Essentials of Medical Meteorology 3030809749, 9783030809744

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Mladjen Ćurić Oliver Zafirovski Vlado Spiridonov

Essentials of Medical Meteorology

Essentials of Medical Meteorology

Mladjen Ćurić • Oliver Zafirovski Vlado Spiridonov

Essentials of Medical Meteorology

Mladjen Ćurić Institute of Meteorology Faculty of Physics, University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia

Oliver Zafirovski Institute of Respiratory Diseases in Children - Kozle Skopje, Macedonia

Vlado Spiridonov Institute of Physics Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Skopje, Macedonia

ISBN 978-3-030-80974-4    ISBN 978-3-030-80975-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

There is no doubt that today human health is continuously exposed to environmental stressors, particularly those related to weather and climate. Other physical, chemical, and biological factors cause a stressful life that requires adaptive measures and responses. Weather and climate conditions have a significant impact on human sensitivity, longevity, and mental wellness. From the dawn of humanity, humans have tried to adapt to the weather and climate to create a more comfortable life and to control those conditions that endanger or make life uncomfortable. These complex and complicated relations between various forms of weather and human health are explained and discussed in this book, which is an extended hand of the “Hippocratic doctrine” about the connection between medicine and meteorology. This popular book is devoted to a wide range of readers and target audience. The recommendations, advices, preventive measures, and natural healthcare practices (sun therapy, climate therapy, climate resorts) which are proposed in the book aim to help people adapt to different weather phenomena and changes, to raise public awareness about climate change, and to minimize the negative health consequences. Our main intention is to offer readers a practical and affirmative book that will serve to provide information and be a guide to easier recognition of various weather and climate events and their impact on human health. However, how well we have succeeded in our endeavor is not up to us to judge. Your attention and dedication to this book will be sufficient gift for this modest, but hopefully very valuable, work. We truly thank you for your attention. Belgrade, Serbia Skopje, Macedonia  Skopje, Macedonia 

Mladjen Ćurić Oliver Zafirovski Vlado Spiridonov

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This contemporary work is an extended arm of the Hippocrates doctrine, about the great correlation of human illness and medicine with external environmental stressors and factors. Hippocates of Kos (460–370 BCE) The Father of Medicine

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Acknowledgments

Preparing a book like this is a really tedious and demanding job. But the authors were not alone on this journey—because many people helped complete one such voluminous work that encompasses two important natural science disciplines such as medicine and meteorology. For these reasons, we owe immense gratitude to the global scientific community, experts, organizations, and individuals who, with their numerous researches, clinical studies, published articles, and reports, have given an essential momentum and impetus in the preparation of this book. On this occasion, the authors would like to express their gratitude to an international publishing house such as Springer Nature, and the editorial board in New York, which approved the publication of this contemporary book. The authors express special gratitude to Dr. Aaron Schiller, Assistant Editor of Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment at Springer Nature, for his great commitment and contribution to the approval and publication of this manuscript jointly with Mr. Herbert Moses, project coordinator, and Henry Rodgers as his collaborator. The recommendations, suggestions, and valuable remarks given by the anonymous referees are for the highest appreciation. Finally, the authors would like to thank their families for their unreserved support, patience, and understanding throughout the years for the hard and delicate work such as writing a book. Thank you By authors

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Contents

1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    5 2 Brief Historical Review����������������������������������������������������������������������������    7 2.1 Hippocrates of Cos����������������������������������������������������������������������������    8 2.2 Santorio Santorio������������������������������������������������������������������������������    8 2.3 William Cullen����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   10 2.4 Johann Lerke������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   13 2.5 Meteorological Network of the Paris Royal Medical Society����������   14 2.6 Meteorological Network of Royal Medical Academy in Madrid��������������������������������������������������������������������������   15 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   16 3 The Basic Medicine of the Human Anatomy����������������������������������������   17 3.1 Medicine-Definition��������������������������������������������������������������������������   18 3.2 The Human Body������������������������������������������������������������������������������   19 3.3 Basic Human Anatomy ��������������������������������������������������������������������   19 3.4 Cardiovascular System����������������������������������������������������������������������   19 3.4.1 Heart��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21 3.4.2 Blood Vessels������������������������������������������������������������������������   22 3.4.3 Bloodstream��������������������������������������������������������������������������   22 3.4.4 Blood Pressure����������������������������������������������������������������������   23 3.4.5 High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)������������������������������������   24 3.4.6 Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension)��������������������������������������   24 3.5 The Circulatory System��������������������������������������������������������������������   25 3.6 Skeletal System��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   26 3.6.1 Skeleton Components ����������������������������������������������������������   27 3.6.2 Skeleton Divisions����������������������������������������������������������������   28 3.7 Muscular System������������������������������������������������������������������������������   28 3.8 Integumentary (Skin) System ����������������������������������������������������������   29 3.9 Nervous System��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   30

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3.9.1 The Brain������������������������������������������������������������������������������   31 3.9.2 Functions of Nervous System ����������������������������������������������   32 3.10 The Human Respiratory System ������������������������������������������������������   32 3.10.1 Lungs������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   33 3.10.2 Nose and Pharynx ����������������������������������������������������������������   34 3.10.3 Trachea����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34 3.11 Immune System��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   35 3.12 Digestive System������������������������������������������������������������������������������   36 3.13 Urinary System ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   36 3.14 Endocrine System ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   36 3.15 Reproductive System������������������������������������������������������������������������   36 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   37 4 Meteorological and Weather Elements��������������������������������������������������   39 4.1 Meteorology as a Physical Science��������������������������������������������������   40 4.1.1 Definition of Atmosphere������������������������������������������������������   40 4.1.2 Meteorology and Other Sciences������������������������������������������   41 4.1.3 Classification of Meteorology as a Science��������������������������   42 4.1.4 Atmospheric Structure����������������������������������������������������������   43 4.1.5 Chemical Composition of Atmosphere��������������������������������   44 4.2 Basic Meteorological Elements��������������������������������������������������������   45 4.2.1 Heat and Air Temperature ����������������������������������������������������   45 4.2.2 Temperature Factors and Changes����������������������������������������   46 4.3 Atmospheric Moisture����������������������������������������������������������������������   48 4.3.1 Clouds and Precipitation ������������������������������������������������������   51 4.3.2 Fog as Meteorological Event������������������������������������������������   51 4.4 Atmospheric Pressure ����������������������������������������������������������������������   52 4.5 Airflow and Wind������������������������������������������������������������������������������   54 4.6 Air Masses and Fronts����������������������������������������������������������������������   55 4.6.1 Classification of Air Masses�������������������������������������������������   56 4.7 Atmospheric Systems������������������������������������������������������������������������   56 4.7.1 Weather Fronts����������������������������������������������������������������������   56 4.7.2 Cyclone (Low-Pressure System)������������������������������������������   57 4.7.3 Anticyclone (High-Pressure System)������������������������������������   58 4.7.4 Weather Conditions at Cyclones and Anticyclones��������������   59 4.7.5 Tropical Cyclones ����������������������������������������������������������������   59 4.7.6 Winds Associate with Storm ������������������������������������������������   60 4.7.7 Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes ��������������������������   61 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 5 Human Biometeorology��������������������������������������������������������������������������   63 5.1 Correlation Between Medicine and Meteorology����������������������������   64 5.1.1 Beginnings of Biometeorology ��������������������������������������������   65 5.1.2 Biometeorology Today����������������������������������������������������������   66 5.1.3 Definition of Biometeorology ����������������������������������������������   66 5.1.4 Human Biometeorology��������������������������������������������������������   67

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5.1.5 International Association for Biometeorology����������������������   67 5.1.6 Physical Parameters of the Human Body������������������������������   69 5.1.7 Biometeorological Forecast��������������������������������������������������   69 5.1.8 Biometeorological Indices����������������������������������������������������   70 5.1.9 Reports on UV-Radiation and Prediction������������������������������   72 5.1.10 Air Quality Reports��������������������������������������������������������������   74 5.1.11 Pollen Concentration������������������������������������������������������������   74 5.1.12 Extreme Temperature Forecast ��������������������������������������������   76 5.1.13 Seasonal Weather Information����������������������������������������������   76 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   77 6 Meteoropathy ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79 6.1 Human Homeostasis ������������������������������������������������������������������������   80 6.2 Biological Rhythm of the Organism ������������������������������������������������   82 6.3 Monthly Weather Features����������������������������������������������������������������   84 6.4 Human Weather Sensitivity-Overview����������������������������������������������   92 6.5 Definition of Meteoropathy��������������������������������������������������������������   93 6.5.1 Meteorosensitive People (Meteorosensibility)����������������������   94 6.5.2 Meteoropathy and Physical Processes in the Atmosphere ����������������������������������������������������������������   95 6.5.3 Symptoms of Meteoropathy��������������������������������������������������   96 6.6 Ionization of Air and Health ������������������������������������������������������������   97 6.6.1 Positive Ions��������������������������������������������������������������������������   98 6.6.2 Negative Ions������������������������������������������������������������������������   99 6.6.3 Physiological Benefits of Negative Ions on the Human Body��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  100 6.7 Forms of Human Weather Sensitivity ����������������������������������������������  102 6.7.1 High Air Pressure Causes Migraines������������������������������������  102 6.7.2 Low Air Pressure and Strokes����������������������������������������������  103 6.7.3 Wind Causes Insomnia����������������������������������������������������������  104 6.7.4 Warm Wind Causes Psychosis����������������������������������������������  104 6.7.5 Intense Heat Increases Violence�������������������������������������������  105 6.7.6 Cold Risk for Diseases����������������������������������������������������������  105 6.7.7 Thunder Carries Relief����������������������������������������������������������  106 6.7.8 Blue and Clear Skies Raise Confidence��������������������������������  107 6.7.9 Atmospheric Fronts Reduce Concentration��������������������������  107 6.7.10 Sudden Weather Changes and Health ����������������������������������  108 6.7.11 General Weather-Related Diseases ��������������������������������������  109 6.7.12 Human Stress and Health������������������������������������������������������  110 6.7.13 Factors Affecting Weather Sensitivity����������������������������������  110 6.7.14 Human Response to Weather������������������������������������������������  110 6.7.15 Weather and Headache����������������������������������������������������������  111 6.7.16 Weather and Rheumatism ����������������������������������������������������  113 6.7.17 Rheumatic Diseases Symptoms��������������������������������������������  113 6.7.18 Pollen Allergies��������������������������������������������������������������������  114 6.7.19 Seasonal Affective Disorder��������������������������������������������������  114

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6.7.20 Extreme Weather and Stress�������������������������������������������������  116 6.7.21 Climate Change and Health��������������������������������������������������  118 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  119 7 Sunlight and Health ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  121 7.1 Solar Radiation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  122 7.1.1 Ultraviolet (UV Radiation) ��������������������������������������������������  123 7.1.2 UV-Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������  124 7.2 Sun and Health Problems������������������������������������������������������������������  126 7.2.1 UV-Radiation and Health������������������������������������������������������  126 7.2.2 Skin Damage from UV-Radiation����������������������������������������  127 7.2.3 Eye Damage Due to UV-Radiation��������������������������������������  129 7.2.4 Production (Creation) of Vitamin D3������������������������������������  129 7.2.5 Immuno-Protection and Infectious Diseases������������������������  130 7.2.6 Sunburns ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  131 7.2.7 Allergies from Exposure to Solar Radiation������������������������  132 7.2.8 Polymorphic Light Eruption ������������������������������������������������  133 7.2.9 Photoallergic Eruption����������������������������������������������������������  134 7.2.10 Sun Rash (Solar Urticaria)����������������������������������������������������  134 7.2.11 UV Prevention����������������������������������������������������������������������  135 7.2.12 Photoaging Due to the Influence of UV Radiation ��������������  136 7.2.13 Photoaging Prevention����������������������������������������������������������  137 7.2.14 Sunbathing����������������������������������������������������������������������������  138 7.2.15 Basic Measures for Protection while Sunbathing ����������������  139 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  140 8 Air Quality and Health����������������������������������������������������������������������������  143 8.1 Global Overview of Air Pollution����������������������������������������������������  144 8.2 Atmosphere ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  144 8.2.1 Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere ��������������������������  144 8.2.2 Significant Atmospheric Gases ��������������������������������������������  146 8.3 Atmospheric Pollution����������������������������������������������������������������������  148 8.3.1 Good and Bad (Harmful) Ozone������������������������������������������  148 8.3.2 The Main Components of Sulfur������������������������������������������  150 8.3.3 The Main Components of Nitrogen��������������������������������������  150 8.3.4 The Main Components of Carbon����������������������������������������  151 8.3.5 Particulate Matter (PM)��������������������������������������������������������  153 8.3.6 Atmospheric Aerosols����������������������������������������������������������  153 8.3.7 Factors and Conditions that Affect Air Pollution������������������  155 8.4 Acid Rain������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  157 8.5 Urban Air Pollution��������������������������������������������������������������������������  158 8.6 Air Pollution and Health Effects������������������������������������������������������  160 8.6.1 The Impact of PM2.5 Particles on Health����������������������������  161 8.6.2 PM2.5 Mechanisms on the Human Respiratory System������  161 8.6.3 PM2.5 and Chronic Respiratory Diseases����������������������������  163 8.6.4 Sensitivity of the Ground-Level Ozone��������������������������������  163

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8.6.5 Ozone and Harmful Effects on Health����������������������������������  164 8.6.6 Prevention of Ozone Exposure ��������������������������������������������  165 8.6.7 Irritation of Eyes, Nose, and Throat��������������������������������������  165 8.6.8 Allergic Reactions����������������������������������������������������������������  166 8.6.9 Air Pollution and Pollen Allergies����������������������������������������  166 8.6.10 Pollen of Ambrosia ��������������������������������������������������������������  167 8.6.11 Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Problems��������������������������  169 8.6.12 Air Pollution, Respiratory Problems, and Asthma����������������  170 8.6.13 Risk Groups and Methods of Protection������������������������������  172 8.7 Indoor Air Pollution and Health��������������������������������������������������������  173 8.8 Health Effects of Smog ��������������������������������������������������������������������  175 8.9 Air Pollution Due to Wildfires����������������������������������������������������������  176 8.10 Air Quality Forecast and Warning����������������������������������������������������  179 8.11 Air Quality Indices����������������������������������������������������������������������������  180 8.12 Control of the Effects of the Production Ozone��������������������������������  181 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  182 9 Heat and Health ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  183 9.1 Solar Energy��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  184 9.1.1 Energy, Heat, and Temperature��������������������������������������������  184 9.2 Heat Effects in Humans��������������������������������������������������������������������  185 9.2.1 Heat and Regulation of the Body Temperature��������������������  185 9.2.2 Heat Index (Humidex)����������������������������������������������������������  187 9.3 Heat Disorders����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  188 9.3.1 Causes and Risk Factors ������������������������������������������������������  189 9.3.2 Heat Stress����������������������������������������������������������������������������  190 9.3.3 Heat Stroke����������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 9.3.4 Heat Edema��������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 9.3.5 Heat Cramps�������������������������������������������������������������������������  192 9.3.6 Heat Rash������������������������������������������������������������������������������  193 9.3.7 Heat Exhaustion��������������������������������������������������������������������  194 9.3.8 Sunstroke������������������������������������������������������������������������������  195 9.3.9 Heat Preventive Measures����������������������������������������������������  196 9.3.10 Dehydration and Heat ����������������������������������������������������������  198 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  199 10 Cold and Health ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  201 10.1 Earth’s Cold Seasons����������������������������������������������������������������������  202 10.1.1 Cold Air Masses������������������������������������������������������������������  203 10.2 Wind Chill Factor (Cooling Index) ������������������������������������������������  205 10.3 The Cold and Health Problems ������������������������������������������������������  206 10.3.1 Flu and Cold������������������������������������������������������������������������  208 10.3.2 Common Cold Risk Factors������������������������������������������������  209 10.3.3 Cold Weather and Cardiovascular Diseases������������������������  210 10.3.4 Recommendations for People with Cardiovascular Disease��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  210

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10.3.5 Hypothermia ����������������������������������������������������������������������  211 10.3.6 Raynaud’s Disease��������������������������������������������������������������  212 10.3.7 Frostbite������������������������������������������������������������������������������  213 10.3.8 Small Frostbite (Blisters)����������������������������������������������������  215 10.3.9 Cold and Pulmonal Problems ��������������������������������������������  216 10.3.10 Cold-Related Injuries����������������������������������������������������������  216 10.3.11 Cold and the Effect on Eyes������������������������������������������������  216 10.3.12 Cold Diuresis����������������������������������������������������������������������  217 10.3.13 Cold Allergy (Urticaria)������������������������������������������������������  217 10.3.14 Cold and Chronic Conditions ��������������������������������������������  218 10.3.15 Preventive Measures Against Cold ������������������������������������  219 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  221 11 Violent Weather and Health��������������������������������������������������������������������  223 11.1 Adverse Weather Phenomena���������������������������������������������������������  224 11.1.1 Classification of Adverse Weather Events��������������������������  224 11.2 Health Effects of Strong Wind��������������������������������������������������������  226 11.3 Severe Thunderstorms and Health��������������������������������������������������  228 11.3.1 Thunderstorm-Related Asthma ������������������������������������������  229 11.3.2 Lung Collapse ��������������������������������������������������������������������  232 11.3.3 Sleep Apnea������������������������������������������������������������������������  233 11.4 Atmospheric Electricity������������������������������������������������������������������  234 11.4.1 Lightning as Migraine Trigger��������������������������������������������  234 11.4.2 Lightning Strike������������������������������������������������������������������  236 11.5 Severe Winter Storms����������������������������������������������������������������������  237 11.6 Fog as an Adverse Weather Phenomenon ��������������������������������������  239 11.6.1 Heavy Fog and Respiratory Diseases����������������������������������  240 11.6.2 Risk of Foggy Morning������������������������������������������������������  242 11.6.3 Fog and Cardiovascular Disease ����������������������������������������  242 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  243 12 Climate Change and Health��������������������������������������������������������������������  245 12.1 General Overview of Climate ��������������������������������������������������������  246 12.1.1 The Role of the Atmosphere in the Climate System����������  247 12.1.2 Climate Variability��������������������������������������������������������������  247 12.1.3 Climate Change������������������������������������������������������������������  248 12.1.4 Greenhouse Effect��������������������������������������������������������������  248 12.1.5 Global Warming������������������������������������������������������������������  249 12.1.6 Current Status of Climate Change��������������������������������������  250 12.1.7 Future Climate Projections, Risks, and Impacts ����������������  251 12.1.8 Adaptation, Mitigation, and Sustainable Development������  251 12.2 Climate Change and Health������������������������������������������������������������  252 12.3 Weather/Climate Extremes and Health ������������������������������������������  255 12.4 Extreme Heat (Heat Waves)������������������������������������������������������������  256 12.4.1 Prolonged, Intense Heat Waves Increase Risk��������������������  257 12.4.2 People Vulnerable to Extreme Heat������������������������������������  257 12.4.3 Protective Measures and Recommendations for Extreme Heat����������������������������������������������������������������  258

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12.5 Extreme Cold (Cold Waves) ����������������������������������������������������������  261 12.6 Extreme Precipitation and Flooding ����������������������������������������������  262 12.7 Extreme Storms������������������������������������������������������������������������������  263 12.8 Droughts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  264 12.9 Forest Fires (Wildfires) ������������������������������������������������������������������  265 12.10 Climate Variability and Health��������������������������������������������������������  266 12.11 Climate Change and Psychological Adaptation������������������������������  268 12.12 Climate Change and Corona Virus Transmission ��������������������������  271 12.12.1 Principal Mode of Infection������������������������������������������������  272 12.12.2 COVID-19 Aerosol Particles����������������������������������������������  273 12.12.3 Seasonal Variations Related to COVID-19 ������������������������  273 12.12.4 Response to COVID-19 and Climate Feedback ����������������  276 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  277 13 Applied Medical Meteorology and Climatology ����������������������������������  279 13.1 Medical Climatology: Overview����������������������������������������������������  280 13.2 The Use and Application of Heat/Health Warning Systems ����������  284 13.3 From Short-Range Forecast to Annual Information in Advance��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  286 13.4 Positive Effects on Weather and Climate����������������������������������������  289 13.5 Climate Change and Children’s Health������������������������������������������  290 13.6 Climatotherapy��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  292 13.6.1 Advantages of Climate Therapy�����������������������������������������  295 13.6.2 Climatotherapy Treatments������������������������������������������������  295 13.7 Ecotherapy/Nature Therapy������������������������������������������������������������  296 13.8 Climate Adaptation for Traveling/Tourism ������������������������������������  296 13.8.1 Travel Responsibility in Light of Climate Change ������������  297 13.8.2 Traveling/Tourism and Their Impact on Climate Change��������������������������������������������������������������  299 13.9 Sun and Climate Therapy-Sunlight and Serotonin ������������������������  301 13.9.1 Sunlight and Mental Health������������������������������������������������  301 13.10 Human Health and Discomfort ������������������������������������������������������  304 13.10.1 Acclimatization ������������������������������������������������������������������  304 13.11 Health Resort and Recreation Climatology������������������������������������  306 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  307 Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  309 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  311

About the Authors

Dr. Mladjen Ćurić  is a Professor in the Department of Meteorology at Belgrade University. His professional and scientific interest is the fundamental topics in meteorology, Dynamics of atmosphere, Cloud Physics, Applied Meteorology and Hydrology, Weather modification and Environment protection. Dr. Mladjen Ćurić has a world reputation. He has made an extraordinary contribution to the development of meteorological science, with the creation of many generations of meteorologists. His extraordinary scientific and journalistic career is reflected in over 200 published works and several extraordinary books in meteorology and atmospheric physics. Prim. Dr. Oliver Zafirovski  is a specialist of pediatric at Institute of respiratory diseases in children – Kozle, Macedonia. Dr. Oliver Zafirovski is also a pediatric pulmonologist helps children with medial problems related to the respiratory system of all ages suffering from, virus infections, chronic lung diseases, asthma, cystic fibrosis, and a range of other disorders that affect the lungs and significantly reduce a child’s quality of life. He was a former general manager at the Public Health Institution “Institute for Lung Diseases in Children”, Skopje, Macedonia and candidate for a mayor in 2021 at the municipality of Karposh, city of Skopje.

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About the Authors

Dr. Vlado Spiridonov  is a Full Professor of Meteoro­ logy at the Institute of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, “St. Cyril & Methodius University” in Skopje, Macedonia. He was a former visiting professor of meteorology at the University of Vienna, from 2017 to 2019. He has a wide research interests focused on modern branches of atmospheric and environmental sciences, including mesoscale atmospheric processes and phenomena, thunderstorms, cloud resolving models, severe weather forecast and warning, air quality modeling, weather modification, and biometeorology.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Over time, human beings have adapted their lives, adjusted their working and living habits and developed specific activities depending on the weather and climatic ­conditions (Fig. 1.1). For example, sudden changes in weather conditions, such as cooling, warming, precipitation, the occurrence of rapid changes in pressure and humidity, can cause the appearance of certain diseases, worsen the symptoms of mental disorders, as well as exacerbate basic chronic diseases (de Freitas 2015). The ability to adapt to rapidly changing weather conditions is different for each person and is basically linked to their individual genetic makeup. It is unclear how weather affects the incidence of difficulties in some people or how their health gets worse (Fig. 1.2). However, it is obvious that certain changes in weather increase the number of patients that exhibit health problems, with worsening of their symptoms (Lee et al. 2018). This is particularly so in chronic patients, such as those suffering from vertigo, blood pressure problems, and other diseases, who have more difficulty and are slower to adapt to changes in the weather. The study of the relationship of human sensitivity to the physical and other dynamic processes in the atmosphere requires knowledge of individual and complex bio-meteorological elements and atmospheric processes. This book is intended as a guide and to further increase the promotion and popularization of meteorological science and its application in public health care (see Patz et al. 2000). The work is quite simple and presents a generally accepted way of explaining specific weather conditions and their effect on meteoropathic reactions and diseases. The book pays special attention to acute and chronic diseases in humans, including children. It also deals with a special form of depression that occurs with seasonal changes, the so-called seasonal affective disorder (see Fig. 1.3), for which sun therapy (phototherapy), medications, and psychotherapy are recommended. It sets out to make recommendations and outline measures that can be implemented, and to provide easy and simple information on the subject. The main goal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ćurić et al., Essentials of Medical Meteorology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1_1

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Fig. 1.1  Human response to weather and climate

Fig. 1.2  Weather and health effects

1 Introduction

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Fig. 1.3  Seasonal affective disorder health

Fig. 1.4  Extremely cold weather and health

of the book is to introduce the effects of certain weather conditions–and enable sufferers to take preventive action–that may affect their health. In addition, avoiding the circumstances this book aims to guide you on how to adjust to these weather changes easily. It is evident that extreme air temperatures significantly affect health (see Curtis et al. 2017). For example, during hot weather and extremely high air temperatures people may experience swollen legs. In very cold weather and extremely low temperatures hypothermia is a possibility (Fig. 1.4). Therefore, when there are early warnings of these weather changes, it is advisable to take preventive measures, i.e., the adjustment of the human organism to external temperature changes and impacts. Most people know that high ultraviolet (UV) index values​​ have a very negative effect on people, and can even cause changes in the skin. It also contributes to premature skin aging, degeneration, and affects the body’s immune

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1 Introduction

Fig. 1.5  Lightning and health impact

system. Being able to give early and accurate information about a possible change of weather is of great importance in terms of allowing preventive action and being able to take steps to protect people from these conditions (Fig. 1.5). In this regard, besides regular weather information, biometeorological forecasts for ultraviolet radiation are continuously issued as well as information on air quality and pollen concentrations. Some go further and issue warnings to those who suffer from migraines, heart patients and people with asthma during weather changes and especially during atmospheric lightning, which is a migraine-triggering factor (Fig. 1.4). Unfortunately, despite evidence that the weather has a profound effect on human health, this area of study is not yet at a level that would allow the full confidence of the public in its findings. This book explains the basic medical and weather elements that constitute Biometeorology. It reveals the complex link between medicine and meteorology. It lays out, in a meaningful way, and with lots of illustrations, human sensitivity to weather, climate variability and climate changes related disorders along with preventive measures and advice. It is a guide to the popularization and recognition of planetary health as an advanced field aimed at characterizing the environmental effects on human health caused by human-induced disturbances of the Earth’s natural systems (see Cole 2019). As an integral branch of Applied Medical Meteorology, this modern book equally covers the part related to the application of heat / health warning systems, intervention procedures and mitigation. The positive effects of weather and climate (e.g., climate therapy, acclimatization, health resort and recreation climatology, climate adaptation for traveling/tourism) are an integral part of this book (see De Freitas 2003, 2015) Finally, the aim of the book is to help the public understand the importance of preserving our planet, its natural resources, and

References

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the resilience of ecosystems (Walton 2019), as a prerequisite for maintaining the health and well-being for all people on the planet. The book begins with a concise preface that sets out the essence and direction in which this interdisciplinary science Medical Meteorology has developed with all its complex and interrelated influences and the effects of weather, climate, and environmental conditions on public health and mental well-being. Chapter 2 is devoted to a historical overview of the development of the concept of Biometeorology from the time of Aristotle to the present day. The chapters that follow give a general description of the medical anatomy of the human body, as well as an introduction to the basics of meteorology, meteorological elements, phenomena, processes, and atmospheric systems. The book continues with a detailed description of the chapter “Biometeorology”, which serves as a basis for a better understanding of the concept and essence of this book, which certainly follows Hippocrates’ doctrine of the great connection between meteorology and medicine as two natural sciences. Chapter 6 defines meteoropathy and describes in detail the complex relations of human sensitivity to weather and climate conditions, with special emphasis on meteorosensitive people. The next few chapters cover specific areas of impact of air pollution, UV radiation, extreme heat, cold as well as violent weather conditions on human health. Chapter 12 is dedicated to climate change and its health effects (extreme weather events, heat, floods, droughts, storms), while finally discussing applied medical meteorology and climatology as trends in the modern concept of this science that deserves great attention and arouses incredible scientific interest.

References Curtis, S., Fair, A., Wistow, J. et al. (2017). Impact of extreme weather Events and climate change for health and social care systems. Environ Health 16, 128. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12940-­017-­0324-­3 Cole, J. (2019) Planetary Health: Human Health in an Era of Global Environmental Change. Royal Holloway, University of London, p. 168. 9781789241648 De Freitas, C.R. (2015) Weather and place-based human behavior: recreational preferences and sensitivity. Int J Biometeorol 59, 55–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-­014-­0824-­6 De Freitas, C.R. (2003) Tourism climatology: Evaluating environmental information for decision making and business planning in the recreation and tourism sector. Int. J. Biometeorol., 48, 45–54. Lee, M., Ohde, S., Urayama, K.Y., Takahashi, O., Fukui, T. (2018) Weather and Health Symptoms, Int J Environ Res Public Health. 15(8): 1670. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081670 Patz, J.A., Engelberg, D. and Last, J. (2000). The Effects of Changing Weather on Public Health. Annual Review of Public Health Vol. 21:271-307. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. publhealth.21.1.271 Walton, M. (2019) One Planet, One Health. (pp. 348) Sydney University Press, JSTOR, www. jstor.org/stable/j.ctvggx2kn

Chapter 2

Brief Historical Review

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ćurić et al., Essentials of Medical Meteorology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1_2

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2  Brief Historical Review

2.1  Hippocrates of Cos Hippocrates of Cos (460–375 BC) (Fig. 2.1) is generally called the father of medicine (e.g., Edelstein 1967; Porter 1996; Yapijakis 2009). He saw the understanding of nature as one of the important parts of his medical doctrine (Fig. 2.2). He believed that he could not be a good doctor without knowledge of meteorology. In his treatise On airs, waters and places, Hippocrates analyzed different parts of climate and their impact on public health as well as the diseases that occur in locations that are exposed to specific winds (Boussoussou et al. 2017). It is obvious from the title of the treatise that he believed that there are various forms of air, with special characteristics, that relate to specific locations. He did not try to find the cause of the local meteorological phenomena; he just watched the influence of weather on human health – a problem that is still insufficiently understood. Fig. 2.1  Hippocrates of Cos (460–375 BC)

2.2  Santorio Santorio Santorio Santorio (1561–1638), the renowned professor of medicine in Venice and Padua (Fig.  2.3), developed a new pressure plate anemometer, an instrument for measuring the force of winds. This consisted of a flat plate attached to a scaled bar (Fig. 2.4). The weight on the right would move with changes in the wind’s force. Santorio described his thermometer in the work Commentaria in artem Medicinal Galena, published in Venice in 1612. He is the first person who used a thermometer to measure the temperature rise of the human body to detect fever (Pearce 2002; Purnis 2016). He also used a twisted thread of animal gut (of sheep or a kitten) as an indicator of humidity. These threads would be relaxed when humidity was high.

2.2 Santorio Santorio

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Fig. 2.2  Hippocrates’ doctrine that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods

Fig. 2.3  Santorio Santorio (1561–1638)

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2  Brief Historical Review

Fig. 2.4  The pressure plate anemometer, developed by Santorio Santorio

2.3  William Cullen In 1775, William Cullen (1710–1790) (Fig. 2.5), as a professor of medicine at the University of Edinburgh, published an essay on cold, which arose as a result of liquid evaporation and other refrigerants (McGirr 1991; Satya-Murti 1994). He worked on a lead provided by one of his students (Fig.  2.6) who had observed that when a thermometer was first immersed for some time in alcohol and then redrawn, the mercury in the thermometer fell by two or three degrees. Cullen performed several experiments to confirm his theory that a thermometer cooled because of evaporation (Fig. 2.7). He worked with several other liquids besides water and compiled a list of the comparable degree of cooling by the thermometer when it was immersed in them and then withdrawn. The power of a liquid to produce cold on evaporation appeared to be proportional to its volatility and to depend on such factors as air agitation and warmth. Cullen did not suggest the use of the wet-bulb thermometer as a hygrometer. However, he was the first to determine and publish the correct explanation for the cooling of wet thermometers. The standard method of obtaining humidity measurements today is by using wet and dry bulb thermometers (Fig. 2.8).

2.3 William Cullen Fig. 2.5  William Cullen (1710–1790)

Fig. 2.6  Professor Cullen and students with the patient

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Fig. 2.7  Cullen’s experiments with thermometer, measuring cooling

Fig. 2.8  Wet and dry bulb thermometers

2  Brief Historical Review

2.4 Johann Lerke

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2.4  Johann Lerke A military doctor, Johann Lerke made meteorological measurement from 1731 to 1780. He made several measurements at various points along a route from Russia to Persia and Bessarabia. He always carried a Fahrenheit thermometer and mercury barometer (Fig. 2.9). Wherever he was, he took measurements three times a day and recorded his observations. In addition to measuring temperature, pressure, humidity, and other meteorological elements, he recorded the phonological stage of plant growth, freezing and melting of ice on rivers, occurrence of epidemics, and similar phenomenon. Wind was recorded according to the four-severity scale, which added a fifth, the devastating storm. His complete diaries for a period of 31 years (up to 1761) are preserved, but some later data is lost. In addition to many other places in Russia, he conducted the first instrumental measurements in Moscow, from September 13, 1731 to February 15, 1732. A Dutch doctor, Georg Margraf, was the first person to take meteorological measurements in Brazil – between 1640 and 1642.

Fig. 2.9  Mercury barometer and sling psychometer

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2  Brief Historical Review

2.5  M  eteorological Network of the Paris Royal Medical Society Louis Cotte (1740–1815), a meteorologist and priest from Montmorency, near Paris (Fig. 2.10), collected and published meteorological measurements and observations from the continents of Europe and America (Ćurić 2006). Cotte created a set of detailed instructions on how measurements and observations must be recorded. Fig. 2.10  Louis Cotte (1740–1815)

The Société Royale de Medicine in Paris sent these instructions to various places around the world in order to collect meteorological data to track the spread of disease. The Society invited all weather observers who were both willing and equipped for the work to submit records of their daily meteorological observations to the society (Fig.  2.11). Cotte published this data in the journal of the Histoire de la Société Royale de Medicine. For each year, they published the monthly medium and extreme values. The data was published for a period from 1776 to 1786. At the start, the network consisted of 36 stations, but by 1786 the number had risen to 65, with network scattered over a vast area from St. Petersburg in Russia to San Domingo in Haiti. Cotte summarized the results of the measurements, and pointed out a number of deficiencies, including: data came from stations that are randomly distributed and observers were randomly selected, the time of observations were different measurements, were performed on a variety of instruments, and the method of observation wasn’t identical. Because of this, it is difficult to compare the data. Cotte maintained that the main goal of the meteorologist observer was to be of use to farmers and doctors.

2.6 Meteorological Network of Royal Medical Academy in Madrid

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Fig. 2.11  Weather observation instruments

2.6  M  eteorological Network of Royal Medical Academy in Madrid Francisco Fernandez Navaret (1680–1742) wrote a plan to establish a network of meteorological observations in Spain in 1737 (Fig. 2.12). The proposal was sent to the Royal Medical Academy in Madrid. For two to three years, some members of the academy were sent reports about the weather but soon the activity died down.

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Fig. 2.12  Plan to establish a network of meteorological observations in Spain written by Francisco Fernandez Navaret

References Boussoussou, N., Boussoussou, M., Nemes, A. (2017) Historical overview of medical meteorology  - the new horizon in medical prevention. Orv Hetil;158(5):187–191. doi: https://doi. org/10.1556/650.2017.30655. Ćurić, M (2006) History of Meteorology (monography), BIG Press, Belgrade, pp. 563 (1, 2). Edelstein, L. (1967) Ancient Medicine. Johns Hopkins University Press, USA. Porter, R. (1996) The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Yapijakis, C. (2009) Hippocrates of Kos, the Father of Clinical Medicine, and Asclepiades of Bithynia, the Father of Molecular Medicine. In Vivo, 23 (4) 507–514. Pearce, J. M. S. (2002). A brief history of the clinical thermometer. QJM: Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians. 95 (4): 251–252. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/95.4.251. Purnis, J. (2016) Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy, Springer International Publishing, pp.1–4, doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­319-­02848-­4_970-­1. McGirr, E.M., (1991). William Cullen MD (1710–1790). Scottish Medical Journal. 36 (1): 6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/003693309103600103. Satya-Murti, S. (1994) William Cullen and the Eighteenth Century Medical World. JAMA. 271(23):1879. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03510470083041

Chapter 3

The Basic Medicine of the Human Anatomy

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ćurić et al., Essentials of Medical Meteorology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1_3

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3.1  Medicine-Definition Medicine is a natural scientific discipline and represents a branch of applied science dealing with the maintenance of health through diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of physical and mental disease in humans (Fig. 3.1). Medicine constitutes applied biological science that deals with the study and treatment of living organisms and focuses on aspects of biology that define and influence the human condition. In short, medicine deals with the health and disease of living organisms. As science and technology continue to improve, medicine is becoming more and more reliable worldwide (Fig. 3.2). Modern medicine offers many different medications,

Fig. 3.1  The medicine as health care practice

Fig. 3.2  A new world technology in Medicine

3.4 Cardiovascular System

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techniques, and innovations for overcoming health problems in order to cure illnesses and infections, as well as to maintain a healthy human body. Medicine is made up of many disciplines: anatomy, biochemistry, cytology, embryology, endocrinology, epidemiology, microbiology, neuroscience, nutrition, pathology, pharmacology, physiology, radiology, and many others. (e.g., Costanzo 2017; Hall 2015; Drake et al. 2019).

3.2  The Human Body The human body consists of a group of organs that work together to create life. Organs cannot work alone because each has certain needs that the organ cannot fulfill by itself. So all the organs in the human body need the support of other organs to perform their functions, and in this way an organ system is formed. The human body is the complete structure of a human being and comprises a head, neck, torso, two arms and hands, and two legs and feet (see Netter 2018).

3.3  Basic Human Anatomy Human anatomy is the branch of science that is primarily focused on the study of the morphology and function of the human body (Fig.  3.3). The human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one unit. There are ten major organ systems of the body: cardiovascular, circulatory, skeletal, muscular, nervous, respiratory, digestive, urinary, endocrine, immune-lymphatic, and the reproductive (Waugh and Grant 2018).

3.4  Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system is a closed system of blood vessels through which blood flows (Fig. 3.4). It is responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients from the blood into the tissue and removing carbon dioxide and the final metabolic products and gaseous waste from the body (see Iaizzo 2015). This system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system (Fig. 3.4). Structure of the Cardiovascular System The structure of the cardiovascular system includes: the heart, blood vessels, and blood (e.g., Gamperl et al. 2017; Gaze 2012).

20 Fig. 3.3  Human body

Fig. 3.4 Cardiovascular system

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3.4 Cardiovascular System

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3.4.1  Heart The heart is the most important organ that supplies blood and oxygen to all parts of the body (Fig. 3.5). This amazing muscular organ produces electrical impulses through a process called cardiac conduction. These impulses cause the heart to contract and then relax, producing what is known as a heart beat. The beating of the heart drives the cardiac cycle that pumps blood through the circulatory system by rhythmic contraction and dilation to the cells and tissues of the body (Figs. 3.6 and 3.7).

Fig. 3.5  The heart is the main organ of the circulatory system

Fig. 3.6 Human circulatory system

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Fig. 3.7  Blood is fluid that delivers substances to the body’s cells

3.4.2  Blood Vessels Blood vessels represent elastic tubes through which the blood circulates in the body. They are part of the human circulatory system that transports blood throughout the entire body. Blood vessels include a system of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. The oxygenated blood travels from the heart via arteries to the smaller arteries (arterioles) that carry blood to the capillaries. Blood is then carried to the small veins (venules), which join together to form veins, which return blood to the heart. Through the process of microcirculation, substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste are exchanged between the blood and the fluid that surrounds cells.

3.4.3  Bloodstream The flow of blood through the circulatory system of an organism is called bloodstream. Bloodstream is the red liquid that flows in the principal vascular system of human beings. Bloodstream moving away from the heart delivers oxygen and nutrients to every part of your body through arteries. The bloodstream delivers nutrients to cells and removes waste that is produced during cellular processes, such as cellular respiration. The blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.

3.4 Cardiovascular System

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3.4.4  Blood Pressure With each beat (about 60–70 times a minute at rest), the heart expels blood into the arteries. When the heart beats it generates force, which is transferred to the blood. As blood leaves the heart, it carries this force with it into the arteries. This force pushes on the walls of the arteries and they push back, helping to propel the blood forward into the body. This force also creates pressure within the arteries – this is called blood pressure (Fig. 3.8). Blood pressure measures the force pushing outward on your arterial walls. The blood pressure changes during a day. Its measurements usually consist of two numbers. The systolic pressure is measured while the heart is contracting, and it is the larger of the two numbers. The diastolic pressure is measured while the heart is relaxing, and is smaller than the systolic pressure. These two pressures are written together 120/80, and articulated as 120 over 80. Optimal blood pressure is less than 120/80 mm Hg. Both the systolic and diastolic blood pressures are important determinants of cardiovascular risk, so both are used in evaluating overall blood pressure status (Fig. 3.9). Fig. 3.8  Blood pressure

Fig. 3.9  Systolic and diastolic blood pressure

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3.4.5  High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) High blood pressure, also called hypertension (Fig. 3.10), is a medical condition when the force of the blood flow in the arteries is often high. Hypertension results from two major factors, which can be present independently or together: The heart pumps blood with excessive force. The body’s smaller blood vessels (known as the arterioles) narrow so that blood flow exerts more pressure against the vessels’ walls.

Fig. 3.10 Hypertension

3.4.6  Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension) Hypotension is the medical term for a physiologic state in which the arterial blood pressure is much lower than normal (see Fig. 3.11). This means the heart, brain, and other parts of the body do not get enough blood. For an adult, hypotension exists when the systolic pressure is less than 90 mmHg and the diastolic pressure is less than 60 mmHg. Because arterial pressure is determined by cardiac output, venous pressure, and systemic vascular resistance, a reduction in any of these variables can lead to hypotension.

3.5 The Circulatory System

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Fig. 3.11 Hypotension

Hypotension may result from: • • • • •

Reduced cardiac output Shock Blood volume redistribution Reduced systemic vascular resistance Vascular obstruction (e.g., pulmonary embolism)

3.5  The Circulatory System The circulatory system, shown in Fig. 3.12, transports nutrients and gases to cells and tissue throughout the entire body. It moves blood to a site, or sites, where it can be oxygenated, and where waste such as carbon dioxide can be disposed. Circulation then serves to bring newly oxygenated blood to the tissue of the body. As oxygen and other chemicals diffuse out of the blood cells and into the fluid surrounding the cells of the body’s tissue, waste products diffuse into the blood cells to be carried away. Blood circulates through organs such as the liver and kidneys, where waste is removed, and back to the lungs for a fresh dose of oxygen. Then the process repeats itself. This circulation process is necessary for the continued life of the cells, tissue, and even of the entire organisms. The body’s circulatory system consists of three distinct circulations: pulmonary (lungs), coronary (the heart), and systematic (the rest of the system). In order to form a healthy, functioning human body all these systems have to coordinate their functions and support each other. If any one of these systems is damaged, the human body will become unstable and this lack of stability will ultimately lead to death. The instability caused by damage of one system cannot be stabilized by other systems, because the functions of one system cannot be performed by other systems. Knowledge of the systems in the human body is very important for a medical professional because it is the base of all medical sciences and clinical practices.

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Fig. 3.12  The circulatory system

3.6  Skeletal System The skeletal system (Fig. 3.13) supports and protects the body while giving it shape and form. The skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilages, and joints of human body (Muscolino 2016). Nutrients are provided through blood vessels that are contained within canals in bone. The skeletal system also performs vital functions – blood cell production, calcium storage, and endocrine regulation, which enable us to move through our daily lives. Another major role of the skeletal system is to provide mobility.

3.6 Skeletal System

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Fig. 3.13  Skeletal system

3.6.1  Skeleton Components The skeleton is composed of fibrous and mineralized connective tissues that give it firmness and flexibility. It consists of bone, cartilage, tendons, joints, and ligaments. Bone. A type of mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen and calcium phosphate, a mineral crystal. Calcium phosphate gives bone its firmness. Bone tissue may be compact or spongy. Bones provide support and protection for body organs. Cartilage. A form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed collagenous fibers in a rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin. Cartilage provides flexible support for certain structures in adult humans, including the nose, trachea, and ears. Tendon. A fibrous band of connective tissue that is bonded to bone and connects bone to bone. Ligament. A fibrous band of connective tissue that joins bones and other connective tissues together at the joints. Joint. A site where two or more bones, or other skeletal components, are joined together.

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3.6.2  Skeleton Divisions Bones are a major component of the skeletal system. Bones that comprise the human skeleton are divided into two groups. They are the axial skeletal bones and appendicular skeletal bones. The axial skeleton includes bones that run along the medial sagittal plane of the body. Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back and that divides the body into equal right and left regions. This is the medial sagittal plane. The axial skeleton forms a central axis that includes bones of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The axial skeleton protects numerous vital organs and soft tissues of the body. The skull provides protection for the brain, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord, and the thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the appendages (arms and legs) and the girdles (shoulder and pelvic) that connect them with the axial skeleton.

3.7  Muscular System The muscular system is an important system of the human body that provides the force for movements (Fig. 3.14). It is composed of special tissue called muscular tissue. The muscular system also controls those movements that are responsible for human activities like breathing, digestion of food, pumping of blood, etc. Muscles are special type of tissues of the human body that possess the ability of contraction and relaxation. Visceral Muscle. Visceral muscle is found inside of organs such as the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances through the organ. Cardiac Muscle. Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle. The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are striated. They appear to have light and dark stripes when viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside the cells causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very strong, unlike visceral muscles. Skeletal Muscle. Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body. It is controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g., speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other.

3.8 Integumentary (Skin) System

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Fig. 3.14 Muscular system

Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels. In these organs, muscles serve to move substances throughout the body. There are three types of muscle tissue: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.

3.8  Integumentary (Skin) System The integument system has the skin and accessory structures, including hair, nails, glands, and specialized nerve receptors. The skin is the largest organ of the body that consists of the corium or dermis (same thing) and the epidermis (see Fig. 3.15). It has a crucial role in maintaining the internal conditions that a human body needs to function properly. The integumentary system has multiple roles in protection

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Fig. 3.15  Integumentary system

against disease, elimination of waste products, and regulation of body temperature. Its functions also include pigment protection against ultraviolet sunrays and protection from dehydration. The integument is a sense organ for the cutaneous (skin) senses. When it is exposed to sunlight, it is able to absorb vitamin D.

3.9  Nervous System The nervous system is the most complex system of the human body (see Titus et al. 2010). It serves as a major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body and responds to changes in the internal and external environmental conditions. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. There are three characteristic properties of the nervous system of the human body: sensitivity, conductivity, and responsiveness. The human nervous system (Fig. 3.16) is made up of two main parts – the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

3.9 Nervous System

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Fig. 3.16  The human nervous system

3.9.1  The Brain The anatomy of the brain is complex due to its structure and function. This amazing organ acts as a control center by receiving, interpreting, and directing sensory information throughout the body. There are three major divisions of the brain. These are the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain (Fig. 3.17). The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, and producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function. There are two major divisions of forebrain: the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are responsible for such functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions. The telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses as well as motor function. The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The metencephalon contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assist in maintaining balance and equilibrium,

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Fig. 3.17  The brain: forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain

movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information. The myelencephalon is composed of the medulla oblongata that is responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that extend to all the other organs in the body. The structural and functional unit of nervous system is called neuron. It is a special type of cell with a cell body and cell processes. The autonomic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system and comprises the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

3.9.2  Functions of Nervous System Control of all body functions: The nervous system is the master system of the human body. It controls the activity of all other systems in such a way that all the systems collectively make a human being. Coordination of different body organs: The nervous system not only produces coordination between different systems but also between different organs of a system.

3.10  The Human Respiratory System The respiratory system is the biological system consisting of a complex set of organs and tissues that enable the process of respiration in an organism (see Ionescu 2013). The respiratory system provides the human body with oxygen via gas exchange between air from the outside environment and gases in the blood, and transports the oxygen into lungs. It consists of lungs, nose, trachea, and bronchi (Fig. 3.18).

3.10 The Human Respiratory System

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Fig. 3.18 Respiratory system

3.10.1  Lungs The human lungs (see Fig. 3.19) are essential organs of respiration in humans (West and Luks 2014). They are the only internal organs that are constantly exposed to the external environmental conditions. Their internal structure is composed of approximately 300 million alveoli, which are surrounded by a capillary network. Red blood cells pass through the capillaries in single file, and oxygen from each alveolus enters the red blood cells and binds to the hemoglobin. In addition, carbon dioxide contained in the plasma and red blood cells leaves the capillaries and enters the alveoli when a breath is taken. When a person inhales, the rib muscles and diaphragm contract, and thereby the volume of the chest cavity increases. This increase leads to reduced air pressure in the chest cavity, and air rushes into the alveoli, forcing them to expand and fill. The lungs passively obtain air from the environment by this process. During exhalation, the rib muscles and diaphragm relax, the chest cavity area diminishes, and the internal air pressure increases. The compressed air forces the alveoli to close, and air flows out. The nerve activity that controls breathing arises from impulses transported by nerve fibers passing into the chest cavity and terminating at the rib muscles and diaphragm. These impulses are regulated by the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood: A high carbon-dioxide concentration leads to an increased number of nerve impulses and a higher breathing rate.

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Fig. 3.19  Human lungs

3.10.2  Nose and Pharynx The human respiratory system starts with the nose, where air is conditioned through warming and moistening. Bone partitions separate the nasal cavity into chambers, where air swirls about in currents. Hairs and hair-like cilia trap dust particles and purify the air. The nasal chambers open into a cavity at the rear of the mouth called the pharynx (throat). From the pharynx, two tubes called Eustachian tubes open to the middle ear to equalize air pressure there. The pharynx also contains tonsils and adenoids, which are pockets of lymphatic tissue used to trap and filter microorganisms.

3.10.3  Trachea After passing through the pharynx, air passes into the windpipe, or trachea. The trachea has a framework of smooth muscle with about 16–20 open rings of cartilage shaped like a C. These rings give rigidity to the trachea and ensure that it remains open. The opening to the trachea is a slit-like structure called the glottis. A thin flap of tissue called the epiglottis folds over the opening during swallowing and prevents food from entering the trachea. At the upper end of the trachea, several folds of cartilage form the larynx, or voice box. In the larynx, flap like pairs of tissues called vocal cords vibrate when a person exhales and produce sounds. At its lower end, the trachea branches into two large bronchi (singular, bronchus). These tubes also have smooth muscle and cartilage rings. The bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles, forming a bronchial “tree”. The bronchioles terminate in the air sacs known as alveoli.

3.11  Immune System

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3.11  Immune System Your body has an incredible protective process called the immune system (Fig. 3.20). Its design is to defend you, to fight for you, against millions and millions of tiny parasites, toxins, viruses, bacteria and microbes. These little critters seek to enter your body and take over. Your immune response is the reaction of your body to substances that are foreign or interpreted as being foreign. When you first “get sick”, your body is not able to work properly, or at its full potential. Keep in mind you don’t just wake up one day with the flu or a cold. More than likely, you have walked around with the bacteria or virus feeling fine until it replicated itself enough to take over your body and make you “feel sick”. The immune system is divided into two parts, called the Acquired Immune System and the Innate Immune System. While each of these plays a role in

Fig. 3.20  The human immune system

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defending the body, there are major differences between the two. The innate immune system is always working to protect the body and does not require any special preparation to stop infection. The acquired immune system needs to be “primed” before it can work to its full effectiveness, and is only really effective after it has seen a possible infective agent before.

3.12  Digestive System The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste. Most of the digestive organs (such as the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it makes its way through the body. The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (such as the liver and pancreas) that produce, or store, digestive chemicals.

3.13  Urinary System Urinary system includes the kidneys, bladder, and tubes. These organs control the amount of water and salts that are absorbed back into the blood and what is taken out as waste. This system also acts as a filtering mechanism for the blood.

3.14  Endocrine System Endocrine system is the system of glands. Each of these glands secretes one or more different hormones into the blood that are meant for different functions. The secretions of the endocrine glands are known as hormones. Each endocrine gland may secrete one or more hormones in the blood and these hormones may, or may not, have related functions. Generally, the hormones regulate different functions of the human body, such as growth, mood, development, metabolism, and so on. They perform their function by attaching to the target cells and then communicating with them.

3.15  Reproductive System Both males and females have a reproductive system, although these differ according to gender. The female reproductive system is more complex than the male reproductive system. Females have to bear the fetus within their bodies during fetal period of

References

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development. Modifications and adaptations to bear the fetus make the female reproductive system more complex. The female body also shows certain adaptations to allow it to bear the fetus for nine months. It is important to keep in mind that these systems don’t just exist as individual units. The final product of these cooperating systems is one unit called the body. Each system depends on the others, either directly or indirectly, to keep the body functioning normally.

References Costanzo, L.S., (2017) Physiology, (6th ed., p. 528), New York: Elsevier. Hall, J.E., (2015) Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. (13th ed., p. 1168), New York: Elsevier. Drake, R.L., Wogle, A.L. & Michell, A.W.M., (2019) Gray's Anatomy for Students, (4th ed., p. 1192), New York: Elsevier. Netter, F.H. (2018) Atlas of Human Anatomy. (7th ed., p. 640), New York: Elsevier Waugh, A., Grant, A. (2018) Ross & Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness. (13th ed., p. 584), New York: Elsevier Gaze, D.C., (2012) The Cardiovascular System: Physiology, Diagnostics and Clinical Implications, IntechOpen, (p.494) ISBN 9789535105343 Gamperl, Gillis T., Farrell, A., Brauner, C. (2017) The Cardiovascular System, Development, Plasticity and Physiological Responses. Academic Press. (1th ed., p.512) ISBN: 9780128041642 West, J.B., Luks, A.M. (2014) West's Respiratory Physiology. (10th ed., p.224). Wolters Kluwer. Ionescu, C.M., (2013) The Human Respiratory System. An Analysis of the Interplay between Anatomy, Structure, Breathing and Fractal Dynamics. Springer, (p.242) ISBN 978-1-4471-5388-7 Muscolino, J.E. (2016) Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function, (2nd ed., p. 760) Elsevier. ISBN: 9780323396202 Titus, A.M., Revest, P., Shortland, P. (2010) The Nervous System, (2nd ed., p. 344) Elsevier. ISBN: 9780702033735 Iaizzo, P.A. (2015) Handbook of Cardiac Anatomy, Physiology, and Devices. Springer International Publishing. (3nd ed., p. 817) ISBN-13: 978-3319194639

Chapter 4

Meteorological and Weather Elements

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ćurić et al., Essentials of Medical Meteorology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1_4

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4.1  Meteorology as a Physical Science Meteorology is a science that studies the Earth’s atmosphere, its structure, composition, characteristics, as well as processes and phenomena that are closely related with the surface of the Earth, water, and air (Ackerman and Knox 2007; Ahrens and Henson 2016; Spiridonov and Ćurić 2021). It deals with examination of atmospheric processes related to weather and climate and on the basis of acquired knowledge predicts their future conditions (Andrews, 2010).

4.1.1  Definition of Atmosphere The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope of the Earth (Fig. 4.1). In order to determine its state at a particular point in time, it is necessary to perform measurements and observations not only at the Earth’s surface (surface observation network), but also in the vertical layers of the atmosphere (upper-air observation network). The requirements for observational data may be met using: in-situ measurements and remote sensing (including space-borne) systems. There are also special measurements for detailed observation and monitoring of certain electrical, optical and sound phenomena, turbulence, processes in clouds, etc. In most natural sciences, the laboratory experiment is the main means of research. The meteorological laboratory is the atmosphere. In laboratory research, the conditions of the experiment can be changed by including or eliminating certain factors

Fig. 4.1  Earth atmosphere

4.1 Meteorology as a Physical Science

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in order to establish certain laws. In meteorology as a science, such changes are not feasible, because numerous secondary factors affect atmospheric phenomena and processes, which cannot be isolated. The main goals of Meteorology as a science are: 1. To identify and describe the observed processes and phenomena in the atmosphere qualitatively and quantitatively 2. To explain the phenomena and find out according to which laws they take place, i.e., the basis of the obtained data 3. Apply laws and develop reliable methods for forecasting their future development 4. To develop effective methods that would enable people to change natural atmospheric conditions, based on scientific bases (to increase or decrease precipitation, reduce hail, clear fog, etc.) Every day, people are faced with various manifestations of the weather. Depending on weather, climate, and environmental conditions, they adapt their activities (Barry and Chorley 2009). Weather conditions are closely related to the state of the atmosphere, which has a very changeable nature. Changes in atmospheric conditions are reflected in the change of the basic meteorological elements and phenomena: temperature, pressure, humidity, density, water vapor, and others. The scientific discipline that examines these atmospheric phenomena, stages, and processes is Meteorology (Spiridonov and Ćurić 2021).

4.1.2  Meteorology and Other Sciences The Earth as a planet consists of four related components: atmosphere (gaseous mantle of the Earth), hydrosphere (all water on the surface or depth of the Earth in liquid or solid state), lithosphere (solid part of the Earth’s crust), and biosphere (flora and fauna). The atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are called the geosphere. Physical and chemical processes in them are studied in special sciences. However, many processes in the atmosphere cannot be observed independently of events in the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, so the term geophysics is used for all these sciences. Moreover, the objective is to create a unique science about Earth (Earth system sciences) that studies the processes on Earth as a complete system composed of these components. Meteorology is, therefore, a geophysical science and is closely connected with other geophysical sciences, such as, e.g., Earth Physics and Oceanology. Meteorology has long been, and today is even more, connected with astrophysics, or rather, with the physics of the Sun. However, despite the branched connections of Meteorology within other sciences, the goals and methods of Meteorology are closely related to physics, which is why it is often called atmospheric physics. According to the  International Union of  Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), ­meteorology studies only a thin layer of the atmosphere up to a height of 20 km. The rest of the atmospheric studies  belongs to Aeronomy as the science of the upper

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atmosphere (Brasseur and Solomon 2005), where dissociation and ionization very important processes (see Fig. 4.2). This division is obviously wrong because the processes in the atmosphere are connected. Therefore, it is impossible to observe the wave motions that characterize the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere separately from the wave motions in its atmosphere, because they are interconnected motions. Аtmospheric discharges in the troposphere result in spectacular electrical phenomena, such as blue jet, elves, and ring discharges.

4.1.3  Classification of Meteorology as a Science At the current stage of development, Meteorology encompasses a whole range of specialist disciplines. Within each of the meteorological disciplines there are more subdisciplines that can be treated as special specialist branches of Meteorology. The boundaries between individual disciplines and subdisciplines are becoming less pronounced. Thus,

Fig. 4.2  Atmospheric division into layers studying Meteorology and Aeronomy, according to the International Union of Sciences

4.1 Meteorology as a Physical Science

43

the main meteorological disciplines are Dynamic Meteorology, Synoptic Meteorology, Climatology, Physical Meteorology, Aerology, and Applied Meteorology. Applied Meteorology refers to different areas. There are several subdisciplines, such as Agrometeorology that studies the influence of meteorological factors on agricultural production and Human Biometeorology or Medical Meteorology as a subdiscipline that deals with the impact of meteorological factors on human health (Fig. 4.3).

4.1.4  Atmospheric Structure The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on a vertical change in temperature, chemical composition, or air charge (Salby 1996; Lutgens and Tarbuck 2009). The division of the atmosphere into layers by height due to the vertical change in temperature is shown in Fig. 4.4. Layers with alternating fall and rise in temperature with altitude are called troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. These layers are separated from each other by thinner transition layers in which the temperature does not change, or changes slightly with height. They are called tropopause, stratopause, and mesopause.

Fig. 4.3  An example of the influence of atmospheric electricity on headaches

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Fig. 4.4 Atmospheric layers

Fig. 4.5 Chemical composition of atmosphere

4.1.5  Chemical Composition of Atmosphere The division of the atmosphere into layers can also be performed on the basis of its chemical composition (Fig. 4.5). If there are no sources and abysses of air components, two processes determine the chemical composition of the atmosphere: mixing due to movement and molecular diffusion.

4.2 Basic Meteorological Elements

45

Mixing enables a homogeneous composition of the atmosphere, so that the layer of the atmosphere up to about 85 km in height is called the homosphere. The level at which the change from molecular diffusion to turbulent transport takes place is called the diffusion separation layer or turbopause. The layer of the atmosphere above the turbopause is the heterosphere, because there are heavier gases at lower altitudes and lighter gases at higher altitudes. In the heterosphere, the process of oxygen photodissociation is significant. Therefore, above the altitude of about 120 km, most of the oxygen is in atomic form. At an altitude of 500 km, it has the most atomic oxygen, very small amounts of nitrogen molecules and light gases helium and hydrogen. Above 1000 km, helium and hydrogen dominate.

4.2  Basic Meteorological Elements Meteorological elements and phenomena are variables (quantities) that represent the physical state of the atmosphere and phenomena. Meteorological elements include temperature, pressure, humidity, wind direction and speed, radiation, and phenomena (clouds, precipitation, thunderstorms, fog, snowstorms, etc.). The changes in the meteorological elements are the result of atmospheric processes, which in turn determine the weather and climate. Ground, altitude, and distance measurements and monitoring of meteorological elements and phenomena are performed in meteorological stations, with standardized methods and procedures in order for them to be consistent, representative, and uniform.

4.2.1  Heat and Air Temperature The sun is the source of life on Earth, but also the driver of almost all air movements and processes that take place in the atmosphere. Less than a billionth of the total radiation of the Sun reaches the surface of the Earth. All other energy sources (stars, planets, moon, cosmic radiation, incandescent core of the Earth, and processes of radioactive decay in the surface layers) are practically insignificant for the Earth and its atmosphere compared to the Sun. The Sun radiates energy in all directions (Fig.  4.6). Part of the solar energy that heats our atmosphere and Earth planet is called thermal energy or solar heat energy. Air temperature is one of the most important elements of the weather and climate. By definition, temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the degree of warming of the physical body, which occurs as a result of accidental secondary movement of molecules. In physical terms, temperature is a measure of the average velocity or kinetic energy of molecules.

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Fig. 4.6  Solar heat warms the Earth

4.2.2  Temperature Factors and Changes The source of heat for our planet is the Sun. The solar radiation (Fig. 4.7) moves through space and warms the Earth’s atmosphere and surface. The primary factors that affect the distribution of heat, and thus energy, and cause temporal and spatial change in temperature are the following: • • • • • • •

Radiation transfer (different heating of the mainland and water) Movement of air masses Geographical location Ocean currents Cloud cover Altitude Albedo

The air temperature at any spot is determined by the exchange of radiant energy between the Sun, Earth, and its atmosphere. The air temperature is determined by radiation and heat transfers between the surface and the air above, the location relative to a large body of water, the movement of air masses, the cloud coverage in the atmosphere, and other factors. Greater cloud cover means less incoming solar radiation and consequently reduced air temperature. The temperature of the air near the surface of the earth  depends on a number of factors. However, the increase and decrease in temperature, as well as the time of reaching its maximum and minimum depends almost exclusively on the radiation budget, i.e., the ratio of the inflow of solar radiation (insolation) and the Earth’s long-wave (thermal) radiation

4.2 Basic Meteorological Elements

47

Fig. 4.7  Solar radiation

or terrestrial radiation. The surface temperature rises when the insolation is greater than the terrestrial radiation (positive balance) and decreases with a negative radiation balance. The temperature rises from sunrise to 1 pm local time, when it reaches its maximum daily temperature (insolation is equal to growth). According to the laws of radiation, ground radiation is greatest when the temperature of the soil surface is highest. The minimum daily temperature occurs in the early morning hours immediately after sunrise. The values of ​​ the daily maximum and minimum surface temperatures, as well as the daily fluctuation (amplitude) of the temperature (the difference between the highest and lowest temperatures during the day) depend on various factors: latitude, season, altitude, terrain position in relation to the side of the world, soil composition and condition (dry, wet, covered with vegetation or snow, etc.), cloudiness and transparency of the atmosphere. The daily temperature amplitude decreases with increasing latitude, because in the lower latitudes there is a greater warming near the surface during the day (higher position of the Sun), and greater cooling at night due to higher surface temperatures. Daily fluctuations of surface temperatures are higher in summer than in winter, due to the higher position of the sun above the horizon and the longer duration of the day. Daily fluctuations in surface temperatures rises with increasing altitude, because the mountain peaks are warmer during the day due to the higher intensity of the solar radiation, and during the night they are more cold not only because of the temperature but also and due to the higher air transparency. As a horizontal, the temperature changes with altitude. Under  standard atmospheric  conditions, the

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temperature decreases with altitude by about 0.65 °C/100 m (vertical temperature gradient) due to the decrease in density, air dilution, and decrease in air pressure. However, under high air pressure and stable atmospheric conditions, inversion is possible in certain layers of the atmosphere, when the temperature rises with altitude. Matter consists of atoms and molecules that are constantly oscillating. Heat is the total kinetic energy of atoms and molecules. Unlike heat, temperature is a measure of the intensity or the mean kinetic energy of individual atoms and molecules. Heat and temperature are variables that are closely related to each other. By adding heat, the molecules move faster, and this contributes to increasing temperature. Conversely, by subtracting the heat, the molecules move more slowly i.e., we say that the temperature decreases. The quantity of heat depends on the mass of matter (as total energy) but, on the other hand, the temperature does not depend on it. Air temperature is one of the most important elements of weather and climate. By definition, temperature is a physical quantity that characterizes the degree of heating a physical body, which occurs as a result of accidental secondary movement of molecules in the body. In a physical sense, temperature is a measure of the mean velocity or kinetic energy of molecules.

4.3  Atmospheric Moisture Water vapor is present in the atmosphere primarily due to the evaporation of water from the Earth’s surface. It spreads with large-scale atmospheric disturbances, convection, turbulent mixing, diffusion, etc. The water vapor content decreases very quickly going from the soil upward. It decreases faster in the free atmosphere than above mountain sides, because in that case it is in direct contact with the soil that evaporates. In contrast, in temperature inversions, the water vapor content can increase with height. The air is humid due to the presence of water vapor. Humidity is one of the most important meteorological elements. The content of water vapor in the atmosphere is quantitatively shown through the quantities that determine the amount of water vapor in the air, as well as those that show the degree of saturation of water vapor in the air. Another term often used is “moisture,” which indicates a general term used to describe the amount of water vapor in the air (Fig. 4.8). Water vapor is a gas without color and smell, which can change its state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) into another state at a certain temperature and pressure. Processes that change the state of matter in the atmosphere are the following: • • • • • •

Evaporation (liquid to gas) Condensation (gas to liquid) Melting (solid to liquid substance) Freezing (liquid to solid matter) Sublimation (solid to gas matter) Deposition (gas to solid)

4.3 Atmospheric Moisture

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Fig. 4.8 Atmospheric moisture

The methods used for quantitative expression of moisture include: 1. Absolute humidity – mass of water vapor in a given volume of air 2. Mixing ratio – the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air 3. Water vapor pressure – the part of the total atmospheric pressure that is due to the content of water vapor 4. Relative humidity – usually expressed in percentages, this is the ratio of actual water vapor content and the maximum quantity of water vapor necessary for saturation at a certain temperature The quantities that determine the degree of water vapor saturation are relative humidity, humidity deficit, dew point, and wet bulb temperature. Relative humidity (U) is defined as the ratio of actual and maximum water vapor pressure expressed as a percentage U

e 100 ew

(4.1)

The actual and maximum water vapor pressure can be expressed through the equation of state for water vapor as

e  v RvT ; ew   w RvT

(4.2)

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where ρv and ρw are the densities of water vapor and the maximum density of water vapor in the air at a given temperature. Based on this, relative humidity can be expressed as:  r U  v 100; U  100 where r i rw represent mixture ratio and maximum w rw mixture ratio in air. Relative Humidity  may change due to changes in water content vapor or air temperature. The relative humidity of the observed air increases if the amount of water vapor in it increases at a constant temperature. By lowering the air temperature with unchanged water vapor content, relative humidity also increases. It happens because the maximum water vapor pressure decreases with decreasing temperature. Relative humidity is most commonly used to describe humidity. Human beings react to changes in the relative humidity of the air, and not to changes in the content of water vapor in the air. When the relative humidity at high temperatures is low, a person sweats and water evaporates from the skin, taking away heat in the amount of latent heat of vaporization mainly from the human body, and partly from the surrounding air. The person then has a subjective feeling that the air temperature is lower than it is. At high air temperatures and high values ​​of relative humidity, a person sweats and sweat remains on the skin, because its evaporation is less, and thus the cooling of the air near the body is less. Such weather conditions are difficult to endure. The sauna works on the same principle, where the temperature reaches over 120 °C, and the relative humidity is less than 1%. In such extreme conditions, a person can spend up to 45 min, because due to intense evaporation, a thin layer of cold air is formed around the skin. Also, in apartments with central heating during the heating season, the indoor relative humidity can be very low even after ventilation, which adversely affects the skin and mucous membranes of the throat, so evaporators are recommended in apartments. Dew Point Temperature  The dew point is the temperature at which the air must cool to become saturated with water vapor, at constant pressure and water con. The dew point is a water-to-air saturation temperature. The dew point is associated with relative humidity. A high relative humidity indicates that the dew point is closer to the current air temperature. Relative humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the current temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the dew point remains constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases. The Absolute Humidity  and the ratio of the mixture are similar, and both are expressed as amounts of water vapor contained in a specific amount of air. When the air is saturated with water vapor, the pressure caused by it, called the vapor saturation pressure, creates a balance between the number of molecules that leave the water surface and the number of molecules that return to it. Since the saturation water vapor pressure is dependent on temperature, higher temperatures require greater amounts of water vapor for saturation to occur.

4.3 Atmospheric Moisture

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Fig. 4.9  Precipitation clouds

Evaporation and Condensation  are dynamic processes that always take place on the interface between liquid and air.

4.3.1  Clouds and Precipitation Clouds are a visible manifestation of condensation or deposition in the atmosphere. Prior to forming clouds and precipitation (Fig. 4.9), certain physical processes in the atmosphere occur. The first such process is that in which a part of the atmosphere with a relatively large volume increases relative humidity up to saturation, i.e., around 100%. It usually happens because of the vertical movements of the atmosphere when it is unstable or because of the dynamic and thermal processes that occur in it. The other process is the transformation of various categories of water in small scale: nucleation, diffusion, and accumulation, and it is the subject of study in a special section called the microphysics of clouds.

4.3.2  Fog as Meteorological Event Fog is defined as a system of water droplets or crystals suspended in the air near the surface (Fig. 4.10). Fog droplets have different dimensions. In subzero temperatures they reach 2–5 microns, while for temperature above zero it is 7–15 microns. When

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Fig. 4.10  Fog as weather phenomenon

the visibility of air is reduced below 1000 meters, fog occurs. Fog is actually a cloud that occurs at ground level or very close to it and it is considered an unfavorable temporal phenomenon.

4.4  Atmospheric Pressure Air or atmospheric pressure is the weight of an air column above a unit area (Fig. 4.11). Only a small part of this pressure is affected by the speed of air movement in that column. For every m2 of surface at sea level, the atmosphere acts with an average force of 10 t. That is a great force, knowing, for example, that the mass of a city bus is typically 10 tons. The force with which the atmosphere presses on a surface is called the pressure force, and the intensity of a given force is independent of the orientation of the surface that the air touches. Air pressure is one of the most important meteorological elements that changes in space and time. It is determined by only one number, and like temperature and air density, it represents a scalar quantity. Given the importance and practical needs, there are more pressure units today. The unit for measuring pressure in the SI system is called a pascal and is denoted by Pa. It is defined as

4.4 Atmospheric Pressure

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Fig. 4.11 Atmospheric pressure



1 Pa = 1 N / m 2

In Meteorology, bar and millibar are used as pressure units. Pressure is a function of density and air temperature. Pressure force acts equally in all directions. Air pressure has a very regular daily and annual pressure in the absence of atmospheric disturbances, leading to nonperiodic changes in pressure. The daily air pressure of the air has a wave approach with a period of 12 h, and thus two maximums and two minimums. The minimum air pressure during the day appears around 4  am and 4 pm and the maximum around 10 am and 10 pm. The basic unit of measurement for pressure in Meteorology is millibar (mb) or (hPa), which is equal to the force expressed in Newtons per square meter. The standard sea level is 1013.25 mb. The change in atmospheric pressure per unit horizontal distance in the direction in which the pressure changes is called the force of the pressure gradient. In temperate latitudes, atmospheric disturbances often occur, leading to periodic changes in air pressure of up to 10 mb. The annual pressure and the annual amplitude of the air pressure primarily depend on the type of ground (substrate) and latitude. The thermal characteristics of land and sea, which cause various personal heating and cooling of the air, have a decisive influence on the time of occurrence of maximum and minimum values and ​​ the annual fluctuation of air pressure. In general, above the continental surface, the minimum pressure appears in winter and the maximum in summer,

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while above the water surface it is the other way around: the maximum pressure occurs in summer and the minimum in winter.

4.5  Airflow and Wind Wind occurs as a result of forces that act on the air. One of the most important forces is gradient pressure force, which depends on the horizontal differences in air pressure. The other forces are Coriolis force (due to the Earth rotation) and friction and wind speed and direction. The direction of the wind is therefore marked according to which side of the horizon air blows and it is graphically represented with a wind rose (Fig. 4.12). A wind rose has (8–16) routes. The duration of calm at the time of observation without wind is recorded at the center of the rose. Direction is determined with the help of Wild’s weather vane that is set up at the height of 6–12 cm. The speed of the wind is the flow of air particles. Wind is measured with an anemometer and expressed in m/s. Wind speed depends on relief, vegetation, and other objects on the ground. The wind strength is exerted by the wind at the vertical surface. It is determined by the Bofor’s scale, which has 13 levels set against the action of wind on various subjects.

Fig. 4.12  The rose of wind

4.6 Air Masses and Fronts

55

4.6  Air Masses and Fronts Air masses are areas filled with air, which characterize the general weather conditions on the Earth’s surface (Fig. 4.13). The air mass is a body or “mass” of air in which the horizontal gradients (or changes) in temperature and humidity are relatively small, which characterizes the air mass as uniformed in terms of allocation of temperature field and humidity of the air. The air mass is separated from the adjacent air mass through the border area, which might be more accurately defined. This transition zone or boundary is called a front. The air mass covers thousands of square meters and extends vertically through the troposphere. An air mass is a uniform large body of air with small horizontal variations in temperature, pressure, and moisture levels. Air masses are usually found over large, flat regions where air can remain in a stagnant position for some time. The temperature of the air mass largely depends on its place of origin and its movement over land or over sea. This can lead to heating or cooling, through continued contact with hot or cold surfaces. Processes that heat or cool air masses are slow. For example, the process for the air mass to be heated to 10 °C may take a week or more. Sometimes the air mass is in stagnant condition over the region that is under its influence. Hence, those parts of the Earth’s surface where air masses can be calm and gradually reach the superficial qualities that lie above it, are called source regions. The key source regions are belts of high air pressure in the subtropical regions, which produce tropical air masses, and those around the pole, which represent a source of polar air masses. In the middle latitudes, most weather systems appear as a result of movements of large air masses.

Fig. 4.13  Global air masses

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4.6.1  Classification of Air Masses Depending on the width of the source region and the nature of the surface of the source region (continent or-ocean) there has been a common classification of air masses in three categories: • Polar (P) • Arctic (A) • Tropical (T) Each of these air masses could be maritime, or continental air mass. Using this classification, the following air masses could be identified: continental polar (cP), continental arctic (cA), maritime polar (mP), and maritime tropical (mT).

4.7  Atmospheric Systems Atmospheric systems are actually characteristic modes of air pressure distribution, i.e., systems that have organized circulation and occur as a result of the distribution of air masses, atmospheric circulation, and atmospheric disturbances. Atmospheric systems have their own physical characteristics, dynamics and, depending on the scale of the processes, undergo temporal and spatial change. Low-pressure centers may deepen or those with high pressure may develop or weaken. Most systems move in a general direction from west to east. If, in addition to standard barometric readings, the wind, with appropriate symbols that indicate the direction and speed is added to the weather map, we will see that in high-pressure areas, the weather is usually nice and clear. This is seen during the winter, while in low-pressure areas, it is generally changeable, cloudy, and rainy.

4.7.1  Weather Fronts Fronts are boundary surfaces that separate air masses of different densities. One air mass is generally warmer and wetter than the other. When the air mass moves to another warmer area, less thick air mass presses in a process known as overrunning. According to the characteristics of air masses that occur at border areas, there are four basic types of fronts (Fig. 4.14): • • • •

Warm Cold Stationary Occlusion

4.7 Atmospheric Systems

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Fig. 4.14  Types of atmospheric fronts: (a) cold front; (b) warm front; (c) stationary front; (d) occluded front

In the atmosphere of the border area between two air masses, other forms of fronts are manifested, such as the line of instability and vertical movements induced by cyclones and anticyclones or topography of the terrain. The squall-line or instability line is the borderline area between the dry, dense air and less dense, moist air, often associated with the occurrence of strong storms (potential tornadoes) during spring and summer. Warm fronts occur when the front moves so that warm air takes the territory previously covered by colder air. Cold fronts occur where cold continental polar air actively progresses in the region, which is occupied by hot air. Stationary fronts occur when air from both sides of the front does not move. Occluded fronts develop when an active cold front is overtaking a warm front and gradually moves warm air upward.

4.7.2  Cyclone (Low-Pressure System) Cyclones are areas of low pressure (Fig. 4.15). They manifest cyclonic isobars. As the air enters the area with low pressure from all directions, the Coriolis force turns from the direction of the wind’s path of move to the right. This creates a counterclockwise rotation around the center of low air pressure in the Northern Hemisphere.

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Fig. 4.15  Satellite image of cyclonic system

Convergence occurs in the bottom area of low pressure. Near the Earth’s surface, friction plays a major role in the redistribution of air inside the atmosphere, by changing the direction of its flow. As the air enters area with low pressure from all directions, as  the  result  of the Coriolis force, at the Northern Hemisphere,  the cyclonic flow is deflected towards the right (opposite at the South Hemisphere). This creates a counterclockwise rotation around the the centre of low air pressure, while causing convergence near the centre of the system, air rising and the upper level divergence.

4.7.3  Anticyclone (High-Pressure System) An anticyclone is a system with high air pressure in the center, which causes stable, quiet, and fair weather (Fig. 4.16). Isobars are nearly circular and if found along the center with the highest pressure, they are called ridges. The high air pressure on the surface is found as a result of convergence, which occurs in the upper levels. When downward motion of air approaches the surface, it diverges from the center. The Coriolis Effect moves the air to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere), and its path creates clockwise rotation around the center of the high air pressure. Divergence on the Earth’s surface occurs when air is directed toward the outside of a specific location in different directions. Unlike cyclones, which tend to move toward the northeast, anticyclones often move southwest. As a result of downward motion of air, anticyclones cause clear skies, stable and calm conditions. Large systems with high pressure, called blocking

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Fig. 4.16  Satellite image of anticyclonic system

anticyclones, are found in high latitudes each winter, when zonal flow from west to east is forced to move toward the pole. Stagnant anticyclones move eastward, keeping one part dry with duration of one or more weeks, while the other region remains constantly under the influence of cyclonic storms. Also, due to the air subsidence, large stagnant anticyclones can create temperature inversion, which contributes to increasing the level of air pollution.

4.7.4  Weather Conditions at Cyclones and Anticyclones Weather in the area of pressure systems depends on their dynamic structure and thermodynamics. Different forms of weather tend to be associated with cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones and low-pressure systems are signs of rain, clouds and other forms of unstable and bad weather, while anticyclone systems with high air pressure are predictors of stable, quiet, and fair weather.

4.7.5  Tropical Cyclones A tropical cyclone, by definition, represents a system with low air pressure in the center and organized circulation that develops over tropical and subtropical ocean waters (Fig.  4.17). Its horizontal dimension is usually 200–2000  km. A tropical cyclone is characterized by a warm core in the center, very steep gradients of pressure, and strong cyclonic (clockwise direction on the Southern Hemisphere) winds near the Earth’s surface. Depending on the speed of wind, tropical cyclones are divided into: • Tropical depression (tropical cyclones whose maximum wind speed is less than 60 km/h)

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Fig. 4.17  Tropical storm

• Tropical storms (when the maximum wind speed ranks between 60 and 110 km/h • Tropical cyclones (when the maximum wind speed exceeds 110 km/h) In the North and the North Pacific region, tropical cyclones are called hurricanes; in the Western North Pacific region they are called typhoons, while in the region of the Indian Ocean they are known as cyclones.

4.7.6  Winds Associate with Storm Hurricanes are known for their destructive winds. Their intensity is measured by the rate of flow of the wind. This hurricane scale does not include wind shots or storms. Blows are brief, but with rapid breaks of the wind speed, which arises as a result of the disturbances. Cyclonic wind causes great damage to marine traffic and infrastructure on the mainland (Fig. 4.18). Many homes were damaged and destroyed when strong wind simply raised the roofs of houses. Besides leading storm waves and strong winds, tropical cyclones are accompanied by strong rainfall and the occurrence of floods. Even when the wind calms down over subsequent days, there still remains a potential threat of flooding from these storms. Tropical cyclones can also cause flash flooding, urban or river flooding. Sudden floods are weather situations that occur quickly. This type of flooding may begin within minutes or hours of heavy downpours. The rapid rise of water can reach up to 10 meters and it can pull trees down and destroy buildings and bridges. Urban floods are fast atmospheric phenomena, although not as intense as flash flooding, they may cause flooding down the street, flooding of basements and other structures. River floods are more lasting phenomena that occur when the expiration of torrential rains caused by the

4.7 Atmospheric Systems

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Fig. 4.18  Tropical storm and winds

dissolution of hurricanes or tropical storms will reach the rivers. River flooding can happen in just a few hours and it also lasts for a week or longer.

4.7.7  Thunderstorms, Lightning, and Tornadoes Thunderstorms are atmospheric systems, which usually occur during the warm period of the year when the atmosphere is unstable. They are associated with the occurrence of heavy torrential rains and hail, lightning, thunder and tornadoes (Fig. 4.19), and in some situations, weather disasters with great material damage, and even human loses occur locally. Atmospheric electricity or lightning is an integral part of thunderstorm clouds, which manifest in the form of channels (flows) with static electrical energy. Water droplets in the cloud, hail, ice crystals, and snow separate the electric charge and create an electric field in the cloud. Additional conditions that contribute to this are the dynamics of the storm cloud and turbulent currents. Further separation of these charges into positive and negative regions intensifies the electric field. However, the atmosphere is a very good insulator that prevents electric current, so you need to create a huge amount of charge before lightning strikes. When the threshold is reached, the strength of the electric field exceeds the insulating properties of the atmosphere and lightning strikes. Under a negatively charged base of the storm cloud, a positive charge begins to form on the Earth’s surface. When the electric

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Fig. 4.19  Thunderstorm, lightning, and tornado

field increases sufficiently, atmospheric electricity (lightning) occurs. Tornadoes are microscale atmospheric systems with organized vertical rotational circulation that develop in supercell storms, and come into contact with the Earth’s surface. Tornadoes are often embedded in the rainy zones in the right frontal area, far from the center of the storm, at the forefront of its movement. Although tornado evolution is short-lived, often lasting only a few minutes, they can sometimes last more than an hour and move only a few kilometers, causing significant damage.

References Ackerman, S.A., and J.A. Knox, (2007) Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere (2nd ed., p.528) Brooks/Cole. Ahrens, C.D., and Henson, R. (2016) Meteorology Today, An Introduction to Wea.ther, Climate and the Environment (11th ed., p. 622), Cengage Learning, Boston. Brasseur, G.P., and Solomon, S. (2005) Aeronomy of the Middle Atmosphere-Chemistry and Physics of the Stratosphere and Mesosphere (3rd ed., p. 644), Springer. Andrews, D.G., (2010) An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics (2nd ed., p.  237), Cambridge University Press. Barry, R. G., Chorley, R. J. (2009) Atmosphere, Weather and Climate, (1th ed., p. 516). London, Routledge. doi: doi:https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203871027 Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J. (2009) The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology (12th ed., p.505), Pearson. Salby, M.L. (1996) Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics: (Vol. 61., p.  648). Elsevier Science Publishing Co Inc. ISBN13: 9780126151602 Spiridonov, V., Ćurić, M. (2021) Fundamentals of Meteorology (1st ed., p.462) Springer International Publishing, ISBN-13: 978-3030526542.

Chapter 5

Human Biometeorology

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ćurić et al., Essentials of Medical Meteorology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1_5

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The aim of this chapter is to introduce readers to the basics of Human Biometeorology as a special scientific discipline that has an increasingly prominent application in our daily lives. Unfortunately, Human Biometeorology, more commonly known as Medical Meteorology, is not part of everyday routine medical practice. Chapter begins with  a brief overview of the connection between Medicine and Meteorology. Then follows discussion about developmental beginnings, definition, and the modern concept of Biometeorology.

5.1  Correlation Between Medicine and Meteorology The physical state of the atmosphere (Fig. 5.1) is described through meteorological factors: air temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, insolation, and so forth. Variable weather conditions affect the meteorological elements that are connected in various ways and affect human sensitivity and cause certain effects on health. Such links between Medicine and Meteorology were first determined by Hippocrates from Kos,1 who is the father of medicine (Fig. 5.2). Hippocrates  as the author of the Air, Water, Places, became the founder of environmental medicine taking a step forward in meteorological medicine. Fig. 5.1  Physical state of atmosphere

 For more details the reader is referred to Chap. 2, in this book titled: “A brief Historical Review”.

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Fig. 5.2  Hippocrates, the father of medicine

5.1.1  Beginnings of Biometeorology Biometeorology is a fairly old science. During the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece, it was thought that there was an influence of weather changes on the physiological processes in the human body. Fear of disease and epidemics has inspired doctors, natural philosophers, and government officials to explore the effects of time on health, in other words, medical meteorology. These individuals were strongly influenced by the widespread ideas of Hippocrates (the father of medicine) about the connection between the natural environment and the increased mortality from various diseases. Medical meteorologists have been keenly interested in recording weather observations and diseases, usually for several years, and most of their reports have included quantitative information. Two new advances at the time strengthened confidence in numerical values. The first concerns the creation of techniques for numerical analysis of mortality (initiated by John Ground and successfully applied by James Jurin in vaccine debates). They set a new model for medicine. The second is the invention (discovery) of instruments for measuring temperature, air pressure, and humidity. They transformed the study of meteorology. These instruments, developed during the seventeenth century by many natural philosophers (Galileo, Torricelli, Hughes, Hookie, and Wren), often included numerical scales in their design that allowed quantification of weather phenomena. The motivation for this quantitative approach comes in part from the relatively new belief that numbers, tabular displays, and the comparison of numbers will bring new knowledge about the causes and courses of epidemics and other diseases. At a time when the development of modern statistics, physics, and physiology has provided quantitative methods, human biometeorology has become a recognized natural science Rusnock (2002). In the first half of 20th  century, the main purpose was to

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explain the specific reactions of the body to weather changes. In the second half of this century, quantitative descriptions of heat exchange between the human body and the environment with the help of models for energy balance of the human body became more important.

5.1.2  Biometeorology Today Biometeorology is an interdisciplinary study of great importance because correlations are made between certain types of meteorological conditions and the health of plants, humans, and all other animals. Climate change is a new challenge for health care around the world. It affects millions of people with high morbidity and mortality rates. Knowing the effects of meteorological parameters as risk factors can allow us to create new prevention and adaptation strategies (see Santos and Matzarakis 2019). These new strategies could help reduce the negative health effects of weather and other risk factors. Human health is under continuous influence of climate change and environmental stressors. The preservation of the natural environment and restoration of the ecosystem are essential in addressing the challenges of modern living. Environmental health is a key component of any comprehensive public health system. It provides a multidisciplinary reflection in promotion of human health and well-being in light of the critical effects of climate change on the environment and sustainability of natural systems (see Koren et al. 2014; Cole 2019; Walton 2019). Nowadays, in the field of medical prevention, Biometeorology opens completely new and wide horizons, so that in the future it has the potential to play an increasingly significant role. Health-care professionals have the most important role to play in combating the negative effects of global climate change.

5.1.3  Definition of Biometeorology The development of medicine and meteorology has created a new scientific discipline – Biometeorology (e.g., Lowry 1969; Tromp 1980; McGregor, 2011). It is a separate branch of applied meteorology and studies the impact of weather and climate on humans, animals and plants. It is an interdisciplinary activity in science that studies the interactions between the biosphere and the atmosphere. Biometeorology is an interdisciplinary science that studies the interactions between atmospheric processes and living organisms  – plants, animals, and humans.

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5.1.4  Human Biometeorology Human Biometeorology is a part of Biometeorology that deals with the study of weather and climate impacts on human health (Fig. 5.3). The term Biometeorology is sometimes used synonymously with the term “Bioclimatology” (see Auliciems et al. 2011) as an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the effects of climate on biological processes and its effects on living organisms (Fig. 5.4). Fig. 5.3  The impact of weather on human

The two terms have the same meaning, but describe different situations. Weather represents a current feature of the atmosphere in a particular area, while climate refers to averaged weather over a longer time. Experts dealing with this issue are biometeorologists.

5.1.5  International Association for Biometeorology The International Association of Biometeorology is an organization (association) that has a leading role in promoting interdisciplinary collaboration between meteorologists, health professionals, biologists, climatologists, environmentalists, and other scientists. Within the association, there are four “commissions” that serve as active research groups: phenology, climate tourism and recreation, Biometeorology

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Fig. 5.4  Climate impact on health

of wildlife and climate, and human health. Health experts have played a key role in combating the negative effects of global climate change (Burton et al. 2009). Human Biometeorology is an integral part of biometeorology that deals with the study of weather on human health. The methods of modern human Biometeorology are increasingly used by experts in disciplines that have potential applications, such as urban or regional planners or air-conditioning engineers. Human Biometeorology seeks to fully assess all atmospheric influences, including air pollution. The discipline is considered to be a branch of science that is closely related to meteorology and environmental medicine. The most important question that this scientific discipline answers is the following: How do weather and climate affect human health?

According to Biometeorologists, changes in weather affect people’s sensitivity and so these changes are manifested by different symptoms. For example, cold weather can affect people’s health. Also, foggy weather conditions, especially in urban areas, may cause many health problems (Fig. 5.5). In addition, there is pain in the joints or other body parts that is preceded by changes in the weather and rheumatism, fractures, burns, migraines, back pain, irritability, a feeling of unease, and many others. Generally, people who suffer from chronic diseases are very sensitive and react to changes in the weather.

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Fig. 5.5  An example of how cold weather conditions may affect human health

5.1.6  Physical Parameters of the Human Body The physical parameters of the human body on which changes in weather have an impact are well evidenced in the literature. The most important parameters are the following: albumin, globulin, blood clotting time, blood pressure, blood sugar, hemoglobin, urea, pulse rate and heart rate, potassium, skeletal muscletone, secretion, and tyroxine. The most common physical difficulties caused by meteorological factors are fatigue, weakness, laziness and impaired concentration. Infants and young children are more sensitive to weather changes, as are the elderly and chronically ill.

5.1.7  Biometeorological Forecast Biometeorological forecasts represent the final product of applied research related to Medical Meteorology and Human Biometeorology. Weather forecasts include biometeorological information and newsletters, which symbolically represent the possible weather and its health impacts (Fig. 5.6). Services provided by the media – radio, television, Internet and phone apps – warn the public about weather conditions that may adversely affect human health. This information is

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Fig. 5.6  Weather forecast

particularly useful for those people who are more sensitive to changes in the weather and suffering from different diseases and conditions, such as migraine, rheumatism, asthma, bronchitis, heart, and circulatory and other disorders. This information is useful in order to allow people to take preventive precautions. Thus, for example, when there is an inflow of cold air and wet weather, some people, especially the elderly, may get joint swelling. In addition, rapid changes in air pressure can trigger migraines in people sensitive to weather changes. The emergence of this kind of pain, gives a timely warning to people who are sensitive to possible changes in weather.

5.1.8  Biometeorological Indices Separate studies developed within Biometeorology show different effects on humans, which may occur as a result of changes in weather and climate. These are described by specifying the values of certain meteorological parameters, known as Biometeorological indices. Their application allows us to identify specific, complex and combined effects of meteorological factors on human health and their comfort. So, for example, the heat index, which is associated with health, describes the complex interactions between humans and the atmospheric and urban environment (see Gonzalez et al. 1974). Or, another example, a strong wind creates an intense feeling of cold on the body, while high humidity increases the feeling of warmth (Parsons 2014). Therefore, the forecast temperature consists of two values: the factual, i.e., real temperature, and then the temperature that people feel as a result of additional atmospheric effects (apparent or sensible temperature). There are several indices for the biological monitoring of meteorological conditions. The heat discomfort index  combines air temperature and relative humidity to determine the apparent (sensible) temperature, i.e., how much heat you really feel (Table 5.1). The Heat Index is widely used in practice and is an effective indicator, when the temperature is greater than 26 °C and relative humidity is at least 40%.

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Table 5.1  An example of Heat Discomfort Index.

Source: Euro Weather.

The Humidity Index  links air temperature and humidity in an unambiguous value as an indicator that reflects the apparent (sensible) temperature. The Weather Stress Index  is a relative measure of the weather, and is often used as an indicator of comfort. The universal thermal climate index  provides an estimate of the outside temperature setting that is based on the equivalence of dynamic physiological response predicted by the model of human thermoregulation (see de Freitas 1985). These indices are used by several meteorological services worldwide. Several factors influence the change of the relationship between heat and health: health status, age, adaptive ability, etc. Biometeorologists mainly use biometeorological indices, while epidemiologists tend to use standard climatic descriptors such as: Tmax, Tmin (maximum and minimum temperature) and RH (relative humidity) that are indicators of heat stress. These indices are based on the use of theoretical models that can determine human biometeorological comfort. Wind Chill Index  or effective air temperature (Fig. 5.7) is the air temperature that would have the same cooling effect on exposed human skin as a given combination of temperature and wind speed. The new cooling index is of great benefit in Meteorology,

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Fig. 5.7  Effective temperature

Biometeorology, and atmospheric modeling to provide more accurate, useful information for calculating adverse weather conditions related to the onset of winter cold winds and low air temperatures. All of the above indices, including the Air Quality and Health Index, are described in more detail in the following chapters of the book. Biometeorologists mainly use biometeorological indices, while epidemiologists tend to use standard climate descriptors (maximum and minimum temperatures, relative humidity) as indicators of heat stress. These indices are based on the use of theoretical models that can determine the biometeorological comfort of the organism.

5.1.9  Reports on UV-Radiation and Prediction Weather forecast during the summer months usually contains information about the level of UV radiation (Fig.  5.8). Decades ago, health experts in many countries warned citizens that excessive exposure to the Sun can lead to skin disorders, eye problems, or disorders of the immune system (Fig. 5.9). Despite this, many people believe that exposure to sunlight or tanning is healthy and useful so they expose themselves to intense solar radiation. But even if you take precautions such as

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Fig. 5.9  Sun exposure and health

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creams with a high Sun-protection factor (SPF) this cannot completely avoid the quantum of harmful radiation. Depletion of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere contributes to harmful UV rays penetrating the skin. Some parts of the world have very high levels of UV radiation. For this reason, health-care institutions in those regions are especially cautious. Meteorological services issue daily information and newsletters, with a forecast of the expected level of UV radiation, including charts or numerical values. The level of radiation that is expected to get through to the Earth’s surface when there are clear skies is calculated using a computer model. In processing the report, the forecaster takes into account the date, latitude, cloud coverage, altitude and air cloudiness, and converts these factors into an internationally recognized index or the so-called UV-index, which predicts the intensity of UV-radiation.

5.1.10  Air Quality Reports People want to be informed of the level of pollution in the places where they live. Therefore, the appropriate authorities publish information relating to the presence of major air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and particulate matter. They also get information through the media on air quality, particularly when there is an increase in pollution. Warnings are issued so that people can take protective measures (see WMO 2007). Why is this important? Air pollution and sudden changes in air pressure and temperature are not just a problem for people who have breathing problems but they also have a negative effect on healthy people (Fig. 5.10). For example, strong winds can lift dust particles from soil, which can irritate the airways and lungs. Standards that define the level of pollution and air quality for different countries vary, so that a moderate level of pollution in one country is considered as being a high level in another.

5.1.11  Pollen Concentration In temperate latitudes of both hemispheres, spring is a wonderful period. Blooming flowers and trees revitalize our internal potential. However, this can be a problematic time for some people, especially for those who suffer from pollen allergies, as a result of increased amounts of pollen in the air (Fig. 5.11). The concentration of pollen in the air cannot be determined easily, because weather conditions, especially wind, affect the concentration of pollen. So, during calm weather conditions, pollen concentrations in the air are small. When atmospheric conditions are unstable, the vertical movement in the atmosphere lifts the pollen into the upper atmosphere, where the prevailing strong wind blows the pollen far away. On the other hand, a moderate wind increases the concentration of pollen in the air. Also, approaching frontal systems that are associated with thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and lightning

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Fig. 5.10  Air pollution and health. Source: mccormickhealth.wordpress.com

Fig. 5.11  Weather and pollen allergies

increase the amount of allergens in the air. In such circumstances, bio-forecasts are very important for people who suffer from allergies to pollen. Bio-forecasts should be based on the meteorological forecast for each day, taking into consideration the types of plants that flower and the previous concentration of pollen in the air.

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5.1.12  Extreme Temperature Forecast In weather conditions such as extreme cold or extreme heat, problems can occur not only for people who are sensitive but for everyone (Ahtar 2020). In many cases, cold or heat waves can cause increased health problems and pose a potential risk to human life. Hence the need to issue timely, detailed and accurate weather forecasts, announcements, and warnings of extreme weather conditions (Fig. 5.12), in order to reduce the risk to the health and safety of the people.

Fig. 5.12  Forecast of extreme cold weather

5.1.13  Seasonal Weather Information Periodic changes in weather conditions (seasonal variation in mortality) are a major factor in determining the seasonal behavior of some forms of the disease. Cardiovascular and respiratory causes of death are those most strongly associated with changes in temperature; and adults and those with impaired health or suffering from poor social conditions are most susceptible to the effects of weather changes. Hence the need to apply modern warning systems and alert the public to the potential health effects of prognostic information. These systems integrated with intervention activities (e.g., increasing emergency medical services, government decisions, algorithms for specific population groups to avoid diseases associated with extreme weather events) could be effective in reducing mortality in humans.

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References de Freitas, C.R. (1985) Assessment of human bioclimate based on thermal response. Int J Biometeorol 29:97–119. Burton, Ian, Ebi, Kristie & Mcgregor, Glenn. (2009). Biometeorology for Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­1-­4020-­8921-­3_1. Lowry, W.  P. (1969). Weather and life: an introduction to biometeorology. (p.  305) Academic Press. New York. McGregor, G.R. (2011). Human biometeorology. Progress in Physical Geography. 36. 93–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133311417942. Santos N.A., Matzarakis, A. (2019) The Maturing Interdisciplinary Relationship between Human Biometeorological Aspects and Local Adaptation Processes: An Encompassing Overview. Climate, 7, 134. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7120134. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (2007) Supplement to Guidelines on Biometeorology and Air Quality Forecasts. WMO/TD- No. 1400; PWS- No. 16. Ahtar, R., (ed.) (2020) Extreme Weather Events and Human. Health. International Case Studies. (p. 382) Springer Nature Switzerland. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­23773-­8 Gonzalez, R.R., Nishi, Y., Gagge, A.P. (1974) Experimental evaluation of standard effective temperature a new biometeorological index of man’s thermal discomfort. Int J Biometeorol 18(1):1–15 Parsons, K. (2014) Human Thermal Environments The Effects of Hot, Moderate, and Cold Environments on Human Health, Comfort, and Performance, (3th ed., p.635), CRC Press. ISBN 9781466595996 Koren, H., Michael S., Bisesi, M.S. (2014) Handbook of Environmental Health (4th ed., p.1722). Lewis Publishers. ISBN 9780815382058 Tromp, S.W. (1980) Biometeorology: The impact of the weather and climate on humans and their environment. (1th ed., p.346) Heyden, ISBN-13: 978-0855014537. Auliciems, A., de Dear, R., Fagence, M., Kalkstein, L.S., Kevan, S., Szokolay, S.V., Webb, A.R. (2011) Human Bioclimatology (Advances in Bioclimatology, 5). Springer, (1st ed., p.195) ISBN: 978-3642804212. Walton, M. (2019) One Planet, One Health (p.340) Sydney University Press, ISBN: 9781743325377 Cole, J., (2019) Planetary Health: Human Health in an Era of Global Environmental Change, CABI (p. 168), ISBN: 9781789241648. Rusnock, A. 2002: Medical Meteorology: Accounting for the Weather and Disease. In Vital Accounts: Quantifying Health and Population in Eighteenth-Century England and France (Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine, pp.  109–136). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511550041.007

Chapter 6

Meteoropathy

Before introducing readers to the various forms of human sensitivity to weather and climate change that meteorology deals with, we will briefly describe the basic elements of human homeostasis and biological rhythm as essential systems for maintaining balance in the body, adapting to external conditions, and synchronization of activities.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ćurić et al., Essentials of Medical Meteorology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80975-1_6

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6.1  Human Homeostasis Human homeostasis by definition is the ability or tendency to maintain internal stability in the human body to compensate for changes in the environment, including weather and climate change. It is actually a condition of the body caused by constant internal physical and chemical conditions that make the human body function and adapt to external atmospheric influences. To be able to function effectively on our planet, we need to constantly control the changes that are taking place and to adapt well to our external environment. This would certainly allow us to be independent in our daily lives,  demands and high life  performance. Respecting the established physical laws, matter strives to achieve ecological stoichiometric homeostasis in our universe. Human homeostasis is a cluster of individual physiological regulations  (Fig. 6.1). Human homeostasis or energy regulation system includes: • • • • • • •

Thermoregulation Psychosocial regulation Baro-regulation Hormonal regulation pH regulation Metabolic regulation Internal–external energy regulation

Many external factors can affect the temperature of our body, such as staying in cold or hot weather. The human body needs to regulate its temperature, the external weather changes with the help of the thermoregulatory system to adapt to different atmospheric conditions. For example, maintenance of homeostasis, if a person is exposed to cold weather, takes place through the internal thermoregulatory system, so that the cardiovascular system reduces blood flow to the surface of the skin and extremities by constricting blood vessels. This is in coordination with the nervous system, which tells the muscular system to warm the body before it cools down. Interest in the human body’s physiological capacity to adapt to extreme heat and cold has grown enormously in recent decades due to climate change and global warming. The human body has multiple thermoregulatory mechanisms to resist external extreme temperatures, the main purpose of which is to keep the homeostasis of temperature at normal values. As the exposure time to these stressful conditions increases and the outside temperature becomes even more extreme, the body’s systems begin to gradually adapt to its environment. All adaptations at the beginning of the exposure, somewhat insignificant, can become very important because they can affect all body systems in a negative way and ultimately compromise life. All of these responses and adaptations are manifested through clinical signs and symptoms. The baro-regulatory system is one of the body’s most important homeostatic mechanisms that helps maintain blood pressure at an almost constant level. It works through baro-reflexes or baro-receptors that are active even at normal blood

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Fig. 6.1  Human homeostasis – energy regulation

pressure, so that their activity informs the brain about both increasing and decreasing blood pressure. The regulation of pH fluids in the body is one of the most important physiological functions of homeostasis, as most chemical reactions that take place through enzyme proteins depend on the pH of the fluid. Metabolic regulation of human homeostasis is accomplished by complex interactions between the central nervous system and peripheral tissues. The central nervous system controls the periphery by regulating some of the energy that enters the body (through diet) and that which leaves the body (thermogenesis). In a physiological context, homeostasis is fairly easy to identify because with a few exceptions, the body has standard requirements, such as food, water, or rest. Many diseases include homeostasis disorders. For example, as the body ages, the efficiency of system control becomes reduced as a result of receptor loss. Ineffectiveness gradually results in an unstable internal environment that increases the risk of disease, leading to physical changes associated with aging.

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6.2  Biological Rhythm of the Organism The biological (circadian) rhythm is an internally synchronized system of the organism and serves as a controller of our internal clock mechanism. The biological rhythm of the body is a daily cycle that stimulates the human body for the period of performing the main functions (sleeping, walking, thinking, eating) and the basic biological and psychological processes that take place daily in the body according to a certain pattern (Fig. 6.2). This internal clock is influenced by external signs, such as sunlight, temperature, and pressure, which help determine if someone is feeling energetic or exhausted at different times of the day. The circadian biorhythm is regulated by a clock, which consists of a group of neurons called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, located in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus. This master clock translates signs from the environment into body directives. For example, receptors in the eye detect sunlight and pass that signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which then stimulates the production of melatonin, a hormone

Fig. 6.2  Overview of Biological rhythm and human clock

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that causes drowsiness. The body’s biological clock can be set sooner or later, but maintaining the findings that affect the circadian rhythm can help everyone maintain a routine. Waking up and sleeping at the same time every day and exposing oneself to sunlight and darkness during those periods support the stable production of melatonin. Therefore, avoiding electronic screens (e.g., smart phones, TV, laptops, tablets, etc.) in the evening is a change that can benefit those who hope for a better night’s sleep. Sometimes, these changes are out of our control when the internal clock and external stimuli become mismatched, which can result in fatigue or irritability before both forces reconnect. The seasons have cycles: from winter days covered with snow to spring mornings covered with dew, day and night cycles between light and dark, ocean and sea waters that come and go. The moon appears as a full moon, later moving to a crescent moon. If all other forms of life have their own rhythmic cycles, do people differ in that respect?

The simple answer is no. Whether we are aware of it or not, people function according to a complex biorhythm of different cycles: from physical, intellectual, intuitive, spiritual, and even aesthetic. One of the most important hormones in the body is melatonin or the so-called sleep hormone, for life and longevity in humans. Scientists are still studying its properties. Melatonin is secreted in the pineal gland (adrenal gland). Under the influence of sunlight, the amino acid tryptophan in the body is converted to serotonin, which is transformed into melatonin at night. After its synthesis in the pineal gland, melatonin enters the cerebrospinal fluid and blood. For these reasons, it is recommended that you stay outdoors for at least half an hour a day. In daylight, the synthesis of the hormone decreases, while in low light it increases. The basic physiological parameters, in combination with the specific activities of the human body, according to this internal biological clock are described in Table  6.1. The term “biorhythm” comes from the Greek words “bios” (life) and “rhythmos” (harmonized-harmonic movement). The biorhythm can be thought of as the body’s mathematical-philosophical system that can predict and consciously control certain aspects of one’s life, such as high performance, creativity, and emotional receptivity.

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Table 6.1  Complex biorhythm of the human body Time period 00:00 02:00 04:30 06:00 06:45 07:30 08:30 09:00 10:00 12:00 14:30 15:30 17:00 18:00 18:30 19:00 21:00 22:30

Physical parameters and activities Midnight The deepest dream Lowest body temperature Morning Sudden increase in blood pressure Melatonin secretion stops Active colon Highest testosterone secretion High alert Noon Best coordination Fastest reaction time Greatest heart efficiency+strength Evening Highest blood pressure Highest body temperature Melatonin secretion begins Passive colon

6.3  Monthly Weather Features Atmosphere has a wave nature and changes almost every day, so that people are forced to permanently adjust their lifestyle, habits, needs, and activities according to weather changes. However, although the weather is basically a variable manifestation of the atmospheric and meteorological conditions, in each climate region we can still distinguish some characteristic features of the weather for each month of the year and describe some specific health effects. It is more pronounced in the mid-­latitudes at both hemispheres, where four seasons are clearly distinguished, with specific weather signatures. Moving toward the poles, the weather picture is shifting by months, so the colder weather conditions are more dominant. In the subtropical areas, much warmer and drier weather conditions prevail, while in the tropical and equatorial parts, the high (dry and warm) and low (wet and warm) seasons stand out, respectively. Thus, for example the usual (but not universal) weather characteristics for the Northern Hemisphere (in the Southern Hemisphere is opposite picture) are discussed below. January  is the coldest month at the beginning of the year, with the lowest air temperatures, the shortest days and the longest nights. Depending on the seasonal influences and the distribution of air masses, jet streams, and atmospheric systems, rain or snowfall occurs and snow cover is formed. Frost, sleet, and supercooled fogs that maintain low temperatures and reduced visibility are possible. It is sometimes very cold with extremely low air temperatures. Then lakes of cold air are formed in the valleys and gorges. With stable weather conditions and the occurrence of tempera-

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ture inversion in January, the mountains are sunny and warmer, while in the valleys and gorges there is fog and air pollution.

February  is also the winter month of the year. It is basically characterized by changing weather conditions, which occur due to the gradual increase of the day, the temperature differences that occur between the mountainous areas that have snow and valleys, the gradual warming of the atmosphere, and the dynamics that are created in it. So in this month the changes in the weather are frequent, with alternating snow and rain, fog in the morning and at night. But it is characteristic that these changes are quickly transformed and the weather calms down, brightens up, and the temperatures gradually increase so that by the end of the month it feels like the winter is gradually leaving.

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March  is the month that heralds the spring. A feature of March is the vernal equinox, which occurs in the Northern Hemisphere on March 20 or 21, when day and night are the same. Typical for this month is the varying nature of the weather, which can change several times during the day, from sunny and bright, to rainy and gloomy, often windy, and sometimes snowy, but with short duration. It can be fresh in the morning and in the evening, and in stable weather, the days are beautiful and pleasant for a walk in the sun. With the coming of spring nature wakes up in all its glory.

April  is a month when nature gets a real facial, with all its beauty and radiance, although the weather can surprise in this month as well. The air temperature rises and the weather and the outdoor environment are beautiful and pleasant and it smells more like spring. But in April, the weather can change, with clouds, rain, and wind. Sometimes, it thunders in mountainous areas and also there may be hurricanes or hail.

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May  is actually the most beautiful spring month, lush, with beautiful landscapes and the scent of flowers. There is a lot more sun in the atmosphere, with a beautiful glow in the morning, but in the afternoon the weather can suddenly change with the development of dark thunderstorms that bring torrential rain, wind, and sometimes hail, but have a short life cycle. After their dissipation, the weather calms down and the next day the morning could be sunny again, with a little more moisture in the air due to precipitation.

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June  is the forerunner of summer. June 21 is the longest day with the shortest night. The air temperature rises significantly and there are increasingly more sunny and warm days. The feeling is really very pleasant because it smells like real summer. But sometimes the atmosphere can be destabilized, so the weather changes and the frequent afternoon thunderstorms and rain, wind and hail do not even pass this month of the year.

July  is a typical summer month with the highest air temperatures. It is basically a stable month with lots of sunshine. Depending on the position and movement of, air masses, latitudinal temperature gradient and other factors atmospheric systems, in some seasons comes to shifting of the subtropical belt with high air pressure to the north  and its persistence for a longer period,  affecting  the weather in the mid-­ latitudes. Anticyclonic circulation, air subsidence and warm advection, cause heat accumulation, especially in urban areas (heat islands), and occurence of heat waves. Extremely high air temperatures and the appearance of tropical nights are observed in such conditions, a term used in climatology in case the minimum air temperature does not fall below 20 °C.

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August  is also a summer month earmarked for vacations and enjoyment by the sea, lake, or mountain. It is a month with a lot of sunshine and characteristically stable and warm weather. Sometimes in this month there is a series of very hot days (tropical days), which maintain very high temperatures and low humidity so that the nights are steamy, and it becomes difficult to stay indoors without the use of air conditioners. But even in August, the weather can surprise and encounter a frontal system that can strongly destabilize the atmosphere. Sometimes these sudden changes are manifested only by the appearance of strong winds due to the influx of cold air on a very heated surface, but the occurrence of local storms is not excluded.

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September  announces the beginning of autumn and the autumnal equinox that occurs on September 22 or 23, when day and night are the same. It is basically characterized by stable, relatively dry weather, gradual decrease in temperature, cooler and wetter mornings and nights, and of course with beautiful sunshine and pleasant warmth during the day. This is a month when temperature amplitudes are higher.

October  is a true autumn month characterized by beautiful golden colors of nature. The weather in October can be changeable, from sunny to rainy with a gradual decrease in temperatures, with wetter and cooler mornings and nights.

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November  is generally the rainiest month of the year. Characteristic of this month is the changeable and gloomy weather with more clouds than sun. Frontal systems are often encountered, which destabilize the atmosphere. Under the influence of cyclonic activity, the weather is rainy, wet, and fresh. Depending on the weather conditions, the precipitation can be continuous and last up to 2–3 days. Fog is common in the valleys with the first frost and morning frosts at the end of the month.

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December  is the last month of the year, with which winter begins. On December 21, the day is the shortest and the night the longest. Depending on the distribution of air masses and jet streams, cold air intrusions from northern latitudes often occur, which cause changes in the weather and the occurrence of rain and snow. Gradually, there is a real winter with cold weather conditions and the first snow with the formation of a snow cover. To emphasize again, depending on the seasonal influences, sometimes it can be extremely cold with the appearance of snowstorms, thunderstorms, and morning frost.

Based on some large-scale features and climate variability indices, weather and climate conditions over a given region have seasonal fluctuations (from dry winter without snow or prolonged very cold winter, wet and unstable spring and summer, to very hot and dry summer with the appearance of heat waves). Thus, the weather signatures provide general information about dominant weather conditions as guidelines to better understand and thereby prevent ill-effects on human health.

6.4  Human Weather Sensitivity-Overview Human beings have always had to adapt to the weather and climate, and to take concrete actions in order to more easily respond to change (Kaiser 2010). The ancient Greeks emphasized the interactions between time and human health more than 2500 years ago, pointing to the importance of weather and its impact on human health. Recent scientific research confirms that time has a profound effect on our

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bodies. External atmospheric conditions increase the sensitivity of the human organism and stimulate psychophysiological reactions. The human weather sensitivity is characterized by reduction of the threshold of the autonomic nervous system.

A person who is sensitive physically reacts to climate change (heat, cold, wind, humidity) and thus feels tired, irritable, defocused, or depressed. Typical symptoms include headache, dizziness, and sleep disturbances. Some scientific findings suggest that these fluctuations may affect heart rate, body temperature, and blood pressure. The most common physical difficulties caused by meteorological factors are fatigue, weakness, laziness, and impaired concentration. Infants and young children are more sensitive to weather changes, as are the elderly and the chronically ill. The ability to adapt to abrupt changes in weather is different for each individual and largely depends on individual characteristics and genetic predisposition. Bioclimatology as a broad field of medical science began to develop in the past years. It turns out that the air we breathe has a great impact on our health. The impact of weather, climate, and environment on human health is well known, but unfortunately it has been neglected.

6.5  Definition of Meteoropathy The term “meteoropathy” comes from the Greek word “meteoron” - a celestial phenomenon and “pathos”  - a disease.  Meteoropathy is a syndrome, or a group of symptoms and pathological reactions that are manifested during changes in meteorological elements (air temperature, relative humidity, wind and speed direction, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, insolation) in a given area. It is useful to distinguish certain terms that are often used in the description of meteoropathy. For example, “Meteorotropism” is a response to the influence of meteorological factors evidenced in certain biological events (e.g. hearth attack, joint pain, insomnia, suddent death and traffic accidents). Meteoropathology is a pathology of the condition caused by atmospheric factors, while meteoropathy is a term that indicates any disorder due to weather and climatic conditions.There are significant and measurable correlations between changes in meteorological factors and the onset of a certain symptom or disease. The human body is quite sensitive to changes in certain meteorological elements mentioned earlier and physical parameters such as radiation, positive or negative ionization of the air - especially during sudden weather changes. According to the general definition, meteoropathy is a syndrome, or a group of symptoms and pathological reactions that are manifested during changes in meteorological factors in a

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given area.The term Meteoropathy is used to refer to people who have chronic health problems or whose health worsens, especially during sudden weather changes. Usually one to two days before the changes occur, sensitive people experience difficulties. Meteoropathy is a condition that occurs in people who have certain health problems, have a pronounced sensitivity to weather changes  (Schienle et al. 2006). One of the causes of meteorology, especially among the urban population, is human alienation from nature, resulting in reduced ability to adapt to weather changes. But not all people react identically. Some may not be sensitive to weather and climate change at all. Therefore, it is ungrateful to give a sharp definition of meteoropathy and to generalize the term meteorological sensitivity. For someone who suffers from meteoropathy, it is called a meteoropathic. Physically active people and those who spend more time outside usually do not even notice the change in weather.  However, there are people who  have  a different level of sensitivity to weather changes. While “meteorosensitve” are those people who are biologically prone to the effects of certain changes in atmospheric factors, “Meteoropathic” are those individuals who develop certain symptoms or disease or worsening of existing ones as a result of these weather and climate changes. The most affected categories are the elderly, children, the frail and chronically ill, and middle-aged people (mostly women), especially those in menopause. Symptoms of meteoropathy often occur 1–2 days before or after the arrival of the weather change, rather than at the time of the change itself. This condition is due to the fact that people are influenced by the external environment and the conditions that surround them. There are two main types of Meteoropathy: 1. Basic Meteoropathy that occurs in healthy people in the form of mood swings, physical weakness, or pain over time. 2. Secondary Meteoropathy when existing diseases (high blood pressure, heart and lung disease, inflammatory and/or degenerative changes in muscle-bone joints) worsen due to weather conditions.

6.5.1  Meteorosensitive People (Meteorosensibility) Changes in atmospheric pressure can cause a sharp change in the body’s blood pressure, irritation of nerve endings, and lead to an increased feeling of pain. Symptoms vary from person to person, and their intensity increases in the elderly and in people who are weakened by illness (see Connolly 2013; Žikić and Rabi-Žikić 2018; Oniszczenko 2020; Rzeszutek et al. 2020). Sometimes, the symptoms may be hidden or more pronounced, which may be the result of an underlying disease that has nothing to do with the change in weather. Patients who have had a heart attack are much more sensitive to the weather than those who have never had a heart attack. This sensitivity sometimes lasts for several years after a heart attack. Scientists are trying to determine what kind of weather most affects this category of patients. They

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are not sure if the sensitivity is the result of heart attack or a harbinger of future problems. People who suffer from these difficulties are convinced that cold and wet weather makes them feel worse. They claim that they can predict the weather in advance based on their symptoms. According to the generally accepted definition, meteoropathic person is  meteorosensitive individual, who may show various symptoms in the form of meteoropathic syndrome or those people whose ability to function properly depends greatly on weather and climate conditions or have deteriorating health or chronic diseases. Many modern studies point to the fact that the incidence of heart attacks varies by month and day. Thus, according to statistical indicators, it has been established that the summer months are safer than the winter months, and Monday as a day of the week is more risky than Saturday. According to the results of research at the clinic in Novi Sad, Serbia, winter and spring holidays, followed by excessive food and alcohol consumption, smoking and prolonged sitting without physical activity, are periods with the highest incidence of stroke and heart attack.

6.5.2  Meteoropathy and Physical Processes in the Atmosphere Whenever the weather changes, electromagnetic fields generate electromagnetic pulses that affect our body and stimulate reactions and adjustments in our bodies. Sudden changes in weather, and  meteorological elements (air pressure,  temperature, humidity), as well as the appearance of extremely low or high temperatures, are usually manifested through the influence of electromagnetic waves and the creation of  a load on the human body. Electric charges in the air, such as ions and electric fields, can affect the endocrine, vegetative, and autonomic nervous systems. But humans are not equally sensitive and react differently to weather and climate change that causes electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere, which affect the hypothalamus, indirectly improving the secretion of stress hormones, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and reducing happiness hormone (endorphin) levels, leading to increased anxiety, headaches, and other meteorological symptoms. Numerous studies in Human Biometeorology suggest that sudden daily fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (an important meteorological factor) have a negative impact on health and human activity. However, insufficient attention is paid to the other bioeffective physical characteristics of atmospheric pressure. It is known that different atmospheric phenomena cause the pressure to change over a very wide period of time. Of particular interest are the meteorological characteristics of atmospheric pressure fluctuations in the range of infrasound frequency (sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human hearing), related to natural sounds in the atmosphere or 0.003 Hz