Exotic Animal Field Guide: Nonnative Hoofed Mammals in the United States [1 ed.] 9781603444934, 9781585445554

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EXOTIC ANIMAL FIELD GUIDE

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Exotic Animal Field Guide Nonnative Hoofed Mammals in the United States

ELIZABETH C ARY MUNGALL Foreword by Ike C. Sugg

TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY PRESS COLLEGE STATION

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Copyright © 2007 by Elizabeth Cary Mungall Manufactured in China by Everbest Printing Co. through Four Colour Imports All rights reserved First edition The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1984. Binding materials have been chosen for durability.

Frontmatter photographs: African Cape buffalo, Christian Mungall, 777 Ranch, Texas (p. i); Audad, Elizabeth Cary Munall, Fort Worth Zoo, Texas (frontis); Thomson’s gazelle, Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Texas (p. iv); Fallow deer, copyright © Ken duChene, Brady Ranch, Florida (p. v); Axis deer, Elizabeth Cary Mungall, Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas (p. vi); Scimitar-horned oryx, Christian Mungall, Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas (p. viii); Belsbok, Christian Mungall, TDSL, Texas (p. x); Persian ibex, C. J. Simmons, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, copyright © 2004, Texas (p. xxv).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mungall, Elizabeth Cary. Exotic animal field guide : nonnative hoofed mammals in the United States / Elizabeth Cary Mungall ; foreword by Ike C. Sugg. —1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-58544-555-4 (flexbound : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-58544-555-X 1. Ungulates—United States. 2. Exotic animals—United States. 3. Wildlife watching—United States. I. Title. QL737.U4M86 2007 599.6'1620973—dc22 2006014549

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v To all the animals— past, present, and future— and to all the people who have spent hours and hours helping gather information to share with other animal people.

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Contents

List of Featured Animals

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Foreword, by Ike C. Sugg

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Acknowledgments Introduction

xiii xv

Exotics in the United States

1

Where to See Exotics

9

Photography Basics for Exotics, by Christian Mungall Owning Exotics

58

Animal Profiles

85

Deer

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Antelopes

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Sheep and Goats

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Cattle

221

Other Animals

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Exotics-Related Organizations

257

References

261

Glossary

267

Further Reading

275

Index

277

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Featured Animals

Deer Axis deer Barasingha Dybowski’s deer Eld’s deer (brow-antlered deer) Fallow deer, European Fallow deer, Persian (Mesopotamian fallow deer) Hog deer Muntjac, Indian Muntjac, Reeves’s Père David’s deer Red deer, European Sambar Sika deer Silk

Antelopes Addax Blackbuck antelope Blesbok Bongo Bontebok Dik-dik, Guenther’s Dik-dik, Kirk’s Eland, common Eland, giant Gazelle, dama Gazelle, dorcas Gazelle, Grant’s Gazelle, Persian Gazelle, slender-horned

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Gazelle, Thomson’s Gemsbok (South African oryx) Impala Kudu, greater Lechwe, Nile Lechwe, red Nilgai antelope Nyala Oryx, Arabian Oryx, beisa Oryx, fringe-eared Oryx, scimitar-horned Roan antelope Sable antelope Sitatunga Springbok Waterbuck, common Waterbuck, defassa Wildebeest, black (white-tailed gnu) Wildebeest, blue (brindled gnu)

Sheep and Goats Aoudad (Barbary sheep) Barbados sheep Catalina goat Corsican sheep Four-horned sheep Ibex, alpine Ibex, Nubian Ibex, Persian (Iranian ibex) Ibex, Siberian (Asiatic ibex)

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x Ibex, Y.O. Markhor Mouflon Red sheep, Alborz Stumberg sheep Tahr, Himalayan Urial, Trans-Caspian

Cattle African Cape buffalo Banteng Gaur Water buffalo Yak

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featured animals

Other Animals Camel, Arabian (dromedary) Camel, Bactrian Giraffe Giraffe, reticulated Llama Rhinoceros, black Rhinoceros, white (square-lipped rhinoceros) Wild boar Zebra, Chapman’s Zebra, Grant’s Zebra, Grévy’s

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Foreword

As with most good ideas, this book originated in the mind of one key individual. In this case, it was a game rancher named Wesley Kyle of Pipe Creek, Texas. Years ago, while serving as chairman of the Exotic Wildlife Association’s Education Committee, Kyle recognized the need for a field guide of the type that you finally see here. With about one hundred different kinds of exotic animals (i.e., nonnative hoofed species and races) roaming wild on private property in Texas and elsewhere in the United States, Kyle knew that such a guide would have many applications. It would help people identify and better understand these animals when seen on ranches, in wildlife parks, or anywhere that people spot creatures without cages or labels. Moreover, there was also a need to provide technical information for those who were considering raising such animals themselves. An authoritative field guide could help those people manage their land and care for their animals in prudent ways that would benefit both. Thanks to Elizabeth Cary Mungall and the Exotic Wildlife Association (EWA) board of directors, Wesley Kyle’s idea is now a tangible reality that should benefit people for many years. What may surprise some readers is how this field guide will also benefit several rare and threatened species of wildlife, not to mention important wildlife habitats. In fact, it is precisely because of the significant environmental consequences that EWA has pursued this field guide project for so long. Helping people to conserve nonnative wildlife, and the habitat these animals depend upon, has long been a major part of EWA’s mission. Founded in 1967, EWA is now the oldest and most successful wildlife ranching organization in North America. Foremost among EWA’s goals has been to promote and expand the conservation of hoofed wildlife species through public education, advocacy, and research. As part of this mission, EWA developed a hunting program that emphasizes a code of ethics. EWA also created the Second Ark Foundation, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit educational organization. In addition to facilitating exotics research and teaching programs, the Second Ark Foundation maintains a museum dedicated to

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explaining how exotics ranching plays a positive role in the conservation of wildlife and wildlife habitats. This field guide represents yet another EWA project intended to foster understanding and appreciation for exotic wildlife and the men and women who raise such animals. Wildlife ranchers have been so successful in propagating nonnative wildlife that some species featured in this field guide are now more numerous in the United States than in their native countries. Indeed, in the case of blackbuck antelope, Père David’s deer, scimitar-horned oryx, and certain other species, EWA members have even offered their own animals for reintroduction to the countries of origin. The tremendous success of wildlife ranchers in the field of conservation propagation is one of the best-kept secrets in wildlife conservation today. With this volume, it is hoped that more people will come to appreciate the value of that contribution. As countless species lose ground and decline throughout the world, it is heartening to know that species raised by EWA members are increasing on ranches. That is a story worth telling. By introducing readers to the beautiful diversity of species propagated on America’s wildlife ranches and exhibited in numerous public preserves, this field guide will serve as an excellent tool in telling that story. —I KE C. S UGG Former executive director of the Exotic Wildlife Association San Angelo, Texas

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Acknowledgments

First and foremost, thanks go to the Exotic Wildlife Association (EWA). Theirs was the initial impetus that brought the field guide project into being. Former Executive Director Ike C. Sugg expanded the owner’s handbook idea that former EWA Education Chairman Wesley Kyle had set in motion. Sugg put summer intern Alan Jeffcoats to work gathering material and arranged for Rob Payne’s broad-ranging exotics slide portfolio to anchor the project. Subsequent executive directors James M. Stinebaugh and Charly Seale continued support for the project. For tactful oversight, the EWA field guide committee was a pleasure to work with. Jim Jensen, DVM, was animal health representative and did general reviews besides. Tommy Thompson was statistics representative. Kathryn Kyle interfaced as board contact and committee member at large. The backing of the EWA board, the enthusiasm of the members, and their help with all kinds of specialized material made this whole endeavor possible. Extra thanks, too, go to members and nonmembers alike who reviewed individual entries, checked details, looked up contacts, and gave the many other kinds of assistance necessary to complete a project like this. Rick Barongi, Bryan Coleman, Robert L. Cook, James G. Doherty, Andrea Donio, John Gramieri, John Harwood, Leslye Hernandez, David Hughes, Sharon Joseph, Karl Kinsel, Patrick Morrow, Roland Pesson, Mark C. Reed, John Rohloff, Gerald Ryals, Charles Schreiner IV, the late Louis Schreiner, Diane Shapiro, Kelly Sutton, Raul Valdez, Ted Walski, Wendy Wharff, Eric White, and many others helped particularly with finding information and pictures. In addition to Rob Payne, other people who offered photographs—many of them taken especially for the field guide— include Hal Ahlberg, Matt Berry, Marida Favia del Core Borromeo, Gene Burgess, Ken DuChene, Brian Eyler, Steve Forest, Dean Foy, Eugene R. Fuchs, Rick Harp, Raleigh Holtam, Don Horrocks, Vick A. Jones, Wesley, Jackie, and Kathryn Kyle, Scott Petty Jr., Gary Ploch, Stephanie Rutan, Stephen M. Shea, William J. Sheffield, Scott A. Smith, Tiffany Soechting, Laurel Waters, and Mara Weisenberger. Many people also assisted picture expeditions, including Walter Boerner and Ronnie Neal at Priour Ranch, Marylin and Frank Brady and Danny

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SantAngelo at Brady Ranch, Christina Cooper and Katie Sanchez at Global Wildlife Center, Jim and Justin Gregory at TDSL, Brian K. Hill at the Houston Zoo, Don and Cindy Horrocks at Diamond D Ranch, Mike and Chris Hughes at Broken Arrow Ranch, Nancy and Buddy Jordan at NBJ Zoological Park, Wesley, Jackie, and Kathryn Kyle, and Scott A. Smith at Kyle Wildlife LP, Mark Mitchell and T. Wayne Schwertner at Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area, Jason Molitor and “Jabu” Bradley Kirkland at 777 Ranch, Gary Ploch and Brian Tamburello at The Patio Ranch, Mark C. Reed at Sedgwick County Zoo, Stephanie Rutan at White Oak Conservation Center, George Sistrunk at Dos Pesos Ranch, and Tiffany and Sean Soechting at Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch. For special excursions to take a wide range of pictures particularly for the guide, photographic team Colin and Heather Headworth were first rate—and good sports when either animals or weather failed to perform as anticipated. And for photography, general trouble shooting, and all other aspects, my husband, Christian Mungall, was always there with a solution. The author appreciates the generosity of Safari Club International for making a set of their species distribution maps available. Their Deputy President Elect Mike Simpson, attorney Anna Seidman, and Technical Assistant Shawn Murphy all had roles in making this happen. For helpful comments on the text, I thank my reviewers and press editor. Raul Valdez deserves special mention because of his meticulous editing of the entire manuscript in addition to his overview letter with constructive review comments. Expediting everything at Texas A&M University Press was my editor, Shannon Davies. May all authors have someone with as sympathetic an ear who is also such fun to take out on a visit to see animals.

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Introduction

This book features hoofed exotics, animals native to other countries. For completeness, this book also includes a few domesticated animals such as llamas and hybrid forms such as Corsican sheep that are often kept as exotic hoofed stock. The book is intended as a field guide to help in identifying any strange deer, unfamiliar antelope, or other introduced animal in the United States. It is also meant to be a basic source of management information and biological data useful to exotics owners, whether actual or potential. Designing such an identification tool brings up a number of issues that need to be addressed. Following is a discussion of the main problems and how they were treated. This will help resolve any confusion over differences between the present guide and what may be found elsewhere. For definitions of any specialized terms, see the glossary.

Choices in Preparing This Field Guide Selecting what animals to feature involved an interesting set of considerations.

Taxonomy First, any author has to deal with classification systems. Like it or not, merely giving a common name sometimes fails to specify what is, and is not, meant. Granted, taxonomists disagree about how to apply many particular scientific names. However, listing a well recognized version gives important information so that field-guide users can move on and leave further arguments to scientists. One of the most user-friendly authorities for nomenclature as given in this book is the classification in Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia.1 The classification for even-hoofed animals in the volume 13, which is volume IV of the mammals series, is a modification by Fritz R. Walther with behavior similarities in mind. For a newer, more formal revision, try the latest edition of Mammal Species of the World, a project involving the American Society of Mammalogists.2 The field guide index gives a ready reference to scientific names of the animals mentioned in the text.

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Giving the scientific name solves most uncertainty in cases like whether, in the field-guide discussion of red lechwe, the Kafue lechwe is included (not the focus of the field guide profile, but comparative comments are given), but there are still additional problems. For example, having written separately about the reticulated giraffe, is it appropriate to treat all other giraffe subspecies in a single field guide entry just because they are not as individually distinctive—except, perhaps, for the Masai giraffe? Some people might want each giraffe race listed separately. Other people might want all discussed together. After all, captive specimens of what we call reticulated giraffes usually carry genes from other giraffe races as a consequence of hybridization in captivity. This is because the vast majority of U.S. exotics trace to zoos. Fifty years ago, zoos were not so concerned with acting as depositories of the world’s animal diversity—nor was there then such a pressing need. The guiding principle for this book has been what constitutes a recognizable form as seen here in the United States. To give another example, regardless of the controversy over how oryx antelope should be split or lumped, they fall into five distinct groups. Looking at any one normal adult, you can tell which of these five kinds of oryx is in front of you. This guide is for that kind of identification. The constructs of taxonomy treat species as discrete units. Otherwise, the living world would seem a hopeless mass of forms, impossible to keep straight. The standard rule of thumb for classification is that animals are in different taxonomic genera if they differ enough not to interbreed (like horses and rhinoceroses), they are different species within the same genus if they can crossbreed but offspring are sterile (it is exceptionally rare for a mule to give birth), and they are subspecies or races if they have morphological Masai giraffe male. Photo by Christian differences but can hybridize and Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas. produce fertile offspring (Grant’s

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zebra and Chapman’s zebra are two races among a whole series of plains zebras). In general, this is true. Nevertheless, like most aspects of biology, there are exceptions. For example, morphological differences, such as horns that spiral, keep blackbuck in a separate genus from gazelles. Yet there are several combinations of blackbuck with one or another of the gazelles that can produce offspring, although these seem to be sterile. Animals often fail to abide by human rules. Taxonomists have had to make judgment calls as to the importance of characteristics. Some large groupings, such as gazelles and sheep, obviously have many forms but are frequently difficult to divide into discrete categories.

Hybrids and Marketing Names A number of hybrid forms are included in the field guide. Most of these hybrids have been intentionally produced for particular purposes, such as “Corsican ram” for hunting or fallow deer with Persian and European subspecies mixed for meat production. Under special circumstances, there is also natural hybridization in the wild, and occasionally a whole hybrid breeding group can result. Red sheep illustrate such a case. Found to

Alborz red sheep males in summer coat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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possess anywhere from fifty-four to fifty-eight chromosomes, red sheep of the central Alborz Mountains in Iran appear to be a naturally occurring hybrid population.3 Table 1 lists the main marketing names for hybrid breeding lines developed in the United States and kept as exotics. Special designations for certain domestics are also included. For example, Catalina goat is a domestic goat, not a hybrid—except sometimes a goat of mixed domestic ancestry. This vague name for a feral, hunted goat has been taken over as a marketing name similar to those of the hybrids listed. In each animal profile, the “temperament and compatibility” category includes notes on hybridization potential, as far as is known. This is given to help people working with animals avoid unwanted hybridization. When

Table 1. Marketing names for certain breeding lines kept as exotics in the United States

Catalina goat

Domestic goats hunted in some feral populations and on some ranches. Often with emphasis on wide horn spread in males. Sometimes assumes slick coat rather than Angora-type fleece.

Corsican sheep, Corsican ram

Originally mouflon–Barbados sheep hybrids. Now sometimes hybridized with other domestic sheep as well.

Hawaiian black sheep

Black variety of Corsican sheep hybrids.

Red stag

Red deer–American elk hybrids, but there is confusion because the name is also used for purebred adult male red deer.

Royal yak

Domestic yak with big, bold black-and-white spots.

Silk, American silk

Sika deer–American elk hybrids.

Stumberg sheep

Argali-mouflon hybrid.

Texas Dall

White variety of Corsican sheep hybrids.

Y.O. ibex

Wild goat–domestic goat and ibex–domestic goat hybrids. The main wild parents used were Persian ibex (wild goat) and Siberian ibex.

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exotic hoofed stock first appeared in the United States, it was mainly noninterbreeding species such as axis deer, fallow deer, blackbuck antelope, and nilgai antelope. Then red deer and mouflon were released. At first, owners did not realize that these would cross with American elk and domestic sheep, respectively, that had also been stocked. There were also problems like oryx forms released with each other or with addax. Now we know. One mission of the industry organization, the Exotic Wildlife Association presently headquartered in Ingram, Texas, is to educate exotics owners about potential hybridization—along with disease, nutrition, and other management issues. Their office assists members with all sorts of exotics questions. For contact details, see the chapter Exotics-Related Organizations.

Maps The field-guide maps give maximum historical distribution for each kind of animal as well as can be determined from the sources found. Many maps for many different areas or time periods have been published for African wildlife. Consequently, these species have received a judicious melding of maps and text descriptions. European species also have map materials available. Asian species present more of a problem. Although native distributions for all deer have previously been charted,4 those of animals like banteng and Himalayan tahr have required more looking to locate adequate background. For the major exotic species, the author has drawn on maps from her previous book coauthored with William J. Sheffield, Exotics on the Range, also from Texas A&M University Press.5 The generosity of Safari Club International in making a set of its maps available for guidance is much appreciated.6 Because of differing time frames and animal groupings, the field-guide maps are not necessarily the same, but the Safari Club International maps have provided a double check based on the collective experience of a cadre of knowledgeable wildlife enthusiasts who have actually traveled to the places where the animals live. Maps for hybrid forms proved the hardest issue. For animals like Corsican sheep and Y.O. ibex, development centered on one particular ranch. Text in the particular entries gives insights as to the circumstances. For cases like Bactrian camel and water buffalo in which the field-guide entry discusses the animals mainly in the wild, even though they also occur in their native countries as domesticated animals, the maps show distribution

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Siberian ibex sire “Ivan” with his Spanish goats at Y.O. Ranch. Photo by C. J. Simmons, courtesy of Texas Parks & Wildlife copyright © 2004, Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

of the undomesticated form. This gives better insights into the natural propensities of the animals. In most cases, the maximum historical limits as mapped encompass much more land than their present distribution. Thus, the maps show where the animals came from rather than necessarily where they are now. In some places, their distribution may be similar but their density may now be lower.

Status and Conservation With increasing human populations and increasing pressures of land use all over the globe, almost all of the naturally occurring wildlife forms in this book have decreased in both numbers and range in the wild. This is true even for species like impala and Thomson’s gazelle that still occur in large numbers in their native countries. Status in the wild is a dynamic quantity, subject to change with time. Given careful conservation planning, it is hoped that many populations can

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remain stable or even recover. One of the few wildlife species to have come back from the brink of extinction to repopulate nearly its entire original range of distribution is the alpine ibex. A recent estimate is 22,000 in the wild and increasing,6 back from fewer than one hundred at the start of the 1800s. A combined program of protection, captive breeding, and reintroductions saved this animal.7 Such spectacular repopulation in the wild has been possible because alpine ibex had the unique advantage that their habitat, precipitous mountain terrain, was still mostly uninhabited by humans. Few species have such a luxury. People are always asking whether there are more of some species living as exotics in the United States—or in the main exotics state of Texas—than in native habitat. This was stated for blackbuck antelope at the close of the 1960s as a ploy to get stock donated for reintroduction to Pakistan where the species was virtually extinct. Blackbuck were sent, but Texas numbers were only pulling even with India by the 1990s. By then, Indian estimates were 29,000–38,000 compared with 30,390–35,328 for Texas.8 Since then, the Indian estimate has risen to upwards of 50,000, whereas there has been no further census for Texas.9 Axis deer and nilgai antelope have also been suggested. Indian data is lacking for axis deer, although they are probably fairly common in certain areas. Regardless of any changes in Texas census techniques for nilgai that might complicate the comparison, the recent estimate of more than 100,000 native nilgai is much more than even the highest Texas figure (36,756 in 1988).5, 9 At 881,10 Texas may have roughly twice as many of the rarer of the two barasingha subspecies, the hard-ground barasingha of Central India. In native habitat, the population estimate is 400.11 This is provided none of the northern race has been mixed into the exotic population. Nevertheless, Texas clearly has more of two species: addax and scimitarhorned oryx. Their situation illustrates the importance that exotics populations can have for species survival. Counts conducted under the aegis of the United Nations in 2001 and 2002 reported very few addax in their last known native haunts.11 Not a single scimitar-horned oryx was detected.12 This reconfirmed the 1999 assessment that led The World Conservation Union (IUCN) to change the scimitar-horned oryx designation on their esteemed “Red List of Threatened Species” from “CR” for “critically endangered” to “EW” for “extinct in the wild.”13 Addax were pushed closer to a similar change by a hunting party from the Persian Gulf states January 10–

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Nilgai male relaxing in the sunshine. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

February 9, 2003. After their foray into the heart of the Termit sanctuary in Niger, home of the addax’s last viable breeding population, an Algerian newspaper speculated that the total native addax population was less than two hundred.14, 15 Reintroduction initiatives are presently underway for both of these antelopes, drawing on animals from zoos in Europe,12 but it may be a long time before organizers feel confident enough to open the gates for full release into the wild. In the meantime, the U.S. exotics system has become like the “new wild” for these species. They are thriving in their new home. Texas census reports from 1996 (most recent available) were 1,824 addax and 2,145 scimitar-horned oryx.10 The year-end 1999 inventory report for the world’s major zoos listed 556 addax and 804 scimitar-horned oryx.16 Sizable zoo increases beyond this are unlikely. With limited space and pressure to establish preservation programs for many vanishing species, zoos have restricted breeding, and yet, declining wild stocks mean that it

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is no longer advisable—or possible—for zoos to get replacement animals from the wild. As it becomes more difficult to secure the revitalizing effect of new stock for a group, both zoos and reintroduction organizers may turn increasingly to exotics ranches.

Animal Management and Use of This Book With their potential to establish themselves and multiply, exotics need to be monitored and managed. Whether behind fences or loose in a reserve, exotics depend on humans to adjust numbers. All animals using the land—exotics, native wildlife, and domestics—need adequate food, water, and shelter at all seasons. As ranchers making their living from domestic livestock know, this can be a big job. Anyone thinking of stocking exotics should read the chapter Owning Exotics and should be aware of the problems as well as the satisfactions involved in working with exotics. It is only a beginning, but it gives an idea of the considerations involved and some of the places people can get assistance. As a starting point for connecting with Internet sites, regulatory updates, relevant organizations, and periodicals, try the chapter Exotics-Related Organizations. This guide is designed to offer an informed and pleasurable adjunct to your wildlife viewing, but you are the final judge of whether its material suits your purposes. If the book also improves the accuracy of wildlife census efforts, prevents unintended hybridization, and promotes good animal husbandry, it will be fulfilling its purpose.

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EXOTIC ANIMAL FIELD GUIDE

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Exotics in the United States

What animal looks like the combination of a horse and a cow with the beard of a turkey and short devil’s horns? Literally thousands of them live in South Texas alone, but you will not find these nilgai antelope in any field guide to native wildlife in the United States. From axis to zebra, an estimated 223,000 to 250,000 hoofed “exotics”—animals native to other places—live in the United States.1 This book features eighty different forms of the nearly one hundred hoofed foreign wildlife species, distinctive subspecies, and less familiar domestic animals that have been tried as exotics in the United States. Included are both common exotics (like blackbuck antelope and fallow deer) and notso-common exotics. Sometimes, the newer arrivals are called “super exotics,” especially if they are rare and large (like sable antelope and defassa waterbuck). There are exotics on ranches, at safari parks, in wildlife preserves, and sometimes just beside the byroads of America. Most of these exotics belong to private individuals, although others inhabit public areas. Some are free-ranging. Wherever people have been involved with wildlife, keep a close watch for any of these foreign animals called exotics.

Nilgai bull grazing on South Texas rangeland. Photo by William J. Sheffield, courtesy of the King Ranch, Texas.

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exotic animal field guide

Definition of Exotic Just what is an exotic? Technically speaking, an exotic is any organism living outside its native area of distribution. The term implies that, wittingly or unwittingly, humans caused the translocation. The term often implies either naturalistic or less strictly managed conditions than found in zoos. Exotics include the house sparrows fondly remembered by nostalgic European immigrants and lovingly imported as a contribution toward beautification of the New World.2 Exotics also include water hyacinth plants from the Amazon clogging U.S. waterways after riding from lake to lake as fragments on boat engines. Exotics do not include species such as the cattle egret, which has been expanding its distribution across the United States after entering from the south on its own.3

Why Exotics Are Here Among the earliest exotics raisers in the newly declared United States was George Washington.4 In 1786, he procured his first “English deer” (presumably fallow deer) from Maryland breeder Benjamin Ogle. In 1787, Washington wrote to another Maryland owner, Richard Sprigg, commending him on the success of his deer importation and inquiring about obtaining a pair to add to the deer park at his Virginia estate. Here at Mount Vernon, the deer added a picturesque touch to the scenery. Other breeders probably concentrated more on production of venison for the table. These are two of the reasons many people today enjoy owning exotics: interest in the seemingly endless variety of animal life and utilization as a food animal in addition to our traditional livestock. The most widely recognized uses are live sale of brood stock and hunting. Hunting can be either commercial or just occasional by family or invited guests. Nevertheless, many properties have no hunting at all. The least recognized reason for keeping exotics is for conservation. The influx of African antelopes was a direct result of a consortium of ranchers from Texas and elsewhere. They had heard about serious wildlife declines in Africa and wanted to help. They formed a plan to safeguard as many species as possible against extinction by giving them safe places in the United States to live and rear their young.5, 6 In the 1960s, they acquired founder stock of twenty-two antelopes (twenty-one from Africa and one from Asia). This also benefited zoos, like the original recipient in San Antonio, by helping them expand their programs. Because laws to protect the United States from foreign diseases prevent imported cloven-hoofed individuals from being released directly, all the imports became zoo animals. After that, zoos and ranches alternated in ownership of the off-

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exotics in the united states

spring. Ranch-owned offspring not required to keep the zoo herds going could leave and start exotics herds on ranches. What ranch life can do for a species depends on a combination of factors. In addition to hardihood and reproductive potential, there are the human dimensions of access to brood stock, interest in the species, and perception as to suitability. Zoo-ranch contacts have run the whole spectrum from formally instituted arrangements with scimitar-horned oryx and Grévy’s zebra under the Species Survival Program (SSP) of the U.S. national zoo association (American Zoo and Aquarium Association, AZA, formerly the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, AAZPA) to unconsummated queries as to whether a herd of Arabian oryx could be parked in a ranch pasture for a while. Resulting partnerships have shown that, when both groups work together, the space and natural conditions of large pastures can be put to work for the benefit of species. This works best for hoofed animals that are not endangered enough for zoos to set up special breeding programs for them but still precarious enough to die out in captivity if not allowed a safe place to expand their numbers and regain the vigor expected in a diverse and freely breeding population.

Part of a Grévy’s zebra herd constituting one of the first examples of zoo-ranch collaboration in the Species Survival Program. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Waterfall Ranch, Texas.

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Sources of U.S. Exotics Antecedents of the exotics in the United States today trace mainly from the late 1890s to early 1930s.1, 5 A New Hampshire game preserve set up in the late 1800s may well hold the distinction of being the longest continuously operating exotics facility in this country. In setting up this preserve, Austin Corbin— an enterprising graduate of Harvard Law School and one of the developers of Coney Island Amusement Park—brought the wild boar to New Hampshire.7, 8 Between 1866 and 1887, he bought up some seventy hill farms and timber lots in Sullivan County, southwestern New Hampshire, and had 25,000 acres closed in by more than thirty miles of eleven-foot fencing. In 1890, he began importing game for his Blue Mountain Forest, known locally as Corbin’s Park. Reports mention thirty American bison (no longer present, but Corbin’s preserve helped save the species from extinction), 140 deer of different species, elk (elk and some deer still present), caribou, moose, bighorn sheep, bear, and wild boar (always a specialty of the park). As Corbin chronicled in 1893, he imported fifty wild boar from Germany’s Black Forest. There may also have been a later shipment. Recent area personnel have stated that a second group of larger-bodied wild boar from Russia was also brought into the park. A carriage accident killed Corbin in 1896, but his exclusive hunting preserve has continued. Fees from a couple of dozen members plus selective timber harvest have kept the Blue Mountain Forest Association active, the fence mended, and the animals supplied with supplemental winter feed. Other wild boar have also been brought into the United States, many of them similarly early. In New York State, a population started with fifteen to twenty animals imported from Germany in about 1900 lasted for some twenty years.7 Sometime after Corbin started stocking his park, a man called Pee Wee Goodwin is said to have imported a hundred or so boars to New Hampshire.8 The best-known wild boar introduction was in 1912 into a North Carolina game preserve. Its animals had been ordered from Russia. Founders for most later exotics populations—including wild boar—probably came from zoos. Animals surplused from zoos are often sold to help support the animals that remain. This makes stock from all over the world available to private breeders. Hawaii gained its exotic axis deer in December 1867 when three bucks, four does, and one male fawn arrived from India via Japan as a present for the king.9, 10 Considering that Hawaii was not annexed by the United States until 1898, any entry rules apparently allowed direct release. The new additions were released on the island of Molokai in January the next year. From Molokai,

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Exceptional Nubian ibex, a species made available to the United States in 2005 through a rancher deal to acquire Arabian oryx. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the San Antonio Zoo, Texas.

several axis were released on Oahu before statehood, and twelve were released on Lanai in 1920.10, 11, 12 Today, there are axis on Maui as well. All this traces to the original gift of eight axis deer.10 The only other major deviations from zoos-based population origins involve conservation as part of their motivation. As previously mentioned, ranchers hoping to prevent extinctions brought in a number of African antelope species in the 1960s. Similar arguments on behalf of vanishing African wildlife were a strong influence on the New Mexico Game and Fish Commission. The commission imported greater kudu from Africa—via the Albuquerque Zoo—as part of its second wave of trial species to increase availability of big game in their state.2 First to go free in New Mexico had been North African aoudad (also known as Barbary sheep) trapped in 1950 on a local New Mexico ranch. These aoudad had flourished to such an extent that the commission was ready to try more new species. Studied with the greater kudu were six other species gathered from various sources, with the Albuquerque Zoo serving as the initial receiving and breeding site throughout.13 After the animals had multiplied sufficiently, specimens were

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Special truck donated for rhinoceros transport. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Waterfall Ranch, Texas.

turned loose in huge acclimatization pastures near Red Rock, New Mexico. There they were put under scientific study—probably a first for exotic hoofed stock introductions in the United States—and their chances of making a lasting contribution to the state’s fauna were assessed. The greater kudu got returned to the Albuquerque Zoo because they proved too delicate for the climate. However, in 1965, half a dozen or so gemsbok (South African oryx) were bought in Africa, and several Persian ibex (wild goats) of breeding age were brought in from Iran. Both species were judged a great success. The Persian ibex did so well that a breeding nucleus of three Siberian ibex was purchased from the Hamburg Zoological Garden in Germany. Stock from Iran was used for a breeding group of Persian goitered gazelle, but setbacks due to heavy coyote predation and diseases delayed their program. The delay was so long that changing federal regulations prevented finding a release site. Markhor failed their evaluation, and the red sheep were finally withheld for fear they might interbreed with other sheep on the range.13, 14 Remaining stock of all the kinds not continued in the introductions program were sold to U.S. zoos and game ranches.14 New Mexico’s work with Siberian ibex, Persian ibex, and gemsbok—the species judged suitable and released in the state13—also helped make these species

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exotics in the united states available to private breeders all over the United States. After the 1970s, New Mexico judged its introduction objectives accomplished and redirected its efforts into managing their existing wildlife—both natives and exotics.

Meanwhile, private citizens and their organizations have continued to match their concern for wildlife with action. In the 1980s, the desperate plight of Africa’s black rhinoceros populations prompted Game Conservation International, a private hunting organization, to devote considerable time and money to shipping a few of these beleaguered beasts to the United States for safekeeping. At least two of the receiving sites were Texas wildlife ranches. Some specimens took the translocation better than others, but the project demonstrated yet again how committed the private sector is in acting on their convictions.

Link with Private Land Ownership The majority of exotics are on private lands. This is understandable because federal and state agencies have a mandate to protect the interests of native species. Exceptions occur chiefly in three kinds of situations. There are regions, as in the New Mexico example just discussed, where the state has responded to a perception that native big game was lacking by introducing exotics. There are tracts like Point Reyes National Seashore in California where governmental bodies have taken over sites previously stocked with exotics by former owners.15 There are also areas like Maryland’s Eastern Shore where sika deer have been set loose and have expanded their range across several counties.16 Nowhere is the link between private land ownership and exotics activity stronger than in the state of Texas. Texas rangelands harbor more hoofed exotics than in any other state. With a generally warm climate and approximately 97 percent of its 267,399 square miles under private control, the huge amounts of grazing land predispose Texas to favor exotics. Another factor is the high regard for native game in this state. Livestock in pastures of several hundred to more than a thousand acres share their space with popular natives such as white-tailed deer, turkey, and quail. Given access to surpluses of foreign species that have already demonstrated their adaptability by breeding well in zoos, Texas ranchers have found it easy to follow the natural human proclivity to animal-keeping by adding a few extra animals to pastures already set up for raising cattle, sheep, and goats. Activity with exotic hoofed species is as varied as the people involved. This diversity has brought a vitality and a staying power that has sustained general interest in spite of changing fortunes in particular areas. By contrast,

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exotic animal field guide ratite ranching—agricultural production for commercial use of the large, flightless birds ostriches, emus, and rheas—offers few options and has gone boom and bust. Keeping exotic hoofed animals has grown to industry proportions in some areas even while facing legal bans in others. In Texas, the Exotic Wildlife Association eventually campaigned for recognition from the state agricultural department. Now, the state’s producers of exotics as “alternative livestock” add substantially to the Texas economy through

Siberian ibex sire “Boris” at the Y.O. Ranch. Photo by Frank Aguilar, courtesy of Texas Parks & Wildlife copyright © 2004, Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

salaries and such costs as travel, hunting, feed sales, and fencing supplies.

Meanwhile, staff in the state’s wildlife department, as in wildlife departments all over the United States, are more likely to worry about what happens when exotics escape; about diseases and parasites that exotics are able to pass along to, or pick up from, native deer and traditional livestock; and about effects of competition for food plants and living room when exotics share range with native wildlife. Although often viewed in terms of factions, the interplay of interest groups helps temper the enthusiasm of exotics owners with a better appreciation for the biological constraints inherent in working with such a host of different species. This in turn focuses both university and industry effort on fundamental problems in maintaining a healthy environment for all. Exotics owners in the United States and elsewhere hope that you will join them in marveling at the wonderful diversity of form and function represented by the world’s wildlife and that this book will increase your appreciation for wildlife and its conservation. Exotics owners also hope that everyone who considers keeping exotics will learn all they can about these animals and their requirements before taking on the responsibilities of their care.

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Where to See Exotics

Not surprisingly for such a large and varied country as the United States, exotics activity varies by region. Chiefly, this is because of climate. Climate affects which species are likely to thrive under natural conditions and which would need special help like sheds for shelter or ponds for cooling (aspects covered for particular species in the animal profiles chapter). Many hoofed species that have sparked enough interest to invite the necessary investment in resources and effort are from the diverse tropical faunas of Asia and Africa. Animals like India’s axis deer and Africa’s dama gazelle do poorly in the cold and snow of winters in the temperate zone. Various deer and sheep from temperate Asia and Europe do better in middle America. It is no coincidence that people living anywhere that has snow or ice storms as more than a freak occurrence are likely to pick European fallow deer, European red deer, and Japanese and Formosan sika deer when selecting animals to enliven estates or for more tractable alternatives to American elk for venison production. Other considerations are historical, political, or sociological. States carved out of federal lands, like the Louisiana Purchase, still have much of their rural space under government ownership. Public oversight agencies have a responsibility to protect the nation’s resources, including its wildlife. Consequently, policy excludes exotics from much of the land in the central United States. Pockets of exotics activity there tend to be small. By contrast, Texas was an independent republic when it joined the union. Very little of its land was—or is now—in the public domain. Spanish land grants had given huge tracts to particular families, and ranches needed to stay big because, on drought-prone ranges, it takes a lot of space to yield enough forage to sustain domestic livestock. These circumstances favor the stocking of exotics. Modern politics also plays its part. California had Spanish land grants, too. However, sun, scenery, and the post–Gold Rush wave of resettlement has drawn an active and committed population ready to debate just about any issue. As a result, there are areas where exotics have been entrenched for years, but there are no guarantees as to the future. For a clear example of what ideological differences can do, compare the states of New Mexico and Arizona.1, 2, 3 New Mexico’s 1950 release of aoudad produced such a thriving free-ranging population that the state embraced the

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exotic animal field guide

idea of further introductions. The game commission instructed its wildlife department to evaluate African and Asian species for adaptability to New Mexico conditions primarily to expand hunting opportunities. The idea was to stock exotic big game in parts of the state where native big game (typically, mule deer, American elk, desert bighorn sheep, and Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep) was absent. The department’s searches eventually added gemsbok, Persian ibex, and Siberian ibex to the state’s list of hunting possibilities, the former two in well-established populations. Meanwhile, the neighboring state of Arizona underscored its determination to keep exotics out of Arizona entirely.2 The aggressive nature of aoudad and its potential for carrying parasites and diseases made this species of particular concern. Fear even within New Mexico has been that it might expand onto bighorn country and out-compete the native sheep on their own range. New Mexico addressed this anxiety by issuing game department personnel a shoot-on-sight order for any aoudad found inside known bighorn boundaries in New Mexico. By comparison, Arizona’s intent was to eliminate any aoudad loose anywhere inside its jurisdiction, and its neighbor’s other additions were not welcome either. New Mexico’s exotics activity also contrasts with that in its neighbor Texas.2, 4 The major New Mexico releases (except the Siberian ibex, which failed to flourish) were by the state onto public land for public hunting. Private New Mexico releases have done little on a statewide or national scale except indirectly when Joe McKnight included aoudad among the exotics he stocked on his ranch on the Hondo River. These were the aoudad that got his state into the exotics business with their 1950 release into the Canadian River Canyon. Escapes from his ranch also resulted in free-ranging expansion into Texas. The pattern of exotics activity has been the reverse in Texas.4 State exotics involvement has been limited, whereas private introductions have produced the largest concentration of exotics in the nation. When pressured by landowners in the Palo Duro Canyon area to find an additional game animal in order to increase income from local hunting operations, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department looked to New Mexico and chose aoudad. Results have stayed local. By contrast, exotics releases by the private sector have multiplied. Animals continue to be stocked on private lands for hunting, venison production, conservation, private viewing, or any other use owners might have in mind. Owner after owner has been inspired until all parts of Texas with grazing land and wildlife have ranches with exotics.

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Aoudad in Palo Duro Canyon, Texas. Photo courtesy of Texas Parks & Wildlife copyright © 2004, Texas.

For the establishment of wildlife viewing sites set up for visits from the general public, demographics work with the above factors to determine where these facilities are likely to be most successful. Where do people vacation, and what routes do they drive? Drive-through areas or similar safari parks can pop up anywhere that a landowner has an unrestricted inclination. Longevity requires a clientele. Thus, leisure destinations like Florida and California are naturals as are major highway corridors of the South. A concurrent tendency is that of establishments catering to similar groups of tourists to grow up near each other. The site map shows some of the main exotics areas of the United States and a selection of places where people can go to experience the diversity represented by hoofed animals that trace their roots to a multitude of countries.

Where the Exotics Are and Why If you want to go where the exotics are but none of your friends owns any, you still have a variety of options. You can pull off the highway for a couple of hours at any one of a number of safari parks. You can plan a day at a nature

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reserve or historic site that has exotics. You can apply for public hunting at certain state areas. You can book two or three or more days at a private exotics ranch for hunting or photo tours. Or, as part of a group, you can hold an event at a guest facility that exhibits exotics. And, whenever driving through the countryside, you can keep a sharp lookout so that you will be ready for chance encounters. Some private owners screen exotics pastures from the road, but not all, and some areas have free-ranging exotics. The notes below point out a selection of the places for these different kinds of encounters and which sorts of animals you are most likely to find. Various historical notes are included in order to show the variety in background as well as species. The discussion starts in the northeastern states and then makes roughly a semicircular sweep around the United States.

N O R T H E A S T E R N S TAT E S After you get out of cities like New York, there are lots of wild places in the Northeast. Large wildlife consists mainly of native white-tailed deer and, in some areas, black bear. An upsurge of interest in deer farming for venison in the 1980s added exotic deer in fenced pastures on a commercial basis. The primary choice was the versatile European fallow deer. Prolific, relatively easy to handle, and fascinating to look at, fallow deer are a favorite the world over. Some ranch hunting for fallow deer has been offered as well. A very different kind of game, the wild boar, has also been stocked.5, 6 As mentioned in the introduction, the first wild boar importation into New Hampshire reached the Blue Mountain Forest, a very private game preserve for various wildlife such as deer, bear, and wild boar, sometime between 1890 and 1893. Escapes and poaching from the park, probably assisted by at least one other sizable release of unrelated wild boar stock inside the park, have inevitably led to genetic mixing. Some of the few wild hogs seen outside the park that are a grizzled gray with heavy shoulders sloping to a smaller haunch may trace a little of their wild look to admixture with preserve stock. But glimpsing a black, free-ranging sow with wild-type striped piglets is no guarantee of anything except several generations of freedom. Hogs are notorious for the ease with which they shed their domestic traits and make their own way in the woods. Because of the wild boar’s dangerous and secretive nature, hunting styles have always differed from the stalk or sit-and-wait common for horned and antlered game. Most dramatic was the Old World–type use of Austrian boar-

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where to see exotics setters for hunters on horseback using javelins in the Blue Mountain Forest

preserve during founder Austin Corbin’s time.5 Today, dogs can still be important allies, but rifles have replaced javelins inside the park and shotguns and occasionally bows and arrows also have their proponents outside.5, 6

M I D -A T L A N T I C C O A S T

AND

POINTS SOUTH

Continuing south through the mid-Atlantic states, travelers can see sika deer, natives of the Far East in Asia, in coastal areas of Maryland and Virginia.7, 8, 9 Maryland’s first sika release is among the earliest documented exotics introductions in the United States. In 1916, Eastern Shore resident Clemment Henry put five or six sika on James Island in Chesapeake Bay. Being good swimmers, sika soon turned up on Taylor’s Island and inevitably expanded on the mainland. During the 1920s or as late as 1930, sika deer from the Clemment Henry stock were introduced onto the Maryland end of Assateague Island—of pony penning fame. From there, sika deer spread to the Virginia end of the island. This history, together with the very consistent looks and genetics of these East Coast sika, suggest a single source for their ancestry—presumably via surplus stock from an East Coast zoo. Current research through the Smithsonian Institution and the Maryland Department of Natural Resources has found a good match with sika from the small island of Yakushima in southern Japan.7, 10 Deer hunters in Maryland’s Eastern Shore counties of Worcester, Wicomico, and Dorchester have noted the eastward spread of sika deer from the original island release site in Dorchester County. As recently as 1964, only one or two sika would be shot during deer season other than on James Island compared to two hundred to three hundred or more native white-tailed deer.9 After that, sika take has been climbing. The 1977 percentages reported were forty-two sika deer to every fifty-eight white-tailed deer in Dorchester County.8 By now, sika deer have also reached Somerset County.7 The typical mix of croplands, woods, and marshes suits the sika deer lifestyle very well. Over the border in Delaware, inland habitat is similar to Maryland’s and subsistence hunting is also part of the culture. Nevertheless, even as lately as 2004, long-time residents had not been reporting coming across any sika ever.11 Coastal development and beach houses from the Bethany area in Delaware to Ocean City in Maryland just north of the many sika on Assateague Island have probably discouraged spread of these deer into Delaware. Very interestingly, the East Coast sika deer concentrate on habitat unlike what sika deer—of various origins—use in Texas. While Maryland’s native

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white-tailed deer use chiefly woodlands and farmlands like their counterparts living alongside sika deer in the Lone Star State, Maryland’s sika nucleus inhabits marshland and thick, forested wetlands.7 True, the major sika areas in Texas have few marsh tracts, but Texas sika show no distinct preference for what little wetland habitat there is—other than rubbing mud on themselves or standing in ponds on hot days. By contrast, species such as sambar, Père David’s deer, red lechwe, and sitatunga seem to localize wherever there is wet ground or water. Maryland has most of the public areas where visitors can go to find sika deer.7, 12 Best opportunities for viewing are on Assateague Island (National Seashore State Park on the Maryland end of the island or Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on the Virginia end) or, for quiet viewing in a natural setting, Maryland’s Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge. Both Assateague Island and Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge use public hunting to help keep their sika populations within acceptable limits. Other public areas in Maryland with sika hunting are Fishing Bay Wildlife Management Area with more than 20,000 acres and Taylor’s Island Wildlife Management Area with 1,000 acres. For private hunts, there is a variety of hunting clubs and guide services in Dorchester County. Either way, just remember that insect repellant, hip boots, and a boat are essential equipment if you are going off the beaten track to get close to East Coast sika. Getting into the southern Appalachian chain brings you to the Great Smoky Mountains where North Carolina and Tennessee meet. Hooper Bald, a bare mountaintop on the North Carolina side in a landscape thick with timber, is the release site of fourteen Russian imports that became the source of wild boar genes in the surrounding feral hog population.2 For the first eight years, the wild boar laboriously hauled up the slopes in 1912 for the new game preserve lived quietly. For the most part, they and their get stayed in the 500-acre “boar lot”—or nearby once holes developed in their split-rail fence. Then a new owner invited his mountain friends to bring their hounds and hunt his “Roosians.” When the pandemonium was over, two of the sixty to one hundred wild boar and a half dozen of the hounds were dead or dying, various hunters were up in trees, and the wild boar had scattered into the mountains. As was mentioned for New Hampshire in the Northeast, sighting wild hogs in the South with the color and shape of wild boar can mean they carry a touch of ancestry from this importation, but not necessarily. Interbreeding with gone-wild domestic hogs has essentially diluted the wild boar strain out of existence.

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Wild Animal Safari, Pine Mountain, Georgia, is a family operation near Atlanta set up to give people in its region a chance to see animals from all over the world without leaving the United States.13 After retiring in 1986, Ron Snider and his wife, Vivian, had spent three years touring remote wildlife areas of the world. Wanting to share their experiences, they and their son Curt decided to transform their land into a drive-through preserve with hundreds of animals. Now they have a 500-acre park with 3 1/2 miles of paved road leading visitors on an hour’s trip past both native wildlife such as bison and elk and exotic wildlife such as zebras and wildebeest. Use your own car, or take a guided tour on the “zebra bus.”

FLORIDA The “sunshine state” has a wide range of exotics activity, including private ranches, very private conservation centers, very public entertainment parks, and a few free-ranging foreign deer. Largest of the secluded breeding centers involved with endangered species is White Oak Conservation Center.14 It spans 600 prime acres in the midst of the 7,000-acre White Oak Plantation north of Jacksonville near Yulee. Personnel involved with conservation projects or entering one of White Oak’s veterinary training programs can make special

Axis deer in a Florida mist. Photo © Ken DuChene, courtesy of the Brady Ranch, Florida.

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arrangements to visit. After checking in at the security station, visitors proceed to the office buildings where a small and dedicated staff is working together for the recovery of some forty rare species like the black rhinoceros, Florida panther, African cheetah, double-wattled cassowary, okapi, gerenuk, dama gazelle, Nile lechwe, and bongo. Many of the breeding groups are in the Species Survival Program coordinated by the American Zoo Association. All this is supported by a foundation set up by the late Howard Gilman. He wanted to make a difference in three aspects of the world about which he cared deeply: wildlife conservation and the environment, medical research and care, and the performing arts. When special meetings held on the beautiful grounds have a dance or other arts theme, rather than a wildlife focus, the artists can also look out with pleasure over whole herds of white rhinoceros or giant eland in grassy paddocks. Activities at the White Oak center are integrated through Gilman International Conservation with needs both in the United States and abroad.15 Partly this is through partnerships like the sandhill crane project with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and collaboration with the okapi center at Epulu in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Partly this is through special initiatives like work to establish a protocol for importing frozen semen from free-living wild animals such as gerenuk in order to increase the diversity, health, and sustainability of captive herds. And partly this is through workshops promoting such topics as sustainable use. The farther south in Florida you go, the warmer the winter—and summer— weather. This gives the kind of climate suited to cold-sensitive exotics, as long as they can take the rains and the humidity, and to people looking for a sunny winter vacation. This, in turn, gives Florida the clientele to support tourist attractions, including wildlife parks. Acclaimed as the first drive-through park in America, Lion Country Safari was opened in 1967 in the West Palm Beach area of South Florida by a group of South African and British entrepreneurs.16 It introduced the “cageless zoo” concept in order to bring an African game park experience to families who would never have the opportunity to go on safari in Africa. Expanding on this theme, Lion Country Safari divides the main part of its 500 acres into seven sections, five named after famed African wildlife areas, one for a premier Indian wildlife site, and one for the renowned grasslands of South America. Keeping inside their vehicles, with windows as well as doors closed, guests have 5 miles of roads in the drive-through preserve to see hoofed stock such as gemsbok,

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Nile lechwe, wildebeest, waterbuck, dama gazelle, blackbuck antelope, giraffe—and, of course, lions! Guided bus tours are also an option. A specialty is the white rhinoceros. At the end of the 1960s and start of the 1970s, Lion Country Safari began importing white rhinos from Africa as well as gathering some from zoos. Since then, there have been twenty-five rhino births, and rhinos have been sent from this group to zoos around the world. Of the more than one thousand animals at Lion Country Safari, many of the birds, reptiles, and primates are in the walk-through “Safari World” exhibit area. A veterinary hospital is on site to care for the collection. To supply overnight accommodations, a KOA campground with more than two hundred sites was added in the 1980s. Among the other amenities are petting zoo, animal nursery, picnic area, and amusement park. Central Florida has two major safari attractions, a recent one with the Walt Disney name and the other from Anheuser-Busch. Tampa, Florida, has the wellestablished 335-acre Busch Gardens Tampa Bay entertainment complex.17 After the frenetic movement of the amusement rides, the “Serengeti Safari” is a welcome change of pace. Standing with a small group on the fenced but roofless platform of a flatbed truck, you are driven at a leisurely pace with stops to see, and be seen by, rhinos, bongo, addax, and a host of other animals. Highlight is having a giraffe head or two descend to the cluster of visitors for a tidbit from the hand. For those who would rather swoop over animals like zebras from the top, the “Skyride” circles the 29-acre “Serengeti Plain” and “Edge of Africa” compound. For a quick look from the ground, the “Serengeti Express Railway” is probably the best option for including the peripheral gazelle enclosures in your survey of the animal grounds. Total number of animals in the park is approximately 2,700. Specialty tours can also be arranged. Busch Gardens personnel are involved in a number of international conservation projects as well as on-site captive research topics like specialized diet requirements and control of wildlife diseases—and the gleaming animal kitchen is famous. Near Orlando at Lake Buena Vista is Disney’s Animal Kingdom Theme Park.18 This 1998 addition to the world famous tourist destination Disney World has 500 acres—five times the size of the Magic Kingdom. It lures you away from an amusement park mood as it steeps you in the sights and sounds of the natural world. But stay alert. You will find the imaginary and the extinct as well as the real. Entering “The Oasis” gives you a choice among six destinations. Selecting “Africa” gives you the best views of hoofed animals. You can walk the “Pangani Forest Exploration Trail” and enjoy the African savannah

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overlook, or you can opt for open-air vehicles on the “Kilimanjaro Safari” and ride across that same savannah. Amid the always-enjoyed zebras, giraffes, and other animals, safari goers get the added fun of a chase after imaginary poachers. In Disney parks today, it is a sign of the times that you are no longer likely to see a mechanical hunter shoot a charging mechanical hippopotamus or crocodile—but they can still rear up suddenly for an instant thrill. For an insider’s view of the behind-the-scenes involvement in animal care, wildlife behavior, and conservation, you can take the “Backstage Safari.” You will not see much of the exhibit collection, but you will get a peak at the animal housing, nutrition center, and veterinary hospital. For a behind-the-scenes experience without needing advance reservations, just take the “Wildlife Express” train to “Conservation Station.” Whichever route you take through Disney’s Animal Kingdom, remember to wear your walking shoes! To rest your feet next door, you can try the 1,200-room hotel, “Disney’s Animal Kingdom Lodge.”19 It keeps its own group of exotic animals viewable from your room. Watch antelopes, giraffes, and Ankole cattle. For extra interest, there are also Florida’s signature birds, flamingos. In keeping with the atmosphere, staff members are likely to be from places such as South Africa, Botswana, Kenya, and Tanzania. Disney has drawn English speakers from Africa by setting up a special one-year training program in hotel management. Getting a look at Florida’s ranch exotics takes you farther off the beaten track. One of the biggest operations is Brady Ranch on the northeast side of Lake Okeechobee.20 Brady Ranch has the largest axis deer herds in North America—and probably the largest anywhere in the world outside of native habitat. At five thousand to perhaps even eight thousand, axis estimates for the whole 2,000 acres of the ranch vary widely, but all are extremely high. Even in exotics-rich Texas, one hundred of any single species on any one property is a lot. While on a trip to Texas in 1976, Frank Brady Sr., ate an axis steak. The rest is history. He bought eighty axis and started switching his cattle ranch to axis production. Over the years, he has bought other exotics, too, and added them to this ranch. There are still a few cattle and cow horses, but the livestock has mainly changed to exotics like axis, fallow, sika, red deer, Père David’s deer, waterbuck, and water buffalo. Now Frank Brady is married, and he and his wife Marilyn have opened the ranch to trophy hunting as well as running a commercial axis venison operation. Photo safaris can be set up by special arrangement—just bring your long lenses if you want to include axis deer. Anyone visiting the lodge or staying in the bunkhouse row of private rooms is

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Fallow deer bucks by Florida palm trees. Photo © Ken DuChene, courtesy of the Brady Ranch, Florida.

in for a real treat. Both the Bradys and their specially trained staff are gourmet cooks. Obviously, axis cuisine is featured, but everything that goes through the kitchen comes out too tempting to miss. On a very limited basis, Florida has also had free-ranging exotic deer. Axis deer that escaped from a Volusia County estate in the 1930s started a population given protection under state law in 1951.21 Their descendants were still said to be living on their own at the start of the 1970s, but queries to the state wildlife department in the 1990s revealed no further record of these deer. Florida’s other free-ranging exotics population is comprised of Indian sambar deer.22 They still thrive on St. Vincent Island, a 12,358-acre barrier island that has now become St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge. In 1908, three females and a male bought from the New York Zoological Park (Bronx Zoo) plus some Japanese sika deer were the first in a series of exotic deer, antelopes, and zebras stocked when the island became a private estate. None of these exotics did well in the island’s patchwork of wetlands, oak terraces, and pine stands except the sambar. By 1940, sambar numbers hit a high of several hundred, then fell to less than fifty during World War II when there was intensive logging. After being sold in 1968, the island passed into the national

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wildlife refuge system. All remaining exotics except the wily sambar were removed. An uproar from the mainland ensued. The sambar were given permission to stay provided that ecological study could demonstrate no detrimental effect to the island’s natives like the white-tailed deer. A University of Georgia team found that the overlap in food selections was mainly in highly abundant browse species and that the sambar favored the marshes while the whitetails concentrated on the uplands. Sambar got their reprieve. Now the occasional island tours, and the fishermen using their own boats to visit, get glimpses of the sambar. There are also several hunting days a year in order to limit sambar numbers to the seventy-five to one hundred range. At this level, sambar and white-tailed deer coexist easily on the island. If larger numbers were to prompt sambar to strike out for any of the extensive timber tracts across the bay, the more uniform habitat could put sambar in more direct competition with their native relatives.

G U L F S TAT E S C O R R I D O R North of New Orleans and its Interstate Highway 12 bypass is Global Wildlife Center near Folsom, Louisiana. This 900-acre wildlife preserve is probably the largest in the United States where all the animals (except a few in quarantine or similarly in holding areas) roam freely within the grounds instead of being fenced into separate zones.23 Global Wildlife Center certainly is founded on a different philosophy from most wildlife facilities. This nonprofit, educational organization, which hosts more than 1,400 school groups a year, is dedicated to fostering personal interaction with the animals, especially touch, to bring home its conservation message. You can wiggle the hump of a camel, feel the wool on a bison, or find yourself eye-to-eye with a giraffe. This is the wildlife park that Ken Matherne opened after people kept stopping and wanting to see his animals. The Global Wildlife Foundation was created in 1991. Lots has changed since then. Now there is a visitors’ center, gift shop, and eating plaza. This visitors’ complex has been fenced to keep out the animals, the collection having grown to more than three thousand. The farm animals that the park started with have been largely replaced by threatened and endangered species. One of the species that does particularly well at Global Wildlife, Père David’s deer, is only alive today because the few in captivity were carefully preserved after the species went extinct in the wild. Presently, there are about one hundred of these big deer using the ponds and wetlands at Global Wildlife, approximately as many as now roam free in China again after reintroduction in 1994

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Père David’s deer sparring in Louisiana shallows. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

from fenced areas.24 Global Wildlife is custodian of an impressive portion of the estimated two thousand deer in the world population of the species. A guided safari wagon winds through the park on a 1 1/2–hour quest to find the more than thirty kinds of resident animals. Tour participants are encouraged to buy a bucket of the pelleted food and have fun feeding the animals. This brings fallow deer, sika deer, and blackbuck antelope swarming around the shaded tram coaches. As the tour progresses, llamas, reticulated giraffes, Grant’s zebras, American bison, various strange cattle, eland, camels, and more all take their turns greeting visitors. Others, like the red lechwe, are also observable but keep their distance. All this is done without any government dollars. Special members’ benefits usually include both a spring and a winter party. For the winter gathering, the year’s deadwood makes a roaring bonfire on a 260-acre hay field separated from the animals. Members gather round for free food, free beer, live entertainment, and are invited to camp for the night. “FUNraising” at the parties helps supply the 1,000 pounds of food needed daily to feed the animals when the grass dies back during winter. The goal of the protection and natural surroundings provided to the animals is to encourage

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breeding as the best hope that their species have for regaining former numbers in the wild.

MIDWEST The Wilds, near Cumberland, Ohio, is an excellent example of a public-private partnership for conservation—with a very exotic list of resident species.25 Incorporated in 1986 as the International Center for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Inc., and opened to the public in 1994, this preserve was conceived as a collaboration of the Ohio Departments of Natural Resources and Development, Ohio zoological parks, and the private sector. The Central Ohio Coal Company donated 9,154 acres of reclaimed, surface-mined land, the Ohio General Assembly approved an initial $400,000 to be matched by private funds, and volunteer labor helped install fence, and build animal management facilities. The first wild residents to arrive were Hartmann’s mountain zebras, Przewalski’s wild horses, and scimitar-horned oryx (these three species were released onto fenced rangeland in 1992), Cuvier’s gazelle (auspicious arrival of twins became the preserve’s first birth), and the North American red wolf. Since the early 1990s, other animals that have come to the Wilds have included American bison, both Bactrian camel and Bactrian deer, banteng, Eld’s deer, fringe-eared oryx, Central Chinese goral, Indochinese sika deer, Persian onager, and the great Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The actual list of species represented by the two hundred or so animals in the preserve at any one time changes according to conservation and research needs. Nevertheless, strange and different beasts from Asia and Africa as well as North America are always there to lead visitors—particularly schoolchildren—through an environmental experience back to the conclusion that habitat can be imperiled even in our own backyards. To see the Wilds in action, groups can arrange a visit at any convenient time, or individuals can drop in on certain days during the spring-to-fall season. Nearly all of the Wilds’s 14 square miles of land is used for education, research, and restoration of critical habitats. Of the total property, about 2,000 acres has been developed for the Safari experience with roughly 7 miles of roadway. Most of this acreage is comprised of five large rangeland enclosures that let the preserve match the requirements of the animal residents with the variety of lakes, woodlands, and grassland expanses. Closed and open-air buses are used to take groups into the large rangeland areas. Along the tour route, there is a mile walking trail and access to a dock out over the water for leisurely viewing of rare and endangered species such as Père David’s deer, fringe-eared oryx,

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and the great Indian one-horned rhinos. Open-air buses facilitate special tours and photo safaris. At “The Outpost,” elevated walkways offer views of various large animals, and a look at some of the animal handling areas. Whether you want to see animals in the snow or in the sunshine, whether you want bird watching or bison watching, the Wilds has programs for you.

TEXAS

AND

OKLAHOMA

Amidst the folded rock outcrops of the Arbuckle Mountains near Turner Falls and Davis, Oklahoma, is Arbuckle Wilderness.26 The 400-plus-acre drivethrough park is home to several hundred animals. A series of large pastures features wildlife from all over the world. In addition to blackbuck antelope, European fallow deer, aoudad, common eland, Grévy’s zebra, and a multitude of others, Arbuckle Wilderness has more sheep and cattle than in many parks. There are various races and color varieties of sheep, and there are water buffalo, yak, Ankole-type cattle, Scottish Highland Cattle, and more. Tucked in among the big pastures there are also surprises like the Barbary lion and the spacious breeding pasture for white rhinoceros. As an alternative to driving your own car, you can take a guided safari bus or bring a group for a horsedrawn hayride hosted by a park ranger. And after the 6 1/2 miles of safari trail, there is a walk-through area with primates and birds, a petting zoo, camel and pony rides, go carts, fish feeding, paddle boats, and a wilderness fort play zone for the younger crowd. For wildlife outings in Texas, there are many opportunities of all kinds. For elusive, free-ranging exotics in the north, there is Palo Duro Canyon where aoudad sheep defy discovery along rock cuts exposing beds more than two million years old. Ranches in an eight-county area may offer a chance of viewing exotic aoudad as well as native wildlife on their hunting lists. So, if you are in one of the following counties, keep an eye out for aoudad just in case: Armstrong, Briscoe, Donley, Floyd, Hall, Motley, Randall, and Swisher. For chance sightings of nilgai antelope at the south end of Texas, keep a close watch while driving through Kenedy County. Nilgai have been expanding from their original release site on the Norias Division of the King Ranch onto surrounding properties. In between are a host of private ranches and a few drive-through parks that cater to a wide range of wildlife interests. To investigate ranch possibilities, ask the Exotic Wildlife Association office in Ingram, Texas, for possibilities (see the chapter Exotics-Related Organizations), get in touch with the chambers of commerce for the areas you might visit, or search the Internet.

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Yak grazing on an Oklahoma hillside. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Arbuckle Wilderness, Oklahoma.

Outstanding among the wildlife parks in North Texas is Fossil Rim Wildlife Center.27 It started out as the 1,400-acre Waterfall Ranch. This private game ranch became increasingly involved with vanishing species, including Grévy’s zebra as one of the first joint zoo-ranch Species Survival Program collaborations, and a specially built enclosure with black rhinoceros in the 1980s when a few were transferred from Africa to Texas for safekeeping. Under new owners, the facility completed its transformation into an internationally committed conservation center with 1,650 acres and 10 miles of scenic wildlife drive winding through the preserve. Soon visitors could see not only such antelope as blesbok, gemsbok, greater kudu, Thomson’s gazelle, Arabian oryx, sable antelope, and waterbuck, and such deer as axis deer, fallow deer, and red deer, but also breeding and research pens for African cheetahs. Education opportunities include internships, teacher programs, and conservation camps. Guests can pause at the hilltop overlook for a snack at the café, a walk through the shop, and a quiet moment enjoying the panorama. Younger visitors may want to spend their time in the “Children’s Animal Center.” While in central Texas near San Antonio, you can tour what is probably the state’s most visited safari park.28 Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch is a family-

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friendly facility stressing both education and entertainment. Named for the 60-foot rock span over a sinkhole at the entrance to neighboring Natural Bridge Caverns, Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch has been designated a “Family Land Heritage Property” in recognition of its more than one hundred years of agricultural use by the same family. A few of the shelters used by today’s exotic animals are reminders from the original goat and cattle operation started in 1884. The ranch’s diversification into exotics was marked in 1984 by opening of the “African safari Texas style” to assist preservation of both ranch and wildlife for future generations. Now, the park has been doubled in size from 200 acres to 400 acres, a fourth pasture has been added, the drive has been expanded from 3 1/2 miles to 4 1/2, and the number of species has increased from about forty to more than fifty. Most innovative among the new structures is the “Longneck Learning Center” that combines educational programs with the excitement of close encounters with the giraffes that share one side of the building. So drive around as many times as you like. Take advantage of your chances to watch and photograph such species as addax, eland, blesbok, nilgai, red lechwe, white-bearded gnu, dama gazelle, scimitar-horned oryx, sika deer, Barbados sheep, and Damara zebras. Admire the white rhinoceros exhibit and the reticulated giraffes. And feel free to take a break to picnic at the tables under the oak trees, cool off in the visitors’ center as you buy a snack, a gift, or more animal food, and inspect the wallabies, lemurs, macaws, and petting zoo animals in the walk-through area. A family ranch operation of a different kind is the Y.O. Ranch near Mountain Home, Texas.29, 30 Created from a 69,000-acre tract out of land purchased in 1880 by Charles A. Schreiner, this is the most widely advertised and commercial of the Texas exotics ranches. The Y.O. is a cattle, sheep, and goat ranch that diversified into raising and hunting exotics as yet another in a long list of varied enterprises in the entrepreneurial spirit of the Schreiner family. Through wars and droughts and falling agricultural prices, owners throughout Texas have often needed all their creativity to keep their ranches going. Raising exotics for live-sale to start new herds elsewhere and offering exotics hunting has become an important extension of paid hunting for native game. White-tailed deer and wild turkey have limited seasons, whereas exotics can be hunted at the owner’s discretion and so can support a year-round hunting program. Starting in the 1950s, Charles Schreiner III added the species that have come to be known as “common exotics” today. Early introductions— using stock from other ranches and from zoos—were blackbuck antelope,

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Common eland nursery group. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

axis deer, fallow deer, sika deer, mouflon sheep, and aoudad. Those which reproduced well, were hunted. He also experimented with hybridizing impressive animals like ibex for which females were virtually unobtainable (breeding with domestic goats to produce “Y.O. ibex”) and colorful animals like mouflon, which grew bigger horns when crossed with domestic Barbados sheep (producing the “Corsican ram”). From the exotics hunting operation on the Y.O., the present generation of Schreiners have expanded into the “people business.” Photo safaris, hiking tours, children’s adventure camps, and corporate retreats all utilize the wild setting and richness of more than fifty-eight exotic species in addition to native wildlife to create a memorable experience. For high-powered hunting or just plain lounging around in a “sportsman’s paradise,” there are also places like the 777 Ranch near Hondo, Texas.31 This 15,000-acre ranch has had different owners during its nearly forty-year history, but the common theme has come to be world-class hunting—natives like deer and doves as well as exotics. You are unlikely to find any conventional livestock on this sort of ranch unless it is a few horses you can borrow to ride

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out on to enjoy the view. The 777’s more than fifty species from five continents include such rare animals as Eld’s deer, rusa deer, red sheep, Himalayan tahr, and African Cape buffalo. Permits are in place for the many species that are endangered, and a share of trophy fees from these goes to programs designated to benefit conservation for the wild populations in their native countries. Stay in Hondo or on the ranch in the newly built luxury cabins around one of the ranch lakes. Guests can take their meals in the ranch dining room. High-end photo safaris include a vehicle and guide to place you within camera range of the spectacular array of species. There is also a pocket of exotics on public lands near Mason, Texas, where hunting is permitted. This is a rarity in a state where the land is 97 percent privately owned. Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area is a former exotics ranch that was donated to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department in 1997—complete with an estimated one thousand exotics of eleven species.32 In order to build up an endowment to pay for operating the new area, the wildlife commission decided to sell some of the animals for brood stock and to set up a public hunting program to remove the rest. In the meantime (projected through at least 2012), research on topics relative to exotics management and species interaction are planned. To get hunting started, a

Persian ibex foundation sire at Y.O. Ranch. Photo by C. J. Simmons, courtesy Texas Parks & Wildlife copyright © 2004, Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

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Unique habitat of Central Mineral Region of Texas with the author sitting on a boulder. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Texas Parks & Wildlife, Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area, Texas.

selection of Special Permit hunts awarded by lottery has been instituted. Mason Mountain offers “super exotics” such as impala, greater kudu, gemsbok, scimitar-horned oryx, sable antelope, waterbuck, and Thomson’s gazelle. In addition, there is hunting for axis deer, blackbuck antelope, ibex-goat hybrids, feral goats, and feral hogs as well as native white-tailed deer and spring turkeys. Hunters can arrange for lodging and kitchen facilities on the area, whether there is a fee depending on the type of hunt. Whatever the visit category, all guests at Mason Mountain get treated to the memorable scenery where raised limestone is flanked by immense boulders of pink granite characterizing the Central Mineral Region at the juncture of the Edwards Plateau and the Llano Uplift. This combination creates a transition zone with plant richness unsurpassed by any other management area in the Texas system.

NEW MEXICO In New Mexico, four state-regulated management units have been set up for exotic big game.3 These are the Canadian River Barbary Sheep/Siberian Ibex Unit (Barbary sheep being another name for aoudad), the Largo Canyon Barbary

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Sheep Unit, the White Sands Gemsbok Unit, and the Florida Mountain Persian Ibex Unit (Persian ibex and Iranian ibex being alternative names for the wild goat). Inside these units, the state’s comprehensive plan calls for exotics to be managed for maximum public recreation while keeping them from extending beyond their units. Recognizing that aoudad have already gone beyond the borders of their designated units, state policy calls for management that will decrease or eliminate the excess animals. Monitoring continues in order to ensure that none of the exotics are competing with native wildlife. Aoudad populations have spread from four initial release sites: the Canadian River Canyon with the largest population in northeastern New Mexico (hunting licenses issued), the Largo Canyon area with its thriving herd in northwestern New Mexico (hunting licenses issued), the Sacramento Mountains (open hunting in hopes of reducing the population), and the Guadalupe Mountains (open hunting in hopes of reducing the population).1 The Guadalupe Mountains extend into Texas—as have the aoudad that colonized there. Additionally, escaped aoudad from a large game ranch on Mount Taylor near Grants have formed a resident herd on the Laguna Indian Reservation in spite of uncontrolled hunting.1

Gemsbok male in New Mexico where the population has expanded greatly. Photo by Mara Weisenberger, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, courtesy of U.S. Army White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico.

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exotic animal field guide South Central New Mexico is home base for the state’s gemsbok (South

African oryx). White Sands Missile Range, where the releases were made, now has a flourishing population and hosts yearly hunts.1 In 1981, the state wildlife department added an “ugly oryx hunt” to remove animals with misshapen or deformed horns. Availability of hunting has increased greatly since its start in 1974. With their population well established on the missile range, gemsbok have started dispersing onto adjacent properties. To curb expansion of the area’s gemsbok population, presently estimated at four thousand head, the missile range issues more than eight hundred oryx licenses a year.33 Persian ibex were introduced into the Florida Mountains south of Deming just north of the U.S.-Mexico border in several releases between 1970 and 1977.1 They established themselves so quickly that hunting permits for males have been issued since 1974. In 1980–81, hunting of females was initiated in order to reduce herd size. These animals have been expanding from their original site.34 To try for similar success with another kind of ibex in another region of the state, Siberian ibex were slated for release in an isolated area, the Ladrone mountain range near Socorro.1 However, by the time the herd nucleus was ready for release, federal restrictions had increased and the Bureau of Land Management refused permission. Thus, a quick change of plan was made in 1977. The Siberian ibex were sent to the Canadian River Canyon where aoudad had thrived. The first hunt was scheduled for 1981. In contrast with the other ibex (which is really a wild goat), chances of sighting one of the Siberian ibex today are low because they have never really done very well in their new home.34

WEST COAST For a good look at a selection of exotics from around the world and a good interpretive program to orient visitors both as to what they are seeing and its significance for conservation, San Diego Zoo’s Wild Animal Park is a world-renowned choice.35 Called San Pasqual Wild Animal Park at the time of groundbreaking in 1969, this 1,800-acre wildlife facility definitely is a walking as well as a riding adventure. What makes the Wild Animal Park so special is the cluster of six large “field exhibits” that group free-roaming animals by geographic region. Three of the sections represent the huge diversity of African wildlife. “East Africa” typically has gazelles, several kinds of rare water-loving antelopes, white-bearded gnu, African Cape buffalo, Uganda giraffes, and

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the southern white rhino, as well as East African crowned cranes. Made to be reminiscent of a desert landscape, the 30-acre “North Africa” exhibit has one of the kinds of sand gazelles, Barbary red deer, and Ankole cattle. The 90 acres representing South Africa has antelopes like blesbok, waterbuck, and sable antelope, plus reticulated giraffes, northern white rhino, and ostriches. Three more field exhibits demonstrate Asian regions. The 60-acre “Asian Plains” has animals such as axis deer, several antelope species, and the great Indian onehorned rhinoceros. The “Mongolian Steppe” is a showcase for Przewalski’s horse. This is the last truly wild horse species, preserved carefully in zoos as the wild herds vanished and now reintroduced by cooperative world programs in Mongolia and China. Tucked into the easternmost corner of the park is the “Asian Waterhole.” This 35-acre plot of grass and boulders is a refuge for shy species of deer as well as markhor that represent wild goats and banteng that represent wild cattle. Included in park admission is the “Wgasa Bush Line Railway,” a 60-minute monorail tour with narration that takes visitors past the main field exhibits. Guests yearning to go in among the animals and willing to make the investment can go into two to four of the exhibits on the “Photo Caravan Safari” or one of the other safari truck tours. These last approximately 2 to 3 3/4 hours and reservations are advisable. There is also the “Kilimanjaro Safari Walk,” a 1 3/4 –mile trail past large animals like the big cats and elephants, past showpieces of the extensive botanical collection, and to the panoramic photo stop at “Kilima Point.” Here, visitors can stop to look at zebras (maybe even the park’s Hartmann’s mountain zebras, seldom even kept by zoos in any country), giraffes, gazelles, and wildebeest. The exhibits are designed to communicate to visitors the park’s conservation message—the amazing diversity of animal life on our planet and our role in its preservation. Most historic of the exotics sites in the United States, although with few animals left today, is Hearst Castle at San Simeon. This is the “Camp Hill” estate developed by wealthy financier and collector William Randolph Hearst just off of California’s spectacular coastal highway, U.S. 101.36 In 1923, Hearst started stocking the fields along his entry road with animals. First came white European fallow deer, Rocky Mountain elk, and American bison. Then came several species of African and Asian antelopes, axis deer, Indian sambar, aoudad, European red deer, and Alaskan bighorn sheep. In a small pen visible by the road, Hearst kept as many as four giraffes. In all, the several fenced areas were home at one time or another to some fifty species. Hearst wanted to create for

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his guests the feeling that their drive was taking them through a natural area inhabited by all sorts of fascinating creatures rather than through a zoo. Other animals that made an appearance in the ever-changing collection known as the “Hearst Garden of Comparative Zoology” included musk oxen, yaks, tahr, llamas, camels (both one-humped and two-), kangaroos, ostriches, emus, and a tapir. Most numerous among the more than three hundred “field animals” at the height of Hearst’s operation were the fallow deer. During the 1930s, there were so many animals on “Animal Hill”—by then including penned bears, big cats, primates, birds, and an elephant—that a veterinarian was kept on staff. Eventually, financial difficulties caused Hearst to scale down his activities. Dispersal of the animals started in 1937 and continued until at least 1953, two years after Hearst passed away. In 1958, Hearst Castle was donated to the State of California. Subsequently, most of the remaining animas that had been allowed to roam free on the property either died or were removed. The zebras remained because they are interesting to see and because they graze compatibly with the domestic cattle. For many years, the aoudad remained because they escaped and because they are almost impossible to find. For a possibility of glimpsing free-ranging exotics in California, you can go to Point Reyes National Seashore north of San Francisco. The four to five hundred axis deer and roughly five hundred fallow deer are descendants of stock released by Dr. Millard Ottinger on his ranch at Point Reyes.37 Between 1942 and 1954, he bought twenty-eight fallow deer from the San Francisco Zoo. In 1947 and 1948, he added eight axis deer. Fallow have spread southward to Double Point and northward as far as Tomales Point, the northern end of the park. Tomales Point has been cross-fenced to localize the reintroduced population of native tule elk started in 1978 and 1979, but exotic deer are still said to be sighted there. One of the main places to look for axis deer is along the approach to Point Reyes Lighthouse. Sightings are likely anywhere from there north to McClures Beach and south to Limantour Estero. The elk are much easier to find than the smaller deer. To maximize your chances of spotting deer—native black-tailed deer as well as the exotics—stay overnight close by. That way, you can be watching early in the morning in a likely area such as the fields around Bear Creek Visitor Center where fallow deer often appear during quiet times of day. “Out of Africa in Northern California” is a slogan used by Safari West Wildlife Preserve and African Tent Camp out from Santa Rosa, Sonoma County.38

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This wine country African adventure area specializes in small groups of guests serious about spending 2 1/2 to 3 hours inspecting its four hundred animals on 400 acres. This enterprise particularly favors photographers, and staff give guests the time and attention needed to get good photo opportunities. Typically, the safari vehicles start by taking guests by a 100-acre enclosure with such exotics as sable antelope, eland, and waterbuck. Weather permitting, tours traverse the 12-acre “Extreme Africa Exhibit” with gazelles, oryx, and wildebeest. Make sure to check the waterhole for Cape buffalo. Next, visitors make a foot safari past the cheetahs and giraffes of the “inner compound.” Larger groups can ride an open-air trailer. Guests staying for exclusive overnights get treated to wine and cheese before retiring for the night to tents or cabins overlooking the preserve. For exotics encounters in the Pacific Northwest, try Wildlife Safari near Winston, Oregon.39 Here, animals grouped into areas for Africa, Asia, and the Americas share more than 600 acres of grasslands and woods for a naturalistic drive-through experience that takes about 2 hours. Watch for nyala, gemsbok, sika deer, Bactrian camel, and yak, among other animals. Established in 1972, Wildlife Safari was the vision of Frank Hart. Seeing fewer and fewer animals on successive visits to Africa, he wanted to give a home to many of the world’s vanishing species. He selected the Winston area because of its mild climate, adequate for warm-weather species as well as cold-adapted forms. The “Safari Village” with petting zoo and facilities gives visitors a place to stretch their legs and get close to an assortment of smaller animals. Conservation initiatives include wetland restoration.

H AWA I I A N I S L A N D S Hawaii’s native fauna has been swamped by exotics. With no endemic mammals, imports and escapes have exploded into a world with few defenses. Gone-wild hogs are probably the most destructive of the introduced hoofed mammals. The mere eight axis deer that arrived in Hawaii in December 1867, had produced their high, a population of perhaps 7,500 on the original release island of Molokai, by the turn of that century.40, 41 Since then, axis deer have continued their ups and downs. There have been large-scale control efforts, and there have also been axis deer moved to the islands of Oahu and Lanai. Now, Maui has axis also. In spite of the periodic heavy hunting, private tracts with scrub and forest gave axis a safe haven that they learned how to exploit well.

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Between 1900 and 1901, hired hunters removed 3,500 axis when control measures were instituted.41, 42 By the 1950s, the combined numbers on Molokai and Lanai were back up to an estimated five to six thousand. Comprehensive study accompanied the next control. For axis in a reserve setting open to the public, try Maui with a late 1990s estimate of more than five hundred axis deer.41 Compared to axis deer, American elk arrived in Hawaii under strictly managed conditions. Individuals of the Rocky Mountain variety were imported in the 1980s for a new exotics farming operation at Ulupalakua Ranch in Maui.42, 43 Pastures were carefully fenced and a wildlife biologist put on staff to manage the introduction. Eland antelope were also considered, but, with the ranch busy getting the new elk settled, that idea was tabled. You may see exotics in pastures, in wildlife reserves, and in drive-through parks. In certain areas, you might see them free-ranging along roadsides, on hillsides, and across openings. The U.S. map in this chapter indicates what you are most likely to see where. So, if you are planning your next trip with exotics in mind, keep a sharp lookout along the way.

White-bearded gnu in the Texas Hill Country. Photo by Laurel Waters, courtesy of the Waters Ranch, Texas.

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Photography Basics for Exotics By Christian Mungall

Getting good exotics pictures means getting good with photographing large, shy animals from vehicles—all kinds of vehicles. This chapter suggests ways to improve shots taken by recreational photographers visiting wildlife parks or ranches. Some of these places cater specifically to photographers. Although vehicle photography is emphasized, taking photos on foot is mentioned, too. As for blinds, consider leaving that to photographers who can spend considerable time in the field on their expeditions. For more on blinds, see the article by Eileen Mattei1 and the book by father and son wildlife photographers Leonard Lee Rue III and Len Rue Jr.2 For anyone wishing to photograph a wide variety of exotics in a limited period of time and needing to scout literally hundreds of acres, a vehicle gives more flexibility as well as being what the animals tolerate best without running away too soon. If you can be in a vehicle that the animals know, that gives you the best chance of all. With up to a thousand or more acres at their disposal, why would the animals happen to be near one certain blind—particularly an inhabited blind—just when you want them? Baiting to draw animals near a blind concentrates them unnaturally and tends to show them at a disadvantage—with their heads down eating. For basic technique, you have probably worked out several rules for yourself already. First, have a plan for what you want to achieve, and let your driver know what your plan is. Without a plan, it is all too easy merely to end up with photos “taken for the record.” Second, give the driver the feedback needed to position the vehicle for the best camera angle. This includes minimizing distracting elements like tree branches behind antlers, barns in the background, or a feed trough in front of a leg. Try to be on a level with your subject. Shots looking down on an animal (as with children) lack intimacy. Third, minimize extraneous movement. Ask that, whenever possible, the driver turn off the engine before you press the shutter. Remind other people in the vehicle to keep still, too. Fourth, remember to fine-tune your composition. This can include waiting a moment to catch your subject close to a relevant feature. Finalizing your framing is most easily accomplished from a vehicle by using a zoom lens. It is especially important to “fill the frame,” to make a subject animal fill most of the picture area to keep it from looking disappointingly small in the finished

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Special pickup truck with windshield locked open, seats in the bed, and room for a tripod. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Compact “zebra” vehicle with seats on front for quick tripod deployment. Photo by “Jabu” Bradley Kirkland, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

product. Leave a little room around the edges so that feet or horns do not get cut off when the picture is printed. Leave more space in front of the animal than behind in order to convey a sense of movement. This also helps avoid unintentional cropping if the animal moves ahead! Fifth, unless you have special circumstances, and special permission, stay in your vehicle. Animals tolerate vehicles much better than they tolerate photographers moving around on foot. As far as possible, time your photography visit for when the site will be less crowded. This may mean a weekday, unless there will be a large number of school groups. Choose a period of good weather (sunny, clear, and dry) for reasons of photo quality (color, contrast, less mud on the animals, better mobility for your vehicle). Ideally, arrive early in the morning because the light is then usually at its best. The midday sun can be harsh and the animals are likely to

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High swamp buggy for wet meadows. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Brady Ranch, Florida.

Long-bed truck for groups. Photo by Jackie Kyle, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

be lying down in the brush. The early evening light can be similarly attractive, so try to spend the entire day. All seasons are equally interesting because the activity of the animals can change through the year. The rest of this chapter is divided into two parts. The first part addresses the question, “What do I need to know to get started?” The second part presents strategies for improving your animal photography—particularly if you find this becoming a serious hobby.

Equipment P H O T O G R A P H I C G O A L S A N D T H E I R I M PA C T ON CAMERA SELECTION Your photographic activities will give you greater satisfaction (at a substantially reduced cost) if you decide at the outset, first what your goals are, and

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second what should be the form of the end products. Goals might be pleasure (such as taking photos quickly and sharing them with others, creating a collection of photos to place on a wall) or business (photos for commercial purposes such as illustrating brochures or posting on the Internet, photos for publication in books and magazines). Try not to say, “All the above.” Avoiding this issue will cost you time and money. End products might be standard-size prints, small enlargements (5 x 7 in. or 8 x 10 in.), big enlargements (16 x 20 in. or more), or digital files. Requirements for digital files differ depending on use. File requirements for e-mailing a friend are much different from what a publisher needs for a magazine or book. You also need to set a budget for yourself, decide just how much time you want to spend taking and processing the photos, and whether or not you enjoy learning how to use camera controls. Contrary to what you might expect, you should choose the lens or lenses that match your goals before you choose the camera. The main reason is cost. However, as a preface to the section on lens selection, a note is appropriate on what camera types are being considered for exotics photo trips. These days, the majority of people purchase a digital camera unless they already own a 35 mm film camera or have a specific reason for using film. Although simple point-andshoot cameras definitely have their place as backup cameras, for taking scenic views, and to snap pictures of people, most people will start with either a digital camera with a permanently attached zoom lens and electronic viewfinder, or a digital single lens reflex (SLR) camera with interchangeable lenses and optical viewfinder. The former camera type is often available with a zoom lens having a x12 range (say 36 to 432 mm 35 mm equivalent). The SLR is typically purchased as a package with a modest zoom lens having a x3 range (say 30 to 90 mm 35 mm equivalent). If you are like most of us, you will immediately get a 75 to 300 mm zoom lens.

LENS SELECTION The reason that lens cost drives camera choice is that interchangeable lenses can quickly add up to more than the cost of a camera. We assume that your main goal is to take successful animal pictures for pleasure and that your secondary goal is to take pleasing pictures of the people you meet during your photography outings. For the animals, you need the longest focal length you can afford, regardless of whether the lens is a zoom lens or a “fixed” focal length telephoto lens (one focal length only, thus, a “prime” lens). The long lens lets you stay as far as you can from the animals, reducing their stress and

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minimizing the chance that they will flee. For the people, you will ordinarily use a simple zoom lens. (If people photography is a serious interest, you will select a 35 mm or 50 mm prime lens with a large maximum aperture instead of a zoom lens, because this will let you take much better pictures indoors.) If you want a digital SLR system, then your first decision is whether to go zoom lens or fixed focal length telephoto lens. For reasons of cost and economy, the vast majority of us choose zoom lenses with a maximum focal length of 300 mm. This is because they make it easier for you to fill the frame with the animal, and the lenses are readily available at very reasonable prices. In general, only very dedicated nature photographers purchase the longer prime telephoto lenses. The interested reader will find more on these large, heavy, specialty items near the end of the chapter in the section on “professional” lenses. (See also John Shaw’s book3 listed in the chapter references.) Since the lens is apt to be the weakest link in a camera system, buy the best quality lens you can afford. It is better to skimp on the camera than on the lens. The best quality lenses for your particular camera will generally be those made by the maker of the camera. Every lens needs to have its own lens hood. Always use a lens hood unless there is the chance of dropping it irretrievably—as when you are permitted to take photos through the netting of an animal enclosure. Lens hoods reduce lens flare and protect the lens from rain or mud.

CAMERA SELECTION A digital camera with a fixed (permanently attached) zoom lens and electronic viewfinder costs only about a third as much as a digital SLR with optical viewfinder and a 75 to 300 mm 35 mm equivalent zoom lens. They are also considerably less bulky. Having said this, we personally use single lens reflex cameras because we value the quality, superior focusing, wide range of specialized lenses (many better in low light), and expanded control features of SLRs. For greater success, your basic equipment should consist of two cameras instead of one—a main camera and a second or backup camera. If the second camera is to serve as a true backup, then the body of the second camera should be similar to that of the main camera. The reason for the two cameras is that it is inadvisable to change lenses when photographing animals that often leave without a moment’s notice! If you only have one camera body with you, exhaust all the photographic possibilities with the first lens before you change lenses. The main camera will typically be a digital or film SLR with a 75 to

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Comparison of an advanced camera system (main camera in front window) and a basic camera system (backup in rear window). Ordinarily, only one camera would be in use at a time. Photo by Christian Mungall.

300 mm f/4.0–5.6 zoom lens. The second or backup camera could be a second SLR or, perhaps, a point-and-shoot camera (either digital or film). The second camera should be available for normal animal shots, wide-angle scenic views, and, of course, people pictures. Point-and-shoot cameras play an important role because they can be brought into action more quickly than SLRs. For those unexpected moments that require a very rapid response, keep a pointand-shoot camera accessible on you at all times. They also are wonderful for whipping out as you say your goodbyes at the end of a trip. Adding pictures of people you met can be a lasting memento for your future pleasure and theirs. Table 2 lists cameras, lenses, and accessories representative of those commonly used when photographing animals from a vehicle. Although you may decide for economy to start with what might be termed a basic camera system, you may want to purchase now what will later become the second camera and lens of an advanced camera system.

D I G I TA L SLR C A M E R A S P E C I F I C S This discussion is primarily limited to 35 mm–type digital SLRs, although some readers continue to use film cameras (35 mm or medium format) for reasons of cost, convenience, or quality. If you are seeking professional quality images

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photography basics for exotics Table 2. Examples of camera systems suited to photography from vehicles. BASIC CAMERA SYSTEM

ADVANCED CAMERA SYSTEM

Main CameraA

d/f (digital or 35 mm film) SLR.B

Advanced d/f SLR.B

Main Camera LensC

75–300 mm f/4.0–5.6 zoom with lens hood.

100–400 mm f/4.5–5.6 zoom or 70–200 mm f/2.8 with 2x extender.

Second or Backup CameraA

d/f point-and-shoot.

d/f SLRB and d/f point-andshoot.

Second or Backup Camera LensC

Built-in 28–105 mm zoom or similar.

28–135 mm f/3.5–5.6 zoom or similar.

Support

Bean bag.

Window mount with ball head.

Other Accessories

Holster-type bag, pouch, or standard camera bag.

Remote shutter release cable. Holster-type bag, shoulder harness or vest system.

Notes: A. Remember to take digital memory cards (or film) and spare batteries on your person, and have the instruction manuals available. B. Check the camera’s instruction manual regarding ability of the camera to operate using autofocus, especially if lenses have a maximum f/stop numerically greater than f/5.6. C. Digital SLR camera image sensors are generally smaller than the 24 mm x 36 mm image size on 35 mm film. This means that, depending on sensor size, a digital camera gives a “free” additional effective “magnification” of between 1.3 and 1.6 times.

with a digital camera, you will also have to invest time and money in items such as a computer (of course), a high-end ($100 and up) editing program, a good color monitor and printer, and books on photo editing. In addition, you will want to learn about color management—in other words, how to produce pleasing prints that match what you see on your monitor. In conclusion, although digital cameras have great advantages over film cameras, if you want full control over your prints and enlargements, you are going to spend more money and get less sleep than you would if you had stuck to film. This is because, in effect, you become your own photo-lab technician.

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exotic animal field guide AND

D I G I TA L C A M E R A M E M O RY

Although everyone is aware that with digital cameras memory cards replace film, many users have yet to come to grips with the topics of image-recording quality (resolution), file type, and image management. In order to make pleasing prints, whether for yourself or for publication, you need a resolution of about 300 pixels per inch of final image. This has immediate implications when you choose a particular digital camera and, having purchased the camera, when you set the image recording quality (typically in the form of the image size in pixels). Because solid-state memory cards are cheap, more is better when it comes to image size and memory capacity. The greater the number of pixels in the image, the more you can crop the image and still get an acceptable print. Except in extreme emergencies, you should never use less than the maximum quality available in the camera. If your digital camera lets you select RAW type image data (check the instruction manual) in place of the more common JPEG image type, you should normally do so. The camera compresses JPEG files and image quality will, to some degree, be irretrievably lost. RAW files contain all the information recorded by the camera’s image sensor and without any compression at the time the photo is taken. Additionally, they give you the best chance of correcting image problems. You should spend some time becoming familiar with the ins and outs of digital memory cards. Data is stored in memory cards in the same way that data is stored on a computer hard drive. You should always start a new photography session by reformatting your digital camera’s memory cards (not your computer’s hard drive). Just make sure that you have downloaded (and backed up) the images before you reformat the cards! Waiting to reformat the cards until you need to replace a full card in the field is a sure recipe for missing great shots. Lastly, be sure to keep your memory cards in a dust-proof, water-tight container. Exotics photography is outdoor photography.

Preparation As you assemble your supplies, remember those reformatted digital memory cards (or fresh film), new and spare batteries (replace the old ones), soft lens cleaning brush and blower, and lens cleaning fluid and tissue. Inspect your lenses at the start of the day for dirt, spots, and fingerprints in case some careful cleaning is needed. Unless the day is particularly sunny, consider setting the “film speed” equivalent on your digital camera to 400. The 400 digital film speed setting permits you to use faster shutter speeds, thus reducing the conse-

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Basic photo equipment to be carried for a day’s outing photographing exotics from a vehicle. Photo by Christian Mungall.

quences of unintended camera movement. Alternatively, a high film speed setting may let you use your longer lenses. You can reduce the number at any time later. This is a wonderful advantage of digital cameras. Be sure to try out your camera equipment and shoot (and print) some photos with each camera and verify that everything is working before you leave on any big trip. Also before you go, test that you have everything (and that everything is compatible) by assembling all your equipment exactly as you intend to use it. Especially with digital cameras, never forget to bring along the instructions! When getting ready on the morning of a photography outing, make sure that you have spare batteries and digital memory cards (or spare film) with you, and, of course, that trusty point-and-shoot camera. While you are unlikely to forget your main camera and lens, it is amazingly easy to end up in your vehicle—or someone else’s—without spare memory cards (or film) or spare batteries. Keep these spares plus your point-and-shoot camera on you during the entire visit. A handy expedient for keeping all your gear conveniently available is a military-style long-sleeved jacket or shirt with four pockets—so-called BDUs for Battle Dress Uniforms. Select a shirt or jacket with bellows pockets. The long sleeves will protect you from sun and your elbows from hot or rough surfaces

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like the roof of a truck. Padded elbows help. You can chose a color like tan, or a suitable camouflage pattern, that might make you less conspicuous if you end up doing photography on foot. Remember to practice. To make the practice sessions more fun, try taking photos at your local zoo. While many cages have bars or netting, there are usually some enclosures where you can get an unobstructed view. You will rarely need anything larger than a 75 to 300 mm zoom lens, except, perhaps, for birds or very small mammals. Test everything, and become familiar with your equipment. Once you get to the park or ranch, take the time to meet and speak with (and listen to) the owners and staff, especially those who work directly with the animals. They are the experts. Their advice and assistance can make all the difference to having a pleasant and productive visit. Lastly, be sure to have your equipment turned on and ready for instant use at the very outset of your visit. The best opportunity may occur within seconds of entering. At a drive-through park, the entrance is where the animals know that visitors have lots of animal food available! Similarly, do not put your camera away until you have left the property. After all, you may see another perfect scene on the drive out.

Animal Activity and Its Consequences for Photography Unless the animals are lying down (and staying down), they can move unpredictably. Be ready all the time, with the camera turned on and set for the most likely situation. Usually you will be starting with the camera at the largest aperture and at maximum zoom. Consider taking contingency photos. If circumstances permit—if the animals stay around long enough—you can always adjust the camera settings and picture composition after your first quick shot. Although the animals may be used to vehicles, something different, like a noisy camera or a flash, may cause the animal to stand up, to straighten up, and to look more alert (ears forward). This gives you the chance for a more interesting follow-up photo. There are certain times not to press the shutter. Most common is the departing rear view. Save this for animals with an unusual rump pattern, like zebras and common waterbuck. Sun angle requires your judgment call. Bright sun can throw harsh shadows of an ear or horn across an animal. Shade, while an obvious place for animals to stand, causes loss of color and contrast. Animals in the brush may also have shadows of branches across them. Shadows often interfere with showing key animal markings.

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Common waterbuck show their very uncommon rump rings. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Feeding and the arrival of the feed truck are big events in the day of an animal. This is both good and bad for photographers. It is good in that the animals may be more alert and may be drifting toward a predictable location and bad in that they may bunch up unnaturally and keep their noses to the ground. Your pictures will be more interesting if you can catch the animals doing something characteristic or if you catch them in a typical environment—perhaps lounging in the water or passing by a cactus. This requires prior knowledge or careful observation. Detailed behavior books like that by Richard Estes4 suggest lots of patterns that you can watch for, and whoever is guiding you can give you a wealth of specialized background.

Personal Safety and Camera Protection Safety is an important consideration. Stressing the animals puts them as well as you at risk. Crowding into their comfort zone invites dangerous reactions. After all, the animals are wild. Most have horns or antlers or at least hoofs and can defend themselves. That is why drive-through parks require you to stay in your vehicle. On a more personal note, your hat (with a brim), sunglasses, and long-sleeved shirt help protect you against not only sun but also branches

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that whip back as you drive. Take drinking water. Consider sunscreen. Many exotic animals live in hot and sunny parts of the country. When choosing insect repellant, try to find brands without DEET because it is notorious for damaging plastic and other camera materials. Cameras require protection from other hazards, too. Sun, rain, humidity, impact, and theft are all potential problems. Protection against sun and rain requires that everything susceptible to damage have its own pouch, cover, or clean plastic bag that you carry with you. Cameras that merely hang from your neck will be at risk. Moisture, in the form of condensation, can affect electronics and can fog lenses. Keep this in mind as you go from cold to hot environments such as from air-conditioned guest cabin to warm, humid outdoors. Try to avoid extreme changes if you can. Consider letting the equipment warm up in a shady spot outside (away from curious animals). Alternatively, some people place equipment temporarily into air-tight bags. For the best advice, follow the maker’s recommendations. Protection against impact requires a combination of suitable padding and making sure that whatever you are carrying will not shift and cause you to lose your balance. Protection from theft is best dealt with by keeping the expensive stuff with you. It also helps when traveling if you use nondescript cases or bags. You will find many kinds of interesting groupings and situations on your exotics outings. For variety, try a selection of vertical shots (remember that most magazine pages and book covers are vertical) and some traditional “landscape” horizontal photos. Most of my photos benefited from “on the job” training and from use of special purpose equipment. The next part of this chapter covers these strategies and equipment in more detail.

Battling Camera Shake Photos taken from a properly supported camera will always be clearer than those taken without a support. Results are almost guaranteed to be disappointing if you try to hand-hold a long lens. Consequently, you are likely to end up using either image-stabilized lenses, a fairly heavy and sturdy tripod and ballhead combination (with clamp and quick release plate), or both. It helps to keep these requirements in mind as you plan your equipment purchases. The simplest approach is to use a camera or lens equipped with an imagestabilizing device. The stabilizer can be built into the lens, or can form part of the camera itself. Image stabilizers reduce the effects of hand-held movement. In practical terms, they let you use a slower shutter speed when taking your

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Black and tan blackbuck males. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Scimitar-horned oryx calves showing color change. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

Red lechwe male. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Thomson’s gazelle male. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Texas Parks & Wildlife, Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area, Texas.

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Dybowski’s deer trio in summer coat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Persian gazelle group. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

picture. If hand held without a stabilizer or special prop, your lens would restrict you to a minimum shutter speed of 1 focal length of lens in mm Thus, the slowest shutter speed for a hand-held 300 mm telephoto lens should be 1/300 of a second. Regardless of whether or not you use some form of image stabilization, you should always use a tripod or other support. Solid camera supports (tripods, monopods, and even bean bags) are as essential to exotics photography as long lenses. Ideally, the support should be a heavy tripod equipped with a “friction ball head.” See, for example, the products offered by Bogen Imaging Inc.,5 a source for many different brands of tripods and accessories. A friction ball head is a ball-shaped camera mount that can swing through a continuous range of directions and angles. Sufficient friction is maintained on the ball-shaped fitting so that, when carefully unlocked, the attached camera and lens can be moved by hand, yet will not flop over when you let go. Another device much

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favored by wildlife photographers is the gimbaled ball head.6, 7 This suspends the lens and camera system so that their combined center of gravity is below a horizontally mounted pin. In turn, the support that holds this horizontal pin, either has at its base a bearing that can rotate freely about the vertical, or can be attached to a ball head that has the same capability. In either case, you will need quick release plates and a clamp,7, 8 preferably of the “Arca-Swiss” type. Since there is noticeable camera movement even from pressing the shutter release button on the camera, use a remote shutter release cable (mechanical or electrical as appropriate) whenever you can. Because the most practical way to take the vast majority of your exotics photos is from inside a vehicle, you need to decide how to support your long lenses in this kind of situation. Using a tripod inside a vehicle is usually impractical—although not impossible. There are several alternatives. You can use a monopod with a simple ball head, a door mount with a friction ball head, or a bean bag laid over the door, window, or roof. Even when you know that you will be inside a vehicle, always bring a monopod or a tripod with you. You may have an opportunity to take a photo with the car door open or you may go on foot into a safe area that has a better camera angle. Keep the monopod, tripod, or bean bag handy in case you find yourself switching vehicles.

Inside view of a vehicle door mount with a friction ball head supporting a camera. Photo by Christian Mungall.

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exotic animal field guide If the opportunity arises to take photos from the bed of a pickup truck, seize

it! There is no quicker way to photograph animals. In the back of a truck, you have the advantage of high, all-around visibility. You can rest your camera on a bean bag placed on the roof of the truck. If you are really lucky, you can place a tripod in the bed of the truck on which you can quickly mount your camera. Just remember not to leave heavy telephoto lenses mounted on a tripod when the truck is moving at anything faster than a crawl! At such moments, the top of a photographer’s wish list would be a central column, or possibly several side supports, welded on and with a screw fitting at the top for attaching a ball head to the truck. Whatever else you do to keep the camera steady, remember the obvious. Ask the driver to turn off the vehicle engine before you take pictures—or at least for those carefully composed pictures following the first quick contingency shot. Also, pick a moment when your companions in the vehicle are still.

Professional Zoom Lenses and “Prime” Telephoto Lenses In the context of this chapter, professional lenses are lenses that cost more than the ubiquitous 75 to 300 mm zoom lens that can often be had for under $200. The main professional choices are zoom lenses of about 100 mm to 400 mm and large aperture prime telephoto lens of between 200 mm and 500 mm. Such lenses are often image stabilized. When operating out of vehicles, you are likely to find that a 100 mm to 400 mm zoom lens suits the majority of your photo situations. When the animals are skittish but still allow you a few more seconds, a 500 mm prime lens with a 1.4x extender is an excellent choice to shoot with next. A key requirement of such a prime telephoto lenses is that it must have a sufficiently large aperture so that, when the 1.4x extender is used, the auto-focus capability of the SLR will still work. (Check your camera specifications for details. For an example of technical details on one manufacturer’s line of lenses, see the lens book by Canon.9) When planning the purchase of a telephoto lens, it helps to know how close you have to get to fill the frame with the animal. It also helps if you start your photo session with some idea of what the depth of field will be for a given focal length and focus distance. That will tell you how much latitude you are likely to have when focusing and whether to expect the background to be clear or blurred. Each effect has its advantages, depending on what you want your final picture to look like. The vertical field of view (VFOV) is obtained from the relationship

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VFOV (ft.) =

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distance (ft.) x sensor height (mm) focal length (mm)

Note that if the same lens is mounted on a digital SLR camera with a sensor size less than the 24 mm x 36 mm size of a 35 mm film negative, you can benefit by the effective “magnification” of approximately 1.5 times that results from the cropping effect of the smaller sensor. If you are applying this to a real situation, keep in mind that the total height (hoofs to top of horns) of a large male antelope such as an eland may be about 8 ft. That of a medium-size male antelope such as a blackbuck is more like 4 ft. Thus, with your 75 to 300 mm zoom lens set to its maximum focal length attached to a 35 mm film camera, you would have to be no farther than about 100 ft. away from an eland if you want the height of the animal to fill the frame completely. With a typical digital SLR camera, you can stay 150 ft. away and fill the frame. Tables 3 and 4 use a 300 mm telephoto lens and a 600 mm telephoto lens, respectively, as examples to demonstrate what will be the vertical field of view and what is likely to be in focus for different lens openings. A look through these tables will give you an idea of what to expect in general as you use shorter or longer lenses. If you really want to do the math, it is simple to apply—as long as you have the basic formula. One source for simplified depth-of-field formulas is the lens book by Canon.9 After some work, you can generate for any other of your lens sizes tables like the ones given here for 300 mm and 600 mm. Consequences of this depth-of-focus phenomenon are that the horizon is likely to be out of focus, and you will probably see out-of-focus plants both in front of, and behind, your animal. If you have a really steady support, such as a heavy tripod, then, provided the animal stays still, you can use a smaller aperture and a slower shutter speed to get a greater depth of field.

Carrying Equipment on Foot Although this chapter is chiefly about photographing animals from vehicles, there are times when you will be on foot. Occasionally, you may be invited to leave the vehicle temporarily and go on foot to photograph animals behind a nearby fence or across a gully where your vehicle cannot go. Ordinarily, the exotics photographer out on foot will not be far from his or her vehicle. You also need to carry your equipment when loading and unloading your

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108

42

15

6.6

2.4

1.1

0.4

0.1

600

400

250

150

100

60

40

25

15

0.2

0.6

1.5

3.4

9.5

21

60

157

371

1,000+

f/4.0 (ft.)

0.3

0.8

2.1

4.8

13

30

85

229

568

1,000+

f/5.6 (ft.)

0.4

1.2

3.0

6.8

19

44

126

354

1,000+

1,000+

f/8 (ft.)

Note: Source for calculation method is Canon 1999, p. 194.

746

249

1,000

f/2.8 (ft.)

Focus Distance (ft.)

0.6

1.6

4.2

9.4

27

61

182

573

1,000+

1,000+

f/11 (ft.)

Total Approx. Depth of Field for 300 mm Lens Circle of confusion diameter = 0.035 mm

Table 3. Depth of field for 300 mm lens.

0.9

2.4

6.1

14

39

93

306

1,000+

1,000+

1,000+

f/16 (ft.)

1.2

3.3

8.4

19

56

139

567

1,000+

1,000+

1,000+

f/22 (ft.)

1.2

2.0

3.2

4.8

8.0

12

20

32

48

80

Approx. vertical field of view (ft.) for 35 mm Film (24 mm h x 36 mm w)

0.8

1.3

2.0

3.0

5.0

7.6

13

20

30

50

Approx. vertical field of view (ft.) for Digital Sensor (15.1 mm h x 22.7 mm w) (e.g. CANON 10D)

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86

38

15

5.3

2.4

0.9

0.4

0.1

400

250

150

100

60

40

25

0.2

0.5

1.2

3.3

7.5

21

53

121

341

f/5.6 (ft.)

0.3

0.8

1.7

4.7

11

30

77

174

502

f/8 (ft.)

Note: Source for calculation method is Canon 1999, p. 194.

240

f/4.0 (ft.)

600

f/2.8 (ft.)

1,000

Focus Distance (ft.)

0.4

1.0

2.3

6.5

15

41

106

244

729

f/11 (ft.)

0.6

1.5

3.4

9.5

21

60

157

371

1,000+

f/16 (ft.)

Total Approx. Depth of Field for 600 mm Lens Circle of confusion diameter = 0.035 mm

Table 4. Depth of field for 600 mm lens.

0.8

2.1

4.7

13

30

84

224

554

1,000+

f/22 (ft.)

1.0

1.6

2.4

4.0

6.0

10

16

24

40

Approx. vertical field of view (ft.) for 35 mm Film (24 mm h x 36 mm w)

0.6

1.0

1.5

2.5

3.8

6.3

10

15

25

Approx. vertical field of view (ft.) for Digital Sensor (15.1 mm h x 22.7 mm w) (e.g. CANON 10D)

56

exotic animal field guide

Wildlife photographer dressed in camouflage clothing ready for stalking. Note camera bag that is big enough to carry an SLR with a 100–400 mm zoom lens (with lens hood reversed), belt with pouches, and sturdy tripod. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall.

vehicle. When doing this at your photography site, you still want quick access to the equipment. At such times, deep plastic bins are more convenient than backpacks. After all, you may come out of your cabin in the morning to find fallow deer grazing by the doorstep. So, while backpacks are well suited to carrying photographic equipment long distances (see the book by Charles Campbell10), they are not well suited to quick-action exotics photography. If you have to transport a heavy telephoto lens any distance, by all means use a backpack made specifically for the purpose. It will then be of minimum size and will take up less space inside a vehicle. A tripod can be carried attached to the backpack or can be carried—preferably not with camera attached—over a suitably padded shoulder. First and foremost, so that the camera (with long zoom lens attached) is ready for immediate action, carry it in a pouch hung around your neck and over one shoulder. It should be in front of you and attached to your belt for stability. The quickest way to access equipment and return it to a planned location is to use a vest with padded pockets or to use padded pouches suspended from a shoulder harness-belt combination. (See the book by Tim Fitzharris,11

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photography basics for exotics

57

and the Lowepro Web site12 for further variations.) As you pick your carrying system, keep in mind that, besides lenses of various types, filters, lens cleaning equipment, and the like, you may also want to carry accessories such as a flash, exposure meter, and remote shutter-release cable. In essence, recreational photography for exotics is about vehicles, speed, and unpredictability. You will be taking the majority of your pictures from vehicles, you have to act fast, and you need flexibility with your plans and equipment because you never know quite what the animals will do. Be prepared. The intent of this chapter has been to offer ways to handle these three aspects. Certainly the great diversity of form, color, and habits shown by exotics make them obvious subjects for your camera.

African Cape buffalo bull. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Owning Exotics

Many people who start looking at exotics begin to wonder about owning exotics. Getting started can be as easy as driving home from an event and opening your trailer door. However, responsible ownership takes more—much more. Responsible sellers have been known to refuse to open that trailer door if they arrive at a new location and find insufficient preparation. And even after appropriate animals are safely lodged in a suitable living space, there is a lot to do. So read the following and ask yourself again whether exotics are really for you as an owner or whether looking at them is just fine.

Problems with Owning Exotics In addition to personal pros and cons of owning exotics and the conservation benefits that exotic activity can give a species by increasing numbers in secure environments, there are negative considerations as well. These fall into five major categories: ecological relationships, obligation toward our natural heritage, escapes, health issues, and hybridization,1, 2 To a large extent, these negatives are global, or at least regional, in scope rather than being limited to a particular ranch or preserve. As already mentioned, exotics cause problems when added to areas that are already fully stocked. More aggressive species or more efficient species may displace native wildlife. Nonnative additions can disturb the ecological balance. The mix of plants on a site may be changed such that the numbers of animals and the species that can live there are changed. In a broad sense, this can lose areas some of their regional uniqueness and push toward worldwide biotic uniformity. This emphasizes that exotics ownership on a personal basis also has consequences on a global scale. It becomes a grave concern for everyone acknowledging a responsibility toward preserving our natural heritage for future generations. People are also concerned that promoting markets for hunting rights or animal parts will inhibit conservation efforts for native plants and animals by undermining our view of native wildlife as a common trust.3 Loss of biotic uniqueness makes escapes a broad-ranging issue rather than just a loss for particular owners. Floods, animals fighting across fences, trespass, and aging of materials are some of the reasons why barriers fail. Then an-

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Markhor in a tree. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the International Wildlife Park, Texas.

imals can get onto a neighbor’s property or disappear onto unsupervised land and become a public burden. Removing exotics from an area can be difficult and costly. In the 1950s when the stocking of exotics first started to become popular on Texas rangeland, ranchers made a conscious effort not to introduce small species because they might become a secretive nuisance.4 Looking to the problems that expanding populations of hoofed exotics had caused in New Zealand, these men wanted to avoid similar difficulties for the United States. However, the 1980s saw a diversification by later owners into small species such as dik-dik, Chinese water deer, and muntjac in spite of the way Reeves’s muntjac, for instance, had already become a free-ranging pest after escapes in England.5 These small species have not established themselves in the wild in the United States, but the possibility is now here.

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When seen as a multitude of potential new hosts, exotics worry observers looking after the health of not only our native wildlife but also our livestock industry and even the human population. Fortunately, the filtering process that confines all imported, even-hoofed animals to post-quarantine facilities—like metropolitan zoos—for the rest of their lives has succeeded in that few foreign diseases or parasites have shown up on U.S. ranges. Only offspring born in these closely monitored facilities can be released elsewhere. Fortunately, exotics populations have proven particularly healthy. Other than malignant catarrhal fever—occasionally picked up by domestic cattle or by other exotics after association with exotic wildebeest, but more often killing exotics after contact with domestic sheep—there have been few disease or parasite problems among exotics that are not already rooted in local wildlife or domestic populations. Routine parasite loads are treated with periodic worming as for conventional livestock. Hybridization is another welfare issue. As already discussed, our understanding about what can interbreed with what has grown greatly. Thus, today’s ranchers are unlikely to turn out red deer with elk or purebred mouflon with other sheep. Much genetic mixing of these species has already occurred, but new owners do more advance checking now. Whether by the USDA in the early 1900s with Barbados sheep or by private owners in the mid- to late 1900s with various ibex, some species have been intentionally crossbred for farming or hunting characteristics. Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that neither these hybrids nor unintentional “mistakes” have any conservation value for species preservation or future reintroduction.

Considering Animals AVOIDING

THE

“N O A H ’ S A R K S Y N D R O M E ”

If you are thinking about becoming an exotics owner, remember that accumulating “something of everything” is rarely as satisfying as concentrating on one or a few types of animals. Specialization allows you to focus your search for help and information and to become particularly knowledgeable about certain species.

H A R D I H O O D , C L I M AT E ,

AND

H A B I TAT

Study the species that interest you. Can they thrive in the living conditions on your property? Do you have enough space? If some of the animals escape, as animals have a way of doing, will they become pests or a public burden?

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owning exotics ANIMAL TEMPERAMENT

AND

C O M PAT I B I L I T Y

Not all animals are equally suited to all situations even if their living requirements are met. For example, nilgai antelope are too aggressive at close quarters with humans to be satisfactory in small pastures, but this same species can be kept safely on large acreages where they live off of the land. Sable antelope bulls guard their domain so zealously that they may kill not only encroaching sable but animals of other species as well. Waterbuck males can be similarly aggressive. Wildebeest are too unpredictable to allow owners to make a habit of walking in pastures on foot. Zebras are so prone to blind panic that small enclosures almost guarantee broken necks, and, when mixed with other species, their bullying behavior can prove fatal to their pasture-mates. Sambar deer favor brush so exclusively that owners rarely get so see them. And some kinds of animals just fail to get along. Shy species are kept away from feeders or resting spots by assertive species. Adults may harass the young of other species even though the other adults may be left in peace. Damaging fights may break out between males of related species (like eland and nilgai). You will want to study the behavior of different animals carefully in order to assess their suitability for your property and situation, keeping in mind some basic characteristics: Gregarious vs. Solitary Some species naturally come together into large herds whereas others resist crowding, sometimes becoming aggressive if forced into close quarters. Favorable environmental conditions, like lush grazing, can draw large numbers together. Flat, open country also encourages animals to congregate. Many solitary species and species with small group sizes inhabit brush, where sight distance is limited. Brush vs. Open Each species has its favored kind of habitat. Some are more flexible than others in the conditions under which they can thrive. Stocking a brush-loving species in an open pasture, or the reverse, is asking for disappointment. If you set a premium on seeing your animals in large numbers, then species that favor open country are a good choice. If clearing brush to get broader vistas or to get more grass for the animals to eat, best results can be achieved if you take behavior into account. A blank

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Afghan urial rams. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

Javan rusa deer female checks photographer from security of brush. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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pasture may be as bad as a forest from the animals’ point of view. The animals may depend on brush for security or for shelter from the weather. Brush clumps with certain sizes, shapes, plant species, or other characteristics may be preferred. Diurnal vs. Nocturnal Your chances of seeing animals are also better with diurnal species than with nocturnal ones. Some species become nocturnal if continually disturbed (as by vehicle traffic, roundups, mowing, construction) or during prolonged periods of hot weather. To a greater or lesser extent, many species are most active in the early morning and the late afternoon because there may often be dew in the morning and temperatures are likely to rise during the middle of the day. Aggression Aggression is a natural part of an animal’s life. It spaces animals so that they can all feed. It separates rivals, thus reducing aggressive interactions. It holds groups together by enforcing coordinated group activity. It gives new mothers space to bond with their young. However, highly aggressive species or individuals can be unwelcome in a captive setting. More aggressive species often

Fringe-eared oryx calf color blends with dry grass. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

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need larger pastures in order to minimize damage to them, to other species, to facilities, or to people. A single male confined with several females is apt to become aggressive toward his females. Providing more space and keeping other males with the group may help. If males must be withdrawn after mating, keeping them with other males may be the best solution. A mature male kept without company of his own kind may turn aggressive toward humans, may attack males of other species, or may try to breed females of other species. Young Follow vs. Lie Out The young of some species follow their mothers from soon after birth (for example, some antelopes such as blesbok and wildebeest, sheep, and all zebras). Separation can be fatal. Others lie out alone for a few days or a few weeks with only intermittent nursing visits from the mother (most deer, and many medium- to small-size antelopes). If a mother is disturbed while returning for her young, she will try again later. If humans handle a newborn, the mother may abandon it because this may change its scent. In most species, mothers allow only their own young to nurse.

Young alpine ibex tries his courtship approach. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

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One of the first Stumberg sheep. Photo by Eugene R. Fuchs, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

Territoriality vs. Rut In many territorial species, reproductive males each defend a particular piece of ground while groups of females and young circulate through. Bachelor males are kept outside. Thus, pastures need to be big enough to accommodate territories while still allowing bachelors a place to live. Otherwise, special adjustments in population numbers or composition are needed. Species with a seasonal rut may or may not take up territories during the rut, but they do show a distinct change in behavior. Males become difficult to handle and may become dangerous. Deer are typically in hard antler during this time.

H Y B R I D I Z AT I O N Potential for interbreeding is something else to consider before, rather than after, buying exotics. Closely related types of animals are often capable of crossbreeding. Offspring of certain crosses are fertile even though taxonomists may sometimes classify them in different species or even different genera. Hybrids generally have little market value unless purposely bred for special characteristics to promote venison production or hunting. Several hybridized breeding lines have special market names, such as American silk, Corsican ram, Texas Dall, and Stumberg sheep.

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C A R RY I N G C A PA C I T Y You need to know how many animals your land can support on a sustained basis without degrading their range, that is the “carrying capacity.” All animals using the range must be taken into account. For example, exotics often share pastures with domestic cattle and native wildlife. The “animal units” of cattle, exotics, and natives are all counted. The actual carrying capacity changes from year to year as well as from season to season. This is because climate and range-use patterns vary. Even if you use supplemental feed, exceeding carrying capacity is unwise because animals do not stop eating natural vegetation just because they are using a feeder. Also, parasite and disease problems magnify as population densities rise. Consult your county extension agent for guidelines on figuring carrying capacity for your region.

R AT I O S , S E X ,

AND

AGE

Having estimated how many animals you can accommodate in addition to whatever other animals you have, you will next need to consider how many of what kinds of animals you might want to use as founders. Because exotics are expensive, this can quickly become an economic decision. Females of reproductive age are often the most expensive. To get a female of any age may require the purchase of at least one male. Youngsters and single males (unless trophies) are usually least expensive. Most of the popular hoofed species are polygamous and can be stocked at ratios of up to ten breeding females per breeding male. Prime breeding ages usually include two to seven years for females and three to seven years for males. Sex ratios favoring females result in the fastest herd increase. The reverse may work best in establishing populations that need to be kept small in order to stay within carrying capacity. Adding only unrelated animals boosts genetic diversity and so helps forestall the herd deterioration that can come with inbreeding.

ADDITIONS

TO

EXISTING GROUPS

When releasing new animals into established populations, younger animals often integrate more readily than prime-age breeders. Some species tolerate newcomers better than others. Sometimes one sex can join an established social order, but an individual of the other sex is likely to become an outcast.

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Red deer male “Max” bred for maximum antler growth. Photo by Marida Favia del Core Borromeo, courtesy of the Blackjack Ranch LEE, Ltd, Texas.

CHECK ANY RECORDS Plan to read the paperwork on any animal you are considering. If your prize might give birth on the trailer ride home, you would want to arrange a contingency plan with the driver. Or if your intended purchase is a hybrid, you might want to think about the implications before turning it loose on your range.

Advance Preparations FACILITIES Well-maintained fences of appropriate specifications need to be in place to contain exotics. Net wire works well as long as mesh size is checked against animal size, especially that of newborns that may crawl through and get separated. A substantial 7 1/2 –foot fence with taut top and bottom restraining wires works well for most species. Few kinds of animals (mouflon sheep and blackbuck antelope being exceptions) respect the standard 4 1/2 –foot sheep and goat fences, and even these species may clear 4 to 6 feet if startled when next to a fence. Although a high, mesh fence is still the fence of choice for the main perimeter

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exotic animal field guide

of an exotics area, special designs (such as electrified wires that can be put up and taken down easily) may work well for interior applications such as temporarily closing off planted areas. Open sheds (facing out of prevailing winter winds) for pasture shelter, barns (with equipment and animal areas separate), and catch pens will all be needed sooner or later. Always bear in mind that rounded corners are safer than square and that two outlets are better than one. They reduce the chances of an animal ramming a dead end or getting trapped by its fellows. Loose bits of wire left over from construction need to be picked up so that animals will not eat them or otherwise injure themselves. Common discards like rings trimmed from pipe, tabs from old-style pop-top cans, and broken glass also can be lethal. All fences need to be regularly checked and mended. Setting up small, 5- to 10-acre settling pastures for initial release before turning animals loose on 100 acres or more has several advantages. Animals can be observed for soundness and caught more easily if treatment is needed. In addition, the chance that the animals will form appropriate social ties instead of scattering is enhanced. More than one area suitable for animals needs to be available. This allows sick animals, overly aggressive animals, or excessively dominated animals to be separated. To keep confined animals calmer in catch pens or barns, walls should be constructed or covered with materials that prevent the animals from seeing through. Sheets of plywood can be nailed up to cover fences until animals can be turned out. Keeping barns dark also helps, especially when range animals unaccustomed to close approach by humans are suddenly put into a pen or barn. A free-standing plywood screen gives animals a place to hide. This added security becomes especially important when people come in to feed the animals.

FOOD

AND

W AT E R

You will need a supply of feed, hay, troughs, and buckets in advance. A feed storage place that is dry, relatively cool, off the ground, and safe from rodents, cats, and birds also is a necessity. As soon as your animals arrive, they will need clean water. Handlers should be ready to slip in food and water as quietly as possible, preferably with heavy rubber-type buckets instead of metal to cut down on frightening noises. Plan to monitor the animals to make sure that they are eating and drinking. Newly caught range animals may never have seen a bucket and may not know what pelleted feed is.

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owning exotics R A N C H S TA F F

You will need to get at least one helper before you can be free to miss a single feeding time for penned animals. Even if you buy range animals and turn them out onto a pasture with ample natural forage, there may be times when an animal needs attention or has to be caught and penned. You will want to find someone dependable who is familiar with farm chores, and someone who will do exactly what you instruct until you say otherwise. A chat with the local game warden can sometimes point you to a good prospect (or away from a bad one).

FINDING

A

VETERINARIAN

As well as helping to avoid obvious difficulties, establishing a working relationship with an area veterinarian means that there will be someone available when assistance is critical. It may not matter if none of the local veterinarians has special exotics experience. What counts is a genuine interest in the challenge of working with exotics plus extra help from the exotics owner in making added phone time, printed material, and contacts accessible.

Regulations If you become an exotics owner, you will also become concerned with at least three types of laws and other regulations. One type is to protect the health of people and livestock, another is to safeguard the environment and its native wildlife, and a third is to prevent extinctions. Major federal regulatory agencies with regulatory authority are the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of the Interior, and its branch the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. States also have similar agencies, such as the state departments of agriculture, animal health commissions, and wildlife or natural resources departments.

U.S. D E PA R T M E N T

OF

A G R I C U LT U R E

Involvement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) includes the Animal Welfare Act. This law requires licensing and registration for animal dealers, exhibitors, transporters, and researchers. To guard against foreign livestock diseases, USDA also requires that all animals imported from other countries pass quarantine and that no even-hoofed animals (examples are deer, antelope, sheep, goats, and cattle) born outside the United States ever leave postquarantine facilities. Certain zoos have postquarantine status. Offspring from imports are allowed to leave.

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Addax. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Camp Cooley Ranch, Texas.

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owning exotics U.S. F I S H

AND

71

WILDLIFE SERVICE

The U.S. Department of the Interior (USDI), through its U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, administers the Endangered Species Act. Permits, fees, paperwork, and restrictions on what can be done multiply for animals listed under this act. Rules regarding captive-bred specimens of endangered species are always an important concern for exotics owners. A few species have been granted partial exemptions for captive U.S. populations (addax, scimitar-horned oryx, and dama gazelle as of October 3, 2005).

S TAT E R E G U L AT I O N S Different states have taken different positions on exotics. In Texas, the state with the most hoofed exotics, the Department of Agriculture, on the one hand, has been working to promote exotics as a benefit to the economy. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, on the other hand, is charged with protecting the state’s native wildlife. Therefore, its exotics proposals have typically been

Axis deer. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Guajolote Ranch, Texas.

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exotic animal field guide

to institute license fees for hunting exotics. Except where there has been special action by the Texas legislature, all Texas exotics are in the same legal category as domestic livestock. Thus, landowners can set their own regulations for exotics on their own property, subject to any modifications by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department or other governmental agencies such as the Texas Animal Health Commission. Exceptions are aoudad sheep in eight Palo Duro Canyon counties (Armstrong, Briscoe, Donley, Floyd, Hall, Motley, Randall, and Swisher) where the state wildlife department issues aoudad hunting permits. Axis deer are a state-protected species outside high fences (thus, considered free-ranging) in Bexar, Comal, and Kendall counties.

Trailering DARKNESS

AND

FLOORING

To get your animals to their new home, you will have to take several elementary precautions. Crates and trailers should be adequately ventilated, covered, and dark. Although the odd streak of sunshine causes little trouble with blackbuck antelope, axis deer will knock their noses bloody lunging at a dot of light. Hay or wood shavings give the animals a softer place to lie down for the trip. A substantial rubber-type mat on the floor improves footing.

S E PA R AT E S P E C I E S , S E X E S , G R O W N M A L E S Different species should be separated for shipment. Sexes should also be separated, or at least grown males kept apart and crated or stalled individually.

REMOVE HARD ANTLERS, COVER HORNS In preparation for shipment, hard antlers (antlers free of the soft “velvet” covering that they have while growing) can be sawed off just above the base. Horns are never shed and renewed like antlers so horns should never be sawed off. Instead, lengths of garden hose can be pushed down over horn tips and taped in place. If not removed after shipping, these coverings will eventually fall off by themselves.

G O P R O M P T LY

A N D AT

COOLEST TIME

Animals should be on their way as soon after capture as possible. This gives them the least amount of time to injure themselves in crowded or frightening surroundings. Only delay to get the majority of the trip, especially the start when the animals are most anxious, at the coolest time of day. Usually, this

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73

means overnight. This is vital for summer shipments. Never let a loaded trailer stand in the heat.

Capture If you are going to acquire exotics, you will need to consider capture methods. Sooner or later, an owner will want to catch animals to treat for injury, to withdraw a problem individual, to avoid overpopulating the range, or to deliver an order for sale. Shutting the gate when animals come to water or enter an enclosure planted with a tasty crop only gets them close, not caught. The method of choice is often a drop net, a mesh square dropped on top of animals to entangle them for capture. Keep in mind that drop nets are nonselective in what they catch and are ordinarily useful only during lean times of year (summer, winter) when bait feed is attractive. Where large, expensive exotics need catching, the rotunda chute (a covered, round pen with panels that rotate on a post in the middle) is preferred. It takes time to lure the right animal into the central pen and to coax it out again in the right direction, but it is particularly safe. If you can get close to your target animal and if the dose can be estimated well, chemical capture darts can be very effective and very selective. However, the changes in sensitivity with conditions like health, reproductive status, season, and even time of day mean that a dose that might work fine one day might kill an animal the next. Because of the drugs involved, chemical capture usually requires the assistance of a veterinarian or similarly licensed person. With appropriate crew support, helicopters can direct large numbers of animals into catch pens or net a selected individual too wary for chemical capture. Helicopters work well in remote areas as long as the helicopter can reasonably get within range. The chief drawback is expense.

Animals from Zoos Because zoo surplus is a common source of stock, an owner is likely to face special peculiarities resulting from life in close confinement. To ease the transition, animals from zoos can be put first into a pen. After they are calm and eating well in the pen, then the gate can be left open. This permits them to come and go while still providing food and water in the pen. The animals may continue feeding there regularly until they become used to eating and finding water outside. Before releasing animals used to zoo-type pens into large pastures, two to three months in a small settling pasture (roughly 5 to 10 acres)

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can be helpful. Otherwise, stress from the sudden change can have devastating results. This danger period has been known to last as long as five months. Zoo animals may never have had the opportunity to graze. You may have to pick plants and offer them in a trough before newcomers learn that plants are food. Seeing people at close quarters every day, zoo animals tend to lose their fear of humans. This still influences their reactions after transfer to a ranch. They may stay at a feeder and challenge people instead of moving away when humans approach. They may also come looking for treats. This may seem cute to the person in a truck but can result in aggression toward a person on foot. Similarly, animals that have been bottle-raised may focus on humans more than their own kind and so may not breed well. Zoo animals used to having all their needs met by their keepers may not act normally with their own kind. They may become loners and resist attempts by herd members to make them join the group. Alternatively, the group may resist the approach of this stranger. You will need be on the alert for the unexpected from any former zoo animal.

Nutrition The three chief considerations for diet of hoofed animals are energy, protein, and fiber. On rangeland in good condition, animals can select these for themselves. When owners offer supplemental feed or maintain animals on feed, then humans must provide the required nutrition. If animal weights are normal, indicating good growth, it is unlikely that the diet is deficient.

FORAGE USE Not all green plants are good food. When evaluating a pasture for exotics, see not only whether the ground has a reasonable cover of vegetation, but also whether a lot of the green is actually grass. Looking at the trees, can the animals reach the leaves or is there a browse line that keeps most growth out of reach? Are there many trees and bushes that stay green throughout the winter? Are many of the evergreen species unpalatable pine or fir or are they oaks and other leafy species? Live oaks are a staple for many exotics on U.S. rangeland but can be toxic unless taken in combination with other foods. What animals eat on rangeland is customarily reported as the seasonal and annual percentages of the three major forage classes. These classes are grass (grasses and grasslike plants such as sedges), browse (leaves and other parts

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from woody vegetation), and forbs (nonwoody, broad-leafed plants like annual weeds). Mast (acorns, fruits, and pods from woody plants) is often reported separately if used in significant quantities. Most animals use all three major forage classes, switching dependence more to grasses when spring brings tender new growth and more to browse in summer when grasses mature or in winter when many grasses die back until the return of warmer weather. Many forbs are tasty and nutritious but rarely grow in sufficient quantity to be a mainstay of the diet.

S U P P L E M E N TA L F E E D I N G Supplemental feed can have a variety of applications but needs to be used cautiously. Feed can influence the distribution of the animals on the property, can be used to bait traps, and can augment natural diets during severe winter periods or when drought or wildfire cause temporary food shortages. Yet yearround feeding can encourage more animals than the range can support, and then overuse is likely to degrade the range. If supplementation will be needed to get animals through the winter, it works out best to start feeding in the fall. This gets animals used to eating the feed and builds up body reserves. During periods of ice or snow, feeding every day is indicated, or even two to three times a day depending on how fast animals empty their troughs. Keep feeding until two months after the last stress period so that animals can regain condition. To help insure that subordinate as well as dominant animals get their share of feed, rations should be placed at several well-spaced sites on each feeding ground. An alternative to commercial pellets and hay for supplementation is the planting of food plots for the animals. Popular crops are oats, winter wheat, winter ryegrass, sudan grass, kleingrass, vetches, clovers, and corn. Hay can be a grass hay like coastal bermuda for grazing animals or a legume hay like alfalfa for browsers. Alfalfa (also known as lucerne) is high in protein and very palatable but, as with grass hays, unsuitable as the sole food. Pelleted feeds come in two main types. “Complete feeds” contain a maximum of about 15 to 23 percent crude fiber (by weight). They can be fed free choice as a total diet or to supplement animals on a range with inadequate natural roughage. A “concentrate feed” must be rationed more carefully so that dominant individuals do not eat too much and risk the painful condition “founder.” Concentrates typically have a maximum of only about 8 to 9 percent fiber and are appropriate to provide protein and other nutrients for animals with an ample

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Scimitar-horned oryx. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

roughage source such as plentiful grazing or free-choice hay. Fiber is likely to be inadequate on heavily used ranges. Insufficient fiber in the diet can cause fatal “acidosis.” Small species (like gazelles) that need long fibers in their diet often do poorly if their hay is chopped and pressed into pellets. Low-protein diets contain about 11 to 12 percent crude protein in dry matter, high being 16 to 18 percent or more. Excess protein does not go into build-

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ing extra muscle and can be hard on the body if excessive for extended periods. Whether a low-protein diet or a high-protein diet is appropriate depends on the kind of animal (for example, zebras are low-protein grazers) and its stage of life. Energy requirements are also important. Classes of animals with higher energy demands than the normal maintenance levels include females in late pregnancy and early lactation, growing young, animals out in severe weather, and individuals recuperating from illness. Salt blocks are a wise precaution. They become especially important at spring green-up when the diet for animals on natural grazing is changing rapidly. Some salt blocks have extra minerals or other additives. This is fine as long as the animals accept the combination.

Health Program To jump start a good health program, buy healthy animals. Look for alert, active individuals with clear, shining eyes. Stay away from animals that seem reluctant to stand up or that stand with an arched back and all their feet close together. Uncomfortable animals may be unhealthy animals. In situations that allow you to plan breedings, delaying mating for your young females until one year after they reach sexual maturity allows them to become physically mature before diverting energy to deal with the added stress of reproduction. Consequently, they should develop better, have fewer birth problems and other health difficulties, produce stronger offspring, and realize a longer reproductive life. Fortunately for exotics owners, few disease and parasite problems have reached serious proportions in the United States even though the potential is great. And in general, tropical species (especially axis deer) have proven more resistant to internal parasites than species such as scimitar-horned oryx from dry habitats where aridity is likely to reduce survival of infective larvae. Health problems can be hard to diagnose in wild animals because symptoms may not become obvious until the condition is far advanced. Treatment can be difficult because individuals are hard to catch. Preventive measures are the best insurance. Basic measures to avoid injuries start with hiring experienced personnel and using enough people for the task in hand. Fences, feeders, barns, and other facilities should be kept in good repair. Wire clippings, “Polaroid” film packs, and other hazardous materials should be removed. Crowding and undue disturbance should be avoided.

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Basic methods for disease prevention start with avoiding high animal densities (keep within carrying capacity). Insure adequate nutrition (whether supplementing with commercial feed or not). Do not feed directly on the ground (to keep droppings and parasites off of feed). Treat for parasites all potential animal hosts (not just expensive ones). Quarantine and worm all new animals (in an area where they can be observed). Develop a strategically timed worming program (timed to hit parasites when they are most vulnerable).

Record Keeping Careful records help increase efficiency and productivity. A handy file box or ring binder with a separate sheet for each animal, or at least each species, can put a wealth of information at your fingertips. Each sheet might start with the common name and the scientific name of the species. The next line might record the sex of the individual, any special name you have given it, a sequential identification number, and a brief description of tag, tattoo, or natural markings for identification. Under this can come the birth date (labeled as estimated if uncertain), the identification number and birth date of the dam and the identification number and birth date of the sire. The following line can list where you got the animal and, eventually, when it died or where it went. After all this, you are ready to start a date column on the left with ample space to the right for comments on significant events (for example, “4/11/02—Saw with newborn fawn, still wet. Apart from herd by back tank.”), and information regarding reproduction, seasonal occurrences, any medications used, and special concerns. An extra card or page for any other kind of information not restricted to a certain species or individual gives a place for miscellaneous notes that you might want to check later. Weather data is a prime example. Knowing how your range responds to rainfall variations from year to year can help you plan your stocking rates.

Poaching COUNTERMEASURES One way to guard against poaching is to keep your exotics out of sight of public roads. This can mean not stocking exotics in pastures bordering the highway, planting a screen of brush beside the fence, or building a double fence to keep animals back from easy view. Placing any feeders well away from public roads keeps animals back and lowers the chance that they will choose trees along the road as the handiest bedding sites.

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Posted signs and reward signs from organizations like the Exotic Wildlife Association display the message that you are serious. A good preventative step is to be on good terms with your neighbors and your local enforcement officers. When you do have trouble, contact the county sheriff and the local game warden. Give them the license plate number of any suspicious vehicle, and phone your neighbors to be on the lookout in case poachers are going their way.

REPOSSESSION If your fence gets cut and animals get onto adjacent property, be careful but know your rights. Depending on laws about strays, you may be in violation if you follow escaped animals or put out feed to lure them back. A law change in Texas that the Exotic Wildlife Association campaigned hard for allows you to continue ownership of strayed exotics as long as you have reasonable proof that they are yours. Otherwise, ownership is likely to change as soon as the animals get onto someone else’s property. If your species is unique in the area, proof may be as simple as documenting that you had this kind of animal while your neighbors did not. Check present regulations to see whether ear tags, tattoos, or other added identification marks are also required. Certainly if your species is common in your area, then such tags or marks are needed for repossession.

Selling As animals start to breed well, there may be surplus animals. Consequently, you will need to be prepared to sell or harvest your excess. Hunters may come to you or you may invite hunters to your property. Animals for brood stock can be sold by private treaty. There are also auctions. To reduce stress on the animals, some auctions use video tapes of the animals instead of putting them on exhibit.

Help Sources As an exotics owner, you will not be alone. There is help out there, and it is available in numerous forms (see the chapter Exotics-Related Organizations).

INDIVIDUALS Other owners are a wonderful source of help. They have had many of the same questions and problems you may have. A veterinarian can often assist with in-

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formation about general care as well as with situations involving injury or disease, especially if he or she is interested in wildlife. Zoo personnel can answer some questions but are likely to refer you to a veterinarian. You can also hire a private wildlife consultant, a university professor specializing in wildlife, zoology, biology, or veterinary science, or a supervised graduate student to advise you. Costs will vary depending on expertise. Prospective owners with little time or experience with livestock can hire a manager or a biologist to handle the day-to-day worries associated with keeping exotic animals.

MEETINGS

AND

A S S O C I AT I O N S

A perfect place to meet like-minded individuals and to pick up useful information is at the meetings of organizations dealing with exotics. Some of these organizations have valuable member services, phone advice, referrals, newsletters, or other prepared materials. Foremost among the organizations dealing with exotics matters among private individuals is the Exotic Wildlife Association (EWA), presently headquartered in Ingram, Texas. Although its membership is mainly from Texas, other states and other countries are represented, too. A few other states even have their own chapter of the association. EWA makes a special effort to keep a national perspective and to keep international developments in mind. Organizations like the Texas Wildlife Association (TWA) in San Antonio, Texas, also work for informed private management of native as well as exotic wildlife, although the focus may be on indigenous species. The North American Deer Farmers Association (NADeFA) concentrates on game farming, especially for healthful sources of venison. Hunters groups like Safari Club International have meetings that are well attended by people interested in every aspect of exotics hunting and sponsor wildlife conservation initiatives. Certain species like llamas have associations of their own.

AGENCIES Public agencies and agents, such as state wildlife departments, state agriculture departments, county agents, and university extension biologists, all have ranching information. Stocking rates, wildlife food plants, habitat evaluation, erosion control, facilities design, business assistance, and more may be available free on request. National agencies like the U.S. Natural Resource Conser-

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Common sika deer buck in velvet shows gray coloration. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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vation Service, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the U.S. Department of the Interior (or their U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) can also be contacted about programs and information.

P U B L I C AT I O N S Many books have information on particular species or groups, although few target exotics operations in a comprehensive way. For a brief selection of particularly useful titles, see the Further Reading section in this field guide. Wildlife newssheets and outdoor magazines are also worth watching. If you want to track down a reference to a scientific journal paper or a published conference proceedings, check for interlibrary loan services at most public libraries. Newsletters from both private and public groups carry educational material as well as policy updates and political developments.

COMPUTER PROGRAMS Several people have written predictive programs for balancing exotics populations on rangeland. You can ask the business office of any of the associations active on exotics issues or a university wildlife extension agent to recommend current versions. Aside from obvious business and record-keeping applications, there are programs for testing stocking rates and species combinations against biological and monetary objectives. And you can increase accuracy by substituting values for your own property. Nothing is guaranteed, but time, frustration, and money can often be saved by using a computer model before committing live animals. If buying wildlife management software, make sure that it is compatible with your computer platform (PC or Mac) and check that you have access to a suitable version of whatever may be necessary in order to run the new software. This includes having the right type of operating system (Windows XP, Windows NT, etc.). When possible, arrange for return privileges so that you can try the new software on your own computer before being committed to the purchase. Whatever your interest in exotics, whether breeding, conservation, hunting, low calorie meat, or the most widespread of all, simple viewing pleasure, there are many aspects of exotics that will be more satisfying for you as you know more about them. This field guide can only mention a few basics. For further information and help, try the references and addresses at the back of this book

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and, above all, talk with people who have “been there and done that.” Neither the organizations nor anyone who has been involved with this book can assume any responsibility for difficulties. The final evaluation is always up to you. If you still want to work with exotics, then you can help the animals and yourself, too, by researching your areas of interest.

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ANIMAL PROFILES Nearly one hundred species or varieties of foreign wildlife and less familiar kinds of domesticated animals have been tried as exotics on U.S. ranches and farms. This is not counting species of native wildlife (such as American elk and American bison) occasionally kept like exotics as part of the same operations. As already discussed, the reasons are almost as varied as their owners. People who keep exotics come from all sorts of backgrounds. Many have previous livestock experience. Others learn as they go. Some people keep a few animals as a hobby. Others need to make a living from their exotics activities. Exotics ranches are expensive to operate, but, as a sideline, they sometimes help owners stay on the land. This section features eighty of the exotics likely to be seen in the United States. The section is divided into five parts: deer, antelopes, sheep and goats, cattle, other animals. As a ready reference on usage, the “Name:” line at the start of each animal profile shows any letters that must be capitalized. Essentially, words derived from the name of a particular person, place, or other geographical feature (such as a country or river) should always start with a capital. Thus, there are names like Nubian ibex, Nile lechwe, Stumberg sheep, and Père David’s deer. In scientific names, which are italicized, only the first word (the genus designation) gets an initial capital.

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DEER Axis deer Barasingha Dybowski’s deer Eld’s deer (brow-antlered deer) Fallow deer, European Fallow deer, Persian (Mesopotamian fallow deer) Hog deer Muntjac, Indian Muntjac, Reeves’s Père David’s deer Red deer, European Sambar Sika deer Silk

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Axis deer males. Note the white bib at throat. Photo by Ken DuChene, courtesy of the Brady Ranch, Florida.

Axis deer females surrounded by males. Except for lack of antlers, females look almost exactly like males. Photo by Ken DuChene, courtesy of the Brady Ranch, Florida.

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Axis Deer Name: axis deer, Axis axis Origin and Status: Indian subcontinent in Asia; reduced but still numerous. Description: Medium-size deer with crisp, white spots on bright chestnut coat. White bib at throat. Black stripe down back. Compact body with dainty legs. Young colored like adults. Sexes alike except for antlers in males. Antlers tall, graceful, and simple, with long brow tines as much as 18 in. Lengths typically 22 to 27 in., large more than 30, and exceptionally 36 to 41. Some males in hard antler at any season, but most during May through December. Most in velvet February through March. Male weight 145 to 250 lbs. (typically 160); female 95 to 145 lbs. (typically 100). Food Habits: Grazer in all seasons, but take some browse and can switch to dependence on browse if grasses decline in quantity or quality. Habitat: Grassy openings near water with brush readily available for shade and cover. Prefer light brush with grass underneath. Avoid rugged terrain and high altitudes. Water and Climate: Need to drink daily. Drink more than once a day during hot weather. Best in mild climate. Losses can be heavy during severe winters, so need brush for shelter. Thrive in South Texas and Texas Hill Country. Antlers likely to show freezing damage farther north than Waco, Texas.

red deer, or white-tailed deer, but only red deer reported from U.S. rangeland situation.

Special Considerations: Given adequate water, cover, and grass, this most popular exotic does well in many different environments. Naturally high parasite resistance. Particularly susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever and possibly also to white muscle disease. Sperm production remains plentiful regardless of antler stage, but competition from hard-antlered males usually keeps velvet males from breeding. Big males with antlers of 30 in. or more account for most of the breeding. Female will sometimes allow nursing by a fawn that is not her own. Breeding Season: Some all year (Texas rut mid-May to August with peak in June to July). Birth Season: 2 to 5 mo. before rut (Texas peak in March).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 mo.; 1 young (2 rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 14 1/2 mo. (when first spike antlers nearly mature); female 12 mo. (occasionally as early as 4 to 6 mo.). Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Placid except in close confinement or for big males in hard antler. Notably gregarious for a deer. Compatible with common exotics. Confinement may force hybridization with barasingha,

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Barasingha male. Fork on the intermediate tine is a common feature. Photo by Wesley Kyle, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Barasingha female. The golden color with faint spots is characteristic. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

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Barasingha Name: barasingha (swamp deer), Cervus duvauceli Origin and Status: Indian subcontinent in Asia; endangered (USFWS), Appendix I (CITES), vulnerable north Indian race (IUCN) and endangered central Indian race (IUCN). Texas has many—if not all—identified as hardground barasingha. Description: Large, yellowish-brown deer often with hair tuft hanging from large ears. Traces of spots may persist into adulthood (spots clear on coats of fawns). Males grow C-shaped antlers with many points. Characteristic extra branching of mid tine, although not seen in all males. Each branch may divide again. Antlers for well-developed males average 30 to 35 in. long with 10 to 14 points, exceptionally 40 to 42 1/2 in. long. Clean velvet late August or September. Drop antlers in February. Male weight 370 to 400 lbs. (up to 570), and males maintain weight during rut; female 300 lbs. and up. Food Habits: Live on grass. Relish grasses when green but eat many stout, coarse varieties and include much dry grass. Browse some in Texas (especially from oak). Habitat: Prefer a sedentary life in meadows with tall grass and water easily available. Exotics feed in grassy openings and shelter in oak motts. Water and Climate: Drink at least twice daily during hot season and irregularly the rest of the year. Wallow extensively during rut.

Hybridization with axis deer reported but not for range situations.

Special Considerations: Axis compete with barasingha for fresh grass. May quickly become undernourished if insufficient grass available. Feed grass hay in winter. Need brush for shelter from wind. Mineral supplementation may help. In native habitat, determined to need about fifteen adult stags and twenty to twenty-five females for a vigorous rut, so may need about seventy total for self-sustaining population. Same situation found on one exotics ranch, but experiences have varied elsewhere with lower totals still yielding active breeding. Birth rate is low so take care not to disturb traditional rutting ground or wallows. Predators can be a major problem for young. Breeding Season: September to December or January. Birth Season: May to August.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 18 mo. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. usually adequate.

Temperament and Compatibility: Docile. Serious fights uncommon. Not given to running in panic. Very gregarious but few social bonds. Generally compatible with common exotics.

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Dybowski’s deer males. Dark winter coat with only a hint of spots. The buck in back has speared a prickly pear pad with his antler. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

Dybowski’s deer females. Winter coat grayer than in summer and few spots. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

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Dybowski’s Deer Name: Dybowski’s deer, Dybowski’s sika deer, Cervus nippon hortulorum Origin and Status: Ussuri district, Manchuria, and into Korea in Asia. Wild status uncertain. Have probably been part of the traditional occupation of farming for velvet in Asia. Description: Large deer with powder-puff rump patch. Reddish body with grayish neck in summer coat changes in winter to dusty brown in females and dark brown plus neck ruff in males. Vague dorsal stripe. In summer, subdued white spots extend onto the neck and tend to merge into rows low on the sides. Can be faint traces of spots on winter coat. Fawns mahogany with bright white spots that fade with maturity. Males grow tall, strong antlers. Typically 4 points on each side. Sometimes 5 points, and exceptionally 6 (usually at the top, which may then show webbing). Antler lengths start at about 24 in. and can reach 28 to 36 1/4 in. Shed velvet in late August to September. Drop antlers late February to March or early April. Male 150 to 240 lbs. and can weigh 250 lbs. or more; female about 110 lbs. Food Habits: Browsers, but very adaptable. May be able to shift dependence to grass depending on condition of the forage. Forbs heavily used where available. Habitat: Native to broad-leaved and mixed forests, especially in hilly to mountainous terrain. Native forests often closed, dark, and damp. Prefer large forests with dense understory and occasional clearings. Water and Climate: Drink from ponds, and may wade in when hot. Wallow in mud. Tolerate wide temperature

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range. Accumulate enough fat to insulate against cold. Can tolerate thin accumulations of snow.

Temperament and Compatibility: Noisy. Bold. Intolerant of rivals. Somewhat less aggressive than Japanese sika. Groups small in keeping with their closed habitat. Generally compatible except would be likely to fight seriously with red deer or American elk. All sika races cross readily among themselves. Would probably hybridize with red deer as well as elk. Special Considerations: Where space is limited, may need to remove maturing males because of dangerous harassment from adult bucks. Open, grassy pastures fine as long as they have shade available. When disturbed, expand the rump patch and run with a bouncing gait. Ordinarily, much activity during the day, but become mainly nocturnal if much disturbed. Breeding Season: September to midNovember. Birth Season: May to July (peak in June).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 16 to 18 mo.; female 16 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually sufficient.

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Eld’s deer male (Burmese race). Shows how brow tine continues line of main beam. Photo © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Eld’s deer female. Shows faint spots. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Eld’s Deer Name: Eld’s deer (brow-antlered deer), Cervus eldi. Name “Eld’s deer” for whole species or for Manipur race in India (not expected in United States). Name “thamin” usually restricted to race in Burma. Origin and Status: Asia; endangered (USFWS), Appendix I (CITES), vulnerable (whole species, IUCN). Manipur race critically endangered (IUCN). Burma race near threatened (IUCN), group at National Zoo’s conservation center. Thai race endangered (IUCN). Description: Like smaller-size barasinghas. Male yellowish to dusty brown, darker in winter. Female reddish to yellowish brown. Can show pale, indistinct spots (especially near brown dorsal line). Hair coarse. Male grows winter neck ruff. Hoofs not elongated. Manipur race has hardened skin on back of long, bare pasterns (share weight as they walk). Fawns have some white spots. U.S. males can be hard antler until June. Antlers cast in June in Manipur and August to September in Lower Burma. Velvet shed in December or January in wild. Antlers (often asymmetrical) in male only. Long brow tines (can be 15 in. in Burmese race) continue curve of antlers. Typically no appreciable branching until near tips, then 1 to 2 to 10 or more short points. Main beams can be mildly palmate in Thai race. Antlers 16 to 34 in. up to 41 to 46 in. long (not counting brow tine). Male weight typically 220 lbs. (154 to 330); female typically 140 lbs. (132 to 210 and heavier). Food Habits: Eat mainly tall grass supplemented with some leaves, fallen fruits, and flowers from trees. Thamin rely heavily on wild rice, and add crops as farms move into their habitat.

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Habitat: Wetlands with tall, dense grasses and reeds or open plains with grasses, forbs, and low brush. Sometimes into light forest. Manipur race lives on tangled, decaying mats of humus, grasses, reeds up to 15 ft. tall. Mats float, then grounded (earth nurtures plants) in dry season. Water and Climate: Drink often but irregularly and can do without for several days. Males wallow in cold weather as well as hot. Sensitive to cold in northern United States so heated shelters help in winter. Young delicate but survive winter birth well if born in heated shelter. Temperament and Compatibility: Flighty. Gregarious. Males fight hard. Often head injuries from long brow tines, and one in three older males may have lost one or both eyes. Special Considerations: Female seasonally polyestrous (February to September in United States). Estrous cycle 17 to 21 days (heat up to 2 days). Female coming into full estrus in about a day increases activity, calls, seeks males, and marks them (with preorbital glands). Newborn small and needs habitat secure from predators. Fail to relocate in spite of heavy disturbance. Use dung piles. Breeding Season: February or March to April or May (dry season) in wild. Birth Season: Most in ten weeks October to December in wild. Zoo births in northern U.S. September to March.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 mo.; 1 young (rarely twins). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 to 24 mo. (possibly to 3 yr.); female 12 to 24 mo. Fencing: 7 ft. usually sufficient. When panicked, may charge through wire.

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European fallow deer males. The “menil” coat looks like a dilute form of “common.” Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

European fallow deer males. “Black” fallow adult with palmate antlers is in front of nonpalmate “common” immature (black down spine and around rump). Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

European fallow deer, immature. Tan coat of fallow that turns white as adult. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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European fallow deer female. A “white” doe with a group of “menil” and “black” fallow. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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European Fallow Deer Name: European fallow deer, Dama dama dama Origin and Status: Probably Mediterranean region of southern Europe and Asia Minor. Exact origins obscured by centuries of translocation. Most widespread exotic deer worldwide. Description: Rangy deer with large “Adam’s apple.” Coat color varies. Main colors are white (born tan), “black” (two-tone cocoa colored), “menil” (spots on light brownish coat). Also “common” (rusty with white spots). Males develop palms on antlers as mature. Size and shape vary widely, and asymmetry is common. Antlers 23 in. or longer with at least 3 1/2 in. palm width are above average. Particularly large measurements are 29 to 35 in. length (37 2/5 in. record) and 5 1/4 to 10 1/2 in. palm width. Bucks are in hard antler mid- to late August until late April or May. Male weight 175 to 200 lbs. in good condition (exceptionally up to 263), lose 20 to 50 lbs. during rut, average 153 lbs.; female 55 to 100 lbs. (occasionally up to 120), average 82 lbs. Food Habits: Prefer forbs, but rarely find many except in spring. Always eat lots of browse. Consume more grass when other forage less available. Very adaptable. Occasionally eat nonplant items like earth. Appetite low December to February Habitat: Prefer forest-edge habitat. Often feed in open, retreating into shade as sun gets warm. Need tree cover with undergrowth for shelter and for winter food. If undisturbed, even small woods can suffice. Use traditional rutting areas.

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Water and Climate: Drink daily. Do best in moderate to cool climate. Need tree cover for summer (and midday) shade and for winter shelter. Winterkill can be heavy if snow or ice in rangeland situation. Is deer of choice for deer farming in northern United States because of its general hardihood in cold.

Temperament and Compatibility: Tame easily but males dangerous in rut. Tolerate crowding. Fairly gregarious. Generally compatible, but usually poor competitors at feeders unless have hard antlers. Hybridized with Persian fallow on some Texas ranches (as for meat). Special Considerations: Prone to fight with each other across fences, often ripping holes. Wander widely if they get loose. May sample prickly pear cactus during drought, become addicted, and die a lingering death. During rut, males rub themselves with mud from their urine-soaked scrapes. Frequent calling of both adults and young make this a noisy deer. Breeding Season: September to February (rut October for 1 mo.). Birth Season: Late May to June.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 mo.; 1 young (twins rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 14 to 16 mo.; female 14 to 16 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually adequate.

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Persian fallow deer female. The heavy body and spotted coat are typical for all Persian fallow. Photo from Geoff Asher of AgResearch, Invermay, New Zealand, courtesy of Scott Petty Jr.

Persian fallow deer male. The antlers have flattening low on the beams, so no big palms. Photo from Geoff Asher of AgResearch, Invermay, New Zealand, courtesy of Scott Petty Jr.

Fallow deer males from hybrid population. The 25 percent Persian fallow male—also known as onequarter Meso, for one-quarter Mesopotamian fallow deer—on left shows a tall, heavy body compared to the European fallow type on right. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Fallow deer hybrid males. These 50 percent crosses using Persian fallow on European fallow does have more V-shaped antlers with long, thick beams and modest palms. Photo by Scott Petty Jr., courtesy of the Heart-Bar Deer Farms, Texas.

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Persian Fallow Deer Name: Persian fallow deer (Mesopotamian fallow deer), Dama dama mesopotamica Origin and Status: Near East; endangered (IUCN, USFWS). Appendix I (CITES). Five hundred hybrids of Persian fallow deer with European fallow deer imported to Texas from Europe by way of Canada in 1990s. Most went to a fallow venison operation to increase carcass size. Stock of various percentages Persian fallow sold from Texas after the importation have bred with European fallow deer on other ranches. Large body size is main indication of hybrid origin. Description: Large-bodied fallow deer with less impressive palmation to the antlers. Clear white spots on rusty ground color in summer shade to grayer tones in winter. Spots tend to form line on each side of spine, on sides above division with white belly, and down haunch. Antlers in males only. Antlers heavy base and beam and often somewhat flattened in lower part. Brow tines very short. Palmation in top half of antlers modest to lacking. Front, outer curve of the antler typically measures 20 to 35 in. (can go at least 36 1/2) with tip-to-tip spread of 10 to 25 in. In wild, velvet is shed by late July to August (velvet may be eaten). Antlers cast any time between January and April. Male weight 187 to 300 lbs.; female 90 to 132 lbs. Rutting males stop eating and lose about 17 percent of body weight. Food Habits: Use large amounts of grass so can maintain themselves on either improved or native pasture as long as numbers are kept within carrying capacity. Irrigated pastures can be planted in kleingrass, or for winter in

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wheat and oats. Take browse when available. Habitat: In modern times, restricted to small wooded areas and dense brush, sometimes in belts along the banks of rivers in wild. Originally in mountains and forested hillls also. Water and Climate: Drink regularly. Hybrid line has done well in Texas.

Temperament and Compatibility: Take crowding and handling better than many deer. Not as flighty. Cross easily with European fallow, so keep separated unless want hybrids. Special Considerations: Allow five deer units to one cow unit for maximum grazing densities (one deer unit is either one female and fawn or one grown male). If need to give supplemental feed, 3/8 -in. pellets are easier for the deer to eat than larger pellets so there is less waste. Putting males with females only from the beginning of October until mid-November limits the fawning season and reduces stress on females, although males do tend to separate naturally after the breeding season. Come out at brush edges to graze in mornings and evenings. Breeding Season: Concentrated October rut. Birth Season: June. As early as midMarch to mid-May in native habitat. Until July in Iran.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 mo.; 1, possibly twins occasionally. Sexual Maturity: Male about 1 1/2 yr. (not competitive until about 4); female about 16 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. usually sufficient when relaxed. 8 ft. better for perimeter fence.

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Hog deer male. Wide antler spreads like this are common. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

Hog deer females with small-antlered male. Note the faint spots near the spine. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

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Hog Deer Name: hog deer, Axis porcinus Origin and Status: Asia; Indian race near threatened (IUCN). Larger race from Thailand and to east is endangered (USFWS), Appendix I (CITES). Exotic in Sri Lanka. Description: Short, squat deer named for pig-like appearance, habitat, and habit of crashing away in low-headed, flat run. Legs slender. Coat brown, often with yellowish or reddish tinge. White hair tips give speckled cast. In excitement, flare white hair on rump and flag tail, showing its white underside. Females, and sometimes males, may have indistinct tan or white spots. Fawns spotted. Male has modest 3-point antlers (some wide) atop stout pedicels. Lengths 10 to 24 1/2 in. with Indian average 12 to 15, average for taller eastern race 17 to 18, and 22 in. exceptional. Antler cycle may vary by individual, but all in hard antler during peak rut in September through October, and most in velvet during March through April. Males 95 lbs. (60 to 110 lbs.); females 70 1/2 lbs. (60 to about 88). Food Habits: Grazers. Also take large amounts of young poplar leaves when saplings sprout following summer floods. Supplement with fallen fruits, forbs, flowers, tender twigs, and tree buds. Short, new grass draws animals together into opportunistic groups. Raid crops heavily. Habitat: Open, grassy, often swampy alluvial flats. Prefer extensive stands of dense grass thickets tall enough for concealment but not overly tall. Also inhabit dense scrub, mangroves, grass areas in forest, or forest fringes, with water close by. Avoid hills and unbroken forest.

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Water and Climate: Live close to water. Swim well. Often spend time on grassy islands in river channels, but many perish when floods heavy. Wallow in cold weather as well as hot. Take heat or cold if they have shade and dense cover. Unheated winter shelters help in northern United States. Temperament and Compatibility: Generally placid except during rut. Sedentary. Adults largely solitary unless drawn together by food or rut. Males very aggressive with each other. Chase and fight more than display. Also attack unprovoked. Sometimes injure deer of much larger species. At low density (dense forest), can be seasonally territorial (average 150 to 200 acres). Cross with axis deer and European fallow deer. Special Considerations: Vulnerable to dogs because are slow runners. Fawn predation high in wild. Thrash trees and bushes, fight fence posts, and plough the ground with their antlers. In rut, may congregate during the day in opening of shorter grass where can display to each other. Here, a buck seeks out a receptive female and goes off into the high grass with her. Breeding Season: Mating any time, but mainly May or June to January with rut in September to October. Birth Season: All year, especially in zoos, but peak February to May or June, especially in wild.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 mo.; 1 young (occasionally 2).

Sexual Maturity: Male about 16 mo.; female as yearling. Fencing: 8 ft. usual. Can clear nearly 7 ft. when startled, but try to avoid jumping obstacles.

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Indian muntjac male. Note the hunched posture. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Sedgwick County Zoo, Kansas.

Indian muntjac female. Note the leg raised as it stamps in agitation. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Sedgwick County Zoo, Kansas.

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Indian Muntjac Name: Indian muntjac (red muntjac, barking deer, rib-faced deer), Muntiacus muntjak Origin and Status: Asia; still fairly common in some areas, least concern (IUCN). Description: Small, glossy, red chestnut deer with ribs down face capped by black hair tufts around bony knob in female and by long pedicel carrying little antlers in male. Upper canines of male protrude as sharp tusks. White under tail (erected and fluffed in alarm) and between hind legs. Legs often dark. Black accents face ridges and extends up inside of antler pedicels. Glands both below eye and beside forehead ridges. Newborn is spotted. Antlers in male unbranched except for short brow tines (about 1 in.). Tips commonly hook in. Beam length typically 3 to 6 1/2 in. and exceptionally 8 to 10 3/4. Often shed velvet between August and October but much variation. Often shed antlers in May and June as exotics and in native habitat but can vary greatly. Male weight 35 to 50 up to 77 lbs.; female 31 to 48 up to 60 lbs. Food Habits: Browser with omnivorous tendencies. Eat grass readily when leaves and bark unavailable. Leaves, tree sprouts, forbs, grass, fallen fruits, fleshy flowers of woody plants, bark, and even carrion. Kill young birds and small mammals as occasion arises. May hunt eggs. Habitat: Thick undergrowth in forest, especially on hillsides. Rarely uses open country even inside the forest. May feed on forest edges in morning or evening. Visits natural salt licks. Water and Climate: Generally near water. Drink freely. When dry, visit waterholes increasingly often. Survive

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snows in native habitat. Hardy in northeastern U.S. as well as in south.

Temperament and Compatibility: Ordinarily solitary but sometimes in pairs. Constantly on alert. Extremely secretive but can be bold. Use both tusks and antlers in fighting. May charge dogs or other small animals if threatened, and attack even humans with slashing tusks if pressed. Produce hybrids with Reeves’s muntjac. Special Considerations: Likely to localize for life in a limited area but rarely seen. Lies close or creeps away when approached, then doubles back and conceals itself. Use dung piles. Attack rivals. Loud, sharp, alarm bark may be repeated at intervals for an hour or more. Rutting call—similar except louder and more prolonged—also repeated many times. Tongue, so long that it can lick eyes and most of face, used to strip leaves and twigs. Fertile postpartum estrus, 3 to 4 days after birth. Estrous cycle 14 to 21 days (receptive about 2 days). Polyestrous. Males fertile even in velvet. Lie up in dense thicket for much of day. More nocturnal where disturbed. Breeding Season: All year. Particularly in cool season in north for natives. Birth Season: All year but peak likely in hot season in northern parts of native habitat.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 6 to 7 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 6 to 12 mo. (first antlers harden at 11 mo.); female 5 to 6 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. ordinarily adequate. Use very small mesh to contain young.

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Reeves’s muntjac male. The dark stripe from face up pedicels is characteristic. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

Reeves’s muntjac female. These often stand with a leg up, poised for flight. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

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Reeves’s Muntjac Name: Reeves’s muntjac (Chinese muntjac, barking deer, rib-faced deer), Muntiacus reevesi Origin and Status: Asia; common, least concern (IUCN). Description: Very small brown deer in which male has tall pedicels, tiny antlers, and upper canines protruding as sharp tusks (often one broken). Extensions of pedicels converge down past eyes. Dark stripe down each pedicel and its extension. Dark on face or similar face stripes on females. Females have knobs and hair tufts where males have antlers. Outer legs dark. In alarm, fluff and erect tail showing its white underside. Newborn has pale spots on a darker brown coat. Antlers in male unbranched except for tiny brow tines. Length 1 to 4 in. up to 5 5/8 in. Remove velvet mainly in September through October. Shed antlers mainly in May through June. Regrowth takes only 79 to 103 days. Male weight typically 28 1/2 to 33 lbs.(about 26 to 35); female about 22 to 26 lbs. and up. Food Habits: Browser. Leaves, acorns, seeds, fruits, mushrooms, bark, some grass, eggs, carrion. Can switch more to grass if leaves and bark unavailable. Habitat: Wooded hills or any place with dense, leafy undergrowth. Here, they establish territories and dung piles and use a system of runs. Water and Climate: Usually near water. Hardy in northeastern United States as well as in south.

within a territory. Dominant male may allow subordinate male to share his territory and may keep weak pair bond with a senior female. Subordinate evicts smaller intruding males and announces presence of others. Have shared large pen with blackbuck without conflict, given unheated shelter (for feeding and births) with opening too small for blackbuck. Produce hybrids with Indian muntjac. Special Considerations: Bite seriously when caught. Males keep different antler cycles and stay fertile in velvet. However, subordinate male living in a territory gets breeding priority during short time he may be in hard antler after master sheds. Estrous cycle 14 to 15 days, and receptive for 2 days. Polyestrous. Young born in winter are at risk. Can live on own after weaned at 6 to 8 weeks. Young expelled from territories so population expansion rapid. Secretive nature means expansion hard to detect. Bark sounds like a dog except repeated at 4- to 6-second intervals for as long as an hour—especially at night. Much night activity, increasing if disturbed. Breeding Season: All year. Particularly late January to February (especially early June). Birth Season: All year but most in April to September.

Temperament and Compatibility:

Sexual Maturity: Male 6 to 11 mo.

Furtive, but can be bold. Adult males fight dangerously. They clash and lock antlers, slashing with tusks at neck of opponent if it can throw him off balance. Solitary or in family groups

(first antlers harden at 11 mo.); female 5 to 6 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. ordinarily adequate. Mesh needs to be very small to contain young.

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Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 mo.; 1 young.

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Père David’s deer male. Note jags on the hindshafts of the antlers. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

Père David’s deer female. Pictured in preferred shallow water habitat. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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Père David’s deer fawn. Woolly and cinnamon colored with spots on its upper sides. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

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Père David’s Deer Name: Père David’s deer, Elaphurus davidianus Origin and Status: Eastern China in Asia; critically endangered (IUCN), reintroduced in 1985 after extinction in wild. Description: Large, brown-to-buff deer with broad hoofs and dark tail tassel. In winter, males grow shaggy throat mane. Newborns woolly with white spots. Males grow unique antler type with foreshaft branching two or three times while hindshaft sweeps back in a simple curve (may develop jags). Large antlers 25 to 36 in. up to 39 1/4. In Texas, velvet shed in August with antlers dropped in January and February. Farther north and east, many stags in hard antler from late April or early May until December or January. Male weight 400 to 500 lbs. but drop 100 lbs. or more during rut; female 300 to 355 lbs. Food Habits: Do fine all year on grass, but prefer rushes and other aquatic plants in summer. Occasionally eat a few leaves. Relish acorns. Habitat: Native to marshes and wetlands along rivers. Exotics thrive on grass areas with trees and large ponds or streams available. Water and Climate: Wallow in cold weather as well as hot weather. Lounge in water to moderate heat. Quite winter-hardy as long as they have sufficient forage. Use trees for shelter.

with shade, for wallowing space. Each stag ruts (gathers harem) for 2 weeks during 6-week rut period. Keep 2 or 3 males with females during rut for competition to insure breeding. Rutting stags very noisy. Legs may make a snapping sound as walk. Breeding Season: May to September (Texas peak August to September). Birth Season: March to June.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 9 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 2 yr.; female 2 yr.

Fencing: 7 ft. ordinarily adequate. Can just clear 8 ft. with a downhill run.

Temperament and Compatibility: Generally placid. Generally compatible, but best not pastured with red deer or elk. Will hybridize with red deer and might cross with elk. Special Considerations: Need trees for winter shelter and summer shade. Like plenty of water, including water

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European red deer male. Shows the classic round shape of the antlers as seen from the front and the rusty color of the rump patch. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

European red deer females and fawn. The rusty rump patch coloration of the females and the liberal spotting of the fawn are characteristic. Photo by Marida Favia del Core Borromeo, courtesy of the Blackjack Ranch LEE, Ltd, Texas.

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European Red Deer Name: European red deer, Cervus elaphus Origin and Status: Europe; generally widespread both in wild and farmed for venison. Locally reduced (Corsican red deer endangered, USFWS, IUCN). Description: Large deer with a red tone to its brown coat in summer. Large, rusty rump patch. Males grow neck ruff in winter. Young have white spots. Males carry antlers with brow tines directly above burr that grow to circle in at the top. Typically 5 to 6 points on a side but can have as many as 20. Lengths are 26 to 55 3/8 in. Shed velvet in July or August through September or October. Drop antlers in February or March through April. Male weight 230 to 750 lbs. depending on race and nutrition (typically 600 lbs. in United States); female 163 to 225 lbs. Food Habits: Substantial amounts of browse complemented with grazing. Preferred grazing sites are short grass areas with a mixture of forbs. Can live on grass with some shrubs and forbs. Habitat: Prefer open forests with wellvegetated understory. Can live in open country if there are large rocks and unrestricted vistas to substitute for the shelter and security of tree cover. Avoid rugged terrain and high altitudes. Water and Climate: Drink regularly. Wallow during rut. Lounge in water when hot. Snow manageable unless deeper than 15 to 20 in. Heat tolerable if whole herd can lounge in water. Need trees, boulders, or other shelter from cold winds.

breed with, closely related species (American elk, sika deer, axis deer, Père David’s deer).

Special Considerations: Popular on deer farms for venison (or velvet) throughout United States because they are large, hardy, and easier than elk to handle. Interbreed particularly easily with American elk, and many populations are hybridized (in Europe—where large size imparted by elk is valued for venison—as well as United States). Males gather harems during rut (preferably on short grass areas). Need ample water for whole population to lounge in if summers hot. May strip bark, especially if food short in late winter or for sugar-rich sap in early spring. Fawns vulnerable to ticks. Breeding Season: October. Birth Season: Late May to June.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 to 8 1/2 mo.; 1 young (twins extremely rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 16 mo.; female 16 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Can be farmed, but males in rut very aggressive. Fairly gregarious. Generally compatible except may fight with, or

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Sambar male. Stag with exceptional antlers. Photo by Stephen M. Shea, courtesy of the St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge, Florida.

Sambar female. Rounded ears are a characteristic feature. Photo by Eugene R. Fuchs, courtesy of the Powderhorn Ranch, Texas.

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Sambar Name: sambar, Cervus unicolor Origin and Status: Indian subcon-

Temperament and Compatibility: Largely solitary

tinent and on through Southeast Asia; widespread. Description: Large, brown, uniformly colored deer with big, round ears. The foxy red fawns lack spots. Hair is coarse, rough, and oily. Shaggy neck ruff on both males and females. A “sore spot” (2- to 6-in. bald patch) can develop at neck base of any sambar at time of rut. Discharge from sore spot not reported in exotics. Simple, rugged antlers in male only, typically 19 to 35 in. long (up to 55 1/8). Hard antler generally anytime between September and June, with very few (full) velvet males in December through March. Some males can be in breeding trim with hard antler while most in velvet. Male weight 400 to 705 lbs., can go to 776.; female 225 to 500 lbs. Food Habits: Prefer tender, green grass, but take coarse grass and can shift more to browse when grass is scarce. Eat quantities of aquatics like water lilies or algae. Add lots of acorns and fruits. Habitat: Dense forest, especially on hillsides, with well developed understory for shelter and browsing. Much use of heavy cover. Value access to marshes, river flats, or lakes for feeding. Water and Climate: Drink regularly, daily in hot weather. Lounge on flooded flats in summer. Lie in streams if warmer than air during extreme cold. Wade to neck to feed. Males use muddy wallows in mating season. Swim to escape or disperse. Cold sensitive. More adult mortality in winter along Gulf Coast. Can take four years to acclimatize to cold in northern United States.

and sedentary. Mother aggressive in defense of newborn. Compete for grass and browse unless they can wade deep enough to eat aquatics beyond reach of smaller animals. May cross with red deer, elk, or sika deer. Hybrids of sambar males with rusa deer females (sometimes called Samson deer in Australia) fertile. Special Considerations: Secretive inhabitants of dense brush, active in open mainly at dawn, dusk, or after dark. Males take 7 to 8 years to develop fully. Do poorly except in moist habitats. Asocial habits and low population density make males seem artificially scarce. Breeding Season: Tendency for two rut peaks during a single, prolonged, breeding season. First peak often more pronounced. Texas breeding season August to May (peaks in September and in March through April). Florida later with breeding season September to June (peak in October trailing off in December and secondary peak in April trailing off in May). Birth Season: Texas births April to January (peaks April through June and December). Florida births June through February (slight peaks July through September and January through February).

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Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 mo.; 1 young, occasionally 2.

Sexual Maturity: Male 11/2 yr. (but at least 7 yr. before attain greatest antler development and 8 yr. to become fully competitive for breeding); female 11/2 yr. (usually first bred at 21/2 yr.). Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. when undisturbed.

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Sika deer male. Genetics suggest that the small exotics in Maryland and Virginia may all trace to one Japanese island. Photo by Brian Eyler, courtesy of the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, Virginia.

Sika deer male (Manchurian sika race). A large male with large antlers (from Manchuria and Korea) and a spotted rusty coat in summer (as here), and darker in winter. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

Sika deer female. Most small sika in the United States are probably a mix of Japanese, or of Japanese and Formosan races. Color varies but is often rusty with pale spots. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Sika deer male (Formosan sika race). A small sika with a rusty coat and white spots. Photo by D. DeMello, © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Sika deer female. A few small sika of mixed origin have very dark coats, sometimes with black flecks but sometimes uniform as here. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

Sika deer female and fawn (Formosan sika race). Note the characteristic sika rump patch on this small sika with rusty coat and white spots. Photo © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

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Sika Deer Name: sika deer, Cervus nippon Origin and Status: China and the Japanese islands in Asia. Many common sika in the United States are a combination of the small Formosan (endangered USFWS, critically endangered IUCN) and Japanese forms (Ryukyu sika endangered USFWS, various subspecies critically endangered or data deficient IUCN). New genetics work indicates a single Japanese source (Yakushima Island) for the free-ranging sika in Maryland and Virginia. The large Dybowski’s deer and Manchurian sika (data deficient IUCN) are more likely to be kept as pure races, but not always. Formosan sika reintroduced from zoo stock after going extinct in native habitat in 1969— numbers still low. Description: Dainty-legged deer with short, wedge-shaped head and a powder-puff rump patch. Variety of shades from brown to black. Lighter animals often show dull, white spots. Some darker animals show indistinct black spots. Fawns mahogany with bright white spots that fade with maturity. Males grow neck ruff and short, stout antlers. Commonly 11 to 19 in. antlers with 3 points each side. Big antlers 19 1/2 to 29 in. possible, although this can also result from an infusion of a larger sika race such as the Manchurian sika. Shed velvet late August to September. Drop antlers late February through April. Male 72 to 176 lbs. (average 90 to 141); female 58 to 100 lbs. (often 70). Food Habits: Very adaptable. Shift dependence radically from browse to grass and back with seasons depending on condition of the forage. Forbs heavily used where available. Habitat: Native to broad-leaved and

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113 mixed forests, especially in hilly to mountainous terrain. Prefer large forests with dense understory and occasional clearings. Can get by on scanty fare. Readily change range seasonally for food. Water and Climate: Drink from ponds, and also wade in when hot. Wallow in mud. Accumulate enough fat to insulate against cold. Can tolerate thin accumulations of snow.

Temperament and Compatibility: Noisy. Bold. Intolerant of rivals. Groups small in trees, larger in open. Generally compatible except that they fight seriously with red deer or American elk. All sika races cross readily among themselves. Occasionally hybridize with red deer. Special Considerations: Males gather harems and dig deep scrapes during rut. Prefer ridges or heads of gullies in brush for rutting territories. Subordinate male may join harem master and do much of the initial advertising for territorial defense. Heat lasts 1 to 2 days. Have fat throughout the muscle giving juicy meat while cholesterol still lower than in beef, lamb, or pork. Breeding Season: September to October. Birth Season: May to August (may peak in June).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 mo.; 1 young, twins very rare. Sexual Maturity: Male 16 to 18 mo.; female 16 mo. (occasionally as young as 6 mo.). Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually sufficient.

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Silk male. Shows desired predominance of elk characteristics. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Broken Arrow Ranch, Texas.

Silk female. Conformation suggests elk but coat denotes sika ancestry. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Broken Arrow Ranch, Texas.

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Silk Name: silk, American silk, a hybrid of American elk, Cervus canadensis, and sika deer, Cervus nippon Origin and Status: Missouri. Trade name “American silk” given to crossbred line started by Gerald Ryals of Missouri in 1980s and then developed further by David Hughes in Texas in 1990s for venison ranching. Less activity with this form now. Description: Heavy-bodied deer of variable height, conformation, and coloration, with some more like elk and some more like sika in different combinations. Coat brown or rusty. Can have subdued spots. Rusty or white rump patch. Fawns spotted. Antlers in male much like large sika antlers with usually 3 to 4 points on a side. Lengths of 15 to 24 in. expected, with up to about 30 possible. Male weight typically 260 to 360 lbs., rarely up to 408; female often 195 lbs. (175 to 275). Food Habits: Much browsing but they also take grass and forbs. Are adaptable and ready to get by on whatever forage is available. Can change diet easily. Habitat: Use mixture of brush and openings, with shelter offered by draws as well as brush. Water and Climate: Need access to drinking water. Likely to wade into water. Will stand in water troughs if able to climb in. Hardy under pasture conditions even during snow and ice. Have layer of subcutaneous fat for insulation against cold. Temperament and Compatibility: Generally calm and relatively easy to handle. Settle down well in close quarters. Males in hard antler aggressive but not flighty, nervous, or excitable. Usually fertile with each other and

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with both original species (sika deer and American elk). Elk male may need to be isolated from other elk before it will breed sika.

Special Considerations: Can live on native forage, but supplementation helpful if herd is for commercial venison. Unsuited to too rich a diet (hoofs may overgrow). Feeding goat pellets (lower protein) every other day and grass hay (as round bale, eat at stalks even if thick) can work well. Can give a little corn for extra energy if winter weather turns very cold. Large fawn size has not caused birth problems, but natural service by elk bull often injures, resulting in death of sika females, so use artificial insemination. Beware of getting bitten when handling silk. Form developed so deer farmers could build up herds at minimal cost (compared to purchasing elk or even fallow) and yet produce large carcasses with finely textured meat at an early age. Yearling silk can yield a carcass roughly twice as heavy as that of European fallow deer at 2 years. Breeding Season: Long season can run early August to December. Birth Season: March to May with some into June.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 to 7 1/2 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male about 16 mo.; female about 16 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. Usually 6 ft. sufficient even in working pens, especially with opaque barrier.

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ANTELOPES Addax Blackbuck antelope Blesbok Bongo Bontebok Dik-dik, Guenther’s Dik-dik, Kirk’s Eland, common Eland, giant Gazelle, dama Gazelle, dorcas Gazelle, Grant’s Gazelle, Persian Gazelle, slender-horned Gazelle, Thomson’s Gemsbok (South African oryx) Impala Kudu, greater Lechwe, Nile Lechwe, red Nilgai antelope Nyala Oryx, Arabian Oryx, beisa Oryx, fringe-eared Oryx, scimitar-horned Roan antelope Sable antelope Sitatunga Springbok Waterbuck, common Waterbuck, defassa Wildebeest, black (white-tailed gnu) Wildebeest, blue (brindled gnu)

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Addax male. The summer coat of both male and female is white except for head markings. Photo by Kathryn Kyle, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Addax female with adolescent. The winter coat of females and males is gray except on haunches and legs. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Addax calf. The young calf has a tan (rather than gray or white) body regardless of the season. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

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Addax Name: addax, Addax nasomaculatus Origin and Status: North Africa; en-

Special Considerations:

dangered with captive-bred exclusion (USFW), critically endangered (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES). Numbers in wild critically low (perhaps 100 to 200). Description: Compact white antelope with gray head, white body in summer changing to gray extending over back and side (haunches white) in winter. Longer winter coat gives noticeable neck ruff. White cross on face below dark brown mat of hair on forehead. Hoofs broad. Thin, white tail has short tuft at end. Young born tan. Both male and female have long, weakly ringed horns spiraling upward in a gentle V. Female horns longer but more slender. Average horns 28 1/2 in., large 32 to 37 in. up to 43. Male weight 220 to 330 lbs.; female 110 to 200 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. Also takes leaves and shoots. In Sahara, nomadic in quest of green forage in wake of rain. Habitat: Native to sand dunes, gravel desert, and rock plateaus. Exotics use both grassy openings and brush. Often retreat up hillsides into heavy brush when disturbed. Water and Climate: Rarely drink unless no green food available, then drink once daily. Do best in dry, warm climate. Cold weather hard on them (especially youngsters) but usually do reasonably well if they can retreat into heavy brush for shelter. Liable to parasite problems if in moist climate.

New mothers become so aggressive that they may attack humans or even vehicles. Need an undisturbed block of heavy cover for calving and for shelter. May need grass hay in winter. Pasture with soft soil best and rocks worst. Fire ants will bite faces and may kill young. Breeding Season: Breed all year (peak in May to early August). Birth Season: Any time (peak January to March).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 30 mo. (or as early as 24 mo., possibly as young as 18); female 25 1/2 mo. (or as early as 12 1/2). Fencing: Usually respect 4 ft.

Temperament and Compatibility: Generally mild, except new mothers fiercely aggressive. Gregarious. Generally compatible except with oryx. Hybridize with all oryx, including gemsbok.

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Blackbuck antelope males. A black adult beside an adolescent male. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

Blackbuck antelope male. Less dominant adult males lighten in summer except for black face. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Blackbuck antelope female. Coloring of the female is the same as adolescent males. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Indian Blackbuck Antelope Name: Indian blackbuck antelope, Antilope cervicapra Origin and Status: Indian subcontinent in Asia; near threatened (IUCN), Appendix III (CITES). Description: Mature males tan or brown to black with sharply contrasting white eye rings, ears, chin, rump, chest, and belly. Dark areas lighten in summer on many less-dominant bucks. Females and immatures tan with same white markings. Newborns brown with light markings. Males grow ringed, corkscrew horns diverging upward in a tall V. Adult minimum horn length 13 in. measured straight from base to tip. Few horns exceed 23 in. Long horns from native habitat 28 to 29 in. with lengths reaching 30 in. exceptionally rare (straight measure). Male weight 43 to 125 lbs. up to 144 (typically 83); female 42 to 73 lbs. (typically 58). Food Habits: Grazer, but take some browse. Prefer short to mid-length grasses, especially when tender. Switch readily to dependence on browse if grasses decline in quantity or quality (as during summer in southwestern United States). Habitat: Do best on large stretches of dry grassland in flat to gently rolling country. Smaller openings will usually do, especially if many interconnect. Fail to flourish in very small, isolated openings. Where not compressed by environmental conditions, territories typically measure 5 to 22 acres. Do not necessarily need trees for shade, but need brush or other shelter against cold. Water and Climate: Get much of their moisture from plants. Will drink, especially when hot, but visits are brief. Do best in dry, warm climate. Little

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body insulation so losses heavy if faced with snow or ice that hides forage.

Temperament and Compatibility: Somewhat flighty. Orphan fawns show little will to live. Very gregarous. Even territorial males tend to cluster their territories next to each other although dung piles separate. Generally fine with all common exotics. Hybridize with gazelles. Special Considerations: Need shelter (brush or shed) and feed during ice or snow. Fail to eat supplemental feed during stress periods unless it is already familiar. Therefore, introduce small amounts of supplemental feed in fall if range forage might decline dangerously during winter or if snow or ice might hide pasture plants for more than a day. Breeding Season: Breed all year, but males more active in spring and fall. Birth Season: Births all year, but fewer in winter.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo. (interval between births 6 mo.); 1 young (regularly 2 births per year). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 18 mo. (or as early as 8 mo.). Fencing: Generally respect 4 1/2 ft. Can jump 6 ft. when motivated.

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Blesbok male. As demonstrated here, the white face blaze is not always divided. Photo by Rob Payne, courtesy of the Stevens Forest Ranch, Texas.

Blesbok female and young. The adult female is colored like an adult male but all young are born tan. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Blesbok Name: blesbok, Damaliscus dorcas philippsi Origin and Status: Southern Africa; least concern category (IUCN). Description: Brown antelope with wide white blaze, usually divided between the eyes. Pale to white on belly extending to tail base but not expanding into a conspicuous rump patch. Coat shades to gray on lower sides and haunches. Born tan. Adolescent dark on face instead of white. Well-developed, lyre-shaped, ringed horns in both male and female. Male horns slightly thicker than female horns but lengths comparable unless male wear is heavy. Adult lengths 13 1/2 in. up to 20 3/4 in. Male weight 137 to 176 lbs.; female 121 to 154 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. May take some forbs. Browse only occasionally. Habitat: Open grasslands, sometimes with a few small trees or bushes. Water and Climate: Drink morning and evening. Seem to tolerate heat adequately. Temperament and Compatibility: Typically not aggressive toward humans in open range situations. Young strongly motivated to stay with mother. Male territorial during breeding season. Territorial male stands by—or lies on—huge, central dung pile, fights other males, and gathers and courts females as herds pass through his territory. Herd male may kill yearling male if with a confined herd. Sometimes may even kill a neonate. Hybridize with closely related bontebok and produce fertile offspring that resemble bontebok. Hybridize with red hartebeest but offspring apparently infertile.

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Special Considerations: Cessation of breeding and premature aging in a zoo group diagnosed by blood test as copper deficiency, but copper added to diet had to be in appropriate form before blesbok improved. Copper important for absorption and utilization of iron, although copper tolerance in ruminants usually low. Copper requirement for domestic horses high enough to kill sheep and llamas, so use copper with care. May be difficult to introduce new foods. Feed with molasses sometimes used to induce animals to eat commercial rations. Propagated for venison on some South African farms. Breeding Season: September to December assumed for exotics. Birth Season: May to August recorded in United States.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 to 8 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 27 mo.; female 27 mo. (rarely earlier). Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. Scrambles over barriers up to 4 1/2 ft. high, or creeps under or through obstacles.

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Bongo male. Note the dark forequarters, wide-set horns, and closed habitat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Dos Pesos Ranch, Texas.

Bongo female. The bright pattern helps it blend in with its preferred habitat under trees. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Dos Pesos Ranch, Texas.

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Bongo Name: bongo, Taurotragus euryceros Origin and Status: Central Africa; near threatened as whole species, with endangered eastern form and lower risk, near threatened western form (IUCN). Reintroduced on Mt. Kenya. Description: Large, sturdy antelope with large, broad ears. Red-brown coat with 10 to 16 (often 13) vertical white lines. Fringe of longer hair down center of back. Legs have black and white marks. Adult males blacken progressively from forequarters. Grow heavier as they age, especially males. Body size and limb proportions highly variable. Large, keeled horns have weak spiral and often ivory-colored tips. Tips may cross, especially in females. Female horns more slender, and sometimes less twisted than in male. Horn length 21 to 39 1/2 in. along curve (27 1/2 and up is large). Male weight 529 to 660 lbs. up to 893; female 440 to 558 lbs. (typically 530). Food Habits: Browser. Need higher nutritional level than grass offers, so seek low, easy-to-reach leaves from shrubs, creepers, forbs, and newly sprouting bamboo, and need them in abundance. Use horns to break off higher branches and to pull down vines. Eat fruits, and is said to dig up roots. Accept wide range of plants, so eat whatever is tender and nutritious. Habitat: Dense, dim, equatorial forest. Also bamboo thickets in eastern montane areas of native habitat. Because of high-concentrate food requirement, seek regrowth areas of nutritious, low plants and disappear from areas changing to established forest with limited understory.

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Water and Climate: Need drinking water daily. Keep close to water, but avoid swamps. Native to high rainfall areas.

Temperament and Compatibility: Shy, but will readily attack if cornered. May take to water if chased. Live alone, in pairs, or in small groups. Natives very rare except where forage plentiful in undisturbed areas. Males usually placid but have occasional mood swings. Likely to mate with any other spiralhorned antelope. Hybrids with sitatunga can be fertile with sitatunga. Special Considerations: Breed well in captivity. Dietary copper requirement high (increasing to 20 to 30 ppm in a “complete” feed with copper sulfate stabilized health of a ranch herd). Such high copper levels fine for horses and may work for deer but can kill sheep and llamas. Regular worming also helps (in Texas April 1, May 1, and after first fall frost used). Rely on eyesight more than expected for an animal from dense cover. Much of activity at dawn, dusk, and after dark. Lack stamina so take care not to stress hard, especially in hot weather. Need ample water available, especially in open pastures. Breeding Season: Peak October to January in native habitat. Birth Season: Peak June or July to September in native habitat.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 9 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male by 2 yr.; female 19 to 20 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually adequate. Can jump low fence with enough motivation.

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Bontebok male. As demonstrated here, white face blaze can be divided. Photo by Rob Payne, courtesy of La Coma Ranch, Texas.

Bontebok female and young. The adult female is colored like the adult male but all young are born tan. Photo by D. DeMello, © Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx Zoo, St. Catherine’s Island, Georgia.

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Bontebok Name: bontebok, Damaliscus dorcas dorcas

Origin and Status: South Africa; endangered (USFWS), vulnerable (IUCN), Appendix II (CITES). Saved from certain extinction by four private landowners who gave it safe haven. Possible contact of some early bontebok with blesbok moved onto farms or into native bontebok habitat will always leave the genetic purity of today’s bontebok in question. Description: Medium-size antelope with wide white blaze, conspicuous white rump patch, and purple sheen to brown coat. Lower sides and upper legs very dark and glossy. Lower legs and underparts brilliant white. Blaze typically continuous, but constriction between eyes can pinch into separate parts (as in typical blesbok). Young tan and then acquires a dark blaze. Immature retains gray on face even after rest of adult colors develop. Modest, black, ringed horns similar in both male and female unless male wear is heavy. Male horns thicker. Typical horns 15 in. (13 3/4 to 17 5/8). Male weight 150 to 190 lbs.; female 121 to 137 lbs. Food Habits: Grazers. Also eat forbs. Some browse. Territorial males feed less during rut. Habitat: Open grassland in well-watered districts. Sometimes small trees and bushes present. Swampy salt flats scattered with pools are a great attraction in the wild. Water and Climate: Water dependent (so not in very dry areas). Drink regularly in morning and evening, also midday in summer. Flooding aggravates parasite liability.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Small, fixed home range. Nursery herds free to roam through the permanent territories of males until the rut. Yearling males sometimes tolerated with female herds and sometimes not. During rut, owners try to hold groups (whole herds). Territories about 24 to 99 acres with enough food for permanent residence, but only 12 acres or less is actively marked and defended. Hybridize readily with blesbok and offspring are fertile. Hybridize with red hartebeest but offspring likely to be infertile. To avoid hybrids, keep apart from blesbok, all hartebeests, and close allies like topi and Hunter’s antelope. Special Considerations: Typically run upwind in single file when disturbed, heads low. Give birth in high grass. Newborn may take a long time (more than 1 1/2 hr.) to find udder. Yearlings, both males and females, likely to leave female herds voluntarily and join with bachelors. Maturing females recruited into female herds after first birth. Males breed when old enough to be competitive (fully territorial at 4 to 6 years). Males eventually quit territories voluntarily. Diurnal. Breeding Season: January to midMarch in wild with rut in February. Birth Season: Mid-August to February with 1- to 2-mo. peak (September to October or November to December) in wild.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 to 8 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male about 17 to 19 mo.; female as young as 16 to 18 mo., but usually 28. Fencing: 5 1/2 ft. Scramble over barriers up to 4 1/2 ft. tall, or creep under or through.

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Guenther’s dik-dik male. Spike horns are often hard to see against hair tuft or among grass stems. Photo by Steve Forest, courtesy of the Stevens Forest Ranch, Texas.

Guenther’s dik-dik female. Note the miniature trunk and tall forehead tuft, but no horns. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

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Guenther’s Dik-Dik Name: Guenther’s dik-dik, Madoqua guentheri

Origin and Status: Eastern Africa; generally common although extirpated from some areas. Description: Tiny antelope with nose elongated into trunk. Very slender legs. Tan coat grizzled with gray over body. Legs, nose, and long hair tuft on forehead (erected in excitement) uniform reddish ochre. Minimal tail. Male, female, and young similar except that female grows slightly larger and male grows horns. The short, sharp spikes (base corrugated) can get obscured by the forehead tuft. Horn average 3 in. (2 to 4 1/4). Male about 8 to 11 lbs.; female about 9 to 12 lbs. Food Habits: Browser. Eats leaves (green or wilted), pods, buds, flowers, and bark. Favor fruits when available. Nibble browse dropped by other animals. Add grasses, forbs, and sedges when fresh and tender. Dig up roots of succulents. Readily stand on hind legs. Habitat: Desert scrub and dry woodland with abundance of low thickets in patches of open, fairly level ground sparsely covered with grass. Overgrazed areas or road cuts often used. Depart if brush becomes too continuous or if grasses grow tall enough to obstruct vision. Scattered clumps of taller grass make valuable hiding places. Thorns may help exclude livestock. Water and Climate: Can get all their water from food when it is not too dry. Otherwise, need drinking water. Do well in hot, dry climate as long as they have shade and moist food. Enlarged nose helps for conserving water and for cooling blood on way to the brain. Body temperature can rise about 10o F

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but pant when hot. May spread saliva on flanks when overheated.

Temperament and Compatibility: Timid, alert, and very intolerant of crowding. If space is limited, managers withdraw any youngster by about 5 mo. when size and behavior become more adult and before mother’s next birth. Adults pair for life, making dung piles, and defending the territory against intrusion. In wild, “core area” of greatest use can be as small as 3/4 acre, complete territories being 3 to 74 acres (typically 25). Can interbreed with Kirk’s dik-dik but hybrids are presumed to be sterile. Special Considerations: Need mineral salts regularly. When on feed fortified with vitamins and minerals, then using plain salt block helps avoid toxic combinations. Varying kinds of any supplements is important. Hay type can be changed, as can kinds of fruit chunks or leafy vegetables (not cabbage, kale, or potatoes). For safety, phase foods in or out over 3 to 7 days. In territories, need hiding places, plant clumps or artificial structures for shelter, and open areas allowing visibility and unobstructed escape. Diurnal. Breeding Season: Twice yearly starting about 10 days after start of birth season. Birth Season: Twice yearly. Any time but mainly in rains and early dry season.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 1/2 mo.; 1 young (2 births per year likely). Sexual Maturity: Male about 6 to 9 mo.; female about 6 to 10 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. with small mesh. Net or mesh roof helps if large birds of preynearby.

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Kirk’s dik-dik male. The small horn is nearly as long as the forehead tuft. Photo © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Kirk’s dik-dik female. Short trunk and big forehead tuft similar to male. Photo by B. Meng, © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

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Kirk’s Dik-Dik Name: Kirk’s dik-dik, Madoqua kirkii Origin and Status: Eastern Africa

Temperament and Compatibility: Shy,

and southwestern Africa (discontinuous distribution). Common in spite of heavy hunting, although extirpated in many areas. Description: Tiny antelope with nose elongated into very tiny trunk and with very slender legs. Tan coat grizzled with gray over most of body. Nose, legs, and hair tuft on forehead (erected in excitement) rich, clear gold to reddish ochre. Light eye ring, inner ears, and belly. Minimal tail. Male, female, and young similar except that female grows larger and male grows horns. Bases of the short, sharp horns are corrugated. Average 2 1/2 in. with long horns 2 3/7 to 4 1/2 in. Male weight average 11 lbs. (8 2/5 to 13 1/5); female average 12 lbs. (9 to 16). Food Habits: Mainly browser. Stand on hind legs to select leaves, pods, buds, and flowers or eat browse dropped by other animals. Fruits highly favored. Eat grasses, forbs, and sedges when fresh and tender. Uncover roots of succulents with their horns. Habitat: Dry brush or woodland with abundance of low thickets in patches of open, fairly level ground sparsely covered with grass. Often use overgrazed areas or road cuts. Animals depart if brush becomes too continuous or if grasses grow tall enough to obstruct vision. However, scattered clumps of taller grass make valuable hiding places. Water and Climate: If food is too dry, then need drinking water. Adapted for hot, dry climate as long as have shade and moist food. Enlarged nose helps cool blood and conserve water. Cold nights are bearable, but wind and rain are stressful.

timid, alert, and very intolerant of crowding. Adults pair for life, jointly defending territory against intrusion. Only a single pair can be kept in enclosure unless it is large enough for territories for all. In wild, “core area” as small as 3/4 acre. Whole territories 3 to 86 acres (typically 25). If space is limited, managers withdraw youngster by about 5 mo. when size and behavior more adult and before mother’s next birth. Presumably sterile hybrids with Guenther’s dik-dik. Variation in chromosome number between different regional forms of Kirk’s dik-dik might limit fertility of crosses. Special Considerations: Need mineral salts regularly. Periodically vary kinds of any supplementary food. Estrus cycle repeats every 3 to 4 weeks with heat for up to 48 hours. Lactation lasts only about 6 weeks. Breeding Season: Twice yearly beginning right after start of birth season. Birth Season: Any time, but 2 yearly peaks likely.

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Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 1/2 mo.; 1 young (2 births per year likely). Sexual Maturity: Male about 6 to 9 mo.; female about 6 to 10 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. with small mesh. Net or other roofing helps if large birds of prey live nearby.

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Common eland male. The large dewlap starts on the upper neck; the huge body is sometimes bigger than the giant eland. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Common eland calf. The white body stripes on the calf are brighter than adult stripes. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Common eland female. Small dewlap with hair tuft on lower neck. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Common Eland Name: common eland, Taurotragus oryx (Tragelaphus oryx) Origin and Status: Eastern and southern Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Description: One of the largest antelopes, huge and ox-like with narrow, pointed ears. Coat brown, looking gray in mature bulls as dark skin shows through sparse thinning hair. Young similar but with vertical white stripes on sides that tend to fade increasingly with age. Dewlap larger on males, running most of the way down neck and onto chest. Female dewlap is skin flap with hair tuft hanging from middle of neck. Both males and females carry smooth horns that twist near the base. Female horns grow longer but less massive. Horn length typically 24 in., with maximum 43 1/2 in. Male weight typically 1,100 lbs. (882 to 1,544 up to 2,205); female typically 665 lbs. (611 to 800 up to 1,323). Food Habits: Graze when grass young and green, then shift more to browse and forbs. Eat very little dry material. Where they have ample oak brush and grassy openings, supplemental feed probably superfluous in warm weather although needed in cold months. Habitat: Native to dry plains, scrub, and open woodland. Avoid dense woodland. Exotics spend much of their time in brush if available. Water and Climate: Drink 1 to 2 times daily when water is readily available. Can go 1 to 4 weeks without drinking if they have water-rich plants. Hardy in hot weather if they can drink or have moist food. Some winterkill problems when lots of snow.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Gentle for a wild animal. Can become very tame. Gregarious. Nilgai bull will kill eland bull. Eland bull may fight with cattle. Hybridize with greater kudu.

Special Considerations: A feed ground gives owners a place to check their animals before they return to the brush. Break tree branches with their horns. Clacking sound normal as heavy eland walk. Breeding Season: Mainly late January to February, but breed all year in United States. Birth Season: Any time, but mainly winter and early spring in United States.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 mo.; 1 young (2 rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 18 to 24 mo. (15 mo. if very well nourished). Fencing: Usually respect 6 ft. fences, but can jump 6- to 8-ft. fences with ease.

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Giant eland male. The large dewlap starts near the chin and emphasizes the dark neck band; the huge horns are bigger than on the common eland. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

Giant eland females. Medium-size dewlap starts near chin and has dark hair tuft. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the White Oak Conservation Center, Florida.

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Giant Eland Name: giant eland, Taurotragus derbianus (Tragelaphus derbianus) Origin and status: Central to western Africa; western race endangered (USFWS, IUCN), central race near threatened (IUCN), near threatened for species as a whole (IUCN). Description: One of largest antelopes, huge and ox-like with broad ears. Dewlap from chin to chest on males, chin to lower neck on females. Charcoal zone on lower neck above light band where dewlap ends. Coat tan, yellowish overtones in Central African race and redder in western Lord Derby’s eland. Vertical white body stripes fade with age. Young colored like adults. Older males grayer as dark skin shows through sparse hair. Massive, tightly spiraled horns in wide V. Average length 30 in. for male and female, but female horns more slender. Young male can be 47 in. along front keel, record 56 5/8. Male 992 to 2,205 lbs.; female 661 to 1,320 lbs. Food Habits: Browser. Leaves staple, especially from young Isoberlinia doka trees. Also eat forbs, fruits, and seedpods. Eat young grasses and forbs early in wet season in wild. Habitat: Vast expanse of wooded grassland dominated by broad-leaved, deciduous trees. Much of the grass long and stemmy. Avoid both dense cover and open plains, feeding instead in small openings with dry leaves around edge to warn of attack. Shun tall elephant grass. Water and Climate: Travel widely in search of water. Group’s matriarch must find each waterhole in time to keep herd from fragmenting because stronger individuals (often the breeding males) will forge on ahead if the rest are slow to reach the next water point.

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When very hot (100 to 110o F) must drink at least every fourth day. Midday, rest on and off in shade.

Temperament and Compatibility: Fairly docile, gregarious, and nomadic. Seldom aggressive toward humans, even when wounded. Bull may get killed in fighting if pastured with nilgai or bulls of domestic cattle. Might hybridize with kudu, or other spiral-horned antelope. Special Considerations: Estrus lasts 1 to 3 days in a 21- to 26-day cycle. Males continue to add bulk after maturity. Break off branches and the tops of small trees between horns to feed on green leaves or as display of strength. Confined animals will tear down anything they can get their horns across, so a frame of utility-size poles to “play” with saves much wear on their facilities. Meat excellent with marbling resembling beef. Rinderpest big problem in Africa. Breeding Season: Starts January in wild. Can be most of year, but seasons in some areas. Birth Season: Can occur during most of the year, but distinct seasons in some areas. In wild, tends to peak in late dry season and early in rains.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 to 9 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male about 1 1/2 yr. but not really competitive until heavier by 5 or 6; female probably as young as 1 1/2 yr. if diet nutritious but in wild not expected until about 2 1/2 yr. Fencing: 5 to 6 ft. adequate as long as undisturbed. Can simply walk through low wire fences.

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Dama gazelle males. Note the variation in depth and extent of body color on these two males from the same herd. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Dama gazelle fawn. Fawn is tan with large rump patch but has white neck crescent as on adults. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the San Antonio Zoo, Texas.

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Dama gazelle female. Shows maximum color for this race; from same herd as males above. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Dama Gazelle Name: dama gazelle, Gazella dama Origin and Status: Northern Africa; endangered with captive-bred exclusion (USFWS), endangered (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES). Before, subspecies G. d. lozanoi listed as endangered by USFWS, but validity later questioned. Numbers in wild decreasing alarmingly. Description: Tall, slender gazelle with white crescent across neck below throat. Body white with roan to chestnut neck and back and often a light saddle. Sometimes a streak extending onto haunches. Fawns born tan like other gazelles. Strongly S-shaped horns in both male and female, those in males thicker than in females. Adult length 8 to 17 1/4 in. with 14 in. typical. Male weight 120 to 187 lbs. (typically 138 lbs.); females 88 to 144 lbs. Food Habits: Predominantly browsers (especially on Acacia). Also take forbs and coarse desert grasses. Will stand on hind legs to reach tender shoots. Exotics frequently rear to get ballmoss, consume thistles right down to the ground, feed on iceweed when green, and spend considerable time grazing. Habitat: Dry scrub to desert. Exotics favor flat to gently rolling openings or light brush. Huge herds used to migrate hundreds of miles into the Sahara in the rainy season, then back to sparse brush on the desert fringe for the dry season. Water and Climate: Fairly resistant in dry heat, although needs more water than some of its relatives. Droughts work hardship. On poor range, even an annual dry season is a strain.

close confinement. Generally compatible with other exotics. Often associates with other gazelle species in wild or with blackbuck antelope as exotics. Hybridization not recorded, but might cross with other large gazelles, like Sömmering’s gazelle and possibly Grant’s gazelle. Keep separate from mhorr gazelle or sharply contrasting pattern of this western subspecies would be lost by interbreeding. Special Considerations: If feeding hay, leafy hay such as alfalfa or any high quality legume hay works well. Allow animals to pick out leaves and nibble at stems even if nearly half of the hay may be left uneaten. Supplements of leafy vegetables or carrots add helpful variety. These desert gazelles seem more sensitive to internal parasites than are temperate species. Stomach worms (Haemonchus contortus) can be devastating. Breeding Season: Breed all year in United States (possible peaks in March to May and October to November). Mainly in wettest months (March to June) in the Sahara. Birth Season: Births any time in United States. Peak about December on south fringe of Sahara.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 young (2 births per year possible for exotics). Sexual Maturity: Male 17 mo.; female 13 to 17 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Very flighty. This fragile gazelle is subject to stress or injury if disturbed in

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2006.11.10 8:22:18 PM

Dorcas gazelle male. An old male showing full shape of horns. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

Dorcas gazelle female. An old female showing long, thin horns. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

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Dorcas Gazelle Name: dorcas gazelle, Gazella dorcas, many races Origin and Status: North Africa and Asia; vulnerable (IUCN), races G. d. massaesyla of the western Sahara and G. d. pelzelni of Somalia endangered (USFWS), Appendix III in Tunisia (CITES). Was very common, but decline has accelerated. Description: One of the smallest gazelles. Tan with typical gazelle head markings. Side stripe often weakly defined, especially in summer. Underparts white. Tail black (or rufous). Fawns browner than adults. Horns in both males and females. Male horns lyrate, tips converging. Length 6 3/4 to 13 in. up to 15 5/8. Female horns thinner, smoother, straighter, and often irregular (5 to 9 in.). Male weight 30 to 55 lbs.; female 17 to 36 lbs. Food Habits: Leaves of bushes, grasses, forbs, and flowers. Commonly feed on acacias and succulents. Browse predominates in dry season. Eat locusts and their larvae. Habitat: Level, stony expanses of near desert as well as some intrusion into sand dune areas where plants grow in dune valleys. Much feeding in shallow depressions with pockets of vegetation. To cross between these, their tiny hoofs let them wind in and out, traveling single file, on well used paths among the stones. Penetrate uplands in Ethiopia. Water and Climate: Independent of drinking water during rainy season. Drink when water available. Leaves, succulents, and dew provide much of their moisture in wild, but captives may lose weight fast if cannot drink. Seek shade in midday heat.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Groups typically small (2 to 40) with perhaps 100 together for longer movements rather than the occasional congregations of hundreds known for various other gazelles. Adult males vie for territories. Adults have been successfully kept with female greater kudu or female nyala under zoo conditions. Special Considerations: Likely to need longer fiber length in diet than pelleted feed ordinarily provides. Also need variety. Females are polyestrous, recycling every 2 to 3 weeks unless bred. Inbreeding depression can become severe, virtually all young dying before 6 months old, unless new bloodlines added at least every 5 years. Inbred fawns characteristically languish for weeks. Breeding Season: Breed all year or have two wet season peaks yearly. Males may have individually independent cycles of sperm production. Birth Season: Births all year with tendency for two peaks.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 1/2 mo.; 1 young, rarely twins (can be 2 births per year). Sexual Maturity: Male 19 1/2 mo. (related to testes size); female as young as 9 mo. (especially when confined), otherwise, can be closer to 21 mo. Fencing: 8 ft. Often stiff-legged “stotting” jumps when alarmed, which may go 6 ft. up.

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Grant’s gazelle male behind female and youngsters. The adult male typically lacks the dark side stripe of females and young. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Grant’s gazelle females. Note how white of rump patch projects over tail and forward onto croup, as in all except newborns. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Grant’s Gazelle Name: Grant’s gazelle, Gazella granti Origin and Status: Eastern Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN).

Description: Large gazelle with distinctive shape to rump patch that extends onto croup. Upper two-thirds of tail white. Dark stripe down each side of white rump and dark stripe along side may fade with age, especially in males, and lacking in some races. White underparts and typical gazelle head markings. Newborns browner with special shape of rump patch yet to develop. All adults have horns, although smaller and simpler in females. Male horns long and robust, well ringed, base laterally compressed, spread varying considerably by race. All rise upright, then curve. Flare abruptly outward in form called Robert’s gazelle (exceptional spreads 29 to 411/2 in.). Male length averages 19 3/4 in. (17 3/4 to 31 3/4). Female horns shorter, thinner, straighter, and smoother (12 to 17 3/4 in.). Male 143 lbs. (121 to 180); female 99 lbs. (77 to 148 lbs.). Food Habits: Browser. Takes some grass. Prefers short- to medium-height forbs, also leaves of shrubs. Grazes actively growing, short grasses, and fresh shoots of some grasses that are avoided when they grow taller. Mainly browse when grasses are tall or when forage is dry. Eat fruits. Habitat: Use open plains, open savannah, or openings in brush in dry, or even semidesert, areas. Avoid unbroken tall grass and rugged terrain. Do not migrate if food adequate all year. Water and Climate: Drink rarely, if at all. Can live under arid conditions, but not desert, subsisting on moisture in food. Can be slow to relocate when range dries out. Body temperature rises

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in hot weather, cooling via a vessel network to keep brain below critical temperature. Rely on night grazing to get extra water needed for this blood-cooling system.

Temperament and Compatibility: Alert and nervous, but not timid. Gregarious. Dominant males periodically establish large territories (keep a harem). Other males sometimes stay in territory. Abandon territory after range deteriorates. Might cross with dama gazelle. Special Considerations: Mark territories with dung piles. Disease mortality heavier in males than females, and sarcoptic mange a problem in wild as condition of territorial males deteriorates at end of the dry season. Estrous female likely to keep tail elevated. Young born in long grass in wild. Roving dogs could be a problem. Wet ground impedes flight. Mother may attack small predators, although not necessarily successful. Do poorly where cool and moist. Breeding Season: Breeds at any time of year but peaks in wild during rainy season when territoriality peaks. Where there are seasonal migrations, this disrupts the herds so breeding is low then. Birth Season: Births throughout year. Migratory populations have two birth peaks.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 6 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male about 18 mo.; female about 18 mo. Fencing: 7 ft. usually sufficient when not excited.

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Persian gazelle male. Lyre-shaped horns on a pale gazelle with compact body. Photo by Laurel Waters, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

Persian gazelle female. When females have horns, they tend to be small and irregular, as here. Photo by Laurel Waters, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

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Persian Gazelle Name: Persian gazelle, Persian goitered gazelle, Gazella subgutturosa subgutturosa Origin and Status: Asia; near threatened (IUCN). Description: Small, solidly built gazelle with larynx enlarged like a large “Adam’s apple,” (particularly during breeding season). Coat pale tan above with sharp change to white below. Tail dark. Newborns browner. Usually only males horned. Male horns lyre shaped, well ringed, average 12 to 13 in. (exceptionally 15 to 17 7/8 in.). Most females lack horns except for small population in western Iran (horns very small). Male weight 40 to 110 1/4 lbs.; female 39 to 73. Food Habits: Seek new grass, but also select shoots, leaves, and forbs. Prefer tender, short vegetation. Supplement young grass with tender spring forbs. As plants dry, accept coarser vegetation, eat whatever available, and show liking for sweet, ripe melons such as watermelons. Habitat: Vast expanses of dry, rolling hills and plains crossed by rivers with a reliable supply of water. Warm summers and scanty but regular rainfall in winter. Rich variety of grasses and other plants, including some bushes. Seek short grass areas for feeding and hard clay for quick escapes. Hard rains spur relocation to gravel flats or hillsides until ground dries. Avoid forest. Water and Climate: During dry periods, eating melons allows some independence from drinking. Generally take cold well, but deep snow a problem. Severe winter weather can cause losses. Snow depth of 10 in. or more restricts movement, hides food. Will not dig for food.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Not as flighty as some gazelles. Herds were noted for reaching hundreds in wild. Made long autumn migrations as far as 300 miles, thus escaping heavy snowfall areas. Established breeding territories again after return. Hybridize with other race of this species, the sand gazelle (G. s. marica). Use care when acquiring Persian gazelles because some populations have become a mixture of Persian and Arabian subspecies. Special Considerations: Mowing can help keep pasture grasses at a favorable growth stage. Wheat a prime candidate for food plots, especially when less than 25 in. tall. Rotation of high-quality legume hay types, plus leafy vegetables occasionally, may work better than pellets for supplementation because both fiber length and food variety are important. Allow animals to pick out the leaves and nibble the stems even though about 40 percent will be left uneaten. Incompatibility of chromosome variations is problem for breeding. Estrus lasts about 12 hours. Breeding Season: Sometime between mid-September and January in wild with rut shorter. Birth Season: April to May. Peak once a year likely to be strongly seasonal, avoiding cold weather. Spring sexual activity appears not to result in effective reproduction.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 1/2 mo.; 2 young (for females 3 to 7 yr. old). Sexual Maturity: Male about 12 mo.; female 6 to 18 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. usually adequate.

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Slender-horned gazelle male. Horns erect with only slight S curve, coat pale with markings faint. Photo by Gene Burgess, courtesy of the Crestar Ranch, Texas.

Slender-horned gazelle female. Horns thin and often irregular, coat pale with markings faint. Photo by Gene Burgess, courtesy of the Crestar Ranch, Texas.

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Slender-Horned Gazelle Name: slender-horned gazelle (African sand gazelle; form called Loder’s gazelle), Gazella leptoceros Origin and Status: North Africa; endangered (USFWS, IUCN), Appendix III (CITES). Description: Very pale gazelle. Typical gazelle markings except only hint of darker side stripe and face marks can be faint. Ears long and narrow. Male horns larger, slender, ringed, upright, only a hint of an S curve. Spread variable. Male length 11 3/4 to 16 1/4 in. Female horns shorter, straighter, rounder cross section, typically more parallel, often irregular. Female length 8 to 15 in. Male weight typically 60 lbs. (about 37 to 66); female about 31 to more than 46 lbs. Food Habits: Grasses, especially Aristida pungens in wild. Also succulents, forbs, and leaves from the occasional desert shrubs. Habitat: One of the most desertadapted gazelles. Strongly nomadic among dunes in sand desert of Sahara, sometimes on stony plateaus, and also use hill areas. Vegetation very sparse. Water and Climate: Where free to feed at night and early in the morning when moisture content of plants is highest and dew is possible, can get all its water from feeding. Drink occasionally if water is available. Slim body design good for dissipating heat. Take heat well as long as they have shade when hot.

Special Considerations: Female polyestrous. Next estrus usually 1 1/2 to 3 mo. (minimum 26 days) after giving birth, although may not conceive again for several months. Young gazelles, particularly of desert species, are sometimes considered in danger of developing rickets when kept indoors during winter. One zoo that had had this problem with Arabian gazelles supplemented their diet of alfalfa, pellets, greens, and other vegetables with cod liver oil for vitamin D and finely ground bone meal for calcium. Although many kinds of ruminants are apt to refuse these supplements, this zoo’s young gazelles ate them without trouble. Little activity through middle of the day when hot. Breeding Season: Seasonal in wild (May to June) but breed at any time in captivity. Birth Season: Seasonal in the wild but not always seasonal in captivity.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male at 6 to 18 mo.; female as young as 5 to 9 mo. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. usually adequate.

Temperament and Compatibility: Nervous nature typical of gazelles means best if disturbance is minimized. Best kept away from other kinds of gazelles because they might hybridize.

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Thomson’s gazelle male. Bold black side stripe, black tail, and upright horns. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

Thomson’s gazelle female. This young female also shows bold black side stripe, black tail, but horns are small and thin. Often female horns are irregular, or even lacking. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

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Thomson’s Gazelle Name: Thomson’s gazelle, Gazella thomsoni Origin and Status: East Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Most common gazelle in East Africa. Description: Small gazelle with continually wagging tail. Tan coat has conspicuous black and white markings. Wide black side stripe with wide pale zone above and white underparts below. White rump patch usually with black stripe on each side and short black tail. Newborns browner with markings less conspicuous. Well-formed horns on male, but female horn condition varies. Male horns upright, nearly parallel in shallow S, thick, heavily ringed. Average length 12 in. (10 to 17). Female horns thin, nearly smooth spikes 3 to 6 in. long, often irregular shape or lengths or lacking entirely. Male weight average 52 lbs. (37 to 64); female average 41 lbs. (26 to 52). Food Habits: Prefer abundant, fresh, short grass. Switch partially to browse plus forbs when less short grass, as during dry season. Then eat more forbs plus fruit, seeds, and seedpods. Habitat: Short grass expanses on plains. Quite willing to move far and fast to congregate on better grazing, although generally migratory rather than nomadic. Willing to live in same locality year round if feeding adequate. Avoid tall grass, dense brush, and steep slopes. Water and Climate: Independent of drinking when grazing fresh and green. When they move to woodland edges or openings for dry season, will go as far as 10 miles about every second day to water. Adapted to hot, dry conditions but not desert. Fairly drought resistant.

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Water and shade help temperature regulation. Pant when hot. Do poorly in moist, cool habitat.

Temperament and Compatibility: Alert and nervous. Gregarious. Dominant males territorial seasonally (when herds scatter over open plains). Territories small, commonly 2 1/2 to 12 1/2 acres, and often share boundaries. Owners herd estrous females as female groups move through territories. Might hybridize with some of the other small gazelles, and can cross with blackbuck. Special Considerations: Need grass short so helped by grazing by other animals, burns, and mowing. Parasite loads tend to be high even in dry regions. Males mark territories with dung piles and small “pearls” of preorbital secretion. Estrus lasts 1/2 to 1 day. Females cycle every 2 to 3 weeks until bred. Predators are big problem for fawns. Adults also are easy victims when ground muddy or on very dark nights. Make stiff-legged “stotting” leaps when alarmed. Breeding Season: Twice yearly mating peaks closely follow the twiceyearly birth peaks. Peaks may be more prominent in places with typical rainy seasons. Birth Season: Any time but peaks twice yearly 6 mo. apart. Main peak in wild in rains.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 1/2 to 6 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male about 18 mo.; female 12 mo. Fencing: 7 ft. when not excited.

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Gemsbok male. Broad ears, upper hind legs and all of tail black, white rump patch. Photo by Mara Weisenberger, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, courtesy of the U.S. Army White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico.

Gemsbok female with calf. Adult horns are long and often diverge widely; calf born tan. Photo by Tiffany Soechting, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Gemsbok Name: gemsbok (South African oryx), Oryx gazella Origin and Status: Southern Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Description: Largest of the oryx, and the only one with rounded ears. Sturdy, pinkish tan body with conspicuous black-and-white markings on head and legs. Side stripe broad. Tail black with black dock and long brush. Born yellowish tan. All grow long, straight horns with rings. Horns usually form a wide V. Lengths average 33 to 36 in., with long horns 41 to 48 3/8 in. Spread at tips 11 1/2 to 31 in. Male weight 370 to 460 lbs. to about 530 (a few prime bulls massive); female often 360 lbs. or more (to about 460). Food Habits: Grazer. Live mainly on grass, but take some browse, especially when grazing gives out. Then seek melons and dig assiduously for fleshy roots and tubers. Habitat: Prefer flat grassland or savannah. Can live permanently on dry grassland but must retreat from semiarid areas when drought is prolonged (as when rains fail for several years in a row). Penetrate desert only when occasional rains bring grazing. Water and Climate: Can survive 8 months or longer without drinking provided food plants have enough moisture and if free to graze when water content highest (evening to morning). Handle hot weather well. Body temperature may rise in hot weather, although this is stressful. Thrive in New Mexico (large population on White Sands Missile Range) although the many deformed horns may be due to winter freezing. Have also done well in Texas, especially in drier areas where parasite loads are

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lower. Neonates are at risk when born in winter.

Temperament and Compatibility: Aggressive. Occasionally attack people. Mother may attack any animal if she has a young calf. Associate freely with any other oryx and hybridize readily. Oryx hybrids usually fertile. Hybrids with East African oryx (beisa oryx and fringe-eared oryx) can be mistaken for purebred gemsbok. Hybrids with addax said to be white with straight horns. Special Considerations: Hand-rearing increases risk of attacks on humans. Allow only one large, prime bull if males are pastured together. In small bachelor groups, an obvious stratification of ages helps. In groups of males and females together, reproduction and survival are likely to be good, but many horns are broken in fights. Avoid stressing in hot weather. Oryx chased during heat of day may collapse and die. Breeding Season: Breed all year; favorable rain may bring females into heat. Birth Season: All year.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 to 10 mo.; 1 young (very rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female as young as 16 mo. Fencing: 8 to 10 ft. usually adequate.

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Impala male. See how black stripe bordering rump has tan on both sides instead of white on one side. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Impala female. Dark hair tufts on lower hindlegs mark these two-toned tan antelope as impala. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

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Impala Name: impala, Aepyceros melampus (a succession of subspecies) Origin and Status: Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Widespread and common. Description: Medium-size antelope famous for its grace, prodigious leaps, and classic lyre-shaped horns of the male. Reddish tan. Fairly distinct change to lighter tan on lower side. White underneath. Blackish accents include tuft over gland on lower hind legs, and sometimes patch on forehead or nose. Young similar. Horns on male only. Lyre-shaped, long, slender, with well spaced rings. Typical length 20 in. (large 27 up to 36 1/8). Male weight typically 132 lbs. (99 to 176 2/5); female typically 99 lbs. (88 1/5 to 132). Food Habits: Browser or grazer depending on season or place. Grass is staple where green and growing. Otherwise, rely on leaves (preferably green), shoots, pods, and forbs. Supplement with flowers, fruits, and succulent roots. Take wide variety of food plants. Habitat: Open savannah woodland within reach of water. Prefer edges of clearings near both cover and short to medium grasses. Flat to moderately sloping ground. Water and Climate: Usually drink 1 to 3 times daily, but sometimes go 2 to 3 days between visits to water. May stay away altogether when dew or green forage is ample.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Fairly sedentary. Fairly docile in captivity. Large populations likely to have subgroups with overlapping traditional home ranges. Outside peaks of breeding season, males and females congregate into large herds that roam

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in search of green food. During rut, owners collect groups of females with associated young and nonterritorial males form bachelor herds. Mingle easily with other species, so is a prime candidate for mixedspecies situations. Not known to hybridize with any other species. Special Considerations: Naturally crowd together more closely than many species. Bolt into dense vegetation when disturbed. New mothers may join herds of other mothers with young. Mother breeds again as soon as 1 to 14 days after giving birth. Male first participates in rut as 4 1/2 yr. old at earliest. Shortening of day length seems to stimulate reproductive organs and hormone production. Noisy roaring by males, especially in rut. Mainly diurnal. Breeding Season: Rut 3 weeks to 3 mo. during breeding season of 3 mo., 3 mo. twice yearly, or all year, depending on environment. In East Africa, most mating is during the rainy season with a peak developing toward the end. Birth Season: Two peaks and births any time in areas where is breeding most of the year.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 6 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 9 to 13 mo.; female 10 to 12 mo. (usually bred first at 18 mo.). Fencing: 10 ft. when relaxed. Working pens higher. Can jump 8 ft. when stressed. Huge leaps when disturbed not meant to clear obstacles, but can exceed 9 ft. vertically or 36 ft. wide.

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Greater kudu male. The two-tone mane along lower neck is diagnostic. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Greater kudu female. Neither mane along lower neck nor white patch across it. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

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Greater Kudu Name: greater kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros

Origin and Status: Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN).

Description: Tall, lithe antelope with broad ears. Vertical white lines across grayish brown body. Male has mane from throat to chest and keeled horns with open spiral. Adult horns spiral two, or, exceptionally, three times. Horn length 40 in. and up, with large horns 48 in. (measured over curves) to 71 1/2 in. (along outer curve). Female hornless. Male weight 419 to 600 lbs. (up to 705); female 252 to 474 lbs. (average 376). Food Habits: Dedicated browsers. Choices flexible among a wide variety of tree leaves, creepers, tree seedlings, pods (often dry), and fruits. Include quantities of forbs when available. Seem unharmed by some caustic and spiny selections as long as balanced by other foods. Will rear up to reach flowers. Feed nearly half the night as well as during the day. Habitat: Stony and broken ground covered with thorn scrub. Hilly ground acceptable. Very browse dependent so seldom use open country. Relatively sedentary throughout the year. Water and Climate: Drink at dawn and dusk, also noon if hot. May stay near water if available, but will inhabit arid country if they have alternate moisture source such as melons. Reluctant to leave during droughts, but ready to travel long distances once they start. Require warm climate. Wet cold kills even during moderate winters in southwestern United States, ears can freeze, and upper respiratory problems common. Native adults as well as youngsters

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are at risk when temperatures suddenly fall as a front moves in (similar to a U.S. “norther”).

Temperament and Compatibility: Extremely wary and timid. Take fright easily. Sable bull may kill a kudu bull if pastured together. Can hybridize with eland and probably with any other kind of spiral-horned antelope. Special Considerations: Excellent jumpers. Liable to panic and injure self against fence. Do well even in settled areas as long as can retreat to dense cover when disturbed. Can carry certain blood parasites in Africa that would kill antelopes like sable and roan if stressed on poor range. When males are few, group fidelity once breeding males join female groups for rut can leave some female groups without breeding. Bulls break small trees and branches. Breeding Season: Breed all year (rut in Africa for 2 mo. anytime between April and June). Birth Season: January or especially in February in Africa. Peak less distinct in drier years when occasional births in any month. Low density also prolongs birth period.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 to 8 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 17 mo.; female 17 mo. Fencing: 10 ft. usually adequate. Clear 8 1/2 ft. regularly for garden plants, etc.

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Nile lechwe male. The downward curve gives the horns a distinctive front silhouette. Photo by Laurel Waters, courtesy of the Waters Ranch, Texas.

Nile lechwe females. Both female and male seem to raise hair over croup when agitated. Photo by Laurel Waters, courtesy of the Waters Ranch, Texas.

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Nile Lechwe Name: Nile lechwe (Mrs. Gray’s waterbuck), Kobus megaceros (Onototragus megaceros) Origin and Status: Africa; near threatened (IUCN). Description: Medium-size antelope with grown males so different from females that they look like different species. All have coarse coat and shaggy ruff on neck and cheeks, but males look slicker and shiny. Females and young grayish yellow. Maturing males turn dark mahogany with light ears and nose. Later, a tan mark spreads from neck, expands into a saddle near withers, and whitens with age. During dry season in wild, male coat lightens, sometimes almost to a fawn shade. Pastern backs bare and hoofs long, inside hoof of each pair conspicuously narrower than the outer hoof. Horns in males only. Long, ringed, S-shaped with tips curving gently up, in, or both. Tip spread varies greatly (7 to 28 1/2 in.). Adult horns about 18 to 27 in. (exceptionally 30 to 34 1/4). Male weight 198 to 265 lbs.; female 132 to 198 lbs. Food Habits: Succulent grasses and a few kinds of water plants. In wild, eat mainly freshly growing wild rice at start of flood season, switching to a selection of swamp grasses as waters recede. May take young leaves from trees and bushes (rearing up when motivated by drought). Habitat: Prefer river-flooded grasslands between permanent swamp and drier, rain-flooded grasslands. Attraction is grazing offered by the particular kinds of grasses characteristic of their habitat. Stay on or near floodplains, especially on grass flats and in tall reeds or sedge thickets.

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Water and Climate: Drink often. Take easily to water, swim well, and may submerge up to neck and shoulders. Plunge into swamps when pursued. As water level changes, concentrate activity well inside swamp, near swamp edge, or sometimes beyond swamp margin on dry land.

Temperament and Compatibility: Very gregarious and somewhat sedentary. Large, loose herds. Rarely solitary. Would compete with red lechwe, Kafue lechwe, sambar, sitatunga, and Père David’s deer. Cross with defassa waterbuck (hybrid fertile with Kobus kob) and lechwe. Special Considerations: Overheat fast and dangerously when stressed. Prolongation of mating season by improved conditions in captivity might lead to skin problems due to multiplication of times male sprays throat and cheek hair with urine to rub on head and croup of female at opening of courtship. Thus, fights in water usually energetic but short. Females very vocal. Slow and awkward on dry land, so vulnerability to predators increases. Mainly diurnal. Breeding Season: November to April in wild with increase in March and peak in April. Probably some breeding all year. Birth Season: Peak in wild in early dry season (November to December). Probably some all year.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/4 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male about 2 1/2 yr.; female 18 mo.

Fencing: 8 to 10 ft. usually sufficient.

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Red lechwe male. Note black up fronts of forelegs and lower hindlegs. Photo by Vick A. Jones, courtesy of the SO3 Ranch, Texas.

Red lechwe female. The two-tone tan on haunch is characteristic for this species. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Red Lechwe Name: red lechwe, Kobus leche leche (Hydrotragus leche leche) Origin and Status: South-Central Africa; threatened for whole species (USFWS), conservation dependent (IUCN), Appendix II as whole species (CITES). Description: Medium-size antelope. Rangy frame higher at haunches than forequarters. Coarse, rough, greasy coat with distinct odor. Hair somewhat long, reddish brown shading to light brown on lower sides and lower half of haunches. Extra black that rutting males can develop on the lower shoulders makes red lechwe of typical race (K. 1. leche) look like male Kafue lechwe (K. 1. kafuensis) of nonbreeding season. Females of both races similar. White band connects chin to white belly. Fronts of forelegs and lower part of hind legs black. Backs of pasterns bare. Hoofs long and narrow and dew hoofs large. Horns in males only, particularly long, ringed, sweep back, often very wide spread (up to 31 1/8 in.). Horn length 18 to 26 in. (up to 31 1/2 to 37 1/8). Male weight average 227 lbs. (187 to 286); female average 174 lbs. (132 to 214). Food Habits: Select for new growth among swamp grasses, sedges, and semiaquatic plants of many species found in shallow water or along lush greenbelts formed as flood waters recede. Feed at periphery of floodplain, often in water up to shoulder. When deep floods restrict animals to narrow strip on each side of water, feeding on dry-land grasses leads to poor body condition. Habitat: Live at water’s edge in grassy floodplains and reedy marshes. Follow fluctuating water levels. In wild, move to peripheral grasslands during seasonal

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floods, move back to richer lowlands when waters recede. Prefer flooded borders at least 100 yards wide at low water. Small patches of higher ground favored for mating season territories. Exotics use open grassy flats. Water and Climate: Drink as many as 3 times daily in hot, dry weather, but can do without drinking in cool, dry weather when grass green. Feed in still water up to belly or even shoulders but prefer 2 to 8 in. Fleet in water but clumsy on dry land, so vulnerable to predators.

Temperament and Compatibility: Phlegmatic until disturbed, then prone to panic. Highly gregarious and fairly sedentary. Most territoriality (favor dry sites) in breeding season, and sporadic rest of the year. Competitors of waterloving antelope and deer. Red lechwe and Kafue lechwe cross, also Kafue lechwe with common waterbuck, and lechwe with Nile lechwe. Special Considerations: High juvenile mortality in wild due to predation and drowning when herds stampede into deeper water. Scatter as flee. Gather at shoreline for security at night. Breeding Season: Rut 2 1/2 mo. in wild as flood cycle starts (November to February). Some any time. Birth Season: Some all year. Peak 2 mo. in late dry season (July to October) helps birth in dry spot.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 2 1/2 yrs. (competitive by 7); female 18 mo. when in good condition. Fencing: 8 to 10 ft. usually sufficient. Make high leaps over obstacles.

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Nilgai antelope male. Gray color and conical horns of young adult. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Nilgai antelope female. The orangey tan of females changes little with age. Photo by Colin and Heather Headworth, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Nilgai antelope calf. This 6-day-old female shows the rich tan color of all calves. Photo by William J. Sheffield, King Ranch, Texas.

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Nilgai Antelope Name: nilgai antelope, Boselaphus tragocamelus Origin and Status: Indian subcontinent in Asia; least concern status category (IUCN). Description: Large antelope with short, sharp horns. High shoulders give back-line a distinct slant. Coat tan, changing to gray or charcoal in adult males. Underparts and narrow rump patch white. Young colored like females and immature males. Horns usually in male only, but similar in female when present. The simple, conical horns gain triangular bases with age. Wear often shortens and blunts horns of older males. Horn length average 6 to 8 in. along front curve (up to 9 to 11 3/4). Male weight average 531 lbs. (240 to 635 up to 675); female average 373 lbs. (240 to 470). Food Habits: Prefer grass, but require more nutritious diet than grass alone can provide, so browse as necessary. Supplement diet with fleshy fruits, pods, and flowers. Habitat: Do best in relatively dry areas of flat to gently rolling country with thin forest or scrub and scattered openings. Avoid densely wooded areas. Water and Climate: In cool season, can go 2 to 3 days without drinking. Drink more regularly during hot weather. Do well where dry and poorly where wet.

dung piles. Males and females separate except during breeding season.

Special Considerations: Need at least a little cover. Very tolerant of disturbance. Young can get separated from mother when bull chases before breeding. Heavy losses if snow or ice hides forage when range is in poor condition. Breeding Season: December to March but some breeding all year. Birth Season: August to November (peak September through October) but there are births at all seasons.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/4 mo.; 1 to 2 young, sometimes 3. Sexual Maturity: Male by 2 1/2 yr.; female 18 mo. Fencing: Jump 4 1/2 ft. regularly. 5 ft. barely adequate for containment even if well maintained. 7 1/2 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Aggressive, including against humans if pastures small. Need lots of space to be compatible. Attack with a charge, sometimes on knees. Seek to injure during fight, rather than merely dominate. Nilgai bull will kill eland bull. Nonterritorial even though they make

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Nyala male. Note multiple hair fringes and bushy tail. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Nyala female. The tail is bushy on females also, but they have no manes. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

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161

Nyala Name: nyala, Tragelaphus angasi Origin and Status: Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN).

Description: Medium-size antelope with vertical, white body stripes and a white band across base of neck. Pronounced difference between females and adult males. Males grow horns, turn gray with tan legs, develop manes along upper and lower neck, back, and belly. Fluff manes and bushy tail when excited. Females smaller, hornless, and stay bright, orangey chestnut like the young. Male horns open spiral. Moderate length 21 in. up to 32 7/8 along keel. Male weight 195 to 285 lbs.; female 121 to 150 lbs. Food Habits: Mainly leaves but eat some grass, especially young shoots. Also pods, fruits, and flowers. Acacia leaves and pods are a staple in the wild. Browse mostly late afternoon, moving to open for grazing under cover of darkness. Possibly gnaw tender bark or dig up tubers. Habitat: Dry savannah and dense brush near water. Either plains or mountainous is fine if there is cover and water. Often in low-lying fringe forests near rivers. Water and Climate: Drink regularly, daily when dry (often during middle of day). Never venture far from water. Generally hardy under Texas pasture conditions. Kept indoors during winter in northern United States.

sunset. Nonterritorial. Spectacular male dominance display erecting manes. Hybridize with sitatunga and possibly with other spiralhorned antelopes. In wild, sometimes associate with other hoofed animals that share same habitat. Special Considerations: Can be prolific in captivity. One zoo kept a vigorous herd going for more than 15 years starting from only a single pair. No ill effects from inbreeding noted. Maturing males need to be withdrawn if they cannot separate enough to avoid harassment from adult male. Young are separated from mother during her estrus and particularly vulnerable then. Lice can be a problem in the wild. Breeding Season: Breed any time, but conceptions peak spring and fall. Birth Season: Mainly August or September to October; may have secondary peak in spring.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/4 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo. (socially mature by 5 1/2 yr.); female 11 to 12 mo. Fencing: 8 ft. when not excited. Jump vertical obstacles well, so make working pens higher.

Temperament and Compatibility: Reclusive. May attack humans if cornered. Males usually peaceful among each other unless estrous female present. Males often come together but only casually. Mainly in brush during daylight. Often come into open near

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Arabian oryx males. Some adults have a side streak and some show a rusty tinge like this on lower neck and chest in winter coat. Photo by Rob Payne, courtesy of La Coma Ranch, Texas.

Arabian oryx female with calf. Note distinct color difference between newborn and mother. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the International Wildlife Park, Texas.

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163

Arabian Oryx Name: Arabian oryx, Oryx leucoryx Origin and Status: Near East; endangered (IUCN, USFWS), Appendix I (CITES). Reintroduced in 1980s after extinction in wild. Description: Smallest of the oryx. White with chocolate markings on head, legs, and sometimes a streak along side or lower neck. Chest and lower neck can look rusty in winter. Calves born an orangey tan. All grow lancelike, ringed horns, nearly straight and nearly parallel. Male horns tend to be thicker but shorter than female horns. Tips sometimes worn down. Adult range for horn length is about 18 to 29 in. Male weight 145 to 220 lbs. (possibly up to 286); female 120 to 165 lbs. (possibly up to 265). Food Habits: Live on grass. Aristida (three-awn grasses) is a staple in native diet, and quantities of Cyperus (grasslike sedge) sometimes consumed. Also eat tender shoots from shrubs in spring. Obtain extra moisture from succulent fruits. Will dig for foods or water if necessary. Habitat: Desert. Plants often small, ephemeral, or restricted to drainage lines. In wild, wander widely over open flats (sometimes gravel) or gentle slopes. Utilize sand areas unless heat is severe. Water and Climate: Drink when water available. Obtain sufficient moisture from plants if free to graze when water content highest (evening to morning). Use fruits and will dig for water if necessary. Can take any but hottest midsummer temperatures in Arabia—then they retreat from desert sands onto adjacent gravel plains. Seek shade to moderate high heat and windbreaks when

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cold. Sometimes dig down a few inches before lying down. May do poorly in wet areas.

Temperament and Compatibility: More docile than other oryx. More than one adult male can sometimes be kept with a group of females and young. Wild herds often consist of both sexes. Generally compatible with common exotics, but hybridize with other oryx and with addax. Band with any other oryx, and male of the other kind is likely to do the breeding. Special Considerations: This is a desert species but requires drinking water when pasture is very dry or when it cannot range widely to graze at night. Likely to die if chased hard during heat of a hot day. Resistance to parasites probably low. Breeding Season: Any time of year. Heavy rains in desert stimulate females to come into heat within a week. Birth Season: Any time of year, with rainfall having a great influence.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 to 8 1/2 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female as young as 12 mo. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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Beisa oryx male in group. All adults are colored alike. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

Beisa oryx female. Note white lower legs and white on face. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the International Wildlife Park, Texas.

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165

Beisa Oryx Name: beisa oryx, Oryx beisa beisa Origin and Status: East Africa; con-

Temperament and Compatibility:

servation dependent (IUCN). Description: Large oryx with narrow, nontufted ears. Sturdy, pinkish tan body with conspicuous black and white markings on head and legs. Side stripe narrow. Rump, thigh, and tail dock colored like body but brush black. Born yellowish tan. All grow long, straight, ringed horns, usually with little divergence. Female horns tend to be longer but more slender. Horns 25 1/2 in. and up (average about 29 in.) with a record of 43 in. Usual spread at tips 6 1/2 to 17 in. Male weights typically 388 lbs. (370 to 495); female typically 357 lbs. (256 to 415). Food Habits: Live mainly on grass. In Africa, have been known to starve to death instead of subsisting on browse when prolonged drought eliminated grasses. Habitat: Dry plains and scrubland. Body temperature rise allows oryx to stay in open throughout day, although seek shade for hottest hours when easily available. Water and Climate: Drink freely when water available, but can get much water from plants provided they are free to graze when water content is highest (evening to morning). Capacity to take on heat also helps conserve water, although it saps body energy. Well adapted for dry heat. Many deformed horns may be due to winter freezing. Ear tips sometimes freeze during winter. Otherwise, adults do adequately unless moist conditions increase parasite loads or leave ground soft and wet.

Aggressive. Mother likely to attack any animal that approaches her newborn. Associate freely with any other oryx, and probably addax, and hybridize readily. Oryx hybrids usually fertile. Hybrids with gemsbok can be mistaken for purebred gemsbok but tend to be smaller. Hybrids with fringe-eared oryx common. Special Considerations: Hand-rearing increases risk of attacks on humans. Avoid stressing in hot weather. Oryx chased during heat of the day may collapse and die. When setting out capture nets, make sure net is above oryx horn height. Neonates at risk if born in winter. Breeding Season: Breed all year; rainfall can influence greatly. Birth Season: All year. Peaks in East Africa act to maximize forage quality at weaning time.

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Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 to 9 mo.; 1 young (very rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 24 mo. Fencing: 8 to 10 ft. usually adequate.

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Fringe-eared oryx males. The lower legs are weakly colored. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the International Wildlife Park, Texas.

Fringe-eared oryx female. The dark tabs at the ends of the ears often have a dark hair tuft, and markings on head are black and pinkish. Photo by Matt Berry, courtesy of the Wilds, Ohio.

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167

Fringe-Eared Oryx Name: fringe-eared oryx, Oryx beisa callotis

Origin and Status: East Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN).

Description: Large oryx with narrow ears ending in dark tabs that can have drooping tufts. Sturdy, brownish tan body with conspicuous black and pinkish markings on head and forelegs. Side stripe narrow. Lower legs yellowish. Rump, thigh, and tail dock colored like body but tail brush black. Born yellowish tan. Both sexes grow long, straight, ringed horns, usually with little divergence and likely to look thick, especially toward the base of male horns. Female horns tend to be longer but more slender. Long horns 32 to 39 in. with record of 43 3/8 in. Male weights typically 388 lbs. (368 to 461); female typically 357 lbs. (256 to 415). Food Habits: Live mainly on grass. In Africa, will increase browse intake to survive extremely dry periods. Habitat: Plains or woodland with grassy openings. Will graze along erosion clefts and lightly wooded beds of seasonally dry streams. Ability to let body temperature rise allows oryx to stay in open all day, although seek shade for hottest hours when shade readily available. Water and Climate: Drink freely when water available, but can get much water from plants provided free to graze when water content highest (evening to morning). Capacity to take on heat also helps conserve water, although it saps body energy. Well adapted for dry heat. Many deformed horns may be due to winter freezing. Ear tips sometimes freeze during winter. Otherwise, adults do adequately unless moist conditions

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increase parasite loads or result in the ground remaining soft and wet.

Temperament and Compatibility: Aggressive. Mother likely to attack any animal that approaches her newborn. Associate freely with other oryx, and probably addax, and hybridize readily. Oryx hybrids usually fertile. Hybrids with gemsbok can be mistaken for purebred gemsbok but tend to be smaller. Hybrids with beisa oryx common. Special Considerations: Hand-rearing increases risk of attacks on humans. Avoid stressing in hot weather. Oryx chased during heat of the day may collapse and die. When setting out capture nets, make sure net is above oryx horn height. Neonates at risk if born in winter. Breeding Season: Breed all year; rainfall can influence greatly. Birth Season: All year. Peaks in East Africa act to maximize forage quality at weaning time.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 to 9 1/2 mo.; 1 young (very rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 24 mo. Fencing: 8 to 10 ft. usually adequate.

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Scimitar-horned oryx male. This individual shows the wide horn spread common in these oryx. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Scimitar-horned oryx female with calf. The calf is starting to lose its orangey tan juvenile coat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Scimitar-Horned Oryx Name: scimitar-horned oryx, Oryx dammah Origin and Status: Northern Africa; endangered with captive-bred exclusion (USFWS), extinct in wild (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES). Fenced reintroduction. Description: Large white oryx with chestnut neck and chest. Face and leg markings cocoa to beige. Can have diffuse side streak. Winter coat can look cream to roan. Calves born orangey tan. All grow long, back-swept, ringed horns, sometimes diverging widely. Lengths often exceed 33 1/2 in., with particularly long horns 38 to 50 1/8 in. Spread at tips quite variable (5 in. to more than 2 ft.). Male weight 300 to 470 lbs. (typically 331); female 200 to 300 lbs. (typically 265). Food Habits: Mainly grazers. Select surprisingly little browse or forbs even when grass intake is high in stem portion. Dig readily for succulent tubers and roots. Habitat: Prefer open expanses. In wild, are highly nomadic in their sandy scrub to desert environment as they follow the erratic rainfall to obtain green forage. Water and Climate: Get much of their moisture from plant food if free to graze when water content highest (evening to morning). Have done well in United States, especially in drier areas where parasite loads are lower, although neonates at risk when born in winter.

169 of their own kind for sparring partners. Other wise, male may kill an inappropriate fighting partner. Will spar through fences, even with male dama gazelle. Band with any other oryx and hybridize readily. Oryx hybrids are usually fertile. Hybrids with addax resemble addax. Secondgeneration hybrids with Arabian oryx resemble Arabian oryx. Special Considerations: Parasite resistance is low so heavy loads build up easily in wetter regions where animals are exposed to more parasites. Avoid stressing in hot weather. Oryx chased during heat of the day can collapse and die. Studbook project seeks to help breeders avoid potential inbreeding problems. Breeding Season: Breed all year; favorable rain may bring females into heat. Birth Season: All year; can show peaks.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 to 8 1/2 mo. (up to 10 reported); 1 young (2 rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 24 mo. (sometimes as young as 14 mo.). Fencing: 7 to 8 ft. depending on the situation. Can scramble over 3 ft. fence (just barely) or jump 6 ft.

Temperament and Compatibility: Moderately assertive among one another, but not normally aggressive toward people. Generally compatible with common exotics as long as male scimitar-horned oryx have other males

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Roan antelope male. Note drooping ear tips, modest horn length, and black face mask encircling nose. Photo by Stephanie Rutan, courtesy of the White Oak Conservation Center, Florida.

Roan antelope female. Similar to male but the horns are thinner and there is less black on the face. Photo by Stephanie Rutan, courtesy of the White Oak Conservation Center, Florida.

Roan antelope calf. The ears are curved with drooping tips like adults. Photo by Stephanie Rutan, courtesy of the White Oak Conservation Center, Florida.

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171

Roan Antelope Name: roan antelope, Hippotragus

Special Considerations:

equines

May have lower parasite resistance than other antelopes. Sometimes overly sensitive to noise in captivity. Active mainly in morning, during late afternoon, and probably at night. In wild, have particularly large home ranges (25 to 40 square miles), and herd male initiates change of use area with change of season. Areas may be as much as 12 1/2 miles apart and likely to center around a watering point. Characteristically low survival rate in wild may be further depressed by transplanting animals to unfamiliar range. Breeding Season: Likely to breed all year but with an annual peak. Birth Season: Births likely any time except in dry season.

Origin and Status: Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN).

Description: Large, pinkish or reddish, horse-like antelope with standing mane. Modest, sickle-shaped, ringed horns in both male and female. Ears large crescents. Black and white markings on head, with white including tip of nose. Male horns often 27 to 39 in. with anything more than 30 very large. Male horns more robust than female horns, which typically measure 23 1/2 to 31 1/2 in. Male weight typically 617 lbs. (534 to 662); female typically 573 lbs. (331 to 617). Food Habits: Grazer. Live on grass even though browse is available. Favor medium to short grass lengths. Also take forbs. Browse trees and shrubs occasionally. Habitat: Seek moist and wooded grasslands and well-watered grass areas with scattered trees. Retreat into forest if much disturbed. Water and Climate: Drink large quantities of water. Visit water at least twice daily and also at midday during dry season. Long periods of dry heat are difficult if range becomes dry.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 9 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 2 1/2 to 3 yr.; female 2 yr. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. usually adequate.

Temperament and Compatibility: Aggressive. Herds tend to have fixed membership and stay widely spaced. Herd size stays small (4 to 18 females and young with 1 herd bull and sometimes a younger bull). Lone bulls apt to chase people. Occasionally congregate with eland or giraffe in wild but not with the closely related sable antelope. Grazing by other animals—especially zebras because their food habits are so similar—can put roan at a disadvantage.

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Sable antelope male and female. A typical adult male follows the black female. Some adult females (like this one) are black regardless of age. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Sable antelope females. An adult female in front of a subadult female, both with usual brown body color. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Sable antelope calf. The ears are long and pointed but not drooping; the body is brown. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

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Sable Antelope Name: sable antelope, Hippotragus niger

Origin and Status: Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Giant sable antelope subspecies endangered (USFWS), critically endangered (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES). Description: Large, horse-like antelope with standing mane, sickle-shaped horns (male and female), and long, pointed ears. Born brown. Turn rusty, then darken with age. Adult males turn black. Females darken a variable amount, some southern natives going black. White face marks and underparts contrast sharply. Male horns average 32 to 41 in., up to 40 to 60 3/4 (46 to 68 in. for giant sable). Female lengths 23 1/2 to 31 1/2 in. up to 39 1/2. Male weight 440 to 500 lbs., rarely more; (giant sable 440 to 595 lbs.); female 400 to 507 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. Highly selective grass specialists even though can mean concentrating on less common grass species. Take little browse or forbs, except sometimes during dry season. May starve rather than eat alternatives. Localize on fresh growth. Avoid coarse grasses. Eat out preferred foods in small area before move to another part of home range. Habitat: Grassy woodland—neither dense brush nor open savannah. Flat to gently sloping. Smaller, more permanent home range if preferred food is ample and near water. Water and Climate: Dependable water a necessity. Usually drink both morning and evening, and also at midday in hot weather. Can sometimes manage 2 or 3 days without water. Droughts work hardship. On poor range, even an annual dry season is a strain.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Very aggressive. Bulls quick to fight. Aggression in females maintains age-based herd hierarchy. Male may injure or kill maturing males and even sable female strangers, plus other species (like greater kudu and waterbuck), including humans. Special Considerations: Feeding competition from other grazers puts this selective feeder at a disadvantage. Can try fertilizing separate areas of preferred sable grazing. Accept sodium salt blocks readily. Territorial bull breaks brush as marks. When space is limited, remove all maturing males. Conception rates drop when bull with female herd only part-time. Tick burdens can be heavy. Bulls have pungent odor. Breeding Season: Seasonal breeders (end of rains or during Africa’s dry season). Timing varies with local conditions. Males court all year and produce sperm all year but more active during breeding season. On poor range, females cycle only once during a restricted rut period. Birth Season: Height of growing season in Africa, sometimes with a second peak six months later.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 to 9 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male 16 to 19 mo.; female 25 mo. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. usually adequate.

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Sitatunga male (and female). The male is much grayer; exotics without reedy marshes choose thick brush. Photo by Vick A. Jones, courtesy of the Cedar Hollow Ranch, Texas.

Sitatunga females. The markings blend with light and shadow in a favored closed habitat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the NBJ Zoological Park, Texas.

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175

Sitatunga Name: sitatunga, Tragelaphus spekei Origin and Status: Africa; near threatened (IUCN).

Description: Medium-size antelope with high, rounded haunches. Hair shaggy and greasy. Chestnut or brown coat in females and young changes to brown or dark brown in males (variable by race). Vertical white stripes often break into spots on lower sides and haunches (fade with age). Female dorsal stripe dark but usually white in males. Head short. Ears broad. Hoofs long. Flexible pastern with protective pad of naked skin sinks down for added support. Horns on male only, and may not show until as much as 8 mo. old. Keeled, gentle spiral. Typically 18 to 20 in. on curve; exceptionally 30 to 36 3/8. Male weight typically 220 lbs. (154 to 287); female 88 to 232 lbs. Food Habits: Graze, also browse when available. Partial to plants in flowering stage. May rear to reach flowers or leaves. Eat reeds, papyrus, bulrushes, sedges in central, deepwater swamps. Emerge on dark nights to graze on bordering dry land and eat leaves, twigs, and bark in nearby forest. Eat fallen fruit. Feed intensely in small parts of swamp several weeks at a time. Habitat: Dense reedbeds and papyrus swamps along rivers and lakes. Prefer swamps with dense patches of tall plants in the interior and riverine forest along periphery. As exotics, favor natural cover rather than sheds for shelter. Lacking swamps or clumps of tall plants along drainage lines, use quiet ravines with shaded resting sites and water that collects in the bottom.

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Water and Climate: Most amphibious of antelopes. When disturbed, hide in marsh or plunge into water channels and swim away, or, in open water, submerge until only nostrils are showing. When loafing in water to moderate heat (shaded water best), need room to be at least a yard apart. Urinate and defecate in water. Require supplemental feed when day temperatures go below 50o F. Start feeding before winter and feed all winter. Neonates born during cold and wet at risk.

Temperament and Compatibility: Solitary, sedentary, nonsocial. Adult male with one to four females and young, rarely alone. Shy, but male may charge a person if approached. Noncompetitive, so better kept at low density and without other species. Hybrids with many spiral-horned antelope (lesser and greater kudu, bongo, nyala, bushbuck, and eland—eland sire lethal). Special Considerations: Pasture survival poor after weaning. Seclusion is imperative. Sight barriers like bushes and other tall plants are more effective than lots of space (panic easily in open). Put feeders in brush. Locomotion awkward on hard ground, so lower leg problems. Breeding Season: Breed all year. Possible dry season peak in parts of wild. Birth Season: Births all year. Possibly most during rains in much of wild.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 7 1/2 to 8 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male 10 mo.; female 8 to 15 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. usually sufficient.

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Springbok male. The horns are robust and hook in. The white back hair will erect when the animal is excited. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Springbok female. The face is also white and the side stripe brown, but the horns are thin. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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177

Springbok Name: springbok, Antidorcas marsupialis (three races) Origin and Status: Southern Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Description: Except for face that whitens with maturity and glandular pouch of longer, white hairs running forward from the tail along midline of the back, looks like a medium-size gazelle with the standard gazelle-type tan upper body and sides separated distinctly from white belly and underparts. Wide, brown side stripe accentuates this division. Male has small, thick horns that hook inward. Female has much thinner horns of same shape or somewhat straighter. Fawn looks much like other gazelle fawns except for particularly long ears. Male horns 11 to 14 in. up to 19 3/8. Thin female horns a little, to a lot, shorter and similarly shaped to somewhat straighter. Male weight often 90 lbs. (66 to 106 lbs. up to 130); female often 81 lbs. (40 to 97). Food Habits: Eat mainly grass as long as it is fresh and green. Also take tender forbs. Switch dependence to browse during dry periods. Will dig up roots and bulbs. Habitat: Open plains in dry (even semidesert) areas. Avoid high, dense vegetation and steep or rocky hills. Congregate on short, green grass during rainy periods when there is new growth. Scatter in small groups during dry periods as long as browse and moisture is sufficient. During drought, tend to come together and migrate seeking forage. Water and Climate: Drink when water available, but can go indefinitely without drinking if food has at least 10 percent water. Long periods of dry heat are difficult if range becomes dry.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Fights include body attacks with risk of injury. Famous for stiff-legged alarm jumps, “pronking” with head low, back arched, and glandular pouch of white hair along back everted. Often form small herds, but used to migrate by thousands when faced with drought or lack of food. Can be extremely gregarious. Special Considerations: Natives stay in mixed herds except in breeding season. Then females and young males split into separate herds, while adult males become territorial. Females likely to split off separately or in small groups during birth peaks. Later, mothers commonly bring young into nursery groups (sometimes temporarily unattended). Rutting males very noisy. Breeding Season: Tend to breed synchronously (early in dry season—often May peak—for natives) when body condition best. Some breeding said to occur all year. Birth Season: Native births usually near beginning of rainy season (often in summer—November in south to January in southwest). Can also be a secondary peak.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male about 19 mo.; female as young as 6 to 7 mo. when range good. Fencing: 7 ft. when relaxed. Build working pens higher. Alarm jumps said to go up to 10 to 12 ft. although not intended to cross obstacles. Will jump 3-ft. fences, but prefer to crawl under.

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Common waterbuck male. A common waterbuck with its most uncommon rump ring. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Common waterbuck female and young. All are colored alike, even the ring. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

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Common Waterbuck Name: common waterbuck, Kobus ellipsiprymnus ellipsiprymnus Origin and Status: Africa, a single race generally east and south of the Rift Valley; conservation dependent (IUCN). Description: Shaggy, gray-to-brown antelope with white ring around rump. Ring often incomplete above tail. Longer hair feathers on jowls and often neck. Hair greasy. Musty, lingering odor. Young reddish brown. Males carry heavily ringed horns, set well apart, shaped like a simple crescent. Thick horn bases. Horn length 20 in. and up (large 28 to 39 1/4). Male weight 420 to 631 lbs.; female 350 to 437 lbs. Food Habits: Grass specialists, even eating large amounts of stems. Browse (often on tender parts) little in spite of great amount of time spent in thick cover. Will increase browsing when grasses decline during drier periods. Eat very few forbs. Habitat: Need good grassland for grazing next to thick cover with permanent water nearby. Will inhabit swampy areas if there is adequate grazing. Graze in open during day. Rest in thickets at night. Reverse if much disturbed. Rough country acceptable. Water and Climate: Drink at least twice daily, often at dawn and late in the afternoon, sometimes at night, also midday in hot weather. Where can, likely to wade into water. Require a quarter more water than domestic cattle. Lose condition fast if temperatures high while water scarce. Swim readily. Often stay in full sun on open grazing grounds during the day. Increase brush use during cold or cloudy weather.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Rutting males can be very aggressive—may even fight males of other species and kill or be killed. Prime males territorial. Females in small groups visit territorial male in open for much of day, then drift away into cover for night. Cross freely with defassa waterbuck, giving variable rump patterns. Probably cross with lechwe. Special Considerations: Broken or deformed horns common. Males have serious fights during mating season. Have not bred well in captivity, possibly because adapted for low density. Particularly susceptible to parasites that can be lethal if lose condition. Can develop heavy tick infestations if weakened. If poor condition and nutrition, may die when a cold front brings sudden temperature drop. Heavy water dependence means decline during drought. Breeding Season: All year or tendency toward seasonality. Birth Season: Births more likely at wetter times of year.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 to 9 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo. (native males may not breed until 5 yr.); female 24 mo. (sometimes as young as 12 mo.). Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. usually sufficient.

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Defassa waterbuck male. A conventional white rump patch. Photo by Rob Payne, courtesy of La Coma Ranch, Texas.

Defassa waterbuck female and youngster. The female looks like the male except is hornless. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the International Wildlife Park, Texas.

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Defassa Waterbuck Name: defassa waterbuck, Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa Origin and Status: Africa, several races generally west and south of the Rift Valley; conservation dependent (IUCN). Description: Shaggy, gray-to-brown antelope with white rump. Longer hair feathers on jowls and often neck. Hair greasy. Musty, lingering odor. Young reddish brown. Males carry heavily ringed horns, set well apart, shaped like a simple crescent. Thick bases. Horn length 24 to 31 in. up to 39 1/4. Male weight 420 to 631 lbs.; female 350 to 437 lbs. Food Habits: Grass specialists, even eating large amounts of stems. Browse (often on tender parts) little in spite of the great amount of time spent in thick cover. Will increase browsing when grasses decline during drier periods. Eat very few forbs. Habitat: Need good grassland for grazing next to thick cover with permanent water nearby. Will inhabit swampy areas if there is adequate grazing. Graze in open during day. Rest in thickets at night. Reverse this cycle if much disturbed. Rough country acceptable. Water and Climate: Drink at least twice daily, often at dawn and late in the afternoon, sometimes at night, also midday in hot weather. Where can, likely to wade into the water. Require a quarter more water than domestic cattle. Lose condition fast if temperatures high while water scarce. Swim readily. Often stay in full sun on open grazing grounds during day. Increase brush use when cold or cloudy.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Rutting males can be very aggressive—may even fight males of other species and kill or be killed. Prime males territorial. Females in small groups visit territorial male in open for much of day, then drift away into cover for night. Cross freely with common waterbuck, giving variable rump patterns. Also hybridize with lechwe. Special Considerations: Broken or deformed horns common. Males have serious fights during mating season. Crowding may depress breeding. Particularly susceptible to parasites that can be lethal if lose condition. Tick infestations can get heavy if weakened. If poor condition and nutrition, may die when a cold front brings sudden temperature drop. Heavy water dependence guarantees decline during drought. Breeding Season: All year or tendency toward seasonality. Birth Season: Births more likely at wetter times of year.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 to 9 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo. (native males may not breed until 5 yr.); female 24 mo. (sometimes as young as 12 mo.). Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. usually sufficient.

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Black wildebeest female. A light tail brush and lots of hair tufts characterize this gnu species. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Circle H Ranch, Texas.

Black wildebeest female. Similar to the male, including steep slope to croup. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Black Wildebeest Name: black wildebeest (white-tailed gnu), Connochaetes gnou Origin and Status: Africa; least concern conservation category (IUCN) back from near extinction after preservation on two private farms in native habitat. Description: Lightly built ox-like dark brown antelope with long white brush on tail and lots of manes. Standing neck mane creamy with black top, fringe between forelegs, beard, and tuft on black face. Heavy head. Croup slants down sharply. Calves tan with black on lower face. Smooth horns in all adults curve down from rounded bosses and then back up. Male horns heavier, longer, bosses thicker. Male horns average 21 in. with exceptional horns measuring 27 to 32 1/4 along outside curve of the longest horn. Female lengths about 17 1/2 to 23 1/2 in. Male weight 309 to 397 lbs.; female 243 to 353 lbs. Food Habits: Grass plus a large proportion of leaves from succulents and shrubs on arid plains to short grass areas. Natives readily live on dry grasses during dry season. Habitat: Dry, open plains and into hilly grasslands. Will use nearby brush to escape. Water and Climate: Take both heat and cold well as long as have open shed in winter. Rarely use shade. Get much of water from succulents. Drink daily if food is dry. Temperament and Compatibility:

herds fairly peaceful. Hybridize with brindled gnu (blue wildebeest).

Special Considerations: Thought to carry herpes virus for malignant catarrhal fever (blue wildebeest are established host). Females give birth in herd. Young stays with mother. Problems when young get separated, injured, even killed as adult males drive away yearlings. Kneeling with tail out and bawling can signal submission as can lying on side with belly exposed. Fight, and sometimes feed, on knees. Plunge about wildly when disturbed. Very noisy. Rutting males get strong odor from preorbital secretion and from rolling in dung and urine used to mark their areas. Breeding Season: March to May in Africa with short rut near start (end of hot wet season as used to mass for trek to dry winter pasture). Birth Season: Conspicuous peak of about 2 weeks in November through December or into January for natives (on summer range), varying by place and rainfall. June through July for some zoo births.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 mo.: 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 16 to 18 mo. but only start rutting at 3 yr.; female as young as 16 to 18 mo. if condition good, otherwise ready to conceive by next rut when 28 mo. old. Fencing: 6 ft. probably sufficient.

Gregarious. Very aggressive. Male kept alone may attack humans. A rank hierarchy orders female herds, and females are aggressive to strangers. Male owners keep territories permanently except when feeding deteriorates. Bachelor

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Blue wildebeest male. The long face, dark tail, and horns curving out to the sides define this gnu species. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of TDSL, Texas.

Blue wildebeest female and calf. Race (or races) known as “white-bearded gnu” have white hair on lower neck; the calf is tan with a black face. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Blue Wildebeest Name: blue wildebeest (brindled gnu), Connochaetes taurinus Origin and Status: Africa; conservation dependent (IUCN). Common as the white-bearded gnu in East Africa famous for spectacular migrations in the Serengeti area. Description: Medium-size, ox-like antelope with dark brush on long, mulelike tail. Heavy forequarters. Gray brindled with dark, vertical streaks on neck and sides. Heavy head. Mane on lower neck is white in race (or races) known as the white-bearded gnu. Calves tan with black face. Smooth horns in all adults curve down from rounded bosses and then hook up. Male horns heavier, bosses thicker, lengths usually 21 1/2 to 31 1/2 in. with a record of 30 5/8 measured along outside curve of longest horn. Female length usually 17 to 25 in. Male weight average 490 lbs. (364 to 639); female average 392 lbs. (260 to 588). Food Habits: Green grass is staple. Keep uniform diet of fresh grass not more than 4 in. high virtually all year by following rains. When unable to find sprouting grass, keep their area grazed short and eat grass blades and low stalks. Only trace of browse or forbs. Habitat: Open, short grass plains with occasional acacia trees or brush for shaded resting sites at midday. When grasses dry, move into open woodland until rains renew grass growth on plains. Favor sandy wallows. Avoid dense cover and tall growth. Water and Climate: Take heat well but not cold. Drink daily when can, otherwise every 2 to 3 days. May stay in an area without water as long as 5 days if there is fresh grazing. Easy access at

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drinking sites is important. Eat succulents and wild melons.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Dangerous because of impulsive unpredictability. Mother defends her calf. Territorial males very aggressive. Males in migratory population territorial briefly during mating season, but in resident population permanently. Hybridize with whitetailed gnu (black wildebeest). Special Considerations: Can carry a herpes virus causing malignant catarrhal fever without necessarily showing symptoms. Fire or mowing can help keep grasses short. For capture, capitalize on the animal’s lack of stamina and habit of making a stand in the open when chased. The animal will then fight, but can be netted. Fighting males commonly drop to knees. Females give birth in herd. Female can delay birth. Breeding Season: Rut for 3 weeks sometime in September to October but some breeding also at other times. In wild, mainly at end of rainy season when adults are in peak condition. Birth Season: Births highly coordinated. Peak during 3 weeks about April through May with most of the rest during the following 5 weeks. In wild, at beginning of rainy season.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 mo.; 1 young (rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 28 mo.; female as young as 16 mo. if in particularly good condition, otherwise ready to conceive by next rut when 27 to 28 mo. old. Fencing: 6 ft. ordinarily sufficient.

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SHEEP AND GOATS Aoudad (Barbary sheep) Barbados sheep Catalina goat Corsican sheep Four-horned sheep Ibex, alpine Ibex, Nubian Ibex, Persian (Iranian ibex) Ibex, Siberian (Asiatic ibex) Ibex, Y.O. Markhor Mouflon Red sheep, Alborz Stumberg sheep Tahr, Himalayan Urial, Trans-Caspian

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Aoudad male. Long fringes and lots of mud are typical for aoudad males. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Aoudad female and youngster. Less fringe—and less mud—than adult male. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Aoudad Name: aoudad (Barbary sheep), Ammotragus lervia Origin and Status: North Africa; vulnerable (IUCN), Appendix II (CITES). Description: Hair fringes best developed in males on forelegs and lower neck. High shoulders with sloping back. Uniformly sandy color same for males, females, and young. Curving, ridged horns also same in both sexes, although bases larger in males and maximum lengths greater. Horns never complete a full circle. Male horns grow 14 to 26 in. with large horns up to 32 or even 36 in. Female horns grow 12 to 20 in. along the curve, up to nearly 27 in. Male weight 110 to 320 lbs. (typically 200); female 88 to 125 lbs. (up to 140). Food Habits: Grazers with a liking for forbs and the ability to live on browse. Will sample even tough plants. Habitat: Native to dry, rock outcrops and mountains. Exotics are adaptable, but seek rugged areas where possible. Populations can withstand much disturbance and hunting pressure (native predators as well as sport hunters) as long as have at least a core of cliff terrain. Water and Climate: Get much of their moisture from plants, but will drink when undisturbed. Rub in the mud or dust. Also bathe at length in shallow water when convenient. Dry heat (New Mexico and West Texas) best. Do poorly in moist areas.

Special Considerations: Need cliffs for security if there is much disturbance. Very competitive at feeders so other species may do poorly unless management includes special techniques to ensure enough food and living space for all. Breeding Season: Mainly late August to early December. Birth Season: March to April.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 to 2 young (sometimes 3).

Sexual Maturity: Male as young as 11 mo. but 15 more typical (rarely dominant enough to breed adult females until 30 mo.); female 13 to 18 mo. (exceptionally 5 to 8 mo.). Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Competitive. Gregarious. Easily monopolize feeders from other species. Active colonizers of any suitable range they can reach. Generally compatible with social species as long as the others are not bothered by competition.

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Barbados sheep male. Black belly, black horns, and body a uniform brown. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Barbados sheep female with lamb. The ewe is like the ram but without horns. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Barbados Sheep Name: Barbados sheep, Ovis aries Origin and Status: Domestic breed of polled, black-bellied sheep on island of Barbados, West Indies in the Caribbean. Brought to United States by the U.S. Department of Agrigulture in 1904 and crossed with horned sheep to improve meat characteristics. Never popular with commercial meat producers because carcass is small, but the large horns opened market with ranches. Description: Medium-size brown sheep with black belly, legs, face markings, and often from chin to chest. Male grows heavy, dark horns that circle to sides. Males may develop longer hair like a heavy mane down lower neck. Hair coat with wooly under-layer for winter. Sheds in spring without need for shearing. Long horns 34 to 38 in. and up. Females hornless. Male weight 100 to 180 lbs.; female about 55 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. Crop grasses close to ground. Food includes a variety of forbs. Habitat: Gently rolling grasslands with shade trees and brush for shelter. Water and Climate: Drink regularly. Comfortable in northern temperate as well as southern semitropical climes. Need shelter (natural shelter is often adequate) for climate extremes.

191 Polyestrous. Good mothers. Mother isolates for birth and bonds with newborn during first 24 hours before rejoining flock. Raise twins (or triplets) eaily. Prime females twin about four out of five births and sometimes raise triplets. Young slow growing compared to popular commercial breeds. Estrous cycle 14 to 20 days. Give birth about every 6 to 8 months unless males separated to time births. Any sheep can be very stressed if kept alone when separated from group (evident in frequent calling and pawing). Diurnal. Breeding Season: Any time of year. Birth Season: Any time of year. Adding breeding males in time to get spring births is usually recommended.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; adult females usually have 2 young, sometimes 3. Sexual Maturity: Male as young as 6 mo. but not fully fertile until 18 to 20 mo.; female best not bred until 6 to 12 mo. old. Fencing: 4 ft. ordinarily adequate.

Temperament and Compatibility: Very docile. Produce fertile crosses with both wild and domestic sheep, the black belly recurring often as a dominant trait. Special Considerations: Copper can kill sheep so check any feed or mineral supplements used. Well muscled. Very little fat. Meat low in cholesterol and mild in flavor. More disease and parasite resistant than many wool breeds.

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Catalina goat male. The coloring suggests Boer goat in his ancestry. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Catalina goat female. Typical form, hair, and coloring. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Blackjack Ranch, Texas.

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Catalina Goat Name: Catalina goat, domestic goat, Capra hircus Origin and Status: Domestic goats named for feral goats on Santa Catalina Island off California coast near Los Angeles. These may have come from Spain in sailing days when some islands were stocked to provide food later. Now name can be for any goat offered for hunting. Sometimes restricted to slick-haired, wide-horned goats unlike Angoras. Description: Sturdy goats with conformation, color, and hair type as mixed as their ancestry. Often reddish to brown or all or partially black or white. Some adult males have dark dorsal stripe and transverse shoulder band. Males and some females have beard. Outer hair is typically coarse. Variously elaborated fine woolly undercoats. Often look like Spanish goats. Males grow large horns. Male horns rise fairly straight for several inches before spiraling horizontally for up to 3 turns, making the spread extremely wide. Angora goats have slightly larger horns than the typical Catalina. Wide spread is 30 in. or more and occasionally reaches 40 in. Horn lengths often are at least 21 to 28 in., exceptionally 30 to 36 in. and up to a record 51 3/4 in. Females often hornless but may have short curved cones about 4 to 6 in long. Male weight 66 to 150 lbs. (often 80 to 100); female 65 to 95 lbs. Food Habits: Browsers. Prefer tender leaves. Take leaves, twigs, and forbs. Will prop forelegs against tree trunk or jump into tree to browse. Angora-type goats eat much more grass than Spanish-type goats. Eek out a living even on rough, overgrazed ranges.

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Habitat: Readily use brush and canyons with scattered trees and grassy openings. Water and Climate: Low water requirements. Take dry climates well.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Separated individual keeps calling as seeks herd. Males and females keep mainly to separate groups except during fall rut. Males vie for dominance and breed any available female. Hybridize with any other goat, domestic or wild, and sometimes cross with ibex (as when confined together). Special Considerations: Treat regularly for ticks and ear mites. These goats are such good escape artists that they can be put into pastures to test for fence problems. Will walk up slanted brace posts if on inside of wire. Newborn stays hidden in tall grass or brush for about a week. Often sun themselves during midday on rock ledges if weather is cool. Breeding Season: August to November with rut in August or September. Birth Season: January to late February and into April.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.: 1, occasionally 2 or even 3.

Sexual Maturity: Male usually 6 to 18 mo.; female 6 to 18 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. often sufficient as long as there are no gaps or places for climbing.

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Corsican sheep male. A ram with a classic coat showing saddle patch and white on belly. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Corsican sheep males. White form also known as “Texas Dall.” Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Corsican sheep male. Black form also known as “Hawaiian black sheep.” Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

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Corsican sheep female with young male. White rather than black on belly and the female is hornless. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the International Wildlife Park, Texas.

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Corsican Sheep Name: Corsican sheep, a registered trademark of the Y.O. Ranch, Mountain Home, Texas (also known as Corsican ram). Color varieties called white Corsican (Texas Dall), black Corsican (Hawaiian black sheep, Hawaiian ram). All are names for a hybrid form developed at the Y.O. Ranch by breeding European mouflon (Ovis musimon, native to Corsica and Sardinia) with domestic Barbados sheep (Ovis aries). Since then, sometimes hybridized with other domestic sheep. Origin and Status: Texas. Originated by the Y.O.’s Charles Schreiner III to enlarge horns for hunting appeal. Similar idea to much of the crossbreeding to “improve” mouflon in some of the European hunting areas to which European mouflon have been introduced. Two white lambs found by Bob Snow on the Y.O. Ranch initiated the white Corsican breeding line. Description: Brown sheep (variants all white or all black) with bold black accents on neck, sides, and legs. Coarse guard hairs more or less hiding woolly undercoat. Usually 3 to 8 in. black mane on lower neck of males (thicker and longer in winter). Horns in male only. Horns circle and turn outward at tips, typically completing at least a complete curl. Horn length 14 in. and up, often 28 to 35 in. Record 44 1/8 in. Male weight 100 to 150 lbs.; female 80 to 100 lbs. Food Habits: Grazers. Eat quantities of grasses and forbs. Also take some leaves when they can reach them or when they find them on the ground. Habitat: Rolling countryside with grassy stretches very suitable. Sun themselves on exposed slopes when

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cold and sunny but not windy. Seek hilltops to catch a breeze when hot.

Water and Climate: Need water daily in warm weather. Otherwise, can go 2 to 3 days without drinking. Trees, brush, and ravines give needed protection from the weather.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Males aggressive among one another. Normally compatible with any other exotics as long as enough food is available at the low levels within their reach (allow for grazing plants very short). Crossbreed freely with any sheep, producing fertile offspring. Special Considerations: When mature, fight to decide dominance. This determines chief breeding rights. Form tight flock when disturbed and then flee as a group. Diurnal. Breeding Season: Mainly August to September. Birth Season: January to March.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 to 2 young, twins common.

Sexual Maturity: Male 1 1/2 yr.; female at least 7 mo. Fencing: 4 ft. usually adequate.

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Four-horned sheep males. Jacob sheep rams showing the two classic horn forms. Photo by Jackie Kyle, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

Four-horned sheep females. Ewes of the Jacob sheep breed showing small, irregular horns. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

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Four-Horned Sheep Name: four-horned sheep (rare, primitive domestic sheep with ancient antecedents, now has breed registry as Jacob sheep), Ovis aries Origin and Status: Antecedents in Syria 3,000 years ago. Small numbers of Jacob sheep have been imported into the United States since 1900. More than 5,000 registered in the United States since 1988. Description: One of the types of sheep that typically carry two pairs of horns in the male, and small, irregular horns in the female. Wool 3 to 7 in. (no outer coat). Body white randomly spotted with black to brown patches (breed standard not less than 15 percent, nor more than 85 percent, colored markings). Preferably white face flanked by large eye patches and a dark muzzle. Medium grade fleece has little oil. Fine-boned. Less body fat than modern breeds. Usually 1 to 4 asymmetrical horns but occasionally none. Male horns longer, thicker, and often better defined. Primary male pair (from top of head) curves back and around or shoots up and out; 12 1/2 to 23 in. up to 28 3/4 in. with bases up to 11 in. Secondary male pair (on sides of head) thinner, curves back and around, may break off; usually 8 to 16 in. but up to 23 in. Female horns much shorter, thinner, and any orientation. Horns black or blackand-white striped. Male weight 120 to 180 lbs. (typically 150); female 80 to 120 lbs. Food Habits: Live mainly on grass and forbs. Hardy even on rough pasture. Require less supplemental feed when pasture poor than modern breeds.

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Habitat: Prefer flat, open country or low hills where they can travel in tight flocks.

Water and Climate: Drink freely. Need water easily accessible. Shearing all except the young-of-theyear helps the sheep deal with summer heat. Fleece may be of variable quality and have little market value. Temperament and Compatibility: Males fight and may break off their thinner horns. Generally compatible with common exotics as long as enough grazing for all and no other sheep accessible. Interbreed freely with any other sheep. Hybrids fertile. Special Considerations: Parasite resistance better than in many modern sheep breeds and foot problems less likely. Usually lamb on their own without difficulty, lambs get up and nurse vigorously without human intervention, and ewes maintain a strong mothering instinct. Watch to prevent down-curving horns from contacting skin (trim ends if necessary). Breeding Season: Breed all year unless remove males. Add males in fall for spring births. Birth Season: Putting males with flock in mid-October gives March births for best survival. Then can shear late April or into May.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 to 3 with twins the norm for adult mothers. Sexual Maturity: Male as young as 6 mo. (1 yr. more usual); female 1 yr. Fencing: 4 ft. ordinarily sufficient.

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Alpine ibex male. The horns are long, heavy with curve gentle, and spread wide. Photo by Don Horrocks, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

Alpine ibex female. Same gray-to-brown with darker legs as male. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

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Alpine Ibex Name: alpine ibex, European ibex, Capra ibex ibex Origin and Status: Southern Europe. Now 22,000 in the wild and increasing. Recovered from fewer than one hundred in 1800s. Saved by combined protection, captive breeding, and reintroductions. Description: Large goat with small goatee. Compact build. Short, powerful legs. Body color uniform gray to brown. Darker legs can approach black. Males may darken with age. Coarse outer hair, and grow dense undercoat for cold weather. Often develop callosities on knees. Male horns flare outward in huge crescent. Front surface blunt with series of large, transverse bosses. Horns usually about 17 1/2 to 30 in., up to 44 4/5 in. Female has curved, ridged horns about 6 to 15 in. long. Male weight 225 to 275 lbs., up to 337; female 50 to 140 lbs. Food Habits: Mainly grasses and forbs except during winter when they take appreciable amounts of browse. Prefer habitats where little or no snow accumulates, but will paw as far as a foot to feed deep. Habitat: Exotics use any steep bluffs or stony hillsides, especially for security at night. Shelter in thick brush. Natives prefer alpine meadows above tree line and near snow line on steep mountains. Descend to forest zone in winter if they need to find food or escape deep snow. Water and Climate: Drink every 1 to 2 days during hot weather. May go 3 days without drinking during cooler weather. Have thick undercoat against cold. Seek shade to moderate heat. Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. In wild, males separate from females and young during spring

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199 to fall, spending summer in ritualized fights that settle rank order. Few serious fights during rut because most males already know one another. Besides domestic goats, will breed with markhor, and possibly with West Caucasian tur and East Caucasian tur. Special Considerations: Treat for mites and ticks. Bottle raising young after ten days old gives a tamer herd that can be kept in a smaller enclosure and managed more closely. Remove male after breeding and separate female when you see birth is imminent (within 24 to 48 hours). Other females may kill newborn. In small, stable groups, females may resist intrusion by a new female to the point of fatally stabbing the stranger. Maturing males leave female groups at 2 to 4 years. Rutting males spray themselves with urine, so there can be skin problems if rut is prolonged. Breeding Season: Rut for about a month in fall or winter, timing depending on when rains come. Texas rut expected sometime between August and October. Birth Season: Expected in February to March in Texas. Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1, 2 rare (twins small and 1 or both often die). Sexual Maturity: Male 15 to 24 mo. (but noncompetitive until 4); female 12 to 24 mo. (to as old as 6 yr. on heavily stocked native ranges). Fencing: 8 ft. usually adequate once animals mature and settle down in their surroundings. Able to jump 8 to 10 ft. regularly, especially if they can bounce between walls. May clear 12 to 13 ft.

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Nubian ibex male. Black and white on the legs identifies this kind of ibex. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Nubian ibex female. Much smaller horns on female as in other kinds of ibex females. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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Nubian Ibex Name: Nubian ibex (Arabian ibex), Capra nubiana Origin and Status: North Africa and Arabia; endangered (IUCN). Description: Compact, goat-type build and goatee. Short, powerful legs marked in sharply contrasting black and white. Belly white. Body a variable tan in summer, and grayish in winter. Often a dark dorsal stripe in males. Callosities on knees. Horns in male and female. Male grows huge, wagon-wheel horns, narrow with rounded outer edges. Prominent, transverse horn bosses smaller on outer edge. Medium lengths 30 in., exceptionally more than 40 to record 54 1/2. Female has short, curved horns with ridges. Female horn length usually 5 to 8 in. Male weight 100 to 165 lbs. up to 200; female 55 to 88 lbs. Food Habits: In addition to grass, consume large amounts of leaves (fallen as well as fresh) and small branches, and eat forbs and fruit when available. Readily stand on hind legs to reach leaves. Natives take much grass and forbs except in winter when they eat more browse. Habitat: Native to desert crags. Exotics seek steep bluffs or stony hillsides. Can shelter among thick juniper and scrub oaks. Forage across grassy openings in open brush areas. Water and Climate: Drink when water is available. In wild, drinking water scarce or unavailable for much of year. Have thick undercoat against cold. Need to moderate heat with shade.

201 rejoin female herds. Not in Texas when Y.O. Ranch was developing ibex-domestic goat hybrids so less likely to find hybrids. Will breed with domestic goats, markhor, possibly tur, and presumably other ibex races. Special Considerations: Mite and tick treatments help (including all newly acquired animals). Round corners of working pens to prevent animals escaping by bouncing between walls. Habitual upright tail carriage exposes anal glands (strong male odor). Rutting males spray themselves with urine (can cause skin problems if captive conditions prolong rut). Natives seek security on cliffs for the night. Slow runners on flat terrain and little stamina. Diurnal. Breeding Season: Rut for about a month in fall or winter, timing depending on when rains occur. Rut briefly sometime between August and October or even into November. Birth Season: Mainly February to April.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 to 3 young, twins and triples frequent. Sexual Maturity: Male 2 yr. (but noncompetitive until 4); female 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 yr. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually adequate although can jump 8 to 10 ft. regularly. May clear 12 to 13 ft. with sufficient motivation so catch pens require higher walls.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Wild males settle rank order during summer fights. Thus, few serious fights during rut after males

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Persian ibex male hybrid—just—in hybrid group. Note dark shoulder collar and large, irregular knobs on sharp front horn keel characteristic of wild goat. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Greenwood Valley Ranch, Texas.

Persian ibex females. Brown females with similarly brown faces. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

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Persian Ibex Name: Persian ibex (Iranian ibex, bezoar goat, wild goat), Capra aegagrus. Not a true ibex. Probably is predecessor of domestic goat. Origin and Status: Asia; vulnerable and declining in wild. Description: Sturdy tan-to-brown goat with long, scimitar-shaped horns in male. Dark color accents include face, beard, and tail. As mature, males add dark neck collar across the dark dorsal stripe and later turn gray to silver in winter. Males have a strong odor. Male horns have irregular knobs on sharp front keel. Large horns 31 in. to nearly 60 in. Female horns much shorter and thinner (6 to 15 in.). Male weight 100 to 176 lbs. but seldom more than 150; female maximum 90 lbs. Food Habits: Eat just about anything, especially if green. Prefer grasses. When grass declines, seek green twigs and fleshy leaves. Will stand upright against tree trunks or climb in trees. Eat forbs when available. Habitat: Steep bluffs and stony hillsides with thick brush. In Central Texas, retreat to juniper slopes and black persimmon with oak scrub. They also use flat areas with oak motts. Water and Climate: Get most moisture from plants except when dry. Hardy under range conditions. Active during day, except seek shade at about 90o F. Spend the night on rocky slopes for security.

do most of the mating. Keep mainly to themselves and so are generally compatible with other non-goatlike exotics. Fertile hybrids with domestic goats and with markhor.

Special Considerations: Construct working pens with rounded corners because adept at bouncing off square corners to gain height for escape. Rocky ground gives needed hoof wear. Afflicted by numerous parasites such as ear mites, bot flies, and ticks, so check and treat before release, and use dry, well-drained pastures. Crosses with Spanish goats are more parasite resistant. Be aware that older males can become excessively aggressive toward younger males as senior males take over for the serious breeding. Breeding Season: August to October. Birth Season: February to March. Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 to 2 young (sometimes 3). Sexual Maturity: Male about 24 mo.; female 18 to 19 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. ordinarily adequate. If stressed, may need 14 ft. in order to contain.

Temperament and Compatibility: Very gregarious. Often kept in multimale groups or in bachelor groups. Odor and overtures from younger males in mixed flocks help bring females into readiness for breeding. Then older males take over for the rut and

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Siberian ibex male. Note ridges on blunt fronts of horns. Photo © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Siberian ibex crossbred female. Shows Siberian type although there is 3/32 Spanish goat in her ancestry. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

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Siberian Ibex Name: Siberian ibex (Asian ibex), Capra sibirica Origin and Status: Asia; numerous in Central Asia but declining or extirpated in many areas. Description: Compact, goat-type body. Male with long goatee, and female sometimes with short goatee. Prominent, light, saddle patch usually present in winter coat, and sometimes in summer but less pronounced. Colors generally red-brown for summer and paler gray-brown to yellowish for winter, varying with age, sex, and weathering by sun. Older males may darken to chocolate brown, and some males eventually turn almost white. Dark dorsal stripe often incomplete, sometimes absent in females. Can have a hint of a dark shoulder stripe. Callosities on knees. Male grows huge, wagon-wheel horns. Front surface blunt with series of large, transverse bosses. Well-developed horns 30 to 40 in. Record 60 1/8 in. Female has short, curved horns about 6 to 11 in. long. Male weight 132 to 220 or even 330 lbs. and may lose as much as 44 lbs. during harsh winter in wild; females 66 to 155 lbs. and lose weight during harsh winters. Food Habits: Mainly grasses and forbs except in winter when they take significant amounts of browse. Prefer where little or no snow accumulates, but will paw away up to a foot deep to feed. Habitat: Prefer alpine meadows between tree line and snow line on cold, rugged mountains. Avoid dense forest. Daily temperature changes can be extreme, and can drop 70oF as a storm rolls in with rain or snow. Gravitate to steep bluffs or stony hillsides.

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Water and Climate: Drink every 1 to 2 days during hot weather. Perhaps go 3 days during cooler weather. Have thick undercoat against cold. Suffer from heat, so seek shade.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. In wild, males separate from females and young during late spring to early winter. During summer they join in ritualized fights that determine rank order. Few serious fights during rut because most males already know their place in the dominance hierarchy. Known to interbreed with domestic goats, markhor, West Caucasian tur, and East Caucasian tur. Special Considerations: Round corners of working pens to avoid animals escaping by bouncing between walls. Treat routinely for mites and ticks. Eating wool off of fences may jeopardize survival. Rutting males spray themselves with urine, so skin problems if captive conditions prolong rut. Full adult coat not necessarily assumed until 4 1/2 years old. Ascend to high, inaccessible slopes at night for security. Feed mainly in early morning and late afternoon. Breeding Season: Rut for about a month in fall or winter, timing depending on when rains come. U.S. rut expected sometime between August and October. Birth Season: Usually February to March in Texas.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 young (sometimes 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 2 to 3 yr. (but noncompetitive until 4); female 1 to 2 yr. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually adequate although can jump 8 to 10 ft. regularly. May clear 12 to 13 ft.

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Y.O. ibex male. Persian ibex hybrid showing heavy horns with series of small, bead-like knobs on sharp front horn keel. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Y.O. Ranch, Texas.

Y.O. ibex female. Note dark face and dark collar. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

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Y.O. Ibex Name: Y.O. ibex, a registered trademark of the Y.O. Ranch, Mountain Home, Texas, for hybrid form originated by Charles Schreiner III by breeding with domestic nanny goats (Capra hircus). Main sires Persian ibex (Iranian ibex, wild goat, Capra aegagrus), considered to represent stock from which domestic goat arose. Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) also used, especially in the early years. Now many variants. Origin and Status: Texas. Purebred ibex females virtually unobtainable, so Y.O. Ranch bred ibex males with domestic goats. Most were Persian ibex bred with Spanish goats after other domestic goats proved less hardy. Hybridization with purebred Siberian ibex sires proved more difficult and gave slower-growing offspring. Objective was to produce huntable breeding line looking like the wild stock. Description: Sturdy tan-to-brown goat with tall, curved horns in males. Long beard likely in males. Males develop dark neck collar that crosses dark dorsal stripe. Become lighter and grayer in winter. A few individuals are white. Male horns curve up from massive bases and tend to hook at the top. Sharp front keel with series of bead-like knobs. Horns often 25 to 28 in. and more. Large horns 31 to 35 in. with basal circumference 9 to 10 in. Record 46 5/8 in. for hybrid ibex. Most females have thin, short horns, typically 4 to 8 in. Male weight about 150 to 200 lbs.; female about 65 to 100. Food Habits: Browser. Take leaves, twigs, and small branches. Willing to stand upright against tree trunks to reach browse. Eat forbs when available. Include some grass.

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Habitat: Steep, rocky hillsides with thick brush. Use heavy cover of juniper or scrub oaks.

Water and Climate: Drink daily during hot seasons, then every 2 to 3 days in cool weather. Have undercoat against cold. Moderate heat with shade.

Temperament and Compatibility: Very gregarious. Males form tight bachelor herd when in large pastures. Females and young also band together. They bunch and run when disturbed, heading for thick brush or inaccessible hillsides. Fertile hybrids with ibex or domestic goats. Special Considerations: Males have strong odor. Males spray themselves with urine during rut. Advances of young males prime females for mating by adults who take over as females become receptive. Some owners file front horn keels of big males to enlarge opening between horns. Contention is that a dominant sire is likely to catch leg of a smaller male between horns and break it. Mother can rarely raise quadruplets. Treat periodically for ticks and ear mites. Treat any new purchases before release. Round corners of working pens to avoid animals escaping by bouncing between walls. Diurnal. Breeding Season: August to October. Birth Season: February to March.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 to 3 young (4 rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 9 to 12 mo.; female 9 to 12 mo. Fencing: 7 1/2 ft. usually adequate unless stressed. May need 11 ft. for working pens. Round pen corners.

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Markhor males. Compare the side and front profiles. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

Markhor female in front of male. A goatee but no ruff on female. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

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Markhor Name: markhor, Capra falconeri Origin and Status: Asia. Endangered (IUCN), Appendix II (CITES).

Description: Large goat with upright, spiraling horns. Long, dark beard in males contrasts with pale neck ruff. Variable color vaguely mottled shades of light reddish brown in summer and gray in winter. Whitish underparts and lower legs. Old males whiten, but amount varies. Hair silky, and little or no undercoat. Horns long on male, short on female. Horn shape is used to differentiate races but is not a reliable criterion. Horns have double-keeled spiral, and welldeveloped horns are typically at least 23 in. along curve. Long horns measure from rarely more than 36 in. up to 48 1/2 straight measure for the small-bodied (rarely more than 150 lbs.) straighthorned race. For the large bodied (150 up to 250 lbs.) flare-horned race, record lengths are 51 1/2 in. straight measure and 65 to 65 3/4 in. measured along the outside curve. Those in zoos and as exotics usually intermediate (weigh 175 to 190 lbs.). Horns of female small spiral 6 to 14 in. in length (body weight 70 to 90 lbs.). Food Habits: Graze and browse. Much time devoted to grazing even though grasses may be scarce. Staple for natives, especially when grass quality declines, is leaves and twigs of bushes and trees such as the evergreen holly oak. Eat some forbs. Relish acorns. Habitat: Precipitous mountainsides free of deep snow. Seek clear southfacing slopes for secure nights and northfaces with scattered juniper or other tree cover for daytime feeding. Found from hot, treeless, arid hills to lower elevations of Himalayas with scrub cover. In some

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regions, descend to forest in winter (not as cold). In other places, descend to forest in summer (escape insects).

Water and Climate: Drink from melt water. Lack insulating undercoat, but tolerate wide range of heat and cold if have shade from sun and shelter from wind (even caves).

Temperament and Compatibility: Can often be kept in multimale groups even when females present. Cross with true ibex, Persian ibex, domestic goat. Special Considerations: May kneel to forage or stand on hind legs to browse. Scamper high into trees to reach leaves. Even large males will hide in trees. In wild, rutting male keeps group of 2 to 20 females. Male may tend estrous female for 3 days, and usually is tolerant of young following mother. Rutting male sprays face and forelegs with urine. After rut, older males leave. Breeding Season: In wild, 1 mo. in late October to December (snow can be falling), depending on region. Preceded by 2 to 3 weeks when male scent, sound, and sexual behavior coax females into estrus. Birth Season: Spring (late April to early June in wild).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 to 2 (occasionally 3), twins norm when enough food. Sexual Maturity: Male 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 yr. but only seriously competitive with full growth by 4 1/2 to 5; female 1 1/2 to 3 yr. depending on food (2 1/2 typical in wild). Fencing: 10 ft. usually sufficient but higher working pens recommended. Jump 8 ft. often, but try first to go under.

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Mouflon male. Note striking white saddle patch of adult ram’s winter coat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Priour Ranch, Texas.

Mouflon female and lamb. Wool is shedding for the summer. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Arbuckle Wilderness, Oklahoma.

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Mouflon Name: mouflon (has been said to be ancestor of domestic sheep but present thinking tends to view that mouflon is an early form of domestic sheep that became feral), Ovis musimon Origin and Status: Corsica and Sardinia in Europe; vulnerable (IUCN). Description: Colorful sheep with coarse hair hiding a woolly undercoat. Brown with black-and-white legs. Ears, nose, belly, and rump white. Mature males turn black on lower neck and white in a saddle patch over back. Thick, ridged horns circle on each side of male’s head. Massive horns of male usually complete only three-quarter circle in purebreds and arch in at the tips. Horns of crossbreds often complete a full circle and arch outward. Typical horn length 20 to 29 in. Records approach 37, rarely more. Horned ewes reported from Europe only. Female horns thin, short (up to 7 in.) and only slightly curved. Male weight 90 to 120 lbs.; female about 77 lbs. Food Habits: Grazers, but will eat large amounts of browse if grass is scarce and where they can reach browse. Also eat fallen leaves. Eat forbs readily. Browse line left by taller animals often limits browsing opportunities in Texas. Habitat: Prefer uplands and clear slopes. Likely to hide in thick brush when disturbed. Graze in open, lie on open slopes to sun selves, rest in shade while temperatures high. Water and Climate: Drink twice daily when hot, otherwise irregularly. Do well in Hill Country of Central Texas (where predator populations have been kept low to foster ranching of domestic sheep and goats).

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Temperament and Compatibility: Aggressive among one another, yet gregarious (especially in winter). Generally compatible with other exotics (except sheep forms) as long as adequate food is available for all. Graze very close to ground, so watch that other grazers also get enough to eat. Feeding more compatible with browsers than with other grazers. Expect fertile hybrids with any other kinds of sheep. Special Considerations: Keep away from other sheep to avoid hybridization. More tolerant of toxic plants than many other animals. Unwilling to paw away snow for feeding, so may need supplemental feed when snow or ice covers the ground. Fairly parasite resistant. Trim horn tips if they reach the neck. Breeding Season: October to December (rut for 6 to 10 weeks). Birth Season: March to April.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 young (hybrids often twin).

Sexual Maturity: Male 6 to 18 mo.; female 7 to 18 mo. Fencing: 4 1/2 ft. sufficient. Can jump 4 ft. when motivated.

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Alborz red sheep male. Lighter colored than mouflon and horns swept back more. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

Alborz red sheep females. Colorful, with white on rump, but no saddle patch. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Diamond D Ranch, Texas.

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Alborz red sheep Name: Alborz red sheep (Iranian red sheep), Ovis orientalis gmelini hybrid with Ovis vignei arkal Origin and Status: Naturally occurring hybrid population in Iran’s Alborz Mountains in Asia where Armenian red sheep (O. o. gmelini) from the west have mixed with Trans-Caspian urial (O. v. arkal) from the east. Description: Light brown to roanlooking sheep (not very red), often with at least hint of a white saddle in males (clearer in winter). Variable coat pattern reflects hybrid origin. Black from throat to brisket or white at throat continuing with black to brisket. Throat hair, and sometimes rest of this line, form a ruff. Smoky edge to white underparts. Female color more uniform. Heavy, ridged male horns in arc angled toward or behind neck, or sometimes curl like urial. Big horns 24 to 34 in., up to 36 1/4. Females usually hornless. Some have small, short crescents. Male weight average 110 lbs. and sometimes up to 150; female average 60 lbs. up to 85. Food Habits: High summer range offers abundance of lush green grasses and forbs so sheep build condition and population stays healthy. Food supply limited on winter range, but is sufficient as long as sheep migrate out in spring, letting vegetation on the foothills recover. Habitat: Favor open, undulating terrain. Inhabit high, stony mountains with very low, very scattered brush until snow sends them lower. The change starts in late summer or early fall with the first snows, accumulations finally forcing them down into the foothills for the winter. As snow melts in

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early spring, the return begins, this annual migration being completed by summer.

Water and Climate: Drink freely from the cold mountain streams. Cannot deal with deep snow. Suffer from heat if human development along migration route means that they remain in the lower pastures during summer.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Extremely wary. Take flight at long distances if disturbed. Best not put with other kinds of sheep because likely to interbreed. They are a fertile breeding line in spite of their hybrid origin. Special Considerations: If can get them into a small trap, may be able to catch them by hand. On males with horns that grow toward the neck, tips may sometimes break the skin if the horns grow long. May contract mange from livestock. Diurnal. Breeding Season: November to December. Birth Season: April to May.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 to 2 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 1 1/2 yr. but competitive later; female 1 1/2 yr. if well nourished. Fencing: 8 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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Stumberg sheep males. They are in winter coat, showing maximum white saddle patch. Photo by Gary Ploch, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

Stumberg sheep females and young male. The large-horned female in center shows her argali ancestry. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

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Stumberg Sheep Name: Stumberg sheep, a hybrid form developed by Louis H. Stumberg of The Patio Ranch, Hunt, Texas, by breeding argali (Ovis ammon) with mouflon females (Ovis musimon) Origin and Status: Texas. Originated when Mr. Stumberg could not acquire purebred argali females to breed to his argali males for a conservation project to safeguard the species against extinction. Redirecting his efforts, Mr. Stumberg then used mouflon ewes (after scrupulous health testing) to create a large-horned line for hunting. Breeding program still actively in progress on The Patio Ranch. Description: Like a large mouflon but bigger horns. Reddish brown back with white saddle on male. Black and white accents. Males have black ruff along lower neck (thicker and longer in winter). White underparts. May be black on lower sides and upper legs. Lower legs light or white. Coarse guard hairs cover woolly undercoat. Horns on male and most females. Male horns circle and flare outward at tips. Horns particularly heavy and typically complete well over a full curl. Trophy lengths commonly 30 to 39 in. Most females originally hornless. Now 80 to 90 percent horned as result of selective breeding. Female horns often 3 to 5 in. but a few 7 to 8 in., and very exceptionally 18 in. Male weight 150 to 225 lbs.; female typically 100 lbs. Food Habits: Grazers. Grasses are staple. Eat forbs when available, and some leaves. Habitat: Low hills with mosaic of grassy openings and brush. Thick stands of cedar offer shelter, and numerous oaks—especially live oaks—add shade as well as browse.

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Water and Climate: Very water dependent. Tend to stay near water. Trees, brush, and gullies give needed protection from the weather. Insulating coat helps protect from cold.

Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. Males aggressive among one another. Both males and females very aggressive at feeders and can be dangerous to either people or other animals if enclosed in a small space. Wary of approach by humans and quick to flee. Argali will crossbreed freely with any sheep, including domestic sheep and urial as well as mouflon. Expect fertile offspring. Normally compatible with any other exotics as long as enough food available. Graze close to ground. Less feeding competition with browsers except for fallen leaves. Special Considerations: When mature, fight to decide dominance. This determines which males have priority at breeding time. Variability of stature and horn development because of hybrid background. Breeding Season: Can breed all year, but main mating activity in late summer. Birth Season: Peak in January.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 mo.; 1 to 2 young (twins common).

Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 9 mo. Fencing: 6 ft. usually sufficient.

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Himalayan tahr male. The ruff on the forequarters of the male is best developed in winter coat. Photo by D. DeMello, © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Himalayan tahr females and young. Well-developed horns but no ruff. Photo by D. DeMello, © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

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Himalayan Tahr Name: Himalayan tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus Origin and Status: Asia; vulnerable (IUCN). Description: Stout wild goat with small horns and males with bushy hair all over from neck to past shoulders and hanging to the knees (shorter in Texas summer). Male ruff straw-colored over a dark brown or gray body, often with hint of red. Newborns much lighter. Horns rise flat and curve back 11 to 14 in. up to 16 7/8 in. Female horns similar but smaller, rarely more than 10 in. Male weight 180 to 200 lbs. up to about 220; female typically 80 lbs. but can reach 150. Food Habits: Grass and leaves. Habitat: Precipitous cliffs with rocks, thick brush, and forest. Range as high as tree line, but not above. Make abundant use of shade and shelter. Females, but not males, use open clearings for grazing during full daylight and prefer open summits. Males prefer wooded cliffs below, keeping to forests of oak and cane except in evening and early morning. Crowd into valley bottoms in March and April driven down by accumulating snow. Return up as the snow melts. Water and Climate: Presumably drink from mountain streams as well as getting moisture in forage. Come from a cold, dry climate.

males in same group. Young are vigorous and mothers usually rear them easily. Monestrous. Can be prolific in captivity. Old males separate from female groups in late summer, rejoining the females in late fall. On their sheer slopes, the fierce fights over females during rut sometimes end with one of the combatants falling to his death. Meat of male said to be strong, although esteemed by people living near the native haunts of the species. Meat of female said to be excellent. Callous pads on chest help protect while negotiating rocky slopes. Breeding Season: Winter rut (December). Birth Season: May to July with most born in June or June and early July.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 6 mo.; 1 young, occasionally 2.

Sexual Maturity: Male at most by 1 1/2 yr.; female at most by 1 1/2 yr. Fencing: 13 ft. might work. Jump 8 ft. easily—including onto roofs of houses. Secret to containment is to satisfy their requirements, especially providing tree cover, slopes, and food.

Temperament and Compatibility: Wary. Readily scale the most difficult terrain they can find. Matings with domestic goat unsuccessful, but did produce some abortions. Special Considerations: Males odoriferous like typical goats. In zoos, adult males fairly intolerant of other

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Trans-Caspian urial males. A breeding male in summer coat with a youngster passing by. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

Trans-Caspian urial females and young. Note variation in horn development among male and female youngsters. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of The Patio Ranch, Texas.

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Trans-Caspian Urial Name: Trans-Caspian urial, Ovis vignei arkal

Origin and Status: Asia; vulnerable (IUCN).

Description: Golden-eyed, pale, sandy sheep looking uniform in summer but darkening for winter, males then adding black and white accents and ruffs. White bib and long white neck ruff. In winter, can have dark on chest, black shoulder mark, but no white saddle patch. Ridged male horns light colored. Full horn circle in old males. Tips either in or out. Horns often 24 to 34 in., up to 45 in. Females usually horned (thick, upright, tips back slightly). Average 7 in., up to 15 in. Male weight average 140 lbs. and can reach 200; female average 75 lbs. and can reach 120. Food Habits: Mainly grasses, but also forbs. Crave salt in spring when flush of new growth. Habitat: Favor open, rolling terrain. Gentle to steep mountains but rarely rugged. Stony ground with scattered, low vegetation. Also clumps of spruce, large junipers, and deciduous trees for protection. Go higher or lower on their particular mountainside according to weather. Water and Climate: Easy access to water important for growth. Drink daily in summer unless grass fresh after recent rain. Travel little unless water becomes scarce in their familiar area. If water far, will relocate near water until rainy season makes their favored range habitable again. Troubled by cold. Cannot deal with deep snow. Seek higher elevations, shade, and breezy resting spots to moderate heat.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Gregarious. High strung. Nervous if approached in small enclosures. Mother fights predators. Poor competitors. Will relocate to poor range rather than bear stress of sharing range with livestock. Can interbreed with mouflon, argali, domestic sheep, and probably other sheep. Special Considerations: Pick up parasites more than many sheep. Horn tips occasionally touch face. Fights are more common where urial population density is low because then it is easier for a dominant male to fend off intruders. Where herds are large (more than 200), dominant males tend to be swamped so other active males sometimes can mate. Female groups remain in traditional areas. Heat 1 to 2 days. Diurnal, feed early and late. Breeding Season: Late November to mid-December. Birth Season: April to May.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 5 to 5 1/2 mo.; 1 to 2 young (triplets rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 2 1/2 2 yr. (occasionally 1 1/2); female 1 to 1 1/2 yr. if well nourished. Fencing: 8 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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CAT TL E

African Cape buffalo Banteng Gaur Water buffalo Yak

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African Cape buffalo male. Note wide boss at base of horn. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

African Cape buffalo female. Note boss that denotes a senior female. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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223

African Cape Buffalo Name: African Cape buffalo, Syncerus caffer caffer Origin and Status: Africa; largest of several African buffalo races; survival is conservation dependent (IUCN). Description: Massive, black, ox-like animal with big, fringed ears. Smooth horns on all adults curve down and then circle back up again, the boss over the forehead growing particularly heavy in large males. Moderate horn span 39 in. Very large 47 and up. Record 59 3/8 in. Male weight 935 to 1,985 lbs.; female 933 to 1,200 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. Prefer tall, coarse grasses. This helps other animals get shorter grasses that may be more palatable for them. Take some browse. Habitat: Grassland and open savannah near permanent water. Typically in tall grass. Water and Climate: Water dependent. Stay within one day of water, especially when food is dry. Hot conditions acceptable where they have water and shade. Temperament and Compatibility:

such that parasites or diseases that buffalo have been carrying without symptoms become a problem very quickly. Wild Cape buffalo seem notably resistant to malignant catarrhal fever and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, although bovine tuberculosis can be devastating. Only a low percentage of wild buffalo test positive for brucellosis. All adults likely to respond to any distress call. Estrous cycle about 23 days. Breeding Season: Rut toward end of rains (April to May in East Africa) where rains seasonal, otherwise breed all year. Birth Season: Peak mid long rains when forage good (March to May in East Africa). Two peaks where two rainy seasons. Otherwise births any time.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 11 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 2 1/2 to 3 yr.; female 3 to 4 yr. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. ordinarily adequate.

Very social. Live in large mixed groups (up to 2,000 where populations are high). Subgroup members seek direct contact, even resting heads on each other when sleeping. Generally keep to themselves. Can cause trouble by monopolizing a waterhole. Can be dangerous to humans on foot, especially if surprised at close quarters. Special Considerations: Body condition needs to be good for conception rates to be high, regardless of forage quality at breeding time. A drain on energy reserves, as when food value of grasses declines during the dry season, can lower immune system defenses

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Banteng male. Low and bald between horns, white rump patch. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the White Oak Plantation, Florida.

Banteng females. Reddish orange coat and modest horns compared to male. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the White Oak Plantation, Florida.

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225

Banteng Name: banteng, Bos javanicus Origin and Status: Southeast Asia; endangered (IUCN, USFWS).

Description: Large, often dimorphic, wild ox with white rump and white stockings. Modest dorsal ridge to midback. Some or all males turn dark brown to black in most races. Otherwise tawny. Females and youngsters a bright reddish orange. Very occasionally, stockings and rump patch missing or darker than rest of coat, or small white spots on the brown coat. Born reddish or yellowish with a black streak likely on the back. Area between the horns low, bald, and somewhat horny. Horns round and smooth. Male horns develop wavy ridges near base. Average length 24 in. for males (record 34 1/2) and as much as 12 in. for females. Curved spikes of females follow plain of face backward. Male 1,100 to 2,000 lbs.; female about 882 to 1,340 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer, although also browse. Grasses are staple for much of the year. Prefer young bamboo shoots, and other new growth available during the monsoon. Visit salt licks. Habitat: Favor lightly forested flat to gently rolling terrain with glades of grass and bamboo. Retreat into dense thickets during the day to ruminate. Ascend into gladed hill forests during the monsoon to feed on tender bamboo shoots. Return to grassy valleys in the dry season. Water and Climate: Manage in their dry deciduous woodlands without unusual dependence on water. Came from hot conditions as natives.

ments. Many males solitary except during rut. Best not kept with any other kinds of cattle. Cross with domestic cattle and probably with yak and gayal (domestic gaur or gaurcattle hybrids). Male hybrids often sterile.

Special Considerations: Estrous cycle 3 to 4 weeks. Can have a calf every year. Do much of their feeding during the night, in the early morning, and again in the afternoon. Breeding Season: Timing differs by region. In north, natives rut in September to October. May to June intermediate. In Java, July to August. Birth Season: Births at start of dry season. April to May in northern part of native range. Gestation and Young Per Birth: 9 mo.; 1 young (sometimes 2).

Sexual Maturity: Male about 2 1/2 to 3 1/2; female 2 yr. Fencing: 6 to 7 ft. ordinarily adequate.

Temperament and Compatibility: Wary. Bold enough to feed in cultivated fields, although usually shun settle-

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Gaur male. High ridge between horns and no rump patch. Photo by D. DeMello, © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Gaur female. Horns similar to male and coat can get as dark. Photo © D. Shapiro.

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227

Gaur Name: gaur, Bos gaurus Origin and Status: Asia; vulnerable (IUCN), endangered (USFWS), Appendix I (CITES). Description: Huge wild ox with dark brown to black coat (including rump), white stockings, and a thick bony ridge over the back from shoulders to loins. Bulls commonly stand 6 to 6 1/2 ft. at the shoulder and 7 ft. has been recorded. Some races have 1 or 2 dewlaps. Females and young males medium brown to deep brown, sometimes with reddish tinge, with the typical white lower legs. Newborns yellow or reddish changing to fawn. Yellowish or grizzled on forehead and on hairy, arched ridge between horns. Both males and females have smooth, robust horns curving up from the sides of the head. Horns orangey yellow in young animals, changing to olive and gaining wavy ridges near base in older males. Tips dark. Length up to 31 1/2 in. Male weight typically 2,073 lbs. (1,720 to 2,205); female typically 1,544 lbs. (1,433 to 1,654). Food Habits: Grazer and some browsing. Lives on green grasses when available during wet season, but can manage on browse if necessary during the dry season when it takes leaves along with dry grasses. Also takes a variety of forbs, fallen fruits, and bamboo leaves. Habitat: Favor expanses of hill forest for rumination in thick cover by day. Enter clearings in morning and evening to feed if forage in the forests has given out (as during dry season). Water and Climate: Drink and bathe but probably do not wallow. Only drink in open after streams in forest dry up. Come from hot regions.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Shy and retiring despite their large size. Herd members typically nonaggressive toward humans, but lone males may charge. Avoid civilization. Best not kept with any other kinds of cattle. Hybrids with domestic cattle occasionally fertile. Will cross with gayal (domestic gaur or domestic gaur-cattle hybrids). Also mate with water buffalo, but no offspring recorded. Special Considerations: Very susceptible to rinderpest and various diseases of domestic cattle. Nightshade plants (Solanum nigrum) can kill. Females and young in herds with one or two males. Rutting males go from herd to herd for breeding. Estrous cycle 3 weeks. Receptive 1 to 4 days. Breeding Season: All year. Spring peak 2 mo. anytime from November or December to January or June. Birth Season: All year or extended birth season with peak about December or early in year.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 9 mo.; 1 young (2 rare).

Sexual Maturity: Male about 2 1/2 to 3 1/2 yr.; female as young as 2 1/2 yr. and before 4 yr. Fencing: 6 to 7 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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Water buffalo male with youngsters. The black of adult contrasts with gray immatures marked with white. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Water buffalo female. The adult female looks similar to the adult male. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

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229

Water Buffalo Name: water buffalo, Bubalus arnee (wild Indian water buffalo), Bubalus bubalis (domestic water buffalo) Origin and Status: Asia; wild form endangered (IUCN). Description: Large ox with scant hair that faces forward along midline of back and neck. Wild form typically blackish, but other colors, such as gray, common among some domestics. Can have white legs and white crescent across throat and across lower neck, especially in young animals. Horns long, corrugated, and tend to be triangular in cross section. Most sweep out or back in shallow crescent, but domestic races show everything from wild shape to smoother, rounder horns like a tightly curled African Cape buffalo. Female horns straighter, wider spread, more slender, less angular, and can be longer. Greatest horn spreads of any living bovid (up to 93 1/2 outside spread). Male lengths 39 2/5 to 43 1/3 in.; female 39 2/5 to 52 in. Record 70 1/2 in. Male weight 1,544 to 2,646 lbs. (domestic 900 to 1,200 lbs.); female 550 lbs. and up. Food Habits: Graze on sedges and grasses, plus eat aquatics, and some bush and tree leaves. Habitat: Marshes, wet grasslands, forest, and other areas with plentiful water for wallowing and often with dense vegetation. Floodplains along large river systems. Hot, humid tropics. Water and Climate: Need water for regular drinking and bathing. Protect skin with mud. Submerge to reach aquatic plants. Swim well, even swimming while feeding on floating vegetation. Shade better than wallowing for cooling. Have few sweat glands.

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Temperament and Compatibility: Males unpredictable. Female with new calf dangerously aggressive. Cohabit peaceably with great Indian onehorned rhinoceros. Wild water buffalo willing to mate with domestic water buffalo when no wild mates available. Matings with gaur and with domestic cattle without issue. Special Considerations: Cohesive “clans” of females and their female offspring gather into herds that share nighttime resting places. Flee to tall grass rather than water. Skin of old adults almost bare. Estrous cycle 21 days. Receptive for 1 to 1 1/2 days. Breeding Season: Mainly April to July at end of rains for natives. Birth Season: Mainly March to May in native India. December to June as exotics in Australia (peak in February with peak annual flooding).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 10 1/2 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male nearly 3 yr.; female nearly 3 yr. (18 mo. possible in domestics). Fencing: 6 to 7 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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Yak male. Both the shoulder hump and hair are well developed. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the 777 Ranch, Texas.

Yak male. Spots are common among domestic yaks. Nilgai male in the background. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Arbuckle Wilderness, Oklahoma.

Yak female. Shows shape and color of wild type. Photo © Wildlife Conservation Society, courtesy of the Bronx Zoo, New York.

Yak female. Hornless like many domestic yaks. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Arbuckle Wilderness, Oklahoma.

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231

Yak Name: yak, Bos mutus (wild), Bos grunniens (domestic) Origin and Status: Central Asia; vulnerable (IUCN), endangered (USFWS), Appendix I (CITES). Description: Large, shaggy, ox with hump above shoulders and hair almost brushing ground. Typically black. Rarely golden brown. Domestics often black, brown, piebald, or white. Small calves dark brown. Both males and females carry smooth, round horns, except for some polled domestic breeds. Horns grow out to side, then curve up with tips turned back. Male horns larger, longer, and wider spread. Welldeveloped horns 25 to 30 in. to as much as 37 to 40 in. Horns on domestics 19 1/2 to 35 3/4 in. Female horns often 22 in. (14 1/2 to 31 1/2 in.). Male weight 1,150 to 2,200 lbs., typically 1,200; female 673 to 744 lbs. or more. Domestics less. Food Habits: Grazer. Wiry grasses plus small shrubs, forbs, thorny plants, twigs, and salty earth. Early spring green-up, as on certain hillsides, attracts large herds and aids reproduction. Habitat: Cold deserts above tree line and especially alpine meadows and steppe with freshwater streams. Roam widely in scattered herds to find food. Escape summer heat by ascending annually to areas of permanent snow. Sure-footed on rough slopes. Water and Climate: Water daily. When streams and pools freeze, eat snow or ice. Often stand or wallow in running water, such as icy streams springing from glaciers. Herds will swim rivers. Heavy snowfalls can lead to malnutrition and death losses. Take cold well, including night lows without cover. Rarely use sheds provided

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against cold. Bathing in lakes and streams reported during severe cold may mitigate extreme lows. Survival can be poor in warm climates.

Temperament and Compatibility: Highly gregarious. Shy and unpredictable in wild. Domestic breeds strong and docile. Females and young form large herds, often with some males. Rutting males gather harem for 1 to 2 months. Can sometimes keep several males in captive groups but may be belligerent to other kinds of animals. Wild yaks breed readily with domestic yaks and domestic cattle. Cross with American and European bison and possibly with banteng. Special Considerations: Domestics may grind teeth and are often infested with tapeworms. Brucellosis, common in livestock in Tibet including domestic yaks, may cause low reproduction among wild yaks. Graze at night and early morning, then lie down on hillsides among the rocks. Breeding Season: Rut in wild in September (late autumn) for several weeks. Birth Season: April to June in wild when melting snow has exposed fresh moor grass. Births less coordinated in domestic breeds. Zoo births from wild stock mainly in June.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 8 1/2 to 9 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male domestics 4 yr.; female domestics 3 to 4 yr. Fencing: 6 to 8 ft. ordinarily sufficient.

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OTHER ANIMALS Camel, Arabian (dromedary) Camel, Bactrian Giraffe Giraffe, reticulated Llama Rhinoceros, black Rhinoceros, white (square-lipped rhinoceros) Wild boar Zebra, Chapman’s Zebra, Grant’s Zebra, Grévy’s

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Arabian camel male. In short summer coat. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

Arabian camel female. A patch of longer hair is atop the hump even in summer coat. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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235

Arabian Camel Name: Arabian camel (dromedary, onehumped camel), Camelus dromedarius, only survives as the domesticated form with many races Origin and Status: Arabia, now widespread in Asia and Africa. Description: One-humped camel. Most caramel colored but can be white through browns to black. Short woolly coat with longer hair on top of head and hump, at throat, and along sides of tail. Coat longer in winter. Hump large with fat store when animal well nourished, which helps insulate against sun. Hump keeps fat out of main body where would interfere with heat loss. Male weight 1,000 to 1,900 lbs. and up to 2,230; female 661 to 1,600 lbs. and up to 2,250. The lighter weights are for riding breeds and general working camels, and the heavier weights are for the huge “baggagers.” Can lose a quarter of its body weight when water restricted during summer heat and still restore condition with a large drink. Food Habits: Almost any desert vegetation, often coarse—leaves and thorns, grasses, small branches. Do better on better forage. Draw on fat stored in hump during shortages. Habitat: Desert and semiarid. Sand. Sometimes gravel. Plants scarce and scattered. Water and Climate: When not very hot (desert winter), can go for months without drinking if food moist. Can consume 35 gallons in 10 minutes after depravation. Working camels do better if watered every day (or every 2 to 3 days). Heat resistant, but need shelter against cold.

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Temperament and Compatibility: May spit, bite, or kick. Males in mating condition are dangerously aggressive. Close proximity initially may scare other animals. Will cross with two-humped camel. Male hybrids sterile but females usually fertile. First-generation hybrids large, strong, and nearly as much wool as domestic two-humped camel but single hump (can have dent in top) that is longer and lower than in one-humped species. Second-generation hybrids weak. Special Considerations: Secret to heat hardihood is letting body temperature vary by about 10o F. Both male and female have pair of glands at back of head that enlarge during mating time (odorous secretion)—more so in males. Rutting male makes gurgling roar while inflating soft palate so that a membranous sac (“goulla”) sticks out of his mouth. Fighting camels bite, shove, and try to force each other down. Mate lying down. May be induced ovulators. Estrous cycle 13 to 40 days with heat for 3 to 4 days. May reproduce up to 20 to 30 years old. Diurnal. Breeding Season: January to March. Often winter if is a wet season. Less regular in captivity. Birth Season: Often between February and May. Less regular in captivity.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 12 to 13 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 6 to 8 yr. for full sexual activity; female 3 yr. Fencing: 6 to 7 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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Bactrian camel male. In short summer coat. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

Bactrian camel female. Note longer, dark hair over top of humps in summer coat. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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Bactrian Camel Name: Bactrian camel (two-humped camel), Camelus ferus (wild), Camelus bactrianus (domestic, no distinctive breeds) Origin and Status: Central Asia; endangered (USFWS), critically endangered (IUCN). Description: Two-humped camel. Wild form grayish tan with sparse, woolly coat, and small tuft on top of head. Slender build with small humps. Domestic form brown to dark brown with long wool (especially in winter) and ample tuft on top of head. Heavy build with large humps. Humps enlarge with stored fat when animal well nourished, which helps insulate against sun. Humps keep fat out of main body cavity were it would interfere with heat loss. Male weight up to 1,433 lbs. (domestic 1,175 to 2,205); female 992 lbs. and up (1,323 to 1,580 domestic). Food Habits: Almost any desert vegetation, often coarse—leaves (favor poplar), grasses, shrubs, small branches. Do better on better forage. Store fat in humps during fall. Draw on it for nourishment during severe winters. Large humps of domestics flop over when fat is depleted. Habitat: Cold desert, semidesert, and steppe, including mountainous regions. Water and Climate: When not very hot, can go months without drinking if food moist. May take 15 gallons at a time after depravation. Withstand dry heat and cold. Do poorly where wet.

237 domestic one-humped camels. These two domestics breed with each other. Male hybrids sterile but females usually fertile. First-generation hybrids are large and strong with nearly as much wool as domestic two-humped camel but single hump (can have dent at top) that is longer and lower than in one-humped camel. Second-generation hybrids weak. Special Considerations: Both male and female have pair of glands at back of head that enlarge during mating time (odorous secretion)—more so in males. Rutting male makes gurgling roar while inflating soft palate so that a membranous sac (“goulla”) sticks out of his mouth. Fighting camels bite, shove, and try to force each other down. Mate lying down. May be induced ovulators. Can live at least 25 years. Diurnal. Breeding Season: February wild, February to March domestic (early spring, or in winter wet season). Birth Season: March to April (spring).

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 12 1/2 to 13 1/2 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male 4 yr., sometimes not until 5 to 6 yr.; female 4 yr. (domestics 3 to 4). Fencing: 6 to 7 ft. ordinarily adequate.

Temperament and Compatibility: May spit, bite, or kick. Males in mating condition are dangerously aggressive. Close proximity initially may scare other animals. Wild form hybridizes with its domestics and presumably with

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Giraffe male (Masai race). Note “maple leaf” pattern of spots with lots of the light color in between. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

Giraffe female (Masai race). Some spots have geometric shapes while others are irregular. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Houston Zoo, Texas.

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239

Giraffe Name: giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis Origin and Status: Africa; conserva-

Temperament and Compatibility: Social

tion dependent (IUCN).

but not very gregarious. Food and animals scattered so hard to define groups. Individuals drift in and out. Largely peaceful, but mother defends young. Dominance decided in sparring by youngsters in bachelor groups so few serious fights. All giraffes interbreed (fertile offspring) so purebreds are rare in captivity (except Masai). Special Considerations: Males wander far, going from female to female. When they find an estrous female, they may tend up to 3 days. Female likely to conceive again when her calf is 7 to 9 mo. old. Unbred females come into heat at intervals of 14 to 19 days. After its first 3 to 7 days, newborn joins other calves while mothers go feed. Mother comes back to calf for the night, nursing when she returns and again in morning before leaving. Old males may develop a strong odor. If young show enlarged joints, may need more calcium and vitamin D. Diurnal, plus night feeding. Breeding Season: All year, but tend to peak during rains in wild. Birth Season: All year, with tendency for births during drier seasons.

Description: Long neck and legs make this the tallest land animal. Male typically 15 to 16 ft. (large 17 to 18). Female 13 to 16 ft. Pale latticework around brown or chestnut spots. Pattern and color depth vary by race and individual. Spots like geometric tiles in northern races (including reticulated giraffe) and often jagged like maple leaves in southern races (such as Masai giraffe). Sloping back and short body. Born with horns (skin over core that turns to bone as animal matures). As further bone deposits strengthen skull, more projections tend to form, especially on middle of face. Main horns up to 5 1/2 to 8 1/2 in. Female horns thinner and often a little shorter. Male weight average 2,426 lbs. (1,650 to 4,256); female average 1,544 lbs. (992 to 2,602). Food Habits: Browser. Prefer fresh leaves and tender twigs. Some of most favored acacia trees defended by resident ants so seldom feed long in one spot. Also require other food because of strong chemicals in acacias. Take vines, forbs, a little young grass. May chew bark or bones. Habitat: Dry savannahs and open woodlands. Frequent plains as long as at least some tree cover. Prefer low- to medium-height trees. Females and young may use open more than males. Water and Climate: Drink irregularly, sometimes every 2 to 7 days but may go without for weeks or months. Vulnerable when drinking. Regulations require tall shelters for captive giraffes whether they use them or not, plus always have shade available. Provide heat for winter.

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Gestation and Young Per Birth: 14 1/2 to 15 1/2 mo.; 1 young (rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 3 to 4 yr. but needs full size at 7 to compete; female 3 1/2 yr. Fencing: 8 ft. May walk through wire fences, then learn to jump 6 ft. without much trouble. Wire mesh (openings up to 6 by 6 in.) plus sturdy bars has been successful (12 by 12 in. lethal).

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Reticulated giraffe male. Note the geometric regularity of spots and the very dark color of spots on this senior male. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

Reticulated giraffe female. The width of the light latticework varies between individuals, but spots still line up evenly. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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241

Reticulated Giraffe Name: reticulated giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata Origin and Status: Eastern Africa, conservation dependent for whole species (IUCN). Description: One of smaller races of one of tallest animals. Long neck and legs on short body. Male typically 14 to 15 ft. (large 16). Female 13 to 15 ft. Large chestnut spots like geometric tiles. Latticework around spots white on neck and often creamy on body. Typically very thin lines making unique pattern for this subspecies, but sometimes thicker tracery resembling pattern in some other races. Details and depth of color vary among individuals. Born with horns (skin over core that turns to bone). As further bone deposits strengthen skull, more projections tend to form, especially on middle of face. Main horns up to 5 1/2 to 8 1/2 in. Female horns thinner, often shorter. Male weight average 2,200 lbs. (1,550 to 3,528); female average 1,350 lbs. (992 to 2,095). Food Habits: Browser. Prefer fresh leaves and tender twigs. Some of most favored acacia trees defended by resident ants so seldom feed long in one spot. Also require other food because of strong chemicals in acacias. Take vines, forbs, a little young grass. May chew bark or bones. Habitat: Dry savannahs and open woodlands. Frequent plains as long as at least some tree cover. Prefer low- to medium-height trees. Females and young may use open more than males. Water and Climate: Drink irregularly, sometimes every 2 to 7 days but may go without for weeks or months. Vulnerable when drinking. Regulations require tall shelters for captive giraffes whether they

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use them or not, plus always have shade available. Provide heat for winter.

Temperament and Compatibility: Social but not very gregarious. Food and animals scattered so hard to define groups. Individuals drift in and out. Largely peaceful, but mother defends young. Dominance decided in sparring by youngsters in bachelor groups so few serious fights. All giraffes interbreed (fertile offspring) so had to find pure reticulated form in captivity. Special Considerations: Males wander far, going from female to female. When find an estrous female, may tend up to 3 days. Female likely to conceive again when her calf is 7 to 9 mo. old. Unbred females come into heat at intervals of 14 to 19 days. After its first 3 to 7 days, newborn joins other calves while mothers go feed. Mother comes back to calf for the night, nursing when she returns and again in morning before leaving. Old males may develop a strong odor. If young show enlarged joints, may need more calcium and vitamin D. Diurnal, plus night feeding. Breeding Season: All year, but tend to peak during rains in wild. Birth Season: All year, with tendency for births during drier seasons.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 14 1/2 to 15 1/2 mo.; 1 young (rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 3 to 4 yr. but needs full size at 7 to compete; female 3 1/2 yr. Fencing: 8 ft. May walk through wire fences, then learn to jump 6 ft. without much trouble. Wire mesh (openings up to 6 by 6 in.) plus sturdy bars has been successful (12 by 12 in. lethal).

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Llama male and female. The breeding male behind the female shows a thick neck. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Llama females and male. Note color variation shown by females (grazing) and castrated male. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Kyle Wildlife LP, Texas.

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Llama Name: llama, Lama glama Origin and Status: South America; a domestic often kept as part of exotics operations. Description: Humpless camel relative with long neck, straight back, upright ears, and lots of coarse wool. White, brown, black, or spotted. Spots either large or small. Male weight average 350 lbs. (275 to 500), castrate average 275 lbs. (200 to 400); female average 300 lbs. (160 to 300); includes weight of fleece (only 2 to 5 lbs.). Food Habits: Adapted for low-protein, high-fiber diet. Can live on tall, coarse bunch grass. When they eat high volume of stems, they eat low volume of food (food passage slow so utilize food well). Habitat: Adapted to harsh, open, alpine or temperate grassland habitat (can be quite cold). Water and Climate: Need at least one ample drink daily, so fresh water free choice works best. Liquids absorbed fast. Cold rarely a problem when they have fleece intact. Heat stress likely during summer unless provide misters or other ways to moderate heat. Shearing can help.

Temperament and Compatibility: Often very mild tempered and tractable, but studs apt to be nervous and some are aggressive. Check diets if are kept with animals being supplemented because some feeds may be toxic for llamas or inappropriate for other animals. Special Considerations: Maintained on feed, 11 to 15 percent protein usually adequate for adults if they also get ample roughage, such as low quality grass hay. Watch diet. Obesity aggravates overheating and causes

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243 reproductive difficulties. On improved pasture, drymatter intake can reach 200 percent of maintenance requirement. On rangeland during dry seasons, intake may only yield 80 percent. Supplements given other exotics likely to be too high in protein or copper for llamas. Copper intake range 4 to 10 ppm (greater than 25 to 40 ppm toxic) so some equine and antelope diets lethal for llamas whereas many sheep dietary copper limits compatible. Most births between 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. As many as half of pregnancies fail within 90 days of conception. Presence of male required to induce ovulation. Separate female from male for birth (male will try to breed as soon as female is no longer pregnant—even during delivery). Breeding Season: Mainly September to November in the United States but some in every month. (Time captive matings for convenience.) Birth Season: Mainly August to November, any time possible.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 11 to 12 1/2 mo.; 1 young (called a “cria”). Sexual Maturity: Male 2 yr. with full capability at 3 (wait until 3 to 4 yr. to judge stud potential); female 11 to 12 mo. (exceptionally 6 mo.). South American females not bred until 3 yr. to improve growth and health. Female not necessarily ready to breed just because she has reached large size. Fencing: 4 ft. ordinarily adequate.

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Black rhinoceros male. A hump over shoulders. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the San Antonio Zoo, Texas.

Black rhinoceros female with calf. The upper lip rounds down to a point. Photo by Rob Payne, courtesy of La Coma Ranch, Texas.

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Black Rhinoceros Name: black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis Origin and Status: Africa; endan-

Temperament and Compatibility: Irascible

gered (USFWS), critically endangered (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES). Description: Big, dark gray rhinoceros with pointed, prehensile upper lip. Testes internal. Two well-developed horns on all adults. No boney core. Typically both horns tall and sharp but front horn noticeably longer. Female horns more slender and occasionally greater length. Horns keratin as in antelopes. Fray easily. Kept sharp by rubbing on trees and rocks. Front typically 17 1/2 to 21 in., exceptionally 38 to 53 1/2 (female). Rear typically 10 1/2 to 23 in., exceptionally 27 to 32 1/8, but rear horn sometimes only 4 1/2 to 8 in. Male weight 2,196 to 3,970 lbs.; female 1,543 to 2,783 lbs. Food Habits: Browser. Take wide variety of leaves, twigs, and branches, often using horn to pull down branches and even break them. Seasonal preference for legumes. Pull up tree seedlings. Eat clover or other forbs if lack more favored food. Pluck grass if tall. Favor salt. Habitat: Brush, often thorny. Includes hilly terrain. Prefer edges of wooded patches so in open woodland. Where can, visit wetlands during dry season. Avoid very dense cover and open grassland. Need wallows (mud, sand, or dust) to keep cool and mud to protect against insects. Water and Climate: Drink once a day, more if possible. On moist food, can go 4 to 5 days between drinks. Usually stay within 3 miles of permanent water unless rains make water more available. When very dry, will dig in sand up to 20 in. for water. Swim well. Provide heat in cold weather.

and unpredictable, aggravated by brush habitat where sight limited. When disturbed, run away or charge (fast and agile). Mother fiercely protective of calf. Adults often solitary and sedentary. Males using same waterhole keep overlapping, ill-defined breeding areas and feeding zones. Female often attacks suitor, but stands quietly during copulation. Female drives away previous offspring at time of next birth. Special Considerations: Because of violent courtship, zoos sometimes blunt horns before allowing animals together. Remove horn if partly dislodged or regrowth may be deformed. In wild, prone to sores of cracked, inflamed skin behind elbows. Both males and females use same dung piles (white rhinos, too). Male marks bushes and rocks with urine. Breeding Season: Breed at any time of year. When there is a weak periodicity in the wild, it may be related to flush of new forage growth near start of rains. Birth Season: Births at any time. Tendency to peak if was previous peak in mating.

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Gestation and Young Per Birth: 15 1/2 to 17 1/2 mo. (female breeds every 2 to 5 yr.); 1 young (rarely 2). Sexual Maturity: Male 4 to 5 yr. but noncompetitive until 7 to 9; female 4 to 5 yr. Fencing: 4 1/2 ft. (may prop front feet atop 3-ft. barrier). Heavy pipe fences have worked on ranches. Thick chain hung 1 ft. from floor enough in zoo for temporary cage cleaning barrier.

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White rhinoceros male. A hump over neck. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the San Antonio Zoo, Texas.

White rhinoceros female with group. The wide mouth facilitates grazing. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the White Oak Conservation Center, Florida.

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White Rhinoceros Name: white rhinoceros (square-lipped rhinoceros), Ceratotherium simum Origin and Status: Africa; endangered northern race (USFWS), near threatened southern race but critically endangered northern race (IUCN), Appendix I except for some approved transfers and trophies for southern race as Appendix II (CITES). Description: Massive, light gray rhinoceros with wide, squared-off mouth. Hump at neck base. Testes internal. Two horns on male and female. Both male and female horns well developed. No bony core. Front horn normally much larger. Female horns more slender and often longer. Horns are keratin as in antelopes. Fray easily. Kept sharp by rubbing on trees or rocks. Front horn typically 23 to 25 1/2 in., 40 to records 62 1/4 to 78 7/10 exceptional. Rear horn commonly 7 to 15 in., 25 to a record of 29 3/4 exceptional. Male weight typically 4,600 lbs. (4,498 to 4,983); female 3,087 to average of 3,528 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. Staple is short grasses. Feeds most efficiently on extensive tracts of short green grass, but no front teeth so cannot crop plants too close to ground. Habitat: Open grass plains—preferably with a few trees for shade—and open woodland or brush. May pass midday heat sleeping on a ridge where breeze discourages flies. Where can, congregate in wetlands during dry season. Sweat, plus wallows for cooling body. Wallowing in mud, sand, or dust, and using rubbing posts may help keep skin supple (and discourage insects). Water and Climate: Drink once or twice daily when water readily available. Can wait 2 to 4 days if waterholes

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far away. When dry, walk as far as 6 miles for water. Swim well. Water and wallows make heat tolerable. Need added heat if cold.

Temperament and Compatibility: Relatively placid but still unpredictable. Aggression ordinarily infrequent and low level except in territorial encounters, during courtship, or if calf threatened. Rush to check strange sounds, and may charge this way and that if they become uneasy (fast and agile). Adults sedentary. Males mark territories (urine, dung piles). Females (black rhinos, too) use same dung piles. Calf with mother until driven away (finds a partner). Special Considerations: Remove horn if partially dislodged or regrowth may be deformed. Try to raise in groups for social learning. Females cycle monthly. Courtship can last 5 to 20 days. Often, calf very possessive of mother. Copulation lasts half hour. Breeding Season: Breed at any time of year. Flush of green grass may bring on estrus. Birth Season: Can be fall peak if was a spring rut almost a year and a half before.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 16 mo. (female breeds every 2 to 3 yr.); 1 young (twins rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 4 to 5 yr. but noncompetitive until 7 to 10; female about 5 yr. Fencing: Often 4 1/2 ft. is enough but one individual kept climbing a 6 ft. gate to escape. Heavy pipe fences have worked in ranch situations. Remote control doors help.

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Wild hog adult. This adult looks like the wild type but its full ancestry is unknown. Photo by Jim Whitcomb, courtesy of Texas Parks & Wildlife copyright © 2004, Texas.

Wild hog female with young. It is uncertain what part true wild boar played in the ancestry of this female, but the piglets are brown with stripes like wild boar young. Photo by staff photographer, courtesy of the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, Tennessee.

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Wild Boar Name: wild boar (predecessor of the domestic pig), Sus scrofa Origin and Status: Europe, Asia, North Africa; common in some places but gone from others. Description: Large hog with coarse, grizzled coat, powerful forequarters, and sharp tusks. Piglets brownish with horizontal yellowish streaks. Domestic stock gone wild can revert to this description, although a mix of traits is likely within mixed populations. Male tusks longer, thicker, less curved than female’s, with nearly two-thirds of the length anchored inside jawbone. Total exotics male lengths 1 to 6 in. upper tusks and 3 to 9 5/8 in. lowers. Lower tusks from India average 8 to 9 in., and world record 15 in. Indian females can show 2 1/2 in. above jaw from total tooth length of more than 8 in. Average weight 80 to 90 lbs. with big males 250 to 300 lbs. or more; 770 lbs. male maximum in native habitat. In Tennessee, more than 250 lbs. assumed to indicate pen-reared animals or crosses with domestic swine. Feral hogs in East Texas go from adult weights of 72 lbs. to 190 for males or 175 for females. Food Habits: Eat both plant and animal matter. Very flexible, varied, and relatively unspecialized. Rely on fruits, nuts, forbs, sedges, and grasses supplemented with carrion and small animals like mice and snakes. Dig with tusks for earthworms, insect larvae, and plant roots. Will travel 6 miles to feed on milo. Habitat: Moist areas best. Concentrate along major drainage systems and favor sites with plentiful mast. But accept almost any habitat with at least a little cover and mud for baths. Fairly sed-

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entary if ample food, but range widely to feed in croplands.

Water and Climate: Need surface water. Will drink from wallows if necessary. Can swim more than a mile. Grow larger in wetter areas. Very hardy and adaptable in spite of stress period in late spring to early summer after supplies of favored fruits and acorns gone.

Temperament and Compatibility: Can be very aggressive, especially female with young or any cornered hog. Compete for their important acorns and fruits. Gregarious except for adult males. Has virtually disappeared due to interbreeding with domestic hogs. Special Considerations: Nocturnal and secretive where disturbed. Hard to eliminate—control creates young, prolific populations. Ongoing efforts along Texas coast minimize rooting damage to fields, roads, and fences at densities below one hog per 135 acres. Parasites common. Breeding Season: Rut November to January; some breeding at other times. Birth Season: Mainly March to May. Well fed older females often 2 litters a year. Feral hogs any time and tend to have 2 birth peaks, but different females may be in each peak.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 mo.; commonly 4 to 6 young per litter (2 to 15 possible). Sexual Maturity: Male 8 mo.; female 8 mo. Fencing: Conventional fencing only contains when food sufficient and when site undisturbed.

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Chapman’s zebra male. Note well-developed shadow stripes and only weak striping on legs. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

Chapman’s zebra female and young. Female and foal have same general pattern as male but unique details to the striping—like fingerprints. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of the Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, Texas.

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Chapman’s Zebra Name: Chapman’s zebra (southernmost remaining race—includes Damara zebra—of the common or plains zebra in the Burchell’s zebra group), Equus quagga antiquorum Origin and Status: South-Central Africa; widespread but reduced. Description: Medium-size zebra with wide black (or brown) and white (or yellowish) stripes. Less distinct “shadow stripes” in between. Stripes fan back over haunches, peter out well before hoofs, may fail to join ventral band along midline of belly. Stripes run into dark nose. Male weight 486 to 783 lbs. up to 849; female 386 to 551 lbs. up to 739. Food Habits: Grazer. Eat wide variety of grasses, including coarse species unsuitable for antelopes. Concentrate on short to midlength grasses during growing season until tall grasses form seed heads, then eat these as well as their coarse stalks. Browse little if grazing reasonable. Habitat: Grassland. Open expanses or grass areas with light tree or brush cover. Water and Climate: Need surface water. Drink from rain pools during wet sessions or visit drinking sites both morning and evening when water more restricted. For exotics, unheated shelters help unless cold is prolonged. Then need heated winter quarters.

(most offspring infertile) with other zebras, donkeys, and horses.

Special Considerations: Abrasive surface helps hoof wear, otherwise restrain and trim. Sandy area about 12 ft. across for rolling and boulders or tree stumps for rubbing aid skin care. Need low-protein, high-fiber diet. Keep away from feeds fortified with ionophores (in some ruminant feeds to boost energy utilization but not always listed on feed label). Watch diet for sufficient vitamin E and copper (but high copper for zebras might kill llamas or sheep). Some feed mixtures for killing coccidian parasites in ruminants might kill nonruminants like zebras. In wild, carry heavy loads of bots, stongyles, and ticks yet still look fit. Nonterritorial. Diurnal. Breeding Season: Spring to late summer, sometimes into fall. Birth Season: Births all year. Peak (early wet seasons) depending on last year’s rainfall. May to August for zoo births.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 11 1/2 to 12 1/2 mo.; 1 young. Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 15 to 24 mo. (wild mares usually first bred at 30 mo. once estrus posture becomes less pronounced). Fencing: 7 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Bold and rough with one another and with other species. Prone to panic. Stress easily and often fatally. Some docile (even tamed), but some savage. Crop forage closer to ground than antelopes and deer, so put these at disadvantage if forage is limited. Hybridize

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Grant’s zebra male. The stripes (but not shadow stripes) are well developed all the way down to the hoofs. Photo by Christian Mungall, courtesy of Dos Pesos Ranch, Texas.

Grant’s zebra female and young. Female and foal have same general pattern as male but unique details to the striping—like fingerprints. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of the Global Wildlife Center, Louisiana.

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Grant’s Zebra Name: Grant’s zebra (northernmost race of the common or plains zebra in the Burchell’s zebra group), Equus quagga böhmi Origin and Status: Eastern Africa; widespread and abundant. Description: Medium-size zebra with wide black-and-white stripes. No “shadow stripes” in between. Stripes fan backward over haunches, continue to hoofs, join ventral band along midline of belly, and run into the dark-colored nose. Male weight 486 to 783 lbs. (average 605); female 386 to 739 lbs. (average 548). Food Habits: Grazer. Eat wide variety of grasses, including coarse species unsuitable for antelopes. Concentrate on short to midlength grasses during growing season until tall grasses form seed heads, then eat these as well as their coarse stalks. Browse little if grazing reasonable. Habitat: Grassland. Open expanses or grass areas with light tree or brush cover. Water and Climate: Need surface water. Drink from rain pools during wet sessions or visit drinking sites both morning and evening when water more restricted. For exotics, unheated shelters may help. Usually manage but still not entirely winter-hardy in prolonged cold.

Special Considerations: Abrasive surface helps hoof wear, otherwise restrain and trim. Sandy area about 12 ft. across for rolling and boulders or tree stumps for rubbing aid skin care. Need low-protein, high-fiber diet. Keep away from feeds fortified with ionophores (in some ruminant feeds to boost energy utilization but not always listed on feed label). Watch diet for sufficient vitamin E and copper (but high copper for zebras might kill llamas or sheep). Some feed mixtures for killing coccidian parasites in ruminants might kill nonruminants like zebras. In wild, carry heavy loads of bots, stongyles, and ticks yet still look fit. Nonterritorial. Diurnal. Breeding Season: Spring to late summer, sometimes into fall. Birth Season: Births all year. Peak (early wet seasons) depending on last year’s rainfall.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 11 1/2 to 12 1/2 mo.; 1 (2 extremely rare). Sexual Maturity: Male 18 mo.; female 15 to 24 mo. (wild mares usually first bred at 30 mo. once estrus posture becomes less pronounced). Fencing: 7 ft. usually sufficient.

Temperament and Compatibility: Bold and rough with one another and with other species. Prone to panic. Stress easily and often fatally. Some docile (even tamed), but some savage. Crop forage closer to ground than antelopes and deer, so put these at disadvantage if forage is in short supply. Hybridize (offspring infertile) with other zebras, donkeys, and horses.

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Grévy’s zebra male. Narrow, dark brown stripes even on rump, white gap on nose, round ears. Photo by Elizabeth Cary Mungall, courtesy of Arbuckle Wilderness, Oklahoma.

Grévy’s zebra female and newborn. Both female and foal have same general pattern as male but unique details to the striping—like fingerprints. Photo by Rob Payne, courtesy of La Coma Ranch, Texas.

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Grévy’s Zebra Name: Grévy’s zebra, Equus grevyi Origin and Status: Eastern Africa; endangered (IUCN), threatened (USFWS), Appendix I (CITES). Description: Large zebra with large, round ears. Narrow, dark brown and white stripes. Semicircular stripes in space on rump between vertical stripes on sides and horizontal stripes on haunches. Side stripes stop short of ventral band along midline of belly leaving belly mostly white. White face patch above brown nose. Male weight 770 to 992 lbs.; female 776 to 893 lbs. Food Habits: Grazer. Eat grass (often dry and gritty) and as much as 30 percent browse. Habitat: Open, grassy plains to thin thorn brush in dry, often rocky, scrubland. Water and Climate: Need surface water. Try to drink at least once daily, but can go 2 to 5 days without water (1 to 2 if lactating). Mother leaves foal while she visits water if water is far away. Will dig up to 2 ft. into riverbed for water. In Texas, unheated shelters typically sufficient in winter. In northern United States, heated quarters (60o F) used if cold is prolonged.

Temperament and Compatibility: Bold and rough, but interact with one another less often and less energetically than do plains zebras. May harass individuals of other species. Confined stallions can be dangerously aggressive, but some mares tame enough to trailer like a horse. Wild stallions hold huge, permanent territories (668 to 2,965 acres with peripheral dung piles) but let other males stay if they remain submissive and if no estrous females are present. Owner leaves if too dry.

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Hybridize (offspring infertile) with other kinds of zebras, donkeys, and horses.

Special Considerations: Abrasive surface helps hoof wear, otherwise restrain and trim. Sandy area 12 ft. or more across for rolling and boulders or tree limbs for rubbing aid skin care. Separate stallion from mares after breeding if persistent biting and kicking. Long development time, so only older males are successful breeders. Need low-protein grass hay and feeds if cannot be maintained on pasture. Keep away from feeds fortified with ionophores (in some ruminant feeds to boost energy utilization but not always listed on feed label). Watch diet for sufficient vitamin E and copper (but high copper for zebras might kill llamas or sheep). Some feed mixtures for killing coccidian parasites in ruminants might kill nonruminants like zebras. Breeding Season: Breed all year unless long dry periods. Birth Season: All year. In wild, births usually peak at start of rains.

Gestation and Young Per Birth: 13 to 14 mo.; 1 young.

Sexual Maturity: Male 2 1/2 yr. to full sexual maturity at 6 yr.; female 2 1/2 yr. Fencing: 7 ft. usually sufficient.

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Exotics-Related Organizations

The Exotic Wildlife Association (EWA) is the main organization dealing with exotic hoofed stock in the United States. Numerous other groups have information relevant to exotics, although not always covering as broad a range of species or concerns. Whether for viewing pleasure or for use in a work environment, the list below gives some of the organizations likely to be most helpful plus a few of the related periodicals. Some promote certain kinds of animals. Some are regulatory and may have updates on endangered status, laws, or procedures. Some put out magazines or other publications. Because certain domesticated animals such as llamas and four-horned sheep are kept as part of exotics collections, the trade groups for these animals are also sources for exotics husbandry topics. Similarly, associations that deal with native wildlife often are useful resources. This is particularly true for species such as bison or elk that are often stocked along with exotics.

Private Associations and Trade Groups Exotic Wildlife Association (EWA) Exotic Wildlife official magazine 105 Henderson Branch Road West Ingram, TX 78025 (830) 367-7761 Fax (830) 367-7762 [email protected] [email protected] www.exoticwildlifeassociation.com International Llama Association (ILA) P.O. Box 1891 Kalispell, MT 59903 (406) 257-0282 Fax (406) 257-8780 [email protected] International Llama Registry (ILR) P.O. Box 8 Kalispell, MT 59903 (406) 755-3438 Fax (406) 755-3439 [email protected] www.llamaregistry.com Jacob Sheep Breeder’s Association [email protected] www.jsba.org

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exotics-related organizations

Llama Association of North America (LANA) 1800 South Obenchain Road Eagle Point, OR 97524-9437 (503) 830-5262 [email protected] www.llamainfo.org National Bison Association (NBA) Formed from 1995 merger of American Bison Association and National Buffalo Association National plus many state affiliates coordinated by bisoncentral.com 1400 West 122nd Avenue, Suite 106 Westminster, CO 80234 (303) 292-2833 Fax (303) 292-2564 www.nbabison.org www.bisoncentral.com North American Deer Farmers Association (NADeFA) The North American Deer Farmer official journal 1720 West Wisconsin Avenue Appleton, WI 54914-3254 (920) 734-0934 Fax (920) 734-0955 [email protected] www.nadefa.org North American Elk Breeders Association North American Elk official publication P.O. Box 1640 Platte City, MO 64079 (816) 431-3605 Fax (816) 431-2705 [email protected] www.naelk.org Texas Wildlife Association TWA Magazine 401 Isom Road, Suite 237 San Antonio, TX 78216-3143 (800) 839-9453 (210) 826-2904 Fax (210) 826-4933

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Government Offices and International Coordinators Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Management Authority, below International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources More recent alternative name The World Conservation Union (IUCN) The IUCN Red List of Endangered Species, book, CD-ROM, and at www.redlist.org Headquarters Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland Switzerland +41 (22) 999-0000 Fax +41 (22) 999-0025 [email protected] www.iucn.org Texas Animal Health Commission (Carla Everett, Director of Public Information) Central Office 2105 Kramer Lane Austin, TX 78758 P.O. Box 12966 Austin, TX 78711-2966 (800) 550-8242 (512) 719-0700 Fax (512) 719-0719 [email protected] [email protected] www.tahc.state.tx.us U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Wildlife Services (part of Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service [APHIS]) National Wildlife Research Center 4101 LaPorte Avenue Fort Collins, CO 80521-2154 Toll free phone (866) 4-USDA-WS (970) 266-6000 Fax (970) 266-6032 [email protected] www.aphis.usda.gov/ws Texas Office Texas Wildlife Services State Director P.O. Box 100410 San Antonio, TX 78201

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(USDA cont.) (210) 472-5451 Fax (210) 472-5446 www.aphis.usda.gov/ws U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (part of U.S. Department of the Interior) Division of Endangered Species 1849 C Street, NW (MS-420 ARLSQ) Washington, DC 20240 www.fws.gov Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Division of Management Authority (DMA) 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 700 Arlington, VA 22203-3247 (800) 358-2104, Branch of Permits (703) 358-2093 or (703) 358-2095, Chief and Operations Branch Fax (703) 358-2281, Branch of Permits (703) 358-2280, Office of Chief (DMA) [email protected] http://international.fws.gov www.cites.org for lists of animals on CITES Appendices I, II, III

Magazines and Other Periodicals Directory of Alternative Livestock and Bird Owners RR 1, Box 3648 B Sidney, MT 59270 (406) 798-3405 Exotic Wildlife See Exotic Wildlife Association above Llamas: The International Camelid Journal 46 Main Street Jackson, CA 95642 Rare Breeds Journal P.O. Box 66 Crawford, NE 69339 (308) 665-1431 Fax (308) 665-1931 [email protected] www.rarebreedsjournal.com

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References

Introduction 1. Grzimek, Bernhard, ed.-in-chief. 1972–75. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, Mammals I–IV, vols. 10–13. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 2,485 pp. 2. Wilson, Don E., and DeeAnn M. Reeder. 1993. Mammal Species of the World, 2d ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 1,206 pp. 3. Valdez, Raul. 1982. The Wild Sheep of the World. Wild Sheep and Goat International, Mesilla, NM. 186 pp. 4. Whitehead, G. Kenneth. 1972. Deer of the World. Constable & Co. Ltd, London. 194 pp. 5. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary, and William J. Sheffield. 1994. Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. 265 pp. 6. Yajko, R. Douglas, and Ron Simmons, eds.-in-chief. 2000. The Safari Club International Record Book of Trophy Animals: All Time Book, ed. 1. Safari Club International, Tucson, AZ. 1,266 pp. 7. Stüwe, M., and B. Nievergelt. 1991. Recovery of Alpine Ibex from Near Extinction: The Result of Effective Protection, Captive Breeding, and Reintroductions. In: E. C. Mungall, ed. Ungulate Behavior and Management. Elsevier, New York. Pp. 379–87. 8. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary. 1998. Bucks in the Black: India vs. Texas. Exotic Wildlife, 8(6):1 and 9. 9. Rahmani, A. R. 2001. India. In: D. P. Mallon and S. C. Kingswood (compilers). Antelopes. Part 4: North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Global Survey and Regional Action Plans. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 178–87. 10. Anonymous. 1996. Exotic Hoofstock Survey. Texas Agricultural Statistics Service and the Exotic Wildlife Association, Ingram, TX. 4 pp. 11. Nowak, Ronald M. 1991. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed., II. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 987 pp. 12. Correll, Terrie. 2003. Member of the Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group (SSIG), an international network of specialists and institutions. Phone interview, December 10, 2003. 13. Mallon, D., and S. Kingswood. 1999. Oryx dammah, 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at www.redlist.org. Accessed June 9, 2004. 14. Anonymous. 2003. Fauna Massacred in Niger, as trans. for reprinting in The Times (May 3, 2003) from French article in Algerian newspaper El Watan, originally published May 2–3, 2003. Subsequently reprinted in Gnusletter, 22(1):7–8. 15. Montfort, Steven L. 2003. SSIG letter to the IUCN director general, Gnusletter. 22(2):14–15. 16. Anonymous. 2000. ISIS Mammalian Abstract, December 31, 1999 ed. International Species Information System, Apple Valley, MN. 269 pp.

Exotics in the United States 1. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary. 2000. Exotics, chap. 33. In: Stephen Demarais and Paul R. Krausman, eds. Ecology and Management of Large Mammals in North America. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pp. 736–64.

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2. Laycock, George. 1966. The Alien Animals. Natural History Press, Garden City, NY. 240 pp. 3. Telfair, Raymond Clark. 1983. The Cattle Egret: Texas Focus and World View. Kleberg Studies in Natural Resources. 144 pp. 4. Thompson, Mary V. 2006. President George Washington’s Deer, research summary provided by Mary V. Thompson, Research Specialist, Mount Vernon Estate & Gardens, in response to query. E-mail, January 20, 2006. 5. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary, and William J. Sheffield. 1994. Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. 265 pp. 6. Roney, Ernest E., Jr. 1978. San Antonio Zoo Antelope Collection. AAZPA Regional Workshop Proceedings 1977–78. Hill’s Division of Riviana Foods, Topeka, KS. Pp. 100– 109. 7. Silver, Helenette. 1957. A History of New Hampshire Game and Furbearers, survey report no. 6. New Hampshire Fish and Game Department, Concord, NH. 466 pp. 8. Hughes, Raymond. 1991. Wild Boar Proves Formidable Foe, Corbin Park’s Beginnings. Eagle Times, August 18. Pp. 1 and 6. 9. Whitehead, G. Kenneth. 1972. Deer of the World. Constable & Co. Ltd, London. 194 pp. 10. Waring, George H. 1996–97. Preliminary Study of the Behavior and Ecology of Axis Deer on Maui, Hawaii, online report presented by Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk (HEAR) Project. Available at http://hear.org/AlienSpeciesIn Hawaii/waringreports/asixdeer. htm. Accessed July 14, 2004. 11. Graf, William, and Lyman Nichols Jr. 1966. The Axis Deer in Hawaii, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 63(3):629–734. 12. Tomich, P. Quentin. 1986. Mammals in Hawai’i. In: George H. Waring. 1996–97. Preliminary Study of the Behavior and Ecology of Axis Deer on Maui, Hawaii. Available at http://hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/waringreports/axisdeer.htm. Accessed July 14, 2004. 13. Brandt, John H. 1982. Wild Exotics in New Mexico. In: Thompson Temple. Records of Exotics, 1982 ed., III. Thompson B. Temple, Ingram, TX. Pp. 33–38. 14. Morrison, Bruce. 1987. New Mexico’s Exotic Wildlife Program: Its Past, Present and Future. In: Thompson B. Temple, ed. Records of Exotics, 1987 ed., IV. Ingram, TX. Pp. 36–39. 15. Anonymous. 1999. Deer: Native and Non-Native, leaflet. Point Reyes National Seashore, Point Reyes, CA. 2 pp. 16. Feldhamer, George A., Joseph A. Chapman, and Robert L. Miller. 1978. Sika Deer and White-Tailed Deer on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, Wildlife Society Bulletin, 6(3): 155–57.

Where to See Exotics 1. Brandt, John H. 1982. Wild Exotics in New Mexico. In: Thompson Temple. Records of Exotics, 1982 ed., III. Thompson B. Temple, Ingram, TX. Pp. 33–38. 2. Laycock, George. 1966. The Alien Animals. Natural History Press, Garden City, NY. 240 pp. 3. Morrison, Bruce. 1987. New Mexico’s Exotic Wildlife Program: Its Past, Present and Future. In: Thompson Temple. Records of Exotics, 1987 ed., IV. Thompson B. Temple, Ingram, TX. Pp. 36–39.

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4. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary, and William J. Sheffield. 1994. Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. 265 pp. 5. Silver, Helenette. 1957. A History of New Hampshire Game and Furbearers, survey report no. 6. New Hampshire Fish and Game Department, Concord, NH. 466 pp. 6. Hughes, Raymond. 1991. Wild Boar Proves Formidable Foe, Corbin Park’s Beginnings. Eagle Times, August 18. Pp. 1 and 6. 7. Eyler, Brian. 2003. Sika: Maryland’s Exotic Little Elk. Available at www.dnr.state. md.us/naturalresource/summer2003/sika.html. Accessed November 5, 2004. 8. Feldhamer, George A., Joseph A. Chapman, and Robert L. Miller. 1978. Sika Deer and White-Tailed Deer on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, Wildlife Society Bulletin, 6(3): 155–57. 9. Flyger, V., and N. W. Davis. 1964. In: George A. Feldhamer, Joseph A. Chapman, and Robert L. Miller. 1978. Sika Deer and White-Tailed Deer on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, Wildlife Society Bulletin, 6(3):155. 10. Eyler, Brian. 2004. Information in press by Brian Eyler, Deer Biologist and Statistician, Maryland Department of Natural Resources. 11. Wood, Gordon. 2004. Resident historian with an interest in wildlife and native of Bethany area, Delaware. On-site discussions during author’s visit of May 8–9, 2004. 12. Anonymous. 2003. Maryland’s Sika Deer, Maryland Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Heritage Service. Available at www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/sikadeer .html. Accessed November 5, 2004. 13. Kennedy, Jackie. 2005. The Park, from Idea to Reality. In: Wild Animal Safari. Available at www.animalsafari.com. Accessed September 8, 2005. 14. [Rutan, Stephanie.] 2003. Karatasi, White Oak Conservation Center newsletter, Spring 2003. 8 pp. 15. Anonymous. 2002. Gilman International Conservation. Available at www.giconline.org. Accessed September 23, 2004. 16. Anonymous. 1996–2004. Lion Country Safari. Available at www.lioncountrysafari.com. Accessed July 6, 2004. 17. Anonymous. 2004. Busch Gardens/Anheuser-Busch Adventure Parks. Available at www.buschgardens.com. Accessed July 6, 2004. 18. Anonymous. 2004. Disney’s Animal Kingdom. Available at www.disney.ca/ vacations/Disneyworld/II/A/4. Accessed July 6, 2004. 19. Barongi, Rick. 2004. With Disney’s Animal Kingdom before current position as Zoo Director, Houston Zoo. E-mail, July 11, 2004. 20. Anonymous. 2004. Brady Ranch. www.bradyranch.com. Accessed July 6, 2004. 21. Whitehead, G. Kenneth. 1972. Deer of the World. Constable & Co. Ltd, London. 194 pp. 22. Flynn, Les B., James C. Lewis, Elizabeth M. Marchington, R. Larry Marchington, and Stephen M. Shea. 1990. Ecology of Sambar Deer on St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. Bulletin of Tall Timbers Research Station, No. 25. 107 pp. 23. Anonymous. 2004. Global Wildlife Center. Available at www.globalwildlife.com. Accessed July 9, 2004. 24. Sheng Helin, Noriyuki Ohtaishi, and Lu Houji. 1999. The Mammals of China. China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, P. R. China. 298 pp. 25. Anonymous. 2003. The Wilds. Available at www.thewilds.org. Accessed November 1, 2004.

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26. Anonymous. 2004. Arbuckle Wilderness. Available at www.arbucklewilderness .com. Accessed July 14, 2004. 27. Anonymous. 2004. Fossil Rim Wildlife Center. Available at www.fossilrim.org. Accessed July 21, 2004. 28. Anonymous. 2003. Natural Bridge Wildlife Ranch, African Safari Texas Style. Available at www.nbwildliferanchtx.com. Accessed September 23, 2004. 29. Woodward, Lorie A. 2004. The Legend—Imprints on the Hills. In: Y.O. Ranch. Available at www.yoranch.com. Accessed September 23, 2004. 30. Schreiner, Charles, III. 1968. Uses of Exotic Animals in a Commercial Hunting Program. Symposium: Introduction of Exotic Animals: Ecological and Socioeconomic Considerations. Caesar Kleberg Research Program in Wildlife Ecology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Pp. 13–16. 31. Anonymous. 2003. 777 Ranch Inc. Available at www.777ranch.com. Accessed September 23, 2004. 32. Hodge, Larry D. 2000. Official Guide to Texas Wildlife Management Areas. Texas Parks and Wildlife Press, Austin. 258 pp. 33. Valdez, Raul. 2004. Professor of wildlife science, New Mexico State University, with special interests in wild sheep and goats worldwide and wildlife ranching in the United States. Phone discussion, August 31, 2004. 34. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary. 2000. Exotics, chap. 33. In: Stephen Demarais and Paul R. Krausman, eds. Ecology and Management of Large Mammals in North America. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pp. 736–64. 35. Anonymous. 2004. SanDiegoZoo.Org. Available at www.sandiegozoo.org/wap/ visitor_info.html. Accessed July 13, 2004. 36. Anonymous. 2001–2004. Hearst Castle, Hearst San Simeon State Historical Monument. Available at www.hearstcastle.com. Accessed July 9, 2004. 37. Anonymous. 1999. Deer: Native and Non-Native, leaflet. Point Reyes National Seashore, Point Reyes, CA. 2 pp. 38. Anonymous. 2005. Safari West. Available at www.safariwest.com. Accessed September 8, 2005. 39. Anonymous. 2004. Wildlife Safari. Available at www.wildlifesafari.org. Accessed September 8, 2005. 40. Graf, W., and L. Nichols Jr. 1966. The Axis Deer in Hawaii, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 63:629–734. 41. Waring, George H. 1996–97. Preliminary Study of the Behavior and Ecology of Axis Deer on Maui, Hawaii, online report presented by Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk (HEAR) Project. Available at http://hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/waringreports/axisdeer .htm. Accessed July 14, 2004. 42. Tomich, P. Quentin. 1986. Mammals in Hawaii. In: George H. Waring. 1996–97. Preliminary Study of the Behavior and Ecology of Axis Deer on Maui, Hawaii. Available at http://hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/waringreports/axisdeer.htm. Accessed July 14, 2004. 43. Smith, K. C., and A. Peischel. 1991. Intensive Wapiti Production in the Tropics: Hawaii. In: L. A. Renecker and R. J. Hudson, eds. Wildlife Production: Conservation and Sustainable Development. Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. Pp. 503–15.

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Photography Basics for Exotics 1. Mattei, Eileen. 2005. Stalking a Wildlife Stalker. Texas Parks and Wildlife, 63(8):30–36. 2. Rue, Leonard Lee, III, and Len Rue Jr. 1996. How to Photograph Animals in the Wild. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA. 133 pp. (See also www.rue.com.) 3. Shaw, John. 2000. John Shaw’s Nature Photography Field Guide. Amphoto Books, New York. 160 pp. (See also www.johnshawphoto.com.) 4. Estes, Richard D. 1992. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 611 pp. 5. Anonymous. 2005. Bogen Imaging. Available at www.bogenimaging.com. Accessed September 30, 2005. 6. Anonymous. 2005. Wimberley. Available at www.tripodhead.com. Accessed September 30, 2005. 7. Anonymous. 2005. Kirk Enterprises. Available at www.kirkphoto.com. Accessed September 30, 2005. 8. Anonymous. 2005. Really Right Stuff: For Photography Afield. Available at www .reallyrightstuff.com. Accessed September 30, 2005. 9. Canon eds. 1999. Lens Work II/Taking Great Pictures with EF Lenses. Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan. 207 pp. 10. Campbell, Charles. 1994. The Backpacker’s Photography Handbook. Amphoto Books, New York. 144 pp. (See also www.charlescampbell.com.) 11. Fitzharris, Tim. 2003. National Audubon Society Guide to Nature Photography, rev. ed. Firefly Books, Buffalo, NY. 192 pp. 12. Anonymous. 2005. Lowepro. Available at www.lowepro.com. Accessed September 30, 2005.

Owning Exotics 1. Craighead, Frank C., Jr., and Raymond F. Dasmann. 1966. Exotic Big Game on Public Lands. Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 28 pp. 2. Teer, James G. 1978. Nonnative Large Mammals in North America. In: George A. Feldhammer, Bruce C. Thompson, and Joseph A. Chapman, eds. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation, 2d ed. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. Pp. 1,180–87. 3. Geist, V. 1988. How Markets in Wildlife Meats and Parts, and the Sale of Hunting Privileges, Jeopardize Wildlife Conservation. Conservation Biology, 2:15–26. 4. Schreiner, Charles, III. 1968. Uses of Exotic Animals in a Commercial Hunting Program. Symposium: Introduction of Exotic Animals: Ecological and Sociological Considerations. Caesar Kleberg Research Program in Wildlife Ecology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. Pp. 13–16. 5. Harris, Roy A., and K. R. Duff. 1970. Wild Deer in Britain. Taplinger Publishing, New York. 112 pp.

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Glossary

Technical terms and specialized language likely to be encountered when reading about exotics are defined below. Diagrams from Mungall and Sheffield’s book, Exotics on the Range,1 illustrate names used in describing conformation of hoofed animals and the parts of antlers. adipose. Fat cells or fat tissue. ad libitum. Allowing animals to eat as much as they want. Also called “free choice.” afterbirth. Membranes within which the fetus had developed that are expelled after the fetus has been expelled (sometimes an hour or more after). In some species, the mother may eat this tissue. age class. An animal age category based on visual characteristics and, thus, useful when studying wild animals under naturalistic conditions. alpha animal. Most dominant animal in a dominance rank order (a “peck order”) within a group of animals. animal unit. The amount of forage needed to maintain a cow on rangeland on a yearround basis. To calculate stocking rates, this amount can then be compared to the amount necessary for other animals. artiodactyl. Any animal in the taxonomic order Artiodactyla, comprised of the eventoed animals, all of which have hoofs, or at least hooflike claws (llamas and camels). bachelor. Male animal with the social status of a nonbreeding male. bachelor group. Group of nonbreeding males. beam (of antler). The main shaft of an antler that grows out from the base and that commonly has projections jutting off of it. See antler diagram. bedding site. Place where an animal lies down to rest. Some hoofed animals habitually reuse the same locations. bifurcated. Divided or forked. boss. A knoblike process on the horns of an animal. Sometimes it is an expansion of the horn that lies across the forehead and shields it (African Cape buffalo), and sometimes it is one of a series of transverse knobs across the front surface of a horn (Siberian ibex). breed. Domestic animals of common origin with characteristics that distinguish them from other groups within the same species. A “race” of domesticated animals. breed. To mate. breeding season. The main time of the year during which mating typically occurs. Some species also have a rut that is the part of the breeding season during which the most intense mating activity occurs. brisket. The breast or lower chest of a quadruped, often projecting conspicuously on the midline as that area passes underneath the animal toward the forelegs. See animal conformation diagram. browse. Woody plants. Often spoken of in relation to the feeding habits of animals that eat leaves or other parts of woody plants as a portion of their diet.

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brow tine. Sizable antler projection going off of the beam just above the base of the antler. See antler diagram. burr. Rough collar of bone at the base of the antler. Also called “coronet.” See antler diagram. callosities. Hardened, thickened, and hairless areas on the body surface of an animal like those typical of repeated abrasion against hard surfaces (as on knees or sometimes brisket of ibex in rocky habitat). calve. Give birth to a calf. cannon. Lower leg region of hoofed animals that includes the long bone of the leg (the cannon bone). See animal conformation diagram. castrate. To remove the testicles. A male who no longer has his testicles and, therefore, lacks both the normal level of testosterone and the effects of this male hormone on development. A castrated horse is a “gelding.” cervical. Pertaining to the neck. colostrum. The “first milk” produced by the mammary glands of the mother during the first few days after parturition and containing a high concentration of protein and antibodies that help nourish and protect the newborn. conception. Fertilization of the female egg (ovum). conspecific(s). Of the same species. Animal(s) of the same species. coronet. Rough collar of bone at the base of the antler. Also called the “burr.” See animal conformation diagram.

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crepuscular. Pertaining to the twilight periods of dawn and dusk. crest. Area along the midline of the back of the neck of a hoofed animal, sometimes made prominent by conspicuous muscular development (as a secondary sexual characteristic in some males). See animal conformation diagram. crossbreed. The mating of genetically diverse groups such as different races or species. croup. The top of the haunches of a quadruped. See animal conformation diagram. crown. Cluster of three or more points at the top of an antler. Can suggest a cup in appearance. See antler diagram. cud. A bolus (clump) of food regurgitated by a ruminant animal for further chewing and then reswallowing.

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cull. To remove one or more animals from a group or a population. cursorial. Characterized by running as a mode of locomotion. dam. Female parent. dehorn. To remove the horns of an animal. This is permanent, whereas cutting off hard antlers of deer is only a temporary removal. dermal. Having to do with the skin or “dermis.” dew hoof. Small cap of hoof material indicating a vestigial digit on the leg of a quadruped. See animal conformation diagram. dewlap. Loose fold of skin hanging from the lower neck or under the chin of some animals. digit. Toe (technically, any one of the five terminal sets of bones in the foot). diurnal. Active during daylight hours. dock. The portion on an animal’s tail that is flesh and bone, as opposed to hair. See animal conformation diagram. dominance hierarchy. A social order based on dominance in which the animals have ranks, each superior to the one below it. dominant. Social behavior characterized by an animal exerting a superior influence over one or more other animals. Socially superior. dorsal. Having to do with the back of an animal. dung. The feces of an animal. equine. Having to do with the horse family (which includes zebras and asses as well as both domestic and wild horses). estrogen. Any of several hormones produced by the female that cause her to come physiologically into heat and to be receptive to the male for mating. estrous cycle. Periods from start of time when female is ready to mate until time when this stage begins again. estrus. The period during which a female is ready to mate. Also referred to as “heat.” extinct. No members of a species, subspecies, or other taxonomic unit alive any longer. Thus, gone permanently. feral. Designates a domesticated animal living in the wild like a wild animal. Living in the wild like a wild animal even though it or its forbearers were domesticated animals. fetlock joint. First conspicuous joint above the hoof of a horse or other hoofed animal. On a domestic horse, this joint characteristically has a tuft of longer hair (the “fetlock”) on the back. See animal conformation diagram. fetus. Unborn vertebrate animal, especially during the later stages of development after the basic structural features of its species have become established. flank. Fleshy part of a quadruped’s side between ribs and hip. See animal conformation diagram. fodder. Food for animals, often being pieces of vegetation that may have been coarsely chopped but not pelletted. follower. Some hoofed wildlife species have this developmental strategy in which the newborn stays close to its mother virtually from birth. food plots. Small areas planted with crops for animals to eat directly from the fields. forage. Natural vegetation eaten by animals.

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forb. Weedy or broad-leafed plant likely to be utilized as forage by animals. founder (disease). A nutritional ailment resulting from overeating. Lameness and excessive hoof growth are diagnostic symptoms. founder stock. Animals that begin a breeding line. free choice. Allowing animals to eat as much as they want. Also called “ad libitum.” genus. A level of scientific nomenclature that groups species that have close similarities (sable antelope and roan antelope) or sets apart a single species that is very distinctive (addax antelope). gestation period. The time between fertilization and parturition during which development in the uterus produces a new animal. guard hair. Coarse, protective hair that extends beyond the undercoat of mammals. habituation. The process of becoming familiar with a stimulus or association of stimuli such that the animal ceases to react. hard antler. Antler after the growth period is over and the velvet has been shed, leaving the bone exposed. heat. The period during which a female is ready to mate. Also called “estrus.” herbivorous. Living on a plant diet. herd. A group of animals, usually of the same species or race. herding. Actions of an animal (or a person) who is moving a group of animals. hock. Region of the tarsal joint of the hind leg of a quadruped such as a hoofed animal. See animal conformation diagram. implantation. Attachment of a fertilized egg to the uterine wall. inbreeding. Mating of individuals who are more closely related than the average animals in a population. Because inbreeding increases the chance that offspring will inherit the same form of a gene from both parents, vigor of the offspring is likely to be reduced by harmful recessive traits that have no alternative form of the gene to keep them from being expressed as the animal grows. incisors. Front teeth, not including the canines, although these are typically shaped like incisors in the lower jaws of deer and of horned animals. (Deer and horned animals lack incisors in the upper jaw.) inguinal. In the groin area. interdigital area. The area just above the front of the hoofs where many even-toed animals have a pocket. In some species, this pocket contains glandular tissue. See animal conformation diagram. introduced. Released into an area by human agency. jag. Short projection on an antler. In contrast, a significantly long projection on an antler is called a “point” or a “tine.” juvenile. A general age category designating young immature animals (neonates, older fawns or older calves, and adolescents). knee. Carpal joint of a quadruped. See animal conformation diagram. keratinous. Characterized by keratin, which is a tough, fibrous protein of dermal origin.

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lactation. Production of milk by the mammary glands. The period during which milk is produced for a particular offspring. legume. Any plant of the family Leguminosae, which includes peas, beans, alfalfa, and clover. As the most conspicuous of nitrogen-fixing plants (plants that facilitate conversion of nitrogen from the air to nitrogen compounds usable by organisms for such essentials as protein building), legumes are important food plants. lie out. Many hoofed wildlife species have this developmental strategy in which the newborn stays put between nursings while its mother leaves. lunar. Having to do with the moon. mark. To place a chemical (such as preorbital gland secretion or use of a dung pile) or an object (can be a conspicuous animal itself) in the environment denoting presence, ownership, or social standing of the individual doing the marking. mast. Acorns, seeds, pods, fruits, and similar plant parts (likely to be produced by woody plants) often eaten by animals during their natural foraging. morphology. Study of the form of organisms and, thus, the form of an animal or plant. mutation. A change in a gene. neonate. Newborn. nocturnal. Active during the night. nonruminant. An animal with a single stomach chamber (monogastric), such as a zebra. omnivorous. Having a diet of both plant and animal matter. organism. Any living thing, whether animal or plant, including microorganisms such as bacteria. ovulation. The process by which an egg is released from the ovary. palm. Flattened and widened part of an antler. Can resemble a human hand. See antler diagram. palmate. Flattening of an antler. Often terminal, but can be lower along the antler beam. parturition. Birth. pastern. The part of the foot of a horse (or any hoofed animal) between the fetlock and the hoof (or hoofs). See animal conformation diagram. pedicel (pedicle). Permanently flesh-covered base from which an antler grows. See antler diagram. pelage. The hair covering of a mammal. piebald. Marked with large spots, typically of black and white. pinna. Part of the ear that projects out from the head (external ear). See animal conformation diagram. point. A significantly long projection growing off of the beam or palm of an antler. Also called a “tine.” In contrast, short projections are called “jags.” See antler diagram. poll. Region where the back of the neck joins the back of the head. See animal conformation diagram. polled. Hornless naturally or genetically. postpartum. Following after birth.

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preorbital gland. Gland near the forward corner of the eye in many even-hoofed animals. Some species mark with this gland, but others do not. See animal conformation diagram. race. Variety or subspecies of a kind of animal. A breed of domestic animals. receptive. Willing to mate. receptivity. State of being willing to mate. recessive trait. A feature that is not expressed in an animal or plant when another (dominant) form of that gene is present. reintroduction. Released into an area by human agency after having died out in that area. rete. A network of blood vessels (or nerve fibers). rete mirabile. A dense network of blood vessels important in heat or oxygen exchange. Literally, a “wonderful net.” riparian. Adjacent to a river or similar body of water. rumen. The first stomach-like chamber in a cud-chewing mammal (a “ruminant”) in which bacteria and protozoa break down fibrous plant material. ruminant. Plant-eating animal that initially swallows its food quickly, regurgitating it later at leisure for further chewing (mainly even-hoofed animals in the suborder Ruminantia, but also a few other animals such as camels and some kangaroos). rumination. The regurgitation and further chewing of plant food. rump patch. Zone of contrasting lighter colored hair on the back of the haunches (the rump). See animal conformation diagram. rut. The part of the breeding season during which particularly intense mating activity occurs. scrapes. Patches of ground scraped bare by an animal. Scrapes, into which males are likely to urinate, are considered to have communication value. shed. An antler that has dropped off naturally. To have the antlers drop off. To lose the velvet from antlers after antler growth ceases when the velvet dies. sire. Male parent. soundness. Health. species. A kind of animal designated by a taxonomic name (a “species name”) for a population of similar, related, and potentially interbreeding individuals. species-specific. Characteristic of a particular species. specific. Having to do with a species. stifle. Region of the hind leg joint between the femur and the tibia (the point near where the front of the hind leg joins the main part of the body). See animal conformation diagram. stock. Livestock or other animals, particularly those owned or kept in an agricultural area. stocking. Putting animals onto an area, particularly an area of rangeland or a wild area. stocking rate. The number of animals or animal units in relation to an area of rangeland. subadult. Nearly adult, or an animal that is nearly adult. The oldest immature age class. subordinate. Social behavior characterized by an animal allowing another animal or animals to exert a superior influence over it. Socially inferior. subspecies. Variety or race of animals (taxonomic subdivision of a species).

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subspecific. Having to do with a particular subspecies. supplemental feed. Extra feed made available to animals in addition to their regular diet. taxonomic. Pertaining to the categories used in scientific nomenclature of organisms. territorial. Pertaining to the holding of a piece of ground within borders. More common in males (many antelopes). Occasionally held by a mated pair (dik-dik). See “territory.” territory. Particular piece of ground held by an animal as his (or her) own and within which the owner relates differently to animals of its species than it does when outside the borders of the territory. A territory always has borders of importance to the owner. testosterone. Male sex hormone that stimulates development of the male sex organs, causes male sexual drive, and promotes growth of male secondary sexual characteristics. tine. A significantly long projection growing off of the beam or palm of an antler. The same as an antler “point.” In contrast, short projections are called “jags.” See antler diagram. ungulate. A hoofed mammal. variety. Subspecies or race of a kind of animal. velvet. Soft tissue covering the bone of antlers during their growth. velvet antler. Antler during growth when it is covered with soft tissue. ventral. Having to do with the undersurface of an animal, as the belly. vibrissae spot. One of the spots, like the white dots on the heads of spiral-horned antelopes, that have one or more stiff (presumably tactile) hairs (“vibrissae”) growing out of them. See animal conformation diagram. vulva. External genitals of a female mammal. withers. Top of the shoulders (over the longer spines projecting upward from the backbone). See animal conformation diagram. xeric. Dry conditions, especially when considering soil or plants. xerophytic. Adapted to dry environmental conditions (as for desert plants). yearling. General age class for mammals about 1 year old. When an animal reaches 1 1/2 years, it is sometimes referred to as a “long yearling.” zebu. Any of various domestic humped cattle of Asian origin.

REFERENCE 1. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary, and William J. Sheffield. 1994. Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. 265 pp.

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Further Reading

To read more about exotics or the animal groups in this field guide, the list below gives a sample of places to start. Shops, your local librarian, or Internet sites that specialize in natural history information can help keep you up to date on the latest books and other publications dealing with particular topics, regions, or animals. Used book stores can fill you in on popular titles still in circulation. Whatever your preferences, there is a wealth of resources—just not on all species or subjects.

Exotics History Laycock, George. 1966. The Alien Animals. The Natural History Press, Garden City, NY. 240 pp. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary. 2000. Exotics, chap. 33. In: Stephen Demarais and Paul R. Krausman, eds. Ecology and Management of Large Mammals in North America. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pp. 736–64. ———, and William J. Sheffield. 1994. Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. 265 pp. Temple, Thompson B., ed. 1982. Records of Exotics, 1982 ed., III. Ingram, TX. 362 pp.

Captive Management Crandall, Lee S. 1968. The Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 769 pp. Hayssen, Virginia, Ari van Tienhoven, and Ans van Tienhoven. 1993. Asdell’s Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction: A Compendium of Species-Specific Data. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, NY. 1023 pp. Hediger, H. 1964. Wild Animals in Captivity, trans. G. Sircom. Dover Publications, New York. 207 pp. Temple, Thompson B., ed. 1979. Records of Exotics, 1978 ed., II. Ingram, TX. 245 pp. Tongren, Sally. 1985. To Keep Them Alive: Wild Animal Breeding. Dembner Books, New York. 208 pp.

Game Ranching and Deer Farming Haigh, J. C., and R. J. Hudson. 1993. Farming Wapiti and Red Deer. Mosby, Chicago, IL. 369 pp. Kerckerinck, Josef von, zur Borg. 1987. Deer Farming in North America: The Conquest of a New Frontier. Phanter Press, Rhinebeck, NY. 225 pp. Mungall, Elizabeth Cary, and William J. Sheffield. 1994. Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. 265 pp. White, Ronald J. 1987. Big Game Ranching in the United States, ed. Raul Valdez. Wild Sheep and Goat International, Mesilla, NM. 357 pp.

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further reading

Animal Groups Putman, Rory. 1988. The Natural History of Deer. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, NY. 191 pp. Spinage, C. A. 1986. The Natural History of Antelopes. Facts on File Publications, New York. 203 pp. Valdez, R. 1982. The Wild Sheep of the World. Wild Sheep and Goat International, Mesilla, NM. 186 pp. ———. 1985. Lords of the Pinnacles—Wild Goats of the World. Wild Sheep and Goat International, Mesilla, NM. 212 pp. Walther, Fritz R., Elizabeth Cary Mungall, and Gerald A. Grau. 1983. Gazelles and Their Relatives: A Study in Territorial Behavior. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ. 239 pp. Whitehead, G. K. 1972. Deer of the World. Constable & Co., Ltd. London. 194 pp.

Animal Encyclopedias and Behavior Guides Estes, Richard Despard. 1992. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 611 pp. Friedhoff, Herman, managing ed. 1972. Encyclopedia of the Animal World, 21 vols. J & H International Corp., London. 2032 pp. Grzimek, Bernhard, ed.-in-chief. 1972–75. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, Mammals I–IV, vols. 10–13. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 2485 pp. Kingdon, Jonathan. 1979. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, large mammals, III, pt. B. Academic Press, New York. 436 pp. ———. 1982. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, bovids, III, pts. C and D. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 746 pp. Nowak, Ronald M. 1991. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed, II. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 1629 pp.

Field Guides Boitani, Luigi, and Stefania Bartoli. 1983. Simon & Schuster’s Guide to Mammals, ed. Sydney Anderson. Simon & Schuster Inc., New York. 512 pp. Cillié, Burger. 1987. A Field Guide: Mammals of Southern Africa. Frandsen Publishers, Sandton, South Africa. 182 pp. Dorst, Jean. 1969. A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. 287 pp. Haltenorth, Theodor, and Helmut Diller. 1980. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Africa, Including Madagascar. Collins, London. 400 pp. Prater, S. H. 1971. The Book of Indian Animals, 3rd ed. (rev.). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, India. 324 pp. Sheng Helin, Noriyuki Ohtaishi, and Lu Houji. 1999. The Mammals of China. China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, P. R. China. 298 pp. Stuart, Chris, and Tilde Stuart. c. 1988. Chris and Tilde Stuart’s Field Guide to the Mammals of Southern Africa. Ralph Curtis, Sanibel Island, FL. 272 pp. ———. 1994. Southern, Central and East African Mammals: A Photographic Guide. Ralph Curtis, Sanibel Island, FL. 144 pp.

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Index

Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations, to their captions, or to tables. Page numbers in bold type refer to the animal profile for the kind of animal named. acacia (Acacia spp.), 137, 139, 161, 185, 239, 241 acorns (Quercus spp.), 105, 107, 111, 209, 249 addax (Addax nasomaculatus), xix, xxi– xxii, 19, 27, 70, 71, 117, 118–19, 149, 163, 165, 169 aggression, 61, 63–64; attack humans, 47, 61, 63–64, 65, 74; fence damage, 58–59; positive aspects, 63. See also individual animal profiles alfalfa (Medicago sativa), 75, 137, 145 “alternative livestock,” 8. See also exotics defined American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA), formerly American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA), 3, 18 animal profiles, 85–255 Animal Welfare Act, 69 antelopes, xv, 20, 21, 32, 33, 64, 69, 117, 157, 243, 245, 247, 251, 253. See also individual animal profiles antlers, 65, 72, 269. See also individual animal profiles aoudad (Ammotragus lervia), ii-iii, 5, 10, 12, 13, 25, 28, 30–31, 32, 33, 34, 72, 187, 188–89 aquatic vegetation in diet, 111, 229 argali (Ovis ammon), xviii, 214–15, 219 Aristida. See three-awn Arizona, 9, 10, 12 Assateague Island, MD, 11, 15–16 axis deer (Axis axis), vi-vii, xix, xxi, 1, 4–5, 9, 10–11, 17, 20, 21, 26, 28, 30, 33, 34, 35–36, 71, 72, 77, 88–89, 109

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Bactrian deer (Cervus elaphus bactrianus), 24 baiting: photography, 37; strays, 79; traps, 75 ballmoss (Tillandsia recurvata), 137 bamboo, 225, 227 banteng (Bos javanicus), xix, 24, 33, 221, 224–25, 231 barasingha (Cervus duvauceli), xxi, 87, 89, 90–91 Barbados, West Indies, 191 Barbados sheep (Ovis aries), xviii, 27, 60, 187, 190–91, 195 Barbary sheep. See aoudad barking deer. See muntjac bear (Ursus spp.), 4, 34; black bear (U. americanus), 14 behavior. See individual animal profiles; temperament, behavior, and compatibility bezoar goat. See ibex, Persian bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), 4; Alaskan bighorn (O. canadensis), 33; desert bighorn (O. c. nelsoni), 12; Rocky mountain bighorn (O. c. canadensis), 12 birds, 25, 46, 68, 103; birds of prey, 129, 131 birth season. See individual animal profiles bison: American bison (Bison bison), 4, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 33, 85, 231; European bison (B. bonasus), 231 blackbuck antelope, Indian (Antilope cervicapra), xiv, xvii, xix, xxi, 1, 19, 23, 25, 27, 30, 49, 53, 67, 71, 72, 105, 117, 120–21, 137, 147 black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), 34 Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, MD, 16 blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas philippsi), x, 26, 27, 33, 64, 117, 122–23, 127 bongo (Taurotragus euryceros), 18, 19, 117, 124–25, 175

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278 bontebok (Damaliscus dorcas dorcas), 117, 123, 126–27 bot fly (Cephenemyia phobifera), 203, 251, 253 bottle-raised animals, 74, 122, 149, 165, 199 break branches or pull up trees, 125, 133, 135, 153, 173 breeding season and number of young. See individual animal profiles brow-antlered deer. See Eld’s deer brush use vs. open, 61–63, 62. See also individual animal profiles; habitat buffalo, African Cape (Syncerus caffer caffer), i, 29, 32, 35, 57, 221, 222–23 Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 32 bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), 175 California, 9, 10, 13, 32–35, 193, 193 camel (Camelus spp.), 22, 23, 25; Arabian camel (C. dromedaries), 34, 233, 234–35, 237; Bactrian camel (wild C. ferus, domestic C. bactrianus), xix, 24, 34, 35, 233, 235, 236–37 cameras: point-and-shoot, 40, 42, 43, 45; selection, 39–40, 41–44; systems compared, 40–43, 42, 43; view finder types, 40, 41 capture, 68, 69, 73, 77, 149, 163, 165, 167, 185, 213. See also heat stress caribou (Rangifer tarandus), 4 carrying capacity of land, xxiii, 16, 66, 75; health of animals, 78; hunting to limit numbers, 16, 22, 31, 35–36, 249; records, 78 cassowary, double-wattled, (Casuarius casuarius), 18 cat: big cats, 34; domestic cat, 68 Catalina goat (Capra hircus), xviii, xviii, 28, 157, 192–93 cattle, 205, 207; Ankole cattle, 20, 25, 33; domestic, 7, 20, 23, 25, 27, 34, 60, 66, 133, 135, 179, 181, 225, 227, 229, 231; Scottish Highland cattle, 25. See also individual animal profiles cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), 2 census figures and animal numbers, xxi-

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index xxii, xxiii, 1, 2, 22, 35–36. See also population status and distribution cheetah, African (Acinonyx jubatus), 18, 26, 35 Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, VA, 16 climate and weather, 9, 18, 35, 48, 60, 66, 72, 75; records, 78; severe weather, 27, 77; shelter, 63, 68; snow and ice, 9, 75. See also individual animal profiles clover (Trifolium spp.), 75, 245 compatibility. See individual animal profiles; hybridization; temperament, behavior, and compatibility competition among animals, 8. See also individual animal profiles; food, competition computers: management prediction programs, 82; photography and digital pictures, 40, 43, 44 conformation, animal parts diagrams, 268, 269 conservation, xiii-xiv, xx-xxiii, 2, 5, 8, 12, 26, 80, 82; hunting fees help, 29; park and center activity, 17–18, 19, 20, 22–23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 33, 35; private ownership increases numbers, 58, 107, 127; private sector initiatives, 2, 5, 7, 24, 107, 127, 215; recover former distribution, xxi; regulations, 69, 71 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 259, 260 corn (Zea mays), 75, 115 Corsican ram. See Corsican sheep Corsican sheep (Ovis musimon-O. aries), xv, xvii, xviii, xix, 28, 65, 187, 194–950 coyote (Canis latrans), 6 crowned crane, East African (Balearica regulorum), 33 Cyperus sedge. See sedge dangerous animals. See aggression; animal profiles deer, xv, xix, 1, 4, 9, 21, 33, 64, 65, 69, 87, 157, 251. See also individual animal profiles

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index Delaware, 11, 15 Department of Agriculture, Texas, 71 dik-dik, 59; Guenther’s dik-dik (Madoqua guentheri), 117, 128–29,131; Kirk’s dikdik (Madoqua kirkii), 117, 129, 130–31 diseases and parasites, xix, 6, 8, 58, 60, 75, 76, 77–78; carry malignant catarrhal fever (MCF), 60, 183, 185; quarantine, 2, 60, 68, 69, 73–74, 78; tropical vs. desert species, 77; worming, 60, 78. See also individual animal profiles; carrying capacity; settling pastures; veterinary help disturbance effects, 63. See also individual animal profiles; stress dog, domestic (Canis familiaris), 14–15, 16, 103, 105, 141 donkey (Equus asinus), 251, 253, 255 doves (mainly Zenaida spp.), 28 dromedary. See camel, Arabian Dybowski’s deer (Cervus nippon hortulorum), 50, 87, 92–93, 113 earliest preserve still operating, 4 ear mite (Acarus siro), 193, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207 economics, 8, 59, 66, 71, 80, 82, 85 eland: common eland (Taurotragus oryx, Tragelaphus oryx), 23, 25, 27, 28, 35, 36, 53, 61, 117, 132–33, 134, 153, 159, 171, 175; giant 18, 117, 132, 134–35; Lord Derby’s eland (Taurotragus derbianus, Tragelaphus derbianus) Eld’s deer (Cervus eldi), 24, 29, 87, 89, 94–95 elephant, 34 elephant grass, 135 elk, American (Cervus canadensis), xix, 4, 9, 12, 17, 60, 85, 93, 107, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115; Rocky mountain elk (C. c. nelsoni), 33; tule elk (C. c. nannodes), 34 emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), 8, 34 endangered and rare species, xiii, xxi-xxiii, 2, 3, 5, 17–18, 22, 24, 26, 29, 35; extinct in the wild, 107, 163, 169; extinction averted, 127, 183; regulations, 69,

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279 71. See also individual animal profiles; Endangered Species Act Endangered Species Act and captive-bred exclusion, 71, 119, 137, 169 evergreen holly oak. See oak exotics: number of kinds in U.S., xiii, 1, 85; problems with owning, 58–60, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 77–78; uses, xviii, 2; where to see, 9, 10–11, 12–36. See also individual animal profiles; carrying capacity; importation; introductions; population status and distribution; why exotics are here “exotics” defined, xiii, xv, 1, 2; “common exotics,” 1, 27–28; main definition, 2; “super exotics,” 1, 30. See also “alternative livestock” Exotic Wildlife Association (EWA), xi, xiiixiv, xix, 8, 25, 79, 80, 258 facilities, 67–68, 77, 80, 135, 239, 241; catch pens, 68, 201, 203, 205, 207; sheds and barns, 68, 77, 239, 241 fallow deer (Dama dama): European fallow deer (D. d. dama), v, xvii, xix, 2, 9, 10, 14, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30–34, 56, 87, 115, 96–97; Mesopotamian fallow deer (D. d. mesopotamica), xvii, 87, 98–99; Persian fallow deer (D. d. mesopotamica), xvii, 87, 98–99 fencing, 8, 24, 53, 67–68, 75, 77; aggression and fighting, 58–59, 61, 97, 169; breeches, escapes, and repossession, 36, 58–59, 79, 193, 201, 203, 205, 207, 239, 241, 247, 249; height, 67; high fence regulations for axis, 72; screen exotics from roads, 14, 78–79. See also individual animal profiles; jumping and climbing fire ant, 119 Fishing Bay Wildlife Management Area, MD, 16 flamingo (Phoenicopterus sp.), 20 flies, 247 Florida, 11, 13, 17–22 following behavior of young, 64

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280 food, 68, 69, 80; animal matter in diet, 103, 105, 139, 249; competition, 22, 91, 111, 155, 157, 171, 173, 189, 211, 223, 251, 253; copper content, 123, 125, 191, 243, 251, 253, 255; medical conditions, 75–76 115, 155; earth in diet, 97; energy needs, 77; equine diets, 243; forage, natural, 74–75; help, 79–80, 82; nutrition and supplemental feed, xix, 66, 74–77, 78; plants, 74–77, 80; prolong mating season, 155, 249; salt blocks, 77; toxic plants, 74, 211, 227; animals from zoos, 73–74. See also individual animal profiles four-horned sheep (Ovis aries), 187, 196–97 free-ranging, xxiii, 1, 4–7, 9, 12, 14, 15–16, 17, 21, 34, 36; axis regulations, 72; dispersal, 32; escapes, 8, 14, 16, 31, 34, 35, 58–60, 79 Game Conservation International (Game Coin), 7 gaur (Bos gaurus), 221, 225, 229, 226–27 gayal (Bos gaurus frontalis or B. g. frontalis-B. taurus), 225, 227 gazelle, xvii, 19, 32, 33, 35, 76, 121, 137, 139, 141, 145, 147, 177; African sand gazelle. See slender-horned gazelle; Cuvier’s gazelle (Gazella cuvieri), 24; dama gazelle (Gazella dama), 9, 18, 19, 27, 71, 117, 136–37, 141, 169; dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas), 117, 138–39; Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti), 117, 137, 140–41; mhorr gazelle (Gazella dama mhorr), 137; Persian gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa subgutturosa), 6, 50, 117, 142–43; Persian goitered gazelle. See Persian gazelle; Robert’s gazelle. See Grant’s gazelle; sand gazelle (Gazella sp.), 33; sand gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa marica), 143; slender-horned gazelle (Gazella leptoceros), 117, 144–45; Sömmering’s gazelle (Gazella soemmeringi), 137; Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsoni), iv, xx, 26, 30, 49, 117, 146–47

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index gemsbok (Oryx gazelle), 6, 10, 12, 18, 26, 30, 31, 31–32, 35, 117, 119, 148–49, 165, 167 Georgia, 11, 17, 22 gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), 18 Gilman International Conservation, 18 giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), xvi, xvi, 19, 20, 33, 35, 171, 233, 238–239; masai giraffe (G. c. trippelskirchi), xvi, xvi, 238–39; reticulated giraffe (G. c.s reticulata), xvi, 22, 23, 27, 33, 233, 239, 240–41; Uganda giraffe (G. c. rothschildi), 32 Global Wildlife Foundation, 22 gnu, brindled. See wildebeest, blue gnu, white-bearded. See wildebeest, blue gnu, white-tailed. See wildebeest, black goat, domestic. See Catalina goat goats, xviii, xix, 7, 27, 67, 69, 115, 192–93, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 209, 211, 217; Angora goat (Capra hircus), xviii, 193; Spanish goat (C. hircus), xx, 193, 203, 204, 207. See also individual animal profiles goral, Central Chinese (Nemorhaedus goral), 24 government acquires areas with exotics, 7, 21–22, 29 habitat, 9, 15–16, 21, 22, 24, 30, 58, 60, 61–63; evaluation help, 80; Central Mineral Region, TX, 30, 30. See also individual animal profiles; climate and weather hardihood. See individual animal profiles; climate and weather; diseases and parasites hard times eased by exotics, 27, 85 hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), 127; red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama), 123, 127 Hawaii, 4–5, 10, 35–36 Hawaiian black sheep. See Corsican sheep Hawaiian ram. See Corsican sheep health, 68, 69, 72, 77, 79–80, 245; program for, 77–78, 201, 203, 207, 251, 253, 255; skin problems, 155, 199,

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index 201, 205. See also individual animal profiles, diseases and parasites; stress heat loading, 129, 165, 167, 235 help, 60, 66, 69, 79–80, 82 hog deer (Axis pocinus), 87, 100–101 hogs, domestic (Sus scrofa): feral, 30, 35; hybridize, 14, 16; revert easily, 14, 16 horns, 72, 268; deformed or broken, 32, 149, 179, 181, 245, 247; trim if reach neck, 211, 213, 219; winter freezing, 165, 167. See also individual animal profiles horse, domestic (Equus caballus), vi, 20, 25, 28, 123, 125, 251, 253, 255 hundred years of ranching by same families, 27 Hunter’s antelope (Damaliscus lunatus hunteri), 127 hunting, 12, 14–16, 20, 22, 25, 27–32, 72, 79; attitude changes, 20; control or limit, 12, 16, 22, 31, 35–36, 249; hybrids, 28, 60, 65, 191, 195, 201, 207, 213, 215; no hunting on many ranches, 2; Palo Duro Canyon counties for aoudad permits, 25, 72; public hunting and releases for, 5, 12, 14, 16, 22, 30–32; state regulation, 71–72 hybridization, xv, xvi-xix, xix, xxiii, 30, 201; farming, 60, 65; females hard to obtain, 28; lethal combinations, 115, 175; marketing names, xviii; in the wild, xvii-xviii. See also individual animal profiles; hunting ibex, 60, 193, 201, 209; alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex), xxi, 64, 187, 198–99; Arabian ibex (see Nubian ibex); Asian ibex (see Siberian ibex); European ibex (see alpine ibex); hybridization, 8, 28, 29, 30, 60, 187, 201, 202, 204, 206–207; Iranian ibex (see Persian ibex); Nubian ibex (C. nubiana), 5, 187, 200–201; Persian ibex (C. aegagrus), xviii, xxv, 6, 10, 12, 29, 31–32, 60, 187, 202–203, 207, 209; Siberian ibex (C. sibirica), xviii, xx, 6, 8, 12, 30–31, 32, 60, 187, 204–205, 207; YO ibex (C. aegagrus-C. hircus, also C. sibirica-C. hircus), xviii, xix, 28, 30, 60, 187, 201, 206–207

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281 iceweed (Verbesina virginica), 137 image quality, digital pictures, 40, 44. See also photography: camera movement minimized impala (Aepyceros melampus), xi, 30, 117, 150–51 importations, xix, 2, 4–7, 14, 16, 19, 36, 69; 1960s ranchers consortium, 2, 5; study before release, 6 inbreeding. See stocking information for exotics ownership, xiii, 8, 58–83 injury. See health International Llama Association (ILA), 257 International Llama Registry (ILR), 257 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), recent alternative name The World Conservation Union, xxi, 259. See also individual animal profiles introductions: African influx, 2, 5–6, 9, 12, 24; early releases, 2, 27–28, 33–34, 35, 59, 97; failed, 6, 12, 153; policy change blocks releases, 6, 32; preparations in advance, 58, 67–69, 72; sika deer origins, 15; Washington, George, 2. See also specific U.S. states Isoberlinia doka, 135 Jacob sheep. See four-horned sheep Jacob Sheep Breeder’s Association, 257 jumping and climbing: height, 67; into trees, 59, 193, 203, 205, 209. See also individual animal profiles juniper (Juniperus spp.), 201, 203, 207, 209, 215 kangaroo, 34 kleingrass (Panicum coloratum), 99 Kobus kob, 155 kudu: greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), 5–6, 26, 30, 117, 133, 135, 139, 152–53, 173, 175; lesser kudu (T. imberbis), 175 lechwe (Kobus sp.), 155, 157, 179, 181; Nile lechwe (K. megaceros, Onototragus

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282 lechwe (cont.) megaceros), 18, 19, 117, 154–55; Kafue lechwe (K. leche kafuensis), xvi, 155, 157; red lechwe (K. 1. leche, Hydrotragus 1. leche), xvi, 16, 23, 27, 49, 117, 155, 156–57 legal status, 27, 72, 79. See also regulations legume, 137, 143, 245 lemur, 27 lenses: fixed focal length (prime), 40, 41, 52–53; image-stabilized, 48, 50, 52; selection, 40–43, 43, 46; telephoto and zoom, 37, 40–43, 43, 46, 51, 52–53, 54–55, 56. See also photography lice, 161 lion (Panthera leo): African lion (P. leo), 19; Barbary lion (P. 1. leo), 25 livestock, domestic, 129, 213 llama (lama glama), xv, 23, 34, 80, 123, 125, 233, 251, 242–43, 253, 255 Llama Association of North America (LANA), 258 locust, 139 Loder’s gazelle. See gazelle, slenderhorned Louisiana, 11, 22–24, 23 lucerne. See alfalfa lying-out behavior of young, 63, 64 macaw (Ara sp.), 27 management, establishment of exotics, and increase, xix, xxiii, 6, 36. See also introductions mangrove, 101 maps: considerations for making, xix-xx; places to visit, examples, 11–12. See also individual animal profiles marketing names, xviii, xviii, 65, 114–15, 192–93, 194–95, 206–07, 214–15. See also individual animal profiles markhor (Capra falconeri), 6, 33, 59, 187, 199, 201, 203, 205, 208–09 Maryland, 2, 7, 11, 15–16 Maryland Department of Natural Resources, 15 Mason Mountain Wildlife Management Area, TX, 29–30, 30

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index maturity, sexual. See individual animal profiles meat and meat production, xvii, 2, 12, 14, 20, 36, 65, 80, 82. See also individual animal profiles melon, 145, 153; watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris), 143; wild melon, 185 milo (Sorghum vulgare), 249 Missouri, 11, 115, 115 moose (Alces alces), 4 mouflon (Ovis musimon), xviii, xix, 28, 60, 67, 187, 195, 210–11, 215, 219 mule (Equus caballus-E. asinus), xvi mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), 8 muntjac, 59; Chinese muntjac. See Reeves’s muntjac; Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), 87, 102–103; red muntjac. See Indian muntjac; Reeves’s muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), 59, 87, 104–105 mushrooms, 105 musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), 34 names: how write, 85. See also individual animal profiles; marketing names National Bison Association (NBA), 258 National Seashore State Park, MD, 11, 16 New Hampshire, 4, 11, 16 New Mexico, 5–7, 9, 10, 12, 30–32, 31; aoudad spread into Texas, 31; places to visit, 30–32; state-regulated management units for exotics, 30–31 New Mexico Game and Fish Commission, 5–7, 12 New York, 4, 11, 14–15 “new wild,” the, xxii-xxiii nightshade (Solanum nigrum), 227 nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus), xix, xxi, xxii, 1, 1, 11, 25, 27, 61, 117, 133, 135, 158–59, 230 nocturnal and diurnal, 63 noise as walk, 107, 133 North American Deer Farmers Association (NADeFA), 80, 258 North American Elk Breeders Association, 258 North Carolina, 4, 11, 16 nursery group, 28, 127, 177

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index nutrition. See food nyala (Tragelaphus angasi), 35, 117, 139, 175, 160–61 oak (Quercus spp.), 91, 201, 203, 207, 215, 217; evergreen holly oak (Quercus ilex), 209; live oak, 215. See also acorns oats (Avena sativa sativa), 99 Ohio, 11, 24–25 Ohio Departments of Natural Resources and Development, 24 okapi (Okapia johnstoni), 18 Oklahoma, 10–11, 25, 26 onager, Persian (Equus hemionus onager), 24 one-humped camel. See camel, Arabian Oregon, 10, 35 organizations, periodicals, and contact information, 80, 82, 257–260. See also organizations by name oryx, xvi, xix, 35, 119, 149, 163, 165, 167, 169; Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), 3, 5, 26, 117, 162–63, 169; beisa oryx (O. beisa beisa), 117, 149, 164–65; East African oryx (see beisa oryx and fringeeared oryx); fringe-eared oryx (O. b. callotis), 24, 63, 117, 149, 165, 166–67; scimitar-horned oryx (O. dammah), viii, xiv, xxi, xxii, 3, 24, 27, 30, 49, 71, 77, 117, 168–69; South African oryx. See gemsbok ostrich (Struthio camelus), 8, 34 ownership, 58, 72, 78–79; permits and licenses, 25, 27, 72; private, xiii-xiv, 1, 2–3, 4, 6–8, 9, 12, 23, 26, 27, 80 Palo Duro Canyon, 10, 12, 13, 25, 72 panther, Florida (Puma concolor), 18 parasites. See diseases and parasites Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidanus), xiv, 16, 20, 22–23, 23, 24, 87, 106–107, 109, 155 persimmon, black (Diospyros texana), 203 photography, 37–57; activity of animals, 39, 46–47, 57; auto-focus, 43, 52; blinds, 37; camera movement minimized, 37, 44–45, 48, 50–52; cost, 39–41, 42, 43; depth of focus and

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283 field of view, 52–53, 54–55; digital vs. film, 40, 42, 43, 45, 54–55; feed truck, 47; file type, size, and compression, 40, 44; framing a shot, 37–38, 41, 46, 52–53, 54–55; goals and products, 39–40; insect repellant DEET damage, 48; light, 38–39, 41, 46; “magnification” of digital image, 43, 53, 54–55; on foot, 37, 38, 46, 51, 53, 56, 56–57; people pictures, 40, 41, 42; safety, 45, 45–46, 47–48; speed setting, 44–45, 48, 50, 53; technique, 37–38; tripods and other supports, 38, 42, 43, 45, 48, 50–52, 51, 53, 56, 56; from vehicles, 37, 38–39, 42, 45, 45, 51, 51–52, 56, 57; weather and when to go, 38–39. See also cameras; computers; lenses; photography equipment photography equipment: accessories, 43, 44–45; carrying, 43, 44, 45, 48, 53, 56, 56–57; lens hood, 41, 43, 45; memory cards, 44, 45; what to take, 44–46, 45. See also photography: tripods and other supports photo tours, 14, 20, 25, 28, 29, 33, 35 poaching, 14, 78–79 Point Reyes National Seashore, CA, 7, 10, 34 poplar (Populus sp.), 101, 237 population status and distribution, xixxxiii, 60, 199; California, 34; concerns spur importations, 2, 5, 35; distribution of exotics expanding, 31–32; Florida, 20, 21–22, 111; Hawaii, 35–36; Maryland, 15; New Hampshire, 14; New Mexico, 30–32; North Carolina, 16; number in U.S., xiii, 1, 85; potential of small species, 59; Tennessee, 16; Texas, xxi-xxii, 7, 25, 31; U.S. vs. native numbers, xiv, xxi-xxii, 22–23; Virginia, 15. See also individual animal profiles predation. See individual animal profiles pricklypear (Opuntia spp.), 92 primates, 25, 34 Przewalski’s horse (Equus przewalski), 24, 33 public lands: exotics on, xiv, 1,5–7, 12, 16, 21–22, 29–30; policy excludes, 6, 9, 32

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284 quail, 7 quarantine. See diseases and parasites ratite ranching, 7–8 record keeping, 67, 78, 79, 82 red deer: European red deer (Cervus elaphus), xviii, xix, 9, 20, 26, 33, 60, 67, 87, 89, 93, 107, 108–109, 111, 113; Barbary red deer (C. e. barbarus), 33 red muntjac. See muntjac, Indian red sheep, 6; Alborz red sheep (Ovis orientalis gmelini-O. vignei arkal) xvii, xvii-xviii, 29, 187, 212–13; Iranian red sheep (see Alborz red sheep) red stag. See red deer, European red wolf (Canis niger), 24 regional variation in activity and attitudes, 9–36. See also individual states regulations, 25, 27, 69, 71–72, 79 reintroduction, xiv, xxi-xxiii, 22–23, 33, 34, 107, 125, 163, 199. See also introductions release sites. See states by name repossession of strays, 79 reproduction: maximize, 66, 77, 78; problems if mating season prolonged, 155, 199, 201, 205. See also individual animal profiles rhea (Rhea americana), 8 rhinoceros, xvi, 6, 7, 19; black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), 6, 7, 18, 26, 233, 244–45, 247; great Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), 24, 25, 33; white rhinoceros (Certotherium simum), 18, 19, 25, 27, 33, 233, 245, 246–47; square-lipped rhinoceros. See white rhinoceros rib-faced deer. See muntjac roan antelope (Hippotragus equines), 117, 153, 170–71 rodents, 68 royal yak. See yak, domestic rusa deer, Javan (Cervus timorensis rusa), 29, 62, 111 rut, 65. See also individual animal profiles ryegrass (Lolium perenne), 75

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index sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), 1, 26, 30, 33, 35, 61, 117, 153, 171, 172–73; giant sable antelope (Hippotragus niger variani), 173 Safari Club International (SCI), xii, xix, 80 sambar (Cervus unicolor), 11, 21–22, 33, 87, 110–11, 155 Samson deer, 111. See rusa deer sandhill crane (Grus Canadensis), 18 scientific names, xv-xvii, 85. See also individual animal profiles; with common names of animals and plants in index Second Ark Foundation (SAF), xiii-xiv sedge, 229; Cyperus sedge, 163 settling pastures, 68, 73–74 sheep, xvii, xviii, xix, 6, 9, 25, 60, 64, 69, 67, 123, 125, 190–191, 195, 197, 211, 213, 215, 219, 243, 251, 253, 255. See individual animal profiles sika deer (Cervus nippon), 7, 9, 11, 15–16, 20, 21, 23, 27, 28, 35, 81, 87, 93, 109, 111, 112–13, 115; Indochinese sika deer (C. n. subsp.), 24. See also Dybowski’s deer silk (Cervus canadensis), xviii, 65, 87, 114–15 sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei), 117, 125, 155, 161, 174–75 Smithsonian Institution, 15 sources of U.S. exotics, 2–3, 4–7, 15, 19, 21, 27, 34, 73 space needs, 60, 61–64, 65, 68 sparrow, house, (Passer domesticus), 2 special considerations for management. See individual animal profiles Species Survival Program (SSP), 3, 3, 18, 26 spiral-horned antelopes, 125, 135, 153, 161 springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), 117, 176–77 spruce (Picea sp.), 219 St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge, FL, 21–22 state and federal attitudes toward exotics, 9, 12, 71 stocking: adding to groups, 66, 74; help with, 80, 82; inbreeding, 66; rates

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index and range conditions, 78; ratios, sex, and age, 66; which species to choose, 59, 60 stomach worm (Haemonchus contortus), 137 stress, 77, 79; breeding, 77; danger period going from small quarters to large pastures, 73–74; feed into spring after hard winter, 75; photography, minimize in, 40–41, 47; security at feeding time, 68; transport, 72–74 strongyles, 251, 253 Stumberg sheep (Ovis ammon-Ovis musimon), xviii, 65, 65, 187, 214–15 sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare sudanense), 75 supplemental feed. See food swamp deer. See barasingha tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), 34; Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), xix, 29, 187, 216–17 tapir (Tapirus sp.), 34 Taylor’s Island Wildlife Management Area, MD, 16 temperament, behavior, and compatibility, 61–65. See also individual animal profiles Tennessee, 11, 16 territoriality, 65. See also individual animal profiles Texas, xix, xxi-xxii, 2, 12, 15–16, 25–30, 31, 59, 71, 79, 80, 115, 189, 195, 199, 203, 205, 207, 211, 215, 215, 217, 249; aoudad spread from New Mexico, 31; early exotics history, 27; economy, 8; maps, 10–11, 195, 207, 215; numbers of exotics, xiii, 7, 20; pasture sizes, 7; places to visit, 25–30; private land amounts, 7, 29; sika habitat unlike Maryland, 15–16; why exotics favored, 7–8, 9. See also organizations, periodicals, and contact information Texas Animal Health Commission, 72, 259 Texas Dall. See Corsican sheep Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 8, 12, 29, 71–72

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285 Texas Wildlife Association (TWA), 80, 258 thamin. See Eld’s deer thistles (Cirsium sp.), 137 three-awn (Aristida spp.), 163; Aristida pungens, 145 ticks, 109, 173, 179, 181, 193, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 251, 253 topi (Damaliscus lunatus topi), 127 toxic plants. See food trailering and transport, 72–73 tur (Capra spp.), 201; East Caucasian tur (C. cylindricornis) and West Caucasian tur (C. caucasica), 199, 205 turkey, wild (Meleagris gallopavo), 7,27, 30 two-humped camel. See camel, Bactrian United Nations, xxi U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 60, 69, 80, 191, 259–60 U.S. Department of the Interior, 69, 71, 80, 82, 260 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), 69, 71, 82, 259, 260. See also individual animal profiles U.S. Natural Resource Conservation Service, 80 urial, 215; Afghan urial (Ovis orientalis cycloceros), 62; Trans-Caspian urial (O. vignei arkal), 187, 213, 218–19, 231 venison. See meat and meat production vetch (Vicia spp.), 75 veterinary help, 69, 79–80 Virginia, 2, 11, 15–16 wallaby, 27 water: flooding, 58; moderate heat, 16; needs, animal, 9, 63, 68, 73; needs, human, 45, 48; preference for wet areas, 16, 32, 47; swimming, 15, 22, wallow, 16. See also individual animal profiles waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), 19, 20, 26, 30,33, 35, 61, 173; common waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus ellipsiprymnus), 46, 47, 117, 157, 178–79; defassa waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus

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286 waterbuck (cont.) defassa), 1, 117, 155, 179, 180–81; Mrs. Gray’s waterbuck (see lechwe, Nile) water buffalo (Bubalus arnee), xix, 20, 25, 221, 27, 228–29 water deer, Chinese (Hydropotes inermis), 59 water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), 2 water lily (Nymphaea sp.) , 111 watermelon. See melon weather. See climate and weather wheat (Triticum aestivum), 75, 99, 143 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), 7, 8, 14, 15, 22, 27, 28, 30, 89, 125 why exotics are here, 2–3, 5–8, 9–36, 85. See also individual animal profiles wild boar (Sus scrofa),4, 11, 14–15, 16, 233, 248–49. See also animal profile, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.), 17, 19, 33, 35, 60, 61, 64; black wildebeest (C. gnou), 117, 182–83, 185; blue wildebeest (C. taurinus), 27, 32, 36, 117, 183, 184–85 wild goat. See ibex, Persian

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index wild hog: destructive, 35, 249; revert to wild type, 249; hunting styles, 14–15. See also wild boar wild rice, 95, 155 yak (wild Bos mutus, domestic B. grunniens), xviii, 25, 26, 34, 35, 221, 225, 230–31 zebra, 1, 17, 19, 20, 33, 61, 64, 77, 171, 251, 253, 255; Chapman’s zebra (Equus quagga antiquorum),xvii, 2, 233, 250–51; Damara zebra. See zebra, Chapman’s; Grant’s zebra (Equus quagga böhmi), xvi-xvii, 23, 233, 252–53; Grévy’s zebra (Equus grevyi), 3, 3, 25, 26, 233, 254–55; plains zebra, xvii, 10, 21, 34, 251, 253, 255 zoos, role of, xvi, xxii-xxiii, 2–3, 24, 46, 69, 73, 80; collaboration with ranches, xxii-xxiii, 2–3, 3, 26; filter out diseases and parasites, 60; sources of exotics, 2–3, 4, 5–6, 7, 15, 19, 21, 27, 34, 73, 215; transition for animals to life as exotics, 73–74. See also American Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Species Survival Program

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