Evidence Based Validation of Traditional Medicines: A Comprehensive Approach 9789811581267, 9789811581274, 9811581266

Table of contents :
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Phytomolecules, Drug Discovery and Modern Technique
1: Global Approach for Drug Discovery and Development from Indian Traditional Medicine
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Drug Development from Natural Resources: Benefits and Drawbacks
1.3 Colligative Properties of an Isolated Phyto-constituent
1.3.1 Molecular Structure
1.3.2 Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient
1.3.3 Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR)
1.3.4 Cytotoxicity
1.3.5 Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA)
1.3.6 Derived Solubility
1.3.7 Aqueous/Plasma Stability
1.3.8 Protein Binding
1.4 Benchmarks for Selecting the Plants for Research
1.4.1 Random Selection
1.4.2 Selection Based on Traditional Use (Ethno-Medicinal Approach)
1.4.3 Ecological Approach
1.4.4 Computational Approach: Virtual Screening and Reverse Pharmacognosy
1.5 Biological Activity-Guided Fractionation for Compound Isolation
1.6 Ayurvedic Perception in Selection of Plant Candidate for its Therapeutic (e.g., Antidiabetic) Activity
1.7 Effects of Medicinal Plant Extract on Type II Diabetes Mellitus
1.8 Conclusion
References
2: Bioactive Natural Leads Targeting Cancer Cell Metabolism
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Global Trends in Cancer
2.2.1 General Features
2.2.2 Global Cancer Statistics
2.2.3 Chemotherapy Resistance in Cancer
2.3 Important Cellular Metabolic Targets
2.3.1 Glucose Transporters (GLUTs)
2.3.2 Hexokinases (HKs)
2.3.3 Phospho-Fructokinases (PFKs)
2.3.4 Pyruvate Kinase M2 (PKM2)
2.3.5 Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
2.3.6 Monocarboxylate Transporters (MCTs)
2.3.7 Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD)
2.3.8 6-Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase (6PGD)
2.3.9 Transketolase (TKT) and Trans-aldolase (TALDO1)
2.3.10 Phosphoglycerate Dehydrogenase (PHGDH)
2.3.11 Glutaminase
2.3.12 Heat Shock Factor (HSF1)
2.3.13 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDK)
2.3.14 ATP Citrate Lysate (ACL)
2.3.15 Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase (ACC)
2.3.16 Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS)
2.3.17 Others
2.4 Natural Leads Targeting Cancer Cell Metabolism
2.4.1 Alkaloids
2.4.1.1 Capsaicin
2.4.1.2 Tetrandrine
2.4.1.3 Piperine
2.4.1.4 Berberine
2.4.2 Isoprenoids
2.4.2.1 Oleanolic Acid
2.4.2.2 Tanshinone IIA
2.4.2.3 Geraniol
2.4.2.4 Betulinic Acid
2.4.2.5 Oridonin
2.4.3 Phenolic Leads
2.4.3.1 Resveratrol
2.4.3.2 Curcumin
2.4.3.3 Quercetin
2.4.3.4 Apigenin
2.4.3.5 Oroxylin A
2.4.3.6 Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG)
2.5 Bioinformatics Approaches
2.6 Summary
References
3: Omics Technologies and Development of Anti-diabetic Therapies from Prospective Natural Products
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Omics Technology Appraisal
3.2.1 Genomics
3.2.2 Transcriptomics
3.2.3 Proteomics
3.2.4 Metabolomics
3.2.5 Multi-omics and Network Analysis
3.3 Anti-diabetic Natural Products for Consideration
3.3.1 (-)-Epigallocatechin3-Gallate
3.3.1.1 Absorption
3.3.1.2 Distribution
3.3.1.3 Sampling Recovery
3.3.1.4 Standardisation
3.3.2 Allicin and Other Labile Compounds
3.3.2.1 Variability
3.3.2.2 Interaction Effects
3.3.2.3 Repositioning
3.3.3 Tangeretin
3.3.3.1 Preliminary Prospects
3.3.3.2 Elusive Recovery
3.3.3.3 Isolation
3.4 Summary and Conclusion
References
4: Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids as Anti-inflammatory Agents Targeting Cholinergic Anti-inflammatory Pathway: Mechanisms and Prospe...
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids
4.1.2 Cholinergic Anti-inflammatory Pathways
4.2 Molecular Mechanisms of Cholinergic Anti-inflammatory Pathway
4.2.1 Acetylcholine and Acetylcholine Esterase
4.2.2 The Vagus Nerve and Pro-inflammatory Cytokines
4.2.3 α7 Subunit of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors
4.2.4 p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase
4.2.5 The Nuclear Factor NFkappaB, Nitric Oxide, and Cyclooxygenases
4.3 Anti-inflammatory Activities of Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids
4.3.1 Galanthamine
4.3.2 Lycorine
4.3.3 Narciclasine (Lycoridinol)
4.3.4 Crinamine
4.4 Anti-inflammatory Potential of Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids Targeting CAP
4.4.1 The Potential as New Anti-inflammatory Agents
4.4.2 Testing Methods
4.5 Prospects and Conclusion
References
5: Neurodegenerative Diseases and Small Molecule Protein Chaperone Activator of Natural Origin
5.1 Neurodegenerative Diseases Associated with Protein Misfolding
5.2 Role of Molecular Chaperones in Neurodegenerative Condition
5.3 HSF1 and Various Neurodegenerative Diseases
5.4 Activation of Chaperone Activity by Small Molecules with Natural Source
5.4.1 Celastrol
5.4.2 Gedunin
5.4.3 Withaferin A
5.4.4 Curcumin
5.4.5 Sulforaphane
5.4.6 Resveratrol
5.4.7 Azadiradione
References
6: Role of Phytomolecules on the Basic Biology of Aging
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Antiaging Phytochemicals
6.2.1 Sesamin
6.2.2 Silymarin
6.2.3 Piceatannol
6.2.4 Ursolic Acid
6.2.5 Acacetin
6.2.6 Chlorogenic Acid
6.2.7 Specioside
6.2.8 Withanolide A
6.3 Other Phytochemicals
6.4 The Mechanisms of Age-Promoting Factor of Phytomolecules
6.5 Conclusion
References
7: Role of Phytomedicine in Alleviating Oxidative Stress-Mediated Vascular Complications in Diabetes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Pathophysiology of Oxidative Stress Development
7.2.1 Production of Free Radicals
7.2.2 Effects on Antioxidant Defence System (Enzymatic and Non-enzymatic)
7.2.3 Effects on Metabolic Pathways and Cellular Macromolecules
7.2.3.1 Proteins
7.2.3.2 Lipids
7.2.3.3 DNA
7.2.4 Histological Alterations
7.2.4.1 Pancreas
7.2.4.2 Kidney
7.2.4.3 Liver
7.2.4.4 Heart
7.2.5 Effects on Blood Vessels (Endothelial Dysfunction and Vascular Complications)
7.3 Role of Ethnomedicinal Knowledge in Diabetes Management
7.4 Pharmacological Evidences: Clinical Trials, Case Studies, Chemical Nature of Active Constituents and Mechanism of Action
7.5 Herbal Medicine: Present Status and Drawbacks in Drug Development
7.6 Conclusion
References
8: Plant-Based β-Secretase (BACE-1) Inhibitors: A Mechanistic Approach to Encounter Alzheimer´s Disorder
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pathophysiology of AD
8.3 Treatments of AD
8.4 Disease-Modifying Therapies and Drug Development
8.5 The Amyloid Hypothesis
8.6 β-Secretase (BACE-1)
8.7 Medicinal Plants with BACE-1 Inhibitory Effect
8.8 Phytoconstituetns with BACE-1 Inhibitory Activity
8.8.1 Phenyl Propanoids
8.8.2 Flavonoid Derivatives
8.8.3 Napthoquinone Derivatives
8.8.4 Glycoside Derivatives
8.9 Conclusion
References
9: Bioactive Compounds of Mangroves as Potent Drug and in Nanoparticle Synthesis: Play a Pivotal Role in Combating Human Patho...
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
9.1.2 Mangroves and Weeds
9.1.3 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticles
9.1.3.1 Overview
9.1.3.2 Characterization
9.1.3.3 Cytotoxicity
9.1.3.4 Application of Nanoparticles
9.2 Materials and Methods
9.2.1 Plant Material and Extract Preparation
9.2.2 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticle
9.2.3 Characterization
9.2.4 Test Organisms
9.2.5 Antibacterial Potentialities
9.2.6 Hemolytic Assay
9.2.7 Antibacterial Activity of AgNPs and Antibiotics
9.3 Results and Discussion
9.3.1 Nanoparticle Characterization
9.3.2 Antibacterial Efficacy of Green Synthesized AgNP
9.3.3 Hemolytic Assay
9.3.4 Synergistic Activity
9.4 Conclusion
References
10: Medicinal Plants: A Rich Source of Bioactive Molecules Used in Drug Development
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Aging Impact on Health
10.3 Medicinal Plants: An Age Source that Defies Bioactive Molecules
10.4 Phytochemicals as a Human Reality: Potential and Challenges for the Development of Drugs
10.5 Phytochemicals Can Enhance the Production of Antioxidants
10.6 Polyphenols Uses in Human Healthspan and Lifespan
10.6.1 Cardioprotective Effect
10.6.2 Anticancer Effect
10.6.3 Antidiabetic Effect
10.6.4 Antiaging Effect
10.6.5 Neuroprotective Effects
10.7 Future Avenues in Herbal Drug Discovery
10.8 Conclusion
References
11: Cell-Based Assays in Natural Product-Based Drug Discovery
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 HTS Assays: Biochemical and Cell-Based Assays
11.1.2 Cell-Based Assays
11.2 Cell-Based Assays for Screening of Natural Origin Drugs
11.2.1 Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases
11.2.2 Noncommunicable Lifestyle Diseases
11.2.2.1 Diabetes
11.2.2.2 Obesity
11.2.3 Anti-cancer Activity
11.2.4 Anti-viral Activity
11.2.5 Anti-mycobacterial Activity
11.2.6 Anti-microbial Activity
11.3 Future Perspectives
References
12: Allelochemicals: An Emerging Tool for Weed Management
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Production, Bioavailability, and Types of Allelochemicals in Plants
12.3 Mode of Action of Different Allelochemicals
12.4 Use of Allelochemicals in Agronomy and Weed Management
12.5 Nanotechnology in Weed Management
12.6 Limitations of Allelopathy in Weed Management
12.7 Conclusion
References
13: Secondary Metabolites of Higher Plants as Green Preservatives of Herbal Raw Materials and Their Active Principles During P...
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Herbal Medicine: Global Status
13.3 Postharvest Losses of Raw Material of Herbal Drugs
13.4 Higher Plant Secondary Metabolites in Postharvest Management of Herbal Raw Materials
13.4.1 Inhibition of Microbial and Fungal Contamination in Herbal Materials
13.4.2 Inhibition of Mycotoxin Contamination in Herbal Materials
13.5 Technological Advancements in Application of Plant Products as Green Preservative in Postharvest Processing of Herbal Raw...
13.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
14: Importance of Chromatography Techniques in Phytomedicine Research
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Extraction Methods
14.1.1.1 Maceration
14.1.1.2 Percolation
14.1.1.3 Modified Percolation
14.1.1.4 Continuous Extraction
14.1.1.5 Large-Scale Extraction
14.2 Method of Separation
14.2.1 Paper Chromatography
14.2.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
14.2.3 Gas-Liquid Chromatography
14.2.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
14.2.5 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography
14.3 Recent Advances in the Chromatographic Techniques with Their Applications
14.3.1 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS)
14.3.2 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS)
14.4 Summary
References
15: Reverse Pharmacology: A Tool for Drug Discovery from Traditional Medicine
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Reverse Pharmacology and Its Origin
15.1.2 Natural Products as Traditional Drugs and Reverse Pharmacology in Drug Discovery
15.2 Hits and Leads from Traditional Drugs for Drug Discovery
15.3 Methodology of Reverse Pharmacology
15.3.1 Clinical and Paraclinical Models Employed in Reverse Pharmacology
15.3.2 Traditional Drug Discovery Through Reverse Pharmacology: Essential Consideration and Requirements
15.3.3 Reverse Pharmacology and Novel Biodynamic Action
15.4 Advantages of Reverse Pharmacology Approach
15.5 Future Scope
References
Part II: Standardization and Validation of Traditional Medicine and Medicinal Plant
16: Role of Modern Biological Techniques in Evidence-Based Validation of Ayurvedic Herbometallic Preparations
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Ayurveda: A System of Traditional Preparations
16.2.1 Putapaka Method
16.2.1.1 Shodhana Process
16.2.1.2 Jarana Process
16.2.1.3 Bhavana Process
16.2.1.4 Marana Process
16.2.2 Kupipakwa Method
16.2.2.1 Shodhana Process
16.2.2.2 Preparation of Kajjali
16.2.2.3 Bhavana Process
16.2.2.4 Kupipaka Process
16.2.3 Varna (Color)
16.2.4 Nishchandratvam
16.2.5 Varitara
16.2.6 Unama Test
16.2.7 Rekhapurnata
16.2.8 Slakshnatvam
16.2.9 Susukshma
16.2.10 Anjana Sannibha
16.2.11 Particle Size
16.2.12 Gatarasatvam
16.2.13 Apunarbhavata
16.2.14 Niruttha
16.2.15 Inorganic Substance Processing
16.3 Ingredients of Herbometallic Preparations and Their Importance in Biological System
16.3.1 Modern Techniques to Assess the Herbometallic Preparations
16.4 Safety and Efficacy of Ayurvedic Herbometallic Preparations
16.5 Important Factors in Determining Quality and Therapeutic Potency
16.6 Antimicrobial Potential and Importance
16.6.1 Techniques Adapted to Prove Antimicrobial Activity of Herbometallic Preparations
16.6.1.1 Agar Well Diffusion/Disc Diffusion
16.6.1.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentration/Minimal Bactericidal Concentration
16.6.1.3 Bacterial MTT Test
16.6.2 Antimicrobial Mechanism Revealing Techniques
16.6.2.1 Bacterial ROS/RNS Measurement
16.6.3 Importance of Herbometallic Preparations in the Premise of Multidrug Resistance
16.7 Anticancer Activity of Ayurvedic Herbometallic Preparations and Some Promising Drug Candidates
16.8 Antidiabetic and Anti-inflammatory Role of Traditional Herbometallic Preparation
16.9 Traditional Ayurvedic Herbometallic Preparations in Treatment of Neurological Disorders
16.9.1 Efficacy of Swarna Bhasma in Neurological Disorders
16.9.2 Efficacy of Raupya Bhasma in Neurological Disorders
16.9.3 Efficacy of Naga Bhasma in Neurological Disorders
16.10 Effective Medications Against Other Common Lifestyle Diseases
16.11 Major Issues of Clinical Trials of Ayurvedic Medicine
16.12 Status of Clinical Trials of Ayurvedic Medicine
16.13 Future Scope
16.14 Conclusion
References
17: HPTLC Fingerprinting Analysis of Phytoconstituents from Indigenous Medicinal Plants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Requirements for Analysis of Phytoconstituents
17.2.1 Stationary Phase
17.2.2 Preparation and Spotting of Sample and Standard
17.2.3 Selection of Mobile Phase and Chamber Saturation
17.2.4 Development of Chromatographic Plates
17.2.5 Detection and Visualization
17.3 Quantitative Estimation
17.4 Analytical Method Validation
17.4.1 Estimation of Rutin from Alhagi pseudalhagi (M. Bieb) Desv
17.4.1.1 Preparation of Ethanolic Extract of Alhagi pseudalhagi
17.4.2 Preparation of Standard Solution of Rutin
17.4.2.1 Chromatographic Conditions
17.4.2.2 Validation as per ICH Guidelines
Linearity
Precision
Limit of Quantitation and Limit of Detection
Accuracy
Robustness
Specificity
Assay
17.4.3 Quantitative Estimation of β-Sitosterol from Natural Plants
17.4.3.1 Preparation of Chloroform Fraction from Ethanolic Extract of Clerodendrum serratum
17.4.4 Quantitative Estimation of Quercetin from Natural Plants
17.4.4.1 Preparation of Ethanolic Extract of Amaranthus spinosus
17.4.4.2 Preparation of Standard Solution of Quercetin
17.4.4.3 Assessment of Quercetin from Amaranthus spinosus
17.4.4.4 Preparation of Ethanolic Extract of Strychnos potatorum
17.4.4.5 Assessment of Quercetin from Strychnos potatorum
17.4.4.6 Assessment of Quercetin in Saraca asoca
Preparation of Ethanolic Extract of Saraca asoca
Assessment of Quercetin from Saraca asoca
17.4.5 Qualitative Assessment of Various Extracts of Traditional Plants
17.4.5.1 Preparation of 50% w/v Ethanolic Extract of Plants
17.4.5.2 Preparation of 50% w/v Aqueous Extract
17.4.5.3 HPTLC Fingerprinting of the Extract of Manilkara hexandra (Stem Bark)
17.4.5.4 HPTLC Fingerprinting of Ethanolic Extract of Tecomella undulata (Stem Bark)
17.4.5.5 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of the Extract of Zanthoxylum armatum (Stem Bark)
17.4.5.6 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of Extract of Strychnos potatorum
17.4.5.7 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of the Extract of Saraca asoca
17.4.5.8 HPTLC Fingerprinting of Ethanolic Extract of Amaranthus spinosus
17.4.5.9 HPTLC Fingerprinting Profile of Extract of Thespesia lampas (Flower)
17.4.5.10 HPTLC Fingerprinting of Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Alhagi pseudalhagi
17.5 Conclusion
References
18: Climate Change, Geographical Location, and Other Allied Triggering Factors Modulate the Standardization and Characterizati...
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Threatening Factors for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Malfunctioning on Traditional Medicinal Plant Cultivation and Bioactiv...
18.2.1 Description of Different Triggering Factors Which Influence the Cultivation, Growth, and Active Secondary Metabolite Pr...
18.2.1.1 Climatic Change in Local Cultivating Zone and Growth of Medicinal Plants
18.2.1.2 Impact of Geographical Variation Location-Wise on Medicinal Plant´s Cultivation and Phytoconstituents Yield
18.2.1.3 Impact of Collection Time on Medicinal Plant Metabolite Production
18.2.1.4 Impact of Soil Quality on Production of Secondary Metabolite Production
18.2.1.5 Impact of Processing and Extraction Method on Plant Secondary Metabolites
18.3 Proper Method of Standardization and Characterization of Collected Medicinal Plants
18.3.1 Different Challenges Created Due to Variation of Phytoconstituents and Its Probable Management
18.4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
19: Molecular Docking Studies of Plant-Derived Bioactive Compounds: A Comprehensive In Silico Standardization Approach
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Approaches for Drug Discovery from Natural Resources
19.1.2 Limitations Associated with Natural Product Drug Discovery
19.1.3 Initiation in In Silico-Based Drug Discovery
19.2 Molecular Docking Studies
19.2.1 Approaches and Applications of Molecular Docking Studies
19.2.1.1 Molecular Simulation Approach
19.2.1.2 Shape Complementary Approach
19.2.2 Applications of Molecular Docking
19.2.3 Significance of Molecular Docking Studies over Conventional Standardization Methods Towards Plant-Derived Molecules
19.2.4 Other In Silico Virtual Screening Methods
19.2.4.1 Pharmacophore Modelling
19.2.4.2 Molecular Similarity Screening Method
Descriptors for Molecular Similarity Calculations
19.3 Molecular Docking Study of Some Potential Active Phyto-molecules Towards Pharmacological Targeted Proteins/Enzymes
19.3.1 Caffeine
19.3.1.1 Interaction with Caspase 3
19.3.1.2 Interaction with Chk1 Receptor
19.3.1.3 Interaction with Monoamine Oxidase
19.3.1.4 Interaction with Human Serum Albumin (HSA)
19.3.1.5 Interaction with MAPK-1 (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase)
19.3.1.6 Inhibitory Interaction Against Collagenase, Elastase and Tyrosinase
19.3.2 Berberine
19.3.2.1 Inhibitory Interaction Against Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
19.3.2.2 Inhibitory Interaction Against Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR)
19.3.2.3 Inhibitory Interaction Against Neuraminidase-1
19.3.2.4 Inhibitory Interaction Against Thrombin
19.3.2.5 Inhibitory Interaction Against Urease
19.3.2.6 Inhibitory Interaction Against ZIKA and Dengue Virus
19.3.3 Piperine
19.3.3.1 Interaction with Serum Albumin
19.3.3.2 Inhibitory Interaction Against Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
19.3.3.3 Inhibitory Interaction with Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
19.3.3.4 Inhibitory Interaction with NF-kB
19.3.3.5 Inhibitory Interaction with Kir6.2 Protein
19.3.3.6 Inhibitory Interaction with Tyrosine Kinase (EGFR Tyrosine Kinase)
19.3.4 Curcumin
19.3.4.1 Interaction with HIV-1 Protease and Integrase
19.3.4.2 Inhibitory Interaction Against COX-2 Protein
19.3.4.3 Inhibitory Interaction Against PfATP6 Protein
19.3.4.4 Inhibitory Interaction Against Cancer Proteins EGFR, GST-PI and PDGFA
19.4 Summary and Conclusion
References
20: Standardization and Quality Evaluation of Botanicals with Special Reference to Marker Components
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Botanical Drugs/Botanical Products
20.3 Standardization of Botanical Drugs/Botanical Products
20.3.1 Requirement of Standardization in Botanicals
20.3.2 Standardization of Botanical/Polyherbal Formulation
20.4 Quality Variation in Botanicals
20.5 Types of Evaluation
20.5.1 Physical Evaluation
20.5.2 Chemical Evaluation
20.5.3 Clinical Evaluation
20.6 Markers Compounds: Key of Standardization of Botanical Drugs and Preparation
20.7 Genetic Marking: DNA Fingerprinting
20.7.1 DNA Barcoding: Tool for Genetic Marker-Based Standardization
20.8 Role of Genetic Marketing in Botanical Drug
20.8.1 Genetic Variation/Genotyping
20.8.2 Authentication of Medicinal Plants
20.8.3 Detection of Substitution and Adulteration
20.8.4 Selection of Desirable Chemotypes
20.8.5 Standardization and Quality Assurance of Botanical Plant Materials
20.9 Chemical Markers
20.9.1 Types of Chemical Markers
20.9.2 Comparative Study Between Genetic Marking and Chemical Marking
20.10 Chemical Marking: Chromatographic Fingerprinting
20.11 Indian Official Book as a Reference for Marker-Based Standardization of Botanicals/Herbal Drugs
20.12 The Need of Fingerprinting
20.13 Conclusion
References
21: Analytical Standardization of Haridra Formulation by UV-Vis Spectrophotometry and RP-HPLC
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Experimental
21.2.1 Chemicals
21.2.2 Instruments and Analytical Parameters
21.2.3 Preparation of Standard and Sample Solutions
21.2.3.1 UV Method
21.2.3.2 HPLC Method
21.2.4 Assay of Curcumin in Haridra Formulation
21.2.4.1 UV Method
21.2.4.2 HPLC Method
21.3 Results and Discussion
21.3.1 Method Development
21.3.1.1 UV Method
21.3.1.2 HPLC Method
21.3.2 Method Validation
21.3.2.1 Linearity
21.3.2.2 Accuracy
21.3.2.3 Precision
21.3.2.4 Ruggedness
21.3.2.5 Robustness
21.3.2.6 LOD and LOQ
21.3.2.7 Specificity
21.3.3 Assay
21.3.4 System Suitability
21.4 Conclusion
References
22: Ethnobotanical Survey: The Foundation to Evidence-Based Validation of Medicinal Plants
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Ethnobotany
22.3 Basic Steps in Plant Research
22.4 Plant Cycle
22.4.1 Importance of Plants
22.5 Plant Identity and Contents
22.5.1 Genetics and Environment: Determinant of Plant Contents and Products
22.5.2 Local Identification of Plants
22.5.3 Spiritual Identification
22.5.4 Taxonomical Identification of Plant
22.6 Ethnopharmacology
22.6.1 Imperatives of Ethnopharmacological Studies
22.6.2 Research Driven by Ethnopharmacology
22.6.3 Enriching Indigenous Medicinal Knowledge
22.6.4 Preservation of Ethnobotany Knowledge
22.6.5 Ethnobotanical Leads and Potential Drug Candidate
22.6.6 Challenges of Ethnobotany and Herbal Medicine
22.7 Evidence-Based Validation of Medicinal Plants
22.7.1 Reverse Pharmacology
References
Part III: Safety and Regulatory Issue of Traditional Medicine
23: Phytotherapeutics: The Rising Role of Drug Transporters in Herb-Drug Interactions with Botanical Supplements
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Mechanism of Drug Transporter-Based Pharmacokinetic HDIs
23.3 Role of Drug Transporters in HDIs
23.3.1 Absorption
23.3.2 Distribution
23.3.3 Metabolism and Excretion
23.4 HDI: In Silico Tools, In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation
23.4.1 In Silico
23.4.1.1 Hypothesis-Driven In Silico Approaches
23.4.1.2 Informatics-Driven Approach
23.4.1.3 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetics Modeling (PBPK)
23.4.2 In Vitro
23.4.2.1 Membrane-Based Assays
23.4.2.2 Cell-Based Assays
23.4.3 In Vivo
23.5 Challenges with Assessment of Transporter-Based HDIs
23.5.1 Variation in Herbal Product Composition
23.5.2 Identification of the Constituents of Herbal Product
23.5.3 Pharmacokinetics of the Constituents of Herbal Product
23.5.4 Interplay of Drug Transport and Drug Metabolism
23.5.5 Transporter Polymorphism
23.5.6 Pathological Conditions
23.5.6.1 Liver Disease and Transporters
23.5.6.2 Kidney Disease and Transporters
23.5.6.3 Brain Pathologies and Transporters
23.6 Conclusion
References
24: An Insight into Herb Interactions: Clinical Evidence-Based Overview
24.1 Introduction
24.2 General Consideration to Mechanisms of Herb-Drug Interactions
24.2.1 Pharmacokinetic Interactions
24.2.1.1 Interaction with Cytochrome P450 (CYP) Enzymes
24.2.1.2 Interaction with P-Glycoprotein
24.2.2 Pharmacodynamic Interactions
24.3 Clinical Significance and Evidence of Herb-Drug Interaction Study
24.4 Classification of Herb-Drug Interactions According to Clinical Classes of Drugs
24.4.1 Interactions with Cardiovascular Drugs
24.4.2 Interactions with Central Nervous System Drugs
24.4.3 Interactions with Antiretroviral and Anticancer Drugs
24.4.4 Interactions with Hypoglycaemic Drugs
24.4.5 Interactions with Immunosuppressant Drugs
24.4.6 Interactions with Miscellaneous Classes of Drugs
24.5 Conclusion
References
25: Pharmacovigilance of Herbal Medicines: An Overview
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Need of Pharmacovigilance for Herbal Products
25.3 Classification of Adverse Drug Reactions
25.4 Reasons for Safety Concerns of Herbal Products
25.5 Regulatory Aspects
25.6 Case Processing
25.6.1 Data Collection
25.6.1.1 Reports from the Consumers
25.6.1.2 Manufacturers
25.6.1.3 National Poison Centres
25.6.1.4 Drug Information Centres
25.6.1.5 Consumer Organizations
25.6.2 Validity of Case
25.6.3 Triage of Cases
25.6.4 Entry of Data in Databases
25.6.4.1 VigiFlow
25.6.4.2 AERS (USA)
25.6.4.3 EudraVigilance (Europe)
25.6.4.4 Canada Vigilance (Canada)
25.6.4.5 ARISg Software
25.6.5 Quality Assessment
25.6.6 Medical Coding
25.6.7 Causality Assessment
25.6.8 Reporting of Cases
25.6.9 Aggregate Reporting
25.6.10 Submission of Aggregate Reports
25.6.11 Regulatory Action
25.7 Current Challenges
25.7.1 Regulation
25.7.2 Quality Assurance and Control
25.7.3 National and Regional Pharmacopoeias
25.7.4 Lack of Proper Knowledge Regarding Herbal Medicines
25.7.5 Patient Consumer Attitudes Towards Herbal Medicine
25.7.6 Nomenclature of Herbal Products
25.7.7 Underreporting
25.8 Future Perspectives
25.9 Conclusion
References
26: Herbal Drugs: Efficacy, Toxicity, and Safety Issues
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Herbal Drugs and Related Terms
26.2.1 Terms and Definitions
26.2.2 Herbal Drugs vs. Conventional Drugs
26.3 Efficacy, Toxicity, and Safety Issues
26.3.1 Efficacy
26.3.2 Toxicities and Adverse Effects
26.3.3 Herb-Drug Interactions
26.3.4 Evidence of Clinical Efficacy and Toxicity
26.4 Efficacy, Toxicity, and Safety Assessment
26.4.1 Physicochemical Assessment
26.4.2 Biological Assessment
26.5 Safety Monitoring and Challenges
26.6 Regulatory Status
26.7 Conclusion
References
27: Herbal Drug Patenting
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Definition and Introduction of Patent
27.3 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and TRIPS Agreement on Traditional Knowledge
27.4 Intellectual Property Rights for the Protection of Traditional Herbal Medicine and Herbal Medicinal Products and in the N...
27.4.1 Patents for New Chemical Components from Natural Products
27.4.2 Patents for Known Phytoconstituents from Natural Products
27.4.3 Patent Rules for Traditional Herbal Medicines and Herbal Medicinal Products
27.5 Classification of Patent Protection for the Herbal Medicine Inventions
27.5.1 Patent on Formulation of Herbal Medicine
27.5.2 Combination Patents on Herbal Medicine
27.5.3 Patents on Process of Herbal Medicine
27.6 New Indication of Herbal Drug and Herbal Medicine
27.7 Prerequisites for Patent of Herbal Medicines/Drugs
27.7.1 Validation
27.7.2 Clinical and/or Animal Studies
27.7.3 New Formulations
27.7.4 Active Ingredients
27.7.5 Second-Generation Products
27.7.6 Authentication Kits
27.8 Protection of Geographical Indications
27.9 Farmers´ Right and Breeders´ Right
27.9.1 Right 1: Access to Seed
27.9.2 Right 2: Benefit-Sharing
27.9.3 Right 3: Compensation
27.9.4 Right 4: Rational Seed Price
27.9.5 Right 5: Farmers´ Recognition and Reward for Contributing to Conservation
27.9.6 Right 6: Registration of Farmers´ Varieties
27.9.7 Right 7: Prior Authorization for the Commercialization of Essentially Derived Varieties
27.9.8 Right 8: Exemption from Registration Fees for Farmers
27.9.9 Right 9: Farmer Protection from Accidental Infringement
27.10 Biopiracy
27.10.1 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
27.10.2 The Nagoya Protocol
27.10.3 India Fights Against Biopiracy
27.11 Learning from such Bitter Experiences: Indian Government Framed Following Acts and Projects to Fight Against Biopiracy
27.11.1 Biological Diversity Act (2002), India
27.12 Protection of Plant Varieties (PPV) and Farmers´ Rights Act (2001)
27.13 Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)
27.14 Trademark and Copyright
27.15 Copyright
27.15.1 Copyrights for Herbal-Related Matter
27.16 Protecting Traditional Knowledge Under the Indian Copyright Law
27.16.1 Authorship
27.16.2 Protection for Limited Time
27.16.3 Fixed Form
References
28: Safety and Regulatory Issues on Traditional Medicine Entrusted Drug Discovery
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Significance of Traditional Medicines: An Overview
28.3 Challenges Faced by Traditional Medicines and Its Regulatory Issues
28.3.1 Challenges Related to Safety and Efficacy Assessment
28.3.2 Challenges Associated with Ensuring Quality of Herbal Medicines
28.3.3 Challenges Associated with Safety Monitoring of Indigenous Medicines
28.3.4 Dearth of Knowledge Update Among National Drug Authorities on Traditional Medicines Affects Development of National Pol...
28.3.5 Challenges Faced by Countries in Formation of Regulations for Herbal Medicines and WHO Support
28.4 WHO Global Survey on Regulation of Traditional Medicines
28.5 National Policy on Traditional Medicines
28.6 Regulatory Status of Traditional Medicines
28.7 Regulation on Claims, Pharmacopeial Database and Monographs for Herbal Medicines
28.7.1 Claims
28.7.1.1 Pharmacopeial Database
28.7.2 Monographs for Herbal Medicines
28.7.3 Manufacture of Indigenous Medicines
28.7.4 Regulatory Requirements for Safety Assessments
28.7.5 Registration System for Herbal Medicines and Essential Drug List
28.7.6 Sales and Postmarketing Surveillance
28.8 Conclusion
References
29: Pharmacovigilance of Herbal Medicine: An Evolving Discipline
29.1 Introduction to Pharmacovigilance
29.1.1 Definition
29.1.2 Important Lessons Learnt from the Thalidomide Tragedy
29.1.3 Importance of Pharmacovigilance
29.1.4 Scope and Purposes of Pharmacovigilance
29.2 Pharmacovigilance Methods
29.2.1 Spontaneous Reporting
29.2.2 Intensified Reporting
29.2.3 Targeted Reporting
29.2.4 Cohort Event Monitoring (CEM)
29.2.5 Electronic Health Record Mining
29.3 Herbal Medicine
29.4 Safety of Herbal Medicines
29.5 Adverse Drug Reactions of Herbal Drugs
29.6 Standardization of Herbal Medicines
29.7 Stability Testing of Herbal Medicines
29.8 Pharmacovigilance of Herbal Medicines
29.9 Regulatory Position of Herbal Medicines
References
30: Toxicity Studies Related to Medicinal Plants
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Toxicity of Herbs
30.2.1 Intrinsic Adverse Effects
30.2.2 Extrinsic Adverse Effects
30.3 Possible Reasons for Toxicity of Herbal Medicines
30.3.1 Self-medication
30.3.2 Untrained/Unqualified Practitioners
30.3.3 Substandard Product
30.3.4 Improper Intake
30.3.5 Herbal-Drug Interactions
30.4 Preclinical Toxicity Testing
30.4.1 General Tests
30.4.2 Acute Toxicity Testing
30.4.3 Repeated Dose Toxicity Study
30.4.4 Reproduction and Developmental Toxicity Studies
30.4.5 Special Toxicity Tests
30.4.5.1 Genotoxicity Test
30.4.5.2 Carcinogenicity Test
30.4.6 Local Toxicity Tests for Topical Preparations
30.4.6.1 Dermal Toxicity Study
30.4.6.2 Photoallergy or Dermal Phototoxicity
30.4.6.3 Vaginal Toxicity Test
30.4.6.4 Rectal Tolerance Test
30.4.6.5 Neurotoxicity Test
30.4.6.6 Allergenicity/Hypersensitivity Test
30.5 Replacement of Toxicity Testing Using New Technologies
30.5.1 Computerized Modelling
30.5.2 Microarray Technology
30.5.3 Genomics and Transcriptomics
30.5.4 Proteomics
30.5.5 Metabonomics/Metabolomics
30.5.6 Lipidomics
30.5.7 In Vitro Models
30.5.7.1 Cell Cultures
30.5.7.2 Target Organ/Tissue Assays
30.6 Clinical Trials of Herbal Medicines: World and Indian Scenario
30.7 Summary and Path Forward
References
31: Herb-Drug Interactions
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Mechanisms Involved in HDIs
31.2.1 Pharmacokinetic HDIs
31.2.1.1 HDIs at Absorption Level
31.2.1.2 HDIs at Distribution Level
31.2.1.3 HDIs at Metabolism Level
31.2.1.4 HDIs at Elimination Level
31.2.1.5 HDIs Due to Drug Transporters
P-Glycoprotein
Breast Cancer Resistance Protein
Multidrug Resistance-Associated Protein
Solute Carrier Transporters (SLC)
31.2.2 Pharmacodynamic HDIs
31.2.2.1 HDIs: Additive
31.2.2.2 HDIs: Synergism
31.2.2.3 HDIs: Antagonism
31.3 Pharmacogenomics in HDIs
31.4 Evaluation of HDIs
31.5 Regulation of Herbal Medicine
31.6 Conclusion
References
32: Plant-Based Traditional Herbal Contraceptive Use in India: Safety and Regulatory Issues
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Types of Contraceptive Methods
32.3 Limitations to Contraception in India and the Availability of Herbal Contraceptives
32.3.1 Inadequate Cognitive Capacity
32.3.2 Egocentric Thinking
32.3.3 Inadequate/Lack of Knowledge of Contraceptives
32.3.4 Anxiety
32.3.5 Misinformation
32.3.6 Perception of Dangers of Contraceptives
32.3.7 Faulty Use and Storage
32.3.8 Poor Quality of Contraceptives
32.4 Efficacy
32.5 Case Study
32.6 Safety and Regulatory Issues
32.7 Conclusions
References
33: Traditional Medicine Stability and Pharmacokinetic Issue
33.1 Introduction
33.2 WHO Guidelines for Herbal Drug Stability
33.2.1 WHO Guideline Goals
33.2.2 WHO Guideline Objectives
33.2.3 WHO Guidelines for Stability Testing of Pharmaceutical Products Having Well-Established Drug Substances in Conventional...
33.2.4 Stability Testing of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients and Finished Pharmaceutical Products
33.2.5 Guidelines for Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient
33.2.6 Guidelines for Finished Pharmaceutical Product
33.3 Stability-Related Issues with Herbal Drugs
33.3.1 Physical Instability
33.3.2 Environmental Conditions
33.3.3 Chemical Instability
33.3.4 Variability in Composition and Inconsistency
33.3.5 Drug Interactions, Deterioration, Decomposition, and Storage
33.4 Effect of Drug Stability on Pharmacokinetics
33.5 Tools for Dealing with Natural Product Instability
33.5.1 Physical Parameters
33.5.2 Impurity Profile
33.5.3 Identification and Quantification of Components
33.5.4 Storage Conditions
33.6 Approaches to Address the Problem of Instability of Natural Products
33.6.1 Nanoparticle Coating
33.6.2 Cellulose Coating
33.6.3 Lipid Coating
33.6.4 Protein Coating
33.6.5 Suspension and Emulsion
33.6.6 Use of Antioxidants
33.6.7 Tablet and Pellets
33.6.8 Powder in Oil
33.6.9 Miscellaneous
33.7 Summary
References
34: Pharmacovigilance: Methods in Developing the Safety and Acceptability of Traditional Medicines
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Traditional Medicines
34.3 Pharmacovigilance
34.3.1 Aims of Pharmacovigilance
34.4 Adverse Drug Reaction of Herbal Origin and Drugs
34.5 Approaches of Monitoring Traditional Medicine
34.6 Need of Pharmacovigilance
34.7 Safety Monitoring of Medicine with Special Reference to Herbal Origin
34.7.1 Sources of Reports
34.7.2 Reports from Health-Care Professionals
34.7.3 Reports from Consumers
34.7.4 Reports from Other Sources
34.8 Herbal Products Targeted for Safety Monitoring
34.8.1 Reporting of Suspected Adverse Reactions
34.9 Challenges in Monitoring the Safety of Herbal Medicines
34.9.1 Regulation, Quality Assurance and Control
34.9.2 Quality Assurance and Control
34.9.3 Appropriate Use
34.9.4 Action Required
34.10 Challenges in Pharmacovigilance of Traditional Medicine
34.10.1 The Complexity of Herbal Products (with Regards to the Following)
34.10.2 Botanical Nomenclature
34.10.3 Difference in Product Regulation
34.10.4 Safety Monitoring
34.11 Measures for Improvising the Pharmacovigilance of Traditional Medicines
34.12 Conclusion
34.13 Future Aspects
References
35: Zoopharmacognosy (Plant-Animal Interaction)
35.1 Introduction
35.2 The Significance of Studying Zoopharmacognosy
35.3 Domestic Livestock Benefits
35.3.1 Chewing Plants
35.3.2 Fur-Rubbing Behavior
35.3.3 Eating Bacteria for Digestion
35.3.4 Consumption of Soil
35.4 Zoonotic Disease Prevention
35.4.1 Wild Remedies for Reproduction
35.4.2 Antimicrobial Property of Plant
35.4.3 Antimicrobial Lining in the Nests
35.4.4 Plants as Stimulants
35.4.5 Self-Medication as Adaptive Plasticity: Augmented Eating of Plant Toxins by Parasitized Caterpillars
35.5 Impacts on the Organic Food Revolution
35.6 Biodiversity and Conservation Repercussions
35.7 Expert Opinion: Critical Points and Look in
35.8 Future Prospects
References
36: Significance of Stability and Pharmacokinetic Issues in Traditional Medicine
36.1 Introduction
36.1.1 Herbal Medicine
36.1.2 Common Herbal Medicines and Chemical Constituents
36.2 Stability-Related Issues
36.2.1 Shelf Life
36.2.2 Recent Literary Work in Herbal Medicine Stability Testing
36.2.2.1 Physical Changes during Herbal Medicines/Products Assessment
36.2.2.2 Chemical Changes during Herbal Medicines/Products Assessment
36.2.2.3 Biological Activity Assessment during Stability Testing
36.2.2.4 Herbal Products Evaluated for Biological along with Physico-Chemical Changes
36.2.3 Challenges Faced in Current Scenario of Herbal Medicine Stability
36.2.4 Advances in Improvement of Stability
36.3 Pharmacokinetic Issues
36.3.1 Metabolism-Mediated HDI
36.3.2 Transporter-Mediated HDI
36.3.3 Challenges Faced with the Complexity of Metabolism of Herbal Drugs
36.3.4 Regulatory Perspective
36.4 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Pharmaceutical Excipients from Nature
37: Pharmaceutical Formulation Development Based on the Polymers Obtained from Edible Plants: An Excellent Approach for the Be...
37.1 Introduction
37.1.1 Pharmacy or Pharmaceutical Science
37.1.2 Pharmaceutics
37.1.3 Drugs
37.1.4 Additives
37.1.5 Polymers
37.2 Formulation Development
37.2.1 Polymers in Devising Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems
37.2.2 Advantages of Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems
37.2.3 Disadvantages of Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems
37.2.4 Rationale of Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems
37.3 Herbal Formulations
37.3.1 Natural Polymers Obtained from Edible Plants for Formulation Development
37.3.2 Polymers Obtained from Edible Plants Used in Better Health-Care Systems
37.3.2.1 Polymers Obtained from Natural Sources
37.3.2.2 Agarose
37.3.2.3 Alginate
37.3.2.4 Carrageenans
37.3.2.5 Cellulose
37.3.2.6 Chitosan
37.3.2.7 Cyclodextrins
37.3.2.8 Dextran
37.3.2.9 Hyaluronic Acid
37.3.2.10 Lectins
37.3.2.11 Microcrystalline Cellulose
37.3.2.12 Pectin
37.3.2.13 Polysialic Acid
37.3.2.14 Soluble Starch
37.4 Herbal Polymers Utilized in Modern Pharmaceutical Formulations
37.4.1 Herbal Mucoadhesive Polymers Used in Formulation Development
37.4.2 Herbal Novel Drug Delivery Systems: Phytosomes or Phytolipids
37.4.3 Novel Ayurvedic Medicines
37.5 Future Scope
37.6 Conclusion
References
38: Evaluation of Bioactivity of Green Nanoparticles Synthesized from Traditionally Used Medicinal Plants: A Review
38.1 Introduction
38.1.1 Ethnomedicine
38.1.2 Nanotechnology in Medicine
38.2 Publications Reviewed
38.3 Discussion
38.4 Summary and Path Forward
References
39: Physicochemical, Micromeritics, Biomedical, and Pharmaceutical Applications of Assam Bora Rice Starch
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Extraction of Starch from ABR
39.3 Physiochemical Properties
39.3.1 Chemical Structure
39.3.2 Morphology
39.3.3 Solubility
39.3.4 Viscosity
39.3.5 Organoleptic Properties
39.4 Micrometricsproperties of ABRS
39.4.1 Particle Size and Shape
39.4.2 Flow Properties
39.5 Application of ABRS
39.5.1 Pharmaceutical Excipients
39.5.1.1 ABRS as Binder
39.5.1.2 ABRS As Directly Compressible Agents
39.5.2 ABRS as Plasma Volume Expander
39.5.3 Advanced Drug Delivery
39.6 Conclusion
39.7 Future Challenges
References
40: Natural Excipients in Pharmaceutical Formulations
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Classification of Natural Excipients
40.2.1 Starch
40.2.2 Celluloses
40.2.3 Hemicelluloses
40.2.4 Chitins and Chitosan
40.2.5 Lignins
40.2.6 Pectin
40.2.7 Alginates (Alginic Acid)
40.2.8 Inulin
40.2.9 Carrageenans
40.2.10 Scleroglucan
40.2.11 Rosin
40.2.12 Gums and Mucilages
40.2.12.1 Okra Gum
40.2.12.2 Albizia Gum
40.2.12.3 Locust Bean Gum (LBG)
40.2.12.4 Tara Gum
40.2.12.5 Khaya Gum
40.2.12.6 Honey Locust Gum
40.2.12.7 Guar Gum
40.2.12.8 Hakea Gum
40.2.12.9 Hupu Gum
40.2.12.10 Tamarind Gum
40.2.12.11 Cashew Gum
40.2.12.12 Damar Gum
40.2.12.13 Sandarac Gum
40.2.12.14 Gum Copal
40.2.12.15 Bahera Gum
40.2.12.16 Fenugreek Mucilage
40.2.13 Natural Dyes in Pharmaceuticals
40.2.13.1 Natural Dyes Derived from Plants
Curcumin
Crocin
β-Citraurin and Violaxanthin
Lutein
Carthamin
Bixin and Norbixin
Lycopene
Capsanthin and Capsorubin
Lawsone
Indigo Dyes
Alizarin and Purpurin
Catechin
Sanguinarine
40.2.13.2 Natural Colorants Derived from Animals/Insects
Carminic Acid (Cochineal Dye)
Lac Dye
Kermesic Acid
Tyrian Purple
40.2.13.3 Natural Dyes Derived from Microorganisms
40.2.13.4 Natural Dyes Derived from Minerals
40.3 Conclusion
References
Part V: Plants for Future
41: A Wonder Plant Withania: Pharmacological and Chemical Perspectives
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Withania Species
41.3 Traditional Usage
41.4 Biological Activities
41.4.1 W. adpressa
41.4.2 W. aristata
41.4.3 W. frutescens
41.4.4 W. obtusifolia
41.4.5 W. coagulans
41.4.6 W. somnifera
41.5 Bioactive Constituents
41.5.1 Cytotoxic Constituents of W. adpressa
41.5.2 Diuretic and Cytotoxic Constituents of W. aristata
41.5.3 Cytotoxic Constituents of W. frutescens
41.5.4 Cytotoxic Constituents of W. obtusifolia
41.5.5 Cytotoxic, Immunosuppressive, and Antidiabetic Constituents of W. coagulans
41.5.6 Bioactive Constituents of W. somnifera
41.6 Structure-Activity Relationships (SAR) in Withanolides
41.6.1 Cytotoxicity
41.6.2 Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibition
41.6.3 Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition
41.6.4 Neurite Outgrowth Activities
41.7 Summary and Future Prospects
References
42: Immunomodulators and Phytodrugs
42.1 Introduction
42.1.1 Immunity
42.1.2 Immune Systems
42.1.3 Immunomodulators
42.2 Plant-Derived Immunomodulator Drugs
42.2.1 Boerhavia diffusa (Common Names: Tarvine, Punarnava)
42.2.2 Withania somnifera (Common Names: Indian Ginseng, Ashwagandha)
42.2.3 Allium sativum (Common Names: Garlic)
42.2.4 Azadirachta indica (Common Names: Neem)
42.2.5 Acacia catechu (Common Names: Black Catechu, Cachou)
42.2.6 Curcuma longa (Common Names: Turmeric)
42.2.7 Ficus benghalensis (Common Names: Banyan Tree)
42.2.8 Tinospora cordifolia (Common Names: Guduchi)
42.2.9 Murraya koenigii (Common Names: Curry Leaves)
42.2.10 Ocimum sanctum (Common Names: Holy Basil or Tulsi)
42.3 Conclusion
References
43: Combined Effects of Plant Extracts on Ovarian Cell Functioning
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Materials and Methods
43.2.1 Preparation and Storage of Plant Extract
43.2.2 Isolation, Preparation and Culture of Granulosa Cells from Ovaries
43.2.3 Cytotoxicity Evaluation Using Real-Time Cell Analyser (RTCA)
43.2.4 Processing Cultured Granulosa Cells
43.2.5 Immunocytochemistry
43.2.6 Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA)
43.2.7 Statistical Analysis
43.3 Results
43.3.1 Cytotoxicity Evaluation Using Real-Time Cell Analyser (RTCA)
43.3.2 Immunocytochemistry and Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA)
43.3.2.1 Effect of RA on Proliferation (Cyclin B1) and Apoptosis (Caspase-3) Markers
43.3.2.2 Combined Effect of RA and Cur on Proliferation (Cyclin B1) and Apoptosis (Caspase-3) Markers
43.3.2.3 Effect of RA on Steroidogenesis
43.3.2.4 Combined Effect of RA and Cur on Steroidogenesis
43.4 Discussion
43.5 Conclusion
References
44: Pterocarpus santalinus: A Wonder Gift of Nature
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Scientific Screening
44.2.1 Collection and Identification of the Plant
44.2.2 Toxicity Study of P. santalinus
44.2.3 Preparation of Ointment
44.2.4 Chemical Screening of Ethanol Extract
44.2.4.1 Preparation of Plant Extract
44.2.4.2 Quantification of Total Phenolic, Flavonoid and Flavanol Contents
44.2.4.3 Estimation of Reducing Power
44.2.4.4 Evaluation of DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity
44.2.4.5 Determination of ABTS Radical Cation Scavenging Activity
44.2.4.6 Estimation of Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids in the 80% Aqueous Ethanol Extract of P. santalinus by HPLC
44.2.4.7 Antioxidant Activities of the Heartwood of P. santalinus
44.2.5 Evaluation of Wound Healing Property
44.2.5.1 Study of Wound Healing Efficacy with Crude Ointment
44.2.5.2 Study of Wound Healing Efficacy with 5% EtOH Extract Ointment
44.2.6 Hepatoprotective Effect of EtOH Extract of P. santalinus
44.2.7 Evaluation of DNA Damage Protection Role of P. santalinus EtOH Extract (Comet Assay)
44.3 Summary and Path Forward
44.4 Validation of the Plant
References
45: Phytochemicals and Investigations on Traditionally Used Medicinal Mushrooms
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Traditional Mushrooms and their Scientific Studies
45.2.1 Auricularia delicata, A. polytricha, and A. auricular
45.2.2 Agaricus blazei (Royal Sun Agaricus)
45.2.3 Coprinus comatus (Shaggy Mane)
45.2.4 Cordyceps Spp. (Caterpillar Fungus)
45.2.5 Fomes fomentarius (Tinder Fungus)
45.2.6 Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi, Lingzhi)
45.2.7 Fomitopsis pinicola (Red Belted Polypore)
45.2.8 Grifola frondosa (Maitake, Hen of the Woods)
45.2.9 Hericium erinaceus (Lion´s Mane)
45.2.10 Lentinula edodes (Shiitake)
45.2.11 Monascus purpureus (Red Yeast Rice)
45.2.12 Piptoporus betulinus (Birch Polypore)
45.2.13 Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom)
45.2.14 Polyporus umbellatus (Umbrella Polypore)
45.2.15 Poria cocos (Hoelen, Poria Mushroom)
45.2.16 Trametes versicolor (Turkey Tail)
45.3 Case Study on the Hepatoprotective Activity of Auricularia delicata
45.3.1 Validation, Identification, and Determination of Pharmacognostic Character of Mushroom
45.4 Results and Conclusion
References
46: A Review on Investigational Studies of Marine Macroalgae Spongomorpha indica L
46.1 Introduction
46.1.1 Identification of Algae
46.1.2 Description of Family Ulotrichaceae (Taylor 1960)
46.2 Botanical Description of Spongomorpha indica L.
46.2.1 Distribution and Habitat
46.3 Morphology and Uses of Spongomorpha indica L.
46.3.1 Morphology and Distribution
46.3.2 Uses, Interaction, Toxicology of Seaweed
46.3.2.1 Recommended Dose
46.3.2.2 Interactions
46.3.2.3 Toxicology
46.3.2.4 Uses of Seaweed Spongomorpha
Industrial Uses (Sekar 2015; Taylor 1957)
Ethnobotanical Uses (Wu et al. 2018)
Traditional Uses (McHugh 2003)
Medicinal Uses (Manjula 2015; Stein and Borden 1984)
46.4 List of Accepted Species in Other Names
46.5 List of Accepted Species of Spongomorpha Genus (Guiry and Guiry 2020)
46.6 Isolated Molecules
46.7 Elemental Analysis
46.8 Biological Activities
46.8.1 Antifungal
46.8.2 Antibacterial
46.8.3 Anti-Inflammatory
46.8.4 Antioxidant
46.8.5 Antimicrobial
46.9 Summary
46.10 Conclusion
References
47: Validation of Traditional Claim of Oxalis debilis Kunth: An Ethnomedicinal Plant from Northeastern Region of India
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Materials and Methods
47.2.1 Drugs and Chemicals
47.2.2 Collection of Plant
47.2.3 Preparation of Extracts
47.2.4 Physicochemical and TLC Analyses
47.2.5 Phytochemical Screening
47.2.6 Experimental Animals
47.2.7 Acute Oral Toxicity Study
47.2.8 Antidiarrheal Activity
47.2.9 Anthelmintic Activity
47.3 Results and Discussion
47.3.1 Physicochemical and TLC Analyses
47.3.2 Phytochemical Screening
47.3.3 Acute Toxicity
47.3.4 Antidiarrheal Activity
47.3.5 Anthelmintic Activity
47.4 Conclusion
References
48: Traditional Herbal Medicine Practiced in Plateau-Fringe and Rarh Districts of West Bengal, India
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Traditional Medicine: The Global Scenario
48.3 Traditional Medicine in India
48.3.1 Ayurveda
48.3.2 Siddha
48.3.3 Unani
48.3.4 Some Evidences of Bioactive Components of Indian Herbal Medicine
48.4 Traditional Herbal Medicine in Plateau-Fringe and Rarh Regions of West Bengal
48.5 Conclusions
References
49: Pharmacology and Mechanisms of Natural Medicine in Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
49.1 Introduction
49.2 An Emerging Detrimental Outlook of Key Factors in Play
49.3 Type 2 DM and Outline Reviews of Major Inimical Pathways Involved
49.3.1 Insulin-Resistant State
49.3.2 Lipotoxicity
49.3.3 Dysfunctional RAAS
49.3.4 Maladaptive Immune and Inflammatory Responses
49.4 Current Natural Therapies in the Management of Diabetes Mellitus
49.4.1 Flavonoids
49.4.2 Polyphenols
49.4.3 Saponins
49.4.4 Alkaloids
49.4.5 Terpenoids
49.4.6 Quinones
49.4.7 Miscellaneous Agents
49.5 Conclusion
References
50: Indian Traditional Herbs and Alzheimer´s Disease: Integrating Ethnobotany and Phytotherapy
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Plants Used in Ayurveda to Treat Alzheimer´s Disease
50.2.1 Bacopa monnieri Linn. (Brahmi, Family: Scrophulariaceae)
50.2.2 Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois. (Shankhpushpi, Family: Convolvulaceae)
50.2.3 Withania somnifera Dunal (Ashwagandha, Family: Solanaceae)
50.2.4 Centella asiatica Linn (Jal Brahmi, Family: Apiaceae)
50.2.5 Curcuma longa (Haldi, Family: Zingiberaceae)
50.2.6 Acorus calamus (Bach, Family: Araceae)
50.2.7 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Mulhatti, Family: Fabaceae)
50.2.8 Tinospora cordifolia Willd. (Guduchi, Family: Menispermaceae)
50.2.9 Clitoria ternatea (Aparajita, Family: Fabaceae)
50.2.10 Celastrus paniculatus (Malkangani, Family: Celastraceae)
50.3 Conclusion
References
Correction to: Natural Excipients in Pharmaceutical Formulations
Correction to: Chapter 40 in: S. C. Mandal et al. (eds.), Evidence Based Validation of Traditional Medicines, https://doi.org/...