Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations (SpringerBriefs in Psychology) 3030803309, 9783030803308

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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN PSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIORAL CRIMINOLOGY

Peter Charles Kratcoski Peter Christopher Kratcoski

Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations 123

SpringerBriefs in Psychology SpringerBriefs in Behavioral Criminology Series Editor Vincent B. Van Hasselt, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA

Behavioral Criminology is a multidisciplinary approach that draws on behavioral research for the application of behavioral theories and methods to assessment, prevention, and intervention efforts directed toward violent crime and criminal behavior. Disciplines relevant to this field are criminology; criminal justice (law enforcement and corrections); forensic, correctional, and clinical psychology and psychiatry: neuropsychology, neurobiology, conflict and dispute resolution; sociology, and epidemiology. Areas of study and application include, but are not limited to: specific crimes and perpetrators (e.g., homicide and sex crimes, crimes against children, child exploitation, domestic, school, and workplace violence), topics of current national and international interest and concern (e.g., terrorism and counter terrorism, cyber crime), and strategies geared toward evaluation, identification, and interdiction with regard to criminal acts (e.g., hostage negotiation, criminal investigative analysis, threat and risk assessment). The aim of the proposed Briefs is to provide practitioners and researchers with information, data, and current best practices on important and timely topics in Behavioral Criminology. Each Brief will include a review of relevant research in the area, original data, implications of findings, case illustrations (where relevant), and recommendations for directions that future efforts might take. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10143

Peter Charles Kratcoski Peter Christopher Kratcoski

Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations

Peter Charles Kratcoski Emeritus /Adjunct Professor Sociology Kent State University Kent, OH, USA

Peter Christopher Kratcoski Attorney Williams, Kratcoski & Can Law Firm/Adjunct Professor Sociology Kent State University Kent, OH, USA

ISSN 2192-8363          ISSN 2192-8371 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Psychology ISSN 2194-1866          ISSN 2194-1874 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Behavioral Criminology ISBN 978-3-030-80330-8    ISBN 978-3-030-80331-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

David McCullough, in The American Spirit (2017), cites examples of how specific experiences had an effect on the lives and direction of many of the prominent figures in American history. In one of his addresses to the graduation class of the University of Massachusetts, he emphases the fact that learning is a life-long experience and that knowledge can come from many difference sources. He states (2017, p.  57) “Nothing happens in isolation. We are all part of a larger stream of events, past, present, and future. We are the beneficiaries of those who went before us-who built the cathedrals, who braved the unknown, who gave of their time and service, and who kept faith in the possibilities of the mind and human spirit.” He goes on by saying not all experiences have a positive outcome, but even those in which the outcome is not positive help one to develop the fortitude, tools, and personal characteristics needed for life. David McCullough never specifically refers to the concept experiential learning in his writings, but his explanations appear to be in agreement with the definition of experiential learning by David Kolb (Cherry, 2020, p. 1), who defined it as, “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combinations of grasping and transforming the experiences.” In this book, the authors emphasize the fact that there are many sources from which knowledge can be gained, and the well- educated person is one who understands how the learning process works and is capable of integrating these various sources of knowledge. In this book, we draw extensively on our personal and work experiences, our formal education, and our teaching experiences. The senior author began to develop an interest in social work and criminality during the time when, as a member of the U.S.  Marine Corps, he served as a guard at the brig located in the Philadelphia Naval Yard. During this time, he learned about the operations of a secure facility and gathered some insights regarding the personal factors that contributed to the behavior of the persons incarcerated in the facility. After discharge, when he pursued a degree in sociology, he discovered that text material used for courses in juvenile delinquency, deviance, and criminology could be applied to his earlier experiences. Throughout his formal education, the courses that had the most influence on v

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Preface

preparing him for a position as a professor of sociology and criminal justice studies were those that had some experiential education component. Some of the most memorable experiences include touring juvenile correctional facilities and social work agencies as requirements for sociology courses. A requirement for a sociology of work course taught by Dr. Kirk Dansereau was to tour a U.S. Steel plant located near Pittsburgh. The class was given a detailed visual tour of the plant and had an opportunity to view the entire steel-making process from beginning to end. Also, the students had the opportunity to see the steel workers perform their jobs. Later in the afternoon, they interacted with several union leaders and were give a talk pertaining to labor relations. These experiences and many others in the formal education process, such as outside speakers, provided excellent opportunities to integrate formal classroom education with knowledge gained from personal experience or the experiences of others. During the course of their teaching careers and up to the present time, the authors tried to integrate experiential materials into the course work. Fortunately, they were assigned courses that allowed them to draw on their professional areas of expertise. Throughout his career, the senior author placed and supervised hundreds of student interns in justice and social service agencies with local, state, and federal agencies in the United States and in other countries. He also received many grants to hold workshops and field experience courses on justice-related topics. The input of professional practitioners invited to the classes to speak provided opportunities for the students to broaden their base of knowledge of the subject, as well as hear viewpoints that were  often different from those of the instructor. In his teaching, the second author, an attorney who teaches law related courses, had the opportunity to draw on his professional experiences to make the subject matter relevant and show the practical use of theoretical concepts. Another primary source of information for this book came from justice agency practitioners who shared their experiences with the authors, and offered explanations and insight into the understanding of the subject matter being considered. In addition, the information drawn from the numerous students who participated in one or several experiential learning programs was incorporated into portions of the book Our students who provided feedback and evaluations of various experiential education courses they completed that related to police work, law, corrections, and social work generally commented on the fact that these courses provided an opportunity to observe the agency in operation, use skills they had studied, and develop self-confidence, helping them make a decision on their career goals. The majority of the students became convinced that they had chosen the line of work that would help them realize their ambitions and that they wanted to pursue a career with a justice agency. However, the experiences of some of the students, while not negative, helped them make a decision that they should pursue a different field of study. This book is not designed to offer a theoretical statement on the superiority of experiential education over the more traditional formal classroom approach to learning. In fact, throughout the book, the authors emphasize the importance of integrating the two methods of instruction. In addition, the book is not a “how to do

Preface

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it” text. The book does provide sound reasons for using an experiential approach, and when such an approach is possible, presents numerous testimonies of students on the value of experiential education, and gives examples of programs in the justice field that are based on the experiential learning model. The authors wish to acknowledge the following students, professors, and practitioners who contributed to this book through their interviews: Bill Ackerman, Dr. Gary Cordner, Rebecca Cool, Arlune R. Culler, Emily N. Jankowski, Dr. Mustafa Ozguler, Roy J. Patton. Vester (Bo) Sullivan, and Scott Westerman. Our special thanks to Lucille Dunn Kratcoski for her editorial assistance. References Cherry, K. (2020). The experiential learning theory of David Kolb. https//www. verywellmind.com/experiential learning2795154? Retrieved 1/15/2021 McCullough, D. (2017). The American Spirit. New York: Simon and Schuster. Emeritus/Adjunct Professor Sociology Kent State University Kent, OH, USA Attorney Williams, Kratcoski & Can Law Firm/Adjunct Professor Sociology Kent State University Kent, OH, USA 

Peter Charles Kratcoski

Peter Christopher Kratcoski

Contents

1 Experiential Education in Justice����������������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 Experiential Learning: An Old Practice; New Methods of Application����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.2 Definitions: Experiential Learning and Experiential Education ������    3 1.3 Sources of Information (Knowledge) ����������������������������������������������    3 1.4 Experiential Learning Theory ����������������������������������������������������������    4 1.4.1 Application of Experiential Learning Theory to Justice Occupations����������������������������������������������������������    5 1.4.2 Academic-Justice Agency Collaboration������������������������������    6 1.5 Experiential Education: Speakers ����������������������������������������������������    8 1.6 Experiential Education Through Workshops, Seminars, and Symposiums ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   11 1.7 Experiential Learning Through Volunteer and Service Work ����������   13 1.8 Experiential Education Gained Through Community Service ��������   14 1.9 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15 2 Preparing for Experiential Learning ����������������������������������������������������   17 2.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   17 2.2 Internships and Co-ops ��������������������������������������������������������������������   18 2.3 Preparing for a Co-op or Internship��������������������������������������������������   20 2.3.1 Choosing the Appropriate Agency����������������������������������������   21 2.3.2 Role of Faculty Advisor for Co-ops and Internships������������   22 2.4 Student Preparation for Experiential Learning ��������������������������������   23 2.4.1 Initial Communications��������������������������������������������������������   23 2.4.2 The Resume��������������������������������������������������������������������������   24 2.4.3 The Interview������������������������������������������������������������������������   26 2.5 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   27 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   28

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3 Experiential Education in Policing and Security����������������������������������   29 3.1 Introduction: Testimonies ����������������������������������������������������������������   29 3.2 Origins of Police-Academic Collaboration in Education and Training��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   30 3.3 Relationship Between Police Academy Training and University Education������������������������������������������������������������������   31 3.4 Diversity in Police Work ������������������������������������������������������������������   37 3.5 Internships with Police Agencies������������������������������������������������������   41 3.5.1 Internships with Federal Policing and Investigative Agencies��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41 3.5.2 Experiential Education Opportunities Through Private Policing ��������������������������������������������������������������������   42 3.5.3 School Resource Officers������������������������������������������������������   44 3.5.4 Trends in Private Security and Investigative Agency Internship Opportunities������������������������������������������   46 3.6 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   48 4 Experiential Education in the Legal Field ��������������������������������������������   51 4.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   51 4.2 Paralegal Internships ������������������������������������������������������������������������   55 4.2.1 Tasks Completed Frequently as an Intern����������������������������   56 4.3 Learning Experiences Motivating Toward a Law-Related Career����   60 4.4 Field Trips and Seminars Relating to the Legal Aspects of the Justice System������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 4.4.1 Mock Trial����������������������������������������������������������������������������   63 4.4.2 Mock Court (Collegiate Level) ��������������������������������������������   64 4.5 Experiential Learning Programs for Law School Students��������������   65 4.6 Workshops����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   65 4.7 Volunteers and Interns Assigned to Specialty Courts ����������������������   66 4.8 Other Opportunities for Volunteers and Interns in the Legal Field������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67 4.9 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   68 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69 5 Experiential Education in Corrections��������������������������������������������������   71 5.1 Introduction: Interning in a Mexican Prison ������������������������������������   71 5.2 Professionals Employed in Corrections��������������������������������������������   73 5.3 Opportunities for Experiential Learning in Community Corrections����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   76 5.3.1 Placement of Co-op Students with Local Justice Agencies��������������������������������������������������������������������   76 5.4 Experiential Learning in Juvenile Justice ����������������������������������������   82 5.5 Learning Experiences Through Volunteer Work in Juvenile Justice ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   84 5.6 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   85 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86

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6 Experiential Learning in Victim and Social Service Agencies ������������   87 6.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   87 6.2 Scope of Victim Assistance Programs����������������������������������������������   90 6.2.1 Specialized Victim Service Agencies������������������������������������   91 6.2.2 Services for Elderly Victims ������������������������������������������������   91 6.3 Funding of Victim Service Agencies������������������������������������������������   92 6.4 Victim Assistance Provided by State and Federal Agencies ������������   98 6.5 Interns and Volunteers in Social Service Agencies ��������������������������   98 6.6 Participation of Volunteers and Interns in Human-Made Crisis Situations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 6.7 Volunteering and Interning with Public and Private Social Service Agencies��������������������������������������������������������������������  102 6.8 Volunteer Work of Self-Help Groups������������������������������������������������  103 6.9 Summary ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  103 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  104

About the Authors

Peter  Charles  Kratcoski  earned a PhD in sociology from Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania; a MA in sociology from the University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana; and a BA in sociology from King’s College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. He was selected for several postdoctoral grants by the National Science Foundation. He taught at the College of St. Thomas, St. Paul, Minnesota, and at the Pennsylvania State University before assuming the position of assistant professor of sociology at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio in 1969. He retired as professor of criminal justice studies and chair of the Department of Criminal Justice Studies at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, where he is currently a professor emeritus and adjunct professor. He has published many books, chapters in books, and journal articles in the areas of juvenile delinquency, juvenile justice, international policing, crime prevention, corrections, and victimology. His most recent writing and research have centered on juvenile delinquency, juvenile justice, collaborative policing, correctional counseling, financial crimes, corruption and fraud, and victimization of the elderly. His most recent book publication is Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Research, and the Juvenile Justice Process, 6th Edition ( Co-authored with Lucille Dunn Kratcoski and Peter Christopher Kratcoski), published by Springer in 2020. Peter Christopher Kratcoski  was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science from the Ohio State University and a Juris Doctorate from the Ohio State University College of Law. He is the managing partner at the law firm Williams, Kratcoski & Can where he has been practicing law since 1988. In addition to his law practice, he has taught as an adjunct professor at several colleges and universities for more than 30 years. He currently teaches as an adjunct professor in the paralegal program at Kent State University, teaching law-related courses. He has co-authored three books, the most recent being Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Research, and the Juvenile Justice Process, 6th edition, (Peter Charles Kratcoski, and Lucille Dunn Kratcoski, co-authors). published by Springer in 2020.

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Chapter 1

Experiential Education in Justice

1.1  E  xperiential Learning: An Old Practice; New Methods of Application In this chapter, we will demonstrate, through examples and testimony, how participation in experiential education during their formal education can be useful in helping those preparing for positions in the justice and social service fields of work. Experiential education programs designed for students interested in the criminal justice, law, and social work professions can take on many forms, including work, field trips, workshops, internships, and on-the-job training. The vast majority of higher education institutions have developed programs for justice study students to participate in some form of experiential learning. Some of these programs are designed to provide an experience for a group, such as a workshop devoted to police interviewing of suspects or a field trip to a prison, while others provide an individualized learning opportunity, such as an internship with a police agency, probation department, or victim service agency. The requirements for participants in these programs, as well as the expectations placed on the students, vary. Formal testing to measure outcomes is used by some directors of these programs, while others may require the student to write a paper on the experience. Student evaluations of the programs reveal some common areas such as, “the course helped me understand the job I want to work in,” “it gave me an opportunity to develop my skills and be more self-confident,” “it confirmed my desire to work in this occupation,” or “it confirmed that this is not the job for me.” The evaluations of the programs by students also tended to reveal that the experience is very personalized, even for those who had participated in a group event, such as a tour of a prison. The following statements of several students who had participated in different types of programs illustrate some of their personal feelings about the experience.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 P. C. Kratcoski, P. C. Kratcoski, Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5_1

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Box 1.1 Experiential Education Feedback Case 1 Statements of a law student interning with the Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia: “I’ve wanted to be a public defender since before starting law school, and interning at PDS has only confirmed the value of this work, both for me personally and for the nation more broadly. . . . “In addition to composing Compassionate Release motions and researching other COVID-19 related issues, I’ve had the pleasure of working with skilled, passionate lawyers on novel issues regarding race and police misconduct. I’ve been inspired by the activism and radical leadership I’ve seen in both my fellow interns and my supervising attorneys, despite the collective uncertainty and unrest we are all facing. I look forward to using the skills I’ve gained and honed at PDS to continue to fight for indigent clients for many years to come.” (GOV.SERV, 2021, p. 6) Case 2 A student interning with a juvenile court reported, “My first day of internship, I was told that I would be assigned to the intake department. A member of intake explained what they do and I was told to follow him around and observe what he was doing. After seeing all of the things the officer did during the day, interviewing juveniles who were scheduled for court hearing and their parents, interviewing kids who were being held in detention, going in front of the judge to provide some information on the cases that were to be heard that day, and reporting on the outcome of the hearings, I was not sure that I could handle it by myself. But after a few weeks, I felt confident that I could handle everything that I was supposed to do and I knew that I could rely on the regular intake workers for help if needed. Overall this was a very rewarding experience. I hope that after I graduate I can get a job working with a juvenile court.” Case 3 A supervisor’s evaluation of a student intern stated, “H…. worked as a probation officer and case manager. She completed over 256 h as an intern.. .. Her daily responsibilities included typing a chronological report for each youth she monitored, working diligently in our brick laying project and community garden, and assisting in teaching cognitive behavior interventions to youth who exhibit at risk behavior. She definitely exceeded our expectations and worked extremely hard to complete all tasks which were required. She was an excellent listener and was able to develop rapport with the youth in all programs.” Case 4 The evaluation of a student intern with a residential treatment facility for female substance abusers stated, “W…… professionalism is above expectations. She handles herself with class and is completely component in her duties.”

1.3  Sources of Information (Knowledge)

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1.2  D  efinitions: Experiential Learning and Experiential Education The difference between experiential education and experiential learning may not be readily apparent. The Association for Experiential Education (2014, p. 1) defines experiential education as “a philosophy and methodology in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills, and clarify values.” One definition of experiential learning is “engaged learning in which the learner experiences a visceral connection to the subject matter and combines direct, meaningful student experiences with guided reflection and analysis” (The Office of Experiential Education and Civic Engagement: Experiential Education Student Interest Form, p.  1). Eyler (2009, p. 1) notes, “Experiential education which takes students into the community helps students both to bridge classroom study and life in the world and to transform inert knowledge to knowledge-in-use. It rests on theories of experiential learning, a process whereby the learner interacts with the world and integrates new learning into old constructs.” From the day of their birth, every individual will receive new knowledge and be involved in new experiences. As an infant and during childhood, an individual’s experiences are predominately with caregivers, in terms of being provided with the essentials to sustain life and experience comfort and security. For the large majority of children, these early experiences of interaction with their caregivers are pleasant and rewarding. While the primary goal of the child is to have his or her needs satisfied, the child eventually learns that certain forms of behavior can bring about the desired response from the caregivers. Thus, the child is engaging in an experiential learning process. As the child grows older and interacts with others outside the primary group of parents and other family members, the child’s interaction with others generally becomes directed toward engaging in behavior that is perceived as leading to a positive outcome and avoiding behavior in which the outcome of such behavior is perceived as likely to lead to negative consequences. The close interaction with family and intimate others may provide children with sufficient learning experiences to prepare them for many new situations and experiences they will encounter once they leave the security of their primary groups, but others outside the primary groups will also provide information needed to prepare the person to cope new experiences.

1.3  Sources of Information (Knowledge) Kolb (1984) notes that obtaining knowledge on any subject matter is a continuous process. Just as the experiences of children broaden as they develop from infant, to child, to adolescent, and eventually to adult, their sources of knowledge also expand. As a child, the sources of information are predominately caregivers and family

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members. As the child leaves the home to attend school, teachers become a major source of information. The learning experiences received in school may help prepare them for the new experiences they will encounter in the community. As children develop some maturity, approach adolescence, and seek some degree of independence, they may rely on their peer groups for information on how to respond to new experiences they are encountering. In addition, the mass media, spiritual leaders, and figures in the world of entertainment may serve as major sources of information for adolescents and young adults. Some of the information received from any of the sources mentioned above might be completely erroneous or so general in content that it is not applicable to the person’s unique situation and is of no use. Regardless of the amount of information available on “how to get along in life,” people will become involved in new experiences for which they have not prepared a proper response. Such events as being a victim of crime, being injured in an auto accident, or being charged with a crime and arrested are examples of experiences for which the typical citizen has not prepared. These are situations in which the notion of experiential education becomes relevant, particularly for those students preparing for work in the broad fields of justice and social service occupations. For example, Kratcoski et al. (2016, p. 138) note, “A student can learn about the criminal justice system by being arrested, processed through the court, sentenced, and by being sent to prison. However, the same student can also learn about the criminal justice system by participating in a class in which students are given an opportunity to observe, or even participate in the criminal justice process, as well as having an opportunity to reflect on the processing of individuals through the system.”

1.4  Experiential Learning Theory David Kolb (1984), a pioneer in the development of a theory of experiential education, developed a model that illustrates the process by which knowledge is created through the transformation of concrete experiences into a cognitive understanding of the experience. Cherry (2020, p.  1) explains how Kolb’s experiential learning theory is different from cognitive theory, which emphasizes the importance of mental processes in the development of knowledge, and behavioral theories, which emphasize the importance of concrete experiences in the development of knowledge. He states that, “The experiential theory proposed by Kolb takes a more holistic approach and emphasizes how experiences, including cognition, environmental factors, and emotions, influence the learning process.” Starting with the premise that people can obtain knowledge (learn) by engaging in concrete experiences and through abstract conceptualization of matters not personally experienced, the Kolb experiential learning model provides an explanation of what factors might influence a person’s preference for a learning style. Some of the more important factors identified (Cherry, 2020, p. 5) include the following:

1.4  Experiential Learning Theory

• • • • •

5

Adaptive competencies Career choice Current job role Educational specialization Personality type

1.4.1  A  pplication of Experiential Learning Theory to Justice Occupations There are several ways a person interested in obtaining information on the criminal justice process and the roles of those who are employed in the various justice agencies can proceed The most basic is to read material pertaining to the subject and perhaps complete some research on the subject. Another way is to approach an agency and try to arrange an observational experience such as a tour of a prison or ride-along experience with a police department. Another way is to become an active participant in a justice agency by assuming a role in an agency. For example, professors teaching courses in criminal justice have assumed positions as police patrol officers in order to obtain a better understanding of the role of the police officer. In one case, a prison superintendent assumed the role of an inmate for the purpose of obtaining a better understanding of the actual operations of the prison and the relationships between the prison guards and the inmates. This type of in-depth knowledge could not be gained by reading the organizational manual of the prison or the specified descriptions of the jobs of the guards (See Kirkham, 1975; Murton & Hyams, 1969). Typically, the learning process for the large majority of students begins in a formal classroom setting. A student cannot be expected to understand the complexities of a justice agency, such as a police department, including its structure and process, without first having studied the basics in terms of definitions, concepts, and the operations. For example, a student having a desire to become a police officer generally is not aware of the complexities of police organizations, including the source of their power (local, state, or federal governments), their jurisdiction, mission, and the requirements for entering the profession. This is the type of information generally obtained in introduction courses taught in a formal classroom setting. While the student may receive information on the work ethics of police, sources of satisfaction, causes of frustration, social relationships with fellow officers, and other matters, it is not likely that a student operating only in a formal classroom setting will obtain the understanding of the subject matter and the ability to apply the knowledge leaned in the classroom to a concrete work situation or develop the work ethic and the skills to perform in the occupation. This is where experiential learning is required. This is not to say that a student who completes an internship with a police agency is now ready to assume a position as a police officer. Before a person is hired, that person must complete a long period of basic training and, to assume a

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more specialized position, a period of additional training. Such an experiential learning experience can lead to the realization of the goals of experiential learning as stated by Eyler (2009, p. 2) including: • A deeper understanding of the subject matter than is possible through classroom study alone • The capacity for critical thinking and application of knowledge in complex or ambiguous situations • The ability to engage in lifelong learning, including learning in the workplace

1.4.2  Academic-Justice Agency Collaboration To be effective, collaborative experiential learning programs between academic institutions and justice agencies require a great deal of planning and communication before they are implemented. The students participating in workshops, field trips, cooperative programs (either paid or unpaid), and internships must be aware of the expectations, goals, and requirements related to the program. The participating agencies should also be informed of these requirements. Often, the immediate rewards for the participating agencies are not readily apparent. For example, the decision of an administrator to allow a group of students to tour a maximum security correctional facility may require increasing security measures, taking some staff off of their regular duties to guide the group, and being prepared for reactions of the inmates housed in the facility. The administrator must weigh the costs and rewards and may decide to allow the tour to provide an opportunity for the students to broaden their knowledge base. If the instructor does not set forth some specific goals and requirements for the students who participate, the entire experience may be a huge waste of time for both the students and the host agency. Other experiential learning programs, such as internships and co-ops, tend to be more structured, with their goals specified and recorded in an internship application or manual. Kratcoski et al. (2016, p. 139), referencing Kolb’s experiential learning model, state, “Kolb’s experiential learning model begins with the person engaging in active experimentation. This requires participation in concrete experiences, reflective observation, and abstract conceptualization. The knowledge obtained is then used as the basis for more active experimentation. (This is necessary) for the learning experience to be fruitful, that is, for the learner to understand and retain the new knowledge.” As mentioned earlier in this chapter, there is a distinction between experiential learning and experiential education. Experiential learning implies that a person is constantly engaging in new learning experiences as they progress through the various stages of their lives. Some of these learning experiences may be purposeful, such as when a person volunteers with a social service agency to provide assistance to those in need. The individual may not be pursuing any personal goal but during the course of the activity will generally learn a better or more efficient way to

1.4  Experiential Learning Theory

7

provide the service or develop a better understanding of its importance. The exposure to the work as a volunteer might also lead to a desire to continue the work in a more professional capacity, that is, as an employee. On the other hand, experiential education implies obtaining knowledge by participation in a more structured situation. The goals and expectations for those who participate are specifically stated. These include the following: • • • •

The learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience. The learner must be able to reflect on the experience. The learner must process and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience. The learner must possess decision-making and problem-solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.

More individualized goals and expectations set by the student will correspond to the depth of the knowledge obtained. The general expectations of a student participating in experiential education will generally be more specific, depending on the type of program the student is involved in as well as the amount of time devoted to the experience. For example, a student enrolled in a cooperative program may be paid a stipend, and the amount of time devoted to the program is similar to that of a full-time employee. Some cooperative programs in criminal justice are designed to recruit new employees for the agencies. In these cases, a student successfully completing a cooperative program has a realistic chance of being hired by the agency where the cooperative was completed. Grub and Villeneuve (1995) cite several models that are followed by justice agencies. Kratcoski et al. (2016, p. 140) state, “One model specifies that students who have completed a required portion of their degree program alternate completing a semester attending classes with a semester in the co-op program. Generally, on graduation, assuming the student’s work has been satisfactory, the student is either offered a position with the agency or, if positions are not available, put on a waiting list.” Another co-op model consists of the student working in the program for part of a day and attending class for part of the day. Both of these models are designed to provide on-the-job experience, and the employer can expect the student, after being trained, to complete work similar to that completed by regular employees. Another model consists of completing the co-op during the summer months. This model has the advantage of allowing the student to complete the program at a location other than where the student is attending school. For example, the US Bureau of Prisons has placed co-op students in all of its institutions located throughout the United States. Students living in Pennsylvania or Ohio placed with the US National Park Service may work in a park in a western state, where the majority of the federal parks are located. The students enrolled in cooperative programs during the summer find it as the option that produces the least amount of interference with their progress toward completing their degrees. Students engaged in internships may have experiences similar to those of students enrolled in cooperative programs. In addition to receiving some on-the-job training and often being paid, McBride (2015, p. 8) notes, “Many students see the internship as a vehicle for job placement. There are many cases in which students obtained a job with their agency either

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during or immediately following their internship. In these cases, there was an opening, the student enjoyed the work, and the agency wanted to hire the student. In some cases, students were granted probationary status for civil service positions. While the intern experience may or may not lead to immediate employment with an agency, it provides valuable experience as well as insight into how one goes about procuring employment in a specific field of criminal justice.” There are many similarities between co-op programs and internship programs. In fact, some agencies do not make a distinction between the two. These similarities include the following: • Both require input from a member of the university personnel who establishes the communications with the participating agency, selects the students for placement, and serves as academic supervisor during the course of the student’s placement. • Both are likely to result in the students receiving some academic credit that can be used toward fulfilling the requirements for their degrees. • Both are likely to provide some on-the-job experience for the students and provide an opportunity to observe and participate in the operations of the agency. • Both are likely to provide an experience that will be helpful for students in making a decision on their choice of a career. • Both may provide a stipend and employment for the students completing an internship or cooperative. However, there are some differences that should be noted. First, the relationship between the agency, student, and the academic institution is not generally as structured for the placement of intern students as it is for the placement of students in cooperative programs. Criminal justice agencies accepting interns do not have the high levels of expectations of the intern as do those agencies that have developed a structured co-op program. For example, some agencies such as the police, because of the potential danger to the student, will limit the intern position to that of observation. Generally, interns are not viewed as being essential to the operations of the agency, and if the field supervisor is not satisfied with their performance, the students can be terminated. Although some interns are offered a position with the agency before or after they complete the internship, the expectations for employment with the agency are not as high as with a co-op program, in which the program is often structured to be a tool for screening of potential employees.

1.5  Experiential Education: Speakers Box 1.2 Inmates Attend Correctional Institution Class The students enrolled in a criminal justice course on correctional institutions were quite surprised when they saw four men dressed in prison uniforms and two other men whose attire indicated that they were correctional officers sitting in the front row of the classroom. The instructor had indicated in the (continued)

1.5  Experiential Education: Speakers

9

Box 1.2  (continued) previous meeting of the class that a speaker would be coming to discuss the topic “life in a correctional facility,” but the instructor did not inform them that inmates who were currently serving sentences at a state correctional facility would be the speakers. After several minutes of silence and mutually “sizing each other up,” the speakers and the class members engaged in a lively discussion pertaining to their lives in the correctional facility, previous experiences that may have contributed to their criminal behavior, and even some of the challenges they expected to face after they were released from the institution. The exchanges between the students and the inmates were respectful and even somewhat friendly. The correctional staff who accompanied the inmates did not contribute to the discussion, even when some of the comments were critical of the staff. After the class ended at noon, the instructor took the inmates and the two staff to one of the better restaurants in town for lunch. The group received a number of stares and was given questionable looks but was not bothered in any way. After, eating a hearty lunch, the instructor and the group said their good-byes, and the inmates and staff climbed into their van and were off back to the correctional facility. A lively discussion occurred during the next meeting of the class. There was follow-up of some of the information given by the inmates. Some students were skeptical about whether the inmates who attended the class were typical inmates of the facility. They also noted that the inmates were only giving the class their view and did not consider the problems and difficulties faced by the administration and staff of the institution. This opened the door for the instructor to build on the event by emphasizing the importance of study and research in attaining a more complete understanding of the topic.

According to Kratcoski et al. (2016, p. 145), “The use of guest speakers is the most widely used method for providing an experiential education experience for students enrolled in criminal justice courses. Invited speakers typically require the least amount of planning and preparation on the part of the instructor.” Typically, the speaker will make a presentation for one class, depending on the subject matter of the course. Speakers may include police officers, probation and parole officers, judges, victim assistance advocates, prison administrators, victims of crime, or criminal offenders. The speakers often use visual aids and may put on some type of demonstration, such as presenting the steps in a criminal investigation, demonstrating the use of a robot, and/or even bringing a dog used for detecting drugs or finding the bodies of missing persons. A portion of the class time is reserved for questions and discussion. Sometimes, the shock value of the speaker’s presentation is sufficient to encourage some students to pursue study of the subject matter in more depth. One such incident involved a victim of crime who was robbed, held captive, and blinded by her assailant before escaping. Seeing this victim, who needed the assistance of a help dog, and hearing her story were very emotional experiences for

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the students and certainly gave them an in-depth picture of a victim of crime. It should be noted that setting up the classroom meeting between students and inmates from a correctional facility described earlier involved considerable planning and input from high-level administrators. In addition, there was some cost involved, since a state vehicle was used to transport the inmates as well as compensation for the time of two officers who accompanied the inmates. Since the state involved adopted more punishment and security-orientated legislation, it is not likely that an instructor would have the opportunity to arrange such an experiential learning experience at the present time. As previously noted in this chapter, experiential education does not eliminate the need for formal classroom learning experience. However, experiences such as those presented above as well as workshops, field trips, and internships do provide opportunities for students to gain a better understanding of the subject matter, as well as possibly develop a greater interest in the topic. As with any form of education, the outcome of any form of instruction is predominately dependent on the receptiveness of the person receiving the instruction. In pursuing a course of study leading to a position in the justice field, law, and applied fields of study, it would be ideal for students to have several opportunities for experiential learning outside of the formal classroom setting. However, these opportunities are often limited due to a several factors. For example, an instructor teaching a course in juvenile justice might want to build in a requirement for a field trip to a juvenile court and juvenile detention facility but find that the size of the class is too large for the court to handle or the permission is not granted on the basis of preserving the privacy rights of the juveniles. Other factors include the expense of transporting the students to the sites or liability if a student has an accident while attending a school-related function. At times, the experience is not as rewarding as expected and leads to major disappointments. The author recalls a field trip to a maximum security correctional facility that was located a considerable distance from the university. On arriving at the institution, the students were informed that there was a serious disruption at the facility the previous night and the correctional facility was in a lockdown situation. In lieu of a tour, the students were ushered into one of the school’s classrooms and were given a short explanation by the heads of the various divisions (custody, education, social services) of the operations of the divisions. Although the information was informative, the students generally felt somewhat cheated, because they traveled several hours to have a tour and ended up with getting information that they could have received in the classroom. Sufficient planning is critical for the success of any experiential education project. When an invited speaker or a field trip to a justice agency is used, it is the instructor’s responsibility to cue in the students about what situations and matters they are likely to encounter or be told about and to attempt to integrate the new information they receive into their existing body of knowledge on the subject. A method to facilitate this process is to require the students to keep a journal of their personal experiences and indicate how the knowledge from the experiences supports or negates the knowledge gained from their formal classroom instruction on the subject. Also they should be prepared to write about unexpected experiences.

1.6  Experiential Education Through Workshops, Seminars, and Symposiums

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For instance, the author recalls a small group of students being guided through the cell blocks of a large city jail. As they approached a cell, the correctional officer would explain to the person locked in the cell that we were a group of college students planning to work in criminal justice occupations and asked if they were willing to answer any questions we might have. The group came to one cell, and although it was late morning, the person was still in his bunk. The officer tried to gain his attention and, seeing that he did not stir, decided to open the cell door and try to awake him. It turned out that the man was not asleep but dead. The group was told to quickly move on to the next cell block. One of the assignments the instructor gives for students participating in an experiential learning program is to contrast the information gained regarding the operations of the criminal justice system learned in the formal classroom and from textbooks with the information they have learned from their experiential learning program. The experience cited above and many others that students encounter may lead them to understand justice system agency personnel, despite their extensive training and experience, may be called upon to respond to situations for which they are not prepared. For example, while police work is often routine, there is always a chance that the officers will encounter a situation that they have never responded to before and was not covered in the training courses. The observant student realizes that the criminal justice system is a dynamic system, constantly changing, and that those who are practitioners in the system must continuously learn to adapt to these changes to be effective in the performance of their duties.

1.6  E  xperiential Education Through Workshops, Seminars, and Symposiums A workshop may be defined as, “a group of people who meet regularly for a seminar in a specialized field.” It generally consists of a small group, and they focus on the application of skills to matters relevant to the field of study. Webster’s II New College Dictionary (2004, p. 1272) defines a seminar as, “A small group of advanced college or graduate students engaged in special study or original research under the guidance of a professor. A symposium (Webster’s II New College Dictionary, p. 1004) is defined as, “A meeting or conference for the discussion of some topic.” Distinct opportunities for experiential learning include the following: • Workshops, seminars, and symposiums generally are offered over an extended period of time (several days and even during an entire week). The participants in the workshops and symposiums are expected to devote their entire time to the learning experience. If the programs are offered through the university, they are often given in between semesters or during the summer sessions, times when the participants typically will not be attending other classes and will be expected to give their undivided attention to the sessions. At times, professional organizations will offer a workshop a few days before the start of a conference.

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• Workshops, seminars, and symposiums generally are structured in such a way to provide several types of learning experiences. A portion of the workshop may consist of formal lecturing focusing on the basics of the material and another portion consisting of talks by speakers who are knowledgeable on the subject matter; another portion might consist of the participants reporting on their research on the topic or reflecting on their learning experiences relating to the topic. • Workshops and symposiums often include tours of criminal justice agencies, if the time and resources are available. • Students enrolled in workshops, seminars, or symposiums will generally receive some academic credit if they complete the requirements and assignments pertaining to the educational program. If the seminar, workshop, or symposium is offered as an academic course, it is usually not a course required to complete a major. Generally, the grading for the course is satisfactory and unsatisfactory performance. This allows the students to concentrate on developing an understanding of the information being provided without worrying about the grade they are likely to receive. Students tend to be drawn toward such courses on the basis of their interest in the subject matter and desire to learn more about the subject. A survey of the labeling of specialized educational programs in criminal justice that fit the description of the definitions given above reveals that the preferred label for such courses is workshop. Courses that are required, particularly those courses offered at the graduate level, tend to be labeled seminars. In such courses, although there are opportunities for speakers to make presentations and even for field trips, the students are expected to make the majority of the contributions to the course by way of their presentations on selected topics or of their original research. In Kratcoski et al. (2016, pp. 148–149), a workshop jointly taught by a police practitioner and a professor at the University of Vienna, Austria, uses a three-step process designed to teach the students the theoretical and practical aspects of police work. The content of the course and process followed in the course are explained below: • The first step involves teaching the legal framework, field of law, and field of expertise, always using specific examples to illustrate the material. • The second step involves having the students break into work groups in which they plan strategies and engage in role-playing scenarios with some of the students playing the role of police officers and others playing the role of criminals. • The third step is teaching the issues relating to practical police work, using example of methods used in the past that failed to achieve the desired outcome and methods that were effective. The workshop has become very popular over the years. It has been completed by students majoring in several fields of study and by students from several different countries. The format for the course has not changed dramatically, although the scope has broadened to include other facets of the justice system and field trips have been added. Students are expected to write reports on their work.

1.7 Experiential Learning Through Volunteer and Service Work

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1.7  Experiential Learning Through Volunteer and Service Work Box 1.3 Join Our Summit County Crisis Response Team “The Summit County Crisis Response Team volunteer provides trauma-­ informed services to victims, family members and communities, impacted by crisis, violence, or tragedy. Crisis Response Team volunteers offer immediate crisis intervention and advocacy via phone chat, text, or in-person to address the aftermath of the client’s victimization. Volunteers can only build confidence through practice, exposure, and experience, all three things you will gain while fulfilling your minimum 16 h of work per month. If you are up to the commitment, apply today! We can’t wait to get started!” ([email protected]. p.3).

The volunteer recruitment ad cited above places emphasis of the assistance volunteers will provide for the victims of crime, natural disasters, and other crises. However, it does not take note of the benefits the volunteers will likely receive, such as building self-confidence by participating in the crisis intervention program. The large majority of people who engage in volunteer work in criminal justice are motivated to participate for reasons other than to learn about the criminal justice system. They may be motivated because they were victims of crime, because someone close to them is involved in criminal behavior or some type of behavior such as drug abuse that often leads to criminal behavior, or just out of altruistic concern – the desire to do something good for someone in need. Although some students engage in volunteer work, the large majority of volunteers are not likely to be students who are volunteering to become more familiar with the field of work they eventually expect to enter but people from all walks of life who volunteer for personal reasons. Some volunteer organizations can trace their origins back to the times when almost all social welfare programs were under private auspicious and have continued to function even after agencies under public auspicious were established. Others are fairly recent in development, being established to assist people who have a specific problem related to a criminal justice matter. An example is victim service agencies. These agencies, with the primary mission of assisting victims of crime, must rely on the services of volunteers to assist in the services they provide. Kratcoski (2017, p. 44) states, “Victim service agencies, both private and public, are structured to provide assistance to a family member who was victimized by another member of the family, but generally they do not provide assistance to those who have to cope with the effects of having a family member arrested, tried, sentenced, and incarcerated. For example, the typical victim service agency will walk the victim of a crime through the justice process and provide the information and services needed to reduce the amount of harm experienced to the extent possible.”

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Regardless of the motivation for becoming a volunteer, the person will become involved in an experiential learning experience. Sullivan et al. (2002, p. 4) reported on the La Bodega de la Familia Program located in New York City. “This program, funded by the Vera Foundation, engages both substance abusers and their family members in family case management and other services as a supplement to probation, parole, or pre-trial supervision. By providing support to the families of drug users in the criminal justice system, Bodega aims to increase the success of drug treatment, reduce the use of incarceration to punish relapse, and reduce the harm addiction causes within families.” Those who become volunteers in the program are likely to become well acquainted with the operations of the various agencies of the criminal justice system. They also have an opportunity to interact with the personnel who work in these agencies. Positive learning experiences might lead to a desire to become a police officer, probation officer, or a counselor.

1.8  E  xperiential Education Gained Through Community Service The students who engage in service learning programs sponsored through an institution of higher education are generally motivated by the desire to provide helpful service to others, as well as to obtain knowledge and experience that will enhance their personal development. Writing @ CSU, 2021, p. 1) notes, “Service- learning involves students in community service activities and applies the experience to personal and academic development.. .. Service learning course objectives are linked to real community needs that are designed in cooperation with community partners and service recipients.” Service learning programs involving students are similar in some ways to internship and volunteer experiences. The differences center on the goals. While the primary goal of internships is to provide a learning experience that benefits the student and volunteer programs are designed primarily to benefit those who receive the service, the service learning programs have “the intention to equally benefit the provider and the recipient of the service as well as to ensure equal focus on both the service being provided and the learning that is occurring” (Furco, 1996, p. 5). Kratcoski et al. (2020, p. 360) use the Summer Learning Institute to illustrate a service learning program held in the Summit County (Ohio) Juvenile Court, directed by Dr. Pytash and Dr. Testa of Kent State University. Students enrolled in the Masters of Arts of Teaching program at the university serve as the mentors of the youths held at the detention center who participate in the program. According to Dr. Pytash (Kratcoski et  al., 2020, pp.  361–362), “The summer Learning Institute addresses two current issues in education. First, youth in juvenile detention centers often receive a basic skills education that does not adequately prepare them to return to their traditional school, nor is it culturally responsive, honoring their cultures and experiences, in ways that prompt student engagement and motivation. Second,

References

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teacher candidates need clinical experiences to learn how to develop and implement interdisciplinary learning units that are design- based and rooted in culturally relevant pedagogies. During the Summer Learning Institute, both of these issues are addressed, as teacher candidates from Kent State University’s Masters in the Arts of Teaching program work closely with Dr. Pytash and Dr. Testa to design and implement engaging lessons to the youth housed at the Summit County Juvenile Detention Center.”

1.9  Summary This chapter serves as an introduction to the chapters that will follow. Basic concepts such as experiential learning and experiential education are defined and differentiated. Focusing predominately on experiential education in criminal justice within universities, several types of experiential educational programs in which higher educational institutions and criminal justice agencies cooperate were delineated. Such cooperative ventures as workshops, seminars, internships, cooperatives, and volunteer service learning programs were discussed, and specific programs were illustrated. The motivation for enrolling in an experiential education program, as well as the ways the students and the agencies benefit from such programs, was considered in the chapter.

References Association for Experiential Education. (2014). Theory and practice of experiential education. http://www.aee.org/theory-­and-­practice. Retrieved 1/30/2021. Cherry, K. (2020). The experiential learning theory of David Kolb. Verywellmind. https:// Verywellmind.com/wxperientiallearning2795154? Retrieved 1/20/2021. Eyler, J. (2009). The power of experiential education. Liberal Education, 95, 4. Furco, A. (1996). Service learning; a balanced approach to experiential education: Expanding boundaries; service and learning (pp. 2–6). Washington, DC Corporation for National Service. GOV.SERV. (2021). The public defender service for the District of Columbia. https://www. govserv;org/US/Washington/151947788170124/The-public-defender-service-for-the-District-­ of-­Columbia: pp. 1-14. Retrieved 1/20/2021. Grubb, N., & Villeneuve. (1995). Cooperative education in Cincinnati. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education. Kirkham, G. (1975). Doc cop. Human Behavior, 4, 16–23. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Education as a source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kratcoski. (2017). Correctional counseling and treatment (6th ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Kratcoski, P., Edelbacher, M., & Eterno, J. (2016). Academic collaboration in experiential education. In P. C. Kratcoski & M. Edelbacher (Eds.), Collaborative policing (pp. 137–157). Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor &Francis Group. Kratcoski, P., Kratcoski, L., & Kratcoski, P. (2020). Juvenile delinquency (6th ed., pp.  1–442). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

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McBride, R. (2015). Criminal justice internships: Theory into practice (8th ed.). Amsterdam: Anderson Publishing. Murton, T., & Hyams, J. (1969). Accomplices to the crime. NY: Grove Press. Office of Experiential Education and Civic Engagement. (20??) Experiential education student intern form. ?? Sullivan, E., Mino, M., Nelson, K., & Pope, J. (2002). Families as a resource in recovery from drug abuse: An evaluation of the la bodega de la Familia. NY: Vera Institute of Justice. Summit County Crisis Response. [email protected]. Webster’s New College Dictionary. (2004). p. 1004, 1116, p. 1272. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Writing @ CSU/The Writing Studio Definition of Service Learning. (2021). http://writingcolostate.edu/guides/teaching/service_learning/definition.cfm;pp1-­2. Retrieved 2/6/2021.

Chapter 2

Preparing for Experiential Learning

2.1  Introduction Professors who develop and teach experiential education courses can attest to the substantial amount of work that goes into their preparation. For some projects, the preparation must begin months before the actual experience, and it involves input from a number of sources. For example, a workshop course focusing on comparing the criminal justice systems of the United States and Canada was conducted during the summer sessions at Kent State University. Kratcoski (2017, p.  149) notes, “Those who were enrolled in the course were junior and senior level students majoring in sociology and criminal justice who were enrolled in the criminal justice master’s degree program. The students were required to attend several class sessions at the university during the first week of the course to review the U.S. criminal justice system. During the weekend they traveled to Toronto, Canada. The entire following week was devoted to observing, listening to talks by criminal justice practitioners and law professors, touring police stations, riding with the police, and touring juvenile and adult correctional facilities.” On their return to Kent State during the following week, the students were required to meet to discuss the experience, focusing on the similar and different aspects of the components of the two justice systems. For a final assignment, they were required to write a paper on their experience and the knowledge they obtained. The professors who taught the workshop had to prepare for the in-class aspects of the course as well as make all of the arrangements for the field work that would take place in Canada. This included making arrangements for organizational matters, such as arranging transportation and lodging for the students (they were charged a fee to cover the expenses) and obtaining the cooperation of many professionals to schedule activities that contributed to the success of the experience. For example, the Toronto Metropolitan Police arranged for a tour of its headquarters, talks by several officials, and a “ride-along” observation for the students during the evening shift. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 P. C. Kratcoski, P. C. Kratcoski, Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5_2

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The planning and preparation for experiential education courses such as that described above rest almost solely with the instructor. Rarely will the students who participate have any input in the initial planning of workshops, seminars, or practicums. In contrast, the participants in experiential education programs such as cooperatives and internships have to assume a significant role in the preparation and placement process. National organizations have generated opportunities for both undergraduate- and graduate-level students to participate in structured experiential education. For example, the American Bar Association organized the moot court competitions, through which students attending law schools have an opportunity to take on roles of attorneys and witnesses and compete trying a case. The American Mock Trial Association (2021, p. 3) has a similar program. The program is structured in the following way. The educational institutions which participate in the program must first register and pay a fee with the American Mock Trial Association. The association sends the same case to all of the participating schools. This occurs during the fall semester each year. The actual competition is scheduled for early in the spring semester, giving the students who prepare for the competition sufficient time to develop the case. Normally, the participating educational institutions will offer a seminar or practicum course that is geared toward developing an understanding of the concepts and processes relating to trials.

2.2  Internships and Co-ops McBride (2015, p. 4) notes, “The development of internships can be traced to the Middle Ages, when the teaching of skills and competencies for most professions and trades was accomplished by a young person serving as an apprenticeship with a skilled mentor. The first professional field to adopt this model was in the medical sciences, as future doctors and nurses learned their skills under senior instructors.” During the centuries that followed, universities were founded, and professors assumed the role of providing the formal instruction for those who would become doctors, teachers, and attorneys who provided their services to the public. The traditional on-the-job placements of students continued in the form of student residents, student teachers, and legal assistants. Cooperative agreements, some formal, others informal, were developed between the universities and various public and private institutions for the purpose of providing the link between the formal education received in the university and a practical educational experience that would help prepare the student for the work they were to perform. Although courses focusing on the study of crime and criminal behavior and the study of the legal processes could be found in various departments of many universities, the focus of these courses was generally grounded in the traditional mission of the discipline. Courses devoted to the study of criminal behavior tended to emphasize the causes of crime and the characteristics of criminals. The criminal justice system’s response to crime was either not considered or only given minimal

2.2 Internships and Co-ops

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attention. Students majoring in sociology who were interested in studying criminals or juvenile delinquents were not likely to find a course in the curriculum that would provide an opportunity to learn through an on-the-job experience. Newman (1975, p. 5), a professor who advocated the development of criminal justice programs in universities, made note of the lack of such programs between the universities and the justice agencies and stated that they needed to bridge the gap between the formal academic instruction provided by the universities and the type of experiential education and training needed to adequately prepare individuals for the work to be performed in the justice field. He stated (1975, p. 5), “As a criminologist whose experience has bridged both work in the field and the academic community, I am deeply concerned about the analysis of mechanisms which prepare personnel to operate criminal justice systems effectively. In recent years I have noted that my concerns are shared by many who have come to recognize the critical need for professionally qualified persons to manage the machinery of criminal-­ justice, police, court services, and corrections. Regrettably, few universities have sponsored the necessary criminal justice education programs.” The federal funding provided to universities under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 for educational programs in criminal justice and grants to criminal justice practitioners to pursue a university education gradually tended to change the situation described by Newman. Knudten (1975, p. 89) stated, “Although programs in criminology and/or police science existed previously within schools of social welfare, departments of sociology, law enforcement training agencies, correctional psychology departments, correctional agencies and other bodies, a major expansion of effort in these areas has been stimulated by the creation of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration’s (LEAA) programs in manpower development, including the Law Enforcement Educational Program (LEEP) and the Centers of Excellence in Criminal Justice Program.” Kratcoski (1975, p. 78) observed, “The fact that the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration provided curriculum development grants for programs in these areas and funds for student training grants and tuition loans supplied a powerful economic incentive for educational institutions to act quickly.” Although some of the more than 1000 programs that were established in college and universities shortly after the establishment of LEAA were hastily implemented, with the quality of some programs being highly questionable, the majority of the programs tended to focus on the professional development of those preparing for positions in the justice field, as well as opportunities for the students to engage in some form of experiential learning through the offering of internship, workshop, and field placement courses. For example, a course funded by an LEAA grant was offered during the summer sessions at Kent State University by the recently established Law Enforcement Department at Kent State University. For the course, open to undergraduate and graduate students majoring in sociology, political science, and criminal justice, students were not required to pay for travel expenses, lodging, and meals because these expenses were covered by the grant. The workshop, titled Inside the Criminal Justice System, consisted of 5 weeks of study, with the first 2 weeks conducted in a classroom setting and devoted to an explanation of the justice system; the third week devoted to the law enforcement

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component with discussions with police administrators, tours of police facilities, and ride-along experiences; the fourth week devoted to the judicial component, including both the criminal courts and the juvenile courts; and the firth week devoted to the correctional component. This involved visits to several state and federal correctional facilities and required overnight lodging, because the facilities were located some distance from the Kent Campus. The workshop course was funded for 5 consecutive years until the eligibility for LEAA funding was terminated.

2.3  Preparing for a Co-op or Internship The initial contact of a potential intern student with a justice agency may occur in different ways. Several of these are listed below: • Justice agencies send recruiters to job fairs held at colleges and universities who interview and complete an initial screening of students who express an interest. • Justice agencies send notices to a designated member of the faculty (usually the person who serves as intern coordinator) that the agency is recruiting to place a number of interns with the agency. The agency will outline the procedures for the potential intern to follow in order to be considered for a placement as well as the process used by the agency for selection of candidates. Generally, intern positions in which the agency solicits the prospective interns are highly competitive, and only a small number of the candidates are selected. Some of the federal law enforcement agencies, such as the FBI, Homeland Security, and Secret Service, and federal correction agencies, such as the Bureau of Prisons, will offer a stipend. This tends to increase the competitiveness for the positions. • A faculty member in the criminal justice program makes the initial contact with the agency and, after some initial screening, arranges a meeting for the student with a representative of the agency; and the student contacts the agency. If the agency shows interest, the internship is arranged by the faculty internship coordinator. • The student makes the initial contact with an agency. If the agency expresses some interest, a faculty member responsible for coordinating internships will communicate with a representative of the agency, provide the agency with any information requested, and make the final arrangements for the commencement of the internship. Regardless of the method used in the selection process, the placement agency, the faculty supervisor, and the student enter into an agreement in which the roles and responsibilities of each are agreed upon. These agreements are usually in writing and require the signatures of the participating parties. For example, the agency accepting the intern student will normally agree to provide an appropriate training experience, at the agency site, provide on-the-job supervision, and supply periodic evaluations of the intern’s performance. The faculty supervisor provides the agency with the goals of the internship, expectations of the student, including academic

2.3 Preparing for a Co-op or Internship

21

assignments that must be completed by the student for the student to receive a satisfactory grade for the course, and the student must agree to follow all of the rules and regulations, including maintaining confidentiality, if placed with an agency requiring this, and complete the required amount of time specified in the agreement initially signed when the internship was being arranged. The specific requirements and expectations of the interns will vary, depending on the nature of the agency. For example, interns placed with judicial agencies, such as courts, may be required to dress in accordance with the dress code for the professional staff, since they may be in direct contact with the public. An intern working in a correctional facility (jail, juvenile detention center) will not generally have much face to face contact with the public, and the dress required may be more in line with the type of work performed during the internship. The amount of on-the-­ job experience received will tend to vary, depending on the type of agency in which the student is placed. Students interning with municipal police departments might find their roles to be predominately observation, due to the liability factor. For example, the student will generally not be placed in any situation that could lead to possible physical harm. If allowed to ride along on patrol and the police respond to a call that could be dangerous, the intern will be instructed to remain in the patrol car until the situation is under control. However, students placed with private security agencies and even some public policing agencies might find that, after some training, their job descriptions are essentially the same as those of the regular staff.

2.3.1  Choosing the Appropriate Agency Students interested in completing an out-of-class experience that will prepare them for a position with an agency may obtain information from a number of sources, including professors, fellow students who have complete internships, friends and relatives who are employed in an agency in which the person desires to work, and even through the social networking. McBride (2015, p. 16) notes, “Social networking has been adopted by many organizations as a means to present their mission and products, while dealing with misinformation that occurs after a major incident. This allows participants to share information through postings, e-mails, pictures and videos. Today many agencies and companies use social media as a means to attract the best students for employment and for internship programs. As a result, many are changing their recruiting practices to keep pace with our ever-evolving society. Searching Facebook and Linkedin may provide you with internship opportunities, as well as connect you with others who have had an internship experience or are in the process of procuring one.” Wagner’s (2009, p. 122) advice to those students who are seeking employment is equally applicable to those students who are applying for an intern position with a justice agency. Wagner states, “Having a computer and being hooked up to the internet is as vital to a job search as having a cell phone or voice mail. One of the conveniences of being online is that you can e-mail your resume to an employer immediately. It will arrive long before a fax or mailed letter

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can get to the same destination.” For example, beach towns find their populations increasing drastically during the summer months when the vacation season is at its peak. The police departments for many of these cities use the Internet to advertise on the social network and send out flyers to universities soliciting students to apply for temporary positions in the police department to assist in handling the increased demands on the police for service during these months. Students who apply (typically they are students majoring in a criminal justice program) and are accepted must sign a contract indicating that they will work for the department for a specified period of time. In addition to getting paid for their work, the students often receive academic credit. Box 2.1 illustrates the program developed by the Ocean City, Maryland Police Department. Box 2.1 Join the Ocean City Police Department: A Summer Job and the Experience of a Lifetime – Internship “Every year, several of our seasonal employees utilize their summer job with the Ocean City Police Department to satisfy their college internship requirements. Many schools offer up to 12 credits for the experience. It is important to note that this is a paid position, even if it is being used as an internship! The OCPD Training & Recruiting Section is committed to working with all college and university internship coordinators to facilitate this process. We can help with logistics, paperwork, evaluations, etc. We currently have written internship agreements with several schools. The student/employee is responsible for setting up their internship with their respective colleges and universities. The Training 7 Recruiting Office will serve as the point of contact” (Ocean City Maryland Police Department, 2021). The large majority of students who complete internships with justice agencies receive academic credit for their work. In addition to completing a specified number of work hours in the field, they are required to complete academic requirements. These may involve periodic evaluations of the student’s performance and the completion of a paper on the learning experience.

2.3.2  Role of Faculty Advisor for Co-ops and Internships If a student is registered for a course and receives academic credit for work completed in a justice agency, the instructor assigned to the course plays a vital role in assuring that the placement will lead to the accomplishment of the experiential education the student expects. A major task of the instructor is to establish a set of goals and provide the direction and supervision that are needed to assure that the student will achieve the goals. Generally, the goals and expectations are given to the student in writing, in the form of an internship manual or guidebook. A summary of the academic requirements for students completing the internship course at Kent State University is given in Box 2.2.

2.4 Student Preparation for Experiential Learning

23

Box 2.2 Academic Assignment – Justice Studies – 46,792 (Internship) 1. Completion of 45 h of fieldwork for 1 h of academic credit 2. Completion of two field evaluations (midterm and final) by the agency supervisor 3. Completion of a field evaluation by the academic supervisor 4. Completion of an interpretive log (journal) 5. Completion of a paper based on the internship experience (Abstracted from Kent State Department of Sociology, Rules and Procedures Manual: Internship in Justice, p. 3)

All students who enroll in the justice study internship course are given essentially the same academic assignments, regardless of their placement sites (police, corrections, judicial, victim services, private security). The students are expected to be introspective and complete a self-evaluation in the required journal. The interns are expected to focus the presentation on the formal organization and processes of the agency and include a summary of the tasks completed as interns. They must attempt to integrate the knowledge obtained during their internships with the coursework they had completed prior to engaging in the experience. Potential intern students and their instructor will meet before the students begin the internship to discuss the particulars pertaining to their assignment.

2.4  Student Preparation for Experiential Learning Typically, students who plan to apply for an out-of-classroom learning opportunity such as a cooperative or internship must be involved in the preparation process. The preparation often must begin months before the commencement of the experience. This is especially the case if the student is applying for a position that is highly competitive. For example, students with long-range goals of obtaining a position with a federal law enforcement or investigative agency and who desire to intern with the agency may find that the number of interns taken by the agency is far less than the number of applicants.

2.4.1  Initial Communications The first communication between the student and the potential agency is usually in the form of a letter of introduction and a resume. The introduction letter should contain such basic information as name, address, contact information, and a brief statement pertaining to the reasons for applying to the agency. Several basic facts about the student, including career goals and how an internship with the agency would be helpful in accomplishing the career goals, could be included. The introductory letter should

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contain some statement pertaining to the importance of the internship as a preparation to facilitating the student’s career goals. If the initial contact with the agency is made by the student seeking the internship, this letter is extremely important, since it serves as a mechanism to “break the ice” or to hopefully gain some notice from those who will be making the decisions on internship with the agency. If the agency has solicited for applicants to fill temporary positions, as in the case of the Ocean City Police Department described above, a well-written introductory letter helps the person making decisions on interns decide to screen in the candidate for additional consideration. In some cases, a faculty member responsible for placing and supervising interns will make the initial contact with the agency and submit a letter that contains the type of information about the candidate described above. In this case, the agency will generally have enough information on the candidate to make a decision about pursuing the matter by asking for more information, including having the student submit a resume and perhaps come to the agency for an interview.

2.4.2  The Resume A resume is a short summary of one’s background, experiences, and career goals. Mc Bride (2015, p.  25) states, “A resume generally has seven areas: Personal Contact Information, Objective or Summary of Qualifications, Educational Back-­ ground, work experience and/or other experiences, extracurricular activities, Interests and Hobbies, and References.” The resume should be considered as a vehicle to help facilitate the process for obtaining a job or for obtaining a position as an intern or a co-op. Regardless of the specific purpose for constructing a resume, there are some types of information that are recommended for inclusion. These include age, gender, marital status, race, and religion. It is acceptable to mention one’s military experience and in some cases any physical disabilities. Also, any skills that would be helpful, including computer experience or speaking a foreign language, can be included in the resume. For example, if the person had prior military experience in which the work involved developing skills related to security, intelligence gathering, interviewing, or use of a computer for data analysis, skills that could be useful in a variety of positions in justice-related agencies, they should be included on the resume. The resume submitted to an agency for a co-op or intern position need not be as detailed as that submitted for a permanent employment position, since the position is temporary, and even if the intern is paid for his/her work, the agency is not required to provide most of the benefits received by the person who holds a permanent position. Nasheri and Kratcoski (1996, p.  24) outline three major styles used in resumes: the chronological, the functional, and the resume that combines the first types mentioned: 1. The chrono-resume covers your work history from the earliest pertinent job to the most recent one. The chronology shows your work history company-by-­company and job-by-job, starting with your last or more recent position and working backward. Employers and recruiters favor it because it shows not only career progress and skill variety but also whether you are a “job hopper” or have had significant

2.4 Student Preparation for Experiential Learning

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breaks in employment. It gives employers a quick fit on your history by skills and functions. This is especially good if you have a wide range of work experiences. 2. The functional resume highlights your accomplishments up front and de-­ emphasizes employment history. Recent graduates often start with a functional resume to downplay their lack of on-the-job experience. “Job hoppers,” older workers, and those who have been unemployed for a time often will choose it to dispute what may be perceived as negatives. 3. The combination resume blends elements of both styles. This style is rapidly gaining in popularity. Since the large majority of students in the justice field who apply for intern or co-op positions are likely to have limited work experiences, the combination resume appears to be the most appropriate model to follow. In many cases, students are not ready for full-time employment because they have requirements to complete on their degrees or they plan to go on to graduate school or law school before seeking a position in line with their choice of work. Their motivation for completing a co-op or internship stems from a desire to gain experience in a field of work they plan for a career. The combination resume provides an opportunity to highlight students’ long-range career goals and present information such as special skills or prior experiences that may enhance their chances of being selected for a co-op or intern position. An example of a resume is presented in Box 2.3.

Box 2.3 Sample Resume – Material Developed from Several Resumes and Used for Purposes of Illustration Lori Lencosky Address 1608 Laurel Street, New Brunswick, New York, 44715 Cell phone 543 728-4467 E-mail [email protected] Professional Goal: To obtain a position with a police department. Education: BA in Criminal Justice, Liberty College (Expected May 2021). AA in Criminal Justice -Liberty College 2019. Liberty High School Diploma 2017. Work Experience: Security officer at Hoosier Hardware (2019-present) (Part-time). New Brunswick City Park (Summer-2018) Life -Guard United States Army (2014–2017)- Military Police Additional Information: Served as a volunteer mentoring youth housed at the Liberty County Juvenile Detention Center. Personal Information: Developed good interviewing and writing skills as well as proficiency in the use of computers. References: American Bar Association (2021), Kent State University Department of Sociology Justice Studies Program (2021)

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Some agencies, including state and federal agencies, follow the same process used for the recruitment of employees. These would include the completion of the standard application, letters of reference, and one or more face-to-face interviews. For example, applicants for an internship as well as those applying for employment with the Multi-County Juvenile Attention System (Ohio) are notified that before their application can be processed, they must “Submit for a drug screen and physical examination; submit to a criminal background check; and provide three professional and/or employment references, as well as showing other documents such as social security card, driver’s license if applicable to the position stated on the application, and showing that they are eligible to work in the United States” (Multi-­ County Juvenile Attention System, 2015, p. 1). The US Attorney’s Office offers summer internship for students enrolled in law schools. Although the intern positions are unpaid, they are highly competitive, and the applicants are carefully screened before a decision is made by the selection committee. To be selected for a position, the candidate must be: • • • •

Currently enrolled in a law school A US citizen Selected by the internship committee Successfully cleared following a background check undertaken by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (which includes inquiry into illegal drug use and bad debts) • (US Department of Justice: Summer Internships, p. 1) The specific function the agency performs (law enforcement, corrections, legal, or social service), as well as the auspices of the agency (federal, state, local governments, private enterprise), will determine to a great extent the specific matters that will be included in the criteria used for qualification of a candidate and in the selection of the candidates (United States Department of Justice: Summer Internships (2021)).

2.4.3  The Interview The interview should be viewed as a mechanism used by two persons to obtain and exchange information. Interviews used for gathering information consist of the interviewer soliciting information on “who, when, what, where, and why.” For example, the typical interview of a candidate for an intern position might begin with some general questions pertaining to Who are you?, Do you have any prior experience?, followed by such questions as When did you decide to apply for a position with our agency?, When will you be available to start if accepted?, What do you expect to gain from the experience?, What are your long-range goals?, followed by Where did you work prior to your present situation? (if applicable), and specifically Why do you want to intern with our agency? The information-gathering interview will also provide an opportunity for the interviewee to ask questions about the

2.5 Summary

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agency, the type of work that will be performed, the work schedule, and how the intern will be evaluated. Kratcoski (2017, p. 200) notes that the typical information-gathering interview follows a four-stage process. The first stage consists of an introductory statement in which the interviewer provides the interviewee with information pertaining to the reasons for conducting the interview, followed by questions pertaining to personal matters such as education and prior work experience. The body of the interview will involve specific questions pertaining to the interviewee’s knowledge of the agency’s work and his/her attitudes, opinions, and likely response to specific situations that may be encountered. For example, the interviewer might describe a hypothetical situation and ask, “How would you respond to the situation?” The final stage involves a closing statement by the interviewer in which the interviewee is given some information on when it is likely that the agency will respond and the next step in the process, if the person is to accepted. The interviewee is given an opportunity to ask questions pertaining to the clarification of some matters before the interview is ended. Often a candidate being considered for a full-time position with an agency will be interviewed more than once. The initial interview tends to serve as a screening mechanism, while the second and even a third interview focus on matters in more depth. However, candidates being interviewed for cooperative or intern positions are usually interviewed only once, and often the interview will be completed online. If a candidate is accepted, some agencies will include a clause in the placement agreement that the intern can be terminated before the end of the internship period for cause. The reasons for being terminated may vary but generally will center around such matters as involvement in criminal matters, failure to follow the rules and regulations of the agency, or poor performance, such as failure to show up for work at the times assigned or failure to complete the tasks assigned.

2.5  Summary The amount of planning and preparation required from the student enrolling in a course that will provide experiential learning will differ, depending on the particular experience they will receive. Workshop courses and seminars that offer field trips and speakers will provide a great deal of information and opportunities to observe the operations of the criminal justice process but will not give the student the “hands-on” learning experience typically gained from a cooperative or internship. The planning and preparation for an internship or cooperative position with a justice agency is similar to that taken in the planning and preparation needed for a permanent position. The process should begin several months before the anticipated date for the internship or co-op to begin. Some agencies, especially those who are offering a paid position, will be flooded with applicants, and the time period between the applicant’s submission of the initial inquiry and application and the time the applicant receive notice of acceptance or rejection may extend over several weeks and even months.

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Choosing the appropriate agency is also an important matter to consider. The student must make a decision on the primary reason for completing an internship. A student may receive an offer of a paid position, but the work they would be doing may not be in line with their long-range goals and desired learning experiences. It is important to apply for several positions, with the expectation of having an opportunity to choose the position closest in line with providing the type of experience desired. This may result in the acceptance of an unpaid position over a paid position. Students should anticipate the types of information the prospective agency will require. In their selection of agencies to which they apply, their introduction letter and resume should be geared to emphasizing the ways the applicant can serve the interests of the agency and further its goals. Finally, students applying for co-op or internship positions should be prepared for disappointments. In some cases, they will not be accepted for the position they highly desire. They must be ready to keep focused and determined.

References American Bar Association. (2021). Moot court law students’ competition. htts://www.abaforlawstudents.com/events/law-student-competitions/practical-skills. Retrieved 4/26/2021. American Mock Trial Association. (2021). History htts://www.collegemocktrial.org/about-amta/ history. Retrieved 2/26/2021. Kent State University Department of Sociology Justice Studies Program. (2021). Rules and procedures manual: Internship in Justice; Kent, Ohio. Unpublished Document: 1–14. Knudten, R. (1975). Criminology and a center for criminal justice: One model. In R. McLean (Ed.), Education for crime prevention and control (pp. 89–98). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Kratcoski, P. (1975). The integration of social sciences into the fields of criminology, law enforcement, and corrections. In R.  McLean (Ed.), Education for crime prevention and control (pp. 77–88). Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Ill. Kratcoski, P. (2017). Correctional counseling and treatment (6th ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Mc Bride, R. (2015). Criminal justice internships: Theory into practice (8th ed.). Amsterdam: Anderson (Elsevier). Multi-County Juvenile Attention System. (2015). Notice to applicants: Application for employment. Canton, OH. Unpublished Document 1–14. Nasheri, H., & Kratcoski, P. C. (1996). A guide to a successful legal internship. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company. Newman, C. (1975). The university and the criminal justice system: Partners for the science of criminology. In R.  McLean (Ed.), Education for crime prevention and control (pp.  5–10). Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, IL. Ocean City Maryland Police Department. Internship. www.joinocpd.com. Retrieved 2/15/2021. United States Department of Justice: Summer Internships. www.everyjobforme.com/Apply, pp. 1–4. Retrieved 2/17/2021. Wagner, A. (2009). How to land your first paralegal job (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice-Hall.

Chapter 3

Experiential Education in Policing and Security

3.1  Introduction: Testimonies The following testimony was submitted by Joseph Kropff (Laurel Police Department): During the summers of 2011, 2012 and 2013, I worked with the Ocean City Police Department as a Seasonal Public Security Aid. In this role, I gained vital hands on experience in law enforcement and learned the importance of serving my community, having the opportunity to participate in assignments such as patrol and arrestee processing was an extremely rewarding experience that ultimately prepared me for the beginning of my career as a Police Officer. (Ocean City Police Department, Training & Recruitment 2021, p. 3)

The following testimony was submitted by a student who interned with a county sheriff’s department: My first day I was taken to the jail and introduced to a few of the deputies working for the sheriff. Captain _______, my supervisor, gave me a schedule for the entire time I would be interning. I did not know that the sheriff’s department was responsible for so many things. During my time with them, I spent two weeks in the jail booking, a few weeks with road patrol, two weeks with the detective unit, two weeks at the courthouse, a week with the psychologist, and the remaining time with the Captain who was my supervisor. I learned a lot, even though I observed what was going on most of the time.(Kent State University (2018), anonymous intern student’s log, p. 2)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 P. C. Kratcoski, P. C. Kratcoski, Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5_3

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3.2  O  rigins of Police-Academic Collaboration in Education and Training The testimonies presented above are examples of the type of learning experiences students have received during their academic preparation for work in law enforcement and security. The current cooperative spirit between police agencies and higher educational institutions did not exist in the early development of formal police departments. In contrast to the situation in many other countries throughout the world, where the local police evolved from federal government or military forces, the development of police agencies in the United States occurred at the local (municipal) level. In most cases, individuals were selected for policing positions primarily on the basis of “Who do you know?” and “How much do you want to contribute to the political party currently in power?” The role of a police officer was not clearly defined and tended to change as new challenges emerged. For example, Kratcoski and Walker (1984, p. 102) state, “Although the primary function of police forces in the early nineteenth century was quelling civil disorder, they also had the power to enforce moral laws. The nature and scope of the moral percepts varied according to the desires of those who chose policemen.” During the early twentieth century, the 18th Amendment to the US Constitution, making it illegal to manufacture and distribute intoxicating beverages, created many problems for the police who were charged with enforcing an unpopular law. In addition, the opportunities for police to become corrupt were plentiful. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the police in large cities were expected to perform social work functions in addition to their law enforcement functions. Those selected for positions in police agencies usually did not have any prior experience or education that specifically prepared them for police work. It was during these years of economic depression that a formal relationship between police organizations and universities was created for the purpose of providing education and training to those preparing for positions in police work. Kratcoski and Walker (1984, p. 103) note, “During this period August Vollmer, chief of police in Berkley, California, became a champion of police professionalism. In cooperation with the School of Criminology at the University of California, he developed standards for police training and performance and introduced technological innovations, including fingerprinting and crime laboratory analysis of evidence. The success of his work spurred imitation, and a movement toward better police training and discipline resulted.” Other social and political factors had tremendous effects on the manner in which candidates for police organizations were recruited, selected, and trained to perform the job defined as “police work.” The close of World War II witnessed an influx of ex-servicemen into police organizations. Based on their experience in the military, they tended to be disciplined and respectful of authority, furthering the military model that was already well established in the federal, state, and local police organizations throughout the United States. In addition, increased opportunities for attending college as a result of the GI Bill resulted in many of the officers entering police work having a formal higher education background.

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During the 1960s and 1970s, when the civil rights movement was at its peak, many of the police officers who entered the profession during the previous decade now held high-ranking positions within the police organizations and readily saw the benefits to the community as well as to the organization of having well-educated personnel in their organization who could bring in a variety of skills as well as new ideas. Kratcoski and Walker (1984, p.  104) noted, “In 1967, the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice submitted a report that called for sweeping changes in law enforcement practices. In the 1970s, many departments began to change their standards for police selection, deemphasizing the traditional physical standards of minimum height, weight, and vision. The new standards stressed instead educational attainments, personality balance, and social relations qualifications of candidates. The new concern with higher education for police work resulted in the phenomenal growth and proliferation of law enforcement and criminal justice degree programs in American colleges and universities.”

3.3  R  elationship Between Police Academy Training and University Education Cordner and Shain (2016, p. 57) note that it is difficult to make a precise distinction between police training and education. The authors state, “It is sometimes explained that training teaches ‘how’ and education teaches ‘why.’ This helps distinguish firearms and emergency driving training from urban sociology and gender studies, but if one delves into community policing, problem solving, ethics, diversity, or a host of other topics that police need to study, it quickly becomes apparent that the how and why are intermingled.” The manners through which those who have aspirations to enter police work are educated and trained vary significantly. Some countries in Europe and Asia, particularly those countries that have a national police force, have established police colleges. Students enrolled in these colleges partake in both education and training courses and can earn a bachelor’s, a master’s, and in some cases even a PhD degree. Those who receive a degree typically start their careers as commissioned officers. On the other hand, Cordner and Shain (2016, p.  54) state that, “Countries with police systems derived from the British model, including the United States, have traditionally taken a different approach in which all ‘sworn’ police personnel begin at the bottom rank, regardless of their level of education. Specialized police universities generally do not exist in these countries.” In the United States, attempts to bridge the gap between education and training occur in the criminal justice programs offered at the universities, with such courses as criminal investigation, forensics, and interviewing now part of the curriculum. New courses dealing with crisis intervention, human relations, cultural sensitivity, and responding to victim’s needs have been added to the typical police basic training programs.

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In some of the countries that have established police colleges, a program is utilized in which students training for a career with the national police receive both academic training and field training during the time they are working toward their degrees. For example, Hoel (2020, pp. 578–579, 581) states, “Norway has a state police education, located in the south, east, and north of Norway. NPUC provide a three-year bachelor’s programme comprising in-school education for the first and third years, and in-field training during the second year. During the ten months of In-field training the students develop practical skills and learn how to apply the experience-based knowledge they obtained. During the time the students are completing their in-service training they are placed under the supervision of a tutor.” The following testimonies about the learning experiences of several students suggest the combined academic training and in-service training is effective. One student, remarking on the development of skills, said “In the beginning there were two officers and me in the patrol car, and my tutor was very nice to let me sit in the front-seat (next to him). We took turns at being the driver, and the other police officer had to sit in the back seat. This was my own learning process.” Another student, reflecting on the personal development after finding an old man who had been dead for 2 weeks in his home, said “You learn a lot about yourself. You learn, anyway, that you are not left paralyzed and unable to act even in the face of such a grotesque scene and such strong feelings. You don’t freeze and say ‘Oh my God! What shall I do?’ You are able to maintain a focus on the things you have learnt to do.” One of the conclusions reached by an international symposium focusing on police education and training was: “It is apparent that training alone will not prepare officers for the critical thinking and decision making of the future. Higher education appears to be the key to effective policing in the twenty-first century. The police officer of the future must have the initiative, knowledge, and vision to deal with and solve problems by creative thinking, have the ability to network with specialists and resources on a worldwide scale when the situation requires this, and have a career-­ long commitment to enhancement of his/her policing skills through training and education.” Kratcoski (2007, p.  21) reported that research on the link between higher education and training of police revealed that the statement made above is right on target. The candidate for a policing position who has a well-­rounded educational background can bring to the organization a number of skills and ideas and can make significant contributions to the organizations, even while the person is learning new skills during the basic training and field experience. The sources of critical information used in police work can come from a variety of areas, including the formal course work they completed at an institution of higher education, an experiential learning experience such as completing an internship with a police department, basic police training, and information provided by other agencies such as victim service agencies, social service agencies, and security agencies. In Box 3.1, police training to aid victims and bystanders is described.

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Box 3.1 Police Training to Aid Victims, Bystanders When they get a 911 call, police officers aren’t just confronted with a crime to solve. They’re also the first people who can give first aid to a victim in need. That was the subject of Akron police training Thursday morning. Akron firefighters giving the presentation said those first few minutes can be scary, but that giving officers tools and techniques to respond in those situations can be life- saving. Officers trained on a range of topics Thursday, from treating gunshots wounds to comforting bystanders. The presentation, given by the fire department, is part of the department’s in-service training this year. Fire Lt. Dan Garrett explained in his presentation that officers are often the first to scenes where people need medical help, like shootings, stabbings, crashes, and even mental health calls. He stated, “The training included a lot of other information, including the first steps officers should take, how to administer different types of first aid and what to look for when scanning for injuries.” Garrett told officers to be on the lookout for things like a wristband or medication that could indicate a person’s medical issue. Akron police Lt. Gerald Forney, who’s also the training bureau commander, said this training is the first of four in service sessions police are doing this year. He stat “Things have come a long way since he started on the police force,” Forney said, “All officers now have tourniquets, chest seals, guise, and other items to treat injuries. Over time they have learned more about providing care to victims and helping firefighter on scene” (McDonnell, Akron Beacon Journal, 2/20/21, pp. A1 & A 6).

The example given above tends to confirm that traditional classroom-based education, basic police academy training, and on-the-job training are not sufficient to meet the demands placed on police officers and administrators in the twenty-first century. Learning must continue throughout the officers’ careers. At times, policing techniques learned on how to respond to certain situations must be either abandoned or revised. For instance, in the aftermath of the rash of police shootings of citizens, some of them being questionable, police administrators have developed a new approach to policing public disturbances, protests, and other matters. “Ethical Policing Is Courageous (EPIC) is a peer intervention program developed by the NOPD (New Orleans Police Department) in collaboration with community partners to promote a culture of high-quality and ethical policing. EPIC educates, empowers, and supports the officers on the streets to play a meaningful role in “policing.. .. EPIC strives to redefine police culture so that intervention to prevent or stop harmful action is not an exception to good teamwork, it is the very definition of good teamwork.” EPIC follows several steps to make the change in police culture. EPIC: Redefines critical loyalty

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Changes (or at least adds to) what we look for in the officers we hire Trains officers and supervisors to identify danger signs Equips officers with the skills they need to intervene before problems occur/escalate and to do so safely Supports and protects officers who do the right thing Provides officers with resources to help them make ethical decisions (EPIC, 2021, pp. 1–2) Ozguler (2011, p.  237) stated, “Formal classroom learning must be combined with direct experience and the opportunity to learn by observing others. Role -playing, in-basket exercises comprised of conducting meetings, issuing orders, planning events, attending to routine administrative matters, and dealing with a variety of personnel problems must be included.” In the interview conducted by Peter C. Kratcoski (2021a, b) in Box 3.2, Dr. Ozguler provides insight into the differences between the preparation for police work through formal education and the knowledge one gains through experiences in the field.

Box 3.2 Interview with Dr. Mustafa Ozguler Dr. Mustafa Ozguler graduated from the Police College, a paramilitary educational institution located in Turkey. He continued his education at the National Police University (Academy). After finishing 8 years of education, he started his career at the Department of Training and Education at the National Police Headquarters in Ankara as a police sergeant. He was assigned as the supervisor of the Bureau of Planning and Programming. He came to the United States to study for a doctorate at Kent State University. During his 8 years in the United States, he had numerous opportunities to learn about police organizations, their structures, and operations and interact with various police leaders and observe officers at work. After receiving his PhD, he returned to Turkey and with the rank of police commander (two-star police chief), he was assigned as assistant director and faculty of the Erzurum Police Vocational College of the Turkey National Police. Q: Dr. Ozguler, do you recall when you first decided that you wanted to be a police officer? A: Yes, I was in the eighth grade when I decided to go to the “Police College.” It was the only high school level educational institution for police in the country. Established in 1938, it was a very distinguished boarding, paramilitary educational institution. Graduates of the College were to continue their education at the National Police University (Academy). My elder brother’s best friend went to the college and encouraged me to apply. I also saw some of the college students in their uniforms and thought how elegant I would look in one of the uniforms, so I was motivated to take the series of oral, physical and written examinations and was accepted, as the second- best student in the country. During my 4 years at the Police College I came to love the profession, and after graduation I continued my education at the National Police Academy. (continued)

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Box 3.2  (continued) Q: How long were you an officer with the Turkey Police before you came to the US to study for an advanced degree? A: I came to the US for an advanced degree 9 years after my graduation. I was a police captain at the department of Training and Education (DTE), overseeing the bureaus of Planning, Testing, and Publishing, at the time. Q: Mustafa, give some basic information on the program established by the Turkey Government for sending police officers abroad. What countries were included in the plan? Why did you select to study in the US? A: As the Planning and Programming Bureau Supervisor, I was the organization-­wide key officials responsible for improving training quality at all levels. In this role, I designed, organized, and evaluated pre-service educational programs for the 10,000 cadets of the 25 police training schools (police academies) and in-service courses for the 200,000 personnel responsible for law enforcement and homeland security services nationwide. I also organized educational projects and established cooperative initiatives with different universities, institutions, and consultancy companies in Turkey, the US, and the Netherlands for the purpose of introducing the latest educational technologies to the Turkish National Police (TNP) and to improve the organization in all areas. One of the significant projects that I had developed when I was with DTE was the International Graduate Education Program to improve the TNP’s research capacity and the educational levels of its officers. I prepared the initiative for the project by establishing relationships with universities in the US and several European countries (UK, Germany, France and Belgium). I also participated in the program as a student and as the coordinator. The program was in operation from 1999 to 2014.During that period 400 Turkish senior police officers received their doctoral degrees from universities in the US and Europe. Q: Why did you select Kent State to complete your graduate work? A: Before initiating the program in 1990, I came to Cleveland with a group of Turkish police officers to enroll in an intensive English course. After 9 months of the course ended, we joined the Cleveland Heights Police Academy training session and completed that training in 1991. I continued my relationship with some of the Cleveland Height classmates and when I decided to start working on my graduate degree, I asked if Kent State was willing to take a police officer from Turkey as a student. Dr. David Kessler was the graduate coordinator of the Criminal Justice program. He played a critical role in assisting me with the procedures required to be accepted. Q: Overall, how would you rate your educational experiences in the US? A: It is not easy to separate the work components and the educational components of my experiences in the United States. During my first training time in the US, I traveled to some major cities, such as Chicago, Cincinnati, New  York and Boston, and visited prestigious universities, including the University of Illinois at Chicago, Harvard, MIT, and many others. It took me (continued)

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Box 3.2  (continued) 8 years of research, communications with various educational institutions, planning, and development to initiate the international graduate education program for myself and many of my colleagues. As the program developer, I was assigned as the International Graduate Program Coordinator of TNP in the US. In this role, I helped and organized students’ enrollments, course selections, research activities, and their administrative matters with TNP. There were about two hundred (200) graduate students in thirty-two (32) different American universities. This experience gave me extensive knowledge and a broad perspective regarding the higher education program’s expectations and practices throughout the US. During the years when I served as Graduate Program Coordinator of TNP I worked toward the masters’ degree and Ph.D. At Kent State, I had the opportunity to interact with and observe the operations of many local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies. These learning experiences would be very difficult to obtain in a classroom setting. As the representative of my organization, I coordinated the exchange training programs of the secondary group of incoming Turkish Police Officers in Ohio. In this capacity, I established partnerships between the TNP and the Ohio Law Enforcement and Homeland Security group, the Ohio Association of Chiefs of Police, Ohio Department of Public Safety, Ohio Attorney General’s Office and organized, or assisted with training programs with the Ohio State Highway Patrol Academy, and with police departments throughout Ohio that had developed exchange programs. I also served as the Official Counter-Terrorism Advisor to the Ohio Department of Public Safety under the auspices of the US Department of Homeland Security and the State of Ohio.. .. Within this context, I played a leadership role in organizing various training and cross-cultural programs between TNP and Ohio to improve mutual understanding in various fields, such as counterterrorism, homeland security, community policing, Arab and Muslim cultures and religious practices, and knowledge and information systems. In addition to the activities mentioned, I helped the development of a unique training materials for Ohio First Responders and the Ohio Local Law Enforcement Information Sharing network (OLLEISN), which connected all of Ohio’s law enforcement agencies in the sharing of their crime data, an information sharing system and unique training materials for Ohio First Responders. Most importantly, this eight-year-long experience in Ohio provided me exceptional opportunities for observing, participating in, and studying the US Criminal Justice System. I patrolled with my American colleagues, joined their security measures at sports events, drug task force operations, roll-call meetings, riot policing training sessions, court appearances, jail and detention center visits, citizen police academy sessions, assessment centers, leadership training, intelligence and counter-terrorism seminars and other activities performed by police officers. In that I lived in the City of Kent. I participated in or observed all of the major events and training exercises (for example, response to Nuclear, (continued)

3.4  Diversity in Police Work

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Box 3.2  (continued) Chemical, and Biological (NCB) attacks) undertaken by the Kent City Police and other relevant organizations such as the EMS and Fire Department. Q: Please address any other topic or matter regarding your experiences or observations with the police in the US and the Turkey National Police. A; In both countries, the existing policies, protocols, standards and operating procedures, and other organizational arrangements do not provide clear behavioral guidance in line with the profession’s dynamic nature. Because they are dormant, statutory, and not interactive, these instruments often do not provide the guidance needed in real life situations, especially when the situation escalates differently than expected. Again, in both countries, behavioral standards and standardized training programs give a deceptive conviction that the existing systems are meeting the contemporary demands. In practice, most police training programs are not efficiently regulated. They rely too much on assumptions, anecdotal, and unverified information, and often have little connection with the finding of research and scientific evidence pertaining to police work. My comparative studies and observations have indicated that in both countries criminal justice systems fall short in fulfilling their service to the community, and in protecting individual freedoms in a true sense because of the lack of existence of building solid bridges between the theory and practice in the operations of the components of the criminal justice systems. Theorists continue to publish and teach their research results and ideas; practitioners continue to do whatever their organizational culture dictates but neither side can adequately understand the other side. In hopes of improving the situation, I designed a virtual learning and knowledge platform model for the mutual use of police and other criminal justice organizations, and universities in Turkey, but it was not fully implemented.

3.4  Diversity in Police Work There are numerous job specializations within police agencies that did not exist until recent years. Many of the positions, such as dispatch, that were handled by sworn officers in the past are now handled by non-sworn personnel working for police organizations. In addition, police are required to have some knowledge of the use of the most recently developed communications equipment, including computers, body cameras, and other types of equipment used in crime detection, crime prevention, the provision of emergency services, and providing assistance for victims of crime. The basics of many of these skills can be learned during their formal education and later refined during an internship or during basic training. It is not uncommon to find that the new recruit can provide learning experiences for the seasoned officers. Often, one will find a new recruit showing a seasoned veteran how to access information on the Internet or how to complete standardized forms on the computer, using interviewing skills that are effective in producing the results desired, and other types of learning.

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Police organizations and police work are constantly changing to adapt to the challenges they meet and to provide services to the communities they serve. The findings of an international symposium titled Global Issues in Contemporary Policing revealed that (Kratcoski, 2017, p.  14) “police response to mass murder situations, cyber-security, preparing for natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and tsunamis, and for human-made crisis situations such as the collapse of financial systems as a result of fraud and corruption, terrorism, rioting, and corruption in government police work, requires the type of knowledge, specialized training, and expertize one is not likely to receive from formal education taken at a university, or from the basic training received as a new recruit.” Belur et al. (2020, pp. 135–136) discuss the use of graduate conversion courses in the training and assessment of the attainment of qualifications for entry-level police officers in the United Kingdom. They state, “Graduate conversion courses are intensive courses for Bachelor degree graduates to enable them to become qualified for entry into a profession.. .. These courses are mainly vocational in nature and have a strong focus on the practical elements of training, usually involving a compulsory element of placement or work experience in the desired field.” The types of graduate conversion courses applicable to the criminal justice field are similar to those for student teaching in the field of education or in-service placements in the nursing profession, with the goal of providing the education, training, and skill development needed to enter the profession and be competent in the performance of their work. As noted earlier, the nature of police work requires a lifetime commitment to learning. The knowledge accumulated can come from a number of sources. Information resulting from research, often completed by university professors, reveals that some approaches to police work may be ineffective and others very effective in producing the results sought after in police mission and goal statements. One example is community policing. Kratcoski et  al. (2020, p.  262) note, “Community policing involves the orientation of the police toward the creation of programs designed to establish close cooperative relations between the police and residents of the community. Community policing involves close person to-person contacts between officers and community residents, accomplished by assignment of an officer to a specific section of the community for an extended period of time. It stresses high visibility of the officer and use of various patrol methods, including a return to foot patrol.. .. The focus of this type of police work is service. The officer must know how to get in touch with social and government agencies in the community, so that the appropriate referrals can be made and must follow up on referrals to be sure that services have been requested and received.”

Box 3.3: Interview with Dr. Gary Cordner: Police Practitioner and Academic Gary Cordner presents his views of the importance of experiential learning in the preparation of persons for police work. Dr. Cordner received his PhD from Michigan State University. He served as a police officer in a Maryland police department and eventually was appointed chief. He entered academia and (continued)

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Box 3.3  (continued) served as a professor and dean of the College of Justice and Safety at Eastern Kentucky University. After retirement from Eastern Kentucky, he became a professor of criminal justice at Kutztown University, Kutztown, Pennsylvania. On retiring from Kutztown, he served as chief research advisor at the National Institute of Justice, a position he held before assuming his current position as academic director in the Baltimore Police Department’s Education and Training Section (Police Academy). Several of the many honors Dr. Cordner received during his career were commissioner with the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, co-principal investigator on the National Police Research Platform, editor of the American Journal of Police and of Police Quarterly, and president of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Q: Gary, when did you decide that you wanted to become a police officer? Was there any particular experience or person that had an influence on your decision? A: It was during my senior year in high school. I was definitely college-­ bound but with no specific focus. I think there were two influences: (1) a brochure in the school guidance counselor’s office for the College of Criminal Justice at Northeastern University, which had nice pictures of white-coated scientists in a crime lab; and (2) the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago. The police performed badly at that convention, which I think gave me that “wanting to be part of the change” frame of mind. Q: Did you major in a criminal justice degree program as an undergraduate? A: Yes, at Northeastern. Q: Did you complete an internship or co-op during your undergraduate work? A: Yes, Northeastern had a strong co-op program. It was a 5-year degree with alternating periods of study and co-op placement. I completed 5 different co-op assignments: 1. Baltimore Police Department (Planning and Research and Community Relations Divisions) 2. Seasonal Park Ranger, National Park Service, Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine located in Baltimore 3. LEAA (Law Enforcement Assistance Administration) USDOJ, Washington, D.C. 4. LEAA (USDOJ) Regional Office in Philadelphia 5. Seasonal Police Officer, Ocean City Police Department, Ocean City, Maryland Q: What was your first job in police work? A: Seasonal Police Officer in Ocean City, MD during my final undergraduate co-op. After graduation, they hired me as a regular full time officer. I worked there a total of 3  years. I left OCPD in 1976 for graduate school (continued)

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Box 3.3  (continued) (Michigan State). Later, in 1984, I was hired as Police Chief in St. Michaels, MD.  I held that position for 3  years before returning to university faculty employment. Q: What factors motivated you to continue your education and eventually become a professor? A: After working as a police office for a couple of years I wanted to continue my education. I took a few graduate classes at a nearby college (part-­ time study), but they didn’t have a degree program that fit my interests, so I ended up leaving the OCPD to go to Michigan State. My undergraduate mentor, Robert Sheehan, had always told me that if I wanted to continue my education, I should go to MSU (he had previously taught there). My intention at that time was to get a master’s degree and return to policing. I didn’t even know what a Ph.D. was, but MSU opened my eyes and gave me support and opportunities, so I ended up staying for the Ph.D. With that degree in hand, and a more academic orientation in my head, it seemed natural to look for a faculty position. I taught first at Washington State University (1 year), then the University of Baltimore (my hometown). After a couple of years at UB, I still had “the itch” and was lucky enough to get a police chief job, which I held for 3 years. At that point I was looking for a chief’s job in a larger department, but a faculty position at Eastern Kentucky University, in Police Studies, came to my attention, and I got sucked back into higher education. Q: What motivated you to accept a position with a police department after your retirement from Kutztown University? A: When I first retired from university teaching, I did some part-time international work for USDOJ (police reform in the Ukraine) and then was contracted by the National Institute of Justice to support their Law Enforcement Advancing Data and Science (LEADS) Program. I worked for DOJ for a couple of years. My role in LEADS was winding down when I saw a position announcement for Academic Director in the Baltimore Police Department’s Education and Training Section (Police Academy). My very first co-op assignment had been with the Baltimore PD, I almost went to work there when I graduated from college, and I was born in Baltimore. It seemed like a nice opportunity to make a contribution and return full circle, almost 50 years later. Also, the Baltimore Police Department is under a reform administration in which I have a good amount of confidence. So far it has been an interesting and satisfying chapter for me.

3.5  Internships with Police Agencies

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3.5  Internships with Police Agencies 3.5.1  I nternships with Federal Policing and Investigative Agencies The best known Department of Justice agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives; the Drug Enforcement Administration, and the US Marshals Service, are under the Department of Justice. Others, such as the US Secret Service, Postal Service, and Customs and Border Protection, are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security. Many other agencies and units in which sworn officers and investigators are employed include those under the executive branch of the government such as the Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, Department of Defense, Department of Education, Department of Health and Human Services, Treasury Department, and others. The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC), while housed in the Department of Homeland Security, provides training for a number of federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies located in other departments. Over the years, the author has placed dozens of intern students with many of these agencies. In the majority of cases, the interns received a stipend. It would be difficult to describe and categorize the range and types of work the interns completed, since their experiences varied. For example, although the agency administration may specify the general tasks and duties of interns that apply to all locations, students completing internships within the same agency may have quite different experiences, depending on the specific location of the agency in which the intern was placed, as well as the model followed by the agent who supervised the intern. A student assigned to the FBI headquarters in Washington, DC received quite a different work experience (predominately completing research in the office) compared to a student who interned with the FBI in the Cleveland office, who received more street experience. The statement holds true for many of the other agencies, including ATFE, US Marshals Service, and others.

Box 3.4 Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers “The Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC) provide career-­ long training to law enforcement professionals to help them fulfill their responsibilities safely and proficiently. Over the past 46 years, FLETC has grown into the Nation’s largest provider of law enforcement training. Under a collaborative training model, FLETC’s federal partner organizations deliver training unique to their missions, while FLETC provides training in areas common to all law enforcement officers, such as firearms, driving tactics, investigations, and legal training.. .. FLETC’s mission is to train all those who protect the homeland, and therefore its training audience also includes state, local, and tribal departments throughout the US” . . . “To assure the training it (continued)

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Box 3.4  (continued) offers is up to date and relevant to emerging needs, FLETC’s curriculum development and review process engages experts from across all levels of law enforcement, and FLETC partners extensively with other agencies and stakeholders in training, research, and the exchange of best practices to ensure it offers the most effective training, subject matter, technologies, and methodologies” (Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers, 2021, p. 1). “The Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC) College Intern Program (CIP) provides opportunities for college students majoring in criminal justice, criminology, business, information technology, and social science-­ related fields of study to participate in a federal law enforcement training environment. The CIP is offered in one sessions consisting of twelve (12) weeks. Applicants elect at the time of application whether to serve a Law Enforcement or Non- Law Enforcement internship. Law Enforcement interns will spend approximately fifty-percent of their time completing worthwhile work to advance the FLETC’s mission of training those to protect our homeland.” “Non-Law Enforcement interns will complete challenging administrative projects that provide insights in how various business lines support our mission. Both types of interns will spend the remaining fifty -percent of their auditing basic and advanced training course. All interns will be assigned a mentor, who will help facilitate any networking germane to the intern’s field of interest.” (Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers- FLETC College Intern Program, 2021, p. 1)

3.5.2  E  xperiential Education Opportunities Through Private Policing Kratcoski (2016, p. 300) noted that public policing agencies in the United States and perhaps in many other countries throughout the world now cooperate and collaborate with numerous professional organizations and private security organizations to assist them in their law enforcement, crime prevention, and services provided to the public. Professional practitioners, such as social workers, counselors, and psychologists, as well as those professionals providing services in forensics, child abuse investigations, and victim services, are either attached to police agencies as non-­ sworn personnel or on contract with a police agency to provide services when needed. The answer given by a child forensic interviewer employed by a children service agency to the question, “How often do you cooperate and interact with public and private service agencies such as the police, family court, welfare agencies and volunteer agencies?” (Kratcoski, 2012, pp. 104–105) was, “Legal departments such as family court and police agencies do have a huge effect in determining the

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removal of a child from a home, and what type of supervision an agency can provide. In general, children’s services works hand in hand with family court, drug and alcohol services providers, mental health agencies, sex offender treatment programs, parenting programs, rehab, public assistance, and various educational programs for the parents. It takes a community to assist families in their struggles.” Students completing internships with the police assigned to the juvenile bureau are likely to have considerable contact with professionals employed by several of the agencies mentioned above. For example, a juvenile officer employed by a city police department who had supervised several intern students responded to the question (Kratcoski, 2012 p. 138) “How do you respond when you receive a call relating to potential child abuse or neglect?” by answering, “These cases vary, and they cover a very broad spectrum of incidents, so the map on how to handle these cases will change with almost every case. The primary concern with all of these cases is the child’s safety.. .. These cases also involve lots of other agencies with whom you have to have good working relationships. Most of these cases involve what we call CPS, or Child Protective Services.” The Office of Chief Medical Examiner is another example of a non-policing agency employing personnel who perform tasks that are similar to some of the tasks performed by sworn police officer. “Medical investigators (Study.com, p. 1) work with law enforcement to investigate natural and accidental deaths, homicides, and suicides. These professionals analyze evidence collected from crime scenes and may assist medical examiners during autopsies. The minimum education required to become a medical investigator is an associate’s degree, but many positions require a bachelor’s or graduate level degree. Certification is also available.” The specific course work that is helpful for preparing for a medical investigator position, such as criminalistics, investigations, interviewing, criminal investigation, and forensics, is usually offered in criminal justice degree programs. In addition, there are often opportunities to complete an internship with the medical examiner’s office. Students who have an interest in science and who have taken several courses in biology and physics and desire to work in a field in which they can apply their knowledge are attracted to investigators work and are prime candidates for co-op and intern positions with the medical examiner. The author has placed a number of intern students with the medical examiner in a nearby county. On one occasion, when he came to the medical examiner’s office (also the morgue) for a field visit, he was informed that the student was in the middle of an important assignment and could not be disrupted, but he was welcome to observe her performance. He was escorted to the operating room where the student was assisting the medical examiner in an autopsy of a man who had recently been found dead in his home. Later, when discussing her activities with the medical examiner, she indicated that, in addition to assisting with autopsies, she had accompanied investigators to various death scenes, including homicides, suicides, and accidental death. She had assisted in collecting information and had an opportunity to observe the medical examiner testify in court. She informed the instructor that, although she was a criminal justice major, she really did not want to be a police officer, corrections worker, or an attorney and would like to continue working as a forensic investigator.

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Kratcoski (2012, p. 300) listed several of the ways professionals can be found working as employees of police departments or as consultants providing such services: • Developing and implementing standardized instruments used in the recruitment and selection of personnel • Assessing stress, burnout, and job satisfaction among officers • Providing direct counseling to officers experiencing post-traumatic stress, burnout, thoughts of suicide, alcohol, or drug abuse problems that have an effect on their performance • Assisting in the investigations of crimes through crime scene and evidence analysis • Providing medical reports on such matters as causes of death, types of wounds, and weapons used, assisting in specialized training in areas such as domestic violence, cultural diversity, community relations, and crime prevention • Serving as advisory board members in various types of community organizations, commissions, and other agencies that are police-community related, such as civilian review boards, community crime prevention organizations, and victim protection agencies The information provided above attests to the wide range of experiences and types of information that can result from an internship with a policing agency or an internship with an agency that works very closely with the police. Generally, students completing an internship or co-op with a policing agency who were assigned to an operations unit or one of the specialized units have their career aspirations confirmed by the experience, but occasionally the experience that helped to broaden their knowledge of other occupations steers them in another direction, and they decide they are more interested in pursuing a career in counseling, social work, or law.

3.5.3  School Resource Officers Resource Officer Saves Choking Student at Copley Middle School “A decision by a Copley school resource officer to poke his head into the cafeteria may have saved the life of a sixth grade boy. . .” “At first, I thought he was horsing around with his friends, but he ran straight to me and did the universal choking sign around his neck,” Campbell recalled. “I saw the fear in his eyes. . .” Aston darted towards the officer, who quickly performed the Heimlich maneuver four or five times, and then did several palm strikes on the student’s upper back before the piece of food came out. “And when he hit it– at the last second – he hit it as hard as he could and I felt it come out of my throat,” Ashton said. . . . “When it comes to your kids, it’s everything,“ Smith said. “You always want them to be safe and happy and if you don’t have those things, then what have you got? . . .”

3.5  Internships with Police Agencies

45

Copley Middle School Associate Principal Dyan Floyd presented Campbell with a certificate of bravery and heroism for saving the student. (Jones, B., Akron Beacon Journal, 2021, pp. B1 & B3)

The case cited above gives a good example of how the police and community organizations, both public and private, are cooperating and collaborating in providing services, in this case an educational institution. A report by Canady et al. (2012, pp. 18–19) notes that, “School resource officers assist educators in protecting the students and the education mission by being an active part of at least three education-initiated strategies. These include safe school training, purposeful use of technology, and effective use of inter-agency partnerships.” A study by Coon and Travis (2012) revealed that the role of SRO officers “included traditional law enforcement matters (patrolling school grounds, advising/ mentoring staff on avoiding violence/victimization, advising mentoring groups (e.g., police athletic leagues), advising/mentoring students and families (e.g. helping students with court involvement or intervention) presence at school events (e.g. presence for athletic events) teaching (e.g. anti-drug classes) and involvement in safety plans or meetings with schools (e.g. helping the school develop written plans for crisis situations.” In a survey of teachers, administrators, and school security personnel completed by Kratcoski (2012, p.  174), it was found that the security systems of the middle and high schools included in the study “could be categorized into one of several models. Several of the school districts employed a private security model. In these school districts, security staff, under the direct authority of the school districts, developed the security system, implemented it, and were responsible for the day by day activities. The local police, or federal agents became involved in cases where violations of state or local laws occurred. Another model had the security program designed by the school administrators, often in conjunction with the local police department, employ local police officers, who were assigned to work in the schools as School Resource Officers.” The roles of the security resource officers employed in the schools were similar to those of officers involved in community police. The research cited above and many other studies all emphasize the importance of cooperation, communication, and coordination between the police, the education system, and the community in the development and implementation of security in the schools, regardless of what model is used. In addition, those police officers or security personnel selected for school security positions need training and learning experiences that go beyond that what is provided in the basic police training course. Often, these experiences could be gained through an internship. The author has placed a number of interns with schools that had utilized the private security model and those that employed the use of school resource officers. Although their learning experiences were similar in many ways to those of students who were placed with police departments, there were many differences. In particular, the amount of time devoted to patrol was minimal, while the amount of time interacting with students during the normal class routine, on school grounds and during special events, such as sporting events, social activities, and community gatherings, was maximum.

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3.5.4  T  rends in Private Security and Investigative Agency Internship Opportunities The number of positions available for students with an education and some experience in work relating to the justice field is increasing at a very rapid pace. The number employed in security is expanding at a very rapid rate. While the image of a security guard who works in apartment, hotel, retail stores, banks, shopping centers, bars, restaurants, event security, mobile security, and in office buildings is still relevant, newer and often more complex positions in private security such as information security, cybercrime security, and investigations into fraud or false claims require a different type of education and experience. For example, the author placed interns with several manufacturing corporations, including one who worked in a large automobile manufacturing plant. The duties of the intern included those generally associated with security work, such as checking badges of workers to assure that they had the right to enter the plant; escorting visitors to the plant to their proper destination; checking for theft; responding to any unusual occurrence, including an accident; and several tasks related to plant safety not generally associated with security. One task of the security guards was to inspect the areas where welding took place to assure there was nothing in the area, for example, rags containing oil, that could result in a fire. Another intern worked for a product distributing company. His main job was to assure that boxes loaded onto the trucks used to distribute the products were not being stolen. The author has served as the academic supervisor for a number of interns who completed their internships with a variety of private security organizations, including a US Veterans’ Administration hospital, a state hospital for the mentally ill, a children’s hospital, a private investigator’s firm, an online merchandizer sales corporation, several amusement parks, at private office buildings, several large department stores, and other types of organizations. Their duties varied, depending on the functions the organization performed. In the majority of cases, the interns were paid, and they were given essentially the same tasks as the regular security personnel. Several of the interns were offered full-time employment after completing their internships, and a few of those who accepted the positions and continued to work for the organization were given supervisor position in the security department. For others, the internship with a private security organization served as a means to gain experience in the type of work they would pursue as a police officer or other justicerelated work, as well as having a steady source of income. Usually, a large number of temporary security positions are available for students interested in obtaining a paid job, but one that is related to their career goals of becoming a police officer can be found in amusement parks, beach towns, and resort areas. Many of the criteria that must be met to qualify for these intern positions are similar to those for of a police officer. They may include passing a drug test, a background check, and meeting specified age and physical requirements. An example of such an opportunity is presented in Box 3.4.

3.6 Summary

47

Box 3.5 Security Internship: Cedar Point Overview “Interns will be performing Security details by conducting general patrol and security checks, working in stationary perimeter booths to conduct security checks and other observations, assist with intake screening procedures for guests and associates as they enter through metal detection, assist with conducting traffic operations by directing and parking vehicles, along with other security assignments or details.” Responsibilities “Security interns will be asked to perform daily assignments on property of the Company, and enforce laws, policies, and procedures. Security Interns will be required to maintain department paperwork and write reports, follow and pass training assignments which may require tests as needed.” (Cedar Point Amusement Park, 2021, p. 1)

3.6  Summary The opportunities for students pursuing degree programs that will prepare them for law enforcement and security positions increased significantly with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Prevention and Control Act in 1969. The creation of the law enforcement administration that was part of this act provided funding for colleges and universities to establish degree programs in criminal justice as well as providing grants for students and funding for research. Most important, it helped open the door for the development of cooperation and collaboration between the institutions of higher education and public and private law enforcement agencies. The cooperation and collaboration have continued and expanded up to the present time and for the benefit of students preparing for careers in the justice field. Currently, students can find experiential education opportunities, either through participating in workshops or field trips and in particular engaging in co-ops or internships with policing and investigative agencies at the local, state, and federal levels. The specific duties and range of assignments may vary, depending on the characteristics of the agency with which they are placed. However, the students generally can obtain both hands-on and observational information from their experience with the agency. Some police departments and private security agencies have established ongoing agreements to use student interns for certain periods. For instance, the Ocean City Police Department, a public agency, has established a standard procedure for the recruitment, selection, and training of temporary officers who will be assigned to assist the regular officers during the summer months. The Cedar Point amusement park, a private enterprise, has established a similar

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procedure for the selection and training of security guards. The testimony of the majority of students who have completed internships or co-ops with policing and private security or closely related agencies reveals that they had had a valuable learning experience that helped prepare them for the career of their choosing. The experience helped them better understand the material presented in the classroom courses they were taking. In some cases, the experience helped them in making a decision that steered them away from the law enforcement and justice field. The opportunities for US students to complete police- and security-related internships in other countries have increased. In addition, opportunities for US students to gain experiential learning by way of workshops and field trips to other countries have opened up in many countries. This may be due to the increase in the number of academics from the United States and other countries who have collaborated in research, faculty exchange programs, as well as foreign travel.

References Belur, J., Agnew-Pauley, & Tompson, L. (2020). Designing a graduate entry route for police recruits: Lessons from a rapid evidence assessment of other professions. Police Practice and Research, 21(2), 134–151. Canady, M., James, B., & Nease, J. (2012). To protect and educate: The school resource officer and the prevention of violence in schools. Washington, D.C.: National Association of School Resource Officers. Cedar Point Amusement Park  – Security internship. (2021). https://www.cedarfair.com/job-­ detail/12074276/security-­internship-­sandusky-­oh/. Retrieved 3/25/2021. Coon, J., & Travis, L. (2012). The role of police in public schools: A comparison of principal and police reports of activities in schools. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 13(1), 15–30. Cordner, G., & Shain, C. (2016). The changing landscape of police education and training. In P. Kratcoski & M. Edelbacher (Eds.), Collaborative policing: Police, academics, professionals, working together for education, training, and program implementation (pp. 51–62). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. EPIC [/HPMR]. (2021). What is EPIC? Home-EPIC- Ethical Policing Is Courageous-New Orleans Police Department. Retrieved 4/21/2021. Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers. (2021). Learn About FLETC fletc-­webmaster@dhs. gov, pp. 1–8. Retrieved 2/23/2021. Hoel, L. (2020). Police student’s experience of participation and relationship during in-field training. Police Practice & Research, 21(6), 577–590. Jones, B. (2021). Resource officer saves choking student at Copley Middle School. Akron Beacon Journal Thursday, 2/25/2021 B1-B6. Kratcoski, P., & Walker, D. (1984). Criminal justice in America: Process and issues (2nd ed.). New York: Random House. Kratcoski, P. (2007). The challenges of police education and training in a global society. In P. C. Kratcoski & D. K. Das (Eds.), Police education and training in a global society (pp. 3–24). Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, A division of Rowman & Littlefield. Kratcoski, P. (2012). Juvenile Justice Administration. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group.

References

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Kratcoski, P. (2016). Police, academic, professional, community collaboration: Past, present, and future. In P. Kratcoski & M. Edelbacher (Eds.), Collaborative policing (pp. 293–305). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Kratcoski, P. (2017). Policing: Continuity and change. In J. Eterno, A. Verma, A. Das, & D. K. Das (Eds.), Global issues in contemporary policing (pp. 3–32). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Kratcoski, P., Kratcoski, L., & Kratcoski, P. (2020). Juvenile delinquency: Theory, research, and the justice process (6th ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Kratcoski, P. (2021a). Interview with Dr. Gary Cordner.4/10/2021 Electronical transmitted. Kratcoski, P. (2021b). Interview with Dr. Mustafa Ozguler 4/14/2021. Electronically Transmitted. Study.com. Be a medical investigator: Course and training requirements:1 Log in(academy/login. htmi Retrieved 2/27/2021. McDonnell, S. (2021). Police train to aid victims, bystanders Akron Beacon Journal. Sat. Feb 20, 2021; A1 & A6. Ocean City Police Department Training and Recruiting. A summer job and the experience of a lifetime, pp. 1–7. www.joinocpd.com. Retrieved 2/15/2021. Ozguler, M. (2011). Designing the future’s police leaders. In P.  Kratcoski & D.  K. Das (Eds.), Police education and training in a global society. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books/A division of Rowman & Littlefield. United States Government.: Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers: FLETC College Intern program:1 Retrieved 2/28/2020.

Chapter 4

Experiential Education in the Legal Field

4.1  Introduction The opportunities for students to gain experiential learning in the areas of law, litigation, and court procedures and processes and receive information on the various agencies that interact and cooperate with legal agencies are numerous. For example, an undergraduate student with a goal of entering law school, who seeks to enroll in an internship program to gain experience, will have a number of choices. The student could elect to intern with a juvenile court, municipal court, common pleas court, prosecutor’s office, public defender’s office, private attorney, the legal department of a corporation, or even the law department of a police agency or corrections agency. The specific types of tasks interns are assigned might vary even within the same agency. For example, one intern working with the juvenile court might be assigned to the intake division and another to the probation department. An intern with the prosecutor’s office might be assigned to work with the juvenile division or the criminal or civil division, while students completing internships with private attorneys might be expected to write briefs, complete research on cases, and even assist the attorney in court. Graduate-level students and law school students working with any of the agencies mentioned above may be expected to complete the same tasks as undergraduate interns. However, since they typically will have more knowledge and even experience in the areas of law, the tasks they are assigned will often be more complex. Interns working for government agencies will generally be subjected to a more extensive background investigation than those working with private agencies and law firms. Numerous colleges and universities have established degree programs, minors, and special tracks in their curriculum that are geared toward preparing a student for entrance into a law school. These programs are usually housed in the departments of political science, sociology, or criminal justice. In addition, many universities © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 P. C. Kratcoski, P. C. Kratcoski, Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5_4

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have established degree programs titled paralegal studies or legal assistant studies for students interested in working in law-related areas who do not plan to attend law school immediately after graduation. For example, Kratcoski et al. (2016, p. 142) note that students majoring in justice studies interested in completing an internship in a law-related agency can take the internship course as an elective, while students majoring in the paralegal degree program may be required to complete the internship course. A law-related internship in the justice study department will generally be in a public agency such as a court, prosecutor’s office, and public defender’s office, a government agency such as the department of corrections, or an agency offering legal aid, while interns under the paralegal program will generally be placed with private attorneys, some of them specializing in criminal defense, others in corporation law, and others in general law practice. Occasionally, the paralegal intern may be placed with a government agency. Students majoring in political science or those in a prelaw program are likely to be drawn toward a government agency or the office of a public official. The opportunities for law school students to complete paid internships are more extensive than the opportunities available for paid internships for undergraduates, since the law school students are more likely to be able to meet the qualifications required for the internship. Over the years, the author has placed intern students with all of the types of agencies mentioned above. Several special internship placements included a student who worked in a public defender’s office in London, England, several students who interned with the Washington DC Public Defender’s program, and a student who interned in a federal prison in Mexico who assisted the female inmates in preparing reviews of their cases and taught them to speak English and other tasks. An example, of an internship opportunity with a government agency for law students, is given in Box 4.1.

Box 4.1: Internships: the US Attorney’s Office The US Attorney’s Office (Eastern District of Pennsylvania Summer internships, 2021, p. 1) states that it offers unpaid summer internships for students in law school. “The intern program is 9 or 10 weeks long and begins shortly after Memorial Day. Interns are assigned to work on either criminal or civil matters, although it is usually possible to work on both types of cases during the summer, if that is desired. The program allows interns to work on and observe cases litigated in the US District Court and the Third Circuit Court of Appeals. Interns participate with assistant US attorneys in all phases of litigation, from investigation through trial and appeal. Interns also attend training sessions in which they learn relevant skills and hear from various participants in the criminal justice system. The speakers include judges and staff members of this office. When possible, the office also sponsors field trips to locations (such as prisons and local courthouses) relevant to the prosecution of criminal cases”.

4.1 Introduction

Box 4.2: The Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia The Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia has provided internship opportunities for students attending law school as well as for undergraduate students who are planning to enter law school after graduation or pursuing positions with a law-related agency such as a court. The history of the DC Public Defender Service and an explanation of the internship program are presented in Box 4.2. The internship positions are very competitive. Since the internships are unpaid, those accepted to the program must have their own source of funds to provide for living costs during the time they are completing the internship. Generally, the interns will receive academic credit from the universities or law schools they are attending. History The Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia (2021, pp. 1–3) reports that, “In 1960, the District of Columbia established what was then known as the Legal Aid Agency (LAA). The LAA, which is now called the Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia (PDS), was created to be a model public defender office. From the outset, PDS began developing the reputation for high quality, zealous advocacy it has enjoyed for decades. Our attorneys and other professionals are some of the best you will find anywhere. The staff in our various legal and legal support practice areas, which include trial (adult and juvenile), appellate, parole and supervised released, mental health, reentry, and some civil matters, work hard to meet our client’s needs.” Internship Opportunities The Federal Public Defender for the District of Columbia (2021, pp. 1–3) states that it “seeks unpaid, volunteer interns in our office for the fall, spring and summer semesters. Applicants are encouraged to apply for outside grants and funding during their internship. Preference is given to full time volunteers.” Investigative Internships The Federal Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia (2021, p. 1) states, “Investigative interns learn under the guidance of staff investigators. They work with the lawyers to investigate cases. Their main duties include conducting background investigations on witnesses, interviewing witnesses, gathering records, conducting crime scene investigations, serving subpoenas, and preparing for trial and other court appearances.”

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Box 4.3 gives testimonies of students who interned with legal agencies or participated in an experiential education program. Box 4.3 Testimonials, Participants of Mock Trial Team J….. – “Being on the Kent State Mock trial team has been an extremely rewarding experience.. .. It is a worthwhile experience that has helped me learn about the legal profession, meet new people and develop life-long skills, such as reasoning, public speaking and thinking on my feet, which will help later in my academic and professional career.” K…… – “Being on the Kent State Mock Trial Team is a great experience.. .. It really opens your eyes about the future because it shows you what it’s really like to be an attorney. It simulates a real trial and gives you a feel of what it would be like if you continued on this career path. Mock trial has shown me that I chose the right major here at Kent and it has prepared me for my future.” Intern with a City Prosecutor’s Office  – Excerpts from Roy J.  Patton’s Internship’s log and from his evaluation of the experience  – “Several of my activities to date have been: I viewed several cases in court, answered the office phone and took messages, reviewed several cases being prepared for court hearings, rode along with the city police department, toured and sat in a court hearing in the court of common pleas of a defendant who was accused of fraud.”…. “In regard to the evaluation of my experience, the prosecutor and assistant prosecutor provided me with extensive information on any aspect of what was expected of me to learn during this internship. On a scale of 1‘-10, if I were asked to rate the experience on such a rating scale, I would say a definite 10.” Internship with a Law Firm M……. Summary  – “My internship with the law firm was not what I expected. I took several law courses and thought I would be prepared for the work I would be doing, but found out that I didn’t know much about bankruptcy law, and that is the area most of the lawyers specialized in. At first I was assigned to complete the filing of the cases. A few of the lawyers helped me learn how to complete research on the computer and how to brief the cases (we did cover briefs in the course legal writing) and how to determine what information from a case is important. I also had a chance to view a case that was being litigated in the court. I learned that there is a difference in the terminology used for the civil court process and for the criminal court process. Overall, my internship was a good experience. I think I was helpful to the law firm and was given a good evaluation by my supervisor. I will probably go to law school, but I am still more interested in criminal law than civil law.” The testimony of the student above illustrates an important point regarding the type of agency the student selects for an internship. A student completing an internship in a law-related agency may have to accept the opportunity that is available, even if it is not their first choice. Students have prior experiences and values that tend to draw them toward one type of agency over others. For example, students who have a preference for working in the criminal justice (continued)

4.2  Paralegal Internships

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Box 4.3  (continued) system may turn down a paid internship opportunity to work with a prosecutor and accept an opportunity for an unpaid internship with a public defender’s office or a private defense attorney on the basis of their preference to work on the side of the alleged criminal offender. For others, the hope that the internship may be an avenue to obtain a position with a well-established law firm may be the primary motiving factor for completing the internship. The testimony of a student who interned with the Washington DC Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia illustrates how the experience helped confirm her choice of a career in law. “I’m Mallorie Urban, arising 3L at Stanford Law. I’ve wanted to be a public defender since before starting law school, and interning at PDS has only confirmed the value of this work, both for me personally and for our nation more broadly. While the COVID-19 pandemic has posed unique challenges for our clients, the recent nationwide momentum toward police reform has created unique opportunities for public defenders. In addition to composing Compassionate Release motions and researching other COVID-19 related issues, I’ve had the pleasure of working with skilled, passionate lawyers on novel issues regarding race and police misconduct. I’ve been inspired by the activism and radical leadership I’ve seen in both my fellow interns and my supervising attorneys despite the collectivity uncertainty and unrest we are all facing. I look forward to using the skills I’ve gained and honed at PDS to continue to fight for indigent clients for many years to come.” (GOVServ, 2020, p. 6)

4.2  Paralegal Internships The American Bar Association (2021. p. 1) defines a paralegal or legal assistant in the following way. “A legal assistant or paralegal is a person qualified by education, training or work experience who is employed or retained by a lawyer, law office, corporation, governmental agency or other entity who performs specifically delegated substantive legal work for which a lawyer is responsible.” Wagner (2009, p. 3) states that a paralegal can assist a lawyer in all types of legal tasks and complete various legal tasks except those in which the law specifically requires an attorney. For example, a paralegal cannot give legal advice to a client. Wagner (2009, p. 3) notes that, “Paralegals first appeared in the mid-1960s as part of President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty. Federally funded lawyers in poverty law programs used the first paralegals to reduce the cost of helping low-­ income clients.”.. . “In the early 1970s, the use of paralegals spread, as more conservative firms realized that they would have to use paralegals to remain competitive.” “Recognizing that there was a high demand for well-trained legal assistants to serve in various private and public agencies and in the corporate world, colleges and

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universities as well as trade schools, established degree programs at all levels, currently, paralegals are in high demand for the same reasons as that those in the early development of the paralegal profession.” LAW.COM (2021), p. 1 notes that, “The hiring of paralegals is the latest trend in hiring for law firms and in-house legal departments.. .. These positions bring the greatest value and are in demand. As clients seek legal services at lower costs, the need for multifaceted support staff grows.” The specific qualifications required and the job descriptions of paralegals vary, depending on the type of agency in which they are employed. For example, a paralegal who is employed in a law firm that completes a great deal of litigation will likely complete interviews, conduct research, brief cases, and assist an attorney in court. If employed in the legal division of a corporation, the paralegal might conduct initial interviews with clients, prepare and file documents, and help in preparing various documents such as mergers, tax returns, acquisition of property documents, and many other tasks. A paralegal employed with a real estate firm would be expected to complete tasks related to real estate matters. General practice law firms employ the majorit of paralegals. If the attorneys practice in several of the special areas of the law, such as criminal law, probate, civil law, and corporate law, a paralegal may have a much wider variety of tasks to complete than a paralegal who is employed by a general practice law firm for more than 5 years that is specialized. For example, Scott Westerman, a paralegal employed with a general practice firm consisting of three attorneys, three paralegals, and a few office workers, was asked to identify the tasks that he completed on a regular basis during the time he served as an intern and those required for his current employment (interview with Scott Westerman, conducted by P. C. Kratcoski, 3/10/2021.)

4.2.1  Tasks Completed Frequently as an Intern • Legal research and briefing a case • Preparing documents Tasks sometimes completed as an intern included the following: • • • • • •

Fact finding of a case Correspondence with a client Preparing documents in landlord/tenant disputes Criminal law and family law research Probate law research Drafting motions

As a paralegal, Scott reported that the range of tasks performed has expanded significantly. Tasks completed frequently as a paralegal:

4.2  Paralegal Internships

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

57

Drafting wills Preparing documents Fact finding of a case Corresponding with clients Assisting in estate planning Legal research, probate law research Preparing trust documents Filing documents Preparing deeds/quit claims Sales contracts Drafting motions Taking notes during attorney/client interaction Telephone scheduling Tasks occasionally completed as a paralegal include the following:

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Interviewing clients Assisting in discovery Drafting leases Landlord/tenant disputes Collection of fees Criminal law and family law research Briefing a case Drafting complaints Preparing interrogatories Drafting dissolutions Preparing sale of assets Assisting in bankruptcy cases Billing of clients Preparing eviction documents

The co-author of this book has been a practicing attorney for 33  years. His responses to an interview on the subject of internships are found in Box 4.4.

Box 4.4: Interview of Peter C. Kratcoski, Attorney (3/30/2021) Q; What was your undergraduate major? A: Political Science Q: When did you decide to attend law school? A: Junior year of college at Ohio State University Q: Was there any particular course or professor that motivated you toward a career in law? A: Introduction to Logic taught by professor Lander Q: Did you complete an internship/coop/volunteer work during your undergraduate studies? (If yes, provide some details) A: No (continued)

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Box 4.4  (continued) Q: While attending law school, did you complete an internship/coop, work study/volunteer work? (If yes, provide details) A: Yes, Mediation workshop/practicum at Ohio State University College of Law. The course was taught by Ropers. The purpose of the practicum was for law students to attempt to mediate actual cases 1 h before the small claims parties went to the courtroom to have their cases heard. The success of the cases successfully mediated was approximately 35%. Reflecting on your work as the supervisor of intern students at your law firm, Q: How many years have you been the supervisor of interns? A: I have been supervising intern students from Kent University and other universities since I started at this firm, about 33 years. Q: Did the firm use interns before you joined the firm? A: Yes. As the new attorney in the firm, I was given the job of being the supervisor of interns. Q: Discuss the process followed for the selection of interns. Who initiates the process, the student requesting the internship, the professor supervising the intern, or are both are applicable? A: The selection process for interns historically begins in August when the professor of a student contacts me to inquire if I have an opening for an intern. Sometimes a student in one of my classes may approach me and inquire about completing an internship in my law firm. I have supervised students who were enrolled in several different majors, including sociology, political science, and the most frequent, paralegal studies majors. If the students have the prerequisites required by the department in which they are majoring, I will request that they submit a resume, and I will arrange for them to come to the firm for an interview. This gives me a chance to see the prospective intern student in the setting in which he/she will be working and also gives the student an opportunity to see the setting and the people he/she will be working with during the internship. Once accepted, I work out a schedule, and outline the range of tasks he/she will be expected to complete. On their first day, I have them read the internship manual and sign their signature that they have read it and understand the requirements. The matters of recognizing the importance of honesty and the confidentiality of clients are emphasized in the interview and on the their first day of work at the firm. Q; How important are the following characteristics (traits) of the student in helping you make your decision to accept a student for an internship? Prior experience working in a law related capacity Very Important ______Somewhat Important________ Not Important__X_____ Communication skills Very Important_X______ Somewhat Important______ Not Important________ Knowledgeable in use of Computer Very Important_______ Somewhat Important_X______ Not Important________ (continued)

4.2  Paralegal Internships

Box 4.4  (continued) Demonstrates Initiative Very Important_X______ Somewhat Important_______ Not Important________ Social Interaction Skills Very Important_______ Somewhat Important_X______ Not Important________ Writing Skills Very Important_X______ Somewhat Important_______ Not Important________ Q: Indicate traits/characteristics of the potential intern that you consider important in the decision. A: Normally the major characteristics of successful interns include communication skills, legal research and writing abilities, and a positive professional attitude. Q: To be accepted as an intern, does the student have to be enrolled in any particular major? (Are some majors excluded from consideration) A: No. As mentioned, the majority of the interns are majoring in paralegal studies. There are no majors that are excluded from consideration. Q: Do the interns receive a stipend? A: Yes________ No__X______ Sometimes__________ Q: Are the interns required/expected to give an evaluation of their learning experience? (If so, give a summary of the predominate parts of the experience mentioned in the evaluation (developed writing skills, Communication skills, self-confidence, motivation to pursue more education, and develop skills. A: Yes, I am required to provide an evaluation of their performance. The evaluation form is provided by the academic professor of the internship course. The academic requirements for most interns include keeping a record of their activities and writing some type of final report or paper. These are submitted to the academic supervisor who is responsible for submitting the student’s grade. Q: After the completion of an internship, has the firm ever hired an intern for a position as a paralegal? A: Yes, Several paralegals have been hired after they completed their internship. There are currently three former interns who are employed as paralegals. Q: Do you receive feedback on the career development of the interns? (Example would include enrolled in law school, obtained a para-legal position, pursued a non-law related career, etc.) A: Yes. Most of the feedback on the career development of the interns is provided by the interns themselves, who contract the office and provide updates on their status. In addition, I am contacted by former intern students who request letters of reference for a potential legal position, or for acceptance into law school or some other higher education program.

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4.3  L  earning Experiences Motivating Toward a Law-Related Career After graduating from high school, Sharron L. Kennedy enrolled in the University of Cincinnati’s School of Social Work and received a bachelor’s degree in social work. However, instead of becoming a social worker, she stated that she achieved her childhood dream when she accepted employment with the City of Hamilton Police Department. After several years of police work, she resigned as a full-time police officer to pursue a law degree at the University Cincinnati College of Law. She graduated from law school and started a private practice in the City of Hamilton. She remained in private practice until elected as a judge of the Court of Common Pleas Domestic Relations Division in Butler County, Ohio. She held that position until her election to the Ohio Supreme Court. She is currently serving her second term with the Ohio Supreme Court (Kratcoski, 2015, pp. 203–205). In an interview with Judge Kennedy, the author asked what motivated her to decide to quit her position as a police officer and enroll in law school? She responded (Kratcoski, 2015, p. 203), “After obtaining my college degree, I was hired by the Hamilton Police Department to serve as a law enforcement officer. assigned to a rotating patrol unit, I worked in a number of different areas of the city. Serving as a police officer was a great opportunity. It taught me how to deal with all types of people and situations and challenged me to think on my feet, applying the law in ‘real time.’ Serving as a police officer also gave me the opportunity to see the inner workings of the entire justice system and meet other professionals within the system. Until that time, I had never met a lawyer or a judge. I remember the day I decided to go to law school. I was on the witness stand, being poorly cross-­examined by a defense attorney, and I thought, if he could graduate from law school, then I could too. Resigning from the department was bittersweet. Looking back, that was to become one of the greatest defining moments of my life.” The decision of Judge Kennedy to change career paths is a decision that is not an unusual case. No doubt a fairly large number of people are dissatisfied with their positions and would like to change their job or the type of work they are engaged in if they had the opportunity. A desire to enter the legal profession may be the result of a particular experience, as apparently was the case with Judge Kennedy, or it may be the result of the worker seeing an opportunity. The author has knowledge of a number of people who attended law school during the evening while employed in another justice agency or employed as a professor with a university. Others have enrolled in law school after retirement from a position or the military and others terminated their position in order to enroll in a law school or to enroll in a university to pursue a higher-level degree in a justice-related program. The following example illustrates the point. In Box 4.5, Vester (Bo) Sullivan, who is currently employed with a law firm as a paralegal and had previously completed an internship with a law firm, provides some information relating to his motivation for pursuing a career as a paralegal. After completing high school, Bo joined the Navy, where he served on a submarine

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and as an instructor in their nuclear power program as a Reactor Operator and Electronics Technician. After discharge from the Navy, he attended and graduated from DeVry Institute of Technology with a bachelor’s degree in Electronic Engineering Technology. His employment generally was in the nuclear and semiconductor manufacturing sector, with his job titles being a Quality Engineer, a Final Test Technician, an Instrument Technician, and a Nuclear Oversight Auditor. His prior work experiences have all been around following procedures; auditing processes to site, local, state, and national requirements; and observing individuals during the auditing process. These tools lend themselves directly to the legal field, since they utilize the same basic set of skills. Bo completed his bachelor’s degree in 2020 and is employed with a law firm located in Kent, Ohio.

Box 4.5: Interview with Vester (BO) Sullivan by P.C. Kratcoski (3/8/2021) Q: Bo, Tell us why you decided to pursue a position as a paralegal? A: I decided on the Paralegal program at Kent State as my daughter was attending law school in Akron, OH with the ultimate goal of eventually working together. However, my daughter moved to West Virginia while I was still completing my program. Additionally, based on personal experiences I have been through, I wanted a position where I could help those who have been wronged and are seeking assistance on resolving their issues. Q: Reflecting on your time in college, was there any particular class or professor that had a profound effect on helping you choose a major in Paralegal Studies? A: Professor Amanda Paar-Conroy has had a profound effect on my choice of the Paralegal Studies program. I am a disabled veteran and I met with her prior to attending Kent State University. I was deciding on whether to obtain either an associate degree from another local college or a bachelor’s degree from Kent State. My meetings with her definitely had an effect on my choice. Also, I have had Professor Paar-Conway for many classes, and in each I have learned valuable tools that have directly helped me in my current position. Q: During your internship with a law firm, what if any were the most important assignments or tasks that helped you in preparing for your current position as a paralegal? A: My internship initially began while the country was adjusting to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. This resulted in my having to work from home for the first several weeks. During this time, I was assigned multiple tasks that required researching the internet for various national and state laws regarding the pandemic and how various organizations were addressing it. This research was one of the first times that I not only had to look for information but was required to organize it and provide a response to my lead attorney on how clients should address their issues due to the COVID-19. Additionally, this research required utilization of searches on West Law for how the legal field was addressing issues related to (continued)

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Box 4.5  (continued) administrative processes such as filing of records with various courts, indexing client records, searching for closed files, searching for similar filings to use as examples, and drafting correspondences to clients. I use these skills every day in my current position. I feel they are some of the important ones to be successful and to be useful as a paralegal. Q: What were some of the skilled you learned (or continued to develop) when you were an intern with a law office? A: One skill I am continuing to learn each day is how to draft sound legal correspondences to clients and other individuals, such as attorneys, that address the issues related to my assignments. Being able to write well is critical in this field, as comments can be taken out of context unless they are direct, clear, and leave no room for interpretation. I feel that having this skill helps the law firm overall as it reduces number of times the lead attorney has to review the drafts provided for corrections. I also feel my organizational skills have improved since starting as an intern in terms of keeping track of both daily and long-term assignments I am responsible for completing. I have created my own assignment log to assist in keeping track of filings, the dates when to expect responses from clients, and follow-ups to ensure action items are done on time. Q: As a paralegal, do you have any obligation to take continuing education course? A: My understanding is that as a paralegal (non-licensed) I do not have any obligation to take continuing education classes. Q: Since the beginning of your current employment, have you attended any seminars, workshops or lectures related to your work as a paralegal? A: No, so far there has not been an opportunity. Q: Do you have any interest in eventually pursuing a law degree? A: No. This is my second career and I was an older student when I completed my undergraduate degree. If I attended law school, by the time I would graduate I would be ready for retirement.

4.4  F  ield Trips and Seminars Relating to the Legal Aspects of the Justice System Students who are in middle school and high school learn about the law and the justice process in the United States when they take such courses as American history, political science, and social studies. Occasionally, invited guests, such as attorneys, judges, civil rights leaders, and authors, may speak on current issues such as racial discrimination, crime, and other matters related to law and justice. In addition, students learn about the law and justice from television, cinema, and information provided from the Internet.

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4.4.1  Mock Trial Several opportunities for “hands-on” learning experiences are available for students attending high school. The American Bar Association, in conjunction with the bar associations of the participating states, has coordinated and conducted mock trial tournaments each year for more than 35 years. For example, the Ohio Center for Law-Related Education, in collaboration with Teachers to Bring Citizenship to Life and with the assistance of the various county bar associations, implemented the 38th Annual Ohio High School Mock Trial Competition in 2021. According to the Ohio Center for Law-Related Education (2020, p. 6): “Ohio Mock Trial provides an opportunity for high school students to participate in an academic competition. The Ohio Mock Trial Competition is designed to foster a better understanding of the American democratic legal system and to encourage development and analytical and communication skills. In moving from the classroom to the courtroom, high school students add an important dimension to their learning experience in citizenship education.”

The authors have served as coaches of a high school mock trial team for a number of years. During the time from when the team is first formed to the students’ performance in the competition, they have observed dramatic changes in the team members’ writing skills, ability to organize and summarize material, and ability to analyze material and decipher what is important and what is not important. They develop self-confidence, verbal skills, and skills in social interaction. They learn how to accept constructive criticism of their work by the coaches during the practice preparations for the competition against other high school mock trial teams, as well as the constructive comments by the judges who score their performance during the competition. Generally, during the period of time from when the team forms to the actual competition, a team spirit will develop. The students recognize the importance in teamwork and take pride in their work. They also learn to take the winning or losing of a match graciously. Feedback received by the coaches from some of the team members reveals that their participation in mock trial was an important learning experience in their educational development. Several mentioned that it motivated them toward attending law school, but general comments centered on the factors mentioned above, such as development of writing and speaking skills and development of self-confidence. The Ohio Center for Law-Related Education organizes, in cooperation with local justice agencies, a mock trial program for middle-school students. The case provided is not as complex as the high school one, and the roles (witness, attorney) the students play are not as difficult as those with the high school competition, but the format, procedures, and processes are basically the same as those for the high school mock trial completion, and the middle-school students have essentially the same type of learning experience.

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4.4.2  Mock Court (Collegiate Level) The mock court competitions, founded and organized by the American Mock Trial Association, are similar to the mock trial competitions, with the exception that the participants are students of colleges and universities instead of high schools. The American Mock Trial Association (2021, p. 1) notes, “The American Mock Trial Association serves as the governing body for 25 regional tournaments, eight opening round championships tournaments, and a national tournament each year.” Students attending colleges and universities throughout the United States participate in the mock court competitions. Generally, the team members are recruited during the fall semester. Once the teams are formed (a team is limited to eight to ten members), the members work on a case, either civil or criminal, the entire semester in preparation for the competitions that are held during the spring semester. At some colleges and universities, the mock court is offered as an extracurricular activity, and in others students can receive credit for one or more courses. For example, Kent State has developed two elective courses under the paralegal program. The first course, offered during the fall semester, titled Seminar in Trial Preparation, is predominately conducted in the classroom, and it is designed to cover concepts, process, rules, procedures, and roles of the participants in the trial. Specific classes are devoted to case planning, development of a theory, jury selection, preparing opening statements, direct examinations, cross examinations, and closing arguments. The course offered in the spring semester is titled Practicum in Trial Application. This class is structured as an out of classroom experience. During this semester, the students prepare for the one or more tournaments that are held at various locations in which they compete against teams from other colleges and universities. The experiential learning opportunity associated with the mock trial tends to attract students from a wide variety of disciplines. Some universities will have four or more teams who compete in the tournaments. The popularity of the mock trial program in some universities requires that students try out for the teams, a process similar to that of trying out for a part in a play, position in the band, or to sing in the choir. The authors have served as instructors of the courses mentioned about and as coaches for the Kent State mock trial teams for many years. Some of the students who participated in mock trial as freshman continued to participate until their graduation. Feedback from students attests to the importance of the learning experience in helping them focus in on a choice of a career. Others stated the experience helped them build self-confidence, improved their writing skills, and helped them improve their ability to analyze and summarize complex materials and to cooperate with other team members and work as a team. Most of the team members also mentioned the friendships they developed during the competitions.

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4.5  E  xperiential Learning Programs for Law School Students The moot court programs operating at law schools throughout the United States have a long history. The majority of universities that have a school of law has several programs in which students can obtain experiential learning. Some of the programs are student selective, requiring that the students compete for positions in the program. Others are open to all law students who desire to gain some practical experience in the field of their future employment. Experiential learning opportunities offered in the Moot Court and Lawyering Skills Program at the Ohio State University Moritz College of Law are described as follows (Ohio State University, Moritz College of Law, 2021, pp. 1–2): “Students at Moritz have the opportunity to start developing practical skills early in their careers. With moot court and lawyering skills programs in trial advocacy, alternative dispute resolution, and appellate argument, Moritz students take advantage of many levels of opportunity across a broad range of legal areas. We host multiple internal competitions and field traveling teams in some of the nation’s best nation’s oldest and most prestigious competitions. Whether you are interested in trial work, appellate work, deal-making, or national security, there are many ways to be involved in the Moot Court and Lawyering Skills Program.. .. The program features a national-ranked travel team program, which sends the school’s best advocates to competitions across the country, as well as intramural competitions for Moritz students.”

4.6  Workshops Workshops provide excellent opportunities for experiential learning. The time flexibility of a workshop is an important feature. A workshop can extend over a number of weeks or can be as short as 1 or 2 days. The authors have conducted workshops on weekends and in conjunction with the attendance at a professional conference. What is required for the learning experience for those who participate in the workshop is planning and, if help off campus is needed, a great deal of cooperation from those professionals participating. The authors, sometimes in collaboration with one or more other professors, have conducted numerous workshops relating to the justice systems. Several of these were conducted in another country, but generally a portion of the time was devoted to class instruction and a portion related to field experiences. For example, one workshop was scheduled to meet on Fridays and Saturdays for a 5-week period of time. Although the activity covered the entire criminal justice system, an entire Friday was devoted to observation of the various courts (municipal, common pleas, and juvenile) and discussing law-related matters with the judges of the courts. Another workshop on the justice system was conducted in conjunction with a Midwestern regional meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences held in Chicago. Students, both undergraduate and

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graduate, were given 1 h of academic credit for participation in the conference and for participating in the activities arranged by the instructor. They included a ridealong with the Chicago police, a visit to a public housing complex, a visit to a juvenile court and the Court of Common Pleas, and a tour of a federal jail located in downtown Chicago. The students were required to write a paper relating to their workshop learning experience.

4.7  Volunteers and Interns Assigned to Specialty Courts The current trend for judicial agencies in the United States to create specialty courts (dockets) for certain categories of criminal offenders is grounded in practical matters, as well as the realization that the traditional practices were just not effective in the treatment of those offenders who were mentally ill, chronic substance abusers, indigent, or veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. Kratcoski (2017, p. 94) describes what happens with such offenders. “They are convicted of a minor offense, fined, and sentenced to time in jail, where there is no treatment available for their mental problem or substance abuse problems. After being released, many of them are rearrested and go through the same process, only a few days after their prior release from jail.” The strategies used by justice agencies and social service agencies to divert the homeless, mentally ill, or indigents who have committed minor property crimes, public order crimes, or nonviolent personal crimes are for the police to refer them to homeless shelters in place of jail, with the stipulation that they will have their case herd before the appropriate specialty court (mental health court, drug court, community court, family court, veterans’ court). Each of these specialty courts, with the exception of community courts, focus on a specific problem confronting the criminal offenders brought before the court. McAleer (2016, p. 1) states, “Mental health courts employ legal and mental health professionals to address a specialized docket that focuses solely on preventing the incarceration of mentally ill individuals. Offering court-mandated treatment as an alternative.” Community courts and veterans’ courts (special dockets) do not specialize in a specific type of offense, as is the case of mental health and substance abuse courts. The main trust of community courts is a focus on a crime problem in the community, such as vagrancy, homelessness, minor property damage, and trespassing, how this problem affects the quality of life in the community, and how the justice agencies, social service agencies, and the residents can work together to eliminate the problem. Veterans’ courts are similar to community courts in that they focus on a wide range of criminal offenses but different because they are directed toward a specific category of offenders, veterans. As with the other specialty courts, the primary purpose is to provide treatment for the offense (court mandated) with the goal of eliminating the cause of the defendant’s criminal behavior. Kratcoski (2016, p.  106) notes, “The benefits of such courts for veterans are that they appear before a judge who has a good understanding of the sources of their problems, that is, how the

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experiences in the military are connected in some way to their present problems that led to their involvement in the justice system.” The veterans who appear before the court generally will have a number of agencies involved in dealing with their physical and mental health problems. Specialty courts (dockets) offer a wide range of opportunities for students to engage in experiential learning. In addition to the court hearing, offenders are required to engage in a treatment program that addresses their particular problem – mental health, substance abuse, depression, aggression, depression, or antisocial behavior. Law enforcement, legal, health, and social service agencies work together to provide the treatment programs used to treat the problems. For example, a student who recently interned with a drug court had the opportunity to sit in on the initial hearings, conduct the information-gathering interview, participate in the meetings in which various members of different agencies assigned to assist in the individualized treatment plan prepared for the participants, and sit in on the court hearing on the adherence to the treatment plan and the progress each participant was making toward the achievement of the goals. These court sessions were held at the end of each week.

4.8  O  ther Opportunities for Volunteers and Interns in the Legal Field Undergraduate students interested in applying for a law school, as well as students already enrolled in a law school can gain considerable knowledge regarding the law and legal processes through volunteer work. The students may not receive any remuneration for their work, but the experience is nevertheless valuable, since it not only broadens the knowledge base of the student but also opens up the door for making contacts with professionals and agency personnel who might be used as contacts for future career plans. For example, if given the opportunity to volunteer at a law firm, a student can gain considerable knowledge relating to the practice of law in general, and, depending on the law practice, they often can gain knowledge and experience in some of the specialties within the law field. In some cases, if the student’s performance is extraordinary, it may lead to an entry into the law firm either as a paid intern or an employee. The US Department of Justice administers a program titled Volunteer Legal Internship. More than 2500 volunteer legal interns work in Department of Justice agencies each year. The volunteers work in Department of Justice agencies located throughout the United States and in the territories. As the US Department of Justice (2021, p. 1) notes, “Any law student enrolled at least half-time, and who has completed at least one semester of law school is eligible to apply for volunteer internship positions at any time.. .. Volunteer legal internships may qualify either for credit or as part of the school’s work-study program. In

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addition, some schools sponsor public interest fellowships or some other programs where legal interns receive a stipend for public interest work.” Often experiences gained from volunteering with an agency that is not a legal agency per se, but which provides services for justice agencies such as the courts, community correctional agencies, and service agencies, can be as educational and personally rewarding as volunteer work with a justice agency or law firm. For example the Court Appointed Special Advocates/Guardian ad Litem (CASA/GAL) is a national organization that provides training for volunteers who serve as advocates for children who are brought into juvenile, family, and domestic courts that have jurisdiction over the cases involving children who have been abused or neglected. The volunteers serve as advocates for the children. According to a statement pertaining to the CASA from Summit County, Ohio (Summit County CASA/GAL, 2021, p. 1), “CASA provides quality court-based advocacy for abused and neglected children. Children are referred to our program from a variety of sources, including the juvenile court judges, attorneys, caseworkers, service providers, teachers and family members.” CASA/GAL volunteers practice best-interest advocacy. They: • • • •

Learn about the child and the child’s family and lifestyle Engage with the child during visits Collaborate with other agencies, report what they have learned Make a recommendation to the court that is believed to be in the best interests of the child (Summit County CASA/GAL Best-Interest Advocacy, 2021, l)

CASA/GAL volunteers must be familiar with the laws and court processes pertaining to children who were victimized through abuse or neglect. Volunteers are assigned to investigate the circumstances surrounding a case, submit a report, and make a presentation before the presiding judge, which includes a recommendation on the course of action that would best serve the interests of the child or children involved in the case. Their activities may entail home visits and collaboration with other agencies, such as children service agencies. CASA programs are located in almost every state. During the more than 35 years of operation of Court Appointed Special Advocacy/Guardian ad Litem programs, more than one-quarter million people have volunteered in the CASA/GAL programs. The National CASA/GAL Association for Children provides training, technical assistance, quality assurance, volunteer recruitment, public awareness, and resource development and grants to the programs located in the states (National CASA/GAL Association for Children, 2021, p. 1).

4.9  Summary The opportunities for students considering a career in the field of law to obtain experiential learning are numerous. Opportunities through participating in a co-op or internship program are found in both public and private law and justice

References

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organizations. Students completing co-ops or internships work with private organizations as well as federal, state, and local government agencies. The size of the agency and the specific mission of the agency in which the students are placed can determine the types of tasks they will complete and the experience they will receive. Those working with the law department of a large private, profit-making corporation will have different task than those students who intern with a small firm with one or two lawyers. Students who are pursuing a degree in paralegal studies will be likely to have different tasks than those students preparing for law school or those who are attending law school. Regardless of the specific placement, interns and co-op students will have an opportunity to develop their legal research, writing, and organizational skills, as well as an opportunity to learn the specifics of the legal system. Some will be expected to learn how to prepare drafts of documents, complete legal research, interview clients, and assist in court advocacy. Students also have an opportunity to engage in experiential learning by participating in workshops, seminars, and field trips. The mock trial and moot court programs offer an excellent opportunity for students to obtain knowledge about the law and the legal process through formal classroom instruction and the development of their skills by participating in competitions. In addition to the opportunities mentioned, students considering a career in law can obtain experiential learning by volunteering in programs such as the CASA/GAL. They have an excellent chance to develop their personal skills as well as to provide an important service to the people who are being served by the programs.

References American Bar Association. (2021). Moot court law students’ competition. htts://www.abaforlawstudents.com/events/law-srudent-competitions/practical-skills. Retrieved 4/26/2021. American Mock Trial Association. (2021). History of AMTA. http://www.collegemocktrial.org/ about.amta/history. Retrieved 3/12/2020 from p. 23. Federal Public Defender for the District of Columbia Internship Opportunities. (2021), 1. GOVServ. (2020). The Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia, pp. 1–14. https://govserv.org/US/Washington/151947788170124/The-­Public-­Defender_Service-­for-­the-­District-­ of-­Columbia. Retrieved 8/20/2020 Kratcoski, P. (2015). Sharron L. Kennedy, Ohio Supreme Court. In D. Lowe & D. Das (Eds.), Trends in the judiciary (Vol. 2, pp. 201–217). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Kratcoski, P., Edelbacher, M., & Eterno, J. (2016). Academic collaboration in experiential education. In Collaborative policing: Police, academics, professionals, and communities working together for education, training, and program implementation (pp. 137–157). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Kratcoski, P. (2017). Correctional counseling and treatment (6th ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. LAW.COM. (2021). www.law.com. Retrieved 2/21/2021. Mc Aleer, K. (2016). Mental Health court: What is it? http://www.blogs.psychoentral.comforensic-­ focus/20120/04/mental-­health-­court-­what-­is-­it/. Retrieved 2/22/2021.

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National CASA/GAL Association for Children. (2021). National Organization. https://nationalcasagal.org/about_us/national_organizationa/. Retrieved 3/11/2021. Ohio Center for Law-Related Education. (2020). 38th annual Ohio high school mock trial: State v Micah Opessa (pp. 1–187). Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Center for Law Related Education. Ohio State University Moritz College of Law. (2021). Moot Court and lawyering skills program (pp. 1–4). Retrieved 3/10/2021. Summit County CASA/GAL Program. (2021). What we do. https://summitcasagal.org/what_we_ d0/programs_services.html. Retrieved 3/10/2021. The Public Defender Service for the District of Columbia. (2021). A message from Avis & Rudy. https://www.govserv.org/US/Washington/151947788170124/ThePublic-­Defender-­Service-­ for-­the-­District-­of Columbia1-­14. Retrieved 3/2/21. United States Department of Justice Eastern District of Pennsylvania. (2021). Summer internships, p. 1 [email protected]:1. Retrieved 2/25/2021. United States Department of Justice. (2021). Volunteer legal internships. https://www.justice.gov/ legal-­career/volunteer-­legal-­internships. Retrieved 3/11/2021. Wagner, A. (2009). How to land your first paralegal job (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/ Prentice Hall.

Chapter 5

Experiential Education in Corrections

5.1  Introduction: Interning in a Mexican Prison A senior-level student came to my office to discuss the possibility of receiving academic credit for working as a volunteer in Tijuana, Mexico. I asked for some details, and she explained that the work involved sheltering and caring for migrant workers and their families from Central America who had paid to be taken to Mexico and were promised employment, but instead they were abandoned. They had no money and no source of income. In addition, some of them needed medical care. A missionary group had obtained an abandoned convent and turned it into a rescue center. The migrant workers and families were given food, shelter, and, if needed, medical attention for a period of time until they could either find employment or arrange to return to their country. The student indicated that she would be given meals and lodging at the facility and a small stipend to cover personal expenses. After obtaining the details of her plans, I indicated that it seemed to be a great experiential opportunity, and I did not discourage her from taking it. However, I informed her that the tasks she would perform as a volunteer with the organization did not fit into the expectations for interning with a law enforcement, legal, or corrections agency and that perhaps she should try to obtain credit from some other department. The student was not satisfied with my response, since she planned to use the credit earned from the internship to complete the requirements for graduation. A few days later, the student came back with a new proposal. She indicated that one of the directors of the shelter facility volunteered at the federal jail located in Tijuana and volunteer Sister Antonia Brenner, Prison Angel could arrange to have my student volunteer at the jail, working in the women’s section as well as completing the volunteer work at the shelter center. This was an arrangement that was acceptable. I informed her that I would be coming to San Diego in the summer and I would come to Tijuana for a field visit.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 P. C. Kratcoski, P. C. Kratcoski, Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5_5

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The student started her internship in early summer. I received periodic reports on her activities, problems, and learning experiences. Her work at the prison centered on teaching the incarcerated women basic skills relating to hygiene, household chores, and some English. Her experiences at both facilities were very rewarding. My plan was to travel to Tijuana in the latter part of the summer. My intern student provided instructions on the time and place for us to meet. My student suggested that once I arrived in Tijuana, I should look for a taxi that had a colored flag. These taxis charged a flat fee to take the rider to any destination within the city. However, the driver would pick up additional passengers until on the entire auto was filled to capacity. On arriving in downtown Tijuana, I located a taxi with the colored flag and gave the driver a paper with the address for the shelter home. In the beginning I was the only passenger, but as we started driving toward the destination, the driver continued to pick up more passengers until the taxi became crowded. Although the shelter was probably less than a mile or so from the center of the city, it took some time before the driver stopped and pointed to a large old building that was on the top of the hill. After walking several street blocks, I came to the old convent, knocked on the entrance door, and prayed that I was at the right place. The door was opened and I was greeted by my intern student. I was given a tour of the facility, and one of the staff who spoke English explained the program and the type of services provided to the residents. The program (providing food, clothing, shelter, and assisting the residents in locating permanent residences or arranging to have them return home) was very basic. Many of the staff members (some from the United States) were volunteers who were dedicated to humanitarian causes. The funding for the program was based on contributions. My intern student gave a complete explanation of her duties and showed me the tiny cell-like room in which she was housed. The next phase of my visit was to go to the prison. My intern student had a friend who offered to drive us to the prison. We arrived at the prison entrance, and my student informed that there were two entrances, one for the staff and one for visitors. She informed me that as I was checked at the visitor’s entrance the guard would stamp the back of my hand with the image of a nun. She indicated that she would meet me inside the prison. I did not know what to expect when I entered the prison but was completely surprised as I passed through the entrance. Rather than seeing the cell blocks and guards that are so typical of prisons, the prison resembled a small city with various stores and different types of housing. The inmates were walking around freely, and it did not appear as if there were any guards in the area. Needless to say, I was a bit frightened. There was no sign of my intern student nor anyone who appeared to be an authority figure. I had no idea on what to do. After a few minutes, an inmate approached me and indicated that I should follow him. Apparently he had seen the image of the angel stamped on my hand, so I assumed he was some type of trustee who was taking me to my intern student. That wasn’t the case. We walked through a few streets and came to a little hut. The lower part was open and served as a shop that sold personal toilettes such as soap, body lotions, and tobacco items. The

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inmate yelled to a person who apparently was sleeping or resting in a loft on the upper section of the hut, “Your attorney is here to see you.” The man looked down and spoke in English “That’s not my attorney,” and addressing me, asking “Who are you?” I explained that I was a professor from the United States who had a student working at the prison. He looked at me as if I were crazy, but I showed him the angel image, and he indicated to the inmate that he should take me to the building where the nun was located. I later learned that the inmate operating the store was from the United States and was being held on some type of drug-related offense. Finally, after walking through a few streets, we arrived at the Angel of Mercury’s office. It was located in the women’s area of the prison. The nun and my student were waiting. I informed them of my adventures in the prison and that I was somewhat frightened by the situation, but the nun indicated that since I had the stamp on my hand no one would bother me. After a discussion with the Angel of Mercy nun on the performance of my intern (she was assigned to teach the women some basic skills of living and develop a more positive self-image and communication skills, including basic English), I was given a tour of the prison and an explanation of the factors that determined the lifestyle of the inmates. It appeared that there was a great deal of self-governing, with the ability to get along and money being major factors in determining the quality of one’s living quarters and the other privileges received. A new area of the prison consisted of a row of cell blocks, similar to what would be found in a US jail or prison. These housed the inmates who posed the most security threat (See Rotella, 1994). After thanking everyone and informing my intern how pleased I was with the outcome of the field visit, I was escorted out of the prison. It was a long and exhausting day, and I was happy to return to the United States to relax. However, it was a very memorable learning experience for me, and the feedback I received from my intern student after she returned to the United States indicated that it was one of the best learning experiences she had ever had. While the internship of the student just described was somewhat atypical, it did demonstrate some of the various roles of those who work in the corrections component of the justice system. After receiving a degree in criminal justice studies, the intern student illustrated in the story obtained employment with an agency that provided counseling and other services to victims of crime.

5.2  Professionals Employed in Corrections Kratcoski (2017, p. 3) notes, “The concepts corrections, counseling, treatment, and rehabilitation can assume different meanings, depending on the context in which the terms are being used and the person who is using the terms. In the most general sense, the term corrections refer to changing a mistake made by another.” Kratcoski (2004, p. 58) states, “The role of the correctional worker has generally been couched

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in terms of investigation, managing, controlling and assisting. The emphasis placed on each facet of the role varies, depending on the specific position within a correctional agency to which the person is assigned, the goals and mission of the agency, and the current philosophical model of corrections currently in vogue.” The need for services of professionals to work in jails and correctional facilities, as well as with the judicial systems, has increased in recent years. Kratcoski (2016, p. 280) observes, “The types of offenders housed in jails, correctional institutions, and in community correctional facilities who often need special medical attention and/or psychological assessment and counseling are sex offenders (including child molesters and rapists), substance abusers, mentally ill or mentally handicapped offenders, those having HIV or AIDS, and older offenders.” The opportunities for intern or co-op students to be placed in sites that fall into the broadly defined corrections component of the criminal justice system have grown for those students pursuing a professional career in such areas as psychology, social work, counseling, and the medical field. Using the broad definitions of corrections and correctional worker cited above and applying them to the internship placements of students, possible placement sites include not only correctional institutions such as prisons and jails but also all types of community corrections facilities such as halfway houses; treatment centers for alcohol and drug abusers; reintegration centers; programs administered by juvenile courts and adult criminal courts such as family counseling programs, probation, and home detention and diversion programs of all types; and various programs administered by state and federal agencies, including parole and early supervised release. It should also be noted that those interns placed in jails and correctional facilities generally do not perform the role of correctional officer but are assigned to roles more in line with their professional goals such as counseling. For example, the author has placed students interested in pursuing a career in counseling with the psychology department at a county jail and with the psychology department of a juvenile court. The Stark County Sheriff’s Department, located in Ohio, has accepted numerous intern students over the years. A deputy having an officer rank who is designated intern coordinator developed a structured internship schedule that is followed by all interns regardless of their specific career goals. Over the course of a semester, the interns will be assigned to several weeks of work in the jail, performing the role of a correctional officer, several weeks of patrol duty observing the operations of the uniformed road patrol deputies, a few weeks with the detective unit, several weeks with the court house security officers, and a week with administration, psychology, and social services. Although the majority of the students placed with the sheriff’s department are primarily interested in police work and perhaps view the internship as a way of getting their “foot in the door,” some of them change their career goals after having experienced other functions of the justice system. For others, the experience confirms their desire to continue their initial career plans.

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A number of federal, state, and county justice agencies have implemented ongoing co-op and internship programs pertaining to institutional corrections. The students who are accepted in the federal programs, for example, the US Bureau of Prisons, are paid a salary or given a stipend. Students applying for the Bureau of Prisons program complete a standard application that is similar to the one that is completed by the people who are applying for employment. They are also screened and subjected to a background check conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. If selected for a position, they may request to be placed at a specific institution, but their requests are not always granted, since the demand for placements at some institutions far exceeds the number of interns needed, while the requests for other less desirable institutions, generally because of the location, are less than what is needed. (The author recalls visiting an intern who was placed in an institution located near Death Valley.) Once accepted and all of the paper work is completed, including the FBI background investigation, the intern can generally select either the correctional (security) track or the case management (treatment) track. The tasks a student will be assigned during the internship will vary, depending on the institutional program to which they are assigned. A survey of former students who completed internships with the US Bureau of Prisons completed by the author revealed that the students who were placed in the correctional component were more likely to continue their involvement with the bureau. Some reached high-level positions, including superintendent of a facility, and in one case director of the bureau. Many of the interns who worked in case manager programs obtained employment in the corrections field but with another agency. The following interview with Debra White, completed by the author, illustrates this point. Box 5.1 Interview of Debra White: Retired US Probation Officer Q: Debbie, why did you pursue a career as a U.S. Probation Officer? A; My undergraduate and graduate education focused on preparing me for working with people and providing assistance. After graduation, I started my career with the Bureau of Prisons and, although I obtained a great deal of experience working first as a correctional officer and later as a case manager, I did not feel as if I had the autonomy to provide the type of service I desired, so when a position came open with US Probation I applied and was given the position. Q: Did your formal education have an effect on your career choice? A: Definitely yes. My education at Kent provided a well-rounded knowledge base for the pursuit of any type of corrections-related employment. The classes were informative and provided opportunities for experiential learning. For example, I completed several internships during my undergraduate and graduate work. I interned in a juvenile residential treatment facility for drug abusers, as a Parole Officer with the Ohio Parole Authority, and as a case manager with the Bureau of Prisons. Thus, I had some experience in both community and institutional corrections before assuming my first position with the Bureau of Prisons. (Kratcoski, 2017, p. 150)

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5.3  O  pportunities for Experiential Learning in Community Corrections Approximately three fourths of the more than two million alleged and convicted criminal offenders who are processed through the justice system each year are placed on some form of community corrections. The programs that fall under the category of community corrections range from pretrial intervention to a split sentence (a short time in jail followed by probation), to probation, to incarceration in a community correctional facility. The large majority of those convicted of a criminal offense are given a probation sentence. Community corrections programs are generally under the local jurisdiction of either municipal or county governments that have the jurisdiction of the courts, jails, probation department, and other community corrections programs and facilities. There are some exceptions, as in the case of the US Department of Probation that supervises those convicted of federal crimes, and in some states community corrections are jointly administered by the state and counties. The Dallas County Community Supervision and Corrections Department (DCCSCD) is an example of such an arrangement. In regard to the probation department section (CSCD) of community corrections in Dallas County, Texas, Kratcoski (2017, p. 135) reports, “The Dallas County CCD is charged with public protection through the supervision of more than 50,000 offenders residing in Dallas County. The Community Corrections Department enforces the court ordered conditions of community supervision and provides offenders with a wide range of services and resources. The Dallas County CSCD is staffed by more than 530 community supervision officers, supervisors, district managers, and administrators, and more than 100 support staff. The approximately half billion dollar yearly budget for the Dallas County CSCD is partially offset by the millions collected from fees.” Although the large majority of the county governments will not have community corrections departments with the number of personnel and the yearly budget as the Dallas County CSCD, most counties will devote a sizable portion of their yearly operating costs to community corrections. This is particularly true if the county jail, courts, and other facilities administered by the county are included under the community corrections umbrella. As a result, a large portion of the opportunities for students seeking internship or co-op in the justice field are likely to find placement in community corrections.

5.3.1  Placement of Co-op Students with Local Justice Agencies Generally, the administrators of local community corrections agencies, when approached with a request to place a student with the agency, will consider the request in terms of costs and rewards, such matters as will the student intern provide any benefit to the agency and will the student be a liability in terms of security, consuming the time of the staff who must instruct the intern in the policies,

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procedures, and work of the agency, and other matters such as the use of resources that the agency will be required to provide. For example, probation department facilities are noted for lacking in adequate office space to provide the confidentiality needed when officers are counselors of their probationers. Taking on intern students might lead to an intensification of the space problem. However, in many cases, community corrections administrators will accept intern students even when the costs seem to exceed the rewards the agency will receive by having a student intern. The correspondence between the faculty supervisor and the administrator who has the authority to make the decision on accepting an intern student is critical to the outcome. If the agency is local, the correspondence is generally conducted by way of telephone conversations or by a personal visit of the academic instructor to the agency supervisor. In some cases, such as placement with a juvenile court or municipal court, the judge may make the final decision on the acceptance of the student for an internship with the court. Since the large majority of the students will request a placement close to the university which they are attending (the exception being the summer sessions), it is the responsibility of the faculty supervisor to screen the students and try to place the students with the agencies where they can receive the most benefit from the placement as well as providing benefits to the agency. Once students are placed with the agency, the quality of their work, dependability, work ethic, and ability to get along well with the agency employees will determine to some extent if the agency will accept intern students in the future. Once a positive cooperative relationship between the university faculty member and the agency is established, the agency is likely to agree to take other interns, even if the benefit the agency receives is not what was expected. The supervisor of the agency may use the rationale that the agency is providing a community service by giving students an opportunity to engage in experiential learning. Since community corrections extend to a wide range of agencies that offer a wide range of services, the educational background of those students who seek intern or co-op positions with community correctional agencies will tend to be from a variety of disciplines. These may include sociology, psychology, social work, counseling, criminal justice, and others. The motivation for engaging in a community corrections internship is often directed toward having the opportunity to help the clients make positive changes in their lives rather than a more punitive motive. An interview with Susan Crittenden, presented in Box 5.2, illustrates how motivation can have an effect on one’s career choice. Susan completed a community corrections internship with the Dallas County Jail and after completing the internship was employed as a community service officer (probation officer) for the Dallas County Community Supervision and Corrections Department. Box 5.2 Interview with Susan Crittenden: Probation Officer Q: Susan, why did you pursue a career as a probation officer? A: When I was 9 years old, I told my dad that I was going to be a probation officer because I was going to change criminals into law-abiding citizens. He laughed and said, “You will change your mind before you go to college.” To his dismay, I did not change my mind. To my dismay, I do not think I changed many criminals into law-abiding citizens.” (continued)

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Box 5.2  (continued) Q: Did your formal education have an effect on your career choice? A: While I was pursuing my undergraduate degree in social work, I realized I did not have the mind set for being a social worker. The more criminal justice classes I took, the more I realized that I wanted to pursue a career working with criminals and being a probation officer was indeed the direction I wanted to pursue. Q: Have you worked your entire career with the Dallas County Probation Department? A: While attending graduate school, I worked at a group home for delinquent children. I realized that the parents were worse than the kids and that working with juveniles was not a good career choice for me. When I moved to Dallas, I worked for a pretrial diversion program for 1 year while adjusting to life in Dallas. I was hired by the Dallas County Adult Probation Department. .. and never looked back.” Q; Susan, before closing the interview, do you have anything else you would like to comment on? A: I just want to comment that I appreciate the knowledge and support you have given me over the years. As a graduate student, the work in the jail commissary, having the opportunity to coauthor a journal article, presenting a paper at a professional meeting, assisting in research projects and participating in field trips provided learning experiences difficult to obtain in the classroom” (Kratcoski, 2017, p. 60. 61. 66). The comments by Susan Crittenden on the influence experiential learning experiences had on her motivation to pursue certain career goals as well as in her achievements in the occupation she chose are reiterated by numerous students who had completed internships or engaged in other forms of experiential learning. Such comments as “The intern experience gave me a good idea of what is expected of a correctional officer,” “After completing an internship with the juvenile court, I decided that I would prefer to be a probation officer and work with adults,” “I learned how to put my education to practical use,” and other more frequent comments included, “I gained a lot of self-confidence,” “It was the best experience of my college education,” “I learned so much during the time I was with the agency,” and “I know I have chosen the right occupation for me.” While diversion programs, probation, and community residential treatment centers for adult offenders generally serve those who have not been institutionalized in a correctional facility, some community-based correctional programs have the mission of supervising and serving those adult offenders who have been incarcerated and released under some form of community supervision. These include parole (supervised release), reintegration centers, and community treatment centers of various types. These programs are generally under the jurisdiction of a state agency, although some may share the administration of the agency and operating costs with

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the government administration of the county in which the agency/facility is housed. In addition, many programs, particularly those that service special needs offenders, are under private auspices. Opportunities for students to complete internships are generally available, providing the students meet the prerequisites. For example, a student seeking an internship at a drug rehabilitation center would be expected to have some formal course work and background in counseling and psychology. The following interview with Arlune R. Culler, found in Box 5.3, illustrates the use of interns with the Stark County, Ohio, Intensive Supervision Probation Program.

Box 5.3: Arlune R. Culler Interview (Completed Electronically by Peter C. Kratcoski, 4/1/2021) Arlune R.  Culler graduated from the University of Akron with a BA in Sociology/Corrections and has been employed within the Ohio criminal justice system for more than 20 years, working with both adult and juvenile offenders in institutional settings as well as in community settings. He has been the director of the Stark County Intensive Supervision Probation Program for the past 12 years. He views his role within the criminal justice system as an important and unique role, having grown up in some of the same type of neighborhoods that present environmental and social factors which contribute to the criminal attitudes and behaviors of many of the felon offenders referred to the program he served as director. Arlune maintains his motivation and passion for his job by standing strong in his faith with God and serving others with a purpose of successful outcomes! Q: Arlune, what factors motivated you toward a career in the criminal justice field? A: While taking psychology undergraduate courses early in my college experience, I developed an interest in the attitudes and behaviors of individuals that commit criminal offenses, that is, what factors influenced and motivated their thoughts and behavior. Criminology and Sociology courses that I participated in provided me with a better understanding of the social perspectives for who commits crimes, why they do it, and the impact of their actions on themselves and others, as well as available crime prevention methods and techniques. In addition to the influence of these courses, my Faith and Purpose with God, all led to my passion to want to help people within their diverse circumstances to help change their criminal conduct. Q: Was there any particular course or professor that motivated you toward the career you have chosen? A: The criminology course and the professor. The professor taught this course in an unbiased approach. The course not only taught me about crime, criminals and its impacts, but showed me the type of character, interpersonal skills and integrity hat a criminal justice practitioner must have to be effective (continued)

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Box 5.3  (continued) in influencing others beliefs in a positive way, as well what can be done to help changes the criminal attitudes and behaviors of individuals. Q: Did you complete an internship/coop/volunteer/work study program? A: No. Due to my participation in the football program, my schedule would not allow any extra time to commit to any of the activities mentioned. However, I did have several professors that worked as local law enforcement officials and these professors shared their experiences with the students in the classes. The first-hand information they provided was very helpful. Turning to your current position as IPS Program Director, I would like to ask you a few questions about the procedures followed for the selection of interns. Q: What are the source/s of applicants (referrals from universities, personal, walk-ins, etc.?) A: All of the referrals are made by professors from various colleges and universities who coordinate internship programs. Q: In the selection procedures followed are the candidates required to complete a questionnaire? Yes____ No_X__ Complete an interview? Yes_X__ No___. Q: Is a criminal background check completed on the candidates? Yes__X__ No___. Q: Are candidates required to submit to a drug test? Yes_X__ No___. Q: What are some of the major characteristics or traits of the candidates you are looking for when reviewing applicants for intern positions? A: Maturity, motivated, goal orientated, good interpersonal/social skills. humble competent, and a high level of integrity Q: Do the students selected for an internship receive any training before being assigned specific tasks? A: Yes! The policies and procedures are given to them, as well as they shadow (observe) a staff member completing the task prior to being given the task to complete on their own. This approach allows the intern to connect the purpose of a specific task with the overall function and operations of the agency. Q: List some of the tasks that are regularly assigned to interns to complete. A: Maintain and organize case files, document and enter case notes, complete and file agency and court documents, enter and update case/offender data into agency database, assist assigned staff with developing probationer contacts (office, phone, mail), assist assigned staff with court, community providers, and criminal justice partners correspondence. In general, assisting the probation officers in completing their work. Q: Do interns receive a stipend? Yes____ No_X____. Q: Has the agency ever hired a former intern? Yes_X__ No___. Q: Overall, during your experience as the ISP Program Director, what do you perceive as the major benefits the interns bring to the program? (continued)

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Box 5.3  (continued) A: Interns allow us to evaluate our staff as criminal justice professionals, their ability to effectively lead and train others, delegate work and to improve themselves. This gives them an opportunity for future promotion consideration. Interns allow us to evaluate our workloads, competency of our work and to implement internal quality improvements when necessary. Q: What, if any, liabilities does the agency incur by accepting intern students? A: The agency has the responsibility for providing a quality professional and educational experience that is provided in a safe environment, that keeps the intern aware of policy and procedure, best practices and expectation that have to be adhered to at all times in order to be effective and appropriate. We have to assure that the interns adhere to such matters as keeping confidentiality, offender rights, victim rights, civil rights and liberties, workplace expectations (personnel Policy and Procedures), workplace safety practices, community relations, and the code of ethics. The time and effort of our staff in the training and supervision of interns might be considered a liability, but the contributions of the interns make up for any liability.

The following interview (Box 5.4) with a chief probation officer in a small municipal court serving a number of small communities and rural areas illustrates the variety of tasks and duties of the probation officers working within such a jurisdiction, as well as the types of experiences intern students would likely receive in this type of setting. Box 5.4: Bill Ackerman, Probation Officer, Tuscarawas County (OH) Southern District Court Interview Conducted by P.C. Kratcoski, 3/15/2021 Bill Ackerman started his career with the Tuscarawas County Sheriff’s Office as a reserve deputy in 1995 and was promoted as an assistant deputy in 1996. After serving for several years in a law enforcement capacity, he was appointed chief of police for the Village of Midvale. He served as a police officer for the city of Uhrichsville in 2011, the position he held until his appointment to his current position, chief probation officer, Tuscarawas County Court in 2011. Q: Bill, was there any particular reason why you choose a career working in the justice field? A: I thought I could do some good by engaging in work in the justice field. Q: Was there any particular faculty member or experience that had an influence on your decision? A: No, I just wanted to help society and try to change things for the better. Turning to your current position as a probation officer and supervisor of interns, (continued)

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Box 5.4  (continued) Q: What are the sources of applicants for internships with the court? A: Universities and Law Enforcement agencies. Q: Do the applicants for an internship complete a questionnaire. A: Yes_____ No_X Q: Do the applicants for an internship submit a resume. A: Yes_x___ No_____ Q: Are candidates for internships interviewed. A: Yes_X___ No____ Q: Is a criminal background investigation completed on the applicant? A: Yes_X___ No_____ Q: Is a drug test completed on the applicant? A: Yes____ No__X Q: Are there specific characteristics of the candidates you consider most important in the selection of interns? A: Yes, their attitude and their willingness to learn. Q: What are some of the major characteristics/traits of the candidates for intern positions you look for during the interview of the candidates? A: Their attentiveness. Do they ask questions and do they have some knowledge of the judicial system. Q: What are some of the tasks assigned to interns? A: Filing, drug screens, assisting on court days Q: Do the interns receive a stipend? A: No Q: Has the Court ever hired a former intern? A: Yes Q: Overall during the time that you have supervised interns, what are the major benefits interns bring to the court? A: They are particularly useful during the days when the court is in session. They also help out with other tasks. Q: What liabilities does the court incur by accepting interns? A: None that I can think of

5.4  Experiential Learning in Juvenile Justice The agencies and programs specifically developed to work with juvenile offenders differ in some ways from those for adult offenders. These agencies and programs tend to be oriented toward providing treatment (counseling, mentoring, education) rather than punishment. The large majority of the agencies and programs is community based and is under both private and public auspicious. The opportunities for individuals to become involved in providing services to the youth who are under some form of supervision of a justice agency are numerous. Volunteers from the

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community and university student interns or co-op placements can generally be found in most of the agencies serving youth. The educational backgrounds, prior learning experiences of the individuals who volunteer or complete internships in juvenile justice, are varied. While the majority of the interns receiving academic credit for their work are likely to be majoring in sociology, social work, rehabilitative counseling, or sociology, others may be majoring in philosophy, English, or education. The motivation for becoming involved in working with juveniles in the justice system can often be traced to some personal experience or a course in which the instructor stimulated their interest in the work. The following interview with Richard DeHeer (Box 5.5), who first worked as a probation office with the Stark County Family Court, OH and eventually was appointed court administrator, provides some insight into one’s motivation for working with juveniles. Box 5.5: Richard DeHeer: Juvenile Court Administrator Interview Q: Rick, tell me why you decided to become involved in working in a position related to juvenile justice. A: I started my college coursework majoring in business and economics. I took a course in sociology to meet a requirement and was immediately hooked. I changed my major after taking a second course. I was influenced and encouraged by Norm Greenberg, a professor at Franklin Pierce College, to pursue the field of juvenile justice during my junior year. I did two influential internships that solidified my path to working in the field. My first internship was with my cousin, who was a social worker attached to a hospital in New York City. We visited poor elderly residents who were in need of assistance in managing their daily lives. My second internship was with a juvenile probation officer in southern New Hampshire. I was assigned a young man whose father was an alcoholic. Working with this family was very challenging, as there were few if any resources for juveniles and their families in their rural community. I was energized by the challenge. Q: Has your education background been useful in your experience as a court administrator? A: I use the skills and knowledge from my education in decision making every day. As an administrator, I have to evaluate the recommendations of staff about programs. This involves knowledge and background about accepted practices in the field and the ability to ask the relevant questions. Many suggestions for programs and changes are based on gut reactions to problems, and a deliberate analysis of recommendations is needed every day. Kratcoski (2012, pp. 233–234)

The tasks completed by interns working with community juvenile justice agencies will vary, depending on the mission of the agency in which they are placed. Interns placed with the juvenile court might be assigned to the intake division. As

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intake workers, they might be assigned to conduct the initial interview with the alleged offender and guardian. A standardized interview schedule is generally used, and the interaction between the intake worker and the alleged offender, while cordial, is rather formal. The intern might also have the authority to make a determination on whether the case should be handled informally and diverted or if it should be handled judicially. Generally, however, having the authority to make this decision would only apply to the less serious delinquent acts and status offenses such as runaway from home, truancy from school, and incorrigibility. The intern may have to present the information at the first appearance of the youth before a judge or magistrate. Interns working with the juvenile courts might be assigned to work with a diversion program. These programs focus on counseling minor offenders such as those mentioned above, and the intern might be given a small number of cases to supervise and counsel. Their work tasks will closely resemble those of a professional worker. Of course, their work will be closely monitored and reviewed by the field supervisor. The intern is expected to make mistakes during the process of learning how to complete the tasks assigned. Generally, intern students assigned to the juvenile courts are placed with the probation department. Their experience will involve a considerable amount of observation, often accompanying the probation office on home visits and sitting in on court hearings and the counseling sessions the probation officer has with the youths on his/her case load. In addition, the intern might be given a small number of cases to supervise and counsel. Several interns who were placed with a family court were assigned to special probation units such as the sex offender unit or the aggressive unit. The probation officers assigned to these units need special training. The approach used in the supervision and counseling is quite different than that followed by the probation officers in the regular probation units. Other court programs in which an intern might be placed include family counseling, drug and alcohol counseling, and placement in the detention center. Here again, the tasks assigned and expectations of the intern are quite different. Rod Snyder served as the director of the Stark County Attention Center, OH for a number of years. He supervised numerous intern students during that time. The interns would be given a variety of tasks, some related to security and others related to the counseling and rehabilitation programs.

5.5  L  earning Experiences Through Volunteer Work in Juvenile Justice The Global Youth Advocacy Organization (Global Newsletter: Global Youth Justice, 2021) is a national and international volunteer-driven organization consisting of programs titled youth courts, teen courts, student courts, peer courts, and with other titles who follow the traditional judicial process in an attempt to divert special categories of juvenile offenders from official processing of the juvenile justice system.

5.6 Summary

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These special courts can be attached to and supervised by a juvenile court, a community court, a police agency, the prosecutor’s office, or a school. Although procedures may vary, the common characteristic of these courts is they serve youth under the age of 18. The youth has allegedly committed a minor delinquency offense such as disorderly conduct; vandalism; theft; assault (fighting); a school-related infraction, such as truancy and disruption of a class; or a status offense, such as running away from home, use of alcohol, or curfew violation. As indicated in the titles, peers (students) assume the roles of prosecutor, defense attorney, jury members, and even judges in the court hearings that are structured along the lines of the typical court process. Generally, an adult authority figure (teacher, judge, attorney) will oversee the trials to assure that the rights of the alleged offender are not violated and that there is no major infraction of justice committed by the court. This volunteer-driven organization has continued to grow in strength. For example, in 2016, it was reported that there were 1600 programs operating on four continents (Global Youth Justice, 2016, p.  1). In 2021, the number of programs has increased to 1800+ programs operating in 49 US states, 11 countries, and 5 continents (Global Youth Justice, 2021, p. 1). These diversion programs offer extensive opportunities for the student volunteers and adult volunteers to engage in experiential learning. The knowledge gained by the participants from their experiences with the youth diversion programs can be applied to their own lives as adult.

5.6  Summary The first established programs that resulted in experiential learning in the field of corrections were for volunteers. Those volunteers who provided humanitarian services to inmates learned about the experiences and living conditions of those incarcerated. The services they offered were totally independent of policies and operating procedures of the administration. In regard to community corrections, the first probation officers were volunteers, and the techniques they developed to supervise and provide services to probationers were largely based on their own experiences and “trial and error.” As the corrections component of the criminal justice systems came under federal, state, and local government jurisdiction, policies regarding the use of volunteers and interns were developed and, in some cases, became institutionalized. Currently, opportunities for students to obtain experiential learning exist in federal, state, and local correctional facilities as well as in community corrections programs administrated by federal, state, and local governments. In addition, opportunities exist for gaining knowledge by interning or volunteering in privately administered community corrections programs. The majority of the experiential education programs is structured with the requirements for each party involved (agency supervisor, educational institution supervisor, and student) specified in writing. In addition, the selection process for interns, co-ops, and volunteers has been standardized for most agencies.

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References Global Youth Justice Advacacy Organization (2016). World’s most replicated juvenile justice program works 1–6. https://mailaol.com/webmail-std/en-us/Print/message Global Newsletter: Global Youth Justice. (2021). https://mail.aol.com/webmail-­sid/en-­us/suite. Retrieved 4/21/2021 Kratcoski, P. (2004). Preparation for the diverse facets of the correctional workers’ roles. In P.  Kratcoski (Ed.), Correctional counseling and treatment (5th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Kratcoski, P. (2012). Juvenile justice administration. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Kratcoski, P. (2016). Perspectives on the professional practitioner in criminal justice. In P. Kratcoski & M. Edelbacher (Eds.), Collaborative policing: Police, academics, professionals, and communities working together for education, training and program implementation (pp. 247–292). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group. Kratcoski, P. (2017). Correctional counseling and treatment (6th ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Rotella, S. (1994). Doing time in Tijuana: In La Mesa Penitentiary, prisoners live with their families, rich inmates control the real estate and everything_ Even guns and drugs__ Has a price. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-­8pm-­1994-­03-­27. Retrieved 3/19/2021tm-389!

Chapter 6

Experiential Learning in Victim and Social Service Agencies

6.1  Introduction Before the mid-twentieth century, victims of crime were not given much attention in the criminal justice system except for being used as witnesses. Most offenses that occurred within the family context, such as physical abuse of a family member, assault, neglect, and abandonment of children, were considered family matters. The assailant was seldom arrested or prosecuted unless the victim suffered severe physical harm. Several academics developed categories of victims, completed research on victims of crime, and attempted to formulate theories. The victim-offender relationship was a topic that was the focus of much research. Edwin Sutherland (1924) delineated two broad categories of victimization: direct victimization of the individual that included physical crimes, such as murder, rape, and robbery, and victimization of society that included such crimes as corruption by government officials, over taxation, and violation of regulatory laws by corporations that had negative effects on society. Kratcoski (2017, p. 12) stated, “During the 1960s and 1970s new social and political movements emerged in the United States, including the war on poverty, the women’s rights movement, and protests against the Vietnam war. They coexisted with and generally supported goals of other movements, but also had distinct organizational structures, strategies for achieving goals, and independent leaders. The major thrust of all of these movements was that individuals and society in general were being victimized by discriminatory laws, corrupt political and business practices, and inequalities in the operations of the criminal justice system.” Dussich (2009, p. 7) noted, “In the 1970s, there were no academies or universities that educated or trained victim advocates. The vast majority of the first victim advocates were victim survivors, volunteers, and a variety of professionals in the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 P. C. Kratcoski, P. C. Kratcoski, Experiential Education and Training for Employment in Justice Occupations, SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80331-5_6

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helping fields without specific training in victim assistance: social workers, nurses, psychologists, psychiatrists, and lawyers. In those few cases where some training was available, it was usually performed by the victim assistance agency in the form of short-term training in agency orientation; crisis intervention techniques; assistance with compensation applications; death notification; limited counseling; court companionship; and referrals to medical, psychological, and legal services.” Wilson (2009, pp. ix–xii) presents a chronology of some of the key events, publications, and laws that helped in the development of the victims’ rights movement: • 1957 – Margaret Fry advocates for victim compensation laws, whereby the government would reimburse crime victims. • 1965  – California establishes the first victims’ compensation programs in the United States. • 1969 – The Hate Crime Prevention Act allows for federal prosecution of those who harm others because of their race, color, religion, or national origin. • 1975 – The National Organization for Victim Assistance is established, with the mission of advocacy activities, services to victims, and professional development training. • 1980  – Mothers Against Drunk Driving is founded to stop drunk driving and assist those harmed by the act. • 1984  – The Victims of Crime Act establishes the Crime Victims Fund, which supports victims’ assistance and compensation programs. • 1986 – The Sexual Abuse Act updates federal law by reclassifying various forms of sexual abuse and their penalties. • 1990 – The Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act requires colleges and universities to report crime on and around campus. • 2003 – The American Society of Victimology holds its first annual meeting. • 2007 – The Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network expands its services to include the National Sexual Abuse Online Hotline, which is the first web-based hotline providing live and confidential help to victims. The events, publications, organizations, and laws presented above are only a partial list of the factors that have led to the growth and development of the victims’ rights movement and the organizations that service victims of crime. Throughout the United States, state governments have enacted legislation protecting victims of crime and providing funding for those agencies that provide services to victims of crime. The awareness of the extent of crime victimization and the potential for anyone, regardless of age, income, occupation, or social economic status, to become a crime victim have helped stimulate interest in the study of victimology. It has emerged as an independent major in some universities and colleges, and courses in victimology can generally be found in the curriculum of most of the social and behavioral science majors. The broad range of interests of students majoring in these various disciplines is illustrated by the cases presented in Box 6.1.

6.1 Introduction

Box 6.1 Interviews with Victim Advocates Case 1: Interview of Staci Manfull: victim advocate Q: Staci, when you applied for work in the justice system why did you choose to work with victims? A: “ I had the opportunity to do my undergraduate internship at the Stark County Prosecutor’s Office. While there, I realized that working with victims was my calling. Each day, I am able to work with many different people who have been victimized by crime. It gives me a real sense of satisfaction knowing I am able to help them through very difficult times in their lives.”(Kratcoski, 2017, p. 37) Case 2: Victim advocate Alexandra Potter “As Alexandra Potter was narrowing her career path, she knew she wanted a job focused on criminal justice. The Akron (Ohio) woman considered being a police officer or lawyer but then decided on becoming a victim advocate.. .. Potter, 30, is now the assistant director of crisis services at Victim Assistance, an Akron-based agency that assists thousands of crime victims in Summit County each year. Porter began her career as a victim advocate in 2013, working at the Battered Women’s Shelter and Rape Crisis Center... . Potter also co-founded the Sexual Assault Response Team that is made up of advocates, prosecutors, health care providers and police who discuss how best to respond to sexual assaults” (Warsmith, S., Akron Beacon Journal, 4/3/2021: pp. B 1–2). Case 3: Emily Janikowski: Victim Services Intern Emily Janikowski, a student at Akron University, was majoring in social work and minoring in addiction services, sociology, and women’s studies. When asked why she decided to intern with Summit County Victim Assistance Program, she responded, “I chose to intern with Victim Assistance Program (VAP) after two former interns in the University of Akron’s School of Social Work and Family Sciences told me about their experiences. I was impressed by the hands-on experience they described, and I have always been passionate about working in the criminal justice system. During my internship, I completed a variety of advocacy and administrative-­ based tasks. As part of working with clients, I answered hotline calls and on line chats, provided referrals to services and crisis intervention, and documented the services provided. I also provided continued follow-up to clients and completed in-person intake forms and immediate needs assessments. My favorite aspect of my internship was court accompaniment and advocacy. In this role, I accompanied clients to ex-parte and evidentiary hearings for civil protection orders and assisted them with gathering evidence. On the administrative side, I helped solicit donations for the annual Mardi Gras gala, created

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a flow chart diagramming the differences between protection orders, and worked with colleagues to create a procedural guide for advocacy tasks.” Emily’s response to a question pertaining to her feelings about the experience was, “This experience has been fulfilling to say the least. While it was challenging, and even frustrating at first, as the learning curve is steep, the extensive training and support from my colleagues and supervisor meant that I gained confidence and skill quickly. Assisting victims of crime, many of whom are going through the worst experience of their lives, has been absolutely rewarding, and I know I will look back on my time at VAP fondly.” In response to a question about her career goals, Emily stated, “My current career goal is to be an attorney with a focus in public interest. As part of this career goal, I chose an internship at VAP. My time with VAP has solidified my career goals and clarified my desire to work within the criminal justice system.” (Interview of Emily Janikowski by P. Kratcoski. Completed 4/15/2021)

6.2  Scope of Victim Assistance Programs The Prison Fellowship International, a program of the Centre for Justice and Reconciliation (2021, pp. 1–3), states, “A number of purposes of victim assistance programs have been suggested: • To provide legal representation to victims of crime, so that victims are not re-­ victimized by the system’s neglect of them; • To meet victims’ physical and psychological needs; and ultimately. • To give victims an opportunity to successfully reintegrate into society as restored individuals.” The purposes of victim assistance programs as stated above are rather general and lofty. It is unlikely that any victim service agency can verify that it is in fact achieving these goals or purposes. Generally, the agency will provide evidence of its worth by documenting the actual services provided. The majority of victim service agencies provide direct services to victims of crime, such as maintaining a 24-h hotline for victims who can call and ask for assistance, information, and even emotional support; personal individual counseling; group counseling; financial assistance in the form of providing for immediate needs for food, clothing, and shelter; assistance with legal matters; and legal advocacy in the form of assisting victims with the completion of victim impact statements, protection orders, and victim compensation forms. Victim advocates, on request from the victim, will accompany victims when they are required to testify in court hearings and often will provide crime scene support for victims when hospitalization or medical care is needed. Victim service advocates provide information to the public and other agencies, such as the police, prosecutor, correctional agencies, and social service agencies.

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An important role of victim service agencies is assisting victims in locating and making contact with legal, medical, and social service agencies that provide the specific service the victims need. Often a bewildered crime victim will call or appear in person and inform the victim service advocate that they need a particular service but do not know how to go about getting the service. The victim service advocates have a list of the service agencies, the services they provide, and the contact information for each service agency. Victim advocates also assist the victim in completing the required paperwork when making a referral to a specific service agency.

6.2.1  Specialized Victim Service Agencies Victim-offender reconciliation program (VORP) and victim-offender mediation (VOM) program have similarities and distinct differences. Heath-Thornton (2009, p. 297) states, “The major objective of VOMs is to offer victims and offenders the prospect of meeting with a trained mediator to promote dialogue in discussing the crime, and to construct steps toward justice by encouraging mutual problem solving. The session is frequently proceeded by one or more preparatory meetings.” VORPs utilize a preparatory process but accentuate movement toward reconciliation (settlement and understanding  – a step that takes the objective further than problem-solving). Reconciliation is the desired outcome because it is the central feature that allows the healing process to begin.

6.2.2  Services for Elderly Victims Many persons defined as elderly (65 and above) are at high risk for becoming victims of personal or violent crimes for a number of reasons. Some of the factors that make the elderly a high risk include living on a fixed income or in a low-income household, being in poor health, living alone, and not having any social support network such as family or friends. Many older people find it difficult to adjust to the changes in their lifestyles that occurred when they lost their spouse, retired from their job, had their family move away, moved to a different dwelling, witnessed major changes in their neighborhood with many of their friends either moving away or dying, and being in constant pain from illnesses. Some become depressed and resort to excessive use of alcohol. Many may have been victims of one or more crimes, such as theft, vandalism of their property, fraud, or a personal bodily assault. They may be in constant fear of being victimized again and thus become overly protective by changing their lifestyle to the extent that they are almost prisoners in their own homes. Kratcoski and Edelbacher (2016, p. 63) note, “It is now recognized that some older victims have needs for assistance that are quite different from the needs of younger victims. These include assistance with transportation, special housing,

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financial security, personal physical care, and psychological counseling. Having a sense of security and being able to live without fear for one’s personal safety are also major concerns.” Kratcoski (2018, p. 120) states, “The major focus of many programs to protect elderly victims of crime has been on education. These programs are based on the assumption that older persons can do a great deal on their own to prevent many types of victimization, including being the victims of scams and even of violent crime, if they become more aware of the dangers and the types of situations that could result in becoming a victim of crime.” In this regard, the National Crime Prevention Council (2015, p. 1) suggests that both private and public community agencies, older persons, and organizations composed of older persons can be effective in prevention of crimes and victimization of the elderly. The ingredients needed for programs to be effective include a communications network to alert elderly persons of the situations that present a high potential for victimization, providing information to the elderly on how to report victimization and the specific agencies that are responsible for investigating specific types of crimes and establishing services that offer support to older victims who may be in need of medical, financial, or psychology assistance as a result of being a victim of crime. Volunteers of all age groups, as well as students completing internships and work study programs, have been effective in providing services to older victims. The nature of the services they provide to elderly victims varies from assisting in the educational and training programs that focus on crime prevention and personal safety to more direct services such as providing transportation or grocery shopping for shut-ins or visiting and offering companionship to those who are hospitalized or bedridden. The experiential learning the volunteers and interns receive from the work they do with the elderly and the interaction they have with different law enforcement and social service agencies are likely to have a major impact on their future careers.

6.3  Funding of Victim Service Agencies The large majority of victim assistance agencies are private and administered at the local level, either municipal or county. A large portion of their funding comes from grants, fundraising events, or individual contributions. Generally, victim assistance programs will be allocated a portion of the funds obtained from the United Fund, grants from various foundations, or from state, county, or federal legislation. Funding is generally a major concern for victim assistance agency administrators. For example, the executive director of the Summit County Victim Assistance Program, OH was asked, “What are the most pressing problems facing the agency?” She responded (Kratcoski, 2016a, b, p. 261), “As with most private, nonpro organizations, funding is a major concern. We depend on grants and contribution from foundations and individuals. We have two major fund raising events each year and are constantly looking for new sources for additional funding.”

6.3  Funding of Victim Service Agencies

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The victim assistance programs often must add additional services, increase staff, or rely more on volunteers and intern students during times of natural or human-made crises as demands for their services increase and the funding from governments decreases. Gordon (2021, Akron Beacon Journal, p. 6B) notes, “In a surge officials attribute partly to the COVID-19 pandemic, calls to the shelter hotline have increased from an average of 11 a day, pre-COVID, to nearly 14 a day in recent months.”... “Despite CHOICES increasing its space from 52 beds to 120 when it moved into the new shelter in January 2019, demand has already outstripped supply. And that’s why Franklin County’s only domestic violence shelter later this month will open a 24-bed expansion.”.. . “In 2020, Ohio’s portion of funds from the Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) was cut by more than 35%, or by 7.7 million”... . “Statewide, that meant services were cut across the board,” said Mary O′ Doherty, executive director of the Ohio Domestic Violence Network, which oversees the state’s 75 programs. “In some places positions were cut and some shelters don’t have anyone on duty at night.” Giving the need to depend extensively on “soft money,” the agencies must often utilize volunteers and intern students to provide the extensive services they have pledged to victims of crime. Some of these services such as the “hotline” are 24-7, and it would be unlikely that an agency would have the funds to employ regular staff to work at these positions. Since volunteers are so crucial to the success of the agencies, the responsibility for recruiting and training the volunteers is generally relegated to an experienced staff member. In Box 6.2, Rebecca Cool, Assistant Director of Community Resouces, Summit County Victim Assistance Program, discusses the selection and training of volunteers and interns.

Box 6.2: Rebecca Cool, MSW, LSW, CA: Victim Assistance Advocate (Interview by P. Kratcoski, 4/3/2021) Becky Cool currently serves as Assistant Director of Community Resorces at Victim Assistance Program Akron, OH. In her role, she mentors and oversees Victim Assistance Program’s robust internship program, as well as overseeing the three victim advocate satellite offices in Akron, Barberton, and Stow municipal courts. Becky holds a master’s degree in social work from the University of Akron. Additionally, she is a credentialed advocate through the National Organization for Victim Assistance and a licensed social worker (LSW). Becky began her career at Battered Women’s Shelter of Summit and Medina Counties, where she held several positions serving adults and children residing in emergency shelter. Becky has dedicated her career to advocating for the expansion of trauma-informed care and to providing exceptional victim services. (continued)

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Box 6.2 (continued) Interview Questions Q: Rebecca, what motivated you toward a career in social work? A: In August 2012, I began my undergraduate degree with the intention of pursuing a nursing major. I had always known that I wanted to work with underserved populations in some capacity. After some personal reflection, I realized that social work was my niche. My own personal values align with the values of the profession such as empowerment, self-determination, and client centered services. Q: Was there any particular faculty member/s or experience that had an influence on your decision? A: Dr. Jina Sang, Ph.D., MSSW at the University of Akron was extremely influential in my desire to continue my education to pursue a master’s degree in social work(MSW). Her constant encouragement and drive to enhance the profession is admirable. Q: Did you complete an internship during your undergraduate or graduate studies? A: Yes, I completed two internships. I completed my internship for my undergraduate degree (BSW) at Battered Women’s Shelter of Summit County. I had the opportunity to work hands-on with residential survivors of domestic violence. I would eventually be hired at a Battered Women’s Shelter, where I worked for several years serving as an advocate for both adults and children residing in shelter. While I was completing my graduate degree, I interned at the Alcohol, Drug Addiction, and Mental Health Services Board of Summit County. In this experience, I had the opportunity to learn more about macro social work practice. I participated in several community coalitions including the Summit County Hoarding Task Force and the Trauma-Informed Care Coalition. These experiences helped prepare me to move into an administrative role at the Victim Assistance Program. Turning to your current position, I would like to ask you a few questions relating to your responsibilities for selecting and training volunteers and interns. Q: How many volunteers/interns does the Victim Assistance Program (VAP) typically use at any given time? A: Victim Assistance Program could not function without the dedicated and tireless efforts of our volunteers and interns. First, our board of directors is comprised of 25 volunteers. We also have anywhere from 8 to 12 student interns each semester who engage in a variety of direct-service and non-direct service activities to meet their individual learning goals. We also have launched our Crisis Response Team (CRT), comprised of volunteers who also participate in direct services and non-direct service tasks. CRT volunteers can also be deployed alongside of our staff in the event that a mass casualty or tragedy occurred in Summit County. (continued)

6.3  Funding of Victim Service Agencies

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Box 6.2 (continued) Q: What are the sources of applicants for volunteers and interns? A: All of our student interns are recruited through local universities, either through their school internship search database or by recommendation of professors. I have also found that internships are heavily based on word-of-mouth recommendations. Students that have meaningful and fulfilling internships will recommend our agency to other students. Our interns and volunteers are also recruited through social media and through our website. Q: Regarding the selection process, Do the candidates complete a questionnaire? Yes_X___ No____ Do you complete an interview with the candidates? Yes_X__ No___ Do you complete a back ground check? Yes_X___ No____ Q: Would you like to add anything? A: Internship and volunteer placements at Victim Assistance Program are highly competitive. Due to the nature of our work with vulnerable clients, we are very selective in our recruitment process to assure that our high standards of best-practice services will be upheld. Q: What are some of the major characteristics/traits of the candidate you would want the perspective volunteer/intern to have? A: First and foremost, our volunteers and interns must have a strong connection to the mission of our agency, as serving victims in Summit County is our primary focus. Additionally, volunteers and interns should be empathic, compassionate, and trauma-informed. These individuals should be open to receiving feedback and committed to ongoing learning, as the best-practice standards, policies, and procedures are always evolving. Moreover, volunteers and interns must be reliable and professional. Our agency relies on the efforts of volunteers and interns to ensure that we can provide crisis intervention and advocacy to victims of crime 24/7/365. Q: Is the same process followed for the selection of interns as for the selection of volunteers? A: Victim Assistance Program strategically recruits board member volunteers by identifying areas of expertise needed to make the agency thrive. Each board member completes a skills assessment, identifying their area of expertise (For example, law, medical, marketing, finance). Next, the board identifies the areas in which specific expertise is needed and recruits potential new volunteer members on the basis of selecting those candidates that will ensure holistic representation of expertise on the board. The processes for selecting volunteers and interns are quite similar; however, selections for CRT volunteers are ultimately decided upon by our CRT- coordinator. All intern and CRT volunteer candidates must complete an application, cover letter, and resume and then participate in at least one interview before a final determination is made. (continued)

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Box 6.2 (continued) Q: Indicate the types of services that volunteers and interns provide either directly to victims or indirectly to victims.

Crisis intervention Counseling 24-hour hotline Services Landlord intervention Protection orders Legal advocacy Crime scene support Medical care referral Financial assistance Restitution Making referrals to other agencies Assisting with victim impact statements

Directly Volunteers

Interns

Indirectly Volunteers

Interns

X

X

X

X

X X

X X X X X

X X

X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X

X

X

X

X X X X X X X

X

X

X

It should be noted that some interns and volunteers, are assigned tasks based upon their skill level, training and experiences, and their own identified areas of interest. CRT volunteers and interns who complete our Essentials of Victim Advocacy course will start out by observing our staff members as they provide direct services to victims, such as making referrals to other agencies or providing crime scene support. As volunteers and interns become more confident and skilled through their training and observations, they may be offered the opportunity to provide these direct services to clients independently. Some volunteers have considerable professional experience in such areas as law, the medical field, social work, education, and business. For example, a CRT volunteer with a MSW degree might be employed as a social worker with an agency and thus will bring considerable expertise to the agency. Volunteers who are employed in the education field can be extremely helpful in the education programs offered by our Summit Victim Assistance Academy Those volunteers with a business background are helpful in fundraising projects. Q: Is a specific amount of education required to be accepted as a volunteer? (continued)

6.3  Funding of Victim Service Agencies

Box 6.2 (continued) A: Board member volunteers are strategically recruited based on their education and expertise. For student interns, we solicit individuals who are pursuing associate, bachelors, and master’s degrees in a related field of study. CRT volunteers are required to hold a high school diploma at a minimum. Q: Indicate the training volunteers/interns are required to complete before they are assigned tasks. A: All volunteers and interns who provide direct service to our clients are required to complete our 40  h nationally accredited Essentials of Victim Advocacy Course through our agency’s Summit Victim Assistance Academy. This course prepares new volunteers and interns to utilize the National Organization on Victim Assistance model of crisis intervention. After completing the Essentials course, new volunteers and interns will undergo a minimum of 20  h of job specific training, where they will learn policies and procedures specific to our agency. Q: In general, during your time as an administrator, what are the benefits the agency received from volunteers and interns? A: As a small nonprofit agency, our volunteers and interns are a major part of our day-to-day operations. The volunteer hours from our board of directors allow us to advance the administrative goals of the agency. Non-direct service volunteers and interns can assist in agency marketing and digital media projects. Direct-service interns and volunteers can assist with the answering of our 24-h crisis hot-line, accompanying clients to court hearings, respond to crime scenes, and provide general support and crisis intervention to our clients. Overall, our volunteers and interns assist us in meeting the needs of victims in our community in a timely and compassionate manner. Q: Has the agency ever hired a former intern/volunteer? A: yes Q: What, if any, liabilities does the SCVA Program incur by using volunteers/interns? A: Our agency possesses liability insurance that covers all employees, volunteers, and interns. On a more practical level, using volunteers and interns can pose difficulties. When volunteers and interns are not paid for their time, you run the risk of some of them not being motivated to complete their commitments to the agency. We try to circumvent these issues through our vetting and interview process, and by setting clear expectations in the onboarding process.

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6.4  V  ictim Assistance Provided by State and Federal Agencies According to the FBI’s Victim Service Overview (2021, pp.  1–3), “The Victim Services Division (VSD) is responsible for ensuring that victims of crimes investigated by the FBI are afforded the opportunity to receive the services and notification as required by federal law and the Attorney General Guidelines on Victim Assistance. The VSD manages the day-to-day operational aspects of the Victim Assistance Program (VAP) in the 56 FBI field offices across the country as well as the FBI’s international offices. In addition, the VSD is responsible for providing training and information that helps to equip FBI agents and other FBI personnel to work effectively with victims.” The Victim Services Division of the FBI is directly responsible for a number of special programs, including the following: • • • •

The Terrorism and Special Jurisdiction program The Child Pornography Victim Assistance program The Child Victim Services program The Field Office Victim Assistance program

In all of the programs listed above, victim assistance specialists are selected for the programs based on their education and training that will qualify them to provide the specific service provided in the program in which they are employed. “The Victim Notification System (VNS), administered by the FBI, the US Attorneys’ Offices, and the Federal Bureau of Prisons. .. Is designed to provide victims with information and notifications regarding their cases. VNS notifications that may be provided can include information about investigative status, criminal charges filed, outcome of charges, scheduled court proceedings, and the offenders’ custody status (e.g., placement in community corrections centers, furlough, release, or death).”

6.5  Interns and Volunteers in Social Service Agencies Kratcoski (2016a, b, p.  253) notes, “The justice agencies functioning within any municipal, county, or state political jurisdiction communicate and cooperate with numerous health and social service agencies on a daily basis. For example, on any given day the police may have to assist in transporting emergency patients, victims of accidents, or victims of crime to the hospitals; find shelter for homeless street people, domestic violence victims, or runaway children, and may assist in the investigation of alleged abuse of children and adults.” Rich (2016, p. 237) discusses the use of multidisciplinary teams, referred to as SARTS, that are used in many communities for the investigation and intervention for the victims of rape. “They consist of forensic nurse examiners, social workers or psychologists, law enforcement, victim advocates, crime lab specialists and

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prosecutors.”... “Some SARTS also include teachers, foster care workers, addiction or disability specialists, shelter employees, faith based authorities, and college administrators.” Teams of professionals, similar to those who collaborate for the investigation and provision of services for those who are the victims of sexual assaults, can be found for other types of victimization. The Stark Multidisciplinary Advocacy/Protective Resources Team (SMART, Justice for All – Protecting the Elderly and Disabled, 2021, pp. 1–2) focuses on building community supports for the elderly and establishing programs for the prevention of elder abuse. The hundreds of child advocacy centers operating throughout the United States dedicated to protecting and servicing youths who have been abused or neglected tend to follow the multidisciplinary approach described above. According to the National Children’s Alliance (Children’s Network of Stark County, p.  3), “The Children’s Network must provide a comfortable, private, child-friendly setting that is psychologically safe for clients, and a multidisciplinary team for response to child abuse allegations, which includes representation from law enforcement, child protective services, prosecution, mental health, medical, victim advocacy and child advocacy center. ... The Children’s Network Child Advocacy Center of Stark County is all about protecting children. The agency serves about 500 children per year and deals with children who have been sexually or physically abused or are witnesses to violence.. .. The Children’s Network of Stark County houses space for professionals from each discipline in one location to limit the number of times a child has to be interviewed about a traumatizing event such as sexual abuse.. .. At the Center, forensic interviews are conducted in a neutral, fact-finding way and are coordinated to avoid duplicative interviewing. Specialized medical evaluation and treatment are made available as part of the team response, either at the center or through other medical providers. Specialized mental health services also are made available as part of the team response, among other amenities.” The need for communications and collaboration of justice agencies and social service agencies is most apparent when a community, state, or nation is suffering from a natural disaster, such as a flood, hurricane, tornado, earthquake, major forest fire, or an epidemic brought on by the spread of a diseases or virus. The need for collaboration among justice agencies, social service agencies, and the community is also apparent when responding to man-made crisis situations such as mass shootings, bombings, the taking of hostages, and other crisis situations. The justice agencies, health providers, and social service providers all use volunteers to help in providing assistance to the victims of the situations mentioned above. For example, Volunteers of America (2021, p. 2) states, “Through our hundreds of human service programs, including housing and healthcare, Volunteers of America touches the lives of 1.5 million people in over 400 communities in 46 states as well as the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico each year. Since 1896, we have supported and empowered America’s most vulnerable groups, including veterans, at-risk youth, the frail elderly, men and women returning from prison, homeless individuals and families, people with disabilities, and those recovering from addictions.. .. Approximately 60,000 volunteers throughout the country help our

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employees deliver these life-changing services.” The tasks and experiences of volunteers and students completing internships or co-op placements are likely to vary, depending on the mission of the agency in which they are placed and the specific situation in which they are involved. In crisis situations created by such natural disasters as floods, hurricanes, or forest fires, a large variety of volunteers will provide assistance to the victims. Some of them will have expertise and experience in how to respond to the situation, such as police officers, firefighters, and medical workers. These will provide valuable assistance to those in command of the situation. Others who volunteer to provide assistance in a crisis situation caused by a natural phenomenon may not have any particular skill that can be used during the crisis situation but offer extensive direct or indirect assistance for those who were victimized by the natural disaster. Volunteers collecting food, clothing, and other items needed for everyday life and personally delivering these to the site of the disaster is an example of direct involvement, whereas volunteers arranging to collect money to be used by the victims for their immediate needs is an example of indirect involvement. Regardless of the particular role a person has in a crisis situation created by a natural disaster, it will be a learning experience that will long be remembered by all involved. Professionals from several different agencies must develop effective lines of communications, design methods to use for responding to those affected by the natural disaster, and provide the relief necessary. Cooperation and interaction between law enforcement and medical and social service agencies may have been established for normal situations but have not been set up for the unexpected natural disaster. (The exception might be in areas in which hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods have a high probably of occurring during certain times and the authorities have developed plans to be implemented immediately). During and after the crisis, those involved, including professionals of various agencies and volunteers, learn a great deal about how to effectively respond to a crisis and the roles of all those involved. The use of volunteers and interns in the response to man-made crisis situations, such as mass shooters, fires, hostage taking, and abuse of children and the elderly, will vary, depending on the specific situation. For example, a mass shooting in a school will require involvement of a number of different agencies, including law enforcement and medical and school administrators, teachers, students, and victims. Some volunteers might become involved during the crisis, particularly if they have skills or equipment that can be used to protect the victims or in rescuing the victims from hardship areas, as in the case of a flood or hurricane. Although it is not likely that the majority of the volunteers will become involved in the immediate situation, they may play a significant role in the aftermath of the crisis through such activities as collecting food, money, and clothing and finding shelter for the victims. They work hand in hand with the professionals assigned to the natural calamity. Such occasions, in addition to providing experiential learning opportunities for all those who become involved, provide excellent examples of how many organizations and individuals cooperate to achieve a common goal.

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6.6  P  articipation of Volunteers and Interns in Human-Made Crisis Situations Human-made crisis situations include mass shootings, such as recently experienced in several schools, shopping centers, and churches; bombings, as recently experienced in churches and government buildings; mob behavior resulting from protest actions against the police, government, and other groups; and widespread hate crimes directed toward one or more racial or ethnic groups and others. As with natural crisis situations, it is difficult to predict when a human-made crisis situation is likely to occur. However, the preparation for responding to the crisis in both natural disasters and human-made crises can be made, basing the planning and operations on past experiences in dealing with similar crises. The degree of involvement of volunteers and intern students in prevention and control of such events and in providing assistance to victims in human-made crises is highly dependent on the role the specific agency has allocated for interns and volunteers. For example, a student completing an internship with a police agency might be given the opportunity to observe and even participate in the training of a SWAT team plan for responding to a hostage situation in a school but is not likely to become directly involved in an actual hostage situation in a school. However, if the intern is assigned to work with a police school resource officer (SRO) assigned to a particular school or with a private security officer, the intern might be expected to become more directly involved in the response to a disruption or crisis. For example, a student completing an internship under the direction of the school security officer was given a variety of tasks such as patrolling the hallways, checking the entrances of the schools to assure that only authorized persons were entering, and patrolling the school parking lot in the morning and after the students are released for the day. He also was assigned to security detail during extracurricular events, particularly football games. He was given specific instructions never to try to break up an altercation of any type, such as a fight between the students from the rival schools, but to call on the radio to a member of the security staff for assistance. Regardless of the degree of involvement of interns and volunteers during a crisis situation, they will be expected to join the other members of the various agencies that responded to the crisis situation in offering assistance to the victims. The liability factor is a major concern for some agencies and it may have an influence on the amount of direct involvement of an intern or volunteer in a crisis situation. Generally, the greater the risk of being harmed in the performance of a specific task by the agency, the less likely the intern will be allowed to become directly involved. Regardless of the degree of direct involvement of a volunteer or intern student before, during, and after the agency in which they were placed is allowed to participate, the experience of observing and participating in such events and providing assistance to those who were victimized by the crisis situation will likely have a lasting effect on the interns and volunteers.

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6.7  V  olunteering and Interning with Public and Private Social Service Agencies The opportunities to complete internships, and co-ops, or to engage in volunteer work with community social service agencies and with professional practitioners are numerous. These agencies often have extensive interaction with justice agencies, and some of the social service agency personnel interact with justice agency personnel on a daily basis, particularly in cases when a member of the family is victimized by domestic violence, child abuse, or sexual assault or when a person is sexually assaulted by an acquaintance or stranger. Kratcoski (2016a, b, p.  296) states, “The service function of the police role calls for an officer who is able to provide personal, compassionate assistance for those in need. The police are called to assist in medical emergencies, to intervene in family crisis situations, and to assist victims of crime, including child victims of physical and sexual abuse. In this role, the officer must be considerate and understanding and able to inspire trust.” Strand (2016) indicated that the police must be able to communicate with academic researchers and legal and social service agencies in developing instruments that can be used in the investigating and servicing of (family) violence situations, where the actions are to a large extent protective actions because the victims are children and/ or adolescents living in the same household as the perpetrator of the violence. It is necessary for the police, prosecutors, and those agencies to join in the planning and implementation of the “best practice” response to the victims of such crimes. Private practitioners, such as counselors and psychologists, have extensive contact with justice agencies by being contracted to provide service to justice agencies or through their daily practice. For example, Dr. Thomas M. Anuskiewicz, owner of Marion Psychological, Inc. (MPI), was asked (Kratcoski, 2016a, b, pp. 266–267), “As a psychologist with Marion, what types of services do you provide that are related to the justice system?” He replied “We work with jails, police, and sheriff’s departments and the courts. We provide services to the inmates and staff at the correctional settings (i.e., crisis intervention, counseling, case management, 24 hour on-call, pre-employment psychological evaluations, Ohio Police Officer Training Academy (OPOTA), training for corrections officers, and sheriff deputies, as well as provide input on policy and program development). We also work with the courts, mainly by providing court-ordered forensic evaluations (NGRI) competency, sex-­ offender assessments, presentence evaluations, case mitigation/planning reports, risk assessments for violent offenders, and providing expert testimony.” Students who have completed internships or co-ops with public and private service agencies, including psychologists employed by a justice agency or social service agency or under contract with a public justice or service agency, have often been allowed to be observers during some of the times when representatives of various agencies met to plan strategies for the intervention of delicate cases involving child physical or sexual abuse, domestic violence, and sexual assault of adults. Interns placed at social service agencies or in a correctional facility and assigned to work with a counselor or psychologists involved in drug addiction or alcohol addiction counseling may have the opportunity to observe the individual counseling sessions and even participate in group counseling. Even if the intern is just an observer,

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the opportunities to learn about the techniques and procedures used by the professional practitioners who employ “best practices” in the investigations and responses of the needs of victims of crime are a learning experience that is difficult to match.

6.8  Volunteer Work of Self-Help Groups Self-help organizations such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA), ex-offenders, and many others provide volunteer services in a number of ways. They visit prisons, juvenile detention facilities, and community corrections centers and hold sessions devoted to the prevention of alcohol and drug abuse. Many of the volunteers in these groups are professionals, doctors, lawyers, teachers, and business leaders, who had become substance abusers and experienced the devastating effects of the addiction on their personal lives. Their volunteer work is a commitment to help others who have either become addicted or may be on the path of self-destruction as a result of their excessive use of drugs or alcohol. In a sense, these volunteers not only provide a valuable learning experience to the groups they interact with but also are constantly having new learning through reliving their experiences with alcohol and drugs as well as by interacting with the adults and youth who are listening to their stories and often having the effect of changing those who are most vulnerable. Even those who have been convicted of a crime and are incarcerated have opportunities to engage in volunteer work, generally providing some form of community service. For the self-help groups mentioned, their volunteer work, while generally being altruistic, nevertheless is rewarding and often has an effect on their personal lives.

6.9  Summary As noted in this chapter, the World Society of Victimology was established in 1979. Kratcoski (2016a, b, p. 302) notes, “The movement toward serving the victims of crime as manifested in the United States has spread to nations throughout the world. They have moved toward international cooperation through the standardization of laws, criminal codes, and other justice related matters, and have also cooperated and collaborated to provide protection and services to victims of crime.” Kratcoski (2016a, b, p.  303) observes, “Concurrent with the victims’ rights movement, there was also a rapid increase in professionally trained social workers, counselors, psychologists, and various types of therapists (such as occupational therapists) who have developed careers in victim services.” Students who are seeking careers in a justice-related occupation can find opportunities for internships, co-ops, and volunteer work with a variety of public and private agencies with missions to provide services to victims of crime. Volunteer advocates for victims are drawn from a variety of professions, age groups, social-economic levels, and racial-ethnic groups. The tasks they complete vary depending on the specific mission or the agency in which they serve. While some volunteers may be hoping for future employment with an agency, others volunteer purely out of altruistic motives.

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