as well as functional properties such as hydration and cationexchange properties of cell wall materials (75). For sugar beet iber, some of those physicochemical properties have been studied in relation to the dietary iber hypothesis. Hydration Properties Hydration capacities partly determine the fate of dietary iber in the digestive tract (fermentation induction) and account for some of their physiological effects (fecal bulking of lowly fermented iber) (76). Basically, three different parameters were deined (77): (1) swelling, “the volume occupied by a known weight of iber under the condition used”; (2) water retention capacity (WRC), “the amount of water retained by a known weight of iber under the condition used”; and (3) water absorption (WA), “the kinetics of water movement under deined conditions.” Beet iber, as most of the ibers arising from dicotyledons primary cell walls, exhibits high hydration capacities, in particular compared to ibers from cereal brans. Those hydration properties luctuate much depending on the iber preparation and also on the conditions of measurement (Table 16.5) (9, 78–83). The major intrinsic factors affecting hydration properties are particle size and drying conditions. Drying at high temperature results in a decrease of the hydration capacities, as does a decrease in particle size (Table 16.5). Thermal or thermo-mechanical treatments increase the amount of soluble iber in beet pulp and modify its hydration properties (Table 16.5). In addition, the measured hydration capacities are sensitive to extrinsic factors, such as the ionic strength of the hydrating solution (Table 16.5) and its ion composition. These effects are mostly visible after conversion to the H+ or Na+ form, or after saponiication. Beet pulp then appears to behave as a polyelectrolyte resin. The presence of divalent cations results in a decrease in hydration capacities of deesteriied beet pulp (78). A number of these effects might be masked in native beet pulp by the presence of a high calcium concentration. The conditions of hydration also play a role: The presence of shear

Sugar Beet Fiber

371

TABLE 16.5 Hydration Properties of Different Sugar Beet Fiber Preparations Swelling (mL/g)

WA (mL/g)

WRC (mL/g)

Ref.

— — — — — —

26.6 26.5 # 22.5 23.9 — —

78 79 78 80 80 79

78

Beet Pulp (fiber #) in Water Native

11.0 11.5 # 25.0 17.8 32.0 32.6 #

H+-form Na+-form

Beet Pulp in Presence of Supporting Salts Native H+-form

10.0 13.4

— —

— 16.0

Na+-form

15.3

—

—

80 80

25.0 20.0 21.9 32.4

— — — —

24.8 20.7 18.3 —

78 78 81 81

Φ 540 µm

21.5

8.5

82

Φ 385 µm

21.4

8.8

Φ 205 µm

15.9

7.3

24.2a 12.6b 22.6a 12.0b 19.2a 9.2b

Saponified Beet Pulp in Water Native H+-form Na+-form Beet Fiber in Water

82 82

Thermomechanically Treated Pulp Extruded beet pulp Autoclaved beet pulp at 122°C at 136°C a b

14.4 (native 19.3)

—

28.2 (native 32.9)

83

20.0 (native 23.0) 21.0 (native 23.0)

— —–

35.0 (native 34.0) 38.4 (native 34.0)

9 9

Long incubation, heavy stirring. Short incubation, gentle stirring.

forces in the form of intense stirring can lead to a destructuration of the beet iber and an increase in apparent WHC (Table 16.5). This sensitivity to the exact method and conditions of measurement explains the variability of the results.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Adsorption/Binding of Ions and Organic Molecules Sugar beet ibers behave as weak monofunctional cation-exchange resins with a cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of about 0.5 meq/g. This ion-binding capacity is due to the presence of non-methylesteriied GalA residues, and the CEC is equal to the concentration of non-methylated GalA residues calculated from independent GalA and methyl groups measurements (79, 80). Beet ibers are devoid of phytic acid, the main ion-binding species in cereal ibers. In spite of the presence of acetyl groups, pectin in sugar beet iber is able to bind divalent cations, with higher afinities than in solution (18, 80) but with the same selectivity scale: Cu ~ Pb >> Zn ~ Cd > Ni > Ca. The ability of uronic-acid- and/or phenolic-compounds-rich ibers to interact with bile acids in the small intestine has been suggested to explain their hypocholesterolemic effects. Bile acid adsorption to ibers would result in a lower re-absorption, in an increased transport toward the large intestine and, inally, in a higher excretion of bile acids (84). Recent in vitro studies showed that freeze-dried beet, sugar beet pulp, and red sugar beet iber preparations were able to bind bile acids to a certain extent (~ 10 to 15 μmol bile acid/g of dry matter) (10, 85).

Functionality and Food Applications Extracted Polysaccharides Pectins from sugar beet do not form gels in the usual conditions (i.e., either with calcium or with high sugar concentrations and acidic conditions) (86, 87). This inability has been ascribed variously to presence of acetyl groups (88), which indeed hinders binding of ions (89), to low molar mass (16, 90) or to excessive amounts of side chains (37). Acetyl groups are the most likely candidates for these weak gelling properties. Several deesteriication attempts have been made to improve the gel formation of sugar beet pectin: partial deacetylation by mild acid treatments (91), incubation with an enzyme preparation from Aspergillus niger (92), treatment with mixtures of acetyl and methyl esterases from oranges or Aspergillus niger (87, 93), treatment with mild acid, alkali, fungus methyl-esterase or plant methyl-esterase (35). All those treatments led to low-ester pectins, which gelled in the presence of Ca2+. However, sugar beet pectin is presently only produced in small amounts for speciic applications where it has equal or superior properties compared with apple or citrus pectin. These applications include stabilization of lavored oil emulsions (94, 95) and stabilization of acidiied drinking yogurt (96). As sugar beet pectins may form gels by an oxidative cross-linking of ferulic acid (28, 45, 61), the enzymatic gelation of sugar beet pectins in food products was studied (97). Oxidative gelation of sugar beet pectins gives a thermo-irreversible gel that is of great interest for the food industry

Sugar Beet Fiber

373

as the product can be heated while maintaining a gel structure. With 2% sugar beet pectin added, a gel was formed in luncheon meat using laccase. The cohesive gel was shown to bind the meat pieces together, thereby making the product sliceable (97). Arabinans can be extracted from isolated sugar beet pectins or directly from sugar beet pulp. Alkaline extraction at high temperature (70°C to 98°C) for 15 to 90 min followed by neutralization and ultrailtration yields a branched arabinan (molar mass of about 50 kDa) containing around 80% of l-Ara (98). Branched arabinan exhibit surface-active properties, which make it suitable for use as an emulsifying agent. Additionally, lavor oil and fragrances may be encapsulated using arabinan (98). However, the arabinan extraction and puriication cost is a clear limitation for these uses. Branched arabinan can be linearized using puriied α-l-arabinofuranosidase to yield debranched arabinan (98). The debranched arabinan forms an aqueous gel, which has the properties of a fat substitute and may be used in foods (4, 98). Whole Sugar Beet Fiber Sugar beet iber is claimed to offer nutritional beneits to consumers as well as manufacturing and functional advantages to food processors. Moisture retention, good texture, and mouthfeel are the main technical properties of the beet ibers (Fibrex®), which are proposed with a variety of particle sizes (from < 32 μm to lake; Figure 16.1) for easy blending with other ingredients. The particle size is important for applications because the ability to bind water may be affected (Table 16.5) (82) and because it may inluence the texture of the product and the mouthfeel properties (99). The beet iber also has the advantage of containing no phytic acid (a substance that may be found in cereal iber and can tightly bind minerals) and no gluten (6). Potential applications include cereals, bakery products, pasta, processed meats, soups, and snacks. Fibrex® total volume sales are divided as follows: 55% bakery customers, 30% meat applications, and 15% health. Successful recipes have been proposed for pastries, cakes, biscuits, snack foods, pasta, and meat products. It can be used in breads as a natural improver and to maintain freshness. In biscuits, it increases the iber content and in meat products, it may provide chewy and juicy character. Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals The properties of sugar beet iber make it a good candidate for iber enrichment in high-iber ready-to-eat cereals applications (99). It has been incorporated into extruded ready-to-eat cereals at high quantities (up to 40%) without affecting the mouthfeel, lavor, or color. This property can probably be ascribed to the high water-binding properties of beet iber. Non-milled versions of the ibers or laked versions are used in rather high amounts (up to 25%) in muesli products.

374

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Bakery Products Fiber-enriched breads have a large commercial success, and diverse ibers can be successfully incorporated into a large variety of bakery products, as a bulking agent and as a dietary iber source. Cereal bran is generally used to increase the amount of dietary iber content in breads but this addition inluences the color, the taste, as well as the texture/consistency of the product. In comparison with cereal bran, sugar beet ibers are characterized by: (a) low phytate, which is of particular concern to nutritionists because of its possible adverse effects on mineral absorption (100); and (b) better water binding and retention capacity, which is of particular interest for the baking industry (101). Thereby, several research articles deal with the effect of sugar beet ibers onto yield of dough, dough mixing properties, yield of bread, bread volume, and crumb quality (11, 102–105). Up to 15% of lour replacement, beet iber appears to provide beneicial effects on dough textural proile, especially for the prominent and suitable decrease in gumminess, and no signiicant adverse effects on main mechanical, surface, and extensional properties (105). An enrichment with sugar beet iber decreases bread volume and crumb quality. In that context, less than 10% of lour replacement by sugar beet iber is recommended (11). Sugar beet iber is also claimed to prolong the freshness of bread. Beet iber can also be used for the production of soft cookies or mufins for which ibers with a high water-binding capacity are required. Meat Products Beet iber (1% to 3%) may be incorporated into meat loaves, patés, meat products, and sausages, to give a juicy character even in frozen products, and to improve the consistency or the texture, and as a fat substitute (99, 106–108).

Physiological Benefits Apparent Fermentability or Apparent Digestibility Apparent fermentability and apparent digestibility were investigated in vitro with fecal inoculate (9, 17, 109–113) or in vivo in rats (114, 115) or in pigs (116–118). All indicated a high fermentability or apparent digestibility of sugar beet iber, in the range of 70% to 90%. GalA and Ara were virtually completely digested; Glc about 85% to 88%; only Xyl, present in small amount, was of low digestibility. It was shown in vitro that all sugars are not fermented at the same rate; Glc disappearance began more slowly than that of GalA and Ara (9, 17, 109, 110, 112). The tridimensional arrangement of the polymers within the cell wall, and thus the access of bacteria or associated enzymes to the polymers, may account for this difference (17). Process-

Sugar Beet Fiber

375

ing of iber, such as autoclaving or chemical extraction followed by drying, inluenced its fermentability (9, 17). Harsh drying conditions following pectin extraction induce the distortion and shrinking of cells and a noticeable decrease in the total pore volume, especially in the pore volume accessible to bacteria. As a result, fermentability was reduced (17). The production of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) was analyzed in vitro (9, 17, 109, 110, 112, 113, 119) or in vivo. In the latter case, the production was deduced either from measurement of SCFA in feces or cecal digesta of animals (115) or from dynamic analysis of porto arterial differences in the concentration of SCFA and of the portal blood low rate in pigs (120). The data conirmed the high fermentability of sugar beet iber, especially when compared to other insoluble ibers (from cereal or legumes). Fermentation proiles, expressed as the molar percent of each of the major SCFA—acetic (C2), propionic (C3), and butyric (C4)—was characterized by a high ratio of C2 (60% to 80%) followed by C3 (11% to 23%) and then C4 (9% to 15%). In pigs, a higher level of C2 was observed compared to humans. This might be explained by the fact that the length and the capacity of the large intestine in pigs are approximately 1.5 to 3 times larger than in humans. In vitro, no alterations in the SCFA proile were observed when modulating the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of sugar beet iber (17, 110). Transit Time and Stool Output The effect of sugar beet iber on transit time and stool output was evaluated in healthy subjects (121), in patients complaining of chronic constipation (122), and in rats (15, 114, 123, 124). Supplementation with sugar beet iber increased wet fecal mass and number of daily stool. More diverse were the effects on transit time and dry fecal mass. Sugar beet iber (33 g/day) in the diet decreased transit time by 25%, as did the wheat-bran-supplemented diet (121). Both increased the number of daily stool and wet fecal mass. Weight of fecal water but not the dry fecal mass changed, while wheat bran increased both dry weight of fecal mass and fecal water. In rats, the sugar beet diet increased the fecal output, as did the other iber diets (15, 114, 123, 124). Nyman and Asp (114), Johnson et al. (1990) (123), and Harland (15) reported both wet and dry fecal mass increase. In constipated patients, a marked decrease in severe and moderate constipation at both the 15th and 30th day of treatment with sugar beet iber was found, with a signiicant increase in fecal frequency normalization (122). Moreover, fecal consistency changed from hard and semi-hard stools to soft ones. The mechanisms by which iber inluences transit time are still not fully understood. Different mechanisms have been suggested, which depend on the physical properties and fermentability of the iber (125, 126). The iber may act by increasing the lumen volume, depending on the amount of indigestible residue in the colon, the water-retention capacity of the residue, the stimulation of microbial growth, and the production of gas. The iber can also reduce transit time through modulating colonic motility either by a mechan-

376

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

ical stimulation of mechanoreceptors by the edges of the iber particle (127), or by a chemical stimulation by the products of fermentation (125, 128), or by the release of compounds trapped by iber such as biliary acids or fatty acids (126). In the latter case, these products can stimulate not only colon motility but also secretion. Except for stimulation of mechanoreceptors, the different mechanisms mentioned above could contribute to the effect of sugar beet iber on transit. The increase in stool output by dietary iber intake may have several causes (126). It could be related to the amount of excreted residue and its water-binding capacity. The increase of the bacterial mass can also contribute, since bacteria contain 80% water. Finally, the excreted water could be water not absorbed in the colon because of the short transit time or changes in colonic motility. Again, these different mechanisms can all participate in the increase of stool output. Minerals Adsorption The effect of sugar beet iber on the absorption of zinc, iron, copper, calcium, and magnesium was investigated in humans (129–131) and rats (15, 132) and led to the same conclusions. Sugar beet iber has no negative effect on any of the minerals studied. These studies stressed the fact that beet iber generally has a relatively high mineral content and can therefore contribute to mineral intake. Glucose Metabolism The effects of sugar beet iber on Glc metabolism were investigated with different objectives. The effects on fasting plasma Glc and insulin values and on Glc tolerance of sugar beet iber intake over a period of several weeks (from 3 to 8) were studied in normal (133), normal but with high fasting cholesterol value (134), or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) subjects (135, 136). These parameters were regarded together with lipid parameters in order to better understand the mechanisms by which daily intake of dietary iber can decrease the risks of cardiovascular disease. Experiments were also concerned with Glc tolerance (137–140) in healthy volunteers or pigs and focused on acute effects of iber supplementation. No clear effect of a long-term sugar beet iber supplementation on fasting as well as postprandial blood Glc and insulin levels has been demonstrated (Table 16.6). The source, processing, and physical form of the iber in the diet but also the nature of the meal (amount of iber, amount of lipids, sources of carbohydrates, etc.), the metabolic status of the subjects, and the duration of the experiment may explain these differences. Similarly, discrepancies in blood Glc and insulin responses in normal subjects to a single meal with added sugar beet iber are recorded in the literature (Table 16.7). No clear mechanism explains the effect of sugar beet iber on postprandial Glc level. It is well known that soluble high molar mass iber such as oat or guar gum can signiicantly decrease the postprandial circulating Glc level

Sugar Beet Fiber

377

TABLE 16.6 Chronic and Postprandial Responses of Plasma Insulin and Glucose in Volunteers Given Sugar Beet Fiber Supplements Intake (g/day/subject)

Subjects

Duration

20

Healthy

16 days

18

Healthy middle-aged with risk ischemic heart disease

3 weeks

8

NIDDM

8 weeks

40

NIDDM

8 weeks

Results

Ref.

No changes in blood fasting Glc and insulin concentrations. No effect on fasting plasma Glc and insulin Effect on postprandial parameters. Improvement in Glc response to a standardized breakfast. Blood Glc and insulin fasting or postprandial levels were not signiicantly affected.

133

134

135

136

TABLE 16.7 Postprandial Responses of Plasma Insulin and Glucose in Volunteers Given Sugar Beet Fiber Supplements Intake (g/meal)

Carbohydrate (g/meal)

Subjects

Results

Ref.

No difference in the mean blood and plasma insulin curves at any time between the control and iber diets. An improved Glc tolerance; no change in insulin level; no decrease in postprandial insulin. Lower postprandial blood Glc and serum insulin response compared with formula without iber. No effect on postprandial glycemic and insulinemic values. No difference in Glc absorption between sugar beet iber and wheat bran supplemented diets.

137

20

86

Healthy male human volunteers

10

100

Healthy male human volunteers

51 (liquid formula)

Healthy male human volunteers

56

653

Pigs

114

446

Pigs

7

138

140

139

120

378

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

by slowing the gastric emptying and/or inluencing the diffusion and mixing of the intestinal contents. Sugar beet iber is only partly soluble and it is unlikely that the soluble iber fraction can induce a suficient increase of the viscosity of digesta to delay starch digestion or absorption, especially in the case of a solid meal. Another mechanism suggested is by changing transit time, but, again, results in the literature are discordant. Morgan et al. (138) observed a slightly accelerated liquid gastric emptying with both sugar beet iber and guar gum supplementation, which was unexpected. Hamberg et al. (141) and Cherbut et al. (121) found, respectively, a decreased and an increased mouth-to-cecum transit time in subjects fed with sugar beet iber. Lipid Metabolism Sugar beet iber, because of its signiicant content in water-soluble iber, has been investigated for its effects on lipid metabolism. Studies were carried out in humans either healthy (133, 134, 142) or hypercholesterolemic (143) or with NIDMM (135, 136, 144) and in animals, pigs (145, 146) or rats (123, 147–153). Despite the fact that the dietary pattern (daily intake of dietary iber, high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet and vice versa) and the duration of the experiments (from two to eight weeks) differed between the studies, most concluded that sugar beet iber is hypocholesterolemic (Tables 16.8 and 16.9). In humans, it tends to reduce serum total cholesterol, and apo B levels without altering or even slightly increasing the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Only some studies reported a decrease in serum triglycerides (136, 144, 147, 149). The mechanisms sustaining such effects are still not clear (154). Dietary iber may act as hypocholesterolemic resin, which sequesters bile acids and cholesterol, with consequent interruption of the enterohepatic bile acid cycle in the small intestine (intestinal reabsorption of bile salts in humans is 96% to 98% eficient) and loss of cholesterol from increased fecal bile acid excretion. This mechanism was clearly demonstrated for viscous iber such as guar gum and oat gum. In case of sugar beet iber, most of the studies did not ind a signiicant increase in fecal (124, 142, 149) and ileal (155) excretion of bile acids. These results are in agreement with those from Morgan et al. (156), who did not observe changes in concentrations of circulating postprandial bile acids in humans given an acute test meal supplemented with sugar beet iber (10 g Betaiber per meal), contrary to guar gum or cholestyramine. In vitro data are more controversial. Morgan et al. (156) showed that the insoluble fraction of sugar beet iber bound only small quantity of glycocholate and that no bile acids were associated with the soluble fraction. Dongowsky (10) found that cell wall material prepared from sugar beet pulp can be effective in binding bile acids (around 15 µmole/g of alcohol-insoluble material at pH 5). In a study with ileostomists (155) a decrease of 26% of ileal bile acid excretion was noted while cholesterol excretion increased by 52% with the sugar beet iber diet. The excreted amount of cholesterol corresponded to half of the mean daily intake of cholesterol in this experiment. This pattern is

Sugar Beet Fiber

379

TABLE 16.8 Effect of Sugar Beet Fiber on Lipid Metabolism (Human Studies) Intake (g/day/subject) 30

Subjects

Duration

Hypercholesterolemic women

2-4 weeks

8

NIDDM

8 weeks

40

NIDDM

8 weeks

18

NIDDM

6 weeks

30

Healthy volunteers

3 weeks

20

Healthy volunteers

16 days

Healthy middle-aged volunteers

3 weeks

1

Results

Ref

Signiicant reduction of LDL cholesterol with no change in HDL. Lower fasting blood Glc; reduction of LDL cholesterol with no change in HDL; lower fasting levels of triglycerides; improvements in Glc response to standardized breakfast. Decrease of 8% in total cholesterol when compared with the habitual diet, but no decrease compared with the low-iber diet. Decrease of 6.2, 10.6, and 6.0% in, respectively, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and Apo B levels. Decrease of 12 and 15% in total and LDL cholesterol; small changes in HDL; signiicant decrease in serum triglycerides. Decrease of 4.6% in total cholesterol; decrease more marked with subject with a high habitual fat intake. Decrease of 8 and 9.6% in total and LDL cholesterol in subjects in whom fasting plasma cholesterol was above normal; no difference in HDL cholesterol.

143

135

136

144

142

133

134

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

380

TABLE 16.9 Effect of Sugar Beet Fiber on Lipid Metabolism (Animal Studies) Level of Incorporation (g/kg diet)

Animals

Duration

100 g/kg semi- synthetic diet 300 g/kg fructose base diet

Rats

28 days

Rats

3 weeks

100 g/kg semi-synthetic diet

Rats

28 days

150 g/kg cholesterol free diet

Rats

14 days

100 g/kg 25% casein diet 120 g/kg semi-synthetic diet

Rats

28 days

Weaning piglets

4 weeks

100 g/kg semisynthetic diet ±0.3% cholesterol

Rats

40 days

100-220 g/kg diet

Growing pigs

Fattening period

Results

Ref.

Signiicant reduction of serum cholesterol, but less than that of guar gum. Decrease in plasma triglyceride and cholesterol concentration in the postprandial as well as the post-absorptive period. Depress of the liver triglyceride level in concert with decreased liver lipogenesis; no change in liver cholesterol; animal less fat. Lower circulating cholesterol, hepatic cholesterol, and circulating triacylglycerol; no change in total hepatic lipid concentrations and hepatic adipose tissue lipogenesis; reduced expression of hepatic lipoprotein A-1gene. Lower plasma total cholesterol; lower HDL cholesterol. No change in serum cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations; lower fasting triacylglycerol due to reduction in VLDL synthesis. Lower plasma total cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides; decrease in HDL phospholipids and total phospholipids in cholesterol group. Diet free of cholesterol, no effect on measured parameters. Gradual increase in iber content caused a linear decrease in total cholesterol and cholesterol fractions in blood serums; decrease in adipose tissue cholesterol.

123

147

149

150

148 145

153

146

different from the pattern generally reported for water-soluble iber such as oat, guar gums, or pectins. The cholesterol-lowering effect of sugar beet iber may result from its interference with the lipid absorption through alteration of the digestive processes. The reduced absorption of cholesterol results in a reduced supply to the liver, which, as a second effect, could decrease excretion of bile acids, as they are synthesized from cholesterol in the liver (155).

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The inluence of sugar beet iber on lipid absorption may account at least for the acute postprandial effect of dietary iber on lipemia, but the mechanisms involved have not been explored. Moreover, the extent to which the repetition of the single meal effect can lead to a new metabolic steady state in the long run remains to be further investigated. In rats fed with sugar beet iber, hypocholesterolemia was accompanied by a reduction in hepatic cholesterol and in circulating triacylglycerol and bile acids, with no increase in bile acid fecal excretion (149). The authors pointed to another possible mechanism involving disruption of the bile acid circulation, possibly via changes in the rate of absorption patterns of triacylglycerol and its subsequent handling by circulating lipoproteins. Other mechanisms of action of dietary iber have been suggested. Modiication in hormonal status, especially insulin, could inluence lipoprotein lipase activity, cholesterol, and bile acid synthesis and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion. Only few groups (133–136) have investigated the effects of sugar beet iber on both gastrointestinal hormones and cholesterol. Most of the authors reported no signiicant changes in the fasting levels of insulin. It has been suggested that the hypocholesterolemic effect of dietary iber might also be mediated through the fermentation products, which can modify the activity of regulatory enzymes involved in hepatic cholesterol synthesis. A study in rats (148) has demonstrated that an intact cecum and colon is necessary for the iber to be effective. One of the SCFA, propionate, has been shown in pigs and rats to signiicantly lower plasma and liver cholesterol concentrations and to inhibit cholesterol synthesis in isolated rat hepatocytes. However, no such effect has been reported in humans, and the role of propionate in reducing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels is controversial. Hara et al. (151) showed that plasma cholesterol level decreased following ingestion of SCFA mixture simulating cecal fermentation products of sugar beet iber. They further investigated mechanisms involved in the cholesterol-lowering effects of SCFA by feeding rats either with SCFA or sugar beet diet (152). They concluded that SCFA can decrease the hepatic cholesterol synthesis rate, which probably contributes to the lowering of plasma cholesterol level, as observed in rats fed with sugar beet iber. It seems therefore likely that the cholesterol-lowering effect of sugar beet iber is not dependent on increased fecal bile acid and is affected by a number of factors rather than a single mechanism. Colorectal cancer The effect of sugar beet iber on experimentally induced colorectal cancer was mainly studied in rats (157–162). Results have been equivocal. In three studies, beet iber reduced the incidence of precancerous lesions, aberrant crypt foci (159, 161, 162). In contrast, Thorup et al. (157, 158) reported no protective effect of sugar beet iber at any stage of the colorectal carcinogenesis process.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Although the contribution of dietary iber to cancer protection is not very clear, several mechanisms by which they can be protective have been suggested. Sugar beet iber may reduce the risk for colon carcinogenesis through enhancement of defecation and dilution of carcinogens. They can exert a protective role through decreasing the concentration of fecal bile acid. Through acidiication of colonic content via fermentation, sugar beet iber can prevent the conversion of primary bile acids to secondary bile acids, lithocholic acid and deoxycholic acid, which are considered promoters of colon cancer. Gallaher et al. (124) showed that sugar beet iber slightly increased the total bile acid daily excretion but the fecal bile acid concentration was much lower than with the iber-free basal diet. This concentration was even lower than with oat or rye bran diets. When compared to other sources of iber, sugar beet iber produced the lowest concentration of lithocholic acid. Some ibers can prevent oxidative damage to important molecules such as DNA, membrane lipids, and proteins. The mechanisms may include quenching free radical, chelating transition metal, or stimulating antioxidative enzyme systems. Antioxidant properties of sugar beet iber were investigated in pigs (lipid peroxidase) (153) and in rats (liver antioxidant enzymes and serum enzymes) (163). Both studies concluded that sugar beet iber has no protective role against oxidation. Sugar beet iber signiicantly increased the concentration of many organic acids, especially acetate and propionate as well as butyrate. Ishizuka and Kasai (159) suggested that butyrate produced by sugar beet iber fermentation may account for the decrease of aberrant crypt foci in 1,2 dimethylhydrazine induced aberrant crypt foci rats. Butyrate has diverse and apparent paradoxical effect on cellular proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation. It is the primary energy source for colonic epithelium, and in an environment deicient in alternative substrate, it will paradoxically promote cell proliferation and growth and inhibit cell death. There is also some evidence that, delivered in adequate amount in the appropriate site, butyrate will protect against early colorectal carcinogenesis process (164). The mucosal epithelium has a characteristic immune system and intraepithelial lymphocytes play a role in the initial immune action against exogenous antigens. The immune response to a tumor is thought to be an early event leading to its destruction before it becomes clinically apparent (165). Ingestion of sugar beet iber in luminal content was shown to promote an accumulation of CD8+ intraepithelial lymphocytes that participate in the elimination of abnormal epithelial cells after initiation (162). Thus, the protective effect of sugar beet iber on colorectal carcinogenesis may be related to its capacity to stimulate the immune surveillance in the colorectal mucosa. SCFA are candidates as the mediators of this property (166). Tolerance to Sugar Beet Fiber In human studies, the daily intake varied greatly, from 7 to 40 g per subject. Generally, the iber intake was gradually increased, in particular when large

Sugar Beet Fiber

383

doses were concerned. The form under which iber was ingested also differed: it can be included in foods (prepared dishes, bread, biscuits, chocolate bars), pressed in tablets, or mixed as a powder in water. Generally tolerance was good. Only afew studies reported cases of discomfort, abdominal cramping, and bloating or trouble with latulence or borborygmi. This generally occurred with the largest doses. One study (144) mentioned that subjects (ive of seven) found the bread and biscuits supplemented with sugar beet iber less palatable than normal products, which led to a reduction in compliance during the last two of six weeks of sugar beet iber supplementation. Three studies (133, 143, 144) reported an increase in energy and mean daily fat intakes during the period of sugar beet iber supplementation. In these studies, iber was incorporated into bread and it was suspected that the increase arose from an increased use of high-fat spread. However, no changes in subject body weight were noticed. In a subacute feeding study of male rats, sugar beet iber at levels up to 10% was well tolerated by the animal (167). There were no reductions in food consumption and no reductions in body weight.

Safety/Toxicity Potential toxic effects of sugar beet iber supplementation have not been extensively investigated (124, 167). Dongowski et al. (167) showed in rats that the enrichment of the diet with a sugar beet iber preparation up to a level of 10% for four weeks did not substantially inluence urinary, hematological, and serum parameters indicative of a toxic effect.

Conclusion On a wet weight basis (~ 90% humidity), 120 million tons of beet pulp are produced in the world each year and many laboratories are involved in inding new end uses to beet iber. Beet iber has thereby been extensively studied and has been used as a standard iber in many functional and nutritional studies. Beet iber has a high natural concentration of dietary ibers (~ 70%) with a particularly high soluble iber content (~ one-third) due to its high pectin content. It exhibits a high water-holding capacity, which provides a broad application area.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

124. Gallaher, D.D., Locket, P.L, and Gallaher, C.M., Bile acid metabolism in rats fed two levels of corn oil and brans of oat, rye and barley and sugar beet iber, J. Nutr., 122, 473, 1992. 125. Cherbut, C., Effects of short chain fatty acids on gastrointestinal motility, in Physiological and Clinical Aspects of Short Chain Fatty Acids, Cummings, J.H., Rombeau, J.L., and Sakata, T., Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995, 191. 126. Cherbut, C., Fibres alimentaires: que devient l’hypotèse de Burkitt ? Etat des connaissances et questions non résolues, Cah. Nutr. Diét., 33, 95, 1998. 127. Tomlin, J. and Read, N.W., Laxative properties of plastic particles, Br. Med. J., 297, 1175, 1988. 128. Cherbut, C. et al., Short chain fatty acids modify colonic motility through nerves and polypeptide YY release in the rat, Am. J. Physiol., 275, G1415, 1998. 129. Sandström, B. et al., The effect of vegetables and beet ibre on the absorption of zinc in humans from composite meals, Br. J. Nutr., 58, 49, 1987. 130. Cossack, Z.T., Rojhani, A., and Musaiger, A.O., The effect of sugar-beet ibre supplementation for ive weeks on zinc, iron, and copper status in human subjects, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 46, 221, 1992. 131. Coudray, C. et al., Effect of soluble or partly soluble dietary ibre supplementation on absorption and balance of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in healthy young men, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 51, 375, 1997. 132. Fairweather-Taits, S. and Wright, A.J.A., The effects of sugar-beet ibre and wheat bran on iron and zinc absorption in rats, Br. J. Nutr., 64, 547, 1990. 133. Tredger, J.A. et al., The effect of guar gum, sugar-beet ibre and wheat bran supplementation on serum lipoprotein levels in normocholesterolaemic volunteers, J. Hum. Nutr. Diet, 4, 375, 1991. 134. Frape, J. and Jones, A.M., Chronic and postprandial responses of plasma insulin, Glc and lipids in volunteers given dietary ibre supplements, Br. J. Nutr., 73, 733, 1995. 135. Hagander, B. et al., Dietary iber decreases fasting blood Glc levels and plasma LDL concentration in non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus patients, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 47, 852, 1988. 136. Hagander, B. et al., Dietary ibre enrichment, blood pressure, lipoprotein proile and gut hormones in NIDDM patients, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 43, 35, 1989. 137. Tredger, J., Sheard, C., and Marks, V., Blood Glc and insulin levels in normal subjects following a meal with and without added sugar beet pulp, Diabetes Metabol., 7, 169, 1981. 138. Morgan, L.M. et al., The effect of soluble- and insoluble-ibre supplementation on postprandial Glc tolerance, insulin and gastric inhibitory polypeptide secretion in healthy subjects, Br. J. Nutr., 64, 103, 1990. 139. Leclère, C. et al., Inluence of particle size and sources of non starch polysaccharides on postprandial glycaemia, insulinemia and triacylglycerolaemia in pigs and starch digestion in vitro, Br. J. Nutr., 70, 179, 1993. 140. Thorsdottir, I, Andersson, H., and Einarsson, S., Sugar beet iber in formula diet reduces postprandial blood Glc serum, serum insulin and serum hydroxyproline, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 52, 155, 1998. 141. Hamberg, O., Rumessen, J.J., and Gudmand-Hoyer, E., Inhibition of starch absorption by dietary ibre. A comparative study of wheat bran, sugar-beet ibre, and pea ibre, Scand. J. Gastroenterol., 24, 103, 1989.

Sugar Beet Fiber

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142. Lampe, J.W. et al., Serum lipid and fecal bile acid changes with cereal, vegetable, and sugar-beet iber feeding, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 53, 1235, 1991. 143. Israelsson, B., Järnblad, G., and Persson, K., Serum cholesterol reduced with FibrexR, a sugar-beet iber preparation, in Dietetics in the 90s. Role of the Dietetian/Nutritionists, Moyal, M.F., Ed., John Libbey Eurotext Ltd., 1990, 167. 144. Travis, J.S. et al., Effects of sugar beet ibre on blood Glc, serum lipids and apolipoproteins in non insulin diabetics mellitus, in Dietary Fibre — Chemical and Biological Aspects, Southgate, D.A.T., Ed., London, Royal Society of Chemistry, Special Publication n° 83, 1990, 366. 145. Frémont, L., Gozzelino, M.-T., and Bosseau, A.F., Effects of sugar beet iber feeding on serum lipids and binding of low density lipoproteins to liver membranes in growing pigs, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 57, 524, 1993. 146. Kreuzer M. et al., Effects of different ibre sources and fat addition on cholesterol and cholesterol-related lipids in blood serum, bile and body tissues of growing pigs, J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 86, 57, 2002. 147. Mazur, A. et al., Effects of dietary fermentable iber on fatty acid synthesis and triglyceride secretion in rats fed fructose-based diet: studies with sugar beet ibre, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 199, 345, 1992. 148. Nishimura, N., Nishikawa, H., and Kiriyama, S., Ileorectostomy or cecectomy but not colectomy abolishes the plasma cholesterol-lowering effect of dietary beet iber in rats, J. Nutr., 123, 12060, 1993. 149. Overton, P.D. et al., The effects of dietary sugar-beet ibre and guar gum on lipid metabolism in Wistar rats, Br. J. Nutr., 72, 385, 1994. 150. Sonoyama, K. et al., Apolipoprotein mRNA in liver and intestine of rats is affected by dietary beet iber or cholestyramine, J. Nutr., 125, 13, 1995. 151. Hara, H. et al., Fermentation products of sugar-beet iber by cecal bacteria lower plasma cholesterol concentration in rats, J. Nutr., 128, 688, 1998. 152. Hara, H. et al., Short chain fatty acids suppress cholesterol in rat liver and intestine. J. Nutr., 120, 942, 1999. 153. Leontowicz, M. et al., Sugar beet pulp and apple pomace dietary ibers improve lipid metabolism in rats fed cholesterol, Food Chem., 72, 73, 2001. 154. Lairon, D., Dietary ibres: effect on lipid metabolism and mechanisms of action, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 50, 125, 1996. 155. Langkilde, A.-M., Andersson, H., and Bosaeus, I., Sugar-beet ibre increases cholesterol and reduces bile acid excretion from the small bowel, Br. J. Nutr., 70, 757, 1993. 156. Morgan, L.M. et al., The effect of non starch polysaccharides supplementation on circulating bile acids, hormone and metabolic levels following a fat meal in human subjects, Br. J. Nutr., 70, 491, 1993. 157. Thorup, I, Meyer, O., and Kristiansen, E., Effect of a dietary iber (beet iber) on dimethylhydrazine-induced colon cancer in Wistar rats, Nutr. Cancer, 17, 251, 1992. 158. Thorup, I., Meyer, O., and Kristiansen, E., Inluence of a dietary iber on development of dimethylhydrazine-induced aberrant crypt foci and colon tumor incidence in Wistar rats, Nutr. Cancer, 21, 177, 1994. 159. Ishizuka, S. and Kasai, T., Suppression of the number of aberrant crypt foci of rat colorectum by ingestion of sugar beet iber regardless of administration of anti-asialo GM1, Cancer Lett, 121, 39, 1997. 160. Ishizuka, S. et al., Ingestion of sugar beet iber enhances irradiation-induced aberrant crypt foci in the rat colon under an apoptosis-suppressed condition, Carcinogenesis, 20, 1005, 1999.

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

161. Bobek, P., Galbavy, S., and Mariassyova, M., The effect of red beet (Beta vulgaris var. rubra) iber on alimentary hypercholesterolemia and chemically induced colon carcinogenesis in rats, Nahrung, 44, 184, 2000. 162. Nagai, T. et al., Dietary sugar beet iber prevents the increase in aberrant crypt foci induced by irradiation in the colorectum of rats treated with an immunosuppressant. J. Nutr., 130, 1682, 2000. 163. He, G. and Aoyama, Y., Effects of adding some dietary ibers to a cysteine diet on the activities of liver antioxidant enzymes and serum enzymes in rats, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 67, 617, 2003. 164. Sengupta, S., Muir, J.G., and Gibson, P.E., Does butyrate protect from colorectal cancer?, J. Gastroenterol. Hepathol., 21, 209, 2006. 165. Beverley, P., Tumour immunology, in Immunology, Roitt, I.V., Brostoff, J., and Male, D.K., Eds., Mosby-Year Book Europe, London, 1993, 17. 166. Ishizuka, S. and Tanaka, S., Modulation of CD8+ intraepithelial lymphocyte distribution by dietary iber in the rat large intestine, Exp. Biol. Med., 227, 1017, 2002. 167. Dongowski, G., Plass, R., and Bleyl, D.W.R., Biochemical parameters of rats fed dietary ibre preparation from sugar-beet, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., A 206, 393, 1998.

17 Psyllium Seyed Ali Ziai

CONTENTS Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 393 P. psyllium L. ................................................................................................ 394 P. ovata Forsk ............................................................................................... 394 Chemical Constituents .............................................................................. 395 Functionality and Food Application ................................................................ 395 Physiological Beneits ......................................................................................... 397 Laxative Effect ..................................................................................................... 397 Diverticular Disease ...................................................................... 398 Irritable Bowel Syndrome ............................................................. 399 Anti-Inlammatory Effects .......................................................................405 Anti-carcinogenic Effects..........................................................................405 Reducing Risk of Heart Disease .............................................................. 406 Other Effects of Psyllium .......................................................................... 410 In Diarrhea ...................................................................................... 410 In Gallstones ................................................................................... 410 In Hemorrhoids, after Anorectal Surgery, and during Pregnancy ........................................................................ 410 Safety and Toxicity.............................................................................................. 410 Contraindications ...................................................................................... 411 Pregnancy and Lactation .......................................................................... 412 Drug Interaction ......................................................................................... 412 References ............................................................................................................ 412

Characteristics Genus Plantago from the plantain family (Plantaginaceae) has about 250 species, and psyllium in pharmacopeias is a common name of the following plants: Plantago psyllium L. (Syn. P. afra L.); P. ovata Forsk. (Syn. P. ispaghula Roxb.); and P. indica L. (Syn. P. arenaria Waldst.). Plantago is a Latin word 393

394

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

which means the sole of the foot, referring to the shape of the leaf; psyllium comes from Greek and means lea, referring to the color, size, and shape of the seed (lea seed); arenaria is derived from the Latin word arena and means sand, referring to the sandy habitat of the plant. Ovata refers to the ovate shape of the leaf.1 Although true psyllium comes from the plant P. psyllium, the husk and seed of P. ovata are commonly referred to as psyllium and are used in nutraceuticals and industries. The mucilage content of P. ovata is ive times more than P. exicgua Murray, and P. psyllium has more mucilage content.2 Only P. psyllium and P. ovata are cultivated. The other species have a wild distribution.2 P. psyllium L. Plantago psyllium is native to the eastern Mediterranean region where it is also cultivated (especially in France). It is an annual that is hairy and erect, with an erect-branching stem (20 to 40 cm in height); it possesses whorls of lattened linear to linear-lancolate leaves from the upper axils with lowering stalks as long as the leaves arise. It needs humid Mediterranean-like climate to grow, so in the hotter regions (e.g., India and Australia) the cultivation time is in the winter and spring. Flowers are very small with color variations of white and green. The lowering time is from March to June. Harvest time occurs when seeds, growing in bunches, are easily released by inger compression. Seed yield is 1000 kg per hectare. Seed coloration ranges from shiny brown to red or dark brown, length is from 1.3 to 2.7 mm (rarely up to 3 mm) and width is 0.6 to 1.1 mm. It is often called dark or black psyllium. Other common names are brown psyllium, French psyllium, Spanish psyllium, Semen pulicariae (Lat). Fleawort seed (Eng.), Flohsamen, Heusamen (Ger.), and Semences (granies) depules (Fr.).3–5 P. ovata Forsk Plantago ovata is found worldwide, but it is native to India, Pakistan, and Iran. Today, psyllium is widely cultivated in its countries of origin because of vast demand for its commerce and economic beneits—mainly for export— and has been adapted to Western Europe and subtropical regions. It is an annual plant covered by ine hair. The stem is short (5 to 8 cm) and often curved. The leaves are linear, slender, dentate, and bayonet shaped. Flowers are white and bloom from February to August. Seeds are oval, boat-shaped, 2 to 2.3 mm long, 1 to 1.5 mm wide, and 1 mm thick. They vary considerably in color, from pale pink to grayish brown and even reddish yellow, and are called blond psyllium. Other common names are Spogel, Ispaghula (a Persian name which means “like the ears of a horse”), Indian plantago, Isfugul, Pale psyllium, Indian psyllium (Eng.), Indische, Flohsamen, Indisches psyllium (Ger.), Ispagul (Fr.), and Isfarzeh (Per). When the seeds are placed in water, they swell rapidly and become surrounded by a colorless, transparent layer of mucilage. The taste is bland with a mucilaginous texture.3–6

Psyllium

395

Chemical Constituents The husk of the psyllium seed is a mucilaginous hydrocolloid and forms a gel in water. It contains 10% to 30% hydrocolloid.1 This soluble iber is composed of a soluble polysaccharide fraction which primarily contains weak acidic arabinoxylans (85%) and a neutral polysaccharide fraction. The swelling factor is >9 for the entire seed and >40 for the seed husk of Plantago ovata L.7 The polymer backbone is a xylan with 1→3 and 1→4 linkages with no apparent regularity in their distribution. The monosaccharides in this main chain are l-arabinose, d-xylose, and _-d-galacturonyl- (1→2)- l-rhamnose which are substituted on C-2 or C-3 of d-xylan.3 Solutions of the puriied gum are thixotropic; the viscosity decreases as shear rate increases, a property that is of potential value.1 In an attempt to ind the active fraction of psyllium seed husk, Marlett and Fischer isolated fractions of psyllium seed husk. Fraction A was an alkaliinsoluble material and non-fermentable. Fraction C, which represented 15% psyllium seed husk, was viscous and fast fermented. Fraction B, which represents about 55% of psyllium seed husk, is poor fermented and increased the stool moisture, and fecal bile acid excretion. Neither fractions A nor C altered moisture and bile acid output.8 The seeds contain ixed oil, protein, and very small amounts of iridoids such as aucubin. The major bioactive components in the seeds of psyllium are phenolic compounds (such as benzoic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid, and salicylic acid), glycosides (acetoside and isoacetoside),9 alkaloids (plantagonin, boschniakia), and amino acids (alanine, asparagine, histidine, lysine).10

Functionality and Food Application Plantago ovata is the oficial species in the national pharmacopeias of France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States. Psyllium monographs also appear in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia, British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, British Herbal Compendium, ESCOP Monographs, Commission E Monographs, and the German Standard License Monographs. The World Health Organization (WHO) has published a monograph on psyllium seed, covering P. afra, P. indica, P. ovata, and P. asiatica. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) seeds were used to treat uremia, cough, hypertension, chilling, edema (by forcing diuresis), improvement of renal function, dysuria, and constipation, as well as in eye disorders such as xerophthalmia, cataracts, eye redness, inlammation, and photosensitivity. It is also used in lung disorders. The whole plant was used for heart disease (CHF) and intoxication. Seeds were used topically to heal wounds and abscess.6,11 In East India, the seeds were used to treat dysentery, renal disease, gonorrhea, fever, and GI dysfunction as well as lu,

396

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

cough, and other respiratory diseases, especially in pediatrics. Mill-ground seeds in water were used topically in the treatment of rheumatism, gout, and skin allergies.11 In Persia seeds were used to treat dysentery and billary tract disorders in GI complaints. By mixing the seeds with water, a paste is formed that is applied directly to inlamed skin. Infusion of seeds was used to treat renal ducts mucosa inlammation and stimulation.5 Psyllium is mucilage with valuable properties such as stabilizers, suspenders, emulsiiers, and thickeners and has wide application in pharmaceuticals and other industries. Historically, the literature cites Persian scientist Rhazes (850–932 AD) as being one of the earliest tablet coaters, having used the mucilage of psyllium seeds to coat pills that had an offending taste.12 Psyllium is an excellent source of natural soluble iber and contains experimentally eight times more soluble iber than oat bran on a per weight basis.13 In pharmacy applications, psyllium is used as a gelling agent for preparation of emulsions and suspensions and emulsiies insoluble powders, oils, and resins. P. ovata mucilage has better suspension effects than tragacanth and methyl cellulose.4 The viscosity of psyllium mucilage dispersions is relatively unaffected between temperatures of 68oF–122oF, by pH from 2 to 10, and by salt (sodium chloride) concentrations up to 0.15 M.14 It is used as a binder in granules and tablets. It is used alone or in combination in laxatives.2,15 The husk is used as an emollient.4 It is also used in cosmetics and as an antitussive, anti-inlammatory, and an immunostimulator.15 Psyllium has also been used traditionally in food products. It is used in a type of Indian beverage. It is also used in bread, honey, marmalade, soup, or mixed with wheat lour as a thickener in the making of chocolates and jellies.6 Recent uses of psyllium are in the production of ice cream as a thickener (Merecol IC), sherbet (Merecol SH), and yogurt (Merecol Y).6 In the United States ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals have included psyllium as a component since 1989, when the FDA ruled that companies can claim that eating foods containing psyllium can reduce heart disease risk.16 Bran Buds (Kellogg’s) is one of these products. It has been reported that between 1996–2001 a total of 33 patents have been granted on various uses of psyllium husk.17 Based on use, 18 patents have been granted for use of psyllium husk in pharmaceutical/drug composition, 14 patents for use in foodstuffs, and two patents on RTE cereals.17 Seven patents were assigned to individuals and the rest to companies/corporations. The Kellogg Company has received eight patents for use of psyllium husk in preparation of pasta, dough with low cholesterol, RTE cereals, baked snacks, and pharmaceutical composition to reduce cholesterol and improve functionality. Procter & Gamble is second with patents for the use of psyllium in laxatives, food composition with improved palatability, drink composition, and treatment composition for hypercholesterolemia.17 Psyllium husk in pharmaceuticals is formulated as effervescent granules, granules, oral powder, hydrophilic mucilloid for oral suspension, and capsules.18

Psyllium

397

Physiological Benefits Psyllium husk or seeds, deined as dietary iber and functional iber, are complex and non-digestible carbohydrates that can not be decomposed by human digestive enzymes in the upper alimentary tract. The physiological properties and health beneits of dietary ibers, including psyllium, are the result of the following: 1. They are substrates for fermentation. They promote microbial growth in the colon, and these microorganisms ferment to produce free fatty acids, H2, CO2, and energy. Also they change nitrogen, bile acid, and xenobiotic metabolism. By these mechanisms they are useful in treatment of constipation, diverticular disease, and colorectal cancer. 2. They have physical effects in small bowels. Because dietary ibers have gel-forming properties, they affect insulin secretion and gut hormones. Psyllium converts the small intestine into a reservoir from which nutrients are absorbed and slowly enter the circulation system. The important part that the intestine plays in this phenomenon is terminal ileum due to the increased viscosity as water is progressively removed from the luminal contents. By decreasing postprandial serum lipids and glucose, the postprandial insulin response is blunted, which affects lipids and lipoprotein synthesis.19–21 By binding to bile acids and inhibiting the enterohepatic cycle,22,23 psyllium reduces serum cholesterol.24 Psyllium and other viscous ibers, by blunting the glucose surge as well as insulin response peak, have useful health effects. Cohort studies showed that insulin surge is related to cardiovascular disease.25–28 So psyllium is useful in diabetes by controlling glycemic response and CHD by prolonging lipid absorption. 3. They have satiety and gastric emptying effects. Dietary ibers in food mixtures reinforce chewing of food and delay gastric emptying, so they will be useful in short-term appetite reduction.29,30 Enzymatic manipulation of psyllium by partially hydrolyzing it lowers its viscosity and somehow its eficacy.31–33

Laxative Effect The American College of Gastroenterology Chronic Constipation Task Force deines constipation as the following: Constipation is a symptom-based disorder with unsatisfactory defecation characterized by infrequent stools, dificult stool passage, or both present for at least three months.34

398

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Psyllium seeds or husk contain both soluble (70% to 90%) and insoluble iber (10%). Soluble iber dissolves in water, forming a gel, and is fermented in the colon to a greater extent than insoluble iber.35 Its end products are shortchain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) and gases (hydrogen, methane, CO2) as well as energy for growth and maintenance of colonic lora. Both of these products shorten the gut transit time and alleviate constipation. Psyllium has proved to be highly effective in the treatment of constipation and the maintenance of bowel regularity. Its stool-bulking activity principally results from the water-holding property of the resident polysaccharide, but it has a range of properties such as high non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) content, high viscosity on hydration, and, uniquely, the ability to retain some structure in the presence of signiicant microbial fermentation. The average increase in stool output expressed as grams of stool (wet weight) per gram of iber fed has been studied in many experimental and clinical trials. Psyllium resulted in 4.0 g wet stool weight per gram iber ingested, which ranked 4 on bowel habit after raw bran, fruit and vegetables, and cooked bran.29 In a systematic reviews of studies conducted from 1966 to 2003, results from 13 studies on psyllium alone or in combination with lactulose were gathered (Table 17.1). In this review, bulk or hydrophilic laxatives (psyllium, methylcellulose, bran, celandine, plantin derivatives, and aloe vera) were recommended as grade B (i.e., moderate evidence in support of the use of a modality in the treatment of constipation) and supported the use of psyllium.36 Psyllium compared to placebos37–39 or other laxatives40–43 or psyllium in combination compared to other laxatives44–46 improved stool frequency and stool consistency (Table 17.1). In one study on both healthy and chronically constipated patients, psyllium had no effect on healthy subjects but signiicantly increased stool frequency in constipated patients. This indicates increased regulatory function and selective activity of psyllium on constipated patients.47 One study with few patients reported decrease in transit gut time,37 so psyllium may be effective in alleviating chronic constipation. However, in those people in whom iber aggravates their sense of abdominal distension or in whom iber leads to incontinence (mainly in elderly subjects), a reduction in their iber intake should be recommended.48 The usual dose is about 3.5 g one to three times daily by mouth, although higher doses have been given. It should be taken immediately after mixing in at least 150 mL water or fruit juice. The full effect may not be achieved for up to three days. Diverticular Disease Dietary iber and psyllium have a role in diverticular disease, and a highiber diet prevents the development of symptomatic diverticular disease and its complications.50–52 Psyllium products in the colon (short-chain fatty acids and gas) in diverticular disease patients promote laxation and reduce intra-colonic pressure resulting in reduction of pain.35

Psyllium

399

Fiber supplement in alleviating diverticular disease was irst reported by Painter.53 In a randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial, investigators used 9 g/ day psyllium or 2.3 g/day placebo on 56 diverticular disease patients for 16 weeks to evaluate symptom relief.54 They found psyllium signiicantly reduced straining at stool, increased wet stool weight and stool frequency, and softened the stool. Petruziello et al.55 concluded that in uncomplicated diverticular disease the optimal treatment might be an initial course of antibiotics (rifaximine) to normalize the gut lora followed by a combination of a probiotic to prevent relapse and a prebiotic (psyllium) to maintain growth of protective bacteria. Irritable Bowel Syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a group of functional bowel disorders with pain and abdominal discomfort on defecation or change in bowel habit.56,57 Symptoms are constipation, diarrhea, bloating, straining, urgency, feeling of incomplete evacuation, and mucus discharge. The prevalence of IBS-type symptoms varies from 2.1% to 22% in the general population worldwide, depending on IBS deinition criteria and the study design.57–61 A recent study in the United States categorized prevalence of IBS to constipation-predominant IBS (IBS-C) at 1.79%, diarrhea-predominant IBS (IBS-D) at 3%, and IBS with alternating bowel habit (IBS-A) at 9.36%, totaling 14.1% in a large community.61 Guidelines recommend symptom treatment of IBS and dietary iber for constipation.57, 62 Several systematic reviews were made on the role of iber on IBS.63–69 Some of them conclude no beneit of iber in relief of symptoms, and they are useful only on IBS-C patients.63–66 A recent systematic review of 17 randomized controlled trials from 1996 –200267 involving a total of 1363 irritable bowel syndrome patients examined results separately for nine trials using soluble iber and eight using insoluble iber. The authors concluded that iber in general was marginally effective in relief of global IBS symptoms (relative risk, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.19 to 1.50). Soluble iber in particular (eight studies on psyllium and one study on calcium polycarbophil) had better results (relative risk, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.35 to 1.78), while insoluble iber worsened the clinical outcome, with no signiicant difference to placebo (relative risk, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.72 to 1.11). In a meta-analysis of therapies available for IBS (literature search 1966– 2004), results from bulking agents (seven psyllium, six other ibers such as bran, corn, and calcium carbophil) showed beneit of iber treatment in the relief of global IBS symptoms (relative risk, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.5 to 2.4).68 They categorized bulking agents, including psyllium, as grade C of recommendation (i.e., inconsistent results from inadequately controlled clinical trials or poor quality cohort studies). Adverse events were not consistently reported in most of the trials cited above, and some reported worsened abdominal pain and bloating with them.70–72

Study Design

Open, randomized and controlled crossover

Multicenter double blind crossover

Open, randomized parallel group study

Randomized double blind, crossover

Intervention

Lactoluse 30 mL/ day or Agiolax (psyllium & senna)

Lactoluse 30-60 mL/ day Agiolax (psyllium & senna) 10–20 mL/day

Lactoluse 30 mL/ day or psyllium 7g/day

Lactoluse 15 mL/ day or Agiolax (psyllium & senna) 10 mL/day

77

112

85

30

No. of Patients

Two 2-wk treatment periods with 3–5 days laxative free period before and between treatments

1-wk run in followed two 5-wk treatment periods separated by 1 wk Two 2-wk periods Agiolax or lactoluse with matching placebo with 3–5 days before and between treatments 4 wk

Duration

Summary of Clinical Trials on Laxative Effects of Psyllium36.

TABLE 17.1

Outcome Results

Both treatments resulted in sig. (p < 0.0001) increase in SF, SC (p = 0.027) over baseline but not between the treatment groups No sig. difference in straining and global improvement Sig. increase in SF by Agiolax than lactoluse (0.8/day vs. 0.6/day, p < 0.001) Improvement in SC (p < 0.005) and EOD (p = 0.02) by agiolax

SF was greater with the Agiolax (0.8/day) than lactoluse (0.6/day, p < 0.001), scores for SC and EOD were sig. higher for the Agiolax than for lactoluse

The Agiolax produced 4.5 BM/week (in both periods) compared with 2.2 and 1.9 per week for lactoluse

Safety Analysis

No difference in adverse effects between the treatment groups

No serious adverse effects

No difference in adverse effects

No sig. adverse effect noted

46

40

45

44

Ref.

400 Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Open, randomized single blind controlled

Multicenter randomized placebo controlled single blind parallel

Open, multicenter randomized controlled

Psyllium (P) and psyllium with senna (PS)

Psyllium 3.6 g tid or placebo

Psyllium (P) 3.5 g/ day or another laxative (lactoluse, bisacodyl, docusate, senna, and magnesium sulfate)

4 wk

2 wk

201

224(P) 170 (other)

1-wk placebo and 1-wk treatment

40

SF increased sig. from 2.3/wk to 7/ wk with psyllium and 4.5/wk with placebo Stool consistency, sig. decreased and loose or watery stool sig. increased in psyllium group Abdominal discomfort and straining sig. decreased in the psyllium group. Sig. improvement in constipation observed by both patients and investigators GPs assessed P superior to other treatments in improving basal function and in overall effectiveness with a higher percentage of normal, well-formed stools and fewer hard stools than other laxatives P was more palatable and acceptable to patients. Incidences of soiling, diarrhea and abdominal pain were lower in the P group

Both increased stool frequency (P 3.6 BM/wk vs. PS 6.8 BM/wk p < 0.001) Both increased wet and dry stool weights Only PS increased stool moisture Both improved SC and provided a high degree of subjective relief

No sig. adverse effects

P group 3/22 cramping and gas PS group 7/22 cramping, unfavorable diarrhea, bloating, gas and nausea

(continued)

49

39

41

Psyllium 401

Single blind randomized placebo controlled with crossover

Double blind randomized placebo controlled

Multicenter randomized double blind parallel

Psyllium 10g/day or placebo

Psyllium (P) 5.1 g bid and docusate (D) 100 mg bid

Study Design

Psyllium 24 g/day or placebo

Intervention

TABLE 17.1 (Continued)

170

22

10

No. of Patients Duration

1-wk washout followed by 1-wk baseline (placebo) followed by 2-wk treatment

8 wk with 4-wk run in on placebo and 4-wk washout

4 wk each arm

Outcome Results Sig. decrease in gut transit time (53.9 h in placebo to 30.0 h p < 0.05) Stool weight, SC not sig. improved by P A trend in stool frequency increase in P (from 0.8 to 1.3 BM/day) SF increased sig. after 8-wk psyllium (3.8 vs. 2.9 BM/wk, p < 0.05) Subjects reported improvement in SC (3.2 vs. 3.8, p < 0.05) by psyllium EOD improvement by psyllium (pain score: 2.0 vs. 2.6 p < 0.05) colon transit unchanged Compared to baseline P increased stool water content vs. D (2.33% vs. 0.01%, p = 0.007) Stool wet weight also increased (84.9 g/BM vs. D 71.4 g/BM, p=0.04) Total stool output was higher with P (P359.9 g/wk vs. D 271.9 g/wk, p = 0.05) O'Brien rank-type score combining objective measures of constipation was higher with P (P 475.1 vs. D 403.9 p = 0.002) SF was sig. greater for P (P 3.5BM/ wk vs. D 2.9 BM/wk, p = 0.02) in treatment week 2

Safety Analysis

No sig. adverse effects

No sig. adverse effects

42

38

37

Ref.

402 Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

32

50 healthy 59 chronically constipated

Open label randomized controlled crossover

Two phase

1-wk run in taking placebo then 10day treatment period with one of the M or P

Two consecutive 3-wk treatment periods

Healthy subjects: 4 g M sig. increased SF, fecal water, and fecal solids. Chronically constipated: All doses of M & P sig. increased SF, water content, and fecal solids. No increase in stool weight by both

No sig. changes in SF (C 7.20 vs. P 7.22) No difference in EOD, SC More patients seemed to favor C No difference in the incidences of abdominal camps, latulence, or abdominal pain between the treatment and placebo periods

Not mentioned

47

43

Note: bid: Twice daily, EOD: ease on defecation, SC: stool consistency, SF: stool frequency, sig.: signiicant/signiicantly, tid: three times daily, wk: week,

Psyllium (P) 2 teaspoons/day or calcium polycarbophil (C) 2 tabs/day 1,2,or 4 g methylcellulose (M) or 3.4 g psyllium (P)

Psyllium 403

UK US

India Ireland India UK

India India

1979 1981

1982 1983 1984 1987

1987 1990

20 g 30 g

NA 2 Sachets NA 1 Sachet (5 g)

1 Sachet (5 g) 6.4 g

Dose (per day)

Note: DB: Double blind trial, O: Open trial.

Country

Year

Trials of Psyllium on Irritable Bowel Syndrome

TABLE 17.2

O DB

DB DB DB DB

DB DB

Study Design

2 4

3 4 NA 12

12 8

Duration (weeks)

Improved: IBS symptoms No beneit: IBS symptoms, abdominal pain, bowel habit Improved: IBS symptoms No beneit: IBS symptoms Improved: IBS symptoms Improved: IBS symptoms, constipation, Not abdominal pain Improved: IBS symptoms, abdominal pain Improved: IBS symptoms, bowel habits, Not abdominal pain

Outcome

78 72

75 76 77 71

73 74 70

Ref.

404 Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Psyllium

405

The effect of soluble iber on IBS–related abdominal pain was poor (relative risk, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.95), but on the IBS-related constipation the effect was signiicant (relative risk, 1.60; 95% CI, 1.06 to 2.42).67 In conclusion, ibers can be used and recommended in painless IBS-C and as an adjutant.68 Anti-Inflammatory Effects In addition to laxation, psyllium produces short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate in the colon by the colonic lora, which are taken up by colonocytes and have anti-inlammatory and anti-neoplastic effects.79 Psyllium has been reported to improve symptoms and maintain remission of ulcerative colitis.80,81 Inlammatory bowel disease (IBD) in patients can be effectively treated with prebiotics (such as psyllium) alone.82 Psyllium husk was studied in a randomized placebo-controlled trial for four months on 29 patients with ulcerative colitis.81 Grading of abdominal pain, diarrhea, loose stools, urgency, bloating, incomplete evacuation, mucus, and constipation as symptoms of ulcerative colitis showed that psyllium was signiicantly superior to placebo (96% vs. 24%, p < 0.001). In another trial2 105 ulcerative colitis patients in remission were randomized between psyllium seeds (10 g bid), mesalamine (500 mg tid) as standard drug, or treated with both at the same doses. After 12 months, treatment failure was 40% in the psyllium group, 35% in the mesalamine group, and 30% in the combination group with no signiicant differences. The authors concluded that psyllium might be as effective as mesalamin. In a recent clinical trial83 psyllium 9.9 g/day as prebiotic combined with probiotic (synbiotic) was studied in 10 patients with Crohn’s disease for about 13 months. Results showed that Crohn’s disease activity index (CDAI) was reduced (225→136, p = 0.009). CDAI in eight patients was reduced by over 70 points. The International Organization for the study of Inlammatory Bowel Disease (IOIBD) score was reduced signiicantly after therapy (3.5→2.1, p = 0.03). Six patients achieved remission, one had partial response, and three were non-responders. There were no adverse effects. Diarrhea and abdominal pain were also reduced signiicantly in the synbiotic therapy (p = 0.01, p = 0.04, respectively). They concluded that high-dose synbiotic can be safely and effectively used for the treatment of active Crohn’s disease with frequent diarrhea.82 Anti-Carcinogenic Effects The estimated new cases of colorectal cancer in 2006 in the United States were about 148,000 (about 10% of all new cases of all cancer sites), and the estimated deaths were about 55,000 (about 10% of all deaths of all cancer sites).84 For obvious reasons, there is no human intervention study with the occurrence of colorectal cancer itself as an end point.79 Speciic interventions have failed to affect particular events within carcinogenesis; for example, in the

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

European Cancer Prevention Trial,85 665 patients with a history of colorectal adenomas were randomly assigned to calcium (2 g/day), psyllium husk (3.5 g/day), or placebo. In total, 552 patients completed the three-year follow-up period. In the calcium group 15.9% had at least one adenoma development (p = 0.16), and the igures for the psyllium husk and control groups were 29.3% and 20.2%, respectively. This study tells us that a speciic intervention is unlikely to reduce the risk of adenoma recurrence in a three-year interval after colonic polypectomy and does not address the question of primary prevention.79 In the Health Professional Study conducted on 16,448 men, the indings showed that soluble iber, but not insoluble iber, appeared to be inversely associated with distal colonic adenoma.86 Chronic constipation is an independent risk factor for colon cancer.87 In a metaanalysis of nine case-control studies,88 the combiner OR of these studies was 1.5 (95% CI, 1.3 to 1.7), and others89 found an association between colon cancer and constipation of 4.4 (95% CI, 2.1 to 8.9) independent of dietary consumption. The molecular mechanism of anti-inlammatory and anti-carcinogenicity of psyllium and other ibers is the production of butyrate and other shortchain fatty acids in the distal colon.80,90 Butyrate is the preferred oxidative substrate for colonocytes. Butyrate is a physiological modulator of the maturation of colonic epithelial cells; thus it could reduce colon cancer risk through the mitochondrial function, arrest cell growth, induce apoptosis of colonic epithelial cells, and regulate the expression of various oncogenes.87 This molecule is absorbed by the colonocytes and interferes with the nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB)-mediated signal transduction. NFkB liberated from its inhibitory subunit kB after tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) binds to its extracellular receptor. Unbound NFkB subunits are then translocated to the cell nucleus where they modulate the transcription of pro-inlammatory cytokines. NFkB also inhibits apoptosis and makes tumor cells immortal.79 Butyrate at concentrations between 1 and 5 mmol/L inhibited the growth of human colon cancer cell lines and caused the phenotype of tumor cells to change to non-neoplastic tissue.91 Butyrate inhibits histone deacetylase, thus affecting expression of selected genes that control the cell cycle machinery. Histone acetylation opens the DNA strand to transcribing enzymes. This phenomenon has a key role in proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.79 Apoptosis was increased by incubation of adenoma and carcinoma cells with butyrate.92 Reducing Risk of Heart Disease Cardiovascular disease is the major cause of mortality in most developed countries. Atherosclerosis of the vessels, especially the coronary vessels, causes malfunction of the heart and manifests itself as coronary heart disease (CHD). CHD may represent itself as angina pectoris or MI. The major risk factors are hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and smoking, as well as diabetes. Other conditions such as fat intake, lack of physical activity, stress, and

Psyllium

407

genetic susceptibility are also involved. Therefore, CHD is a multifactorial disease and diet itself is one of the factors contributing to the risk of CHD. Fiber is only one of the many dietary components that affect risk.29 An association between CHD and dietary iber was suggested in the 1950s.93,94 In 1961 Keys and colleagues95 reported cholesterol-lowering effects of iber in humans. The ability of viscous soluble ibers to lower serum cholesterol has been recognized for more than a quarter of a century. One hour after a fat meal (30 to 60 g fat) postprandial lipemia (almost triacylglycerols) rose and remained high for 5 to 8 hours.96 It is now realized that high postprandial lipemia is a characteristic metabolic abnormality of a number of lifestylerelated conditions that are associated with both increased morbidity (such as hypertriglyceridemia, metabolic syndrome, obesity, and type 2 diabetes) and mortality, especially from cardiovascular disease.96–101 The most comprehensive report on dietary iber and coronary heart disease, which included a pooled analysis of 11 major studies investigating 336,244 individuals (91,058 men and 245,186 women), 2,506,581 follow-up years, 5249 cardiac events, and 2011 deaths, noted that soluble iber had stronger effects than insoluble ibers. The average iber consumption was about 19 g/day in men and 17 g/day in women. The relative risk for 10 g/day soluble iber was 0.72 for all events and 0.46 for death, and for insoluble ibers these igures were 0.9 for all events and 0.80 for deaths.102 Thus soluble iber is associated with a 30% reduction in CHD risk per 10 g/day increment in consumption. It is known that about 50% of cholesterol is obtained from food and 50% is synthesized in the body. Reduction of lipid absorption and increasing cholesterol turnover may help to control and treat hyperlipidemia as well as CHD. Psyllium husk as a hydrogel acts by these two mentioned mechanisms. The intestinal lumen is the primary site of action of psyllium.103 Psyllium, by interruption of enterohepatic circulation of bile acids,104 alters hepatic cholesterol homeostasis. The body synthesizes bile acids from cholesterol in the liver.105 Decreased absorption of bile acids in the GI tract induces new bile acids synthesis in the liver and in turn decreases hepatic cholesterol pool. LDL, as the rich source of cholesterol in the bloodstream, is absorbed by the up-regulating LDL-cholesterol receptors on the liver cells surface.106,107 Soluble ibers also physically disrupt the intra-luminal formation of micelles, which may reduce cholesterol absorption and bile acid reabsorption.108,109 Hepatic cholesterol 7-α-hydroxylase (CYP7) (the rate limiting enzyme in the bile acid synthesis pathway), is up-regulated following dietary soluble iber intake.106,110 HMGCOA reductase and CYP7 are up-regulated by psyllium.111 Psyllium intake caused cholesterol-ester transfer protein (CETP) activity to decrease, which may contribute to the hypocholesterolemic effect of psyllium.111 In hamsters, decreases in hepatic cholesterol have been related to lower rates of hepatic apo B secretion.112 Increased plasma propionate concentration in rats inhibits fatty acid synthesis and therefore decreases VLDL secretion resulting in lowering plasma LDL cholesterol.113 In one study in rats, investigators found that psyllium improved the serum lipid proile by decreasing transfatty acid absorption, especially hypercholesterolemic effect. Hydrogena-

408

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

tion of vegetable oils transforms them from a liquid to a semi-solid state (margarine) and converts some cis double-bound to transconiguration. This transformation produces trans-fatty acids which, though unsaturated, are structurally similar to saturated fatty acids.114 Both human and animal studies showed the hypocholesterolemic properties of psyllium and other soluble ibers.104,106,115,116 The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), following the Nutrition, Labeling and Education Act, has ruled that labels on certain foods containing soluble iber from psyllium seed husk, such as certain breakfast cereals, may claim that these foods, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of CHD.16 This claim was based on scientiic evidence and FDA-evaluated placebo-controlled studies that tested an intake of 10.2 g of psyllium (about 7 g of soluble iber) per day.117,118 Now psyllium is one of the top 10 functional foods. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) of the National Institute of Health (NIH) in the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) adult treatment panel III (ATP III) recommended increasing viscous iber in the diet. On average, an increase in viscous iber of 5 to 10 g/day is accompanied by an approximately 5% reduction in LDL cholesterol.117,119 Even higher intakes of 10 to 25 g/day can be beneicial. Soluble (viscous) iber instead of insoluble iber reduces LDL cholesterol levels.120 For the management of hypercholesterolemia the recommended dose is about 3.5 g in at least 150 mL water twice daily by mouth. A higher dose of 5.25 g twice daily may be given for the initial two or three months of treatment if necessary. Some investigators reported that soluble iber such as psyllium produces a reduction in HDL cholesterol,121 and other reviews reported little, no, or inconsistent effect on HDL cholesterol.122,123 Strategies such as the reduction of dietary fat with an increase in iber consumption are less costly and may bring about reductions comparable to the use of drugs.22,124 Psyllium, along with reduced doses of a bile-acid binding resin, has been given in the treatment of hyperlipidemia, which is reported to be effective and better tolerated than full doses of the resin alone.125 There are several meta-analyses on hypocholesterolemic effects of psyllium.126–128 Anderson et al. conducted meta-analyses on the cholesterol-lowering effect of psyllium.126 Authors analyzed the results from eight studies on 384 and 272 subjects who received psyllium or cellulose placebo, respectively. In all studies 10.2 g/day psyllium was used as an adjuvant to a low-fat diet for more than eight weeks. All subjects had mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia with a pretreatment dietary lead-in period of more than eight weeks (AHA step I diet). They also analyzed the safety and adverse events associated with psyllium from pooled data of 19 clinical studies (807 subjects on psyllium and 476 on placebo) ranging from six weeks to six months. They concluded that 10.2 g psyllium husk per day could lower serum total cholesterol by 4% (P < 0.0001) and LDL cholesterol by 7% (p < 0.0001) and the ratio of apolipoprotein (apo) B to apo A-I by 6% (p < 0.05) relative to placebo in subjects with low-fat diet and had no effect on HDL and TG.126 The incidence of adverse effects was also

Psyllium

409

similar between psyllium and placebo groups. Symptoms involving the digestive system (e.g., latulence, abdominal pain, diarrhea, constipation, dyspepsia, or nausea) were the most commonly reported for both the psyllium and placebo groups.126 Reductions of more than 15% for serum total cholesterol concentrations and of more than 20% for serum LDL-cholesterol concentration have been reported for hypercholesterolemic patients eating a typical high-fat American diet.22,109 Olson et al.128 conducted a meta-analysis of 12 studies on the hypocholesterolemic effects of psyllium-enriched cereals in hypercholesterolemic subjects (209 patients in psyllium group) with a low-fat diet. In a meta-analysis of 67 controlled dietary studies,127 the authors found that for each gram of soluble iber from oats, psyllium, pectin, or guar gum, total cholesterol concentrations decreased by 1.42, 1.10, 2.69, and 1.13 mg/dL respectively. Similarly, LDL-cholesterol levels were decreased by 1.23, 1.11, 1.96, and 1.20 mg/dl respectively. In a recent randomized double-blind crossover study on 33 hypercholesterolemic patients, subjects received either two test cookies containing psyllium + plant strols (PSY+PS) or placebo cookies for one month with a three-week washout period between treatments. Intake of PSY+PS decreased LDL-1 and LDL-2 and increased the LDL peak size and LDL receptors signiicantly. Also, colesteryl ester transfer, protein activity, and prevalence of LDL pattern B were reduced signiicantly. They concluded that hypocholesterolemic action of PSY and PS was in part due to modiications in the intravascular processing of lipoproteins and LDL receptor– mediated uptake.129 Since then, there have been many clinical trials on hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic effects of psyllium. The cholesterol-lowering effects of psyllium are less controversial.108,130 Trowel is one who irst identiied a link between iber and diabetes,131,132 and Jenkins and colleagues published the irst experimental evidence on iber-modulating effects on blood glucose and insulin response.133 Psyllium, by decreasing both gastric emptying and small intestine motility and by viscousing the content of the small intestine, reduced glucose absorption and reduced postprandial glucose concentrations.133 Based on this effect the recommendations for the diabetic diet have changed from a low-carbohydrate, high-fat, high-protein diet to one moderately low in fat and high in starch and NSP.134,135 Diabetes is a chronic condition and needs maintenance therapy with chronic use of medications, and ibers as functional foods could be formulated best for long-term compliance. The principal controversy in psyllium consumption in diabetes is not about the eficacy but compliance.136 Meta-analysis showed that psyllium can reduce blood glucose by 29%,137,138 and it is postulated that soluble sources of NSP which formed gels were most effective in this context.139 In fact, 40% of patients with type 2 diabetes have hyperlipidemia and an additional 23% have hypertriglyceridemia with increase in LDL cholesterol levels.140–142 Psyllium has controversial effects on triglycerides in diabetic patients.108,109,143–146 Psyllium effects on the improvement of glucose and lipid levels were not explained by weight loss or reduced food intake.143,144

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Other Effects of Psyllium Psyllium as a hydrocolloid has some beneits in pharmaceuticals. It is used successfully in the production of sustained released gastro-retentive dosage forms, which enable prolonged and continuous input of drugs to the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach and small intestine) and improves the bioavailability of medications such as oloxacin that are characterized by a narrow absorption window.147 Indeed psyllium prolongs the gastric retention time of the drug delivery system and has pharmacokinetic advantages like maintenance of constant therapeutic levels over a prolonged period and thus reduction in luctuation in therapeutic levels.1,148 In Diarrhea It has been reported that psyllium has useful effects to help patients with diarrhea.149,150 Psyllium improves fecal consistency and viscosity in subjects with experimentally induced secretory diarrhea.151,152 The water-holding capacity of feces increased by daily psyllium intake.153 Psyllium also ameliorates diarrhea induced by enterotoxigenic E. coli.154 Conversely, psyllium has been shown to delay gastric emptying and reduce the acceleration of colonic transit.155 In Gallstones Gallstones, with a high prevalence in Western countries, is the most common and expensive digestive disease.156 It is found that 80% of gallstones found in patients have cholesterol as their major component.157 In dogs, iber supplementation of a lithogenic diet reduced cholesterol gallstone formation by reducing the cholesterol saturation index.158 Seven different epidemiological studies have shown a negative association between iber intake and gall bladder stones.159 In Hemorrhoids, after Anorectal Surgery, and during Pregnancy Psyllium is used when excessive straining of stool must be avoided, for example following anorectal surgery,160 in the management of hemorrhoids,161,162 or during pregnancy.163

Safety and Toxicity Psyllium has been marketed for more than 60 years in the United States, Europe, and Canada and has an excellent safety record. The safety of psyllium has been documented by other scientiic groups, including the FDA.164

Psyllium

411

The adverse effects of psyllium have been relatively uncommon; however, because of increased bulk, patients who consume psyllium commonly experience abdominal distension, pressures, and discomfort. They may also experience abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, cramping, loss of appetite, and faintness. Esophageal or intestinal obstruction may develop. In order to prevent obstructive problems, the patient must increase water intake to two full glasses with each dose and should take psyllium immediately before going to bed.165 Hypersensitivity reactions have been reported.166–171 In most patients, sensitization was thought to have occurred during occupational exposure. The plant products may cause speciic IgE–mediated sensitization and development of allergic rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and asthma, and oral intake has caused anaphylaxis.172–176 When psyllium is mixed or poured, ine dust particles are readily dispersed into the air and can then be inhaled and cause sensitization. Workers in pharmaceutical irms that manufacture the drug and health care workers dispensing it are at particular risk for hypersensitivity reaction. In one survey of 130 pharmaceutical workers, the prevalence rates of occupational asthma and IgE sensitization were found to be 3.6% and 27.9% respectively.177 Oral intake of psyllium seems to be less likely to induce sensitization. However, prior sensitization may be associated with severe allergic reactions.171 To avoid sensitization, healthcare workers should use face masks and work under fume hoods when mixing and dispensing psyllium products. And it is better to use granulated compared to inely powdered formulations. Many in vitro studies suggest that certain types of dietary ibers decrease the amount of dietary calcium available for absorption. But Lucia and Kunkel showed that there was virtually no binding of exogenous calcium by sources of cellulose, methylcellulose, or psyllium,178 and there is even evidence that prebiotics may have effects in the small intestine, particularly in enhancing calcium absorption.179,180 Psyllium has no effect on vitamin absorption.6 The seed contains a pigment that may be toxic to the kidneys, but this has been removed from most commercial preparations. In traditional medicine, seeds containing mucilaginous husk after swelling in water should be swallowed, with no chewing or crushing because of potential toxic chemicals that may be present in the seeds. Cases with psyllium adverse events have been reviewed recently.181 Contraindications Psyllium should be avoided in patients who have dificulty swallowing. Bulk laxatives should not be given to patients with pre-existing fecal impaction, intestinal obstruction, or colonic atony. Psyllium, as a nonprescription laxative, should not be recommended for children below six years of age, according to FDA-approved labeling.182

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Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

Pregnancy and Lactation In usual doses psyllium use does not have any restrictions in pregnancy and lactation. Pregnancy category B. Drug Interaction Ispaghula has interaction of relatively little signiicance with iron salts.183 Psyllium may diminish absorption of orally administrated drugs because of its mucilage content. In a case report a 47-year-old woman who took lithium citrate and had a constant blood level (0.53 mmol/L) of the drug started to consume 1 teaspoon ispaghula husk in water twice daily. Then she increased her lithium dose to 10 mL twice daily, but ive days after this dosage increase, her lithium concentration decreased to 0.40 mmol/L. Three days later ispaghula was discontinued. Four days subsequently, lithium concentration reached to 0.76 mmol/L.184 In an experiment psyllium increased the extent of ethinylestradiol absorption but the rate of absorption decreased.185 So patients should be advised to separate psyllium intake from the administration of oral medication by at least two hours in order to avoid impairment of the absorption of the medications.

References 1. Robbers, J. E., Speedie, M. K., and Tyler, V. E., Pharmacognosy and Pharmacobiotechnology, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1996. 2. Sharma, P. K. and Koul, A. K., Mucilage in seeds of Plantago ovata and its wild allies, J Ethnopharmacol 17 (3), 289-95, 1986. 3. Semen Plantaginis, WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants, World Health Organization, Geneva, 2001. 4. Leung, A. Y. and Foster, S., Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, USA, 1996. 5. Naghdi-Badi, H., Dastpak, A., and Ziai, S. A., [A review of psyllium plant], Iran J Med Plant 3 (9), 1, 2004. 6. Cho, S. S. and Dreher, M. L., Handbook of Dietary Fiber, Marcel Dekker, New York, 2001. 7. Evans, W. C., Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy, 15th ed. W. B. Saunders, Edinburgh, 2002. 8. Marlett, J. A. and Fischer, M. H., The active fraction of psyllium seed husk, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 62 (1), 207–9, 2003. 9. Li, L., Tsao, R., Liu, Z., Liu, S., Yang, R., Young, J. C., Zhu, H., Deng, Z., Xie, M., and Fu, Z., Isolation and puriication of acteoside and isoacteoside from Plantago psyllium L. by high-speed counter-current chromatography, J Chromatogr A 1063 (1-2), 161–9, 2005. 10. Chakraborty, M. K. and Patel, K. V., Chemical composition of Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk) seed, J Food Sci Technol 29 (6), 389–390, 1992.

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11. Libster, M., Delmar’s Integrative Herb Guide for Nurses 1ed. Thomson Delmar Learning, NY, 2002. 12. Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 21st ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005. 13. Yu, L., DeVay, G. E., Lai, G. H., and Simmons, C. T., US 6,248,373, 2001, Enzymatic modiication of psyllium. US Patent. 14. http://www.jyotoverseas.com/psyllium_applicatotions.htm. 15. Franz, G., Polysaccharides in pharmacy: current applications and future concepts, Planta Med 55 (6), 493–7, 1989. 16. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. FDA allows foods containing psyllium to make health claim on reducing risk of heart disease, Federal Register, 1998, 8103–8121. 17. Gupta, A. K. and Candak, V., Competitive strategy for agricultural technology development and exports through value addition: the intellectual property rights perspective, in http://www.sristi.org/mdpipr2005/day3/D3S5R1.rtf2005, pp. 2. 18. The Extra Pharmacopoeia of Martindale, 34th ed. Pharmaceutical Press, London, 2005. 19. Jenkins, D. J., Kendall, C. W., Axelsen, M., Augustin, L. S., and Vuksan, V., Viscous and nonviscous ibres, nonabsorbable and low glycaemic index carbohydrates, blood lipids and coronary heart disease, Curr Opin Lipidol 11 (1), 49–56, 2000. 20. Brennan, C. S., Dietary ibre, glycaemic response, and diabetes, Mol Nutr Food Res 49 (6), 560–70, 2005. 21. Frost, G. S., Brynes, A. E., Dhillo, W. S., Bloom, S. R., and McBurney, M. I., The effects of iber enrichment of pasta and fat content on gastric emptying, GLP-1, glucose, and insulin responses to a meal, Eur J Clin Nutr 57 (2), 293–8, 2003. 22. Everson, G. T., Daggy, B. P., McKinley, C., and Story, J. A., Effects of psyllium hydrophilic mucilloid on LDL-cholesterol and bile acid synthesis in hypercholesterolemic men, J Lipid Res 33 (8), 1183–92, 1992. 23. Buhman, K. K., Furumoto, E. J., Donkin, S. S., and Story, J. A., Dietary psyllium increases fecal bile acid excretion, total steroid excretion and bile acid biosynthesis in rats, J Nutr 128 (7), 1199–203, 1998. 24. Jenkins, D. J., Kendall, C. W., Vuksan, V., Vidgen, E., Parker, T., Faulkner, D., Mehling, C. C., Garsetti, M., Testolin, G., Cunnane, S. C., Ryan, M. A., and Corey, P. N., Soluble iber intake at a dose approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for a claim of health beneits: serum lipid risk factors for cardiovascular disease assessed in a randomized controlled crossover trial, Am J Clin Nutr 75 (5), 834–9, 2002. 25. Andersen, L. B., Boreham, C. A., Young, I. S., Davey Smith, G., Gallagher, A. M., Murray, L., and McCarron, P., Insulin sensitivity and clustering of coronary heart disease risk factors in young adults. The Northern Ireland Young Hearts Study, Prev Med 42 (1), 73–7, 2006. 26. Brand-Miller, J. C., Glycemic index in relation to coronary disease, Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 13 (Suppl), S3, 2004. 27. Erkkila, A. T. and Lichtenstein, A. H., Fiber and cardiovascular disease risk: how strong is the evidence?, J Cardiovasc Nurs 21 (1), 3–8, 2006. 28. Nishio, K., Fukui, T., Tsunoda, F., Kawamura, K., Itoh, S., Konno, N., Ozawa, K., and Katagiri, T., Insulin resistance as a predictor for restenosis after coronary stenting, Int J Cardiol 103 (2), 128–34, 2005.

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144. Ziai, S. A., Larijani, B., Akhoondzadeh, S., Fakhrzadeh, H., Dastpak, A., Bandarian, F., Rezai, A., Badi, H. N., and Emami, T., Psyllium decreased serum glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin signiicantly in diabetic outpatients, J Ethnopharmacol 102 (2), 202–7, 2005. 145. Brown, G., Albers, J. J., Fisher, L. D., Schaefer, S. M., Lin, J. T., Kaplan, C., Zhao, X. Q., Bisson, B. D., Fitzpatrick, V. F., and Dodge, H. T., Regression of coronary artery disease as a result of intensive lipid-lowering therapy in men with high levels of apolipoprotein B, N Engl J Med 323 (19), 1289–98, 1990. 146. Bell, L. P., Hectorne, K., Reynolds, H., Balm, T. K., and Hunninghake, D. B., Cholesterol-lowering effects of psyllium hydrophilic mucilloid. Adjunct therapy to a prudent diet for patients with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia, JAMA 261 (23), 3419–23, 1989. 147. Chavanpatil, M., Jain, P., Chaudhari, S., Shear, R., and Vavia, P., Development of sustained release gastroretentive drug delivery system for oloxacin: in vitro and in vivo evaluation, Int J Pharm 304 (1-2), 178–84, 2005. 148. Chavanpatil, M. D., Jain, P., Chaudhari, S., Shear, R., and Vavia, P. R., Novel sustained release, swellable and bioadhesive gastroretentive drug delivery system for oloxacin, Int J Pharm 316 (1-2), 86–92, 2006. 149. Smalley, J. R., Klish, W. J., Campbell, M. A., and Brown, M. R., Use of psyllium in the management of chronic nonspeciic diarrhea of childhood, J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1 (3), 361–3, 1982. 150. Qvitzau, S., Matzen, P., and Madsen, P., Treatment of chronic diarrhoea: loperamide versus ispaghula husk and calcium, Scand J Gastroenterol 23, 10, 1988. 151. Eherer, A. J., Santa Ana, C. A., Porter, J., and Fordtran, J. S., Effect of psyllium, calcium polycarbophil, and wheat bran on secretory diarrhea induced by phenolphthalein, Gastroenterology 104 (4), 1007–12, 1993. 152. Bliss, D. Z., Jung, H. J., Savik, K., Lowry, A., LeMoine, M., Jensen, L., Werner, C., and Schaffer, K., Supplementation with dietary iber improves fecal incontinence, Nurs Res 50 (4), 203-13, 2001. 153. Wenzl, H. H., Fine, K. D., Schiller, L. R., and Fordtran, J. S., Determinants of decreased fecal consistency in patients with diarrhea, Gastroenterology 108 (6), 1729–38, 1995. 154. Hayden, U. L., McGuirk, S. M., West, S. E., and Carey, H. V., Psyllium improves fecal consistency and prevents enhanced secretory responses in jejunal tissues of piglets infected with ETEC, Dig Dis Sci 43 (11), 2536–41, 1998. 155. Washington, N., Harris, M., Mussellwhite, A., and Spiller, R. C., Moderation of lactulose-induced diarrhea by psyllium: effects on motility and fermentation, Am J Clin Nutr 67 (2), 317–21, 1998. 156. Sandler, R. S., Everhart, J. E., Donowitz, M., Adams, E., Cronin, K., Goodman, C., Gemmen, E., Shah, S., Avdic, A., and Rubin, R., The burden of selected digestive diseases in the United States, Gastroenterology 122, 2002. 157. Dowling, R. H., Review: pathogenesis of gallstones, Aliment Pharmacol Ther 14 Suppl 2, 39–47, 2000. 158. Schwesinger, W. H., Kurtin, W. E., Page, C. P., Stewart, R. M., and Johnson, R., Soluble dietary iber protects against cholesterol gallstone formation, Am J Surg 177 (4), 307–10, 1999. 159. Sendez-Sanchez, N., Zamora-Valdes, D., Chavez-Tapia, N. C., and Uribe, M., Role of diet in cholesterol gallstone formation, Clin Chim Acta, 2006. 160. Cantor, A. J., Bowel management in postoperative care of anorectal wounds, Am J Proctol 3 (3), 204–10, 1952.

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161. Alonso-Coello, P., Guyatt, G., Heels-Ansdell, D., Johanson, J. F., Lopez-Yarto, M., Mills, E., and Zhou, Q., Laxatives for the treatment of hemorrhoids, Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004649, 2005. 162. Alonso-Coello, P., Mills, E., Heels-Ansdell, D., Lopez-Yarto, M., Zhou, Q., Johanson, J. F., and Guyatt, G., Fiber for the treatment of hemorrhoids complications: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Am J Gastroenterol 101 (1), 2006. 163. Morgan, C., Constipation during pregnancy. Fiber and luid are keys to selfmanagement, Adv Nurse Pract 9 (10), 57–8, 2001. 164. FDA, Food labeling: health claims; soluble iber from certain foods and coronary heart disease: inal rule, Federal Register, 1998, 8103–21. 165. Deglin, J. H. and Vallerand, A. H., Davis’s Drug Guide for Nurses, 7th ed., Philadelphia, 2000. 166. Busse, W. W. and Schoenwetter, W. F., Asthma from psyllium in laxative manufacture, Ann Intern Med 83 (3), 2–61, 1975. 167. Gross, R., Acute bronchospasm associated with inhalation of psyllium hydrophilic mucilloid, Jama 241 (15), 1573–4, 1979. 168. Suhonen, R., Kantola, I., and Bjorksten, F., Anaphylactic shock due to ingestion of psyllium laxative, Allergy 3 (5), 1983. 169. Zaloga, G. P., Hierlwimmer, U. R., and Engler, R. J., Anaphylaxis following psyllium ingestion, J Allergy Clin Immunol 74 (1), 79–80, 1984. 170. Kaplan, M. J., Anaphylactic reaction to “Heartwise,” N Engl J Med 323 (15), 1072–3. 171. Lantner, R. R., Espiritu, B. R., Zumerchik, P., and Tobin, M. C., Anaphylaxis following ingestion of a psyllium-containing cereal, JAMA 264 (19), 2534–6, 1990. 172. Malo, J. L., Cartier, A., L’Archeveque, J., Ghezzo, H., Lagier, F., Trudeau, C., and Dolovich, J., Prevalence of occupational asthma and immunologic sensitization to psyllium among health personnel in chronic care hospitals, Am Rev Respir Dis 142 (6 Pt 1), 1359–66, 1990. 173. Marks, G. B., Salome, C. M., and Woolcock, A. J., Asthma and allergy associated with occupational exposure to ispaghula and senna products in a pharmaceutical work force, Am Rev Respir Dis 144 (5), 1065–9, 1991. 174. Helin, T. and Makinen-Kiljunen, S., Occupational asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis caused by senna, Allergy 51 (3), 181–4, 1996. 175. Khalili, B., Bardana, E. J., Jr., and Yunginger, J. W., Psyllium-associated anaphylaxis and death: a case report and review of the literature, Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 91 (6), 579–84, 2003. 176. McConnochie, K., Edwards, J. H., and Fiield, R., Ispaghula sensitization in workers manufacturing a bulk laxative, Clin Exp Allergy 20 (2), 199–202, 1990. 177. Bardy, J. D., Malo, J. L., Seguin, P., Ghezzo, H., Desjardins, J., Dolovich, J., and Cartier, A., Occupational asthma and IgE sensitization in a pharmaceutical company processing psyllium, Am Rev Respir Dis 135 (5), 1033–8, 1987. 178. Luccia, B. H. and Kunkel, M. E., In vitro availability of calcium from sources of cellulose, methylcellulose, and psyllium, Food Chemistry 77, 139–146, 2002. 179. Schrezenmeir, J. and de Vrese, M., Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics— approaching a deinition, Am J Clin Nutr 73 (2 Suppl), 361S–364S, 2001. 180. Cummings, J. H. and Macfarlane, G. T., Gastrointestinal effects of prebiotics, Br J Nutr 87 Suppl 2, S145–51, 2002. 181. Pittler, M. H., Schmidt, K., and Ernst, E., Adverse events of herbal food supplements for body weight reduction: systematic review, Obes Rev 6 (2), 93–111, 2005.

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182. Pray, W. S., Nonprescription Product Therapeutics, Williams & Willkins, Baltimore, 1999. 183. Harkness, R. and Bratman, S., Mosby’s Handbook of Drug-Herb and Drug-Supplement Interactions, Mosby, St. Louis, 2003. 184. Perlman, B. B., Interaction between lithium salts and ispaghula husk, Lancet 335 (86), 1990. 185. Garcia, J. J., Fernandez, N., Diez, M. J., Sahagun, A., Gonzalez, A., Alonso, M. L., Prieto, C., Calle, A. P., and Sierra, M., Inluence of two dietary ibers in the oral bioavailability and other pharmacokinetic parameters of ethinyloestradiol, Contraception 62 (5), 253–7, 2000.

Section IV

New Development

18 Fruit Fibers Jürgen Fischer

CONTENTS Deinition and Origin of Fruit Fibers ............................................................... 427 Application of Fruit Fibers to Food Products..................................................430 Physiological Beneits of Fruit Fibers ............................................................... 432 References ............................................................................................................ 435

Definition and Origin of Fruit Fibers The term dietary iber [1] has been coined for organic components of plants that cannot be degraded by human alimentary enzymes and thus remain unabsorbed in the small intestine. Following the studies of Trowell and coworkers [2] on the connection between dietary iber intake and occurrence of diseases in modern civilization, ibers are no longer regarded as superluous for nutrition, and attempts are being made to increase their amount in food. Traditionally parts of plants (roots, tubers, leaves, fruits, seeds) rich in protein, carbohydrate, and fat have been chosen for human consumption and in addition, iber-depleted raw materials have been selected due to sensory reasons [3]. The main part of dietary iber in our diet comes from cell walls of fruits, vegetables, grain, legumes, and cereals [4]. The cell walls are very complex networks of different non-starch polymers, structural proteins, and phenolic substances [5–7]. Nearly all components of the cell wall belong to the group of dietary ibers. The most abundant non-starch polymers of the plant cell walls are cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin. According to the solubility in water, we distinguish soluble from insoluble dietary iber. The complex, native cell wall material is primarily insoluble in water and has a ibrous structure. The composition of this intrinsic cell wall material can vary among different plants and depends on the biological function of the plant organs and tissues. The composition undergoes changes during the plant’s life. Even within the same cell, changes occur during maturation [7]. In general, the content of cellulose and lignin strongly depends on the matu427

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428

TABLE 18.1 Composition of Edible Parts of Fruits

Fruit

Water (%)

Available Carbohydrates

Apple Apricot Mango Strawberry Pineapple Orange Plum Peach

85.3 85.3 82.0 89.5 85.3 86.7 83.7 87.5

12.4 9.4 12.8 6.5 13.1 9.2 11.4 9.4

Protein

Fat

Dietary Fiber

Water Binding of Dietary Fiber

0.3 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.6 0.8

0.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1

2.3 2.0 1.7 2.0 1.4 2.2 1.7 1.7

31.5 37.5 40.3 41.1 51.2 34.7 42.2 45.5

Source: Souci-Fachmann-Kraut, Food Composition and Nutrition Tables 1989/90, and theoretical water binding of dietary iber.

ration of a plant and increases with the need of a tissue for structural stabilization [8]. The highest dietary iber content in edible parts of plants is located in the outer regions of grains, fruits, or vegetables, due to their excellent protective function. In fruits, the reproduction organs of plants that contain one or more seeds (including the embryo), the parenchyma tissue is the main cell type. These cells have comparably thin walls but are highly vacuolated [5, 6] and can stabilize a tissue with very high water content. Two facts are responsible for this high functionality: the morphological structure and the higher ratio of pectin and hemicellulose versus cellulose. For example, in quince [9] the same cellulose content was found in lesh and core tissue but a three times higher pectin content in lesh. Table 18.1 gives an overview on the composition of some fruits. The fat and protein contents are in general lower than 1% and the sugar content is in the range of 6% to 13%. Because the cell wall material (= dietary iber) is responsible for moisture control (and the texture) a theoretical water-binding capacity can be determined for the dietary iber. A value of 1 has been considered for sugar and protein. Raw material to produce fruit iber is available in large quantities and is more or less a by-product of the processing of fruits to juice or puree [9–14]. The industrial residue is dried, to some extent puriied or processed, and milled to a deined grain size [15]. For example the production of apple juice is accompanied by the accumulation of about 20% pomace [16]. Usually, the pomace is dried immediately after processing of the fruit. This by-product consists of skin, seeds, core, and mainly the cell wall material of lesh (parenchymal tissue). It has an average content of about 60% dietary iber and 12% available sugars. The soluble iber content is approximately 20%, being mainly pectin.

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In the case of citrus processing [11] of juices and essential oils, the remaining materials such as peels, pulp, and seeds account for 40% to 60% of the fruits. These by-products are used to produce secondary products such as candied peels, pectin, or (peel and/or pulp) iber. Depending on the tissue, commercial dietary iber with different properties can be produced. For example, the total dietary iber content is 9.6% in orange peels, 9.7% in the membranes, and 11% in juice sacs and the water content is 69%, 81%, and 84%, respectively [17]. Hence, the total dietary iber content of seeds is 14.6% but their water content is only 48%. This is caused by the different biological need. Protection versus moisture control is relected by the high cellulose/ lignin fraction of 68% in contrast to only 42% in the other tissues. Although by-products of fruit processing exist in large amounts [18], the commercial production of fruit ibers is limited to small amounts since by-products are mostly used in the feed industry. Fresh fruit tissue after squeezing is not stable against enzymatic degradation and is very sensitive to microbiological spoilage. In addition, fruit ripening is mostly governed by cell wall degradation, which is responsible for softening. With over-softening, the production of iber is economically not of interest. Therefore, a drying process soon after fruit processing is necessary (this happens naturally in case of cereal bran or legume hulls during ripening). But the drying process is expensive due to the high and stable water binding of fruit-derived cell wall material and in addition it is dificult to preserve the beneicial functionality, the high water-binding capacity [19]. This property strongly depends on the maintenance of the cell wall architecture [19–21]. The term material with cellular structure (MCS) was chosen for powdered products that can be rehydrated to suspensions that have nearly equal properties as fresh cell wall material [22, 23]. Disintegration of the cell clusters is helpful to remove water-soluble substances during preparation but must not destroy the cell wall structure. This is accompanied by lower water-binding properties [24]. In this respect, powdered cell wall material from apples was described with water-binding capacities of more than 30 g/g. Such values are in the range of the theoretical values shown in Table 18.1. The way of rehydration plays an important role in the water-binding properties of fruit ibers. Intensive stirring or shear forces lead to enhanced binding properties [25, 26]. In recent years fruit iber–producing companies have focused on obtaining products with a high water-binding property, closer to those in fresh fruits. A comparison of this key property of commercially available fruit ibers can be seen in Figure 18.1. All values are determined under the same conditions to generate comparable results. As a matter of a wide range of different methods [27] to characterize the interaction with water (water binding, holding, swelling), as well as a strong inluence of the rehydration conditions, it is impossible to compare literature data and values of company brochures. Due to the different ultra structure, the water-binding properties of fruit ibers are higher than that of cereal-based iber. Raw materials like cereal bran or husks form a rigid cellulose coat [28] to protect the germ and should not bind water at all, a biological need. Chemical activation is necessary to increase

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430

Water Binding (g water/g Fiber)

25 20 15 10 5

r

r

be

be

Fi

Fi

us

p

tr Pl Q A

O

ra

us

Ci

ng eP

m Cl

as

sic

Le

A sic as Cl

ul

on

pp le

Fi

Fi

be

be

r

r

r at he W

er ib aF Pe

Fi

(H ul

Br at he W

be

ls)

an

0

FIGURE 18.1 Water binding of commercial dietary ibers using a centrifugation method: 1 g dietary ibers is dispersed in 60 g water at 20°C, soaked for 24 h, and centrifuged at 3000 x g for 10 min. The bound water is determined by weight measurement after discarding the supernatant.

the water-binding properties as is done to produce, for example, CMC, MC, or HPMC. Finally, the natural high functionality is the main advantage of fruit iber and reason for the positive image. It derives from succulent and attractive-to-eat plant material which has ever been a normal part of human nutrition. Application of Fruit Fibers to Food Products “Fiber is of interest to product designers for not only its nutritional value but for its versatility as a functional ingredient” [29]. Indeed, the old conceptions, especially that insoluble iber has been related with a rough mouthfeel, slowly disappear and are replaced by multiple technological beneits [3, 30, 31]. In the past, the use of insoluble fruit iber was limited to semi-dry applications such as bread or bars [32–35]. Nowadays, products are available with improved rehydration properties and are accompanied with a better water uptake, the ibrous material is becoming softer and can be applied even for oil/water emulsions without the formation of a sandy or grainy character [31, 36–38]. As in fruits or fruit-based products, the cell wall matrix is the principal structural component [5, 22] and the water-binding properties of fruit iber can be used to control the texture and the rheological behavior of food thereof. Without a doubt, the key property of fruit iber is the hydration. Hydration summarizes the ability to swell, bind water, enhance the viscosity, and prevent syneresis (see Table 18.2). Especially those fruit ibers that are produced

Fruit Fibers

431

TABLE 18.2 Applications of Fruit Fibers to Calorie Reduced Food Low Fat o/w emulsions (mayonnaise-like) Replacement of modiied starch Creamy, fat-like consistency even below 10% fat Pseudo-elastic low behavior Spreads Stabilization of fat-reduced margarines Replacement of nuts or beans Replacement of starch or milk powders Liver Sausage and Pâté Mimic fat Improved succulence Improved consistency Replacement of cereal-based binders Frankfurter Sausage Improved succulence Enhance shelf life (less syneresis) Improved bite Sponge Cake and Mufins Improved succulence Replacement of lour and/or fat Stabilization of shape

carefully without collapse of the cell wall architecture [21] are able to swell in a very short time and form a sponge-like network. This matrix is able to immobilize water to a high degree. Scanning electron micrographs (see Figure 18.3) visualize the mechanism responsible for the superior water binding. It is mainly the cell architecture and to a smaller extent the chemical composition with the relatively high content of pectin substances. The high water-binding is a technological as well as a physiological beneit [39]. However, dietary ibers with a high functionality (in respect to water binding) are typically used at a relatively low usage level to perform a speciic function and then, only consequentially, add iber at a low level. In most cases the level will not be high enough for fulilling a iber claim as suggested by the authorities. Nevertheless they are advantageous to be used in low-fat or low-calorie products [40, 41]. Some applications of fruit ibers to food products are shown in Table 18.2. The use in baked products has a long history, especially for apple ibers [42–44]. But why use fruit ibers in sausages, sauces and dressings, or in ice cream? On the whole, meat products are far from being regarded as sources of dietary iber. However, the high functionality and sensory improvement of some fruit ibers opened the doors to this new ield [45–48]. Especially in boiled sausages, the addition of 3% dietary iber in low-fat products is easy

432

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

to achieve with a iber ingredient with high water-binding capacity. A 20% fat-reduced product just by using only lean meat would be dry and very irm. Better results are achieved by keeping the protein at the same level and binding the water with iber. A similar principle is applied to a successful production of low-fat varieties of baked products, such as brownies, which originally have a high fat content [25, 33, 49, 52]. It is also possible to produce low-fat mayonnaise, low-fat margarine, fresh cheese, or even ice cream without reduction of creaminess or mouthfeel. A prerequisite for such application is that the iber can be rehydrated in a way that the grainy structure completely disappears (which is a result of cell wall collapse during production [21]). In some products the fruit ibers should be rehydrated by using intensive stirring or shear treatment [25, 51, 52] to achieve the best results. Figure 18.4 shows the rheological behavior of a low-fat o/w emulsion. Citrus iber, dispersed in water, creates a very high yield point and can be used after this treatment similar to the known starchy slurry. The pseudo-plastic properties allow the use in products with typical shear thinning such as mayonnaise or salad dressing.

Physiological Benefits of Fruit Fibers As listed in Table 18.1, fruits consist mainly of water and are low in fat. Many studies reveal that fruits (and vegetables) are a very important part of a healthy diet [53–55] as fruits are rich in vitamins, minerals, secondary plant substances such as lavonoids, and dietary iber. The last is deinitely the difference (or what is lacking) between juice and whole fruit. The only components that may be considered as less healthy are carbohydrates, mainly sugars. According to a recent WHO report [53] “beneits of fruits and vegetables cannot be ascribed to a single mix of nutrients and bioactive substances” but as a food group they contribute to cardiovascular health. The daily intake of 400 to 500 grams of fruits and vegetables is recommended to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure through the variety of phytonutrients, potassium, and iber they contain. These recommendations [54–55] are broadly known as 5-a-day (eat 5 or more portions of fruits or vegetables per day), and the concept is used as a strong marketing tool. Furthermore, convincing evidence exists on the positive effect of dietary iber and energy diluted food, such as fruits and vegetables on obesity [56]. Some reports focus more on subcategories of fruits such as citrus [57]. Although much work has been done to point out the advantages of fruits in a diet, studies focusing on fruit ibers (in the sense of complex cell matrix

Fruit Fibers

433

and not an isolated fraction like pectin) are rare. Some work has been done on the bulking effects of fruit ibers [58, 59]. This effect can be considered as beneicial to prevent constipation, a major health problem mainly for elderly women. Responsible for a high bulking effect is the good water binding of fruit iber, which is stable during the passage through the intestine and the relative iligree morphological structure that provides bacteria in the large bowel with good growth conditions. Figure 18.2 shows results of a comparative study of different commercial fruit ibers. Additionally some integral parts of fruit ibers are metabolized by desirable bacteria and with that have a prebiotic nature. A few studies have been published concerning the link between the general health beneit of fruits and their dietary iber content. An Italian study [60] supports the hypothesis that the dietary ibers in fruits (and vegetables but not cereal) are one of the beneicial components that protects against laryngeal cancer. A Harvard research group [61] analyzed whether the source of dietary iber has an inluence on the reduction of heart disease risk by pooling results from more than 91,000 men and 245,000 women. In this study the strongest protective effect against coronary heart disease caused deaths with a reduction in risk of 30% was with fruit iber and 25% for cereal iber for each 10 grams per day. From all the data it is obvious that fruit ibers add a beneit to foodstuff either by the iber itself or the secondary effect of energy dilution. Additional studies are required to demonstrate a speciic effect when added to a speciic foodstuff. Nevertheless, all data suggest that the consumption of fruit, iber, and phytonutrients thereof can be generally regarded as beneicial, a fact that is relected in the existence of general health claims for iber-containing fruits in the United States [62]. Low Viscosity Apple Pectin (Herbapekt SF 50) Citrus Fiber (Herbacel AQ Plus) Apple Fiber (Herbacel AQ Plus) Wheat Bran Apple Fiber (Herbacel Classic 01) 0

20

40

60 80 Faecal Bulking Index

100

120

140

FIGURE 18.2 Faecal Bulking Index (FBI) (according to [63]) relects non-digested food matter, hindgut bacterial biomass, and the water-holding capacity of the whole. Reference was 12.5% wheat bran (100) to the normal diet (bases = 0).

434

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

2 mm

200 µm Herbacel AQ Plus Citrus Fiber powder

2 mm

200 µm Herbacel AQ Plus Citrus Fiber, 2% powder soaked in water for 24 h

FIGURE 18.3 Scanning electron micrographs of citrus iber in powdered form and after swelling in distilled water at 20°C for 20 h.

Fruit Fibers

435

40 6% Starch 1,8% Starch + 1,2% Citrus fiber

Viscosity (Pa s)

30

20

10

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Shear Rate (1/s)

Ingredients Water Vegetable Oil Modified Waxy Maize Citrus Fiber (Herbacel AQ Plus ) Vinegar (5% acid) Egg Yolk Sugar Mustard Salt Lemon Juice Spices

“Starch” [%] 68 9 6 0 6 3 3 2 1,5 1 0,5

“Starch + Citrus Fiber” [%] 71,0 9 1,8 1,2 6 3 3 2 1,5 1 0,5

FIGURE 18.4 Flow behavior of low-fat mayonnaise on basis of starch versus starch and citrus iber.

References 1. Hipsley, E.H., Dietary “ibre” and pregnancy toxaemia, Brit. Medical Journal, 2, 420, 1953 2. Trowell, H., Burkitt, D. and Heaton, K., Dietary Fibre – Fibre Depleted Foods and Diseases. Academic Press, London 1985 3. Meuser, F., Technological aspects of dietary ibre in Advanced Dietary Fibre Technology, McCleary and Prosky, Eds., Blackwell Science, Oxford, 2001, chap 23 4. Selvendran, R.R., Steven, B.J.H., and DuPont, M.S., Dietary ibre: chemistry, analysis and properties. Adv. Food Res., 31, 117, 1987 5. Waldron, K.W., Parker, M.L., and Smith, A.C., Plant cell walls and food quality, Comprehensive reviews in food science and food safety, IFT 2003 vol 2

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6. MacDougall, A.J. and Selvendran, R.R., Chemistry, architecture, and composition of dietary iber from plant cell walls; Handbook of Dietary Fiber, Cho and Dreher, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, 2001, chap 19 7. Pena, M.J., Vergara, C.E., and Carpita, N.C. The structure and architecture of plant cell walls deine dietary ibre composition and the texture of foods, in Advanced dietary Fibre Technology, McCleary and Prosky, Eds., Blackwell Science, Oxford, 2001, chap 5 8. Selvendran, R.R., Dietary ibre in foods: amount and type, Physico-chemical properties of dietary ibre and effect of processing on micronutrient availability, Proceeding of a workshop, COST 92 Amado, Barry and Frolich, eds., Commission of the European Communities, Luxemburg 1993 9. Thomas, M. et al., Characterisation of dietary ibre and cell-wall polysaccharides from different tissue zones and entire fruit of Chaenomeles japonica, Poster at 1st International Conference on Dietary Fibre, Dublin 2000 10. Martin-Cabrejas, M.A. et al., By-products of food industries as source of dietary ibre, Physico-chemical properties of dietary ibre and effect of processing on micronutrient availability, Proceeding of a workshop, COST 92 Amado, Barry and Frolich, eds., Commission of the European Communities, Luxemburg 1993 11. Licandro, G. and Odio, C.E, Citrus by-products in Citrus, Dugo & DiGiacomo Eds., Taylor & Francis, London 2002, chap. 11 12. Larrauri, J.A, New approaches in the preparation of high dietary ibre powders from fruit by-products, Trends in Food Science and Technology, 10, 3, 1999 13. Martin-Cabrejas, M.A. et al., Dietary ibre content of Pear and Kiwi pomace, J. Food Chem., 43, 662, 1995 14. Valiente, C. et al., Grape pomace as a potential food ibre, J. Food Science 60, 818, 1995 15. Walter, R.H. et al., Edible ibre from Apple pomace, J. Food Science, 50, 747, 1985 16. Arrigoni, E. et al.. Chemical composition and physical properties of modiied dietary ibre sources, Food Hydrocolloids, 1, 57, 1986 17. Braddock, R.J. and Graumlich, T.R., Composition of ibre from citrus peel, membranes, juice vesicles and seeds, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 14, 229, 1980 18. Dongowski, G. and Bock, W., Rohstoffressourcen für die Herstellung von pektinhaltigen Ballaststoffen und Ballaststoffpräparate, in Aktuelle Aspekte der Ballaststofforschung, Schulze and Bock, Eds., Behr’s Verlag Hamburg, 1993, chap 4 19. Bock, W. and Ohm, G., Einluss der gewachsenen Struktur auf die Wasserbindungskapazität ausgewählter Obst und Gemüsepräparate, Food/Nahrung Vol. 27, 205, 1983 20. Kunzek, H. and Dongowski, G, Der Einluß des mechanolytischen Abbaus von Obst- und Gemüsetrockenpräperaten auf die Bestimmung des Wasserbindevermögens unter Verwendung verschiedener Methoden, Lebensm. Ind., 38, 77, 1991 21. Kunzek, H., Krabbert, R., Gloyna, D., Aspects of material science in food processing: changes in plant cell walls of fruits and vegetables, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. A, 208, 233, 1999 22. Krabbert, R., Herrmuth, K., Kunzek, H., Wasserbindekapazität und Makrostruktur von Apfelgewebepartikeln, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 197, 219, 1993 23. Müller, S. and Kunzek, H., Material properties of processed fruits and vegetables, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. A, 206, 264, 1998 24. Kunzek, H. et al., Einsatz der Druckhomogenisierung zur Herstellung von zellstrukturiertem Apfelmaterial, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 198, 239, 1994

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25. Fischer, J., Functional properties of Herbacel AQ Plus fruit ibres, Poster at 1st International Conference on Dietary Fibre, Dublin 2000 26. Vetter, S., Kunzek, H., Senge, B., The inluence of the pre-treatment of apple cell wall samples on their functional properties Eur. Food Res. Technol., 212, 630, 2001 27. Chen, J.V., Piva, M., Labuza, T.P., Evaluation of waterbinding capacity (WBC) of food iber sources, J. Food Science, 49, 59, 1984 28. Canadian Harvest, Fiber Facts, Company brochure, USA 29. Bahr, P., New ways to apply iber; foodproductdesign.com / archive / 1996 / 1096DE.html 30. Amado, R., Physio-chemical properties related to type of dietary ibre, PhysicoChemical Properties of Dietary Fibre and Effect of Processing on Micronutrient availability Amado, Barry and Frolich, eds., Commission of the European Communities 1993 31. Endress, H.U., and Fischer, J., Fibers and Fibre Blends for Individual Needs: a physiological and technological approach, in Advanced Dietary Fibre Technology, McCleary and Prosky, Eds., Blackwell Science, Oxford, 2001, chap 26 32. Miller, E., Lassbeck, A., and Bender, M., Apple – the fruit for more than one application, Food Tech Europe, 88, 1995 33. Fischer, J. Dietary ibres—Ingredients for sweet and bakery goods, Zucker und Suesswarenwirtschaft, 10, 20, 2001 34. Bender, M., Citrusfaser, Food Tech M, October 1996 35. Duxbury, D.D., Apple ibre powder yields higher pectin, moisture retention, Food Processing, November 1987 36. Fischer, J., Improved fruit ibres for modern food processing, Food Ingredients and Analysis, May/June, 2001 37. Figuerola, F., et al., Fibre concentrates from apple pomace and citrus peels as potential ibre source for food enrichment, Food Chem, 91, 395, 2005 38. Fischer, J., Fibres in Ice cream, Inter-Ice 2000, International Symposium, Solingen, May 2000 39. Schneeman, B.O., Dietary ibre and gastrointestinal function, in Advanced dietary Fibre Technology, McCleary and Prosky, Eds., Blackwell Science, Oxford, 2001, chap 14 40. Sandrou, D.K., and Arvanitoyannis, I.S., Low-fat/calorie foods: Current state and perspective, Critical Rev. Food Sci Nutr, 40:427, 2000. 41. Fischer, J., Dietary ibres, no.1 ingredients for calorie reduction, Wellness Foods Europe, April/May 2004 42. Bollinger, H., Ballaststoffe – Eigenschaften und ihre Anwendungsmöglichkeiten, Suesswaren, 7-8, 384, 1990 43. Bollinger, H., Calorie-reduced snacks, Food Marketing Technol, April 1993 44. Hanneforth, U., and Brack, G., Apfelballaststoffe: Eigenschaften und Eignung für die Verarbeitung in Feinen Backwaren, Brot und Backwaren, 3, 1991 45. Perez-Alvarez, J.A. et al., Effect of citrus ibre (albedo) incorporation in cooked pork sausages, IFT Annual Meeting, 2001 46. Fischer, J., Leichter Ballast, Lebensmitteltechnik 6, 2001 47. Garcia, M.L. et al., Utilisation of cereal and fruit ibres in low fat dry fermented sausages; Meat Science, Vol. 60, issue 3, 227, 2002 48. Garcia, M.l, Caeres, E., and Selgas, M.D., Utilisation of fruit ibres in conventional and reduced-fat cooked sausages, J. Sci Food Agricul

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49. Köz, P., Boyacioglu, D., Özcelik, B., Development of a functional Turkish dessert: Dietetic and diabetic baklava, IFT Annual Meeting, Las Vegas 2004 50. Hughes, K., Reduced fat with pulp ibre, Prepared Food, January 2007 51. Fischer, J., Fruit ibres to count down the calories, Innov Food Technol, November 2005 52. Auffret, A. et al., Effect of grinding and experimental conditions on the measurement of hydration properties of dietary ibres, Lebensmittel-Wissen Technol, Vol 27, No 2, 166, 1994 53. WHO/FAO Expert consultation on diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases, WHO Technical Report Series 916, Geneva 2003 54. US Department of Health and Human Service, Healthy people 2000, National Health Promotion and disease prevention objectives, DHHS Publ. 91-50212 Washington DC, 1991 55. Bazzano, L.A., Dietary intake of fruit and vegetables and risk of diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases, Background paper for the joint FAO/WHO Workshop on fruit and vegetables for health, 1-3 Sept. 2004 in Kobe, Japan, WHO 2005 56. Ludwig, D.S. et al.. Dietary ibre, weight gain, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in young adults, JAMA, Vol. 282, No. 16, 1999 57. Baghurst, K., The health beneits of Citrus fruits, CSIRO Health Science and Nutrition, Report to Horticulture Australia Ltd, Project No. CT01037, June 2003 58. Bravo, L., Saura-Calixto, F., and Goni, I., Effects of dietary ibre and tannins from apple pulp on the composition of faeces in rats, Brit. J. Nutr, 67:463, 1992 59. Bird, A.R. and Topping, D.L.. CSIRO Human Nutrition PTI/FITA report, June 1999 60. Pelucchi, C. et al., Fibre intake and laryngeal cancer risk, Anals Oncol, 14, 162, 2003 61. Pereira, M.A. et al., Dietary iber and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of cohort studies, Arch Internal Med, 164:370, 2004 62. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Health claims 21 CFR 101.76, 21 CFR 101.77 and 21 CFR 101.78, www.cfsan.fda.gov, 2004 63. Monro, J., Faecal bulking index and wheat bran equivalents for dietary management of distal colonic bulk, Poster at 1st International Conference on Dietary Fibre, Dublin 2000

19 Aleurone Flour: A Novel Wheat Ingredient Rich in Fermentable Fiber, Micronutrients, and Bioavailable Folate Michael Fenech, Peter Clifton, Manny Noakes, and David Topping

CONTENTS Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 439 Functionality, Physiological Beneits, and Food Applications .....................440 In Vitro and Rat in Vivo Studies................................................................442 Bioavailability and Bioeficacy of Folate from Aleurone Flour: Human Studies...............................................................................443 Safety and Toxicity.............................................................................................. 451 Summary .............................................................................................................. 451 Acknowledgments .............................................................................................. 452 References ............................................................................................................ 452

Characteristics Wheat aleurone lour (ALF) is a novel food product or ingredient made from the aleurone layer of cells in the wheat grain (Figure 19.1). ALF has the potential to make an important contribution to optimal nutrition because it contains signiicant amounts of naturally occurring nutrients including (a) minerals such as magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc, (b) dietary iber, (c) protein, (d) antioxidant phenolic compounds, and (e) B vitamins including folate (Tables 19.1 and 19.2) [1–3]. The aleurone cells, together with the germ, contain the wheat grain’s essential nutrients required for the growth and development of the embryo [4, 5]. Because the bran fraction of wheat contains the aleurone layer of cells, the phytochemicals, vitamins, minerals, iber, and protein in aleurone cells are lost when wheat grain is reined to make white lour. Consequently, in recent years there has been an interest in devising novel milling technologies to purify the aleurone fraction of the wheat grain 439

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

440

Pericarp seed coat

Aleurone

Pericarp seed coat

Aleurone Endosperm

20 µm

PTR84_01097

Endosperm

FIGURE 19.1 Diagram showing structure of the wheat grain and the spatial relationship of the aleurone layer relative to pericarp seed coat and the endosperm.

and make it available for human consumption. A unique and commercially viable milling process was initially developed by Goodman Fielder Pty. Ltd. (Australia) that enabled the isolation of the aleurone cell layer and at the same time split the cell walls to release the contents of these cells [6, 7]. Another method of extraction of aleurone cells from wheat bran was developed by Buhler AG and patented (patent WO 02/15711). A schematic representation of the isolation of aleurone is shown in Figure 19.2. The sheared aleurone cells together with a small amount of wheat germ have been formulated into the novel aleurone lour (i.e., ALF). ALF has been available commercially internationally since the mid-1990s and is sold widely as a major ingredient of bread and other cereal products such as pasta.

Functionality, Physiological Benefits, and Food Applications Despite the high nutritional value of ALF, only its contribution to folate status, in terms of bioavailability and bioeficacy, has been adequately studied in human feeding studies. However, before reviewing current knowledge in this area, results from in vitro studies on antioxidant properties and animal studies on fermentation and colon cancer prevention will be briely discussed.

Aleurone Flour

441

TABLE 19.1 Wheat Aleurone Micronutrient Compositiona Unitb

Constituent Crude Protein Crude Fat Water insoluble dietary iber Water soluble dietary iber Crude Ash Phosphorous Potassium Magnesium Calcium Iron Zinc Sodium Vitamins B1 (Thiamin) B2 (Ribolavin) B6 (Pyridoxine) Niacin Folic acid Pantothenic Acid E (DL-α-tocopherol) Phytic Acid (inositol 4,5,6 triphosphate) a b c

Contentb

g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g g/Kg g/Kg g/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg mg/Kg

20.8 5.7c 43.0 4.1 11.3 25.4 22.5 10.3 930 260 139 21

mg/100 g mg/100 g mg/100 g mg/100 g μg/100 g mg/100 g mg/100 g g/100 g

1.4 0.2 1.3 32.9 158.0 4.9 1.2 8.4

Data from Earling et al. [3] (analyses performed by Buhler laboratory, 2004). Dry matter basis. 66% polyunsaturated, 18% monounsaturated, 16% saturated fat.

TABLE 19.2 Proximate Analysis of Wheat Bran Flour and Aleurone Flour1 Wheat Bran Flour (g/100 g)

Aleurone Flour (g/100 g)

Total Starch Total Dietary Fiber Total Fat Total Protein Total Free Sugars Total Ash Total Moisture

21.6 31.6 5.2 17.8 6.2 3.5 10.4

36.5 15.4 6.5 23.6 7.2 4.1 5.1

Sum Total

96.3

98.4

Constituent

Note: Values are means of duplicate analyses. Source: Data from Fenech et al. [1].

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

442

Pericarp Seedcoat (Pericarp Seedcoat Flour)

Wheat Grain

Wheat Bran (Wheat Bran Flour)

Starchy Endosperm (White Flour)

Aleurone Cells and Germ (Aleurone Flour)

FIGURE 19.2 A schematic diagram showing the key steps in the isolation of wheat bran and aleurone lour.

In Vitro and Rat in Vivo Studies Zhou et al. [8] compared Swiss red wheat grain, bran, aleurone, and micronized aleurone for their free-radical scavenging properties against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical, radical cation ABTS*+ and peroxide radical anion O(2)*–, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), chelating capacity, total phenolic content (TPC), and phenolic acid composition. Their results showed that micronized aleurone had the greatest antioxidant activities, TPC, and concentrations of all identiied phenolic acids (p-OH Benzoic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, coumaric acid, and ferulic acid), suggesting the potential of postharvesting treatment on antioxidant activities and availability of TPC and phenolic acids. Aleurone was particularly rich in ferulic acid, which was present at a concentration of 373 μg/g. Ferulic acid has been shown to protect against colon cancer and colitis in rat models of these diseases [9, 10]. Cheng et al. [11] studied the comparative effects of dietary wheat bran and its components aleurone and pericarp-seed coat on volatile fatty acid concentrations in the rat. In this study adult male rats were fed on diets containing 100 g dietary iber/kg either as alpha-cellulose or wheat bran or the pericarp-seed coat or aleurone layers prepared from that bran by sequential milling and air elutriation and electrostatic separation. After 10 days, concentrations of total volatile fatty acids (VFA) in cecal luid were signiicantly different between diet groups with aleurone greater than wheat bran greater than pericarp-seed coat greater than cellulose. This ranking relected the ease of fermentation of iber polysaccharides by colonic bacteria, which also

Aleurone Flour

443

resulted in a considerably higher fecal bacterial mass in the aleurone group. The diet based on aleurone gave a relatively higher proportion of propionate but with both pericarp-seed coat and wheat bran the contribution of butyrate was raised. VFA concentrations in hepatic portal venous plasma were proportional to cecal concentrations with very high (greater than 3 mM) values being recorded in the aleurone group. McIntosh et al. [12] described a study showing that wheat aleurone lour (ALF) increases butyrate concentration and reduces colon adenoma burden in Sprague-Dawley rats induced using azoxymethane (AOM). ALF at 33 g/100 g of diet increased the weight of feces and produced signiicantly higher concentrations in the cecum of the shortchain fatty acid butyrate (P < 0.001) than did no iber (NF) and ALF added at only 10 g/100 g. Cecal and fecal pH were both signiicantly lower in the ALF treatments relative to control and no iber treatments (P < 0.001). There were 43% fewer colon adenomas in the ALF treatment groups relative to control (P = 0.06). The results of these studies suggest that ALF lour has potential to modify fermentation in the bowel environment in a way that could promote prevention of colon cancer. It is also possible that these effects may be partly mediated via the role of phenolic compounds such as ferulic acid in bowel fermentation and as colon cancer protective agents via antioxidant and anti-inlammatory mechanisms [9, 10]. These effects need to be veriied in human studies. Bioavailability and Bioefficacy of Folate from Aleurone Flour: Human Studies One of the most notable features of the composition of ALF is the high level of folate present at a concentration between 340 and 515 µg/100 g wet weight [1, 2]. This natural level of folate is higher than that observed in wheat bran, fruits, and vegetables (usually between 20 μg/100 g and 200 μg/100 g wet) [13, 14] and is comparable to folate/folic acid levels in fortiied lour and cereal that provide 50% RDI per serving (assuming an RDI of 400 µg and a serving size of 40 g wet weight) [15]. Folate plays an important role in the prevention of neural tube defects in the fetus [16, 17]. There is also increasing evidence that an above average intake of folate may help reduce plasma homocysteine, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease [18, 19] and DNA damage, a risk factor for cancer [20, 21]. There is some concern that eating foods that are naturally rich in folate may not provide for a large enough and reliable intake of folate required to prevent spina biida [22]. Therefore, it is important to identify novel natural rich sources of folate and to test that dietary strategies based on such foods may be effective for the optimization of tissue folate in the general population. To assess the potential of ALF as a source of folate it is irst necessary to measure bioavailability by determining how much folate actually appears in the blood after ingesting foods rich in this ingredient. To achieve this we performed a randomized, controlled intervention trial to compare the change in plasma folate after consumption of (a) a cereal made from ALF, (b) a cereal

444

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

made from wheat bran (WB) and (c) a tablet containing 0.5 mg folic acid that was taken together with WB cereal [1]. Sixteen healthy volunteers, eight males and eight females, aged between 20 and 50 years, were recruited to the study. Volunteers who were supplementing their diet with folic acid, and/ or who were deicient in plasma vitamin B12 ( 95%). Mean consumption rate of the supplied breads averaged between 2.4 and 2.5 slices per day (i.e., 167 to 178 g wet weight), and fruit, vegetable, breakfast cereal, and lesh food consumption was similar between groups. Using the dietary record and compliance data it was possible to estimate consumption of folate in the study groups (Table 19.3). Total daily folate intake in the ALF group (836 μg) was signiicantly lower than that in the FA group (1059 μg) but signiicantly greater than that in the PCS group (436 μg) (ANOVA P < 0.0001). Folate from the ALF bread contributed 70% of the folate intake in the ALF group. It was evident that dietary sources other than the supplied bread and tablets provided a signiicant proportion of the dietary folate (between 238 μg and 245 μg of total) in the three groups. Estimated folate intake from the dietary record was signiicantly correlated with plasma homocyst(e)ine (R = –0.55, P < 0.0001), plasma folate (R = 0.69, P < 0.0001), and red cell folate (R = 0.64, P < 0.0001) measured at the end of the intervention. There was no change in plasma folate levels in the PCS group during the course of the intervention. However, signiicant increments in plasma folate occurred in the ALF and FA groups at 4 weeks and subsequent sampling times with mean plasma folate levels increasing from 12.9 nmol/L and 17.5 nmol/L at baseline to 27.1 nmol/L and 40.1 nmol/L at 16 weeks, respectively. The percentage change in plasma folate at 16 weeks (adjusted for baseline level) (Figure 19.4a) in the ALF and FA groups was signiicantly elevated relative to the PCS group (P < 0.0001) and the increments observed in the FA group was 1.7 times greater than that observed for the ALF group (P < 0.0001). There was a 16% increment in RBC folate at 16 weeks (relative to baseline) in the PCS group during the course of the intervention (ANOVA P = 0.081). The increments in RBC folate in the ALF and FA groups were much greater achieving signiicant increases by 12 weeks of 50.9% and 79.2% relative to baseline, respectively (Figure 19.4b). The increment differences observed at 16 weeks between groups were statistically signiicant for

Aleurone Flour

449 ANOVA P < 0.0001 c

FA

b

ALF

a

PCS 0

25

50

75 100 125 150 175 200 225

% Plasma Folate Change Relative to Baseline (a)

ANOVA P < 0.0001 c

FA

b

ALF

a

PCS

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 % RBC Folate Change Relative to Baseline (b)

ANOVA P = 0.0034 FA

ALF

b

b

a

PCS –40

–30

–20

–10

% Plasma Homocyst(e)ine Change Relative to Baseline (c)

0

FIGURE 19.4 Percentage change in (a) plasma folate, (b) RBC folate and (c) plasma homocyst(e)ine at 16 weeks relative to baseline. Percentage change was adjusted for baseline value. Mean values that do not share a common letter are signiicantly different from each other. FA, ALF, and PCS refer to the treatment groups. FA group: PCS bread + folic acid tablet (high folate control, N = 18); ALF group: ALF bread + placebo tablet (N = 25); PCS group: PCS bread + placebo tablet (low folate control, N = 25).

450

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

all comparisons (Figure 19.4b). Signiicant reductions in plasma homocyst(e)ine were observed in the ALF group and the FA group only. The maximum homocyst(e)ine reduction in the ALF group from 9.1 μmol/L (at baseline) down to 6.8 μmol/L was observed at 8 weeks. In the FA group homocyst(e)ine was reduced from 8.1 μmol/L (at baseline) down to a minimum of 6.0 μmol/L at 16 weeks. A comparison of change in plasma homocyst(e)ine (adjusted for baseline level) showed that there was no signiicant difference between the ALF group and the FA group at 16 weeks (Figure 19.4c). The results from this study show for the irst time that moderate intake of ALF is an effective strategy for raising red cell folate and lowering plasma homocyst(e)ine in individuals who were selected for their relatively low red cell folate and relatively high plasma homocyst(e)ine. Due to the relatively large differences between additional natural folate intake from bread in the ALF group relative to the FA group (i.e., 404 μg/d) and the additional folic acid intake from the tablet in the FA group (608 μg/d) and because intakes of folic acid > 400 μg/d are likely to maximize the homocyst(e)ine-lowering effect [25], it was not possible to calculate accurately the bioavailability and bioeficacy of ALF. Nevertheless it is evident that a relatively small daily intake of ALF bread (containing approximately 67 g ALF) can produce a homocyst(e)ine-lowering effect that is of a similar magnitude as that produced by a high dose folic acid tablet supplement, which suggests that natural folate in ALF has a high level of bioavailability and bioeficacy. The maximum mean decline in plasma homocyst(e)ine achieved in this intervention in the ALF group (–2.3 μmol/L) with a mean baseline of 9.1 μmol/L is greater than that obtained in a previous study with men aged 50 to 70 years (–0.8 μmol/L) with an initial mean plasma homocyst(e)ine of 9.3 μmol/L who were given 700 μg folic acid for two months followed by a further 2 months with 2000 μg folic acid and comparable to the reduction in young adults (aged 18 to 32 years) (–2.7 μmol/l) with an initial plasma homocyst(e)ine of 9.4 μmol/l given 7 μg vitamin B12 with 700 μg folic acid for three months [28, 29]. A meta-analysis of 12 clinical trials with folic acid involving 1114 people estimated that supplementation with 500 to 5000 μg/d folic acid should reduce plasma homocyst(e)ine by 23% in subjects who had 12 nmol/L folate and 12 μmol/L homocyst(e)ine in plasma before treatment [30]. Subjects in the ALF group in our study had an additional natural folate intake level of 404 μg/d from ALF, a pre-intervention plasma folate of 12.9 nmol/L, a plasma homocyst(e)ine of 9.1 μmol/L, and a 25% reduction (adjusted for baseline) in plasma homocyst(e)ine which is similar to the estimated effect for 500 to 5000 μg/d folic acid in the meta-analysis. Mandatory fortiication of lour with folic acid has proven to be an effective and reliable method of preventing folate deiciency and possibly diseases caused by folate deiciency such as neural tube defects [31]. It is clear from the results of our study that ALF has the potential to be a practical alternative to folic acid fortiication, which may be useful in those countries in which folic acid fortiication is either not mandatory or is prohibited and for those sections of the community who may have a preference to eating natural sources

Aleurone Flour

451

of folate. ALF is also a rich source of a wide range of vitamins, minerals, and amino acids required for cell growth and maintenance that may provide additional health beneits to that provided by fortiication with only folic acid [4, 32]. A direct comparison of ALF bread and bread made with folic acid–fortiied lour is required to determine the relative performance of ALF bread for optimizing folate status as well as other measures of health status such as immune response and genome stability. These studies should also take into consideration the possibility of inter-individual differences in deconjugation and absorption of polyglutamated folate and the variation in folate content in ALF depending on cultivar, ield conditions, and method of preparation. In conclusion, it is evident from the results of this study that ALF is a good source of bioavailable folate that can, at moderate intake levels, increase tissue folate and reduce plasma homocyst(e)ine substantially in humans. Although the studies shown used ALF in cereal and bread, it is evident that ALF can be readily included in other food preparations such as hamburger buns, pizza crust, mufins, pie crust, and pasta [3].

Safety and Toxicity There are, at this point in time, no reported cases of adverse reactions to intake of ALF. The folate studies, which are the only published human intervention studies with ALF, involved 16 adults in the short-term intervention and 79 adults in the long-term (16-week) study with daily intakes of aleurone lour equivalent to 90 g and 67 g ALF, respectively. In neither of these studies was there any evidence of toxicity. Unpublished data from the longterm study showed a reduction in DNA damage in lymphocytes measured using the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay, which suggested a protective effect against chromosomal DNA damage. The puro-indoles PINA and PINB, which are strongly concentrated in the aleurone layer of wheat grain, have been shown to have antibacterial activity [33]; whether ALF at very high doses has any antibacterial activity or any detrimental effect on bowel bacterial populations remains unknown. The safe upper limit of ALF consumption has not been determined yet.

Summary In summary, aleurone lour has a strong potential as an important ingredient in functional foods from the baking industry because of its high micronutrient density as well as high fermentable iber content. The bioavailability and bioeficacy of nutrients in aleurone lour deserve further attention as it

452

Fiber Ingredients: Food Applications and Health Benefits

likely that the health beneits of this important wheat fraction have yet to be fully realized. The possibility of extracting and using aleurone from other grains also needs to be investigated.

Acknowledgments Goodman Fielder Milling and Baking Pty. Ltd. (Sydney, Australia) are gratefully acknowledged for providing the cereal products and breads used in the folate studies. We would like to thank Josephine Rinaldi, Felicia Bulman, and Carolyn Salisbury for performing the blood folate measurements; Rodney Trimble for sample processing, total dietary iber and free sugar measurements; Sylvia Usher for the total starch measurements; Caroline Cook for the total fat measurements; Ben Brinkman for performing the plasma homocyst(e)ine assays; Ben Scherer and Peter Royle for the nitrogen measurements. Rosemary McArthur and Clare Aitken are acknowledged for their important role in blood collections and blood sample preparation for analysis, respectively. Anne McGufin and Kay Pender arranged appointments for the volunteers at the clinic, coordinated the supply of bread and tablets, and ensured that the food records were completed as required. Dr. Tony Bird is gratefully acknowledged for providing valuable advice regarding the composition data of the breads. Dr. Jayashree Arcot (University of New South Wales) is thanked for her assistance in measuring folate in the bread using the tri-enzyme method. Blackmore’s Ltd. is thanked for providing the tablets. Nick Stenvert and Wendy Morgan are duly acknowledged for their advice during the planning stages of the folate studies.

References 1. Fenech M, Noakes M, and Clifton P, Topping D (1999) Aleurone lour is a rich source of bioavailable folate in humans. J. Nutr. 129:1114–1119. 2. Fenech M, Noakes M, Clifton P, and Topping D (2005) Aleurone lour increases red cell folate and lowers plasma homocyst(e)ine in humans. Brit. J. Nutr. 93(3):353–60. 3. Earling J, Atwell B, and von Reding W (2005) Wheat aleurone. Am. Inst. Baking Tech. Bull. 28(7):1–11. 4. Clysedale FM (1994) Optimising the diet with whole grains. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 34:453–471. 5. Saxelby C, and Venn-Brown U (1980) The structure and composition of the wheat grain. In The Role of Australian Flour and Bread in Health and Nutrition. Glenburn Pty. Ltd., Chatswood Australia, pp. 37–41.

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6. Stenvert N (1995) New high ibre bread — Farrer’s Gold. Food Australia 47(10):462–463. 7. Stenvert N (1997) Novel natural products from grain fractionation. In Cereals — Novel Uses and Processes, Cambell GM, Webb C, and McKee SL, eds., Plenum Press, New York, 241–245. 8. Zhou K, Laux JJ, and Yu L (2004) Comparison of Swiss red wheat grain and fractions for their antioxidant properties. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52(5):1118–23. 9. Dong WG, Liu SP, Yu BP, Wu DF, Luo HS, and Yu JP (2003) Ameliorative effects of sodium ferulate on experimental colitis and their mechanisms in rats. World J. Gastroenterol. 9(11):2533–8. 10. Kawabata K, Yamamoto T, Hara A, Shimizu M, Yamada Y, Matsunaga K, Tanaka T, and Mori H (2000) Modifying effects of ferulic acid on azoxymethaneinduced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats. Cancer Lett. 157(1):15–21. 11. Cheng BQ, Trimble RP, Illman RJ, Stone BA, and Topping DL (1987) Comparative effects of dietary wheat bran and its morphological components (aleurone and pericarp-seed coat) on volatile fatty acid concentrations in the rat. Br. J. Nutr., 57:69–76. 12. McIntosh GH, Royle PJ, and Pointing G (2001) Wheat aleurone lour increases cecal beta-glucuronidase activity and butyrate concentration and reduces colon adenoma burden in azoxymethane-treated rats. J. Nutr. 131(1):127–31. 13. Bailey LB (1995) Folate requirements and dietary recommendations. In: Folate in Health and Disease, Bialey L.B. ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 123–151. 14. Subar AF, Block G., and James LD (1989) Folate intake and food sources in the U.S. population. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 50:508–516. 15. Crane CT, Wilson DB, Cook DA, Lewis CJ, Yetley EA, and Rader JI (1995) Evaluating food fortiication options: General principles revisited with folic acid. Am. J. Pub. Health 85: 660–666. 16. Czeizel AE, and Dudas I (1992) Prevention of irst occurrence of neural tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:32–35. 17. MRC Vitamin Study Research Group (1991). Prevention of neural tube defects: results from the Medical Research Council Vitamin Study. Lancet 338:131–137. 18. Boushey CJ, Beresford SA, Omenn GS, and Motulsky AG (1995) A quantitative assessment of plasma homocyst(e)ine as a risk factor for vascular disease: probable beneits of increasing folic acid intakes. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 274:1049–1057. 19. Kang SS, Wong PWK, and Malinow MR (1992) Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia as a risk factor for occlusive vascular disease. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 12:279–298. 20. Blount BC, Mack MM, Wehr CM, MacGregor JT, Hiatt RA, Wang G, Wickramasinghe SN, Everson RB, and Ames BN (1997) Folate deiciency causes uracil misincorporation into human DNA and chromosome breakage: implications for cancer and neuronal damage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 94:3290–3295. 21. Fenech M (2001) The role of folic acid and vitamin B12 in genomic stability of human cells. Mutation Res. 475:56–67. 22. Cuskelly GJ, McNulty H, and Scott JM (1996) Effect of increasing dietary folate on red cell folate: implications for prevention of neural tube defects. Lancet 347:657–659. 23. Holland B, Welch AA, Unwin ID, Buss DH, Paul AA, and Southgate DAT (1995) McCance and Widdowson’s: The Composition of Foods (5th Ed.) Xerox Ventura Publisher, UK.

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24. Rydlewicz A, Simpson JA, Taylor RJ, Bond CM, and Golden MHM (2002) The effect of folic acid supplementation on plasma homocysteine in an elderly population. Q. J. Med. 95:27–35. 25. van Oort FVA, Melse-Boonstra A, and Brouwer IA (2003) Folic acid and plasma homocysteine reduction in older adults: a dose-inding study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77:1318–1323. 26. Rong N, Selhub J, Goldin BR, and Rosenberg IH (1991) Bacterially synthesized folate in rat large intestine is incorporated into host tissue folyl polyglutamates. J. Nutr. 121:1955–1959. 27. Cooper RA, and Jandl JH (1972) Destruction of erythrocytes. In Haematology, Williams WJ, Beutler E, Erslev AJ, and Rundles RW (Eds.), McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 178–191. 28. Fenech M, Dreosti IE, and Rinaldi JR (1997) Folate, vitamin B12, homocyst(e)ine status and chromosome damage rate in lymphocytes of older men. Carcinogenesis 18(7):1329–1336. 29. Fenech M, Aitken C, and Rinaldi J (1998) Folate, vitamin B12, homocysteine status and DNA damage in young Australian adults. Carcinogenesis 19(7):1163–1171. 30. Homocyst(e)ine Lowering Trialists’ Collaboration. (1998) Lowering blood homocyst(e)ine with folic acid based supplements: meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 316:894–898. 31. Honein MA, Paulozzi LJ, Mathews TJ, Erickson JD, and Wong LY (2001) Impact of folic acid fortiication of the U.S. food supply on the occurrence of neural tube defects. JAMA 285:2981–2986. 32. Hinton JJ, Peers FG, and Shaw B (1953). The B vitamins in wheat — the unique aleurone layer. Nature 172 (4387):993–995. 33. Capparelli R, Amoroso MG, Palumbo D, Iannaccone M, Faleri C, and Cresti M (2005). Two plant puroindoles colocalise in wheat seed and in vitro synergistically ight against pathogens. Plant Mol. Biol. 58(6):857–867.

Appendix: Suppliers of Dietary Fiber Ingredients

Sponsors The editors wish to acknowledge a generous sponsorship from the following companies: Dow Chemical: cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose JRS USA: oat iber, bamboo iber, wheat iber and other Vitacel line Roquette America: Nutriose (resistant maltodextrin) Wacker Chemical: Alpha-cyclodextrin Alpha Cyclodextrin Wacker Chemical: CAVAMAX® W6 Alpha Cyclodextrin: Wacker Chemicals is the global leader in cyclodextrin products. All CAVAMAX® cyclodextrins are FDA notiied GRAS. CAVAMAX® W6 is a colorless natural dietary iber. It is heat stable even under acidic conditions and stable in carbonated beverages. With a viscosity like sucrose, a neutral taste, and no browning effect it can be used even in complex food systems. CAVAMAX W6 also lowers the glycemic index of starch containing food. www.wacker.com E-mail: [email protected] Physical address: 3301 Sutton Road, Adrian, MI 49221-9397, USA Phone number & contact information–sales: From North America: Call +1 517 264 8671 Fax +1 517 264 8795 Aleurone Cargill: GrainwiseTM: The isolated aleurone layer of wheat bran, a concentrated source of vitamins, minerals, and iber www.horizonmilling.com/products/products_GWwheataleurone. shtml E-mail: [email protected] Physical address: 15407 McGinty Road W. MS 61, Wayzata MN 55391 455

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North America: Call 1-800-742-4506 Fax 1-952-742-4050 Cellulose, Hydroxymethylpropyl Cellulose (HMPC, Soluble Cellulose) Dow Chemical FORTEFIBER™ soluble dietary iber from cellulose FORTEFIBER™ HB Plus (Medium Viscosity) FORTEFIBER™ HB Ultra (High Viscosity): The products have been shown to help maintain healthy levels of cholesterol, blood glucose, and insulin. www.forteiber.com E-mail: [email protected] Physical address: 1650 N. Swede Rd, Larkin 100, Midland, Mi 48674, USA Phone number & contact information–sales: From North America: Call 1-800-488-5430 Fax 1-989-638-9836 From Europe, India, Africa and the Middle East: Toll-free +800 3 694 6367* Toll-free for Italy +800 783 82 Call +32 3 450 2240 Fax +32 3 450 2815 From Latin America: Call +55 11 5188 9222 Fax +55 11 5188 9749 From the Paciic: Toll-free call 800 7776 7776** Toll-free fax 800 7779 7779 Call +60 3 79583392 Fax +60 3 7958 5598 Cellulose International Fiber Corporation: Alpha-cel, Keycel, and QualFlo International Fiber Corporation 50 Bridge Street North Tonawanda, New York 14120

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www.ifciber.com; [email protected] Phone: 1-888-698-1936 or +1-716-693-4040 Fax: +1-716-693-3528 Jean-Dominique Verstreken B-9140 Temse Belgium Tel: +32-3-7111636 Fax: +32-3-7713399 [email protected] Tom Yu Shanghai, 200040 China Tel: +86-21-6249-6576 Fax: +86-21-6249-4459 [email protected] SunOpta Ingredients Group T: 781-276-5118 F: 781-276-5101 Corn Bran Cargill: MaizeWise™ Corn Bran Products MW80 - 80% Total Dietary Fiber Corn Bran MW60 - 60% Total Dietary Fiber Corn Bran and Cooked Corn Bran Description/Application MaizeWise™ corn bran is an insoluble iber that can dramatically boost dietary iber at low to moderate inclusion rates, while providing minimal impact to lavor, texture, color, and processing characteristics. Contact Information Bryan Wurscher Commercial Manager Cargill Dry Corn Ingredients Tel: 1 952 742 2518 Fax: 1 952 742 4573 website: www.cargilldci.com

458

Appendix

Gum Arabic (Acacia gum) Colloïdes Naturels International FORTEFIBER™ and its organic-certiied versions, FIBREGUM™ BIO & FIBREGUM™ BIO L, are all-natural soluble dietary ibers (guaranteed 90% minimum level) from Acacia Gum. Website address: www.cniworld.com E-mail: [email protected] France 129 Chemin de Croisset - BP 4151 - 76723 Rouen cedex 3 Ph: +33 (0) 2.32.83.18.18 Fax: +33 (0) 2.32.83.19.19 U.S.A. Colloïdes Naturels, Inc 1140 US Highway 22 East, Center Point IV, Suite 102 Bridgewater, NJ 08807 Ph: +1.908.707.9400 Fax: +1.908.707.9405 Brazil Colloïdes Naturels Brasil Comercial Ltda. Av. Pompéia, 2289 – Sumarézinho - CEP 05023-001 Sao Paulo-SP Ph/Fax: +55.11.3862.2028 Mexico Colloïdes Naturels de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. 20, Calle Magdalena Col. del Valle - C.P. 03100 Mexico D.F. Ph: +52.55.55.36.83.83 Fax: +52.55.55.43.41.45 United Kingdom Colloïdes Naturels, UK Ltd The Triangle Business Centre - Exchange Square - M4 3TR - Manchester Ph: +44 (0) 161.838.5744 Fax: +44 (0) 161.838.5746 Inulin/Fructo-oligosaccharides Orafti BENEO™ L60/L85/L95/P95 (Oligofructose) BENEO™ ST/GR/ST-Gel (Inulin) BENEO™ HP/HP-Gel/HPX (long-chain inulin)

Appendix

459

BENEO™ HSI (high-soluble inulin) BENEO™ Synergy1 (Oligofructose-enriched inulin): The products are prebiotic dietary ibers and have been shown to contribute to gut health, better calcium absorption and immunity. Website address BENEO: [email protected] www.orafti.com E-mail: [email protected] Headquarters ORAFTI Active Food Ingredients Aandorenstraat, 1 3300 Tienen Belgium Call + 32 16 801 301 Fax + 32 16 801 308 US Ofice Corporate Ofice 2740 Route 10 West, Suite 205 Morris Plains, NJ 07950 USA Call + 1 973 867 2140 Fax + 1 973 867 2141 Sensus Frutait® and Frutalose® inulin and oligofructose from the chicory root Frutait® HD (Highly Dispersable) Frutait® IQ (Instant Quality) Frutait® TEX! (Texturizing) Frutait® CLR (Highly Soluble) Frutalose® L90 (Sweet Liquid Fiber) Head Ofice Sensus Operations C.V P.0. Box 1308 4700 BH Roosendaal The Netherlands Phone: +31 165 582 578 Fax: +31 165 567 796 E-mail: [email protected] www.sensus.nl

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Appendix

North American Ofice Sensus America, Inc. 1 Deer Park Dr., Suite J Monmouth Junction, NJ 08852 Phone: 1-646-452-6150; 1-866-456-8872 Fax: 1-646-452-6150 E-mail: [email protected] www.sensus.us Cargill Oliggo-Fiber™ Instant (Native) Oliggo-Fiber™ XL (Fat mimetic properties) Oliggo-Fiber™ F97 (High solubility) www.cargill.com E-mail: [email protected] Physical address: 15407 McGinty Road West, Wayzata, MN 55391 Oat Beta Glucan Foodiles www.foodiles.com E-mail: [email protected] Physical address: Neulaniementie 2 L 6, FI-70210 Kuopio, FINLAND Phone number & contact information: Call + 358 – 17 – 288 1270 Fax + 358 – 17 – 288 1269 ConAgra Foods, Inc. Nutrition Center of Excellence Six ConAgra Drive, 6-475 Omaha, NE 68102 402-595-7688 Oat Fiber JRS (J. RETTENMAIER & SÖHNE) Vitacel® Oat Fibers: Vitacel® Oat Fibers are available in a variety of grades suitable for use in meat, bakery, cereal and beverage applications for iber fortiication, calorie reduction and structural enhancement.

Appendix

461

Website address: www.jrsusa.com www.jrs.de E-mail: [email protected] Contact for USA & Canada J. Rettenmaier USA LP 16369 US Highway 131 Schoolcraft, MI 49087 Phone: (269) 679 2340 Toll Free: (877) 895 4099 Fax: (269) 679 2364 Contact outside USA and Canada J. RETTENMAIER & SÖHNE GmbH + Co. KG Holzmühle 1 D-73494 Rosenberg (Germany) Tel.: ++49 - (0) 79 67 - 1 52-0 Fax: ++49 - (0) 79 67 - 1 52-2 22 Partially Hydrolyzed Guar Gum (PHGG) Taiyo International, Inc. SUNFIBER® soluble dietary iber SUNFIBER® R (regular) SUNFIBER® AG (agglomerated): Suniber® has been clinically shown to maintain digestive health and micro-lora balance, lower glycemic index, improve mineral absorption, inhibit gas production and control symptoms of IBS. www.taiyointernational.com and www.suniber.com E-mail: [email protected] Physical address: 5960 Golden Hills Drive, Minneapolis, MN 55416 North America: Taiyo International, Inc. 5960 Golden Hills Drive Minneapolis, MN 55416 Call 1-763-398-3003 Fax 1-763-398-3007 [email protected] From Europe: Call +49-711-779-8291 Fax +49-711-779-8292

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Appendix

Japan: Call +81-593-47-5427 Fax +81-593-47-5438 Latin America: Call 1-763-398-3003 Fax 1-763-398-3007 China: Tel: 86-21-6876-6828 Fax: 86-21-6876-6830 Korea: Tel: 82-2-571-7588 Fax: 82-2-571-7589 Pectin Herbstreith & Fox KG Pektin-Fabrik Neuenbuerg Turnstrasse 37 D-75305 Neuenbuerg/Germany [email protected] http://www.herbstreith-fox.de Phone: +49 7082 7913 0 Fax: +49 7082 20281 Resistant Maltodextrin Editors feel that Nutriose and Fibersol-2 share a similar chemical structure and physicochemical properties. Both ingredients can be categorized into resistant maltodextrin. Roquette: Nutriose www.Roquette.com Roquette Frères Corporate headquarters 62080 LESTREM Cedex Tel: + 33 3 21 63 36 00 Fax: + 33 3 21 63 38 50 ROQUETTE AMERICA Inc. 1417 Exchange Street

Appendix

463

P.O. Box 6647 KEOKUK. IA 52632–6647 Phone: (1) 319 524 5757 Fax: (1) 319 526 2345 ROQUETTE JAPAN K.K. Tokyo Head Ofice 2F, Kasuga Business Center Building 1-15-15 Nishikata Bunkyo-Ku, TOKYO 113-0024 Phone: +81 3 38301510 IP phone +81 350 5514 9041 Fax: +81 3 38301525 E-mail: [email protected] Matsutani Chemical : Fibersol®-2 Fibersol®-2 (dietary iber ≥90%) Fibersol®-2H (hydrogenated Fibersol®-2, available in Asia-Paciic region) Fibersol®-2 is a soluble dietary iber that helps promote intestinal regularity and healthy levels of blood glucose, insulin, and triglyceride. Website address: www.matsutani.com Physical address: Matsutani Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. 5-3 Kita-itami, Itami, Hyogo 664-8508 Phone number: +81-72-771-2013 Fax number: +81-72-771-7447 E-mail address: [email protected] Resistant Starch National Starch Hi Maize 5 in 1 iber and Novelose Beneits range from weight management, glycemic (blood sugar) management, energy management, and digestive health. More than 40 studies in humans using natural Hi-maize and Novelose provide a high level of conidence that the beneits are reliable and real. National Starch and Chemical Company 10 Finderne Ave Bridgewater, NJ 08807 1-800-743-6343

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Appendix

UK, Ireland, Nordic Europe Dagmar Krappe Gruener Deich 110 20097 Hamburg, Germany Tel: +49 (0) 40-23915-0 Australia 7 – 9 Stanton Road Seven Hills, Sydney NSW 2147, Australia Tel: +61 2-9624-6022 Germany Colloïdes Naturels International GmbH Walter-Kolb-Str. 9-11 - D - 60594 Frankfurt am Main Ph: +49 (0) 69.96.21.76.18 Fax: +49 (0) 69.96.21.76.19 Russia ZAO “Colloïdes Naturels Vostok” (Stroikomtech) - 11, Kravchenko Str. - 119 415 Moscow Ph: +7.495.935.9510 Fax: +7.495.131.2609 Japan Colloïdes Naturels Japan Inc. Miseki Bldg, 2F - Uguisudani-cho 18-1 - Shibuya-Ku - Tokyo 150-0032 Ph: +81.3.3463.6511 Fax: +81.3.3463.6522 China Colloïdes Naturels International 2/F Mayfair Tower - 83 Fu Min Road - Shanghai 200040 Ph: +86.21.6132.7186/6132.7187 Fax: +86.21.6132.7199 Sugar Beet Fiber Danisco and IFC Fibrex

Appendix

465

Other Fibers: Bamboo Fiber, Sugar Cane Fiber, and Cottonseed Fiber JRS: Vitacel line International Fiber Corporation: JustFiber® line including cottonseed iber, white wheat iber and bamboo iber Becky Finn North Tonawanda, NY 14120 U.S.A. Tel: +1-888-698-1936 Fax: +1-716-693-3528 [email protected] www.ifciber.com Soy Fiber The Solae Company USA PO Box 88940 St. Louis, MO 63188 Local: (314)659-3000 Phone: (800)325-7108 Europe Solae Europe S.A. 2, chemin du Pavillon CH-1218 Le Grand-Saconnex Geneva Switzerland Tel.: + 41 22 717 6420 Fax: +41 22 717 6401

Index

A Abdominal pain partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 96 psyllium, 405, 409 Abscesses, 395 Absorption, 27–29 Acacia gum bakery products, 130 beverages, 129 breakfast cereals, extruded, 130 cereal bars, 130 characteristics, 121–123 cholesterol, 127–128 confectionery, 130–131 constipation, 125–126 deined, 121–122 diarrhea, 125–126 extruded snacks and breakfast cereals, 130 food product applications, 128–131 health beneits, 125–128 hypoglycemic effect, 127–128 metabolism, 123 nitrogen excretion, 126–127 nutritional aspects, 123–125 prebiotic effect, 123–125 safety, 122–123 snacks, extruded, 130 suppliers, 458 tolerance, 123 Acesulfame K, 75 Acetate, 91, see also Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) Acetic acids, 91, see also Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) Acetobacter xylinum, 271 Acidic conditions acacia gum, 129 inulin, 46 Nutriose soluble iber, 35 Activated Barley, 336 Acute intestinal infections, 148–149

Acute postprandial glycemic responses, 86–87 Adamii studies, 277 Adequate intake, vii Adverse effects partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 107–108 psyllium, 411 Aerated desserts, 55 Aftertaste, 45 Agama-Acevedo studies, 208 Ahotupa, Vasankari and, studies, 179 Ahrens, Scholz and, studies, 102 Aitken, Clare, 452 Alam studies, 87, 89, 91, 93–94 Aleurone lour, 442 Aleurone lour (ALF) characteristics, 439–440 folate levels, 443–451 food applications, 440–451 functionality, 440–451 fundamentals, 451–452 human studies, 443–451 physiological beneits, 440–451 rat studies, 442–443 safety, 451 suppliers, 455–456 toxicity, 451 Alginates, 54, 81 Allergies, 396 Alles studies, 237 Alpha-cell, 456–457 Alpha-cyclodextrin (α-CD) characteristics, 9–10 food applications, 11 functionality, 11 fundamentals, 14–15 physiological beneits, 11–13 safety and toxicity, 13–14 suppliers, 455 Aman studies, 286, 336 American Heart Association Step 1 diet, 89 467

Index

468 Ames studies, 333, 336 Amino acids, 313 Analysis polydextrose, 184 resistant starch, 216–217, 222–223 Anderson studies, 250, 254, 257, 408 Animal studies, see also speciic animal barley iber, 337, 342, 346–347 guar gum, 82 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 104 psyllium, 408 resistant starch, 222, 238 rice bran, 315–316 Annison and Topping studies, 206, 208 Annison studies, 208 Anorectal surgery, 410 Antibacterial activity, 451 Anti-caking effect, 110 Anticarcinogenic properties and effects partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 108 psyllium, 405–406 Anti-inlammatory effects, 405, see also Inlammation Anti-neoplastic effects, 405 Antioxidation aleurone lour, 439 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 110 sugar beet iber, 382 Antitussive effects, 396 AOAC methods deinition of iber, 2 pectin, 136 polydextrose, 184 resistant maltodextrin, 75–76 resistant starch, 222–223 sugar beet iber, 363 Apoptosis psyllium, 406 resistant starch, 231 Appearance, 36 Appetite modulation, see also Satiety guar gum, 82 inulin, 51–52 polydextrose, 183 Apple iber, 430 Apple juice fruit iber, 428 oat beta-glucan, 286

Apple pectin cholesterol reduction, 151 sources, 140–141 texture, 157 Approved health claims, see Health claims AQ Plus citrus iber, 430 Arabinogalactan, 94 Arcot, Jayashree, 452 Arginine levels, 105 Aro studies, 98 Arteriosclerosis, 142 Artiicial sweeteners, 110 Artiss studies, 12 Aruga studies, 106 Asp, Nyman and, studies, 375 Asparagus, 43 Aspartame, 75 Aspergillus niger partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 84 sugar beet iber, 372 Asp studies, 209 Atherosclerosis, 149–150 Auerbach studies, 175, 183, 197 Available calories, 237, see also Caloric value Avicel, 271 Ayano studies, 312

B Bacterial adaptation, 91, see also speciic type Bacterial biomass acacia gum, 124 inulin, 47, 48 polydextrose, 178 resistant starch, 227 Bacterial overgrowth, 107–108 Bacteroides spp. acacia gum, 124 Nutriose soluble iber, 33 pectin, 142 resistant maltodextrin, 65, 67 resistant starch, 230 Bacteroides ovatus, 142 Bacteroides succinogenes, 265 Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, 143 Bacteroidetes spp., 34

Index Baik and Czuchajowska studies, 331–332 Bakery products and applications acacia gum, 130 aleurone lour, 451 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 barley iber, 332–335 fruit iber, 431–432 guar gum, 81 inulin, 50, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 28, 35, 36, 37 oat beta-glucan, 287, 289, 292 oat iber, 250, 252–253 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109–110 pectin, 159 polydextrose, 187, 189, 194 sugar beet iber, 373–374, 383 Baltes, Stumm and, studies, 175 Bamboo iber, 465 Bananas (green), 149 Baray studies, 121–131 Barley iber bakery products, 332–334 beta-glucan extracts, 334–335 blood pressure, 344 cancer, 344–345 cardiovascular disease, 338–342 characteristics, 323–329 digestion, 337 extrusion, 329–332 food applications, 329–337 functionality, 329–337 glucose response, 342–344 immune response, 344–345 insulin response, 342–344 meats, 334 miscellaneous, 336–337 physiological beneits, 337–345 safety, 346–347 toxicity, 346–347 Barley oil, 342 Barliv Barley Betaiber, 335 Basman studies, 333 Beauty supplementation, 103–104 Becker, Siddhuraju and, studies, 209 Bednar studies, 209 Beef, beef patties, and beef burgers barley iber, 334 cellulose, 271 oat iber, 253

469 polydextrose, 195 Beer studies, 287, 293 Beet iber, see Sugar beet iber Behall and Howe studies, 237 Behall studies, 234, 237, 338, 343–344 Beneits, physiological alpha-cyclodextrin, 11–13 Nutriose soluble iber, 28–29 Beneo appetite and food intake modulation, 52 suppliers, 458–459 Berglund studies, 331, 333 Beringer and Wenger studies, 51 Berry studies, 217, 254 Betaiber, 378 Beta-glucan extracts, see also Oat betaglucan barley iber, 334–335 characteristics, 284 Beverages acacia gum, 129 barley iber, 335–336 cellulose, 271 Nutriose soluble iber, 28, 37 oat beta-glucan, 287 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 92, 98–99, 110 pectin, 158–159 polydextrose, 193, 195 psyllium, 396 resistant starch, 216 Bhatty, Vasanthan and, studies, 329 Bhatty studies, 326, 328, 332 Biidobacteria spp. acacia gum, 123–124 inulin, 49–50, 52 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 95–96 pectin, 143 polydextrose, 182 resistant starch, 230 Biidobacteria adolescensis, 124 Biidobacteria longum, 124 Biidobacterium spp. barley iber, 337 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 95 pectin, 142, 144 resistant maltodextrin, 65, 67 Biidobacterium angulatum, 144

470 Biidobacterium biidum, 144 Biidobacterium infantis, 144 Biidobacterium pseudolongum, 143 Biidogenic effect, 49 Bile acids cellulose, 267 guar gum, 82 oat beta-glucan, 293 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 88–89 pectin, 149, 151 psyllium, 395, 397, 407, 408 rice bran, 316 rice bran oil, 312–313 sugar beet iber, 372, 376, 378, 382 Binders/extenders, 252 Binders (tablets) acacia gum, 131 cellulose, 271 polydextrose, 196 Bingham studies, 1 Biorklund studies, 338, 343 Bird studies, 227, 230, 452 Birkett studies, 205–239 Birkitt studies, 266 Biscuits, see also Bakery products and applications barley iber, 332, 333–334 Nutriose soluble iber, 28 sugar beet iber, 373, 383 Bjorck, Liljeberg and, studies, 342 Björklund studies, 287, 293, 296 Blake studies, 89 Blanchet studies, 86 Bloating alpha-cyclodextrin, 13, 14 barley iber, 346 Nutriose soluble iber, 25, 28 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86, 92, 96 Blockages, 107 Blood cholesterol concentration levels, see Cholesterol Blood glucose, see Glucose metabolism and response Blood lipids, see Lipid metabolism Blood pressure barley iber, 344 psyllium, 395 Bodner studies, 249–259

Index Body composition, 238 Body fat alpha-cyclodextrin, 12–13 resistant maltodextrin, 71–72 Body weight, see also Weight management and control hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270 inulin, 48 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 89 Bologna barley iber, 334 oat iber, 253–254 Bond studies, 334 Bone mineral content inulin, 52–53 polydextrose, 182 Borborygmi, 383 Bosscher studies, 41–55 Bourquin studies, 258 Bowel function, see also Intestinal regularity; Stools partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 93 polydextrose, 178 resistant maltodextrin, 65 Braaten studies, 293, 296 Bran Buds, 396 Breads, see also Bakery products and applications aleurone lour, 440, 446–451 barley iber, 332, 333, 335, 343, 346 inulin, 50 Nutriose soluble iber, 28, 36 oat beta-glucan, 287, 289, 289, 292, 296 oat iber, 253 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 98–99 psyllium, 396 resistant starch, 208, 234 sugar beet iber, 373–374, 383 Breakfast cereals acacia gum, 130 aleurone lour, 444–446 barley iber, 329 inulin, 54 oat beta-glucan, 286, 296 Breath freshener, 11 Brennan, Symons and, studies, 334 Brewer’s spent grain (BSG), 342 Brinkman, Ben, 452 Brouns studies, 5

Index

471

Brownies, 431–432, see also Bakery products and applications Brown studies, 206–210, 216, 230–231, 234, 288 BSG, see Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) Buckley studies, 9–15 Bulking effect barley iber, 331 inulin, 48–49 sugar beet iber, 374 Bulking ingredient cellulose, 271 inulin, 45 Bulman, Felicia, 452 Buns, see also Bakery products and applications aleurone lour, 451 oat beta-glucan, 289 Burdock and Flamm studies, 184 Burgers, see Beef, beef patties, and beef burgers Burkitt and Trowell studies, 1–2 Burkitt studies, 2 Butyrate, see also Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) aleurone lour, 443 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 91 psyllium, 406 resistant starch, 230 sugar beet iber, 382 Butyric acid, see Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) Butyrivibrio ibrisolvens, 143 Byrnes studies, 236

C Cadmium barley iber, 347 pectin, 146 Cakes, see also Bakery products and applications polydextrose, 187 sugar beet iber, 373 Calcium aleurone lour, 439 barley iber, 346–347 cellulose, 277 inulin, 53

oat beta-glucan, 298 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 102–103 pectin, 139, 145, 147 polydextrose, 182 psyllium, 411 sugar beet iber, 376 Caloric value acacia gum, 123 inulin, 47 Nutriose soluble iber, 34–35 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 107 polydextrose, 183 resistant maltodextrin, 75 resistant starch, 237 Calorie-reduced foods, see Low-calorie products Calories, available, 237 Calvert studies, 100 Cameron studies, 250, 257–258 Cancer alpha-cyclodextrin, 12 approved health claims, 3 barley iber, 344–345 inulin, 52 pectin, 154–156 sugar beet iber, 381–382 Candida albicans, 50 Canine studies, see Dog studies Capsules, 159 Carbohydrates alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 cellulose functionality, 267, 269 resistant starch comparison, 229 Carcinogenesis, 266 Cardiovascular disease, see also Coronary heart disease; Heart disease aleurone lour, 443 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11, 12 barley iber, 338–342 psyllium, 406–409 Carrageen gum, 81 Carriers, 11 Caseinate replacement, 54 Cashman, Kenneick and, studies, 347 Cataracts, 395 Cat studies, 266 Cattle studies, 257, 258 Cavallero studies, 343

472 CAVAMAX W6, 455 Cecal enlargement, 14 Celiac disease barley iber, 347 oat beta-glucan, 298 Cell proliferation, 266 Cellulose blood glucose, 268 carbohydrates, 267, 269 carcinogenesis, 266 cell proliferation, 266 characteristics, 263–264 constipation, 264–265 dilution effect, 266 fats, 267 fermentation, 265 low behavior, 275–276 food applications, 271–272 functionality, 264–271 gastric emptying blood glucose, 268 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270–271 insulin, 268 intestines, water absorption, 269–270 large intestine fermentation, 265 mixing-in behavior, 272–275 nutrients interrelationship, 276 oat iber, 251 peristalsis, 275 physiological beneits, 270–271, 272–276 proteins, 270 psyllium comparison, 411 resistant starch, 232 safety, 277 segmentation, 276 stool output, 264–265 sugar beet iber, 369–370 suppliers, 456–457 technology, 277 water absorption, intestines, 269–270 Ceolus, 271 Cereal products acacia gum, 130 aleurone lour, 440 barley iber, 335 cellulose, 271 fruit iber, 429 inulin, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 36

Index oat beta-glucan, 289 oat iber, 251 pectin, 159 psyllium, 396 resistant starch, 209 sugar beet iber, 373–374 Cereals aleurone lour, 444–446 oat beta-glucan, 286, 289, 290–291, 296 sugar beet iber, 373 Cergen, 288 Champ studies, 217, 222 Characteristics acacia gum, 121–123 aleurone lour, 439–440 alpha-cyclodextrin, 9–10 barley iber, 323–329 cellulose, 263–264 oat beta-glucan, 283–284 oat iber, 252 psyllium, 393–395 sugar beet iber, 361–372 Cheese and cheese products, see also Dairy products cellulose, 271 inulin, 54 pectin, 158 Chemically modiied starch, 210, 216 Chemical properties and structure inulin, 42, 45–46 pectin, 136–138 psyllium, 395 resistant starch, 206 Cheng studies, 442 Cherbut studies, 378 Chicken products, 334 Chicks and chicken studies cellulose, 272, 275 oat iber, 255, 256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 103 rice bran, 313–314 Chicory, 43, 45 Chilling, 395, see also Freezing Chiu, Henley and, studies, 208–209 Chiu studies, 208–209 Cho and Prosky studies, 2 Chocolate confectionery polydextrose, 194 Chocolate products, 383 Choe studies, 178

Index Cholera toxin, 125 Cholesterol, see also Lipid metabolism; Triglyceride levels acacia gum, 127–128 alpha-cyclodextrin, 13 barley iber, 337–338 guar gum, 82 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270 inulin, 48 oat beta-glucan, 289, 293 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 85, 88–90 pectin, 150–152 polydextrose, 178–179 psyllium, 407, 409 resistant maltodextrin, 70–71 rice bran, 309–315, 312 rice bran oil, 310, 312–313 sugar beet iber, 378, 381 viscous dietary iber, 20 Cholestyramine, 378 Cho studies, 1–5, 249–259 Chromatography inulin, 44 Nutriose soluble iber, 21 Chromium, 146 Cichorium intybus, 45 Cigar wrappers, 81 Cihan studies, 108 Citracel, 100 Citrobacter spp., 148 Citrus pectin cancer, 155–156 sources, 140–141, 429 texture, 157 Ciukanu and Kerek studies, 176 Classiication, resistant starch, 206–208 Clifton studies, 439–452 Clostridia spp., 49 Clostridium spp., 124 Clostridium butyricum inulin, 50 resistant starch, 230 Clostridium dificile, 50 Clostridium lochhradii, 265 Clostridium perfringens inulin, 52 Nutriose soluble iber, 31, 34 Coates studies, 9–15 Cobalt, 146

473 Coffee, 11 Cold-stage scanning electron microscopy (CryoSEM), 189–190 Colitis, 442 Colon cancer, see also Colorectal cancer aleurone lour, 442–443 pectin, 154 psyllium, 406 resistant starch, 231 Colonic cell health, 231 Colonic motility cellulose, 265 sugar beet iber, 376 Colon tumorigenesis, 265 Colorectal cancer, see also Colon cancer alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 polydextrose, 181 psyllium, 405–406 resistant starch, 231 sugar beet iber, 381–382 Colors alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 barley iber, 335–336 Commercial developments and applications partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109–110 resistant starch, 209–210, 216 Compositae spp., 43 Composition Nutriose soluble iber, 27 rice bran, 307–308 sugar beet iber, 362–364 Condiments, 159, see also speciic type Confectionery acacia gum, 130–131 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 Nutriose soluble iber, 36, 37 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 110 pectin, 158 polydextrose, 189, 193–194 Constipation, see also Intestinal regularity; Stools acacia gum, 125–126 cellulose, 264 cellulose functionality, 264–265 fruit iber, 434 inulin, 48

Index

474 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86, 90–93 psyllium, 395, 398, 409 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, ix Contraindications, psyllium, 411 Conventional ibers barley iber, 323–347 cellulose, 263–277 oat beta-glucan, 283–298 oat iber (oat hull), 249–259 psyllium, 393–412 rice bran, 305–318 sugar beet iber, 359–383 Cook, Caroline, 452 Cookies, see also Bakery products and applications barley iber, 333 Nutriose soluble iber, 28 oat beta-glucan, 287, 289 oat iber, 251, 252, 253 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 110 polydextrose, 187 sugar beet iber, 374 Copper barley iber, 347 cellulose, 277 pectin, 145–147 sugar beet iber, 376 Corn bran oat iber comparison, 249 rice bran comparison, 312 suppliers, 457 Corn lakes, 335 Cornstarch, 81 Coronary heart disease, see also Cardiovascular disease; Heart disease approved health claims, 3 fruit iber, 434–435 Cosmetics, 81 Cottonseed iber, 465 Cough, 395, 396 Cow’s milk, 293 Cow studies, 257, 258 Crackers, 252, see also Bakery products and applications Craig studies, 175, 197 Cramping, 92 Cream cheese, 54

Creatinine, 126 Crispiness inulin, 54 oat iber, 252 polydextrose, 186 Crohn’s disease inulin, 50 psyllium, 405 CryoSEM, see Cold-stage scanning electron microscopy (CryoSEM) Cultured dairy products, 194 Culture protagonist, 228 Cummings studies, 178, 237 Cyamopsis tetragonolobus, 83 α-cyclodextrin, see Alpha-cyclodextrin (α-CD) Cynomolgus monkey studies, 313 Czuchajowska, Baik and, studies, 331–332

D Daas studies, 84 Dahlia, 43, 45 Dairy desserts, 54 Dairy drinks, 195, see also Beverages Dairy products, see also Cheese and cheese products; Milk and milk products barley iber, 335 guar gum, 81 inulin, 46, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 28, 36, 37 oat beta-glucan, 293 oat iber, 254 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 pectin, 158 resistant starch, 216 Dalidowicz, Wendy, 240 Danisco Sweeteners, 175 DASH Study Group, 344 Davidson, Peters and, studies, 87 Davidson studies, 288 Dea and Madden studies, 363 De Cassia Freitas studies, 103 Delaney studies, 346 Delessert, Benjamin, 360 Demark-Wahnefried studies, 289

Index De Mateo Silleras, Mijan de la Torre and, studies, 91 Den Hond studies, 230 Desserts, frozen inulin, 46, 54 oat iber, 250, 254 Detection methods, resistant starch, 220–221 Detoxiication, 127 Developments aleurone lour, 439–452 fruit ibers, 427–435 DeVries studies, 222 Dextrin, indigestible, 94 Diabetes, see also Glucose metabolism and response; Glycemic management and response alpha-cyclodextrin, 12 inulin, 50–51 oat iber, 257 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86–87 potential health claim, 4 psyllium, 397, 407, 409 resistant maltodextrin, 70 resistant starch, 234, 236 sugar beet iber, 376, 378 Diarrhea, see also Intestinal issues; Intestinal regularity acacia gum, 125–126 alpha-cyclodextrin, 13, 14 inulin, 50, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 25, 27, 28 oat iber, 255 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86, 89–94, 102 pectin, 148 psyllium, 405, 409–410 resistant maltodextrin, 65 resistant starch, 232 Diet and food, resistant starch, 208–209 Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Study Group, 344 Dietary iber approved health claims, 3 deined, x–xi, 2, 20 historical developments, 19–20 intake, global levels, 1–2 mean intake, x

475 Nutriose soluble iber, 22–25 potential health claim, 4 potential structure function claims, 4–5 recommended daily amounts, vii, x, 1, 398, 433–434 sources of in diet, ix stool softening, 53 Dietary gums, 80–81, see also Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) Dietary supplements, 11, see also Vitamins; speciic types Digestible carbohydrates, 229 Digestion and digestive tract function barley iber, 337 Nutriose soluble iber, 28–29 resistant maltodextrin, 68 resistant starch, 227–232 sugar beet iber, 374–375 Dikeman studies, 81 Dilution effect, 266 Dinand studies, 370 Direct methods, resistant starch, 217 Diverticular disease partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 97 psyllium, 398–399 DNA protection, 451 Dog studies alpha-cyclodextrin, 9, 14 cellulose, 265–266 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 103 psyllium, 410 Dongowski studies, 383 Dongowsky studies, 378 Dougherty studies, 249–250, 253 Dressings cellulose, 271 fruit iber, 431–432 guar gum, 81 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 Drinks and beverages, 293, 294 Drug delivery systems, 410 Drug interaction, 412 Dry food mixes, 11 Dry-substance conditions, 46 Dumping syndrome, 148 Dysentery, 395, 396 Dyspepsia, 409 Dysuria, 395

Index

476

E Edema, 395 Electrolyte balance acacia gum, 125 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 90, 96 Electronic speakers, 272 Ellis studies, 82 Embryonic safety, 13–14 Emollient effects, 396 Emulsions dietary gums, 81 fruit iber, 432 inulin, 46 pectin, 159 psyllium, 396 Endress studies, 135–159 Energy contribution, 183 Energy partitioning, 238–239 Englyst’s classiication, 10 Englyst’s method, 222 Englyst studies, 216–217, 222 Enteral nutrition formula and feeding guar gum, 82–83 oat iber, 256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86, 87, 93, 102, 107–108 pectin, 148 resistant maltodextrin, 68 Enterobacter spp., 148 Entner-Doudoroff pathway, 143 Escherichia spp., 230 Escherichia coli inulin, 49 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 106 pectin, 142–143 psyllium, 410 Eubacteria spp., 230 Eubacterium, 337 Evans studies, 82 Extensible products, 287 Extracted polysaccharides, 372–373 Extruded snacks and breakfast cereals, see also Cereal products acacia gum, 130 inulin, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 36 oat beta-glucan, 286, 296

sugar beet iber, 373 Extrusion barley iber, 329–332 resistant starch, 209 rice bran, 312 Eye disorders, 395

F Falk, Sundberg and, studies, 329 Fares studies, 363, 368–369 Fässler studies, 222 Fastnaught studies, 323–347 Fat-free products oat iber, 253–254 pectin, 158 Fat mass, 48 Fat metabolism, 70–71 Fats barley iber, 334–335, 337 cellulose functionality, 267 gums as mimetics, 81 pectin, 147 polydextrose, 179 Fatty acids, 407–408 Favier studies, 88 Fecal issues, see Constipation; Diarrhea; Intestinal issues; Stools Feeding tubes, see Enteral nutrition formula and feeding Fenech studies, 439–452 Fermentation acacia gum, 123 aleurone lour, 443 alpha-cyclodextrin, 9, 10, 11 cellulose functionality, 265 inulin, 47, 49, 53 Nutriose soluble iber, 20, 25, 27, 33 oat beta-glucan, 298 oat iber, 258 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 92, 94, 107, 108 pectin, 142–143 polydextrose, 182 psyllium, 397 resistant maltodextrin, 66, 67–68 resistant starch, 227, 230, 232 sugar beet iber, 374–375, 382 Fernandez-Garcia studies, 254

Index Fetal safety, 13–14 Fever, 395 Fiber content, see Dietary iber; Total dietary iber (TDF) Fibersol-2 resistant maltodextrin body fat ratio decreases, 71–72 bowel movements, 65 cholesterol levels, 70–71 digestive tract function maintenance, 68 fat metabolism, 70–71 food applications, 74–75 fundamentals, 61–64 gastrointestinal functions, 64–68 historical developments, 61–63 intestinal environments, 65–68 measuring method, total dietary iber, 75 physiological effects, 64–72 postprandial blood glucose level attenuation, 69–70 prebiotic effects, 65, 67 production, 63–64 resistant starch, 216 safety applications, 72, 74 short-chain fatty acids, 67–68 sugar metabolism, 70–71 suppliers, 462–463 triglyceride levels, 70–71 Fibregum, 123–124, 128, 458, see also Acacia gum Fibrex, 361, 373, see also Sugar beet iber Film-coating agents dietary gums, 81 polydextrose, 196 psyllium, 396 Filter paper, 272 Finocchiaro studies, 205–239 Firmness, 109 Fischer, Marlett and, studies, 395 Fischer studies, 427–435 Fish oil supplementation, 150 Fish studies, 345 Flamm, Burdock and, studies, 184 Flatbreads, 332 Flatulence alpha-cyclodextrin, 13 barley iber, 346 inulin, 53–54 Nutriose soluble iber, 25, 27, 28

477 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 92, 93, 96 psyllium, 409 sugar beet iber, 383 Flavors alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 inulin, 54 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 Flood studies, 184 Flow behavior, 275–276 Flu, 395 Foams inulin, 46, 55 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109–110 Foehse studies, 331 Folate levels, 440–451 Food and food product applications acacia gum, 128–131 aleurone lour, 440–451 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 barley iber, 329–337, 346 cellulose, 271–272 fruit ibers, 430–432 inulin, 54–55 Nutriose soluble iber, 35–36 oat beta-glucan, 287–293 oat iber, 252–254 pectin, 156–159 polydextrose, 193–196 psyllium, 395–396 resistant maltodextrin, 74–75 resistant starch, 224 rice bran, 308 sugar beet iber, 372–374, 383 Food characteristics, effects on, 287 Food grade speciications, 85 Food intake modulation, 51–52 Food matrix, inclusion in, 28 Forsberg studies, 336 FORTEFIBER products, 456, 458 Fouache studies, 207–208, 216 Fox studies, 336 Franck studies, 41–55 Frankfurters, 253–254 Freezing, see also Chilling barley iber, 335 oat beta-glucan, 287 Fried products, 36 Frozen products

Index

478 inulin, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 36 oat iber, 250, 254 polydextrose, 194 Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) acacia gum comparison, 124–125 resistant starch, 232 suppliers, 458–460 Fruit ibers food product applications, 430–432 fundamentals, 427–430 intestinal regularity, 5 physiological beneits, 433–435 Fruit illings Nutriose soluble iber, 36 polydextrose, 195 Fruit juices, 35 Fruits partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 110 recommended daily amounts, 433–434 Fruit spreads pectin, 157 polydextrose, 195 Frutait products, 459–460 Frutalose products, 459–460 Fulcher, Miller and, studies, 325 Fullness, feeling of, 82, see also Satiety Functionality aleurone lour, 440–451 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 barley iber, 329–337 oat beta-glucan, 284–287 psyllium, 395–396 resistant starch, 224 sugar beet iber, 372–374 Functionality, cellulose blood glucose, 268 carbohydrates, 267, 269 carcinogenesis, 266 cell proliferation, 266 constipation, 264–265 dilution effect, 266 fats, 267 fermentation, 265 gastric emptying blood glucose, 268 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270–271 insulin, 268 intestines, water absorption, 269–270

large intestine fermentation, 265 physiological beneits, 270–271 proteins, 270 stool output, 264–265 water absorption, intestines, 269–270 Fussell studies, 93

G Galdeano and Grossmann studies, 251, 253 Galdeano studies, 253 Gallaher studies, 382 Gallstones, 410 Galvin studies, 2 Garleb studies, 257 Garlic, 43 Gases, see also Flatulence inulin, 47 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86 pectin, 143 resistant starch, 227 Gastric emptying cellulose functionality, 268 oat beta-glucan comparison, 297 psyllium, 397 Gastrointestinal functions, see also Intestinal issues alpha-cyclodextrin, 14 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 89 resistant maltodextrin, 65–68 Gatlin, Jaramillo and, studies, 345 Gee studies, 82 Gelatin partially hydrolyzed guar gum comparison, 100 replacement, inulin, 54 Gelation inulin, 54 pectin, 138–139 psyllium, 397 sugar beet iber, 372–373 Gene expressions, 48 Genotoxicity, 106 Gerbil studies, 179 Giaccari studies, 96 Giannini studies, 96 Gibson, Rastall and, studies, 96 Gibson, Wang and, studies, 182

Index Gibson and Roberfroid studies, 180 Gill studies, 333, 335 Glass beads, 266 Glass transition temperature (Tg), 186–187, 193 Glucagel, 288, 335 Glucose metabolism and response, see also Diabetes; Glycemic management and response barley iber, 342–344 cellulose, 267–268 cellulose functionality, 268 oat beta-glucan, 296–297 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 85 pectin, 152–154, 267–268 polydextrose, 179–180 psyllium, 397 resistant maltodextrin, 70–72 sugar beet iber, 376–378 Glycemic index (GI) acacia gum, 127–128 alpha-cyclodextrin, 12 barley iber, 342–343 CAVAMAX W6, 455 oat beta-glucan, 296 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 97–100, 105 pectin, 153 polydextrose, 179–180 resistant starch, 232–233 Glycemic management and response, see also Diabetes; Glucose metabolism and response alpha-cyclodextrin, 12 Nutriose soluble iber, 29 oat iber, 250, 254–255 potential structure function claims, 5 resistant starch, 228, 232, 234–236 Golay studies, 86 Goni studies, 217 Gonorrhea, 395 Gordon and Okuma studies, 223 Gould studies, 249–250 Gout, 396 Graham studies, 100 Grainwise, 455–456 Granfeldt studies, 342 Granola bars, 251 Grape juice, 28 Green bananas, 149

479 Greenberg and Sellman studies, 84 Grossmann, Galdeano and, studies, 251, 253 Guar gum, see also Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) fundamentals, 81–82 glucose effects, 269 glycemic control, 5 pectin comparison, 150–151 psyllium comparison, 409 sugar beet iber comparison, 378 Guillon studies, 359–383 Gulliford studies, 102 Gum arabic, 458, see also Acacia gum Gu studies, 86 Gut function, effects on, 48–49 Gut microlora, 49, see also Microlora Gut well-being, 31–34

H Hagen-Poiseuille law, 269 Hallfrisch studies, 344 Hamberg studies, 378 Hamster studies cellulose, 267, 270 inulin, 48 psyllium, 407 rice bran, 309–312 Hanai studies, 337 Hara, Suzuki and, studies, 88, 105 Haralampu studies, 206, 209 Hara studies, 102, 182, 381 Harland studies, 375 Harrington studies, 346 Hashizume studies, 61–75 Hawrysh studies, 343 Hayes, Pronczuk and, studies, 179 Health beneits, see Physiological functions and beneits Health claims approved, 3 barley iber, 323–324, 338 no-sugar(s)-added, 37 Nutriose soluble iber, 37 potential, 4 potential structure function, 4–5 psyllium, 396, 408 resistant maltodextrin, 74

480 sugar(s)-free claims, 37 Heart disease, see also Cardiovascular disease; Coronary heart disease approved health claims, 3 psyllium, 395, 406–409 Heifer studies, 257, 258 Heijnen studies, 237 Heini studies, 100 Helianthus tuberosus, 45 Hematologic parameters, 105 Hemicelluloses oat iber, 251 sugar beet iber, 369 Hemodialysis, 126 Hemorrhoids, 410 Henley and Chiu studies, 28, 209 Henningsson studies, 209 Hepatic parameters, 105 Hetland and Svihus studies, 255–257 Hetland studies, 255 Heyl, Wise and, studies, 51 Higgins studies, 232, 234, 238 High amylose corn starch, see Resistant starch (RS) High-density lipoprotein (HDL), see Cholesterol; Lipid metabolism High-iber foods, potential structure function claims, 4–5 High-intensive sweeteners, 75 High-moisture systems, 224 High-protein diet, 126 Hi-Maize products resistant starch, 210, 234 suppliers, 463–464 Hinata studies, 343 HIV-positive patients, 144 HMPC, see Hydroxymethylpropyl cellulose (HMPC) Homann studies, 93 Honey, 396 Hong studies, 345 Hordeins, 347 Hormone status, 48 Hot dogs, see Frankfurters Howe, Behall and, studies, 237 Howe studies, 9–15 Hudson studies, 333 Human studies acacia gum, 125–128

Index aleurone lour, 443–451 barley iber, 337–338, 346–347 cellulose, 264–265, 275, 277 fruit iber, 434–435 guar gum, 82 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270–271 inulin, 47–49 Nutriose soluble iber, 33, 34 oat beta-glucan, 289, 293 oat iber, 255–256, 257, 258 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 92, 94–96, 103 pectin, 155 polydextrose, 178–179 psyllium, 407–408 resistant maltodextrin, 70 resistant starch, 222, 230, 232, 238 rice bran, 314–316 sugar beet iber, 376 Humectant, 186, 188, see also Hydration Hunger, reduced, 51–52, see also Satiety Hydration fruit iber, 430–431 polydextrose, 188–190 sugar beet iber, 370–371 Hydrocolloid properties, 410 Hydroxycellulose, 100 Hydroxymethylpropyl cellulose (HMPC) glycemic control, 5 suppliers, 456 Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), 269, 270–271 Hygroscopicity, 131 Hylla studies, 237 Hyperglycemia, 70, see also Glycemic management and response Hyperlipidemia, see also Lipid metabolism pectin, 142 polydextrose, 179 Hypersensitivity, see Adverse effects Hypertension, see Blood pressure Hypoglycemia and hypoglycemic effects acacia gum, 127–128 pectin, 148 psyllium, 409 resistant maltodextrin, 70

Index

481

I IBS, see Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) Ice cream fruit iber, 431 inulin, 46 Nutriose soluble iber, 28 psyllium, 396 Ice cream cones, 252 Ice crystals, 159 Ide studies, 88 Ikegami studies, 100 Ileal morphology, 147 Immune response, 344–345 Immunological effects, 101 Immunostimulation, 396 IMT, see Intima-media thickness (IMT) Indirect methods, resistant starch, 217 Industrial fruit preparations, 157 Industrial processing resistance, 35–36 Infection, resistance to, 49–50 Inlammation inulin, 49–50 psyllium, 395, 396 Inlammatory bowel disease (IBD) inulin, 50 psyllium, 405 Inglett, Lee and, studies, 335 Inglett studies, 251, 335 Instant teas and coffees, 11 Insulin response and insulin resistance, see also Glycemic management and response alpha-cyclodextrin, 13 barley iber, 342–344 cellulose, 267–268 guar gum, 82 oat beta-glucan, 296 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86–87, 105 pectin, 149 psyllium, 397 resistant maltodextrin, 72 resistant starch, 234 sugar beet iber, 376, 381 Intake mean intake, x recommended daily amounts, vii, x, 1, 398, 433–434 sources of in diet, ix

Intestinal helminth infections, 250, 259 Intestinal issues acceptability, inulin, 53–54 acute infections, pectin, 148–149 bowel function, polydextrose, 178 environments, 65–68, 228, 231–232 function, resistant starch, 228 Nutriose soluble iber, 28 psyllium, 395, 396 resistant maltodextrin, 65–68 resistant starch, 228 stool output, sugar beet iber, 375–376 transit time, sugar beet iber, 375–376 water absorption, cellulose, 269–270 Intestinal microlora, 94–96, see also speciic type Intestinal regularity bowel movements, resistant maltodextrin, 65 diarrhea, acacia gum, 125–126 oat iber, 250, 255–256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 96 potential structure function claims, 5 stool output, cellulose, 264–265 Intima-media thickness (IMT), 149 Intoxication, 395 Inulin appetite modulation, 51–52 caloric value, 47 cancer risk reduction, 52 chemical properties, 45–46 chemical structure, 42 diabetes suitability, 50–51 food applications, 54–55 food intake modulation, 51–52 fundamentals, 41–42 gut function, effects on, 48–49 gut microlora, modulation of, 49 infection, resistance to, 49–50 inlammation, resistance to, 49–50 intestinal acceptability, 53–54 lipid metabolism, improvement, 47–48 material properties, 46–47 mineral absorption increase, 52–53 native, 42 natural occurrence, 42–43 non-digestibility, 47 nutritional properties, 47–54 outlook and perspectives, 55

Index

482 physical properties, 45–46 production, 45 properties, 45–54 quantitative determination, in food, 43–44 sources, 42, 43 stability, 109 suppliers, 458–460 Ions/organic molecules, 372 Iron aleurone lour, 439 barley iber, 346 cellulose, 277 oat beta-glucan, 298 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 103 pectin, 145–146 psyllium, 412 sugar beet iber, 376 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 96–97 psyllium, 399, 404–405 Ishizuka and Kasai studies, 382 Ishizuka studies, 181 Isoleucine, 313 Iyengar studies, 208–209 Izydorczk studies, 332

J Jam, 50 Jaramillo and Gatlin studies, 345 Jaskari studies, 287 Jejunal morphology, 147 Jenkins studies, 237, 296, 409 Jerusalem artichokes, 43, 45 Jiang and Vasanthan studies, 326 Jie studies, 178, 180, 182 Johnson studies, 266, 375 Juices fruit iber, 428 Nutriose soluble iber, 28, 35 oat beta-glucan, 286 Juneja studies, 79–112 JustFiber products, 465

K Kabir studies, 238

Kahlon studies, 305–318 Kaolin, 266 Kapoor studies, 79–112 Karman vortex, 274 Kasai, Ishizuka and, studies, 382 Kay studies, 88 Keenan studies, 237–238, 338, 367 Kelleher studies, 265 Kellogg cereals, 396 Kendall studies, 209, 227 Kenneick and Cashman studies, 347 Keogh studies, 338 Kerek, Ciukanu and, studies, 176 Keycel, 456–457 Keys studies, 407 Kidneys, see also Renal issues acacia gum, 126 resistant maltodextrin, 71 King studies, 183 Klebsiella spp., 148 Knoblock, Ken, 197 Knuckles studies, 328, 332 Kokke studies, 1 Koksel studies, 331 Kondo studies, 89 Koujitani studies, 106 Kouwijzer studies, 367 Krüger, Chris, 197 Kulp and Ponte studies, 208 Kunkel, Lucia and, studies, 411

L Labeling, see Health claims Lachnospira multiparus, 144 Lactate, 47 Lactation, 412 Lactobacilli spp. acacia gum, 123–124 inulin, 49–50, 52 Nutriose soluble iber, 31, 33 oat iber, 254 polydextrose, 182 resistant starch, 230 Lactobacilli acidophilus, 144 Lactobacilli casei Shirota, 144 Lactobacilli plantarum, 144 Lactobacillus spp.

Index partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 95–96 pectin, 142 Lactobacillus acidophilus, 345 Lairon studies, 2 Lampe studies, 91 Large intestine fermentation, see also Fermentation alpha-cyclodextrin, 9, 10, 11 cellulose functionality, 265 Large intestine morphology, 259 Larrauri studies, 361 Larrea studies, 251 Laxation partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 85, 90–94 resistant maltodextrin, 68 resistant starch, 227 Laxative effects acacia gum, 123 Nutriose soluble iber, 27 polydextrose, 184 psyllium, 396 Laxative effects, psyllium anti-carcinogenic effects, 405–406 anti-inlammatory effects, 405 diverticular disease, 398–399 fundamentals, 397–398 heart disease risk, 406–409 irritable bowel syndrome, 399, 404–405 Lead, 146–147 Le Bihan studies, 19–37 Lee and Inglett studies, 335 Lee and Prosky studies, 2 Lee and Schwarz studies, 330 Leeks, 43 Lee studies, 223, 254, 332 Lefranc-Millot studies, 19–37 Le Leu studies, 230–231 Lemon iber, 430 Le Quéré studies, 363 Leucine, 313 Levigne studies, 363 Lewis studies, 51 Lia studies, 337 Light bologna, 253–254 Light microscopy, 189 Lignin blocking iron absorption, 103

483 oat iber, 251 pectin, 146 Liliacea spp., 43 Liljeberg and Bjorck studies, 342 Liljeberg-Elmstahl studies, 209 Liljeberg studies, 343 Lina studies, 14 Lindstrom studies, 4–5 Lipid metabolism, see also Cholesterol; Triglyceride levels alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 barley iber, 338 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, 270 inulin, 47–48 oat beta-glucan, 288–293, 295 oat iber, 257 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 88, 96 pectin, 142, 150–152 polydextrose, 178–180 psyllium, 407 sugar beet iber, 378–381 Lipodystrophy, 144 Lipolysis, 265 Lipoproteins, 150 Liquid food products, 28, 37 Listeria spp., 49 Listeria monocytogenes, 50 Li studies, 343 Litesse and Litesse Ultra, 175, 179–180, 183 Lithium citrate, 412 Liu and Tsai studies, 178 Liver pectin, 141, 149 resistant maltodextrin, 71 Livesey studies, 342 Locust (carob) bean gum, 81 Lopez-Guisa studies, 255, 257 Lopez-Miranda studies, 1 Lopez studies, 232 Lorenz, Vis and, studies, 336 Low-calorie products fruit iber, 431 resistant maltodextrin, 75 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), see Cholesterol; Lipid metabolism Low-fat foods and products fruit iber, 431–432 inulin, 54

Index

484 pectin, 158, 159 potential structure function claims, 4–5 Low-moisture systems, 224 Lucia and Kunkel studies, 411 Lung disorders, 395 Lyly studies, 335 Lysine, 313

M Madden, Dea and, studies, 363 Magnesium aleurone lour, 439 barley iber, 346 cellulose, 277 oat beta-glucan, 298 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 102 pectin, 145–146 sugar beet iber, 376 Maize, 37 MaizeWise corn bran, 457 Maki studies, 271 Mäkivuokko, Harri, 197 Mäkivuokko studies, 182 MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, 176 Maltodextrin replacement, 54 Manganese, 298 Manufacturing, see Production and processing Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund, 360 Market potential, rice bran, 316 Marlett and Fischer studies, 395 Marlett studies, 1, 5, 330 Marmalade, 396 Mateos studies, 255 Material properties, inulin, 46–47 Material with cellular structure (MCS), 429 Matsuoka, Tokunaga and, studies, 69 Mattes studies, 135–159 Mayonnaise, 432, see also Emulsions May studies, 124 McArthur, Rosemary, 452 McCleary and Monaghan studies, 208, 217 McCleary and Neukom studies, 84 McCleary studies, 208, 217, 222 McGufin, Anne, 452

McIntosh studies, 345, 443 McLean Ross studies, 125 MCS, see Material with cellular structure (MCS) Measuring method barley iber, 327 resistant maltodextrin, 75 Meat and meat products barley iber, 334 fruit iber, 431–432 inulin, 54 oat iber, 250, 252 polydextrose, 189, 195 sugar beet iber, 373–374 Medical aspects, pectin acute intestinal infections, 148–149 atherosclerosis, 149–150 cancer, 154–156 cholesterol, 150–152 dumping syndrome, 148 glucose metabolism, 152–154 intestinal infections, acute, 148–149 lipid metabolism, 150–152 short bowel syndrome, 148 short gut syndrome, 148 Medications, 410, 412, see also Pharmaceuticals Megazyme, 335 Meier studies, 91 Melting properties, 54 Mesalamine, 405 Metabolic functions, 85–104 Metabolic syndrome psyllium, 407 resistant starch, 234 Metabolism acacia gum, 123 pectin, 141–142 Metal ions, 145–147 Metamucil, 100 Methylcellulose partially hydrolyzed guar gum comparison, 94 psyllium comparison, 411 Mice studies alpha-cyclodextrin, 13–14 inulin, 50–51 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 106 pectin, 155 resistant starch, 231

Index Michel studies, 124 Microcrystalline cellulose, 266–267 Microlora, see also speciic type inulin, 49 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 94–96 Mijan de la Torre and de Mateo Silleras studies, 91 Milk and milk products, see also Cheese and cheese products; Dairy products guar gum, 81 Nutriose soluble iber, 36 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 Miller and Fulcher studies, 325 Miller-Fosmore studies, 96 Minekus studies, 222 Minerals, see also speciic type barley iber, 346–347 inulin, 52–53 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 102–103, 105 sugar beet iber, 376 Mint sauces, 159 Misra studies, 345 Mitchell, Helen, 197 Mitsuyama studies, 337 Mixing-in behavior, 272–275 Modak studies, 345 Moisture management, 186 Molecular weight, 285 Monaghan, McCleary and, studies, 208, 217 Morgan, Wendy, 452 Morgan and Ofman studies, 328 Morgan studies, 378 Morita studies, 227, 231–232, 238, 313 Mousses, 55 Mouthfeel, 36–37 Mucin, 231 Muesli oat beta-glucan, 296 sugar beet iber, 373 Mufins aleurone lour, 451 barley iber, 333, 343 oat beta-glucan, 287, 289 sugar beet iber, 374 Muir and O’Dea studies, 217 Muir studies, 237

485 Murakami studies, 2, 4–5 Mutagenicity alpha-cyclodextrin, 14 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 106 Myers, Weibel and, studies, 370

N Naito studies, 101 Nakagawa studies, 178 Nakao studies, 91 Naokes studies, 439–452 Narain studies, 343 National Data Laboratory, ix National Nutrient Databank Conference, ix Natural occurrence, 42–43 Natureal, 288 Nausea alpha-cyclodextrin, 13, 14 psyllium, 409 NCEP step-1 diet, 315 Nephrotoxicity, 126 Neukom, McCleary and, studies, 84 Neural tube defects, 443 Newman and Newman studies, 324 Nichols, Chuck, 197 Nitric oxide (NO) metabolism, 125 Nitrogen excretion, 126–127 Nitrogen metabolism, 258–259 NO, see Nitric oxide (NO) metabolism Noakes studies, 289 Nondigestibility, 47 Nontraditional resistant starch, 210, 216, 218–219 Noodles, see Pasta and noodles No-sugar(s)-added claims, 37, see also Sugar(s)-free food products Novelose products, 463–464 Nugent studies, 230 Nurture 1500, 288 Nutraceutical products, 159 Nutrient interactions and interrelationships cellulose beneits, 276 resistant starch, 232 Nutrim-OB, 288 Nu-trim X, 343 Nutriose soluble iber

Index

486 absorption in small intestine, 28–29 caloric value, 34–35 composition of iber, 27 description, 21–22 dietary iber content, 22–25 digestion in small intestine, 28–29 digestive tolerance, 25, 27–28 food applications, 35–36 food matrix, inclusion in, 28 fundamentals, 19–21, 37 glycemic response, 29 gut well-being, 31–34 industrial processing resistance, 35–36 intestinal bacterial adaptation, 28 labeling, 37 mouthfeel, 36–37 physiochemical properties, 35–36 physiological beneits, 28–29 powder’s properties, 35 production, 21–22 regulation, 37 resistant starch, 216 safety, 37 sources, 37 suppliers, 462–463 taste, 36–37 technical properties, 35–36 Nutritional aspects, acacia gum, 123–125 Nutritional aspects, inulin appetite modulation, 51–52 caloric value, 47 cancer risk reduction, 52 diabetes suitability, 50–51 food intake modulation, 51–52 gut function, effects on, 48–49 gut microlora, modulation of, 49 infection, resistance to, 49–50 inlammation, resistance to, 49–50 intestinal acceptability, 53–54 lipid metabolism, improvement, 47–48 mineral absorption increase, 52–53 non-digestibility, 47 Nutritional aspects, pectin fermentation, 142–143 ileal morphology, 147 jejunal morphology, 147 metabolism of, 141–142

metal ions, 145–147 prebiotic nature, 143–144 toxic metals excretion, 145–147 weight management, 144–145 Nuts, 110 Nyman and Asp studies, 375

O Oat beta-glucan bakery applications, 289, 292 breads, 289, 292 cereals, 289, 290–291 characteristics, 283–284 drinks and beverages, 293, 294 food applications, 287–293 food characteristics, effects on, 287 functionality, 284–287 fundamentals, 284 glucose metabolism, 296–297 glycemic control, 5 lipid metabolism, 288–293, 295 mechanism, 293 molecular weight, 285 physiological beneits, 288–297 postprandial effects, 296–297 processing, effects on, 285–287 randomized studies, 289–293 safety, 297–298 suppliers, 460 viscosity, 284–285 Oat bran barley iber comparison, 342, 345, 347 intestinal regularity, 5 psyllium comparison, 409 rice bran comparison, 315 sugar beet iber comparison, 382 Oat iber (oat hull) bakery products, 252–253 body weight, 256 characteristics, 252 fat-free frankfurters, 253–254 fermentability, 258 food applications, 252–254 frozen desserts, 254 fundamentals, 249–250 glycemic control, 254–255 intestinal regularity, 255–256

Index large intestine morphology, 259 light bologna, 253–254 nitrogen metabolism, 258–259 pasta shells, 252–253 pectin comparison, 150–151 pork products, 253–254 production, 250–252 serum lipids, 257 suppliers, 460–461 yogurt, 254 Oatmeal, 342 Oatrim, 288 OatsCreme, 288 OatVantage, 288 Oatwell, 288 Obesity fruit iber, 434 pectin, 142 psyllium, 407 O’Dea, Muir and, studies, 217 Oloxacin, 410 Ofman, Morgan and, studies, 328 Ohkuma studies, 207–208, 216 Oil replacement, 271, see also Fats Okoniewska studies, 205–239 Okubo studies, 95 Okuma, Gordon and, studies, 223 Okuma studies, 61–75 Oliggo-Fiber, 460 Oligosaccharides dietary iber content, 22–23 introduction in foods, 20 Olson studies, 409 Onions, 43 Önning studies, 293 Oosterveld studies, 365, 369 Orafti products, 45, see also Synergy 1 Oral health, 183 Oral medication, 412, see also Medications; Pharmaceuticals Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS), 93–94 Oral rehydration solutions, 129 Orange pulp iber, 430 Organic molecules, 372 Ostergard studies, 330 Ostman studies, 343 O’Sullivan, Geoff, 197 Outlook and perspectives, inulin, 55

487

P Painter studies, 399 Palacio and Rombeau studies, 102 Pancakes, 333 Pancreas, 71 Pancreatic amylase activity, 11 Pancreatic enzymes, 141–142 Paper manufacturing cellulose, 272 guar gum, 81 Parisi studies, 97 Park, Matthew R., 240 Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) acute postprandial glycemic responses, 86–87 adverse effects, 107–108 anticarcinogenic properties, 108 beauty supplementation, 103–104 blood cholesterol concentration levels, 88–90 commercial applications, 109–110 dietary gums, 80–81 food grade speciications, 85 fundamentals, 80, 82–83, 110–112 glycemic index, 97–100 guar gum, 81–82 immunological effects, 101 insulin response, 86–87 intestinal microlora balance, 94–96 irritable bowel syndrome, 96–97 laxation improvements, 90–94 metabolic functions, 85–104 mineral absorption, 102–103 physiochemical properties, 85 physiological functions, 85–104 postprandial glycemic responses, 86–87 prebiotic effects, 94–96 processing, 83–85 regulatory status historical background, 108–109 safety issues, 104–107 satiety, 100–101 suppliers, 461–462 toxicological behavior, 104–107 weight control, 100–101 Partially methylated alditol acetates (PMAAs), 175–176 Pasta and noodles

488 aleurone lour, 440, 451 barley iber, 331–332 cellulose, 271 oat beta-glucan, 286 oat iber, 252–253 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 pectin, 159 polydextrose, 195 sugar beet iber, 373 Pastries, see also Bakery products and applications inulin, 50 polydextrose, 189–191, 194 sugar beet iber, 373 Pâtés, see also Meat and meat products inulin, 54 sugar beet iber, 374 Pawlak studies, 238 Pea iber inulin, 52 oat iber comparison, 258 water-binding properties, 430 Pearled barley, 325, 342 Pectin acacia gum comparison, 124 acute intestinal infections, 148–149 apple juice, 428 atherosclerosis, 149–150 bakery products, 159 barley iber comparison, 335 beverages, 158–159 cancer, 154–156 capsules, 159 cereal products, 159 chemical structure, 136–138 cholesterol, 150–152 commercial type, 140–141 condiments, 159 confectionery articles, 158 dairy products, 158 dumping syndrome, 148 fermentation, 142–143 food product applications, 156–159 fruit spreads, 157 fundamentals, 136 glucose metabolism, 152–154, 267–268 glycemic control, 5 ileal morphology, 147 industrial fruit preparations, 157 intestinal infections, acute, 148–149

Index jejunal morphology, 147 lipid metabolism, 150–152 medical aspects, 148–156 metabolism of, 141–142 metal ions, 145–147 nutraceutical products, 159 nutritional aspects, 141–147 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 90 physical properties, 138–140 prebiotic nature, 143–144 psyllium comparison, 409 short bowel syndrome, 148 short gut syndrome, 148 sorbet, 158–159 sources, 140 spreads, 157, 159 sugar beet iber, 363, 365–369 suppliers, 462 technological aspects, 136–141 toxic metals excretion, 145–147 weight management, 144–145 Pediatric care, 396 Pender, Kay, 452 Peristalsis, 275 Peritoneal dialysis, 126 Persia studies, 51 Persson studies, 347 Peters and Davidson studies, 87 Petruziello studies, 399 Pharmaceuticals, see also Medications acacia gum, 131 guar gum, 81 polydextrose, 196 psyllium, 396 Phenylalanine, 313 PHGG, see Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) pH levels, see also Prebiotic characteristics and effects acacia gum, 129 aleurone lour, 443 alpha-cyclodextrin, 10 barley iber, 335 inulin, 46, 48 Nutriose soluble iber, 20, 31–32, 34, 36 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 84, 91–92, 94 pectin, 138–140, 145, 157 polydextrose, 192–193

Index resistant starch, 227 Phosphorus cellulose, 277 oat beta-glucan, 298 Photosensitivity, 395 Physical characteristics and properties inulin, 45–46 pectin, 138–140 polydextrose, 186–190 resistant starch, 211 Physiochemical properties Nutriose soluble iber, 35–36 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 85 sugar beet iber, 370–372 Physiological functions and beneits acacia gum, 125–128 aleurone lour, 440–451 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11–13 barley iber, 337–345 cellulose functionality, 270–271 fruit ibers, 433–435 Nutriose soluble iber, 28–29 oat beta-glucan, 288–297 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 85–104 polydextrose, 183–184 psyllium, 397 resistant maltodextrin, 64–72 sugar beet iber, 374–383 Physiological functions and beneits, resistant starch (RS) available calories, 237 body composition, 238 colonic cell health, 231 culture protagonist, 228 digestible carbohydrates comparison, 229 digestion, 227–232 energy partitioning, 238–239 fermentation, 227, 230 fundamentals, 226–227 glycemic management, 228, 232, 234–236 intestinal environment and function, 228, 231–232 nutrient interactions, 232 prebiotic beneits, 228, 230–231 satiety hormone production, 238 tolerance, 228 weight management, 228, 237–239

489 Phytates pectin, 146 sugar beet iber, 374 Phytic acid, 345–346 Pick studies, 289, 343 Pie crusts, 451 Pig studies cellulose, 270, 272, 275 oat iber, 250, 255–257, 259 resistant starch, 231–232 sugar beet iber, 375, 378, 381–382 Pi-Sunyer, Wursch and, studies, 343 Pizza crust, 451 Plantago ovata Forsk, 394, see also Psyllium Plantago psyllium, 394, see also Psyllium Plantains (green), 90 PMMAs, see Partially methylated alditol acetates (PMAAs) Poksay and Schneeman studies, 100 Polydextrose afinity for water, 188–190 analysis of, 184 baked goods, 194 beverages, 195 blood glucose responses, 179–180 blood lipids, 178–180 bowel function, 178 chocolate confectionery, 194 confectionery items, 193–194 cultured dairy products, 194 dairy drinks, 195 energy contribution, 183 as iber, 177–180 food applications, 193–196 frozen dairy desserts, 194 fruit spreads and fruit illings, 195 fundamentals, 174, 196 glass transition temperature, 186–187 manufacture of, 175 meat applications, 195 moisture management, 186 oral health, 183 partially hydrolyzed guar gum comparison, 94 pasta and noodles, 195 pharmaceuticals, 196 physical nature, 186–190 physiological aspects, 183–184 prebiotic properties, 180–182

490 regulatory status, 196 safety, 184 satiety, 183 speciication, 177 stability, 109, 191–193 structure, 175–177 sweetness and sweetness enhancement, 185 technological functionality, 185–193 toleration, 183–184 Polysaccharides acacia gum comparison, 124 sugar beet iber, 365–370, 372–373 Pomeranz, Szczodrak and, studies, 329 Ponte, Kulp and, studies, 208 Pork products barley iber, 334 oat iber, 253–254 Porridge, 346 Postage stamps, 81 Postmenopausal women, 52 Postprandial blood glucose level, see also Glucose metabolism and response cellulose, 267 guar gum, 82 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 105 resistant maltodextrin, 69–70, 72 sugar beet iber, 376 Postprandial effects alpha-cyclodextrin, 12 oat beta-glucan, 296–297 psyllium, 407 sugar beet iber, 381 Postprandial glycemic responses, 86–87, see also Glycemic management and response Postprandial hypertriglyceridemia, 179 Potatoes, 208 Potential health claim, 3–4, see also Health claims Pouchitis, 50 Powder properties, 35 Prebiotic characteristics and effects acacia gum, 123–125 barley iber, 337 fruit iber, 434 Nutriose soluble iber, 31 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 94–96

Index pectin, 143–144 polydextrose, 180–182 psyllium, 411 resistant maltodextrin, 65, 67, 68 resistant starch, 228, 230–231 Pregnancy alpha-cyclodextrin, 13–14 psyllium, 410, 412 Pretzels, 252 Prevotella ruminicola, 143–144 Printing, 81 Probiotics, 52 Processed cheese, 54, see also Cheese and cheese products Processing, see Industrial processing resistance; Production and processing Proctor & Gamble, 396 Product attributes, resistant starch, 226 Production and processing guar gum, 83–85 inulin, 45 Nutriose soluble iber, 21–22 oat beta-glucan, 285–287 oat iber, 250–252 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 83–85 polydextrose, 175 resistant maltodextrin, 63–64 rice bran, 305–306 sugar beet iber, 361 Pronczuk and Hayes studies, 179 Propionate, 91, see also Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) Propionic acids, 91, see also Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) Prosky, Cho and, studies, 2 Prosky, Lee and, studies, 2 Prosky studies, 208, 223 Proteins aleurone lour, 439 cellulose functionality, 270 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 107 Proteus spp., 148 Protopectin, 136 Psyllium acacia gum comparison, 124 anorectal surgery, 410 anti-carcinogenic effects, 405–406 anti-inlammatory effects, 405

Index

491

blocking iron absorption, 103 characteristics, 393–395 chemical constituents, 395 contraindications, 411 diarrhea, 410 diverticular disease, 398–399 drug delivery systems, 410 drug interaction, 412 food applications, 395–396 functionality, 395–396 gallstones, 410 glycemic control, 5 heart disease risk, 406–409 hemorrhoids, 410 hydrocolloid properties, 410 irritable bowel syndrome, 399, 404–405 lactation, 412 laxative effect, 397–410 oat beta-glucan comparison, 293 partially hydrolyzed guar gum comparison, 94, 100, 103 pectin comparison, 150–151 physiological beneits, 397 Plantago ovata Forsk, 394 Plantago psyllium, 394 pregnancy, 410, 412 resistant starch, 232 safety, 410–412 summary of, 400–403 toxicity, 410–412 Pylkas studies, 94 Pyroconversion, 21

Q QualFlo, 456–457 Quinde studies, 336

R Rabbani studies, 90 Rabbit studies alpha-cyclodextrin, 13 rice bran, 313 Raghupathy studies, 232 Raghuram studies, 315 Ralet studies, 359–383 Ramakrishna studies, 232

Ramaswamy studies, 250 Ranald studies, 9–15 Randomized studies, 289–293 Rashes, 86 Rastall and Gibson studies, 96 Rat studies acacia gum, 124–126, 129 aleurone lour, 442–443 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11–14 barley iber, 345–346 cellulose, 265–266, 269–272, 275–277 inulin, 47–48, 51–52 Nutriose soluble iber, 29, 32–34 oat iber, 255, 258 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 88, 90–91, 100–106 pectin, 142–147, 150, 154–155 polydextrose, 178, 181–182 psyllium, 407 resistant maltodextrin, 68–71 resistant starch, 231–232, 236, 238 rice bran, 312–313 sugar beet iber, 375, 381–383 Rautonen, Nina, 197 RBO, see Rice bran oil (RBO) Read, Tomlin and, studies, 178 Ready-to-drink beverages, 216 Ready-to-eat cereals barley iber, 330 oat beta-glucan, 289 psyllium, 396 sugar beet iber, 373 Recommended intake, vii Reformed meat products, 189, 195, see also Meat and meat products Regulation Nutriose soluble iber, 37 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 108–109 polydextrose, 196 Renal issues, see also Kidneys acacia gum, 126 oat iber, 250, 259 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 105 psyllium, 395 Renard and Thibault studies, 363 Renard studies, 359–383 Resistant dextrin, 109, see also Nutriose soluble iber

492 Resistant maltodextrin, see also Fibersol-2 resistant maltodextrin; Nutriose soluble iber glycemic control, 5 suppliers, 462–463 Resistant starch (RS) alpha-cyclodextrin comparison, 10 analysis, 216–217, 222–223 available calories, 237 background, 206 barley iber, 329 body composition, 238 chemically modiied starch, 210, 216 chemistry, 206 classiication, 206–208 colonic cell health, 231 commercial developments and applications, 209–210, 216 culture protagonist, 228 detection methods, 220–221 diet and food, 208–209 digestion, 227–232 energy partitioning, 238–239 fermentation, 227, 230 food applications, 224 functional properties, 224 fundamentals, 226–227, 239 glycemic control, 5 glycemic management, 228, 232, 234–236 health beneits, 226–236 high-moisture systems, 224 intestinal environment and function, 228, 231–232 low-moisture systems, 224 non-traditional form, 210, 216, 218–219 nutrient interactions, 232 physical comparisons, natural commercial, 211 prebiotic beneits, 228, 230–231 product attributes, 226 RS vs. digestible carbohydrates, 229 satiety hormone production, 238 soluble dextrins, 210, 216 sources, commercial, 212–215 suppliers, 463–464 tolerance, 228 traditional forms, 212–215

Index types, 206–207 weight management, 228, 237–239 Reynolds number, 272–276 Rhazes studies, 396 Rheumatism, 396 Rice barley similarity, 329 brown, cooking time, 316 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 98–99 pectin, 149 resistant starch, 208 Rice bran bile acid binding, 316 chick studies, 313–314 cholesterol, 309–315 composition, 307–308 cynomolgus monkey studies, 313 food applications, 308 fundamentals, 316–318 hamster studies, 309–312 human studies, 314–315 market potential, 316 oat beta-glucan comparison, 289, 297 physiological beneits, 309–315 production, 305–306 rabbit studies, 313 rat studies, 312–313 safety, 309 whole grain recommendation, 316 Rice bran oil (RBO) cholesterol, 311, 312–313 substituting cooking oil, 315 Rice milk, 293, 308 Rinaldi, Josephine, 452 Ripsin studies, 288 Roberfroid, Gibson and, studies, 180 Roberfroid studies, 34, 47 Robertson studies, 227, 234, 333, 337 Rochat studies, 125 Roland studies, 258 Rolls studies, 183 Rombeau, Palacio and, studies, 102 Romero studies, 289 Rong studies, 312 Rose studies, 98 Roturier studies, 19–37 Royle, Peter, 452 Ruminococcus albus, 265 Rushdi studies, 93

Index

493

Rye and rye products barley iber comparison, 347 oat beta-glucan, 296 sugar beet iber comparison, 382

S Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 36 Safety issues and applications acacia gum, 122–123 aleurone lour, 451 alpha-cyclodextrin, 13–14 barley iber, 346–347 cellulose, 277 Nutriose soluble iber, 37 oat beta-glucan, 297–298 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 104–107 polydextrose, 184 psyllium, 410–412 resistant maltodextrin, 72, 74 rice bran, 309 sugar beet iber, 383 Sajilata studies, 206–207 Saku studies, 178 Salad dressing, 432, see also Dressings Salisbury, Carolyn, 452 Salmonella spp. inulin, 49 pectin, 148 Salmonella typhimurium inulin, 50 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 105–106 Salty goods, 36 Salyers studies, 94 Sandstrom studies, 346 Saniez-Degrave studies, 19–37 Sarkkinen studies, 283–298 Satiety, see also Appetite modulation guar gum, 82 inulin, 52 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 100–101 polydextrose, 183 potential structure function claims, 4–5 psyllium, 397 resistant starch, 238

viscous dietary iber, 20 Sato, Suzuki and, studies, 12 Sauces cellulose, 271 fruit iber, 431 guar gum, 81 inulin, 46, 54 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109–110 pectin, 159 Sausages barley iber, 334 fruit iber, 431 inulin, 54 polydextrose, 195 sugar beet iber, 374 SCFA, see Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) Scherer, Ben, 452 Schneeman, Poksay and, studies, 100 Scholz and Ahrens studies, 102 Schwab studies, 179 Schwarz, Lee and, studies, 330 Seaweed extracts, 81 Segmentation, 276 Seib and Woo studies, 208 Sellman, Greenberg and, studies, 84 Sensitization, see Adverse effects Sepsis and septic shock, 93 Serum lipids, 257, see also Lipid metabolism Shah studies, 100 Shamai studies, 208 Shand studies, 334 Shao, Yokoyama and, studies, 344 Shi and Trzasko studies, 210 Shigella spp. inulin, 49 pectin, 148 Shimomura studies, 180 Shinnick studies, 328 Shi studies, 210 Short bowel syndrome, 148 Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), see also Prebiotic characteristics and effects acacia gum, 124 aleurone lour, 443 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 cellulose, 265, 269 guar gum, 82

494 inulin, 47 Nutriose soluble iber, 27, 32, 34, 35 oat iber, 258 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 87, 90, 91, 94 pectin, 142–143, 147 polydextrose, 178–179 psyllium, 398, 405–406 resistant maltodextrin, 67–68, 68 resistant starch, 227, 236 sugar beet iber, 375, 381–382 Shortcrust pastry, 189–191, see also Pastries Short gut syndrome, 148 Siddhuraju and Becker studies, 209 Skin partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 86, 103 psyllium, 396 Slimy products, 287 Snack foods acacia gum, 130 barley iber, 336 oat beta-glucan, 286 resistant starch, 209 sugar beet iber, 373 Snart studies, 345 Softness, 36 Soluble cellulose, 456 Soluble dextrins, 210, 216 Soluble ibers acacia gum, 121–131 alpha-cyclodextrin, 9–15 inulin, 41–55 Nutriose, 19–37 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 79–112 pectin, 135–159 polydextrose, 173–196 resistant maltodextrin, 61–75 Sorbet, 158–159 Soups barley iber, 329, 335, 346 inulin, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 37 oat beta-glucan, 287 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 psyllium, 396 sugar beet iber, 373 Soya milk

Index alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 oat beta-glucan, 293 Soy iber, 465 Spaghetti, 332 Spapen studies, 93 Speakers, electronic, 272 Speciications, 177 Spina biida, 443 Sponsors, 455 Sports drinks, 129, see also Beverages Spreads and spreadable products inulin, 46, 54 pectin, 157, 159 Stability barley iber, 334 gums, 81 inulin, 46, 54, 109 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109–110 pectin, 159 polydextrose, 109, 191–193 psyllium, 396 resistant dextrin, 109 sugar beet iber, 372 Staphylococcus aureus, 230 Starch replacement, 54 Steatosis, 48 Steenblock studies, 253 Stenvert, Nick, 452 Step 1 diet (AHA), 89 Stephen studies, 255 Sterilization, 20, 35 Stevia, 75 Stickiness, 131 Stool bulk alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 inulin, 48–49 Stool consistency acacia gum, 126 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 90–91 psyllium, 398 Stool frequency cellulose, 264 inulin, 48–49 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 91–92 polydextrose, 178 psyllium, 398, 399 Stool incontinence, 126

Index Stool output, see also Intestinal regularity cellulose functionality, 264–265 inulin, 48–49 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 94 sugar beet iber, 375–376 Stool softening inulin, 53–54 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 105 polydextrose, 178 sugar beet iber, 375 Stool straining, 399 Stool transit time cellulose, 264–265 oat iber, 255–256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 90–91 polydextrose, 178 psyllium, 398 sugar beet iber, 378 Stool weight cellulose, 264 inulin, 48–49 oat iber, 255–256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 90–91 psyllium, 399 resistant starch, 227 Stowell studies, 173–196 Strauss studies, 51 Streptococcus spp., 230 Streptococcus bovis, 144 Streptococcus iniae, 345 Strontium, 146–147 Stumm and Baltes studies, 175 Sucralose, 75 Sugar beet iber adsorption/binding of ions/organic molecules, 372 backbone, 365, 367 bakery products, 374 cellulose, 369–370 cereals, 373 characteristics, 361–372 colorectal cancer, 381–382 composition, 362–364 digestability, 374–375 extracted polysaccharides, 372–373 extraction, 368–369 fermentability, 374–375

495 food applications, 372–374 functionality, 372–374 fundamentals, 360–361, 383 glucose metabolism, 376–378 hemicelluloses, 369 hydration properties, 370–371 lipid metabolism, 378–381 meat products, 374 mineral adsorption, 376 molar mass, 368–369 non-sugar substituents, 367–368 pectin structure, 365–369 physiochemical properties, 370–372 physiological beneits, 374–383 production, 361 safety, 383 side chains, 367 stool output, 375–376 structure of polysaccharides, 365–370 tolerance, 382–383 toxicity, 383 transit time, 375–376 whole iber, 373–374 Sugar cane iber, 465 Sugar metabolism, see Glucose metabolism and response Sugar(s)-free food products acacia gum, 128, 130 claims, 37 Nutriose soluble iber, 37 polydextrose, 175, 196 Sundberg and Falk studies, 329 SunFiber, 461–462, see also Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG) Sunitha studies, 313 Sunvold studies, 255–257 Suppliers acacia gum, 458 aleurone lour, 455–456 alpha—cyclodextrin, 455 bamboo iber, 465 cellulose, 456–457 corn bran, 457 cottonseed iber, 465 Fibersol-2, 462–463 fructo-oligosaccharides, 458–460 gum arabic, 458 hydroxymethylpropul cellulose, 456 inulin, 458–460 Nutriose soluble iber, 462–463

Index

496 oat beta glucan, 460 oat iber, 460–461 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 461–462 pectin, 462 resistant maltodextrin, 462–463 resistant starch, 463–464 soluble cellulose, 456 soy iber, 465 sugar beet iber, 464 sugar cane iber, 465 Surimi, 195 Suspension, 396 Suzuki and Hara studies, 88, 105 Suzuki and Sato studies, 12 Svihus, Hetland and, studies, 255–257 Sweetness and sweet products alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 inulin, 45 Nutriose soluble iber, 36 polydextrose, 185 Symons and Brennan studies, 334 Synergy 1 cancer risk reduction, 52 fundamentals, 45 gut microlora modulation, 49 mineral absorption, 52–53 ulcerative colitis, 50 Szczodrak and Pomeranz studies, 329

T Table spreads, 46, 54, see also Spreads and spreadable products Tablet binders acacia gum, 131 pectin, 159 polydextrose, 196 Takahashi studies cellulose, 263–277 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 88, 92, 95, 100, 103, 106 Takeno studies, 88, 90 Tapola studies, 283–298 Tappy studies, 296 Tartness, 109 Taste inulin, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 36–37

Tea, 11 Teacakes, 286 Technology cellulose, 277 Nutriose soluble iber, 35–36 polydextrose, 185–193 Temelli studies, 328, 335 Temperatures acacia gum, 129 alpha-cyclodextrin, 10 barley iber, 330 Nutriose soluble iber, 20 pectin, 140 polydextrose, 192–193 Textiles, 81 Texture barley iber, 334 cellulose, 271 inulin, 54 oat iber, 251 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 109 pectin, 156 Tg, see Glass transition temperature (Tg) Thibault, Renard and, studies, 363 Thibault studies, 359–383 Thickeners guar gum, 81 oat beta-glucan, 287 psyllium, 396 Thomsen studies, 250, 259 Thorup studies, 381 Tiihonen, Kirsti, 197 Timing of medications, 412 Tissue damage, 127 Titgemeyer studies, 258 Toden studies, 231 Tokunaga and Matsuoka studies, 69 Tolerance, see also Digestion acacia gum, 123 Nutriose soluble iber, 25, 27–28 polydextrose, 183–184 resistant starch, 228 sugar beet iber, 382–383 Tomato sauces, 159 Tomlin and Read studies, 178 Tooth-friendly properties, 183 Topping, Annison and, studies, 206, 208 Topping studies, 329, 439–452 Tortillas barley iber, 333, 336

Index resistant starch, 208 Total dietary iber (TDF) barley iber, 330, 333–334 maltodextrin, 23 measuring method, 75 rice bran, 307, 309, 311, 312 Tovar studies, 207 Toxicity aleurone lour, 451 alpha-cyclodextrin, 13–14 barley iber, 346–347 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 100, 104–107 psyllium, 410–412 sugar beet iber, 383 Toxic metals excretion, 145–147 Traditional resistant starch, 212–215 Tragacanth gum, 81 Transit time cellulose, 264–265 dietary iber, 5 oat iber, 255–256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 90–91 polydextrose, 178 psyllium, 398 sugar beet iber, 375–376, 378 Treponema saccharophilum, 143 Triacylglycerides, 96 Trichuris suis, 259 Triglyceride levels, see also Cholesterol; Lipid metabolism alpha-cyclodextrin, 13 barley iber, 338 inulin, 47–48 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 88 pectin, 150 polydextrose, 178–179 resistant maltodextrin, 70–71 Trimble, Rodney, 452 Trinidad studies, 98 Trogh studies, 333 Trowell, Burkitt and, studies, 1–2 Trowell studies, 427 Trowel studies, 409 Tryptophan, 313 Trzasko, Shi and, studies, 210 Tsai, Liu and, studies, 178 Tsuda studies, 86

497 Tube-feeding formulas, see Enteral nutrition formula and feeding Tuohy studies, 95

U Udon noodles, 332 Ulcerative colitis, 50 Urea acacia gum, 126 oat iber, 250, 259 Uremia, 395 Urine acacia gum, 126 pectin, 141 Uronic acids, 141 Usher, Sylvia, 452

V Vahouny Fiber Symposium, x Valine, 313 Vasankari and Ahotupa studies, 179 Vasanthan, Jiang and, studies, 326 Vasanthan and Bhatty studies, 329 Vegetables and vegetable juices Nutriose soluble iber, 35 recommended daily amounts, 433–434 Veillnella spp., 49 Velazquez studies, 94 Vis and Lorenz studies, 336 Viscosity acacia gum, 128 alpha-cyclodextrin, 10 barley iber, 335 guar gum, 82 inulin, 46 oat beta-glucan, 284–285, 298 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 99–100 pectin, 151, 156 psyllium, 396 Vitacel Oat Fibers, 288, 460–461 Vitamins aleurone lour, 439 alpha-cyclodextrin, 11 barley iber, 346–347 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 107

Index

498 psyllium, 411

W Waalkens-Berendsen studies, 13 Wang and Gibson studies, 182 Wang studies, 230–231, 255–256 Watanabe studies, 102 Water absorption, intestines, 269–270, see also Hydration Water binding property, 429–430 Wattle blossom model, 122 Weaver studies, 108 Weber studies, 347 Weibel and Myers studies, 370 Weibel studies, 370 Weickert studies, 250, 254 Weight management and control, see also Body weight alpha-cyclodextrin, 12–13 oat iber, 256 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 100–101 pectin, 144–145 potential structure function claims, 4–5 resistant starch, 228, 237–239 Wells studies, 107–108 Wenger, Beringer and, studies, 51 Wheat, 37 Wheat bran acacia gum, 124 aleurone lour comparison, 444 barley iber comparison, 347 intestinal regularity, 5 oat beta-glucan comparison, 289, 293, 297 oat iber comparison, 249, 258 resistant starch, 232 rice bran comparison, 312 water-binding properties, 430 Wheat iber, 430 Whipped cream cellulose, 271 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 110 Whole iber, 373–374 Whole grain recommendation, 316 Williams studies, 1

Wils studies, 19–37 Wise and Heyl studies, 51 Wisker studies, 346 Wolf studies, 208 Woo, Seib and, studies, 208 Wood studies, 286, 296, 343 Woo studies, 210 Wounds, 395 Wursch and Pi-Sunyer studies, 343

X Xerophthalmia, 395 Xylitol, 183 Xylooligosaccharides, 124

Y Yacon, 43 Yamada studies, 88, 101 Yamatoya studies, 87, 89, 92, 98 Yeast fermentation, 129 Yeast-leavened bread, 287 Yogurt, see also Dairy products barley iber, 335 inulin, 54 Nutriose soluble iber, 28 oat iber, 250, 254 partially hydrolyzed guar gum, 89, 109 pectin, 158 polydextrose, 194 psyllium, 396 sugar beet iber, 372 Yokoyama and Shao studies, 344 Yokoyama studies, 343 York studies, 175 Younes studies, 250, 258 Yu studies, 257

Z Zarling studies, 253, 255–256 Zervas and Zijlstra studies, 256, 259 Zhang studies, 1, 345 Zheng studies, 335

Index Zhou studies, 238, 442 Ziai studies, 393–412 Zijlstra, Zervas and, studies, 256, 259 Zinc aleurone lour, 439 barley iber, 346–347

499 cellulose, 277 oat beta-glucan, 298 partially hydrolyzed guar gum comparison, 103 pectin, 145–147 sugar beet iber, 376