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Produktentwicklung und Konstruktionstechnik
Karen Malone
Experimental Investigation of Deep‐Sea Oil Spills in a High-Pressure Laboratory Environment
23
Produktentwicklung und Konstruktionstechnik Band 23 Reihe herausgegeben vom Institut für Produktentwicklung und Konstruktionstechnik (PKT) der Technischen Universität Hamburg (TUHH), Hamburg, Deutschland unter der Leitung von Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Krause
In der Buchreihe erscheinen die am Institut von Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Krause erfolgreich betreuten abgeschlossenen Dissertationsschriften. Die Themen umfassen vorwiegend Arbeiten aus den beiden Forschungsschwerpunkten des Institutes, die methodische Produktentwicklung, insbesondere Themen zum Varianten- und Komplexitätsmangement sowie Methodenforschung für die Produktentwicklung im Allgemeinen und dem zweiten Forschungsthema der Strukturanalyse und Versuchstechnik mit Themen aus dem Bereich der Auslegung von Hochleistungswerkstoffen, wie CFK, Sandwich oder auch Keramik, sowie der Weiterentwicklung von Simulationsmethoden und Versuchstechnik für Spezialanwendungen. Bücher zu weiteren interessanten Themen oder Tagungsbände mit wissenschaftlichem oder mehr anwendungsorientiertem Charakter ergänzen die Buchreihe.
Karen Malone
Experimental Investigation of Deep‐Sea Oil Spills in a High‐Pressure Laboratory Environment
Karen Malone Institute of Product Development and Mechanical Engineering Design Hamburg University of Technology Hamburg, Germany
ISSN 2629-2157 ISSN 2662-7485 (electronic) Produktentwicklung und Konstruktionstechnik ISBN 978-3-031-25544-1 ISBN 978-3-031-25545-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25545-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer Vieweg imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Experimental Investigation of Deep‐Sea Oil Spills in a High‐Pressure Laboratory Environment Vom Promotionsausschuss der Technischen Universität Hamburg zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor‐Ingenieurin (Dr.‐Ing.) genehmigte Dissertation von Karen Malone aus Hamburg 2023
1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Dieter Krause 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Michael Schlüter Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 29. Juni 2022
VII
Preface This thesis originates from my work as Scientific Assistant at the Institute of Product Devel‐ opment and Engineering Design at Hamburg University of Technology and within the re‐ search consortium C‐IMAGE from 2013 to 2018. During this time, I got to know, worked together with and was allowed to learn from experts, colleagues and friends around the globe, who made those five years an extraordinary experience both for my professional and private live. I wish to express sincere thanks to my supervisor Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Dieter Krause for his profes‐ sional and reliable support and the opportunities I was given to partake in first class re‐ search. I would also like to thank my second examiner and C‐IMAGE project leader Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Michael Schlüter for valuable impulses and lively discussions about my thesis. Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Otto von Estorff I thank for taking the chair of the defense procedure. Special thanks I would like to express to the whole C‐IMAGE team, explicitly to Sherryl Gil‐ bert and Dr. Steven Murawski, for bringing together and managing an amazing team of researchers and the ability to make a deadline (however tight) something you want and not have to meet. Also, to Prof. Claire B. Paris and Prof. Zachary Aman for their collaboration, support and conference dinners to remember. I’m grateful to have known Dr. David Hol‐ lander, whose deep knowledge in his field, professional enthusiasm and great hospitality have distinguished him in an already outstanding research community. Furthermore, I would like to thank my colleagues at PKT, especially Karsten Albers, Johann Hauschild and Johanna Spallek, for sound support and a great time on and off the job. The teams from Forschungswerkstatt Maschinenbau and Elektrotechnik I thank for their profes‐ sional support and expertise during the refit of the pressure labs. Last but not least I thank my family and friends for their constant support through all stages of this thesis. Karen Malone
IX
Abstract In April 2010, the explosion of the oil exploration platform “Deepwater Horizon” in the Gulf of Mexico caused one of the largest oil spills in history. Following this accident, around 780 million liters of crude oil and around 170.000 tons of natural gas were spilled from the well head in 1500 m water depth into the ocean. During the containment and mitigation actions in the aftermath of this catastrophe it became obvious that many aspects of the behavior and effects of crude oil and natural gas in the deep sea are not well understood yet. Espe‐ cially with regard to the influence of the high hydrostatic pressure in the deep sea there the knowledge was very limited. In this thesis, which originated in the surrounding of the research consortium C‐IMAGE (Center for Integrated Modeling and Analysis of Gulf Ecosystems, funded by the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative), a laboratory environment was developed to enable the investi‐ gation of sundry aspects of a deep‐sea well blowout under realistic and controlled pressure and temperature conditions on a pilot‐plant scale. This laboratory is based on a standard‐ ized experimental platform which enables the generation of the artificial deep‐sea condi‐ tions. In addition, specialized experimental modules have been developed for the individual requirements of each experiment. These modules, which have also been used by other researchers within the consortium, enable the determination of rise velocities of oil droplets and gas bubbles, the determination of oil droplet size distributions as well as long‐term observation of individual particles in a simulated rise from the sea‐floor to the surface. One of the newly developed experimental modules has been used in this thesis to deter‐ mine the influence of dissolved gas as well as of a sudden pressure drop at the discharge point on the drop formation processes in an oil‐and‐gas jet. Both effects are not incorpo‐ rated in state‐of‐the‐art models for the prediction of droplet sizes, but change the median diameter up to a factor of 2. It could also be shown that the size distribution function itself in terms of the spreading factor of a log‐normal distribution changes with the natural loga‐ rithm of the median diameter. Based on the experimental data, an approach for a prediction model of drop sizes using the turbulent energy dissipation of the jet is presented, which allows for integration of the aforementioned high‐pressure effects. Although a direct trans‐ fer of the experimental findings to a full‐scale deep‐sea well blowout is not yet possible due to scale effects, substantial implications can be drawn from them for the future develop‐ ment and optimization of models for the prediction of oil propagation in the deep‐sea as well as for the use of chemical dispersant for the containment of future oil spills.
X
Zusammenfassung Mit dem Untergang der Öl‐Explorationsplattform „Deepwater Horizon“ im Golf von Mexiko im April 2010 begann eine der größten Ölkatastrophen der Geschichte, in deren Folge rund 780 Mio. Liter Rohöl sowie rund 170.000 Tonnen Erdgas unkontrolliert aus dem Bohrloch in 1500 m Wassertiefe austraten und sich im Ozean verteilten. Im Zuge der Eindämmungsar‐ beiten der Katastrophe zeigte sich, dass zahlreiche Aspekte des Verhaltens und der Auswir‐ kungen von Rohöl und Erdgas in der Tiefsee unbekannt sind. Insbesondere in Bezug auf den Einfluss des hohen hydrostatischen Drucks in der Tiefsee gab es keine gesicherten Erkennt‐ nisse. In dieser Arbeit, die im Umfeld des Forschungskonsortiums C‐IMAGE (Center for Integrated Modeling and Analysis of Gulf Ecosystems, gefördert durch die Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative) entstand, wurde daher eine Versuchsumgebung geschaffen, die die Untersuchung verschiedener Teilaspekte eines Tiefsee‐Öl‐„Blowouts“ unter realitätsnahen Umweltbedin‐ gungen im Labormaßstab unter Druck ermöglicht. Eine universelle Versuchsplattform bietet hierbei die Grundlage für die Erzeugung von Tiefseebedingungen im Labor. Zusätzlich wur‐ den mehrere Versuchsmodule entwickelt, die auf die individuellen Anforderungen der Expe‐ rimente zugeschnitten sind. Diese Module, die auch von anderen Wissenschaftlern des Konsortiums genutzt wurden, ermöglichen die Bestimmung der Aufstiegsgeschwindigkeiten von Öltropfen und Gasblasen, die Bestimmung von Öltropfengrößenverteilungen sowie die Langzeitbeobachtung einzelner Partikel beim Aufstieg vom Meeresgrund bis an die Wasser‐ oberfläche. Eines der neu entwickelten Versuchsmodule wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit angewendet, um den Einfluss gelöster Gase sowie von Druckunterschieden an der Düse auf die Tropfen‐ bildung eines Öl‐Jets zu untersuchen. Beide Effekte werden von etablierten Modellen zur Vorhersage von Tropfengrößen nicht abgebildet, verändern den Median der Tropfengrö‐ ßenverteilung jedoch teilweise um den Faktor 2. Auf Basis dieser Versuche wird ein Ansatz für ein Vorhersagemodell auf Basis der turbulenten Energiedissipation präsentiert und auf die experimentellen Ergebnisse angewendet, der eine Einbindung beider o.g. Einflüsse in die Tropfengrößenvorhersage erlaubt. Auch wenn eine direkte Übertragung der Versuchser‐ gebnisse auf einen realen Tiefseeölunfall aufgrund von Skaleneffekten noch nicht möglich ist, haben die Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit wesentliche Implikationen für die weitere Entwick‐ lung von Vorhersagemodellen zur Ausbreitung von Rohöl in der Tiefsee sowie für den Ein‐ satz von chemischen Dispergiermitteln zur Eindämmung zukünftiger Ölunfälle.
Table of Contents Preface ......................................................................................................................... VII Abstract ......................................................................................................................... IX Zusammenfassung .......................................................................................................... X Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... XI Nomenclature .............................................................................................................. XV List of Tables ................................................................................................................ XXI List of Figures ............................................................................................................. XXII 1
2
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 1.1
Motivation ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Objective of this thesis ................................................................................... 2
1.3
Structure ........................................................................................................ 3
State of Knowledge .............................................................................................. 5 2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5 3
Basics of oil and gas propagation in the ocean after a sub‐sea spill .............. 6 2.1.1
Propagation in the near‐ and far‐field ............................................ 6
2.1.2
Aspects of oil spill modeling ........................................................... 8
Important characteristics of oil and gas in a natural reservoir and in case of a subsea spill .................................................................................. 9 2.2.1
General………… ................................................................................ 9
2.2.2
Reservoir and blowout conditions at the MC252 spill .................. 12
Drop formation processes ........................................................................... 14 2.3.1
General………… .............................................................................. 14
2.3.2
Experimental investigations ......................................................... 17
2.3.3
Size distribution modeling ............................................................ 20
Experimental facilities for deep‐sea studies employing high‐pressure ....... 24 2.4.1
Bench‐top apparatuses ................................................................ 25
2.4.2
Pressure vessels for pressure‐proof testing ................................. 28
2.4.3
Multi‐purpose facilities................................................................. 29
Contribution to open research topics .......................................................... 32
Development of the High‐Pressure Test Center .................................................. 35 3.1
Requirements and design concept .............................................................. 35
3.2
Standardized Test Platform of the HPTC...................................................... 37 3.2.1
Pressure aggregates ..................................................................... 38
3.2.2
Hydraulic system .......................................................................... 41
3.2.3
Measurement and control systems .............................................. 42
XII
Table of Contents 3.3
3.4
4
3.3.1
Basic design…… ............................................................................. 44
3.3.2
Rise velocities of single particles – JM I ........................................ 45
3.3.3
Quasi‐isobaric oil and/or gas jets – JM II ...................................... 46
3.3.4
Multi‐phase jets, pressure drop ................................................... 48
3.3.5
Preparation of live oil ................................................................... 51
3.3.6
Image evaluation for droplet size distribution ............................. 52
Rising Path Module ...................................................................................... 53 3.4.1
General concept ........................................................................... 53
3.4.2
Structural design of the RPM ........................................................ 55
3.4.3
Flow conditioning elements ......................................................... 56
3.4.4
Size and position tracking ............................................................. 58
Experimental Determination of Oil Droplet Sizes in an Artificial Subsea Blowout ............................................................................................................. 61 4.1
Experimental Design .................................................................................... 61
4.2
Influence of dissolved gas ............................................................................ 65
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5
Jet Module ................................................................................................... 43
4.2.1
Experimental conditions & methods ............................................ 65
4.2.2
Results………….. ............................................................................. 66
Influence of pressure gradient ..................................................................... 72 4.3.1
Experimental conditions & methods ............................................ 72
4.3.2
Results………….. ............................................................................. 74
Approach for a TDR‐based drop size model ................................................ 84 4.4.1
Determination of the TDR of a live oil with phase‐change ........... 84
4.4.2
Dependency of droplet diameters on the TDR ............................. 86
4.4.3
Application of the TDR to the experimental results ..................... 86
Phenomenological investigations of pressure gradient and dispersant effectiveness .................................................................................... 90 4.5.1
Effect of large pressure gradients and gas‐to‐oil ratio ................. 90
4.5.2
Dispersant effectiveness .............................................................. 93
Implications for deep‐sea oil spills ............................................................... 96 4.6.1
Estimation of the median drop diameter ..................................... 96
4.6.2
Droplet size distribution function ................................................. 97
4.6.3
Subsea dispersant injection (SSDI) ............................................... 99
Summary and Outlook ..................................................................................... 101 5.1
Summary .................................................................................................... 101
5.2
Outlook ...................................................................................................... 103
Appendix ..................................................................................................................... 105
Table of Contents
XIII
A1
Physical Properties of the Test Fluids ........................................................ 105
A2
Quality and safety issues of the pressure lab “DL 2” identified and resolved in context of this thesis ................................................... 106
A3
Hydraulic system of the High‐Pressure Test Center .................................. 110
A4
Measurement equipment of the HPTC ...................................................... 113
A5
Droplet Size Distribution Raw Data ............................................................ 114
References................................................................................................................... 115
Nomenclature Latin symbols Symbol °API
SI unit
A, B
‐
empirical coefficient in the We*‐scaling model
b
m
half‐width of a jet
cCH4
g/l
concentration of dissolved CH4 (in a liquid)
Δc p , p
Description API density
concentration difference between two pressures p1, p2
C1
‐
prefactor to determine the max. TDR in a free jet [Zha14]
𝐶 β
‐
coefficient to account for compressibility β in calculation of the TDR
Cd
‐
coefficient in determination of the TDR in a jet
Cinertial, Cviscous
‐
proportionality factors according to [Box12]
d1,0
m
Arithmetic mean diameter
d32
m
Sauter mean diameter
di
m
Characteristic diameter
dmin
m
Minimum diameter (in a distribution)
dmax
m
Maximum diameter (in a distribution)
dn50
m
median diameter of the number distribution
dp,i
m
diameter of (individual) particle i
dpeak
m
peak diameter of a distribution, mode
dv50
m
median diameter of the volume distribution
D, D0
m
nozzle / discharge diameter
erf x
‐
Gaussian error function
exp x
‐
exponential function
K1, K2
‐
coefficients in modeling the dv50 with the TDR
Kb, Kc
‐
coefficients in breakup and coalescence rate in VDROP‐J
ld
m
Kolmogorov length
L
m
impeller diameter; characteristic length
M N
g/mol ‐1
min
molar mass of CH4 impeller speed
XVI
Nomenclature Oh
‐
Ohnesorge number
p
bar
pressure
p a
bar
ambient (seawater) pressure
pc
bar
pressure of the continuous phase
ppipe
bar
pipe pressure
preservoir, pres
bar
(oil) reservoir pressure
Δp
bar
pressure difference
p, q, r
‐
Q
L/min; m³/s
r
‐
fraction of the smaller mode in a bi‐modal size distriution
R2
‐
coefficient of determination
Re
‐
Reynolds number
Rec
‐
Reynolds number of the continuous phase
tbr
s
breakup time
toutgassing
s
time frame of outgassing to take place after discharge
T
°C
temperature
Tbr
‐
dimensionless breakup time
ucl
m/s
centerline velocity of a jet
ud
m/s
discharge velocity of the dispersed phase (in a jet)
Vi
‐
viscosity number
ViN
‐
impeller viscosity number
We
‐
Weber number
Wec
‐
Weber number of the continuous phase
WeN
‐
impeller Weber number
z
m
vertical distance from the exit point in a jet
Z
‐
denotion of Ohnesorge no. in [Ohn36]
empirical coefficients in the Unified Droplet Size Model (liquid) volume flow
Greek symbols Symbol α
SI unit ‐
β
bar‐1; psi‐1
ε
m²/s³
Description spreading factor of a two‐factor Rosin‐Rammler distribution compressibility of a liquid turbulent energy dissipation rate (TDR)
Nomenclature ε
XVII m²/s³
max. TDR in a single‐phase buoyant jet
ε
m²/s³
max. TDR in a “live oil” jet
ε
m²/s³
TDR caused by outgassing of methane
ε
m²/s³
total TDR of a “live oil” jet with pressure drop
η
Pa ∙ s
(dynamic) viscosity of the continuous phase
η
Pa ∙ s
(dynamic) viscosity of the dispersed phase
ρ
kg/m³; g/L
density of the continuous phase
ρ
kg/m³; g/L
density of the dispersed phase
σ
‐
σ
,
mN/m; N/m
spreading factor of a log‐normal distribution interfacial tension between oil and water phase
Unit conversions U.S. customary to SI / metric system U.S. cus‐ description and tomary unit conditions temperature °F degree Fahrenheit
corresponding metric / SI unit
unit conversion
°C
°C °F
pressure atm psi
atmosphere pounds per square inch volume and volume flow ft³ or cf cubic feet bbl (U.S.) barrel petroleum (U.S.) scf standard cubic feet (at 1.013 bar / 60°F=15.6°C) bpd barrel petroleum (U.S) per day length in. or “ inch ft. or ‘ feet (1 ft. = 12 in.) mile U.S. statute mile
Pa; bar Pa; bar
L; m³ L; m³ Nm³
°F 1.8 1.8 ∙ °C
32
32
1 atm = 1013 hPa = 1.013 bar 1 psi = 0.00689 bar = 689 Pa 1 bar = 14.504 psi 1 cf = 0.028316 m³ = 28.316 L 1 bbl = 158.987 L = 0.159 m³ 1 m³ = 6.290 bbl 1 scf ≈ 0.0283 Nm³ (at 1.013 bar / 0°C; for ideal gases)
L/h; m³/s
1 bpd = 158.987 L/d = 6.62 L/h = 1.840 ∙ 10‐6 m³/s
m; mm m m
1 in. = 1” = 0.0254 m = 25.4 mm 1 ft. = 1’ = 0.3048 m = 304.8 mm 1 mile = 1609.34722 m
XVIII
Nomenclature
Abbreviations API
American Petroleum Institute
BOP
Blowout Preventer
BP
British Petroleum
BSD
bubble size distribution
Cx
hydrocarbon with x C atoms
CH4
methane
C10H22
n‐decane
C‐IMAGE
Center for Integrated Modeling and Analysis of Gulf Ecosystems
CDF
cumulative distribution function
CFD
computational fluid dynamics
DL1
Drucklabor 1 (pressure lab 1)
DL2
Drucklabor 2 (pressure lab 2)
DOR
(volumetric) dispersant‐to‐oil ratio
DSD
droplet size distribution
DWH
Deepwater Horizon
EVC
equal‐volume cylinder
fps
frames per second (unit of image frequency)
GHASTLI
Gas Hydrate And Sediment Test Laboratory Instrument
GoMRI
Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative
GOR
(volumetric) gas‐to‐oil ratio
HBM
Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik
HPTC
High Pressure Test Center
HTWF
High‐pressure Water Tunnel Facility
IMS
Institute of Multiphase Flows, Hamburg, Germany
IFT
interfacial tension
JM
Jet Module
LSC
Louisiana Sweet Crude (type of crude oil)
MC 252
prospect well no. 252 in the Macondo oil field
NESSI
Natural Environment Simulator for Subseafloor Interactions
PAH
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PDF
probability density function
PIV
particle image velocimetry
Nomenclature
XIX
PKT
Institute of Product Development and Mechanical Engineering Design, Hamburg, Germany
PMMA
Poly(methyl methacrylate); acrylic glass
PSD
particle size distribution
ROV
remotely operated vehicle
RPM
Rising Path Module
RQ
research question
SPC
stored program control
SPS
Seafloor Process Simulator
SwRI
Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, USA
TDR
turbulent dissipation rate
TKE
turbulent kinetic energy
TUHH
Hamburg University of Technology, Germany
USD
United States dollar
WHOI
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
List of Tables Table 2.1: Pressure and temperature of the hydrocarbon fluid discharged from MC252 at different depths (image not to scale) [Gri12, Gro16, Old12] ......................................... 13 Table 2.2: Different definitions of the atomization border ...................................................... 16 Table 2.3: Overview of experimental investigations of oil droplet size distributions in the context of oil spill research ............................................................................................ 18 Table 2.4: Overview of the abilities of different modeling approaches for drop size predictions in deep‐sea oil spills ..................................................................................... 24 Table 2.5: Overview of laboratory facilities for ex‐situ deep‐sea research .............................. 25 Table 3.1: Key features of pressure aggregates of the HPTC .................................................... 38 Table 4.1: Overview of conducted experiments – main features, research objectives and corresponding chapter ................................................................................................... 64 Table 4.2: Experimental sets and conditions for quasi‐isobaric jets (sets 1.1 to 2.2) ............... 65 Table 4.3: Results of experiments 1.1 to 2.2: Reynolds no. and Weber no.; median diameters of number (dn50) and volume distribution (dv50); minimum (dmin) and maximum (dmax) diameters. ...................................................................................................................... 66 Table 4.4: Experimental sets and conditions for jets with pressure gradient between oil reservoir and seawater (sets 3 to 5) ............................................................................... 73 Table 4.5: Characteristic diameters, Reynolds and Weber no. of sets 3 to 5. The median diameter dn50 of the live oil configurations is set in brackets as those sets showed a bi‐ modal size distribution ................................................................................................... 75 Table 4.6: Parameters of the analytical distribution functions of number of the live oil configurations according to eq. (4.4) ............................................................................. 78 Table 4.7: Experimental conditions of set 6; jets of pressurized live and dead LSC oil at atmospheric seawater pressure ..................................................................................... 91 Table 4.8: Experimental conditions used in investigation of SSDI effectiveness. Experiments were performed at atmospheric pressure. .................................................................... 94 Table 0.1: Density of the test fluids ........................................................................................ 105 Table 0.2: Dynamic viscosity of the test fluids ....................................................................... 105 Table 0.3: Oil‐water interfacial tension of the test fluids ....................................................... 105 Table 0.4: Saturation concentration of methane in LSC oil at different pressures and 20°C . 105 Table 0.5: Saturation concentration of methane in n‐decane at different pressures and 20°C105 Table 0.6: list of droplet size distribution data available via GRIIDC ...................................... 114
List of Figures Figure 1.1: Spatial extent of research aspects addressed in this thesis (art work adapted from [Pes20]) .................................................................................................................... 3 Figure 2.1: Spatial extent of topics handled in sections 2.1‐2.3 ................................................. 5 Figure 2.2: Schematic of a stratification‐dominated multi‐phase plume of oil, gas and water after [Soc08] ..................................................................................................................... 8 Figure 2.3: Typical phase diagram of a reservoir fluid after [Ahm10]. C denotes the critical point. .............................................................................................................................. 11 Figure 2.4: Drop formation of LSC oil injected into artificial seawater at 150 bar hydrostatic pressure in the breakup regimes 0 to III according to OHNESORGE [Ohn36] (left to right). Images recorded within the Jet Module (see section 3.2.3) [Mal20] ............................. 15 Figure 2.5: (a) flow scheme of NESSI; (b) cross‐section view of reactor [Deu12] ..................... 26 Figure 2.6: Schematic of the high‐pressure partitioning device at the University of Calgary [Jag17] ............................................................................................................................ 28 Figure 2.7: Pressure vessel at the University of Hawai’i [Mas01] ............................................. 30 Figure 2.8: General design of the pressure lab DL2 (image not to scale) ................................. 31 Figure 2.9: Hydraulic diagram (simplified) of the pressure lab DL2 based on [Gus03] ............ 32 Figure 3.1: The High‐Pressure Test Center at the lab of the Institute for Product Development and Mechanical Engineering Design (PKT): standardized lab platform and one the modular test setups (Jet Module) .............................................................. 37 Figure 3.2: Autoclave DL2 with opened quick fasteners and lid suspended from a crane ....... 39 Figure 3.3: Autoclave DL1 before the refit. Left: assembled; right: bottom with partly assembled experimental setup ...................................................................................... 40 Figure 3.4: Simplified layout of the hydraulic system of the HPTC ........................................... 41 Figure 3.5: Central control interface of the High‐Pressure Test Center; image to the right of the screen shows a live feed from within the autoclave ................................................ 42 Figure 3.6: Three stages of the Jet Module .............................................................................. 44 Figure 3.7: Basic design of the Jet Module ............................................................................... 45 Figure 3.8: Determination of bubble / drop rise velocities using the Jet Module I.. ................ 46 Figure 3.9: Schematic of the closed‐loop fluid transfer for generation of quasi‐isobaric jets.. 47 Figure 3.10: Determination of particle size distributions with the Jet Module II. .................... 48 Figure 3.11: Configuration JM III.1 of the Jet Module for small pressure differences .............. 49 Figure 3.12: Configuration JM III.2 of the Jet Module for large pressure gradients between oil reservoir and seawater ................................................................................................... 50
List of Figures
XXIII
Figure 3.13: Experimental setup JM III.3 for the investigation of multi‐phase jets at atmospheric pressure. .................................................................................................... 51 Figure 3.14: Raw image (left) and details from two different editions (middle) used for manual image analysis of experiment 4.2c (live n‐decane). Right: identified drops marked with yellow circles.. ........................................................................................... 53 Figure 3.15: Average velocity profiles in a laminar flow:.......................................................... 54 Figure 3.16: General design (left) and CAD model (right) of the Rising Path Module .............. 56 Figure 3.17: Setup for PIV measurements inside the DL0 ........................................................ 57 Figure 3.18: Dimensions of the flow conditioning elements .................................................... 57 Figure 3.19: PIV measurements of the radial velocity profiles 40 mm downstream of the flow conditioning elements at varied volume flow rates of the circulation pump. ............... 58 Figure 3.20: Size and position evaluation of a particle using two cameras at right angle by calculation of true position from two projected images. ............................................... 59 Figure 3.21: Preview image of the RPM’s particle tracking system. The red circle shows the oil droplet as identified by the software. ....................................................................... 59 Figure 4.1: Jet flow regimes of experimental sets 1.1 to 5.2. ................................................... 63 Figure 4.2: Comparison of experimental data, best‐fit log‐normal (spreading factor σ = 0.45) and best‐fit Rosin‐Rammler (spreading factor α = 2.5) distribution function of number for experiment 1.2a ........................................................................................................ 67 Figure 4.3: Cumulative droplet size distribution of number (redrawn after [Mal18]) ............. 67 Figure 4.4: Mapping of the spreading factor sigma versus the Reynolds no. (left), Weber no. (middle) and Ohnesorge no. (right). Dashed lines are provided to guide the eye ......... 68 Figure 4.5: Comparison of the experimental data of BRANDVIK ET AL. (graph based on [Bra13] for a 0.5 mm nozzle and volume flow of 0.5 L/min, grey bars) with a Rosin‐Rammler distribution function with 𝛼 1.8 and dv50 dpeak/1.2 68.02 (red line) as suggested by [Joh13] and a fitted log‐normal distribution with 𝜎 0.74 and dv50 71 (blue line) .................................................................................................... 69 Figure 4.6: Comparison of measured dv50 and dv50 predicted by the droplet size models of Li et al. and Johansen et al. for experimental sets 1 and 2. ............................................... 70 Figure 4.7: Determination of the volumetric bi‐modal distribution function from the numerical best‐fit (example: experiment 3.2a) .............................................................. 74 Figure 4.8: Mapping of spreading factors of the numerical size distributions of the dead oil configurations versus the Weber no. ............................................................................. 76 Figure 4.9: Comparison of measured dv50 and dv50 predicted by the droplet size model of [Joh13] for the dead oil sets 1.1 to 4.1. .......................................................................... 76 Figure 4.10: Formation of methane bubbles during the discharge of oversaturated live n‐ decane into seawater in experiment 4.2c ...................................................................... 77
XXIV
List of Figures
Figure 4.11: Methane bubble (blue arrow) formed during the discharge of oversaturated live LSC oil in experiment 3.2b .............................................................................................. 78 Figure 4.12: Possible effects of oversaturation and outgassing on the drop formation and drop size distribution after a rapid pressure drop (not to scale).................................... 80 Figure 4.13: Effect of measurement range limits on probability density function of number and volume of experiment 4.2a ..................................................................................... 81 Figure 4.14: Comparison of three characteristic diameters of the “live oil” sets to the predicted dv50 of the We*‐scaling model: empirical median diameter, dv50 of the small and large mode of the analytical bi‐modal distribution ................................................. 82 Figure 4.15: Mapping of the median diameters of all experimental sets via the modified Weber no. We* according to eq. (2.14) ......................................................................... 82 Figure 4.16: Mapping of the experimentally obtained spreading factors σn to the median diameter dv50. The dashed line indicates the best‐fit of the data to a logarithmic correlation ...................................................................................................................... 83 Figure 4.17: Mapping of the spreading factors α of the Rosin‐Rammler distribution to the dv50 as obtained in the experiments of LI ET AL. [Li18]. .................................................... 84 Figure 4.18: Mapping of the experimental results of the dv50 versus the maximum TDR according to eq. (2.22). .................................................................................................. 87 Figure 4.19: Comparison of the measured d32 and d10 of the dead oil sets 1.1, 2.1, 3.1 and 4.1 to PESCH’s model estimation [Pes20] of the d32 according to eq. (4.17) ......................... 88 Figure 4.20: Proportionality diagram of the characteristic diameters dv50 and d32 in comparison to the arithmetic mean d10 as obtained by the dead oil experiments 1.1, 2.1, 3.1 and 4.1 ............................................................................................................... 88 Figure 4.21: Mapping of the experimentally derived normalized dv50 vs. the jet’s total TDR incl. the effects of dissolved methane and pressure gradient. ...................................... 90 Figure 4.22: Comparison of dead (left, experiment 6.1a) and live LSC jet (right, experiment 6.2b) entering into seawater at atmospheric pressure from an oil reservoir pressure of 50 bar. ............................................................................................................................ 92 Figure 4.23: Oil‐in‐water emulsion inside the Jet Module 24h after conclusion of the experiment with live LSC (experiment 6.2b) at atmospheric pressure and 50 bar oil reservoir pressure .......................................................................................................... 93 Figure 4.24: Influence of dispersant injection on dead LSC. .................................................... 94 Figure 4.25: Influence of dispersant injection on live LSC.. ...................................................... 95 Figure 4.26: Oil‐in‐water emulsions formed after experiments 7.2a (left, no dispersants) and 7.2 (right, DOR 1:25). ...................................................................................................... 96 Figure 4.27: Influence of different distribution function on volume fraction of sub‐millimeter droplets for the same median diameter dv50 = 3.8 mm. ................................................. 98
1 Introduction It is often that a catastrophe acts as a trigger for new understanding, research and devel‐ opment. The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 is an excellent exam‐ ple for this. It devastated hundreds of miles of coastline, square kilometers of salt marshes, covered the seafloor with several millimeters of oily sediments and killed 11 people and a great number of animals. The spill’s unprecedented conditions and extent revealed the prevalent knowledge gaps about the deep sea, its influence on the propagation, evolution and effect of such a spill on the ecosystem, which in several aspects behaved differently than expected from prior knowledge. In this situation, the establishment of the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI) produced a large innovative and interdisciplinary community of scientists that pushed the frontier of knowledge a far way in a relatively short time.
1.1
Motivation
On April 20, 2010, the oil exploration platform Deepwater Horizon (DWH) in the northern Gulf of Mexico lost control of the oil well during cement works on the prospect well MC 252 in the Macondo Oil Field. Oil and gas entered into the drilling rig and rose to the platform, where the gas ignited and caused several explosions on the platform. The Deepwater Hori‐ zon sank two days later. In the following 86 days, oil and gas flowed freely from the broken riser pipe and the top of the Blowout Preventer (BOP), which should have sealed the well. Until the well was finally shut off on July 15, approx. 780 million liters of crude oil and 170,000 tons of natural gas spilled into the Gulf of Mexico in a depth of approx. 1500 m [Red12, McN12]. Apart from being one of the largest oil spills in history with regard to the amount of oil spilled [Adc10], this incident was the first major oil spill happening in the deep sea and not at the sea surface or in shallow waters. Though several studies had tried to assess the oil behavior and effects of such a deep‐sea oil spill since the 1990s, including a field study off the Norwegian coast in 2000 [Joh00], available models were not able to correctly predict the oil propagation and effects. For example, less oil than expected actually reached the coast lines along the Gulf, but on the other hand far more oil than expected showed up in the sedimentary layers in the deep‐sea and there affected ground‐living fish and other marine animals. In addition, applied mitigation measures like the subsea usage of chemical disper‐ sants had not previously been assessed for deep‐sea conditions, thus turning the disaster site in a giant field experiment. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Malone, Experimental Investigation of Deep-Sea Oil Spills in a High-Pressure Laboratory Environment, Produktentwicklung und Konstruktionstechnik 23, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25545-8_1
2
Introduction
To assess the damage of the spill on the environment and enhance the preparedness for a possible future deep‐sea spill, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI) was estab‐ lished as an independent research foundation. 500 million USD were given to the founda‐ tion by British Petroleum (BP) as part of the compensation efforts. The mission of the foun‐ dation is “to improve society’s ability to understand, respond to and mitigate the impacts of petroleum pollution and related stressors of the marine and coastal ecosystems” [Gul13]. The Center for Integrated Modeling and Analysis of Gulf Ecosystems (C‐IMAGE) is one of the research consortia funded by the GoMRI. In this consortium, more than 180 scientists from 17 international institutions and a multitude of scientific disciplines studied ecosystem im‐ pacts of the MC 252 spill in the field (e.g. in terms of PAH concentrations in the water col‐ umn and the sediment, influences on the microbial communities and fish population) as well as performing laboratory based research on crude oil toxicology in local fish, biodegra‐ dation and oil and gas hydrodynamics in the deep sea. Based on these inputs, ecosystem models of oil propagation and spill effects are developed and refined. Hamburg University of Technology participated in this consortium from 2012 to 2020. For an efficient mitigation and restoration strategy after an oil spill in the (deep) ocean, detailed knowledge on the distribution, propagation and condition of the spilled oil is essen‐ tial. Herein, the hydrodynamic behavior of the spilled oil and gas is of great importance. To be able to forecast these in the event of or in preparation for a future spill in the deep‐sea, the influence of the extreme environmental conditions in the deep‐sea needs to be better understood.
1.2
Objective of this thesis
This thesis originated in the surrounding of the C‐IMAGE research consortium. It aims for better understanding of the influences of environmental deep‐sea conditions and other blowout characteristics on the hydrodynamic behavior of oil and gas in the near‐field of the outlet in the deep ocean by means of experimental investigations in a laboratory environ‐ ment. For this purpose, a high‐pressure test facility should be redesigned to work as a common test platform. A family of experimental modules should be developed to address different aspects of aforesaid deep‐sea influences on a sub‐sea oil blowout. These investigations consider a)
The rising behavior of single gas bubbles and oil droplets at discrete depths and tem‐ peratures
b)
Particle size distributions (PSD) and drop formation processes in a subsea oil‐and‐gas jet
c)
Long term evolution of single hydrocarbon particles, consisting of both oil and gas, rising through the water column.
The spatial extent of these investigations in the water column of the ocean is depicted in Figure 1.1. For each aspect, an experimental module should be developed and implemented
Introduction
3
as part of this thesis. In addition, the investigation of the particle size distributions and drop formation processes has been performed in depth. The investigations a) and c) mentioned above are performed by other researchers within the C‐IMAGE consortium, but at least partly utilize the experimental facilities designed within this thesis.
Figure 1.1: Spatial extent of research aspects addressed in this thesis (art work adapted from [Pes20])
1.3
Structure
This thesis consists of two major aspects: Firstly, the engineering design and development of an experimental platform and specialized experimental modules for the investigation of deep‐sea oil spills under high pressure. Secondly, the deployment of the platform and one of those modules to investigate drop formation processes in a deep‐sea oil and gas jet. This division is mirrored in the structure of this work, which is subdivided into five chapters. Chapter 1 gives the background and motivation of the research and introduces the main research objectives. Chapter 2 handles the state‐of‐the‐art for both the technological and the experimental aspects of the study. The development of the experimental platform and its modules is described in Chapter 3 while Chapter 4 handles the experimental investiga‐ tions on drop formation processes themselves. Chapter 5 finally presents a summary and outlook.
2 State of Knowledge This chapter presents the state of knowledge for both the technological and the experi‐ mental aspects of this thesis. In section 2.1, the propagation of oil in the ocean after an oil well blowout is discussed on a macroscopic scale and an introduction to different aspects of oil spill modeling is given. In section 2.2, oil reservoir characteristics and physico‐chemical properties of hydrocarbons are presented with regard to their importance for oil propagation. In addition, the specific conditions of oil reservoir, blowout conditions and seawater environment present during the MC252 Blowout are discussed. Section 2.3 presents the state‐of‐the‐art knowledge of drop formation processes in an oil jet entering into seawater. The spatial allocation of these topics is shown in Figure 2.1. The available technologies and facilities for laboratory investigations under deep‐sea condi‐ tions are reviewed in section 2.4. Finally, section 2.5 discusses how this thesis contributes to the open research questions in the aforementioned fields.
Figure 2.1: Spatial extent of topics handled in sections 2.1‐2.3
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 K. Malone, Experimental Investigation of Deep-Sea Oil Spills in a High-Pressure Laboratory Environment, Produktentwicklung und Konstruktionstechnik 23, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25545-8_2
6
State of Knowledge
2.1 Basics of oil and gas propagation in the ocean after a sub‐sea spill The processes of oil and gas propagation after a sub‐sea spill span several orders of magni‐ tude both spatial and temporal: From the formation of gas bubbles and droplets at the discharge point, which takes place within a few seconds and meters, to the long‐term dilu‐ tion, dissolution, biodegradation and sedimentation of oil droplets, which may span over several months and hundreds of miles. In case of a sub‐sea spill from an oil well like the MC252 blowout, a mixture of long‐chained and short‐chained hydrocarbons in the form of liquid oil and gas enters into the ocean from the discharge point. At this point, a momentum‐driven jet is formed where the continuous flow of oil and gas is disintegrated to individual drops and bubbles which are surrounded by entrained seawater. This process of jet formation is described in detail in section 2.3. This first momentum‐driven stage is followed by a transition of the jet to a buoyancy‐driven plume in the so‐called near‐field of the spill, where oil and gas is transported mainly verti‐ cally, but also starts to spread out vertically. This large‐scale, long‐term propagation of the diluted oil in the far‐field of the spill is then influenced further by ocean currents. In the following, the macroscopic processes of hydrocarbon propagation in the plume and the far‐ field are discussed. 2.1.1
Propagation in the near‐ and far‐field
After the momentum‐driven jet formation at the discharge point, the propagation of oil and gas in the near‐field of the spill in the ocean is basically governed by the buoyancy of drops and bubbles, their dissolution into the seawater and the surrounding seawater characteris‐ tics and currents [Soc08]. While the effect of the horizontal ocean currents is quite straight‐ forward on a macroscopic scale – the faster the current, the larger the lateral displacement of the oil drops and gas bubbles in the direction of the current –, the hydrocarbons’ buoyan‐ cy and the seawater stratification have more complex effects. The vertical motion of individual drops and bubbles in another (stagnant) liquid or gas is mainly governed by the difference between buoyancy force (which depends on the density gradient between rising particle and continuous aqueous phase) and the opposing friction force or drag. The drag of a bubble or drop is determined by its size and shape as well as its viscosity and surface conditions1. In general it can be said that the smaller the dispersed particle, the larger its drag is relative to its buoyancy and the lower is its terminal rise veloci‐ ty (in comparison to a larger particle with otherwise unchanged characteristics) [Räb10]. This also implies that a sufficiently small particle might become neutrally buoyant if its drag 1
There exist many studies and knowledge regarding the precise influencing factors and nature of bubble and drop rise (e.g [Cli78, Räb10]). As this work focuses rather on the formation of oil drops than on their propagation and motion in the ocean, the exact rise behavior is not discussed here in detail, but only in so far it is necessary to understand the macroscopic processes and the motivation and importance of the focus subjects.
State of Knowledge
7
equals its buoyancy, even though its density is lower than that of the surrounding continu‐ ous phase. For a multi‐phase plume of oil and gas, swarm effects have to be taken into account as well. The macroscopic effects of these swarm effects are schematically depicted in Figure 2.2, based on [Soc08]: As oil and gas rise from the discharge point, their turbulence entrains large amounts of surrounding seawater (1). Due to temperature, pressure and salinity gra‐ dients in the water column, the seawater entrained in the depth has a higher density than the water in shallower regions, which eventually leads to a negative buoyancy of the en‐ trained seawater as it rises with the plume. At this point (termed “peel height”), the dense water will peel from the rising multi‐phase plume and induce a toroidal downward flow surrounding the inner plume (2). Once this outer, downward flowing plume reaches neutral buoyancy in reference to the surrounding seawater, it becomes “trapped” and spreads out horizontally in an “intrusion layer” (3) [Soc08]. A fraction of the oil droplets and gas bubbles from the original inner plume will be entrained by this downward motion of the seawater and thereby (temporarily) end up in the intrusion layer, which may span a height of several hundred meters. Depending on their individual size and buoyancy, those bubbles and drops will remain in the intrusion layer for a timespan between minutes and weeks and can there‐ fore be transported horizontally downstream from the plume for less than 100 m (for drops with dp > 2 mm) up to more than 100 km (for drops with dp ld) and
d D
𝐶
∙ Re
/
in the viscous subregime (where dmax