Enhancing Halal Sustainability: Selected Papers from the 4th International Halal Conference 2019 9813348534, 9789813348530
The global halal industry is likely to grow to between three and four trillion US dollars in the next five years, from t
123 19 9MB
English Pages 441 [423] Year 2021
Preface
Contents
Part I: Halal Research and Education
Students´ Perception Towards Halal Food in Cube Shop: The Importance of Transparency
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Literature Review
3.1 Muslim Consumer Behaviour and Awareness
3.2 Perceptions on Halal Food
3.3 Factors Influencing Halal Food Selection
3.4 Halal Food Standards
4 Research Objective
5 Research Methodology
6 Findings
7 Discussion
8 Implications and Recommendation
9 Conclusion
References
Understanding Level of Science-Related Halal Academic Courses Among Malaysian University Students: An Experimental Approach
1 Introduction
1.1 Halal Education
1.2 Science and Technology Elements in Halal Education
2 Materials and Method
3 Results
3.1 Descriptive Statistics of Scores for Knowledge of Halal in Animal Slaughtering Practice (HASP)
3.2 Descriptive Statistics of Scores for Halal in Food Science and Technology (HFST)
3.3 Paired Samples Test for Tests and Quizes Between HASP and HFST
4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Counterfeit Fashion Goods Purchase Intention Among Muslim Millennial: What Counts-Religiosity, Ethical Concern or Attitude Tow...
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Research Methodology
4 Findings and Analysis
5 Conclusion
6 Limitation and Further Research
References
Is Sharia-Compliant Hotel a Good Investment? Using Netnography Research Method to Explore the Society´s Perceptions
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 What Is Sharia-Compliant Hotel?
3 Methods
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 Is Sharia-Compliant Hotel a Good Investment?
5 Conclusion
References
Enhancement of Halal Virtual Inspection Model: The Requirements of Food Premise Virtual Inspection Process
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Halal Certification as an Islamic Food Assurance System
2.2 Halal Inspection Process and Requirements
2.3 Work System Framework (WSF)
3 Methodology
3.1 Interview
4 Analysis
4.1 Interview Analysis
5 Results and Discussions
6 Conclusion
References
Fiqh Traveller According to Maqasid Shariah
1 Introduction
2 The Study of Travelling Trends
3 The Concept of Travelling from the Islamic Perspective
3.1 The Significance of Travellings from the Islamic Perspective
3.2 The Issues of Muslim Travellers
4 Methodology
5 Analysis of Islamic Rulings (Fiqh) Related to Travelling
5.1 Purification of the Traveller
5.2 Prayer
5.3 Halal Food
5.4 Shariah-Compliance Activities
5.5 Accompanied by Mahram
6 Discussion
7 Conclusion
References
Factors Contributing to Mosque Tourism in Malaysia
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Methods
4 Results
5 Discussion and Conclusion
5.1 Managerial Implications
References
Classification of Visual Marker in YouTube Videos: A Preliminary Outlook
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
2.1 Extremist YouTube Videos
2.2 Visual Marker (VM)
3 The Method
3.1 Identification of Video Specimen
3.2 Investigation of Item (VM)
3.3 Classification of Category
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 Video Specimen
4.2 Visual Marker (VM)
4.3 Matrix of Specimen vs. VM
5 Conclusion
References
Shariah Compliant Guidelines on the Use of Gadgets
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Literature Review: The Impact of Gadget on Users
3.1 Advantages of Gadgets
3.1.1 Save Time, Energy and Money
3.1.2 Increase the Ability to Think and Reason
3.1.3 Build Up a Social Network
3.1.4 Medium to Promote Business
3.1.5 Easy Access to Knowledge and Information
3.2 Disadvantages of Gadgets
3.2.1 Nomophobia (Gadget Addiction)
3.2.2 Exposure to Negative Elements
3.2.3 Less Focus on Work and Daily Tasks
3.2.4 Loss of Time and Money
3.2.5 Harm Health
3.2.6 Anti-social
4 Findings and Discussion: Shariah-Compliant Guidelines on the Use of Gadgets
4.1 Use of Gadgets for Beneficial Purposes Only
4.2 Do Not Browse Websites or Pages with Harmful Features
4.3 Limit the Amount of Time of Access/Use of Gadgets
4.4 Practice the Islamic rulings
4.5 Adhere to the Islamic Cyber-Ethics
4.6 No Abandonment of Religious Obligations
4.7 Does Not Infringe Intellectual Property Rights
4.8 Maintaining Cyber-Security
4.9 Verification (tabayyun)
5 Conclusion
References
Developing Basic Criteria in Halal Food Security: An Overview from Islamic Perspectives
1 Introduction
2 The Islamic Position on Food Security
3 Basic Criteria in Halal Food Security
3.1 God as Provider
3.2 Guaranteed Income from Allah SWT to All Creatures
3.3 The Role of Government
3.4 The Preservation of Life
4 Conclusion
References
Part II: Halal Business and Industry
Sharia Issues About Bitcoin Cryptocurrency Transactions
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Sharia Issues About Bitcoin
3.1 Status of Bitcoin Manufacturer
3.2 Status of Bitcoin Existence
3.3 The Feature of Bitcoin as a Property
3.4 Volatility (Uncertainty) and Stability of Bitcoin Prices
3.5 The Use of Bitcoin for Illegal Activity
4 Recommendatons
5 Conclusion
References
Shariah Governance in the Face of Value-Based Intermediation: Islamic Banking to Thrive Beyond Halal
1 Introduction
2 Research Methodology
3 Value-Based Intermediation (VBI)
4 Islamic Banking, Shariah Governance, and VBI
5 Shariah Committee
6 Integration Between the Board and Shariah Committee
7 Management and Its Daily Operations Oversight
8 Conclusion
References
Marketing Innovation of Muslim Agro-Food Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Peninsular Malaysia
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Performance of Muslim Agro-Food SMEs
2.2 Innovative Marketing Strategies
2.3 Innovative Market Orientation
3 Methodology
4 Results and Discussions
4.1 Socio-Demographic Profiles of Respondents
4.2 Firmographic Profiles
4.3 Performance Status of Muslim Agro-Food SMEs
4.4 Relationship Between Innovative Marketing Strategies and Performance of Muslim Agro-Food SMEs
4.5 Relationship Between Innovative Market Orientation and Performance of Muslim Agro-Food SMEs
5 Conclusion
References
Development of Gold Using Model as Takaful Contract
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Findings
4.1 Contracts Related to Early Islamic Takaful
4.2 Contemporary Takaful Application Contracts and Models
4.3 Proposed Takaful Model Based on the Use of Gold
4.3.1 Gold Wadi´ah Model
4.3.2 Gold Mudharabah Model
4.3.3 Gold Wakalah Model
4.3.4 Cash Waqf Gold Model
5 Conclusion
References
Earning Announcement and Stock Return: Evidence from Indonesia
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Prospect Theory
2.2 Information and Stock Reaction
2.3 Investor Sentiment and Trading Volume
2.4 Hypothesis Development
3 Research Method
3.1 Variables
3.1.1 Dependent Variable
3.1.2 Independent Variables
3.1.3 Control Variables
4 Discussion
4.1 Descriptive Statistic
4.2 Robusteness Analysis
5 Concluding Remarks
References
A Conceptual Framework: Enhancing Shariah Compliance via Adopting Enterprise Waqf Model as Endowment for Urban Regeneration De...
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Wakalah-Waqf Model
2.2 Cash Waqf and e-Waqf Model
2.3 Deposit Cash Waqf Model
2.4 Deposit Waqf Product Model
2.5 Waqf Share Model
2.6 Corporate Waqf Model
2.7 Compulsory Cash Waqf Model
2.8 Cooperative Waqf Model
2.9 Enterprise Waqf Fund Model
2.10 Sukuk Model
2.11 Waqf Certificates
3 Research Methodology
4 Result and Discussions
5 Conclusion
References
Islamic Mediation Model: An Adoption on Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional (PTPTN)
1 Introduction
2 Criteria of Islamic Mediation
2.1 Conflicts and Disputations in PTPTN
2.2 Classification of PTPTN Conflicts in Islamic Mediation (Sulh) Criteria
2.3 Conceptual Framework (Fig. 1)
3 Conclusion
References
Solution to Malaysia Halal Certification Premises Issue Through Waqf Commercial Building: A Preliminary Study
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Finding and Discussion
4.1 Why Premise Is One of the Requirements for Having MHC?
4.2 What Are the Factors Contributed to the ``Premises Absent´´ Among Micros in MHC?
4.3 How Does Waqf Could Help Premises Issues for MHC?
5 Conclusion
References
Investment Prospect of Halal Products in Indonesia: A Review
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Eligibility Criteria for the Studies
2.2 Identification of Relevant Studies
2.3 Selection of Studies
2.4 Control of Bias Assessment
2.5 Collection, Extraction and Analysis of Data
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Halal Food Sector
3.2 Islamic Finance Sector
3.3 Halal Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics Sectors
3.4 Modest Fashion
3.5 Halal Tourism
3.6 Finding Prediction Result Through Trend Analysis
4 Conclusion
5 Recommendation
References
Part III: Halal Science
Detection of Pork DNA in Meatballs and Ice Cream Using Polymerase Chain Reaction Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Materials
2.2 Beef Gelatin
2.3 DNA Isolation and Extraction of Meatballs and Ice Cream
2.4 PCR with Cytochrome b Primer
2.5 RFLP with BseDI Restriction Enzyme
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Isolation and Extraction of DNA Sample
3.2 PCR Optimization
3.3 RFLP
4 Conclusion
References
Utilization of Banana Peel-Wastes for the Production of Low-Cost and Shariah-Compliant Amylolytic Enzyme
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Thermophilic Bacterial Isolation and Screening for Thermostable Amylases
2.2 Optimum Temperature of Bacterial Growth
2.3 Qualitative Enzyme Determination
2.4 Quantitative Enzyme Determination
2.5 Optimization of pH for Enzyme Production
2.6 Optimization of Enzyme Production Using Different Concentration of Banana Peels
3 Result and Discussion
3.1 Isolation, Screening and Selection of Thermostable Amylase-Producing Bacteria
3.2 Determination of Optimum Temperature for Amylase Production
3.3 Optimization of pH for Enzyme Production
3.4 Comparative Study of Banana Peels and Starch as Carbon Source
3.5 Optimization of Enzyme Production Using Different Concentration of Banana Peels
4 Conclusion
References
Utilization of Bioreactor Operation Mode in Producing Influenza Vaccine Syariah-Compliant
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Bioreactor Modelling
3 Result and Discussion
3.1 Batch Process (Disposable Reactor and Stainless Steel)
3.2 Continuous Process
3.3 Fed Batch
3.4 Comparison of the Mode Operation
4 Conclusion
References
The Identification of Alcohol Percentage Limit in Halal Food Using Fuzzy Logic
1 Introduction
2 Fuzzy Logic Framework
3 Conclusion
References
Food Colouring Issues in the alāl Industry
1 Introduction
2 The Halāl Concept
3 Food Colouring
4 Types of Food Colouring
4.1 Natural Food Colouring
4.2 Animal Source
4.3 Plant Source
4.4 Mineral Source
4.5 Artificial Food Colouring
5 Food Colouring Issues
6 Recommendation and Conclusion
References
Anti-microbial Properties of Turmeric Extracts Against Common Oral Pathogens as a Potential Therapeutic Alternative in Dentist...
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methodology
2.1 Bacterial Preparation
2.2 Extraction Procedure
2.3 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Test
2.3.1 Bacterial Inoculum Preparation for MIC Test
2.3.2 Antibiotic Preparation
2.3.3 MTT Reagent Preparation
2.3.4 Broth Micro Dilution Method (MIC Test)
2.4 Results
3 Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Horse Mackerel (Trachurus Trachurus) Skin Gelatin and Its Physicochemical Properties
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Materials and Sample Preparation of Trachurus trachurus Skins
2.2 Extraction of Gelatin from Trachurus trachurus Skins
2.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis (Control)
2.2.2 Combination of Acid and Alkali Hydrolysis
2.2.3 Yield of Gelatin
2.3 Physicochemical Properties of Gelatin
2.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content
2.3.2 Determination of Protein
2.3.3 Determination of pH
2.3.4 Determination of Solubility
2.3.5 Determination of Colour
2.4 Rheology Properties of Gelatin
2.4.1 Determination of Gel Strength
2.4.2 Determination of Melting Point
2.5 Statistical Analysis
3 Physicochemical Properties of Gelatin
3.1 Gelatine Yield
3.2 Moisture Content
3.3 Protein Content
3.4 pH of Gelatin
3.5 Solubility of Gelatin
3.6 Colour of Gelatin
3.7 Rheology Properties of Gelatin
3.7.1 Gel Strength of Gelatin
3.7.2 Melting Point of Gelatin
4 Conclusion
References
Water Treatment from Fiqh and Science Perspectives
1 Introduction
2 Water Treatment and Purification Process History
3 Methodology
4 Finding
4.1 Water Treatment from Fiqh Perspectives
4.2 Water Treatment from Science Perspectives
5 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Halal Management
The Effect of Operational Capabilities and Process Management on Firm Performance of Halal Food Manufacturers in Sarawak, Mala...
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Operational Capabilities, Process Management and Firm Performance
2.2 Conceptual Framework
3 Methodology
3.1 Research Hypotheses
4 Findings
5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
The Factors Influencing Islamic Leadership in Project Management: A Pilot Study
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Leadership
2.2 Islamic Leadership
2.3 Project Management
2.4 Justice (Al-Adalah)
2.5 Communication (Musyawarah)
2.6 Trust (Amanah)
2.7 Knowledge (Fathonah)
2.8 Commitment
2.9 Conceptual Framework
3 Research Methodology
3.1 Pretesting
3.2 Pilot Study
3.3 Results of the Analytical Output
3.4 PLS Data Analyses and Results
3.4.1 Measurement Model Analysis
A. Convergent Validity
B. Discriminant Validity
3.4.2 Regression Analysis
4 Discussion and Conclusion
5 Conclusion
References
Developing of Crowdsourcing Theoretical Framework: An Analysis Crowdsourcing Issues from Shari´a Perspective
1 Introduction
2 Method
3 Result and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Sharia Compliance Idealism or Is It Just Another Fallible in Management Innovation Model?
1 Introduction
2 Learning to Becoming Sharia Compliance Organization
2.1 The Delimiting Aspects to Learning Facilitation
2.2 The Used of Agency Theory
3 Interpretivism Approach in Management Innovation
4 Conclusion: Learning to the Praxis of Ittqan
References
Halal Management System for Main Course Product in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta Ltd: A Case Study
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Critical Control Point (CCP)
3.1.1 Receiving
3.1.2 Storage
3.1.3 Hot Kitchen, Bakery and Pastry
3.1.4 Blast Chilling
3.1.5 Meal Tray Set-Up
3.2 Halal Management System
3.2.1 Halal Policy
3.2.2 Halal Management Organization
3.2.3 Training Programmes
3.2.4 Materials
3.2.5 Product
3.2.6 Production Facility
3.2.7 Product Handling for Nonconformance Product
3.2.8 Traceability
3.2.9 Internal Audit
3.2.10 Management Review
4 Conclusion
References
Halal Supply Chain of Chicken Meat in Negeri Sembilan
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Method
4 Result and Discussion
4.1 First Pattern of Chicken Meat Supply Chain
4.2 Second Pattern of Chicken Meat Supply Chain
4.3 Third Pattern of Chicken Meat Supply Chain
5 Discussion and Recommendation
6 Conclusion
References
Risk Assessment on Bird Slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Research Methodology
4 Results
5 Findings
6 Discussion
7 Recommendation and Conclusion
References
Effect of Halal Product Variation and Display Layout Toward Visit of Interest China Town Bandung
1 Introduction
2 Literature
2.1 Product Variation
2.2 Display Layout
2.3 Consumer Interest
3 Method
3.1 Analysis
4 Result and Discussion
4.1 Reliability and Validity
4.2 Hypothesis Testing
4.3 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Index
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Citation preview
Nur Nafhatun Md Shariff · Najahudin Lateh Nur Farhani Zarmani · Zety Sharizat Hamidi Zeiad Amjad Abdulrazzak Aghwan Norliza Binti Dato Haji Mahalle Hakimah Haji Yaacob · Tomizawa Hisao Editors
Enhancing Halal Sustainability Selected Papers from the 4th International Halal Conference 2019
Enhancing Halal Sustainability
Nur Nafhatun Md Shariff • Najahudin Lateh • Nur Farhani Zarmani • Zety Sharizat Hamidi • Zeiad Amjad Abdulrazzak Aghwan • Norliza Binti Dato Haji Mahalle • Hakimah Haji Yaacob • Tomizawa Hisao Editors
Enhancing Halal Sustainability Selected Papers from the 4th International Halal Conference 2019
Editors Nur Nafhatun Md Shariff Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Najahudin Lateh Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Nur Farhani Zarmani Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Zety Sharizat Hamidi Institute of Science Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Zeiad Amjad Abdulrazzak Aghwan Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali Brunei, Brunei Darussalam
Norliza Binti Dato Haji Mahalle Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali Brunei, Brunei Darussalam
Hakimah Haji Yaacob Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali Brunei, Brunei Darussalam
Tomizawa Hisao Department of International Relations University of Shizuoka Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan
ISBN 978-981-33-4853-0 ISBN 978-981-33-4854-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7
(eBook)
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
Preface
Interest in halal supply and demand and the opportunities they create will continue to intensify as any developing nation aspires for developed status. Issues and problem that arise as effects from the process of development are therefore numerous, and scientists, engineers and planners at all levels should therefore look more closely at the interdisciplinary nature of halal and halal-related issues. A great deal of accomplishment can be made with regard to sustainable development by using accommodative and integrative manner in approaching such issues. The series of the International Halal Conference had been held annually since 2012. It originated from the need to unite academicians, researchers and practitioners working in different aspects of halal industry. International experts from several halal organizations were invited to deliver Keynote speeches at the fourth International Halal Conference (INHAC): Enhancing Halal Sustainability, which was held at Osaka University Nakanoshima Center, Osaka, Japan, from 22nd to 23rd of April 2019. Apart from that, this conference received over 150 paper submissions from various countries. And this special book compiles selected papers containing 35 important findings that form four (4) interrelated themes, namely (1) Halal Research and Education; (2) Halal Business and Industry; (3) Halal Science; and (4) Halal Management. On behalf of the Organizing Committee, I would like to take this opportunity to extend my thanks and appreciation to Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies (ACIS) Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia, Osaka University Japan, Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University (UNISSA) Brunei, Malaysia International Halal Showcase (MIHAS) and other organizations that have contributed directly or indirectly for making this conference possible. Our sincere thanks to the SPRINGER publication team for publishing this book. Finally, I would like to thank our organization committee, authors, editors and reviewers that generously contributed to this special book. Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
N. N. M. Shariff
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Contents
Part I
Halal Research and Education
Students’ Perception Towards Halal Food in Cube Shop: The Importance of Transparency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norkhairiah Hashim
3
Understanding Level of Science-Related Halal Academic Courses Among Malaysian University Students: An Experimental Approach . . . Mohd Amzari Tumiran, Nasharuddin Mohammad, and Zulaipa Ruzulan
17
Counterfeit Fashion Goods Purchase Intention Among Muslim Millennial: What Counts—Religiosity, Ethical Concern or Attitude Towards Lawfulness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norzehan Abu Bakar, Nor Syafiqah Walam Rosol, Rozita Naina Mohamad, and Nur Hazirah Hashim
27
Is Sharia-Compliant Hotel a Good Investment? Using Netnography Research Method to Explore the Society’s Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nor Nazihah Chuweni, Mohd Noor Ismawi Ismail, Nurulanis Ahmad Mohamed, Siti Nadiah Mohd Ali, Nurul Sahida Fauzi, and Huraizah Arshad Enhancement of Halal Virtual Inspection Model: The Requirements of Food Premise Virtual Inspection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohd Zabiedy Mohd Sulaiman, Nurulhuda Noordin, Nor Laila Md Noor, Ahmad Iqbal Hakim Suhaimi, and Wan Abdul Rahim Wan Mohd Isa Fiqh Traveller According to Maqasid Shariah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nurzahidah bt Hj Jaapar, Sharifah Fadylawaty Syed Abdullah, and Fadhilah Adibah bt Ismail
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Contents
Factors Contributing to Mosque Tourism in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sedigheh Moghavvemi, Ainin Sulaiman, Azni Zarina Taha, Mohd Edil Abd Sukor, Mohd Zulkhairi Mustapha, Mozard Mohtar, Noor Ismawati Jaafar, and Shamshul Bahri Zakaria Classification of Visual Marker in YouTube Videos: A Preliminary Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anitawati Mohd Lokman, Roshaliza Mohd Rosli, and Syaripah Ruzaini Syed Aris Shariah Compliant Guidelines on the Use of Gadgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sharifah Fadylawaty Syed Abdullah, Fadhilah Adibah Ismail, Kamariah Yusoff, Azizah Zakaria, and Norsalwati Sabtu
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99
Developing Basic Criteria in Halal Food Security: An Overview from Islamic Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Syuhaida Idha Abd Rahim, Siti Khurshiah Mohd Mansor, Zulaipa Ruzulan, and Noraini Ismail Part II
Halal Business and Industry
Sharia Issues About Bitcoin Cryptocurrency Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Najahudin Lateh and Siti Noorbiah Md Rejab Shariah Governance in the Face of Value-Based Intermediation: Islamic Banking to Thrive Beyond Halal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Nurul Afidah Mohamad Yusof and Mohammad Mahbubi Ali Marketing Innovation of Muslim Agro-Food Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Peninsular Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 N. H. Khairuddin, N. H. Kamarulzaman, H. Hashim, and S. R. Hussin Development of Gold Using Model as Takaful Contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Siti Noorbiah Md Rejab and Najahudin Lateh Earning Announcement and Stock Return: Evidence from Indonesia . . 167 Diyan Lestari A Conceptual Framework: Enhancing Shariah Compliance via Adopting Enterprise Waqf Model as Endowment for Urban Regeneration Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Nurulanis Binti Ahmad, Nor Nazihah Chuweni, Jannatun Naemah Ismam, Siti Nadiah Mohd Ali, Nurul Sahida Fauzi, and Huraizah Arshad Islamic Mediation Model: An Adoption on Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional (PTPTN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Rafidah Mohd Azli, Nasif Sidque Pauzi, Ahmad Faiz Ubaidah, Hajah Makiah Tussaripah Jamil, Dziauddin Sharif, and Mohd Asmadi Yakob
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Solution to Malaysia Halal Certification Premises Issue Through Waqf Commercial Building: A Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Nur Azlin Ismail, Asiah Alkharib Shah, Nur Atika Atan, and Ismail Omar Investment Prospect of Halal Products in Indonesia: A Review . . . . . . . 215 Hardiwinoto Hardiwinoto, Fatmasari Sukesti, and Stalis Norma Ethica Part III
Halal Science
Detection of Pork DNA in Meatballs and Ice Cream Using Polymerase Chain Reaction Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Agustin K. Wardani, Aji Sutrisno, Helmy A. Prabowo, Nikita Fendy, and Fatony Kurniawan Utilization of Banana Peel-Wastes for the Production of Low-Cost and Shariah-Compliant Amylolytic Enzyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Moohamad Ropaning Sulong, Hazirah Hamid, Ashvini Sivam, Hasdianty Abdullah, and Lai Long Wee Utilization of Bioreactor Operation Mode in Producing Influenza Vaccine Syariah-Compliant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 F. N. Aliya Mohamad Ros, Norliza Abd. Rahman, Jarinah Mohd Ali, Nurina Anuar, Siti Rozaimah Bt. Sheikh Abdullah, and Amir Fazlim Bin Jusoh The Identification of Alcohol Percentage Limit in Halal Food Using Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Jarinah Mohd Ali, Suhaili Othman, Nurrulhidayah Ahmad Fadzillah, and Norliza Abd. Rahman Food Colouring Issues in the Ḥalāl Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Syahierah Haji Japar and Zeiad Amjad Aghwan Anti-microbial Properties of Turmeric Extracts Against Common Oral Pathogens as a Potential Therapeutic Alternative in Dentistry . . . . 287 Aida Nur Ashikin Abd Rahman, Nurul Izzah Mohd Sarmin, Nur Syahira Nabila Abu Jamil, and Nur Ain Muhd Hanifah Horse Mackerel (Trachurus Trachurus) Skin Gelatin and Its Physicochemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Siti S. Ramli and Nurain Inche Mohamed Nasir Water Treatment from Fiqh and Science Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Irwan Mohd Subri, Wan Ainaa Mardhiah Wan Zahari, Mohd Hafez Mohd Isa, Azman Ab Rahman, Mahazan Abdul Mutalib, and Ahmad Sanusi Azmi
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Part IV
Contents
Halal Management
The Effect of Operational Capabilities and Process Management on Firm Performance of Halal Food Manufacturers in Sarawak, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Mohamad Norjayadi Tamam, Abang Zainoren Abang Abdul Rahman, and Firdaus Abdullah The Factors Influencing Islamic Leadership in Project Management: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Zaimy Johana Johan and Nurfatimatuz Zahraa Baharudin Developing of Crowdsourcing Theoretical Framework: An Analysis Crowdsourcing Issues from Shari’a Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Mohamad Norzamani Sahroni, Azhar Abdul Aziz, Mohd Takiyuddin Ibrahim, and Ahmad Nawir Abu Amrin Sharia Compliance Idealism or Is It Just Another Fallible in Management Innovation Model? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Fatimah Yusof and Faizul Abdullah Halal Management System for Main Course Product in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta Ltd: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Elok Waziiroh and Syafina Maylita Tijani Halal Supply Chain of Chicken Meat in Negeri Sembilan . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Rafidah binti Mohd Azli, Nor Saadah binti Musa, Asnizah binti Ahmad, Muallim bin Bakri, Athira Ayuni binti Asmadi, Mohammad Nor bin Othman, Muhammad Syukri bin Ashmir Wong, and Noor Rashidah binti Ariffin Risk Assessment on Bird Slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan . . . . . . . . 407 Rafidah binti Mohd Azli, Nor Saadah Musa, Muallim Bakri, Athira Ayuni Asmadi, Mohammad Nor bin Othman, Nur Nabilah Azimoha, Noor Rashidah binti Mohamad Ariffin, Muhammad Syukri bin Mohd Ashmir Wong, and Asnizah Ahmad Effect of Halal Product Variation and Display Layout Toward Visit of Interest China Town Bandung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Vina Meliana and Donant A. Iskandar Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Part I
Halal Research and Education
Students’ Perception Towards Halal Food in Cube Shop: The Importance of Transparency Norkhairiah Hashim
Abstract The sales of goods through the cube compartment are attractive and quite successful today. Shop retailers open up opportunities to rent a cube at cheap and affordable prices. With this opportunity, many traders from all walks of life are keen to sell their various types of trades. Among the sales available in the cube include food sales. Therefore, this quantitative study was conducted to examine the extent to which the student’s attitude in the selection of food to be purchased in one of the cube premises. Moreover, this study determined the aspects of ensuring the food sold is absolutely halal by the students as customers. The findings show that confidence in Muslim food suppliers is a major factor in the selection of purchased food, besides looking at the halal logo. However, this study concludes that customer’s trust should be considered by all suppliers of halal food, so that the resources and food items supplied or sold should comply with the Islamic law. Keywords Students’s perception · Halal food · Trust · Transparency
1 Introduction Halal food intake is one of the most important aspects of the life of a Muslim. Evaluation and selection of good food and halal based on Islamic law is considered something sublime Mahiah et. al, 2014). Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta’ala orders his servants to take advantage of all that is on this earth, and eat it for the sake of life provided the food is lawful and good, as the word in surah al-Baqarah verse 168: “O mankind, eat from whatever is on earth [that is] lawful and good” (Pusat Dakwah Islamiah, 2014). While in seeking livelihoods, in order to gain goodness and blessings in it, Islam requires to be sourced from a lawful quest rather than a result of bad actions and N. Hashim (*) Halalan Thayyiban Research Centre, Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_1
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N. Hashim
prohibited by the religion. Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta’ala commands to eat sustenance from such a lawful source as His word in Surah Al Baqarah verse 172: “O you who have believed, eat from the good things which We have provided for you and be grateful to Allah if it is [indeed] Him that you worship” (Pusat Dakwah Islamiah, 2014).
2 Background The question of seller’s responsibility and the buyer’s policy is one of the topics that are often debated, as this is linked to the role and responsibility of a Muslim in executing all the orders commanded by Islamic law. The seller’s willingness to sell goods and halal food is the demands of Islam; whereas the buyer’s willingness to choose and buy good and halal food is demanded by the religion. Both are imposed by religious claims as this claim is simply encouraging every Muslim towards achieving happiness in the world and in the hereafter. Nowadays, students become an important group of consumers, and they are likely to buy any or use certain products (Yusrina, Nurhanita, & Nurul Huda, 2018). The sales of food or non-food products in cube shops are a concern for the younger generation, especially among students. The variety of products provides more opportunities for students to make choices. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the students’ views on halal food sold in cube shop, in terms of presentation and its ‘halalness’, and what are the needs or expectations of students on halal food sold in cube shop.
3 Literature Review 3.1
Muslim Consumer Behaviour and Awareness
Muslim consumer behaviour is the actions and decision processes related to their consumption of goods and services that is carried out by a Muslim in which to meet their needs not just to meet the needs (material), but also meet the spiritual needs while the awareness in the context of halal food reflects to a condition in which consumers have an interest, special attention, or have experience and good information about food that is allowed by Islamic law (Yasid & Yuli, 2016). The study conducted on students indicates that the orientation of the muslims in selecting halal food are more towards the religious obligations and they are aware, understand and familiar with the concept of Halal Food (Nur Aniza, Noreina, & Syakinah, 2013). Therefore, for Muslims determining whether the food they want to eat or products they would like to consume are halal or not are critically important because they know that it is sinful for any Muslim who failed to obediently follow Islamic principles (Nik Zam, Suzana, Syuhaila, & Noraida, 2015).
Students’ Perception Towards Halal Food in Cube Shop: The Importance of. . .
3.2
5
Perceptions on Halal Food
Generally, students have a basic knowledge of halal food. Haslinda states that students are very sensitive towards halal food and students will only eat products with the halal logo (Haslinda, 2016). Some students make decisions easily by eating halal food produced by Muslim countries or food that uses Islamic brand. Ismoyowati mentioned in her study that 18% of the respondents believe that foods that do not contain illegal ingredients are considered halal. Halal in this sense means that the food that do not contain any source of pork (Ismoyowati, 2015). Faryal and Kamran said that perceptions of halal food is related to the dogma of identity which is more linked with intrinsic rather than extrinsic force, however also found that people who are highly religious may not necessarily have high level of awareness about halal food (Faryal & Kamran, 2011).
3.3
Factors Influencing Halal Food Selection
Among the factors that influence the decision to purchase a food product include the lawful status, variety, taste, and food packaging. The price and quality of halal food are also very important besides a place or shop that is easily accessible. In addition, consumer promotions from word of mouth and electronic media such as radio and television, also greatly influence consumers in terms of halal food selection (Ismoyowati, 2015). Moreover, the values, health, safety and quality motives are also considered as the significance factors in explaining the consumption of food products while religion plays one of the most influential roles shaping food choice, therefore, if consumers in these markets are more religious, then the products and the way these products are promoted need to be prepared in accordance with the spiritual and religious dictations and influences those consumers acknowledge (Nur Aniza et al., 2013).
3.4
Halal Food Standards
The Brunei Darussalam Islamic Religious Council through a technical committee for the development of the standard and the national guidelines for halal food has detailed the requirements for food and business products or food trade in Brunei Darussalam. The halal food standard covers general guidelines on production, supply, handling, distribution and storage. Among the criteria of halal food products that are stored, enhanced, exhibited and sold or served should be categorized and labelled halal (PBD: 24, 2007) (The Religious Council, 2007). While in the Halal certificate and Halal label (Amendment) order (2017) stated that any person who contravenes the principle order of halal certificate is considered guilty of an offence
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and liable for conviction to a fine of not exceeding $8000, imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or both. (Majlis Ugama Islam Brunei Darussalam, 2008a, 2008c & 2008d)
4 Research Objective This study is important as it will give a real picture about the perceptions of students as buyers in the selection of food sales in cube shop. In addition, based on the perception of the students, this study will also provide an overview of the roles that must be taken by every food seller, especially among Muslim-based sellers. The study was conducted to achieve the following objectives: 1. To understand the perceptions of students as buyers in making choices to purchase food sales in cube compartments, especially in the aspects of display. 2. To understand the perceptions of students as buyers in making choices to purchase food sales in cube compartments, especially in halal aspects. 3. To examine the relationship between the Muslim sellers and the way food preparation is good and halal, not mixing the food with something that is syubhah and not mixing the food with unlawful ingredients.
5 Research Methodology The study was conducted through randomly selected quantitative data supported by qualitative data on a purposeful sample, which refers to a group feature that has the characteristics of the sample required by the researcher. It is an explanatory study through the measurement process followed by asking the question of why and how to find the factors, the cause and the source to get answers to the relationship between independent variables and dependent variables (Creswell, 2012). The quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package For Social Science (SPSS) version 20 to obtain the frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation for ordinal data analysis, as it could describe the respondents from all sample studies towards items in the survey. This descriptive analysis was designed to describe the sample statistics without making any administrative over population parameters. Factor analysis was done to determine the construct validity factor of item in the instrument set of this study. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity tests have been reported that the construct validity, as shown in Table 1, shows the value of KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy) ¼ 0.757 (level received ¼ >0.6—according to Julie Pallant, sig ¼ p < 0.000 so the analysis factor (CFA) can be continued (Julie, 2013). Table 2 below shows the validity and reliability of the research instrument. Validity and reliability of questionnaire items (using 5 Likert scales) were measured
Students’ Perception Towards Halal Food in Cube Shop: The Importance of. . .
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Table 1 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and the Bartlett’s test KMO and Bartlett’s test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy Bartlett’s test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square df Sig. Table 2 The validity and reliability of the research instrument
Reliability statistics Item Aspects of food display Aspects of food halal
0.757 584.750 105 0.000
Cronbach’s alpha 0.746 0.824
N of items 8 7
Table 3 Correlation coefficient value Correlation coefficient value (r) 1.00 0.70–0.99 0.50–0.69 0.30–0.49 0.10–0.29 0.01–0.09
Interpretation of coefficient Perfect Very high Strong Moderate Low Negligible
Source: Scale Davies, I.I.C (1971), The Management of Learning, London: C. Gain Hill
by using the Alfa-Cronbach coefficient value test and the test result showed that the questionnaire was suitable for use because the reliability coefficient of the index was between a ¼ 0.70 known as Stability coefficients to 0.80 as customary coefficients (Layman, 1986). Pearson correlation test was also used to answer the question of this study. The strength of the relationship between the variables in this study was interpreted using the scale of strength proposed by Davies (1971) as in Table 3. This study also used focus group interviews, where researchers gathered 7 consenting informants to respond to all the interview questions. The qualitative data analysed to generate initial codes. The initial codes sorted and merged together and combine to form a theme.
6 Findings A total of 90 respondents participate in this study, with male respondents represent 31.1% and female respondents as much as 68.9%. Distribution of respondents’ data in detail can be viewed in the Table 4 below: Table 5 shows eight aspects to measure students’ perceptions on halal food at cube shops based on preparation and demonstration. The factors that influence
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Table 4 Respondent distribution by demographic (n ¼ 90)
Respondents Male Female
N 28 62
% 31.1 68.9
Table 5 Respondent distribution by frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation (n ¼ 90) Statement: I bought halal food at the cube shop by taking into account the factors 1a Packaging
Strongly disagree (%) –
Disagree (%) –
1b
Cleanliness
–
–
1c
–
–
1d
Delicious taste Display
–
1e
Price
–
2 (2.2) 2 (2.2)
1f
Good and safety Food quantity Food quality
1 (1.1) –
1g 1h
–
1 (1.1) 1 (1.1)
Neutral (%) 12 (13.3) 2 (2.2) 5 (5.6) 18 (20.0) 12 (13.3) 9 (10.0) 5 (5.6) 18 (20.0)
Agree (%) 38 (42.2) 13 (14.4) 18 (20.0) 28 (31.1) 13 (14.4) 18 (20.0) 12 (13.3) 15 (16.7)
Strongly agree (%) 40 (44.4) 75 (83.3) 67 (74.4) 42 (46.7) 63 (70.0) 62 (68.9) 72 (80.0) 56 (62.2)
Score Min 4.31
SD 0.697
4.81
0.447
4.68
0.573
4.22
0.845
4.52
0.810
4.55
0.766
4.77
0.618
4.40
0.845
students’ perceptions showed that 83.3% (n ¼ 75), min: 4.81 of students have expressed strong consent to purchase halal food depending on its cleanliness, followed by 80% (n ¼ 72), min: 4.77 on the food quantity; 74.4% (n ¼ 67), min: 4.68 on the taste of food; 70.0% (n ¼ 63), min: 4.52 on price; 68.9% (n ¼ 62), min: 4.55 on safety aspect; 62.2% (n ¼ 56) min: 4.40 on the quality of food, 46.7% (n ¼ 42) min: 4.22 on the display, and lastly 44.4% (n ¼ 40) min value 4.31 on the packaging. Table 6 below shows seven aspects to measure students’ perceptions on halal food at cube shops based on its ‘halalness’. The findings showed that 63.3% (n ¼ 57), min: 4.55 of students have expressed strong consent to purchase halal food, taking into account with confidence that the sources did not contain illegal ingredients, followed by 63.3% (n ¼ 57), min: 4.53 on the factor that the seller is Muslim; 62.2% (n ¼ 56), min: 4.54 on the belief that food sources are strictly halal; 58.9% (n ¼ 53), min: 4.33 on the halal logo factors; 51.1% (n ¼ 46) min 4.28 on trusting the food did not contain anything syubhah; 44.4% (n ¼ 40), the mean of 4.35 on the correct way of handling and according to the requirements of Islam; and
Students’ Perception Towards Halal Food in Cube Shop: The Importance of. . .
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Table 6 Respondent distribution by frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation (n ¼ 90) Statement: I bought halal food at the cube shop by taking into account the factors 2a Halal Logo
Strongly disagree (%) 1 (1.1)
Disagree (%) 2 (2.2)
2b
Muslim trader
–
1 (1.1)
Neutral (%) 16 (17.8) 7 (7.8)
2c
Trust the food did not mixed with unlawful sources Trust that food sources are absolutely lawful A good way of preparation Trust that food did not mixed with something doubtful (shubhah) Confidence is not mixed with foreign materials such as staples, hair or the like
–
1 (1.1)
5 (5.6)
–
1 (1.1)
5 (5.6)
–
–
8 (8.9)
1 (1.1)
3 (3.3)
3 (3.3)
8 (8.9)
2d
2e 2f
2g
Strongly agree (%) 53 (58.9)
Score Min 4.33
SD 0.924
57 (63.3)
4.53
0.690
57 (63.3)
4.55
0.655
28 (31.1)
56 (62.2)
4.54
0.656
40 (44.4)
4.35
0.641
11 (12.2)
42 (46.7) 29 (32.2)
46 (51.1)
4.28
0.889
25 (27.8)
24 (26.7)
30 (33.3)
3.77
1.10
Agree (%) 18 (20.0) 25 (27.8) 27 (30.0)
Table 7 Correlation between food sellers amongst Muslims by means of good halal supply (N ¼ 90) Correlation Muslims food sellers
Good halal supply
a
Correlation Pearson Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Pearson Sig. (2-tailed) N
Muslims food sellers 1 90 0.582a 0.000 90
Good halal supply 0.582a 0.000 90 1 90
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
lastly, 33.3% (n ¼ 30), min: 3.77 on trusting that food did not contain foreign materials like staple, hair or the like. The correlation test results for testing the first null hypothesis have shown the results of r ¼ 0.582 with the value of p < 0.000. This suggests that there is no relation between food sellers from the Muslim community with the ways of good
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Table 8 Correlations between food sellers from among Muslims with no contamination in food sold by an unlawful substance (N ¼ 90) Correlation
Muslims food sellers
There is no pollution on food sold by an illegal substance
a
Correlation Pearson Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Pearson Sig. (2-tailed) N
Muslims food sellers 1
There is no pollution on food sold by an illegal substance 0.530a 0.000
90 0.530a
90 1
0.000 90
90
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
halal preparation, and thus, first null hypothesis is successfully rejected. This is because the positive value r has a significant positive relationship between Muslim food sellers by means of good halal preparation. In this way, it is shown as follows (Table 7): Moreover, the result of the correlation analysis showed a strong correlation between food seller variables among Muslims with no illegal contamination in food sold with a coefficient of correlation of r ¼ 0.530 with value p ¼ 0.05) than gelatin extracted using acid hydrolysis and from commercial sources. Moisture content for gelatin from acid-alkali hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis and commercial were 2.91%, 5.70%, and 5.58% respectively. Higher moisture content of gelatin extracted using acid hydrolysis may be due to the insufficient drying Table 1 Moisture content of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis, combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin Gelatin samples Acid hydrolysis Acid-alkali hydrolysis Commercial gelatin
Moisture content (%) 5.70 0.40a 2.91 0.04b 5.58 0.19a
a,b Means standard deviation of triplicate determination. Means in the column with different superscript letters were significantly different (p < 0.05)
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process of gelatin while in the freeze drier. According to Ockerman and Hansen (1988), moisture content of gelatin varied not only in the extent of drying, but also dependent on humidity during storage and permeability of storage packaging to moisture. By reducing moisture content inside gelatin powder, it can prolong shelf life of gelatin powder and preserve its quality. Gelatin is very hygroscopic at moisture content of 6–8% and it becomes difficult to determine the physicochemical properties with accuracy (Cole, 2000). Different moisture content values for the gelatin extracted from other fish skins were reported in the open literature. Some of these were for shark (8.7%), rohu (9.3%), and tuna (10.9%) (Shyni et al., 2014).
3.3
Protein Content
According to Muyonga et al. (2004), the crude protein content of the collagenous material in fish skin represented the maximum possible yield of gelatin expected from them. The crude protein content of gelatin extracted from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis as a control, combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin was shown in Table 2. Gelatin extracted from Trachurus trachurus skin contained crude protein as a major component (84.43–85.89%) with crude protein content in gelatin extracted using acid-alkali hydrolysis was slightly higher than acid hydrolysis. However, crude protein content in gelatin for both the hydrolysis method was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than commercial gelatin (96.28%). The slightly lower protein content of gelatin using acid hydrolysis would be due to the incomplete conversion of collagen to soluble gelatin as it is also reflected by the low yield obtained. The protein content of the extracted gelatins was much greater than those for Hoki (81.70%) and sin croaker (69.20%) (Cheow, Norizah, Kyaw, & Howell, 2007) but lower than those for shark, rohu, and tuna with 90.10%, 89.20% and 88.40% respectively (Shyni et al., 2014).
Table 2 Protein content of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis, the combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin Gelatin samples Acid hydrolysis Acid-alkali hydrolysis Commercial gelatin
Protein content (%) 84.4 0.41c 85.9 0.83b 96.3 0.46a
a,b Means standard deviation of triplicate determination. Means in the column with different superscript letters were significantly different (p < 0.05)
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S. S. Ramli and N. I. M. Nasir
pH of Gelatin
Table 3 shows the pH of gelatin extracted from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis as control and combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and also from commercial gelatin. pH value of gelatin extracted using acid hydrolysis, acid, and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin solution shows significant difference at (p < 0.05) level, where the pH value for the commercial gelatin solutions was lower than acid hydrolysis and acid-alkali hydrolysis gelatin with 5.38, 6.02 and 6.15 respectively. pH of Trachurus trachurus skin gelatin extracted using acid hydrolysis as control and combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis gave values similar to the pH value of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin, caught in the North Sea with 6.00 (Badii & Howell, 2006). According to them, adjustment of pH from 4.50 to about 6.00 was required to achieve high Bloom values for fish gelatin. Different pH value was reported from different sources of fish skin gelatin which include those for cod (2.70–3.90) (Gudmundsson & Hafsteinsson, 1997), tuna (4.29) (Shyni et al., 2014) and Hoki (5.56). Wide variations in the pH of fish skin gelatin was most likely due to the strength and type of the chemicals employed during the hydrolysis and washing treatment process, involving both acid and alkali. In this research, sodium chloride, and acetic acid with suitable concentration were used in the washing treatment.
3.5
Solubility of Gelatin
The solubility of gelatin extracted from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis as control and combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and also from commercial gelatin was shown in Table 4. The solubility of gelatin from acid hydrolysis, acid-alkali hydrolysis, and commercial gelatin solution shows significant difference at (p < 0.05), where commercial gelatin was observed to have the highest percentage of solubility followed by acid-alkali hydrolysis and acid hydrolysis with 95.88%, 78.31%, and 74.36% respectively. According to Jamilah and Harvinder (2002), several glutamines and asparagine such as glutamic acid and aspartic acid could be acidified during the hydrolysis.
Table 3 pH value of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis, combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin Gelatin samples Acid hydrolysis Acid-alkali hydrolysis Commercial gelatin
pH value 6.02 0.01b 6.15 0.01a 5.38 0.01c
a,b Means standard deviation of triplicate determination. Means in the column with different superscript letters were significantly different (p < 0.05)
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Table 4 Solubility of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis, combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin Gelatin samples Acid hydrolysis Acid-alkali hydrolysis Commercial Gelatin
Solubility (%) 74.7 2.43c 78.3 0.76b 95.9 1.26a
Means standard deviation of triplicate determination. Means in the column with different superscript letters were significantly different (p < 0.05) a,b
Table 5 Colour of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis, combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin Gelatin samples Acid hydrolysis Acid-alkali hydrolysis Commercial gelatin
L* 41.4 0.61b 53.6 0.07a 25.3 0.17c
a* 0.51 0.09b 0.41 0.46a 0.88 0.09a
b* 6.58 0.24b 9.67 0.43a 2.24 0.21c
Means standard deviation of triplicate determination. Means in the column with different superscript letters were significantly different (p < 0.05) a,b
The difference in solubility of various gelatin also might be resulted from the difference in molecular weights and ratios of polar and non-polar groups’ presence in amino acids (Zayas, 1997). In general, gelatin was produced through the partial hydrolysis of native collagen which composed of three chains which are α-chain, β-chain and γ-chain intertwined in the collagen triple-helix, adopting a 3D structure that provides an ideal geometry for inter-chain hydrogen bonding (Te, 1997). Hydrogen bonds will breakdown when gelatin is subjected to heat and probably electrostatic bonds take place by destroying the triple helical structure (Badii & Howell, 2006). The stability of the triple helical structure in denatured gelatin is directly proportional to the content of amino acids mostly proline and hydroxyproline (Gomez-Guillen, Gimenez, Lopez-Caballero, & Montero, 2011). Hydrogen bonding of hydroxyproline through its –OH group has a major role in the stabilization of the triple helix structure of collagen (Gómez-Guillén et al., 2002). By extending or increasing the extraction time of gelatin, the rate of collagen breakdown increased, especially β-chain and γ-chain, resulting in the formation of a more soluble protein.
3.6
Colour of Gelatin
Table 5 showed the color of gelatin extracted from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis as control and combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and also from commercial gelatin. The extracted gelatin from both hydrolysis had significantly (p < 0.05) higher L* values and b* values than those of commercial gelatin. This indicated that the color of extracted gelatins were attributed with more
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S. S. Ramli and N. I. M. Nasir
brightness and yellowness compared to commercial gelatin. For the a* values, extracted gelatin from acid hydrolysis, acid-alkali hydrolysis, and commercial gelatin shows no significant difference (p < 0.05). Overall, gelatin from acid-alkali hydrolysis exhibit the highest value of L* and b* than acid hydrolysis. This is supported through visual observation, where gelatin extracted using acid-alkali hydrolysis had a pale yellow color while gelatin extracted using acid hydrolysis had a slightly dark yellow color and yellow brown color for the commercial gelatin. In this study, acid and alkali hydrolysis contribute to the higher L* values of gelatin, where it showed effects on removing non-collagenous protein and pigments with minimum collagen loss. Dark color of gelatin is commonly caused by inorganic, proteinaceous, and mucosubstance contaminants introduced or not removed during extraction (Muyonga et al., 2004), while Schrieber and Gareis (2007) stated that high-intensity color of gelatin might result from Maillard reaction between carbohydrate and protein in raw material, which increases the reaction time. Ockerman and Hansen (1988) noted that the difference in the colour of the gelatin sample depends on the raw material used and whether it is the first, second or subsequent extraction. Even though the color of the gelatin was manipulated by the raw material used, it does not influence other functional properties of gelatin such as Bloom’s strength or melting point. The lightness Trachurus trachurus skin gelatin is an important attribute to make sure that it does not give any effect or impart any strong color to the product when used in any food system.
3.7 3.7.1
Rheology Properties of Gelatin Gel Strength of Gelatin
Gel strength is the most important physical property of gelatin, where it is known to be highly capable in forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules to form a stable three-dimensional gel (Killekar, Koli, Sharangdhar, & Metar, 2012). Based on Table 6, it can be observed that the commercial gelatin had significantly (p < 0.05) higher gel strength than extracted gelatin from acid hydrolysis and acid-alkali hydrolysis with 204.51, 75.15 and 75.32 g respectively. However, the gel strength of gelatin from acid hydrolysis and acid-alkali hydrolysis shows no significant difference at (p < 0.05) level. Acid alkali hydrolysis destroys certain Table 6 Gel strength of gelatin from Trachurus trachurus skin using acid hydrolysis, combination of acid and alkali hydrolysis and from commercial gelatin Gelatin samples Acid hydrolysis Acid-alkali hydrolysis Commercial gelatin
Gel strength (%) 75.15 0.24b 75.32 0.25b 204.51 1.33a
a,b Means standard deviation of triplicate determination. Means in the column with different superscript letters were significantly different (p < 0.05)
Horse Mackerel (Trachurus Trachurus) Skin Gelatin and Its. . .
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chemical cross-linkages in the collagen with less breakage of peptide bonds, giving gelatin from acid-alkali hydrolysis slightly higher in gel strength compared to acid hydrolysis (Zhou & Regenstein, 2005). The gel strength of extracted gelatin in this research was considerably lower when compared to those reported in research conducted by Badii and Howell (2006) on Trachurus trachurus skin, caught in the North Sea, where the Bloom value was surprisingly high (230.00 g) which in this case higher than that of commercial gelatin (204.51 g). The lower value of gel strength of gelatin from both hydrolysis methods was probably interfered with by measurement technique, where the suggested environmental temperature during the testing sample is below 10 C (See et al., 2010). Gudmundsson and Hafsteinsson (1997) noted that gel strength probably depends on isoelectric point and control of pH. This is supported by Shyni et al. (2014) who stated that the quality of gelatin largely depends on the gel strength, which is low ( 0.5) Yes
0.922
0.703
Yes
0.859
0.551
Yes
0.884
0.605
Yes
0.877
0.589
Yes
0.883
0.602
Yes
0.846
0.524
Yes
proc1, proc7, proc8, proc9, proc10, proc11 items were deleted due to loading composite reliability 0, thus indicating the predictive relevance and validity of the proposed model.
5 Discussion and Conclusion This paper empirically examined the relationship of OC on firm performance and the effect of process management among halal food manufacturers in Sarawak. From the results of analysis, it is found that OC has no direct effect on halal firm performance, but it shows a significant relationship on PM. It is surprising that OC do not have a positive effect on Halal firm performance. However, as argue by Melville et al. (2004), resources which are needed for successful business project change, do not present a source of competitive advantage by themselves but rather mere input factors. This implies that, resources can only be a source of competitive advantage if they are used to do something, that if those resources are exploited through business processes, eventhough the companies have multiple capabilities such as improvement, innovation, cooperation, customization, reconfiguration, and responsiveness. The results also show that PM practices in the companies could contribute to better firm performance with significant relationship between PM and firm performance. Moreover, having mediation effect of PM between OC and perceived halal firm performance indicate the important link between both relationships.
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The inconclusive findings on the relationship between OC and firm performance of Halal industry in Sarawak demonstrate that, the nature of Halal industry which can be considered at its infancy stage might influence the OC effect on firm performance. In other words, compared to Halal industry in west Malaysia which is more advance in terms of technology, logistic advantage, and accessibility to other facilities, relying on OC alone unlikely to contribute to firm performance. Furthermore, as highlighted by Garnsey (1998), in order to acquire sustainable competitive advantages, firms must access, mobilize, and deploy resources before they can grow. On the contrary, the implementation of PM practices by a company may provide the alternatives to achieve better firm performance. To realise the full competitive potential of its existing resources and capabilities, a firm must organize its business process efficiently and effectively (Barney & Wright, 1998). The practical impact from this study is useful for the policy maker especially the relevant government agencies to assist Halal oriented companies in Sarawak in achieving better firm performance. The company that face difficulties to ensure all the OC in place, however with existing level of capabilities, the company could achieve better performance by focusing on PM practices in their operations. This study may be useful for such company to strengthen the PM practices in their organisation to achieve better firm performance.
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The Factors Influencing Islamic Leadership in Project Management: A Pilot Study Zaimy Johana Johan and Nurfatimatuz Zahraa Baharudin
Abstract There are four attributes of Islamic leadership, namely, truthfulness (al-sidq), trust (amanah), knowledge ( fathonah) and communication (tabligh). However, these traits are lacking in the implementation of projects leading to their being abandoned due to reasons of being over the time limit, the lack of management support, the scopes which do not follow requirements, the actual cost exceeding the budget, and the lack of experience in managing projects. The purpose of this pilot study is therefore to determine factors that would influence Islamic leadership in project management. Ninety-six usable questionnaires were analyzed by applying SPSS v. 23 for descriptive statistics and Smart PLS v.3.2.28 for structured equation modelling (SEM). The results postulated that communication, trust and commitment had influenced Islamic leadership in project management while justice and knowledge were not supported. Although justice and knowledge were not supported, these two constructs were crucial in the overall project life cycle which included the management of project stakeholders. Thus, it is recommended that the attributes of Islamic leadership should be included in the roles and responsibilities of project managers to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency in undertaking projects. Keywords Islamic leadership · Communication · Trust · Commitment · Justice · Knowledge
1 Introduction In recent years, many projects were abandoned or were unable to be completed due reasons of their being over the time limit, lack of management support, the scopes not following the requirements, actual cost exceeding the budgeted cost, and the lack of experience in managing projects. Those who are involved in projects, especially Z. J. Johan (*) · N. Z. Baharudin Faculty of Business and Management, UiTM Puncak Alam, Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_29
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leaders, are busy working on their assigned tasks, communicating, preparing documents, attending meetings and spending most of their time travelling. Consequently, the leaders are to be blamed for the project failures. Whether leadership is the culprit or not, the pilot study investigates and identifies the factors influencing Islamic leadership in managing projects to determine whether these factors would contribute to the success of these projects. The layout of the paper starts with a literature review on leadership in general, Islamic leadership, project management, and the constructs of Islamic leadership. These include justice (al-adalah), communication (musyawarah), trust (amanah), knowledge ( fathonah), and commitment. Research methodology, findings, recommendations and conclusion follow.
2 Literature Review 2.1
Leadership
A leader invests time and work in developing his or her intellect, which generates inspiration to others. It means leaders are role models for their followers. Inspirational leaders have vision and higher goals and gain respect. Leadership roles, traits, and theories have been reviewed, identified, examined, and the importance of leadership for the success of organizations has been studied and debated. With the progress that has been made in the study of leadership, there are different conceptions about what constitutes leadership and leadership effectiveness (Aabed, 2006). The effectiveness of leadership, for example, depends on the leader, the followers and the situation (Vroom & Jaago, 2007). Leadership effectiveness is measured by the leader’s contribution to the quality of group processes and the extent to which the organization performs its tasks and goals successfully (Yukl, 2008). Leadership is defined as an interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves a structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of members (Bass & Bass, 2009). It shows that leadership plays an important role in order to communicate, collaborate, and discuss common issues that are related with the situation of the topics. Jermier (1991) defined leadership as an influence where leaders and followers intend real changes that would reflect their mutual purposes. He explained that the leadership relationship is multidirectional involving interactions that are vertical, horizontal, diagonal and circular. Leadership is one of the important roles in an organization to accomplish goals.
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Islamic Leadership
Leadership in Islam is similar to the leadership in the western world, except that it has religious, moral and human roots. Religious and moral spirit (fear of God) dominate the government leadership under the Prophet Muhammad (Al-Buraey,
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2013). Leadership from the Islamic perspective generally exists in the primary and secondary resources of the Shariah (Quran and Sunnah) in addition to the practices of the early Muslims. Islamic leadership is a process of inspiring and coaching voluntary followers in an effort to fulfil clear as well as shared visions (Altalib, 1991). Thus, in Islam, a leader is not free to act, nor must he submit to the wishes of any group—he must act only to implement Allah’s laws on earth. Allah said in His Quran, “And We made them leaders guiding men by Our command and We sent inspiration to do good deeds, to establish regular prayers and to practise regular charity; and they constantly served Us only” (Quran 21:73). Leadership is given considerable attention in the Islamic religion and philosophy, as leadership is perceived to be the most significant instrument for the realization of an ideal society based on justice and compassion. The Quran (4:58) instructs its believers: “When ye judge between people that ye judge with justice”. Ali (2009) shared that leadership is defined as a process of influence, shared in nature, whereby a leader and followers would engage in certain activities to accomplish their goals. Leadership in Islam is the voluntary coach and inspiring process towards followers in order to fulfil a clear and shared vision (Altalib, 1991). Furthermore, ensuring essential elements such as cohesiveness, improved welfare of society, and smooth performance are important aspects of a leader’s responsibility.
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Project Management
A project is an endeavour to accomplish a specific objective through a unique set of interrelated activities and the effective utilization of resources. Additionally, a project has a clear objective that establishes what is to be accomplished (Gido, Clements, & Baker, 2018). It is the tangible end product that the project team must produce and deliver. The project objective is usually defined in terms of end product or deliverable, schedule and budget. It requires completing the project work scope and producing all deliverables within certain time and budget. The successful accomplishment of the project objective could be constrained by many factors including scope, quality, schedule, budget, resources, risks, customer satisfaction and stakeholder support. The project scope is all the work that must be done in order to produce all the project deliverables to satisfy customers’ needs, that is, the deliverables must meet the requirements and acceptance criteria as well as accomplish the project objective (Gido et al., 2018). The project objective usually states the time by which the project scope must be completed in terms of a specific date agreed upon by the sponsor and the organization performing the project.
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Justice (Al-Adalah)
Justice is a temperance that each individual must develop regardless of whether he/she is a leader or a subordinate (Wilson, 2006). As stated in the Holy Quran: “O you who believe! Stand out firmly for God as witness to fair dealing and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice . . .” (5:8). Justice is another essential characteristic that leaders should possess to manage individuals equally, regardless of race, colour, national inception or religion (Aabed, 2006). However, injustice invariably leads to turmoil and conflict, but at the same time, justice must be tempered with compassion (Aabed, 2006). In addition, justice is never to be affected by personal interests and other considerations. Justice is also to protect people’s freedom and equality (Branine & Pollard, 2010). Within Islam; humans are free in their beliefs—“There is no compulsion in religion” (Quran, 2:256). Justice prompts equality and so as to keep up an organisation of justice and equality there should be a sense of humility among those in managerial positions. In organisations where justice prevails, employees are treated and rewarded equally and fairly. The Quran itself attests that the reason for its disclosure is to implement justice and equity (Beekun & Badawi, 1999). This promotes kindness and mutual love among the individuals in the community by (Fontaine & Ahmad, 2015). Justice should by no means be compromised by personal affiliations or other considerations. A believer is required to practise and enforce justice even against themselves. Project leaders should therefore be fair in their decisions, transactions, agreements and settlements, as well as in in the fulfilment of their responsibilities towards family, society and work. Thus, the first hypothesis is that justice has a positive impact on factors influencing Islamic leadership in project management.
2.5
Communication (Musyawarah)
The Quran has made it clear that Muslims are obligated to consult those who have knowledge or those who can provide sound advice: And those who answer the call of their Lord and establish prayer, and who conduct their affairs by consultation and spend out of what we bestow on them for sustenance (Quran, 42:38).
“The Prophet Muhammad (SAWS) regularly consulted his companions on all important matters. The prophet (SAWS) was ordered to consult and counsel with his companions regarding their opinions in all issues before making any final decisions (Subhani, 1994). The most outstanding example of the prophet’s (SAWS) consultation (shura) occurred on the eve of the Battle of Uhud. While the prophet was thinking that the city should be defended from within, the majority wanted to go out to fight. The prophet accepted this and did not impose his own opinion on his companions (Bakir Majlisi, 2012). Under the practice of consultative decision
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making, culture will improve the quality of decision on one side and will develop trust between boss and subordinates on another side in an organisation, and as a result, the subordinates will be inspired in carrying out their duties. Moreover, the consultative culture will root out the seed of egoism which is prohibited in Islam” (Mohammad Ather, Aktaruzzaman Khan, & Hoque, 2011). Communication is another leadership quality. It is the ability to articulate ideas and views with clarity and eloquence (Safi, 1995). It is required to communicate the purpose of the project clearly and to inspire people to work together to achieve the project goals and objectives. Communication is vital not only for convincing followers to accept the action and for giving themselves to a specific set of purposes, but also for discussing and communicating with opponents and competitors as well (Abbasi, Rehman, & Bibi, 2010). The proposed way to make the best decision on worldly matters, in the absence of a prescribed text, is consultation (shura). It is stated in the holy Quran, addressing the believers, that “their matters are shura among them” (42:38). This principle of Shura teaches leaders to treat their subordinates as their equals and to be humble in their dealings with other people (Abuznaid, 2006). Hence, the second hypothesis is that communication has a positive and significant impact on factors that influence Islamic leadership in project management.
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Trust (Amanah)
The concept of trust is the expectation that employees in an organization can be relied on to fulfil their obligations, behave in a predictable manner, and negotiate fairly even when the possibility of opportunism is present (Gulati & Sytch, 2008). Confidentiality is also highlighted in Islamic teachings through the prohibition of suspicion and distrust. Trust leads to save transaction time and cost that could be spent in negotiation and legal affairs. The right of privacy is also emphasized in the teaching of Islam through the prohibition of suspicion. Leadership is trust (amanah) which represents a psychological contract between a leader and his followers, that he will try his best to guide them, to protect them and to treat them justly (Beekun & Badawi, 1999). Trust is a value that should be realizable in leadership (Abbasi et al., 2010). To implement this value in leadership would mean to make every staff a trustworthy person (Syed Agil, Jasin, & Pawan, 2007). The concept of trust stresses the idea of responsibility towards organizational stakeholders. As a core value, trust fits within the overall protocol governing social relationships. (Beekun & Badawi, 1999) noted that Prophet Muhammad (SAW) was the best example of a trust leader. “I convey to you the messages of my Lord by explaining the commands and prohibitions (and for you a true adviser) warning you of Allah’s torment and calling you to repentance and faith, and I am trustworthy in conveying the message of my Lord. It is also said that: you used to consider me a trustworthy person, so how is it that you are now accusing me” (Quran, 7:68).
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In global development, trust is a demand to be sustained among business association. Lack of trustworthiness in an organization’s practices will lead to a lower possibility for other business entities to cooperate with it. The exhibition of trust definitely cannot be avoided for an organization’s growth and development (Garavan & McGuire, 2010). Therefore, the third hypothesis is that trust has a positive and significant impact on factors that influence Islamic leadership in project management.
2.7
Knowledge (Fathonah)
Knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah are highly required for managers, operatives and employers in an Islamic organisation. Ali (2009) stated that a person who acts according to knowledge is like one whose road is clear. Excellence in knowledge increases humbleness and develops a sense in man which helps in understanding and exploring the new areas of knowledge. So, if employers and employees do not have sufficient true knowledge about Islam they will not be able to maintain the compliances of Islam. Leaders are expected to be knowledgeable and well informed (Safi, 1995). Knowledge of the Quran and Sunnah are two criteria for selecting the Muslim leaders. Those who assume leadership responsibilities in the political, economic, legal, educational or military fields must acquire the necessary specialized knowledge and expertise (Aabed, 2006). The leadership notices that if he or she needs to carry a task that is related to the economic, intellectual, political, legal, education or military fields, the necessary specialized knowledge, skills and expertise (Safi, 1995) should be acquired. These knowledge bring competence, and competent leaders have the ability to see a full view of the situation to deliver the right outcomes at the right time (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007). Knowledge is valuable in organizations because it is the power to create a difference and to provide a competitive edge (Abbasi et al., 2010). Leaders must be knowledgeable in all aspects and it is important for them to have the capability of analysing the overall situation, establishing priorities for action and developing strategies for their implementation in order to support the organizational performance. Thus, the fourth hypothesis is that knowledge has a positive and significant impact on factors that influence Islamic leadership in project management.
2.8
Commitment
Commitment is the linkage between employees and leaders and helps to identify the outcomes or consequences of organizational commitments: absenteeism, job performance, tardiness and turnover. Commitment involves an active relationship with the organization in which individuals are willing to give of themselves in order to help
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the organization succeed and prosper. A study conducted by Aldulaimi (2016) revealed that Prophet Mohamed underlined discipline and commitment intended by Muslims are not only to highlight the essence of work but also to draw a link between faith and work, eventually steering the Muslim community towards becoming an economically and politically viable entity. In this context, he reiterated that God blesses a person who perfects his craft (does the job right) and God loves a person who learns precisely how to perform his work and does it right. He instructed Muslims to be fair, just and prompt in compensating workers. He declared, “One must give a worker his wage before his sweat dries (should be given on time)” and “your wage should be based on your effort and spending”. That is, payment for salaries must be timely, equally and adequately. In fact, the Prophet considered denying a worker his/her full salary to be an immoral act. The ability to guide, and to handle task and job is one of the opportunities to become successful. Majali (1990), agreed that the ability to guide, influence and show the right way to others are the qualities of leadership. These qualities help the Islamic leaders to be better, truthful, kind, practise moderation and avoid suspicions in dealing with their daily actions. Power confers control, authority, and legality which give leaders responsibility to attract and persuade their followers to act. Dignity confers advantage, brilliance, and precedence which enable leaders to instruct their followers. Ability confers strength, willingness, and skill, which enables leaders to exceed their followers. Additionally, to lead the smaller and bigger group or individuals, a leader must have good characteristics that attract their followers (Marbun, 2013). A leader must be of good health, good mind, good character, good education and is worldly. Consequently, the fifth hypothesis is that commitment has a positive and significant impact on factors that influence Islamic leadership in project management.
Fig. 1 Conceptual framework. (Adapted from Branine and Pollard (2010) and Marbun (2013))
Justice
Communication
Trust
Knowledge Commitment
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Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 is the conceptual framework adapted from Branine and Pollard (2010) and Marbun (2013). It shows the relationships between independent variables which are justice, communication, trust, knowledge and commitment and the dependent variable, Islamic leadership in project management (Table 1).
3 Research Methodology 3.1
Pretesting
Pre-testing the structured questionnaire is crucial to avoid complexity, leading and loaded, ambiguity, double-barrelled, assumptive and burdensome questions. Pre-testing was conducted on 20 respondents before the questionnaires were distributed. Two pre-testers commented about items in trust which could cause confusion due to their reference to Muslims only. Since the questionnaires were distributed to non-Muslims as well, the researchers edited these to cater for non-Muslim respondents. Overall, the feedback from respondents was that the queries were easily understood. Table 1 Operationational defination Variables Islamic leadership in project management
Justice (Al-adalah)
Communication (Musyawarah)
Trust (Amanah)
Knowledge (Fathonah) Commitment
Operational definition The real focus of leadership is doing good deeds and working towards the establishment of Allah’s ordained order, which is an ethical one. A leader needs to act in accordance with the injunctions of Allah and the Prophet and to develop a strong Islamic character Justice leads to equality and in order to maintain an organisation of justice and equality there should be a sense of humility among those in managerial positions Communication is crucial for keeping the project moving, identifying potential problems, and soliciting suggestions to improve project performance, keeping abreast of customer satisfaction and stakeholder issues and avoiding surprises The concept of trust is the expectation that employees in an organization can rely on the employer to fulfil their obligations, to behave in a predictable conduct, and to negotiate fairly, even when the possibility of opportunism is present Knowledge is valuable because it is the power to create difference and to provide a competitive edge The ability to guide, handle task and job is one of the opportunities to become successful
Reference Beekun and Badawi (1999)
Branine and Pollard (2010) Gido et al. (2018)
Gulati and Sytch (2008)
Abbasi et al. (2010) Majali (1990)
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Pilot Study
The pilot study was conducted at a system innovation and integration company that dealt with project management. The company has 200 office workers of which 110 Muslims, 62 Chinese and another 28 of other ethnicity groups. There are only 96 usable questionnaires for data analysis. The questionnaire is divided into parts A and B. Part A contains demographic queries such as the age of respondents, their positions, and years of experience, education level, race and the department they are attached to. Part B comprises queries on the dependent and independent variables. The items are measured using the Likert-type scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
3.3
Results of the Analytical Output
Table 2 indicated that, out of 100 respondents, 41% are male workers with 59% female. The respondents are mostly in the age groups of 23–27 years, and 32–36 years, with a frequency of 28%. 75% of the employees are Malay, with 17% Chinese, and 7% Indian. Other races make up only 1% of respondents. Most of the workers that are involved in this survey are degree holders frequenting 40% of the study. The participants, who have served the organisation for between 1 and 5 years, are from various departments and they form 56% of the study. The workers are from various departments in the organisation: the human resource, finance, legal and corporate services, sales and marketing, to name a few. The respondents are mostly from the sales and marketing department (Table 2). Table 3 displays the internal consistency for the commitment variable which shows a value of 0.418 for α indicates a lack of reliability. Values above 0.700 are appropriate for exploratory research and values below 0.600 denotes lack of reliability (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). However, commitment is deemed to be one of the important constructs or factors in influencing Islamic leadership in project management. A study by Aldulaimi (2016) stated that Prophet Mohamed underlined discipline and commitment intended by Muslims to be not only for pointing out the essence of work but also to draw a link between faith and work, and to eventually steer the Muslim community toward an attractive, economically and politically, viable entity.
3.4
PLS Data Analyses and Results
Partial least square (PLS), a variance-based approach to structural equation modeling (SEM) has been chosen to evaluate the research model. PLS is suitable for exploratory analytic approach with multiple item constructs, and it offers high efficiency in parameter estimation and can concurrently test both the measurement and structural
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Table 2 Frequency analysis Gender Age
Ethnicity
Level of education
Service period
Department
Category Male Female 18–22 years old 23–27 years old 28–31 years old 32–36 years old 37 years old and above Malay Chinese Indian Others SPM STPM/Diploma Degree Master Ph.D. Below 1 year 1–5 years More than 5 years Finance or accounts Human Resource Legal and Corporate service Management in system (MIS) Maintenance Sales and marketing Software Others
Table 3 Reliability analysis (the Cronbach alpha α)
Frequency 41 59 9 28 13 28 22 75 17 7 1 11 38 40 7 4 17 56 27 22 9 4 2 9 26 10 18
Variables Justice (adalah) Communication (musyawarah) Trusts (amanah) Knowledge ( fathonah) Commitment Islamic leadership
Percentage (%) 41 59 9 28 13 28 22 75 17 7 1 11 38 40 7 4 17 56 27 22 9 4 2 9 26 10 18
Cronbach alpha (α) 0.614 0.611 0.711 0.668 0.418 0.853
model (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017). In order to determine whether the hypotheses of the structural model are supported by the data, a researcher needs to perform the model validation which would indicate the systematic process of evaluation (Urbach & Ahlemann, 2010). Model measurements are discussed in the next sections.
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Measurement Model Analysis
Two types of validity were examined to assess the measurement model: the convergent validity and the discriminant validity.
A. Convergent Validity The convergent validity of the measurement is normally ascertained by examining the loadings, average variance extracted (AVE), and composite reliability (CR) (Hair et al., 2017; Ramayah, Yeap, Ahmad, Halim, & Rahman, 2017). Some of the loadings were lower than 0.708, the CRs for justice and knowledge were lower than 0.7 and the AVE for knowledge was only 0.213, lower than 0.5 as suggested in the literature (refer to Table 4 and Fig. 2).
Table 4 Convergent validity Constructs Commitment
Communication
Islamic Leadership PM
Justice
Knowledge
Trust
Items CMT2 CMT3 CMT5 COM1 COM4 COM5 ISL1 ISL2 ISL3 ISL4 ISL5 JUS1 JUS2 JUS4 KNW1 KNW2 KNW3 KNW4 KNW5 TRU1 TRU2 TRU3 TRU4 TRU5
Loadings 0.504 0.486 0.9 0.919 0.51 0.591 0.849 0.896 0.423 0.854 0.871 0.503 0.651 0.751 0.254 0.236 0.285 0.287 0.884 0.846 0.582 0.662 0.648 0.52
Cronbach 0.376
rhoA 0.525
CR 0.677
AVE 0.433
0.534
0.815
0.725
0.484
0.841
0.878
0.893
0.638
0.504
0.223
0.315
0.414
0.648
0.369
0.324
0.213
0.699
0.821
0.790
0.437
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KNW1
KNW2
KNW3
KNW4
KNW5
JUS1 –0.254 –0.236 –0.285 –0.287 –0.884
–0.503 JUS2
0.651 0.751
JUS4 Justice 0.029
Knowledge 0.111
TRU1 TRU2
0.846
TRU3
0.582 0.662 0.648
TRU4
0.520
0.849
ISL2
0.896 0.515
0.406
TRU5
0.423 0.854
ISL3
0.871
ISL4
IsIamicLeadership PM
Trust
COM1
ISL1
0.226
ISL5
0.222
0.919 0.510
COM4
0.591 Communication Commitment 0.504 0.900 0.486
COM5
CMT2
CMT3
CMT5
Fig. 2 Measurement model results Table 5 Discriminant validity (HTMT ratio)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. Commitment 2. Communication
0.48
3. Islamic Leadership
0.567
0.51
4. Justice
0.238
-0.033
0.113
5. Knowledge
-0.033
-0.056
0.099
0.13
6. Trust
0.575
0.454
0.639
0.06
0.011
B. Discriminant Validity The discriminant validity is based on the multitrait-multimethod matrix in the form of heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations. This is proven after a series of Monte Carlo simulations (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015). Therefore, this study has tested the discriminant validity as the suggested method as shown on Table 5. The
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values of HTMT are less than 0.85 (Kline, 2011, 2016), which indicate that the discriminant validity has been ascertained.
3.4.2
Regression Analysis
The assessment of the structural model is by performing bootstrapping for the significance of path of the coefficients (Fig. 3). Bootstrapping is a technique for sampling the distribution of an estimated statistic by taking repeated random samples with replacement from the data set and treating the data as a population from which smaller samples are taken (Fields, 2009). PLS then creates an estimation path model for each of the bootstrap sample, that is, minimum sample of 5000 (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011), which forms a bootstrap distribution of path model coefficients and coefficient of determination (R2 values). The number of cases should be equivalent to the number of observations in the original sample. The R2 values of 0.75, 0.50 or 0.25 for endogenous latent variables will be the indictor for being substantial, moderate and weak, respectively (Hair et al., 2011; Henseler, Ringle, & Sinkovics, 2009). The bootstrap estimates perform as a source for confidence interval which allows parameter stability assessment (Ringle, Sarstedt, & Straub, 2012).
KNW1
KNW2
KNW3
KNW4
KNW5
JUS1
JUS2
JUS4 Justice 0.402 TRU1
Knowledge 0.202
ISL1 ISL2
TRU2
ISL3
0.000
TRU3
ISL4
TRU4 IsIamicLeadership PM
Trust TRU5
0.007
0.016
COM1
COM4 Communication Commitment
COM5
CMT2
Fig. 3 Bootstrapping results
CMT3
CMT5
ISL5
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In testing the hypotheses, bootstrapping procedures were applied to find the relationship between said variables. The overall results (Table 6) of predictors for Islamic leadership in project management variables which are justice, communication, trust, knowledge, and commitment were discussed. Commitment (β ¼ 0.222, t ¼ 2.147, ρ < 0.05) and communication (β ¼ 0.226, t ¼ 2.445, ρ < 0.05), trust (β ¼ 0.406, t ¼ 5.462, ρ < 0.01) were significant, while justice (β ¼ 0.029, t ¼ 0.248, ρ > 0.05) and knowledge (β ¼ 0.111, t ¼ 0.837, ρ > 0.05) were not significant. Thus, H1, H2, and H5 are supported, while H3 and H4 are rejected since they do not support the hypotheses. Overall, the R2 is 0.515 indicating that 52% of the variance in factors influencing Islamic leadership in project management can be explained by the all independent variables. The value of 0.515 is moderate as shown in Fig. 2.
4 Discussion and Conclusion The pilot study postulates that the commitment, communication and trust constructs are significant factors, whereby trust shows the strongest factor that influences Islamic leadership in project management. If trust showed by the leaders is up to what the workers expected, it can influence Islamic leadership in all aspects of managing projects. Once an individual has been accepted to be the leader of a group or organization, he or she has become their trustee by the organization (Beekun & Badawi, 1999). Justice and knowledge are not significant. These could be the current practices by the company that are not in accordance to the principles of justice and fulfilment of the knowledge criteria in managing projects. Justice and knowledge could also be the root causes of the company not meeting customers’ expectations. Islamic principles are universal and therefore they are applicable in all spheres and activities of life, and not limited only to religious and ritual purposes. This is simply to say that the principles are relevant to be practised in managing projects.
5 Conclusion The results of the research indicate that there are three variables that are supported and two variables that are not. The variables that are supported are communication, trust and commitment while the variables that are not supported are justice and knowledge. The research suggests that in order to influence workers towards Islamic leadership in project management, the responsible leaders need to focus on building and enhancing leadership, relationship, and soft skills. Leaders that have good and effective communication skills are also desirable as team members can communicate easily with them, thus building trust in harmonizing team work. Other than that, since trust is significant to the Islamic leadership, leaders should have a sense of trust
Hypothesis H1 H2 H3 H4 H5
Commitment ! Islamic Leadership PM Communication ! Islamic Leadership PM Justice ! Islamic Leadership PM Knowledge ! Islamic Leadership PM Trust ! Islamic Leadership PM
Table 6 Results of the hypothesies testing Std beta 0.222 0.226 0.029 0.111 0.406
Std error 0.103 0.092 0.117 0.133 0.074
t-values 2.147** 2.445** 0.248 0.837 5.462**
ρ-values 0.016 0.007 0.402 0.202 0.000 BCI LL 0.053 0.084 0.146 0.019 0.278
BCI UL 0.382 0.391 0.211 0.301 0.511
f2 0.06 0.07 0 0.03 0.21
VIF 1.793 1.42 1.117 1.026 1.604
Supported Yes Yes No No Yes
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and responsibility in spear-heading projects. Even though justice and knowledge are not significant, these two constructs are still relevant towards project performance specifically and organizations performance generally.
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Developing of Crowdsourcing Theoretical Framework: An Analysis Crowdsourcing Issues from Shari’a Perspective Mohamad Norzamani Sahroni, Azhar Abdul Aziz, Mohd Takiyuddin Ibrahim, and Ahmad Nawir Abu Amrin
Abstract Crowdsourcing dwells on an Internet technology based individual or organizational crowd-contribution driven activities which vary and go beyond crowd funding, crowd creation, and crowd voting. Against these backdrops, crowdsourcing has since continue to grow, paving a need for crowdsourcing to have its own body of knowledge. Unfortunately, there is no applicable fundamental theoretical framework for crowdsourcing to fall back on. Yet, investigations carried out are appalled about Islam being able to provide the applicable contemporary framework that crowdsourcing needs. Thus, our study embarks on content analysis that entails numerous article reviews pertaining to crowdsourcing issues; faceted on the Islamic Maqasid al-Shari’a with the Quran as the axis in upholding its goodness and mischievous preventions. As a result, this study is convinced that crowdsourcing pillared with Islamic faceted values could ably be the deliverables to the knowledge requirements in crowdsourcing research. Keywords Crowdsourcing · Theoretical framework · Shari’a · Conceptual model
1 Introduction Crowdsourcing is a terminology that relates to individual or organizational efforts whose activities are pegged on crowd contributions and are mobilized through the use of Internet technology. Since the activity of the crowdsourcing is organically rousing, there are various definitions presented through various studies (EstellésArolas & González-Ladrón-De-Guevara, 2012; Hossain & Kauranen, 2015). However, the basic component of the crowdsourcing is closely linked to the original idea presented by Howe (2006); the ever inclusive crowdsourcer or crowdsourcing M. N. Sahroni (*) · A. A. Aziz · M. T. Ibrahim · A. N. A. Amrin Centre of Foundation Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Dengkil, Dengkil, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_30
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initiators, crowdsourcing activities, and nonetheless, the crowd themselves. Whilst the source of crowdsourcing activities can consist of various forms of application that depend on the needs of the crowdsourcer, the crowd as individual social units may initiate their own, among others ideas, skills, opinions and money, as long as they could be called upon to oversee the tasks at hand. Whatever type of contributions, the crowd can be categorized into two groups, based on the nature of donations, and rewards (Hasan & Sulaiaman, 2016). Among the renowned crowdsourcing applications are idea generation, micro-tasking, open source software, public participation, people’s science, citizen journalism, and wiki websites (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015). Given that the research of crowdsourcing has become a phenomenon and has been growing in stature, there is a need for the crowdsourcing to have their body of knowledge. However, this is tall order since crowdsourcing has no fundamental theoretical framework of his own (Estellés-Arolas & González-Ladrón-De-Guevara, 2012; Ghezzi, Gabelloni, Martini, & Natalicchio, 2018; Hossain & Kauranen, 2015; Tripathi, Tahmasbi, & de Vreede, 2017; Zhao & Zhu, 2014). To this effect, they are relying on concepts and models of knowledge from other fields. Against this backdrop, our research believes that Islam can provide contemporary theoretical framework that is applicable for crowdsourcing. Sahroni (2018) in their study as illustrated in Fig. 1 reported that crowdsourcing, as is indicated in surah Al-Ma’idah (5:2) which embedded good deeds as implied in surah Al-Hajj (22:77) could live up to the fundamental concepts of cooperation or ‘ta’awun’, Surah Al-Ma’idah (5:2) also states about cooperation in righteousness or ‘al-birr’ is further inferred in surah Al-Baqarah (2:177) which contains information about the crowdsourcer (“those who ask for help”), and the crowd (“who gives wealth in the name of love for it”) with the characteristics of crowd and the type of contribution included. Whilst surah Al-Baqarah (2:245), Al-Hadid (57:11), and At-Taghabun (64:17) accentuate crowdsourcing righteousness on “who is it that would loan Allah a goodly loan” on three repeated times. Verily, those verses transcend the significance of good relations with other fellow human beings as is further interpreted in surah Al-Hujuraat (49:13). In the context of crowdsourcing, indeed the inter-relationship or intra-relationship among the crowdsourcer and crowd bring about benefit to them as they could get to know each other better (Ghezzi et al., 2018). However, the utmost finding from all of these verses when associated with crowdsourcing is not only about the connection or networking between fellow human beings but also about the relationship between mankind and Allah, their creator, as to avoid the good deeds from becoming worthless as mentioned in surah Hud (11:15–16), as well as to gain His ‘rahmah’ and ‘baraqah’. Based on the Fig. 1, the italicized terminologies represent renowned variables from the science perspectives while the rest represent the crowdsourcing from the Islamic perspectives. Yet, the finding from Fig. 1 is insufficient to support the proposed framework. Therefore, in order to strengthen the development of the Islamic Crowdsourcing Conceptual Framework, our study will examine issues associated to previous crowdsourcing research. It is because those issues might
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Allah Al-Baqarah (2:177); Al-Ma’idah (5:2); Al-Hajj (22:77); Hud (11:15-16); AlHujurat (49:13); Al-Baqarah (2:245); AlHadid (57:11); At-Taghabun (64:17)
Guidelines Al-Ma’idah (5:2); Al-Hajj (22:77); AlHujurat (49:13)
Crowdsourcer
Al-Baqarah (2:177)
Crowdsourcing Activities
Al-Baqarah (2:177); AlMa’idah (5:2);
Crowd Al-Baqarah (2:177); Al-Baqarah (2:245); Al-Hadid (57:11); At-Taghabun (64:17)
Fig. 1 Propose Islamic Crowdsourcing Conceptual model
hinder the accessibility of crowdsourcing in the future (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015) or they might be misused by irresponsible people. All identified issues then will be categorized based on four components of crowdsourcing system (Hetmank, 2013); next the issues will be checked using the main reference of Islam which is Quran; and finally it will be discussed based on the concept of Maqasid al-Shari’a to uphold goodness and to prevent mischief. The four components of crowdsourcing system as described by Hetmank (2013) are organizational, technical, process, and human. It is necessary to categorize each crowdsourcing issues into these components to identify the possible root of its problem and so on to identify related verses of Quran for the particular issue. Meanwhile Maqasid al-Shari’a or the Shari’a’s objectives according to Imam Al-Ghazali is to promote the well-being of all mankind or to uphold goodness and oppose mischief, which lies in safeguarding their faith (din), their human self (nafs), their intellect (`aql), their posterity (nasl), and their wealth (mal); whatever ensures the safeguard of these five serves public interest and is desirable (Abdul Aziz & Yakob, 2016; Abdullah, 2018; Arshad, Norzaihan, Urus, & Ahmed, 2018; Auda,
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2015; Dusuki & Abdullah, 2007). The Maqasid al-Shari’a will define the crowdsourcing’s ethics and values but at the same time it is align with the fundamentals of Islam of creed (`aqidah), worship (`ibadah), and morality and ethics (akhlaq).
2 Method The purpose of this study is to get as many issues as possible as described in the past research rather than to highlight the frequency of each issue being repeated. Therefore, as suggested by Hossain and Kauranen (Hossain & Kauranen, 2015), this research will embark a content analysis on a wide range of selected of articles; and if necessary, there will also be an extended review on these articles. Then our research will match the listed issues with the main references in Islam. There are main sources of reference, namely Al-Quran, Al-Sunnah, Al-Ijtihad and Al-Qiyas (Abdul Aziz & Yakob, 2016). With regard to our research, the basis of reference source is limited to the Quran only, while the Quran Translation in use is ‘Tafsir Pimpinan Ar-Rahman Kepada Pengertian Al-Quran’ (Basmeih, 1995) and ‘Translation of the Meaning of the Quran’ (Jeddah, 1997). Yet, if there is a Quranic verse that needs to be explained, then a comparative interpretation approach of Quranic verses is engaged (Yusoff & Tafsir, 2014). Adding to that, the book of Quranic interpretation or ‘tafseer’ is also referred to with the purpose of explaining the meaning of the Quranic verses that suit the concept of crowdsourcing. The four ‘tafseer’ books are Al-Jalalain (Al-Mahalli & As-Suyuthi, 2012), Fi Zilalil Quran (Quthb, 2002), Al-Munir (Az-Zuhaili, 2016), and Al-Azhar (Hamka, 1982).
3 Result and Discussion Previous research has led to ingenious information on the significance application of crowdsourcing. Adding to that, issues associated with crowdsourcing also have been identified with the aim of improving future crowdsourcing system. Some recent articles shows concern about ethical and legal issues in crowdsourcing consequent to the mischievous of the solutions provided by the crowdsourcing system (Bashayr, Roba, Fedaa, & Allouh, 2017; Ghezzi et al., 2018; Wazny, 2017). Table 1 list some issues in crowdsourcing, the category of the issues, and views from Islamic perspective toward the highlighted issues. The reason to categorize the issues is to facilitate the discovery of the source of the issues whether it is because of human, process, technical or organizational. The table shows that most of the issues are associated with human factor and its issue easily supported with the views from Quran. As described in the introduction part, it is important to highlight that all verses found for each specific issue not only provides guide when doing worldly activities particularly crowdsourcing but
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Table 1 Issues in crowdsourcing and views from Islamic perspective
Issues Concern about anonymity
Article(s) Wazny (2017)
Category of crowdsourcing (organizational, technical, process, human) Human/Process
Concern about the knowledge of the crowd Concern about the expertise of the crowd Concern about malicious worker Inconsistent solution Quality assurance issue
Ghezzi et al. (2018)
Human
Ghezzi et al. (2018) and Wazny (2017)
Human
Wazny (2017)
Human
Wazny (2017)
Human/Process
Wazny (2017)
Human
Ghezzi et al. (2018) and Standing and Standing (2018) Bashayr et al. (2017), Ghezzi et al. (2018), and Standing and Standing (2018) Ghezzi et al. (2018)
Human
Unclear information Intellectual property issue
System rules and procedure is not clear System security issue System design and usability issue
Bashayr et al. (2017) and Wazny (2017) Bashayr et al. (2017) and Ghezzi et al. (2018)
Views from Quran Ar-Ra0 d (13:22); Ibrahim (14:31); An-Nahl (16:75) Fatir (35:28); Az-Zumar (39:9); Al-Mujadalah (58:11) Fatir (35:28); Az-Zumar (39:9); Al-Mujadalah (58:11) Al-Qasas (28:84); Asy-Syura (42:42); Al-Muddathir (74:45) An-Nahl (16:43) Al-Baqarah (2:83); Al-Isra’ (17:23); Al-Isra’ (17:53); Ad-Duha (93:10) An-Nahl (16:43)
Human/Organization
Al-Baqarah (2:188); An-Nisa’ (4:29)
Process/Technical
–
Process/Technical
–
Technical
–
complete together with the concept of creed (`aqidah), worship (`ibadah), and morality and ethics (akhlaq). So that human, consist of crowd and crowdsourcer is compulsory obey to Allah as servant and obey to guidance given through Quran. The last three issues in the table yet to have suitable evidence because we feel that the issues related to technical scope where human can think how to solve them as long as they have a proper business process to implement them. While science concern about the anonymity, Islam provides flexibility. In the context of ‘sadaqah’, crowd may spend their wealth secretly and publicly as long as they fear to Allah as
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mentioned in surah Ar-Ra’d (13:22), Ibrahim (14:31), and An-Nahl (16:75) and indirectly they are safeguarding their faith (din). Further, with ‘sadaqah’ they are safeguarding their wealth (mal) as mentioned in surah Al-Baqarah (2:261): The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah is like a seed [of grain] which grows seven spikes; in each spike is a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies [His reward] for whom He wills. And Allah is all-Encompassing and Knowing.
However this flexibility come together with certain conditions to safeguard human self (nafs) of the crowd and the crowdsourcer themselves as mention in surah Al-Baqarah (2:264): O you who have believed, do not invalidate your charities with reminders or injury as does one who spends his wealth [only] to be seen by the people and does not believe in Allah and the Last Day. His example is like that of a [large] smooth stone upon which is dust and is hit by a downpour that leaves it bare. They are unable [to keep] anything of what they have earned. And Allah does not guide the disbelieving people.
While in the context of supplication (du’a), Islam advocates to pray for goods for someone else anonymously as mentioned in surah Al-Hasyr (59:10): And [there is a share for] those who came after them, saying, "Our Lord, forgive us and our brothers who preceded us in faith and put not in our hearts [any] resentment toward those who have believed. Our Lord, indeed You are Kind and Merciful.
Again crowd may have to contribute besides of wealth such as knowledge or opinion but with conditions that they only pursue on the matter that they have knowledge about them as mentioned in surah Al-Isra’ (17:36): And do not pursue that of which you have no knowledge. Indeed, the hearing, the sight and the heart - about all those [ones] will be questioned.
The above issue led to the next issue that is much concerned by the researchers which is related to the knowledge and expertise of the crowd. Definitely this is the critical issue in crowdsourcing because it will affect the accuracy and the truth of the solution, as suggested by the crowd (Ghezzi et al., 2018; Wazny, 2017). Again, if crowd has no real knowledge to overcome the problem at hand, they will neither be adamant to nor be allowed to contribute for they fear Allah more, as mentioned in surah Fatir (35:28): And among people and moving creatures and grazing livestock are various colors similarly. Only those fear Allah, from among His servants, who have knowledge. Indeed, Allah is Exalted in Might and Forgiving.
However, if mistake, is unintentionally made by a learned person, it is deemed as an exception with regard to the reminder from surah Al-Ahzab (35:5): . . .And there is no blame upon you for that in which you have erred but [only for] what your hearts intended. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.
In the context of crowdsourcing system, the right solution to the given problem or task is very important. Crowd must have necessary and related knowledge prior to contributing to the crowdsourcing activities. The aggregate contribution from crowd will lead to inconsistent and quality solution to the problem (Wazny, 2017). That is
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why Maqasid Al-Shari’a to preserve intellectual (`aql) is not only related to the soundness of mind but the right outcome, too, that will be beneficial to those who apply the solution. Malicious worker is also another issue highlighted in crowdsourcing. In Islam, this is forbidden as mentioned in surah Al-Qasas (28:84): Whoever comes [on the Day of Judgement] with a good deed will have better than it; and whoever comes with an evil deed - then those who did evil deed will not be recompensed except [as much as] what they used to do.
Then again, Islam provides exceptions to those who have done it out of ignorance, safeguard their life (nafs) by giving them the chance to repent as reminded in surah Al-An’aam (6:54): And when those come to you who believe in Our verses, say, "Peace is upon you. Your Lord has decreed upon Himself mercy: that any of you who does wrong out of ignorance and then repents after that and corrects himself - indeed, He is Forgiving and Merciful.
The other crowdsourcing issue is unclear information from the crowdsourcer or the seeker on the given problem (Ghezzi et al., 2018). Crowdsourcer fails to provide sufficient and clear information on the task or problem to crowd which could have enabled them to understand, As a result, this would lead to ambiguous or inaccurate solutions. Thus, it is important for the crowdsourcer to refer to the experts, especially on matters pertaining to the description or representation of problems in order to avoid crowd from being misled, as seen in surah An-Nahl (16:43): . . .So ask the people of the message if you do not know.
Another crowdsourcing issue is related to the intellectual property. According Ghezzi et al. (2018), crowdsourcer’s intellectual property right is protected more, compared to the crowd in graphic design field despite necessary rules suggested for the crowdsourcing system to apply fair intellectual property right for all. Regarding this, Islam provides a crystal clear guideline as mentioned in surah An- Nisa’ (4:29): O you who have believed, do not consume one another’s wealth unjustly but only [in lawful] business by mutual consent. And do not kill yourselves [or one another]. Indeed, Allah is to you ever Merciful.
Because of that, organization that manages the crowdsourcing system should provide clear rules and policies in managing conflicts associated with intellectual property right. To this effect, Hasan and Sulaiaman (2016) described that it depends on the category of crowdsourcing activities which are basically donations (sadaqah) or rewards. If the contribution of the crowd is based on ‘sadaqah’, only Allah will reward their ‘sadaqah’. However, when the crowd is expecting reward in return to their contribution, the crowdsourcer should oblige them with the appropriate one so that the crowd also has the inclusiveness of the intellectual property right. Henceforth, the last three issues listed in Table 1 are more associated with process and technical issues that will not be discussed because our study only focusses on the development of crowdsourcing system, particularly on how humankind, as a whole,
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can provide a more usable and secure system that is compatible for, both the crowd and the crowdsourcer.
4 Conclusion Whilst crowdsourcing from science perspective limit to man-man relationship, but the shari’a objective fulfill two scope of relationships which are man-man relationship, and man-God relationship or human also as a servant of Allah. In lieu to the relevant discussions, this study provide sufficient rather than a complete evidence and convinced that crowdsourcing from the Islamic perspective is strongly able to contribute to the body of knowledge for crowdsourcing research. Our future study will include evidences from the other main references from Al-Sunnah, Al-Ijtihad, and Al-Qiyas in necessitating to the progressive formation of Islamic-based conceptual model of crowdsourcing. Acknowledgement The author hereby would like to have his utmost appreciation compassionately accorded to Universiti Teknologi MARA and the Ministry of Education Malaysia (600 IRMI/ KCM5/3/LESTARI FUND (120/2017)) for the financial assistance provided.
References Abdul Aziz, A., & Yakob, M. A. (2016). Asas-asas Syariah Islamiah. Cheras, Selangor: Mashi Publication Sdn Bhd. Abdullah, A. B. (2018). Maqasid Al-Shariah: Antara Nas dan Maslahah Suatu Pendekatan Sistem. Kuala Lumpur: Ilham Books. Al-Mahalli, A.-I. J. M., & As-Suyuthi, A.-I. J. A. (2012). Tafsir Al-Jalalain (Vol. 1, 2nd ed.). Surabaya: Pustaka Elba. Arshad, R., Norzaihan, M. Z., Urus, S. T., & Ahmed, C. (2018). Modelling maqasid waqf performance measures in waqf institutions. Global Journal Al-Thaqafah, 8(1), 157–170. Auda, J. (2015). Memahami Maqasid Syariah: Peranan Maqasid dalam Pembaharuan Islam Kontemporari. Malaysia: PTS Islamika. Az-Zuhaili, W. (2016). Tafsir Al-Munir: Akidah, Syariah, & Manhaj. Jakarta: Gema Insani. Bashayr, A., Roba, T., Fedaa, A., & Allouh, D. (2017). Legal and ethical issues of crowdsourcing. International Journal of Computer Applications, 167(10), 1–3. Basmeih, S. A. (1995). Tafsir Pimpinan Ar-Rahman Kepada Pengertian Al-Quran. Kuala Lumpur: Bahagian Hal Ehwal Islam Jabatan Perdana Menteri. Dusuki, A. W., & Abdullah, N. I. (2007). Maqasid al-Shariah, Maslahah, and corporate social responsibility. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 24(1), 25–45. Estellés-Arolas, E., & González-Ladrón-De-Guevara, F. (2012). Towards an integrated crowdsourcing definition. Journal of Information Science, 38(2), 189–200. Ghezzi, A., Gabelloni, D., Martini, A., & Natalicchio, A. (2018). Crowdsourcing: A review and suggestions for future research. International Journal of Management Reviews, 20(2), 343–363. Hamka, A. A. A. (1982). Tafsir Al-Azhar. Jakarta: Pustaka Paniimas. Hasan, A., & Sulaiaman, S. (2016). Pelaburan Secara Pengumpulan Dana Masyarakat dan Isu-isu Syariah yang Berkaitan. Jurnal Muamalat, 9, 22–36.
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Hetmank, L. (2013). Components and functions of crowdsourcing systems—A systematic literature review. Wirtschaftsinformatik, 4, 2013. Hossain, M., & Kauranen, I. (2015). Crowdsourcing: A comprehensive literature review. Strategic Outsourcing: An International Journal, 8, 2–22. Howe, J. (2006). The rise of crowdsourcing. Wired Magazine, 14(6), 1–4. Jeddah, S. I. (1997). Translation of the meaning of the Quran. Jeddah: Abul Qasim Publishing House. Quthb, S. (2002). Tafsir Fi Zhilalil Qur’an. Jakarta: Gema Insani. Sahroni, M. N. (2018). Sumber Khalayak dari Perspektif Islam: Tumpuan kepada Rujukan Al-Quran. In A. A. W. N. Lateh & M. F. M. Zainal (Eds.), Isu-isu Zakat, Wakaf dan Filantropi Islam di Nusantara. Shah Alam, Selangor: Akademi Pengajian Islam Kontemporari, Universiti Teknologi MARA. Standing, S., & Standing, C. (2018). The ethical use of crowdsourcing. Business Ethics: A European Review, 27(1), 72–80. Tripathi, A., Tahmasbi, N., & de Vreede, G.-J. (2017). Theoretical fashions in crowdsourcing: A snapshot of IS research. In Hawaii international conference on system sciences. Wazny, K. (2017). “Crowdsourcing” ten years in: A review. Journal of Global Health, 7(2), 020602. Yusoff, M. Y. Z., & Tafsir, P. (2014). Nota Kursus Pengajian Syariah. Kuala Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Islam dan Pusat Pendidikan Berterusan, Universiti Malaya. Zhao, Y., & Zhu, Q. (2014). Evaluation on crowdsourcing research: Current status and future direction. Information Systems Frontiers, 16(3), 417–434.
Sharia Compliance Idealism or Is It Just Another Fallible in Management Innovation Model? Fatimah Yusof and Faizul Abdullah
Abstract On a contemporary note, the global ‘halal’ industry is now commonly used colloquial that infer to the deployment of sharia compliance and emphasizes its principles within the business processes to related industries. Nevertheless, the deployment is pervasively been challenged, due to the facts that most involved organizations do posit its operations that are inclined to structural functionalismbased approaches. As such, for those interested organization need to‘un-learned’ the sturdy principles of Weberian bureaucratic efficiency and ‘to learn’ anew sharia principles. But in reality, a dialectical representation within organizations arose, when most workforce themselves are not well shared to the notion, its principles and framework, when most are left in the state of dissonance. Thus, it leads the interest to this insight; to acculturate the thesis of learning organization, and to fairly equate workforce efficacy in the quest for sharia compliance organization. Keywords Management innovation · Institutional inter dependency · Sharia compliance and learning organization
1 Introduction This insight will categorically emphasize on the acculturation of learning values amongst organization in sanctioning management innovation (de- facto) in their efficacious attempt to adopt sharia compliance management (de-jure). Nonetheless, to avoid ambiguity to this insight, the following part will emphasize firstly; to understand the concept of management innovation and its importance for most organization to sustain in the world of global competitiveness and secondly, to lay some fundamental on how sharia compliance organization advocating management innovation and finally, to view the long forgotten concept of ‘ittqan’ as it has always F. Yusof (*) · F. Abdullah Centre of Studies in Town and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_31
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been obscured in most contemporary literatures by modernists scholars in organizational change and behaviors. In a broader perspective, the termed management innovation has received considerable attention form most scholars and for one, the inception to the definition used could be traced since 1985. As laid by Birkinshaw and Mol (2008), various thematic perspectives were taxonomized that ranged from institutional, cultural and rationalism platforms, and deliberated. However, for the purpose of this insight, the definition as stipulated by Fatimah et al. (2011) is noteworthy, as it focuses on the dynamic concept of governance in organization. As dynamic as it is, the foundational relations of governance are so much related to behavioral change experienced by organizations as well as its entire workforce once transformation change initiatives are deployed. For that, this paper acknowledges the work French philosopher, Foucault (1977), when he refers to governmentality as ‘the art of government’, and as such it has extended the meaning on how organization behaves. In lieu, this is reflected by the commitment to adopt to anew structural guided by bureaucratic guidelines, techniques, strategies and other suitable methods by which organization operationalized. Nonetheless, the most interesting part to this philosophical thought is when it has saliently set-in the “security” factor as the attributes to consider, where the feel-good factor should be embraced by workforce despite working in anew bureaucratic guidelines or strategies. In actual fact, organizational transformations are inevitable in the epoch of global competitiveness, to change and to aptly innovate as sharia management innovation is one of those options that needs intellectual consideration. Nonetheless, all organizational transformation would articulately lead to the establishment of new relationships—structurally and cognitively- within organization as consistently applied. However, as a word of cautious, in the generic context of sharia compliance, the praxis of “ittqan” needs to be emphasized so as the credential of decision makers to “shape” and sanction organizational transformation agenda, and concomitantly “manage” by the senior or mid-level management, whilst without prejudice, the lower tier workforce “implementing” the sharia contingents are embraced. During these stages, the praxis of “ittqan” is acculturated well as organizational values, where nothing could ever subjugate the importance of inclusivity. Supposedly, it is the idealism to be successfully implemented, or could it be just another competitive idiomatic used to satisfy agencies shareholder or stakeholders. This is also the stage, when most organizations’ stakeholders are perplex, in conundrum when at one extreme the call for sharia compliance organization is imminent, and at the other end; they are flooded with positivism approaches with the intention to deploy. Empirically, most positivism approaches to bureaucratic efficiency, dialectical relationship among structural tiers in organization are significant, which subsequently lead to the issue of institutional inter dependency - and this is the realism. For the term institutional inter dependency, it is imperative to refer to the dynamic notion of mutual relationships among individuals ascribed to the ethos of ‘unity of essential will’ as classically demonstrated by Tonnies (1887). Since then, streams of authors twigged from this domain, and grasped into other discern body of knowledge within social psychological perspectives. Among them is Storper (1998), a modernist scholar who highlighted that the relationships do resemble a cohered and
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‘untraded dependency’ to any responsibilities assigned. Earlier, Schein (1983, 2017) termed it as shared basic assumptions pattern while, Senge (1990) refers to as systemic envisioning to execute common values, and while Bandura (1997) emphasizes the relationships based on ethical and moral principles in public agencies. To comprehend this reality happened within organization, the work of Ingraham and Jones (1999) is used to exhibit the relationships between management and their workforce. The absence of institutional inter dependency, on the other hand, would be perceived as the irredeemable representation among workforce in organization, and as Faizul and Fatimah (2018) has demonstrated and termed the relationship as the heretical. By virtue of adversarial due to the relationships in organization, this paper would posit the formation to this kind of antagonistic is due to ‘untraded dependency’ among dyadic or triad grouping, that is all based on common basic assumption. The existence of heretical grouping in organization could be exhibited by ignorance and resentment in the workforce aptitude, that may eventually, impede the nobility in the implementation of anew sharia compliance organization. For record, most bureaucratic efficiency model is premised to Weberian, that is reputable to its sturdy principles based on positivism approach. Theoretically, the approach focuses more on departmentalization or unit division as it assumed could lead to bureaucratic efficiency. That is the assumption laid in Weberian approach and as such, acknowledged the roles ascribed to middle or senior managers as the ‘information conduit’ that is able to rationalize the change initiatives shaped by organizational leaders and is well accepted by the employees in lower organizational levels. Whereas, cohered institutional inter dependency among workforce is still fragile and does not guarantee the success of the organizational transformation initiatives. The reason, this approach is somewhat giving less emphasize to appropriately comprehend the less explored subliminal subjectivities imbued in every workforce involved, and Faizul and Fatimah (2016) elaboration is worthy compared. Therefore, it situates this paper to theorized that other unknown subliminal need further exploration, in building institutional inter dependency that is predisposed to cognitive-interpretivism domains combined. It is cognitive in nature, to understand their thought that governed by other unknown profound cultural subjectivities embedded in the entire workforce, and the representation could be viewed as depicted in Fig. 1. As it is less reprehensible, some of the attributing factors that lead to ignorance and resentment from the workforce is due to cultural subjectivities which governed their judgment in executing organizational change initiatives. Due to their ignorance on the prevalence of institutional inter dependency, it has set-off the imbalances to the new relationships, and if relationships exist, it is purely based on “unity of arbitrary will” in the implementation of a competitive sharia compliance plan. Seemingly, the most referred positivism approach to organizational change does not account and guarantees the ‘unity of essential will” which reckoned workforce soft, non-material relations, tacit-based knowledge are indeed ethical and equally important and should now be given a priori, as part of human capital in organizations. What is worrying at the moment, is when most sharia “halal’ policy analysts tend to concentrate on sharia policy inputs whilst confidently anticipate the end meet,
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INPUTS Organizational Transformations: A complete change. but not incremental instead it is planned strategically as determind by management decision on management innovation
The Relationships: Institutional Interdependency The Decision Makers/Executive Management SHAPE Innovation Management
Senior/Mid-Management
Junior/Lower Managers
MANAGE Innovation Management
IMPLEMENT Innovation Management
OUTPUTS Learning Organizational Culture: A system of shared values that are exhibited through the organizations
Shared Vision: Learning Organization
Fig. 1 Exhibiting the relationships in Sharia Compliance Organization
but austerely neglecting the crucial aspect of subliminal subjectivities which may, impede the germane of sharia compliance in its true meaning—by comprehending the notion of Learning Organization.
2 Learning to Becoming Sharia Compliance Organization So, what is Learning Organization? The concept of a learning organization (LO) was conceived in the early 1980s by its founder, Peter Senge. Indeed, he premised learning organization as one that is continually expanding its capacity to create its future. In his representation, he equated organization values to competitive advantage, derived from continuing learning support by workforce and in due processes, institutional inter dependency developed. He theorized that organizational values are embraced when the workforce tend to unlearned their old ways of thinking (mental model), learned to be open with others (personal mastery), understand how their organization works (systems thinking) and form a plan that everyone can agree on (shared vision) and then work together to achieve organizational vision (team learning). Subsequently, it gained ground as a powerful management tool, developed for organizational efficiency and competitiveness especially in the epoch of globalization. Evolutionary as it is, the concept is regarded as a modernist approach for organizational development and management that gives emphasize to workforce reintegration or inclusiveness. It is an unconventional attempt against traditional organizational management, when a soft-tacit knowledge workforce is viewed as an asset to organizational bureaucratic efficiency. Since then, streams of learning
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organization theories have evolved, and most have emphasized the interdependent relationship between individual and organizational learning, and indeed acknowledged that individual could act as the agent to organizational learning initiatives. Supported with streams of theoretical strands, other major proponents and advocators that include; Schon (1983), Pedler et al. (1991), Garvin (1993), Argyris (1995), DiBella et al. (1998), Marsick and Watkins (2005) and Marquardt (2010) are highly referred modernist approaches for contemporary organizational management. In this context, Senge’s (1990) deliberations are used as the foundation to distinguish a learning organization from the rest of the organizational learning theoretical strands. The scholarship is valuable to comprehend on how learning takes place in organizations, where he tactfully combines both cognitive theory and behaviourism theory. Its core idea is that mental states (beliefs, desires) are constituted solely by their functional role, that is, they are causal relations to other mental states, sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs. This is when he envisaged that building the learning organization is dependent on the fifth discipline—systems thinking. Cognitive in nature, the notion laid is when systems thinking is reckoned as the prime enabler to invigorate and unify four other principles: personal mastery, mental model, team learning and shared vision. Obviously, the ability to revitalized systems thinking is viewed as the antithesis to most traditional symptomatic approaches. Symptomatic thinking is usually inferred to in cause and effect relationships, inclined to structural functionalism with an emphasis on adaptive approaches in solving problems, just as like the policy-bolstered approaches adopted by sharia compliance over the years. Although it is quite appropriate in a stable environment, nonetheless, it requires a new mindset, cohered within the organization’s workforce in deploying competitive sharia policy. Therefore, the representations on the principles of learning in organizations resemble the common “thinking outside the box” colloquialism, which refocuses on the current myopic and prejudgment thinking among the workforce, characterized by lot of prejudice and low tolerance values that hinder the development of shared vision. Instead, Senge (1990), believed that shared vision is the prime mover in developing shared meaning. In this context, when vision among the workforce is shared, every individual should supposedly be able to hold steadfast to his purpose of existence towards the organization’s common destiny, with a deep common purpose that expresses the organization’s reason for existence. This leads to the term ‘organizing capacity’ that built upon organizational selfefficacy. Contrary to this idealism, questions remain on how everyone in the organization is able to share the declared organizational vision, and how individual are cohered to favourable institutional inter dependency on the defined organizational vision and shared within the organization. Seemingly, this is critical for everyone in organizations, since the task of envisioning the purpose of the organization’s existence is usually caveat to positivism and regimented social artefact and are designed by the top management. Whereas the majority, especially the lower tiers are not even involved in envisioning the strategic envisioning. The shifting of systems thinking, which has now become a buzzword, and is highly sought parameter among management scholars as it enables detached drifts perceptions, bigotry and prejudices
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among workforce. Therefore, the development of learning organizations is all about doing it from within (including the lower tiers) organization in responding to external uncertainties and complexities, which obviously corresponds to building organizing capacity—and it resonates idealism in organizational change. But, on the contrary, it works against the realism, when most workforce are unable to internalize the need to change, ignorance to the need organizational transformations, which again leads to other epistemological debate to organizational inept to wrench myopia and dogma in thinking, complacent attitudes and plaguing heretic behaviors, when all of these values are all acculturate well among the workforce—the unknown subliminal subjectivities.
2.1
The Delimiting Aspects to Learning Facilitation
So, what exactly transpires during the management innovation initiatives? The above mentioned circumstances suggested that most organizations are adaptive in their learning approaches, being too bureaucratic, hierarchical and mechanistically structured, having closed systems and being less transparent, and are practically practicing a top-down instrumentalist approach. In return, these advocacy could lead to antagonistic behaviors among workforce, and the relationship is significant to the rigidity in management practices due to great bureaucratic traditions built over the years. On the other hand, shifting one’s perception means shifting one’s systems thinking, would enable the nurturing of group learning capacities, forming and entrusting a new mental model within the group, and eventually building the organization’s shared vision—when everyone understand their common purpose of existence and convictions towards the organizational competitiveness. This representation does resemble Schien (ibid) concerned, who reiterated that many organizations cannot, and do not learn, just because their cultures prevent them from doing so, and the transformation to a learning culture is highly problematic. Now, with the present competitive global backdrop, and subsequent attempt to acculturate leaning organizational values in sharia compliance, the question remains: does sharia compliance have the commendable option when “change” is the only constant? Certainly, it is imperative for organizations explore some commendable platform in enhancing their competitive governance. Usually, encouragement to organizational transformation has subsequently resulted in a plethora of initiatives which ranges within organizational process re-engineering that are based on performance measurements. However, circumstantial evidences suggest some conflicting approaches, when most of the progression plans are highly dependent on a selected few, when the mass is less involved. Nonetheless, what may appear is that many competitive strategies adopted are highly geared to specific technical processes, claiming to be more receptive to anticipated situations, such as the deployment of quality management system and performance-based measurement techniques. Nonetheless, these approaches are adaptive learning in its approach, characterized by regimented and autocratic rules, not flexible and purely redundant. More often, it is a
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regression when most of the deployment always meets with failures, and thus something more is needed to cope with the rapid unexpected dynamic changes. Therefore, the option left is to capitalize the learning values as organizational input, empowering the workforce within the organization and collectively be aware of the need to be competitive, learn to unlearn dogmatic perceptions, and thus build the learning culture and inculcate cohesiveness within the organizations. Possibly, it is achievable when both learning dimensions, the individual and the organization, are sharing the same mental model developed by shared vision. Theoretically, the induced cognitive values would instigate the actual behaviors. In simple terms, it demonstrates the manifestation of desires and beliefs that would deliberately cause some form of committal action by the systems of organization which is eventually translated through the ascribed roles embedded in the organization. In the process of delegation of roles and responsibilities, all organization recipients (whether individual, team or group) are deluged with ‘social artifacts’ to improve organizational performance and these actions mesmerize organization learning principles. These roles are however heavily dependent on the plurality and its influences within the social system of the organization and sometimes cause chaos. Obviously, in normal circumstances the interacting individuals are motivated by a tendency towards the ‘optimization of gratification’—the act of satisfying—and their situations are predisposed to ‘utility maximization’ which is encapsulated under the Agency Theory. compliance.
2.2
The Used of Agency Theory
Agency Theory is concerned with the relationship between a principal (shareholder) and an agent of the principal (organizations’ managers) in controlling and monitoring the same interest in asset. It is directed at the omnipresent agency relationship, in which one party (the principal) delegates work to another (the agent), who performs that work. Besides, it is also concerned with resolving problems that can occur in agency relationships, when (a) the desires or goals of the principal and agent conflict, and (b) it is difficult for the principal to verify what the agent is actually doing. The problem here is that the principal cannot verify that the agent has behaved appropriately, and the problem of risk sharing arises when the principal and agent have different attitudes towards risk. Subsequently, it suggests that the principal and the agent may engage in dialectical relationships due to differentiated actions that are all predisposed to different risk preferences. It is not surprising that agency theory is used to evaluate organizational performance within the domain of (1) a theory of human behavior, and (2) a theory of performance outcome, and less attention is given to it as a theory of cognitive competencies. Generally, most researchers would use a similar formal grand theory based on Complexity Theory by Durkheim (1893) and Social Action Theory by Parsons (1952) which deal with an abstract sociological functionalism model, which entails the workforce to be involved in social action. The assumption to these social action theories suggests that human beings are the
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ones who carry roles and only they can act, and hold steadfast the social facts as values. Ultimately, these resources are considered values that link societies with the human environment. However, the divergence to the foundation is observed to be against the anticipated paper, on the premise that agency theory emphasizes from behaviorism/structural functionalism perspectives. The tenet to this theory is by viewing workforce as a system that is made up of interdependent parts and each part is assumed to be in a state of equilibrium or balanced. Over time, parts of the system evolved from simple to complex archetypes, having their own highly specialized parts. Nonetheless, each part of workforce would infer to differentiation to fulfill different functional purposes of the social systems. Due to these variances, a basic assumption, values or culture system is crucial to hold workforce together. The same analogy is applicable to organizations. However, the anticipated chaos is more intense in organizations as interpretivism and cognitive values underline the key assumption to the equilibrium state of the organization. This is how it works, when individuals have the capacity to transmit and receive symbolical communication when they engage in socialization. They have the capacity to create and transmit perceptions, and most of the actions are largely based merely on their perceptions, and this trend is worrisome if perceptions garnered and developed based on myopia and prejudgment. Another factor that substantiates to the differences is when agency theory focusing on a positivism continuum that defines the surfeit of behaviors are the manifestation of how managers behave due to induced ‘social facts’ like various incentive schemes. This explains the cause to the relationships like decentralization, division of labor, formal rules, structure, communication or ownership and control in organizations. In short, anything that comes with ‘social facts’ that involve monitoring and incentives are material-based relationship, which apparently does not merit as the foundational deductive line of inquiry as this paper anticipates.
3 Interpretivism Approach in Management Innovation For most social science researchers, the intent to determine how organizations learn and unlearn in adopting competitive instruments are grounded on the prophecy of organizational efficiency. In the ethos of global competition, organizations are left with least option except to be more efficient in managing their organizations. In lieu, organizational efficiency is much aligned to positivism approach and trying to understand the direct cause-affects relationships, flooding with questions on what causes inefficiency and how to become efficient. Not surprisingly, strands of questions that ranges from the organizational structural imbalances, the policies, the procedures, the training, skills and competency are colloquialism, which are all propagating to further arguments. Nonetheless, as this paper views it, much of the literature published and ‘best practices’ rendered by management gurus on organizational efficiency falls within the realm of normative management theoretical strands. Through these efforts, robust deployment of management tools on organizational efficiency thrived, such as the Total Quality Management, Business Process
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Engineering to name a few, that come with loads of strategic techniques, as like the ISO. Obviously, these initiatives are all aligned to positivism philosophical orientations. Influenced by imperialism, the efficiency methodologies are established upon determining the definitive causal explanation to the direct repercussions and its adversaries. For one and without prejudice, this paper reckoned that they are very credible practices and justifications as responses to the intensity of global organizations. But, what happened was when most positivists emphasized in inquiring the intensity externally, giving focus on the global complexity and its significant effects to destabilizing organizational principles (de jure) and adamantly reshaping best practices (de facto). Hence, adopting the competitive organizations procedures and conventions are seemingly appropriate and prevalent, which again gives credence to the fact that positivism has established the ‘what’ external factors could have lead to adversaries to organizations efficiency. They regard global competition is only an additive phenomena to the global competitive landscape, when everyone is talking and thinking about it. Upon comprehending the cause and its repercussion, they believed that the only way to get out is by sourcing and deploying to new competitive policies and to add value, they localized it to suit their organizing capacity. As the result, new appropriate social artifacts are established and always regarded as the new performance-based management procedures in maintaining rules and order in organizations. While being too deterministic, they assumed that these rules and procedures would stabilize the complexities of governance in organizations. It is true indeed, when most positivism, the rigidity to understanding on subliminal factors on ‘why’ there is global competition, ‘why’ the need for everyone involved in organizational efficiency seems to be sidelined. Having mentioned the normative anecdotes engaged by most positivist once deployed, it always come with more investment, where new roles and new tasks are designed and more people are engaged. For that, it usually comes with more training in accordance to the processes, competency and accreditation for organization’s so called strategic blueprints. On the contrary, this paper views it otherwise, by questioning the sustainability of the deployed a new-social artifacts, the involved processes owner and workforce self-efficacy in translating the competitive interventions. The premise is central to workforce learning orientations, when more trained, skilled and competent individual does not guarantee collectivism towards “the purpose of existence” among workforce, and this approach does not guarantee learning organization. What more, if it were to be deployed in mature organization that is always at odd, resent and ignore to new rules and to any new artifacts, which leads to explain to the existence of social exclusion in organizations that includes resentment, ignorance and dissonance. The effects to these unlearned values are much influenced by myopic judgment and subsequent heretic behaviors manifested which will invariably result in not so commendable pattern of governmentality to any organizational transformation engaged. Seemingly, more training over new competitive policies and procedures usually faced by resentment and thus, reckoned this approach as not a commendable option by the majority workforce that are already exposed to much
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training. Over years, positivism has continuously implied regulations over its workforce, when the resultants could be expounded to social marginality among workforce in organization. This is the limiting factor envisaged by most positivists when they give less emphasis to the subliminal subjectivities and to understand their degree of self-efficacy that instigate learning organizational values towards efficiency.
4 Conclusion: Learning to the Praxis of Ittqan To surmise, learning organization represents the idealism for organizations in envisioning of ‘what should it be, the convictions to uphold and the purpose of existence’ in managing a competitive organizations. Consistent representation could be viewed from the work of Sulaiman et al. (2014) that management innovation should by emphasized, aligned and enculturate, from the early stages of organizational transformation inception, to tawhidic values as represented in Fig. 2. By successfully established the thematic clarity for future research design, caveat to collectivism line of inquiry, this paper would suggest to measure the perceived the praxis of “ittqan”of the entire workforce against their pattern of govenmentality. The tenet is to explore further on shared values of basic assumptions based on tawhidic values through cognitive-ideation relationships among workforce in public agencies. As such, it merits learning organization as management tools in managing people, giving focus to enhancing their organizing capacity. The importance is to establish the institutional inter dependency based on ‘unity of essential will’, the notion of cognitive-ideation relationships that demonstrates the purpose of existence among the workforce, when everyone embraced the notion of ‘willingness’ based on the principle of morality and ethics. The notion of self beliefs, which is similar to the praxis of ittqan; was developed as part of a larger theory, the
Fig. 2 Learning organization and the praxis of ittqan values in management innovation
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Social Learning Theory, and eventually substantiated to Social Cognitive Theory, in response to some dissatisfaction endeavored by individual hedged to the principles of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. However, it is interesting to note that this modernist theoretical strand envisaged by contemporary scholars, resonates to the notion of itqqan from the Islamic perspectives. Muslims’ scholars earlier postulated it as the Sunah, which refers to indicate the highest level of quality work through optimal performances rendered by individual. From the seminal works from Shuriye et al. (2009), the literal translation for itqqan is ‘to arrange and dispose of things in a scientific and artistic way in order to obtain the most perfect results’. It is about precision in doing things, but with wisdom and wisdom is infered to a self-deep understanding encrypted through deep belief, inner conscientious and realization on the importance of sharia compliance resulting in the ability to apply judgment. Apparently, by comprehending both meanings, the concept of itqqan also emphasizes on individual self-efficacy. This is how it works, the inner deep beliefs and understand the thought of itqqan could change individual cognition and their way of thinking of doing things that eventually, change one behaviors. The changing behaviors, would in turn leads to the change in the working environment. The notion of itqqan is all about due diligence in undertaking one ascribed roles, regardless of the nature of tasks assigned, be it an ibadah or mere relationships among workforce. Indeed, itqqan represents dynamism in performance through comprehensive judgment based on wisdom, iqil and tawakal, reflecting to varieties in personal and task related dynamic performance determinants. For that, narrative to the praxis of ittqan is worth comprehend from the hermeneutics-interpretivism approaches to determine on what makes itqqan as the precise attributes to the consistent pattern of governmentality among workforce and thus, is seemingly worth explore for future research. Interestingly, the tenet of learning organization exhibited a similar strands to the notion of “ittqan” in shaping, managing and implementing management innovation, as the value of tawhidic is enculturated through workforce and enable to establish anew symptomatic thinking and shared value in envisioning organizational as sharia compliance organizations.
References Argyris, C. (1995). Action science and organizational learning. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 10(6), 20–26. © MCB University Press. ISSN 0268-3946. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.. Birkinshaw, J. G. H., & Mol, M. J. (2008). Management innovation. Academy of Management Review, 33(4), 825–845. DiBella, J. A., & Nevis, C. E. (1998). How organization learn: An integrated strategy for building learning capability. San Francisco: Wiley, Inc. Durkheim, E. (1893). The division of labour in society [Translator W. D. Halls]. New York: The Free Press. Fatimah, Y., Faizul, A., Yusof, H., & Sivapalan, S. (2011). Connecting to the global circuit: Matching the learning cities of South-East Asia as the preferential place for global corporate innovation culture. In Procedia: Social and behavioral sciences. Science Direct. Elsevier.
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Faizul, A., & Fatimah, Y. (2016). The critiques to positivism direction of inquiry in comprehending the complexities of governance in managing cities. Journal of the Malaysia Institute, XIV, 107–126. Faizul, A., & Fatimah, Y. (2018). The heretic urbanism and the entrapment of urban societies. In: Fall Academic conference, 23 November. Korea Institute of Ecological Architecture and Environment KIEAE. ISSN 1975–3616. Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Pantheon Books. Garvin, D. A. (1993, July–August). Building a learning organization. Harvard Business Review, 79–91. Ingraham, P. W., & Jones, V. D. (1999). The pain of organizational change: Managing reinvention. In Public management reform and innovation: Research, theory and application (Edt). Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press. Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (2005). Facilitating learning organizations: Making learning count. Ashgate Publishing Limited. Marquardt, M. J. (2010). Building the learning organization. Mastering the five element for corporate learning (2nd ed.). Boston: Davies-Black Brealey Publishing. Parsons, T. (1952). The social system. London: Tavistock Publisher, in McLeish, John. 1969. The theory of social change. The International Library of Sociology 22. Sage Publishing. Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J., & Boydell. (1991). The learning company: A strategy for sustainable development. London: McGraw-Hill. Senge, M. P. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday Currency. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0—465—06874—X. Schein, E. H. (1983). Organizational culture: A dynamic model. Working paper, Alfred P. Sloan School of Management. Massachusetts institute of Technology. Schein, E. H. (2017). Organizational culture and leadership (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Shuriye, O. A., Ismail, A. F., & Ghazali Dahalan, A. (2009). The concept of Itqan and culture in Muslim. Ethics of engineering education. In International Islamic University Malaysia: IIUM Press. Malaysia. Storper, M. (1998). Regional world territorial development in a global economy. New York: Guilford Publications, Inc.. Sulaiman, M., Sabian, N. A. A., & Othman, A. K. (2014. ISSN 1911-2017. Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education, 2014). The understanding of Islamic management practices among Muslim managers in Malaysia. Asian Social Science, 10(1). Tonnies, F. (1887). Community and society. Copyright by Routledge and Published in 1999. ISBN 9780887387500
Halal Management System for Main Course Product in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta Ltd: A Case Study Elok Waziiroh and Syafina Maylita Tijani
Abstract Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta is an international flight catering company providing food products for airline passengers, which produces several special menus based on its diverse customers, such as halal food. Aerofood Indonesia did several procedures to obtain halal food based on Halal Assurance System (HAS) 23000, which was introduced by LPPOM MUI. The halal food production requirements that should be performed including generating halal manual, halal management organization, developing halal food production standard operating procedures, monitoring every halal critical point, providing halal training for all staff, monitoring halal food, establishing halal internal audit and management review. This research focused on encouraging knowledge about the halal management system for main course production in Aerofood Indonesia. The qualitative approach was applied and the result showed that the halal management system in Aerofood IndonesiaYogyakarta was well implemented based on HAS 23000. Keywords Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta · Halal management system · HAS 23000 · LPPOM MUI
1 Introduction Food industries have several strict requirements regarding providing food for their market. They must follow legal aspects concerning food quality and safety. Indeed, for Muslim customers, besides quality and safety issue, halal aspect becomes mandatory. Halal means permissible coverings several aspects related to slaughtering, storage, display, preparation, hygiene, and sanitation (Omar & Jaafar, 2011; Omar, Jaafar, & Osman, 2013; Riaz, 2004; Zakaria & Abdul-Talib, 2010). In contrast, the forbidden ingredients of food are called haram. Muslim population E. Waziiroh (*) · S. M. Tijani Department of Agricultural Product Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Brawiajaya, Malang, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_32
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keeps growing; thus, the high demand for halal food is predicted to increase significantly (Center, 2011). Golnaz, Mohamed, and Shamsudin (2010) highlighted that almost 80% of non-Muslim costumers are understood Halal principles in general and they are also aware of the existence of the halal product in the market. Moreover, some of them also choose halal food from the market, since they believe that halal food is more hygienic. Therefore, the growth of halal food customers has influenced the demand for halal food production (Kamali, 2010). Consequently, the phenomena become an opportunity for food industries, as they provide halal food, their product becomes more general and have a bigger market. Regarding the food service industry, including in-flight catering service, there is a great demand for providing quality food that is safe for consumption and religious belief. Aerofood Indonesia is an international airline catering that is committed to ensuring providing food quality and food safety for its passengers. Aerofood Indonesia also produces special menu regarding the special needs of its passenger such as VLML (Vegetarian Lacto Ovo Vegetarian), LCML (Low-Calorie Meal), DBML (Diabetic Meal), LCML (Low Fat/Low Cholesterol Meal), BBML (Baby Meal), CHML (Children Meal), and Muslim Meal. The Muslim meal is a menu that is a special design for Muslim passengers that does not contain pork, alcohol-based product, and other haram ingredients. In terms of safety, halal food also combined with thoyyib which refers to clean, pure, harmless, and high quality (Zainuddin & Shariff, 2016). Ensuring the concept of thoyyib, Aerofood Indonesia implements several mandatory food safety standards such as GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices), HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points), and ISO 22000:2005. Related to halal certification, Aerofood Indonesia has a halal certificate from the Assessment Institute For Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics Indonesian Council of Ulama (LPPOM MUI) based on the standard of Halal Assurance System (HAS) 23000. HAS 23000 assure the halalness of food product that is validated by LPPOM MUI (Halal Organization Assurance in Indonesia). There are 11 requirements in HAS 23000 including halal policy, halal management organization, training and education programs, material, product, production facility, standard operating procedures (SOPs) for critical activities, product handling for nonconformance product, traceability, internal audit, and management review (LPPOM MUI, 2008). The concern of ensuring Aeroofod Indonesia’s halal food production; therefore, this research aim to explore the halal food production process based on HAS 23000 related to 11 standards of halal food production requirements.
2 Methodology The research method was a qualitative approach to perform observation and interviews. This research was conducted at Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta. The observation conducted at some critical areas such as receiving raw material, storage of raw materials, raw materials preparation, processing, hot kitchen, cold kitchen, and meal tray set-up. Critical issues and area performance assessments were used during the
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observation. The interview was conducted to obtain information regarding the implementation of 11 standards of HAS 23000.
3 Results and Discussions Food production in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta was conducted through several stages, starting from receiving raw materials, raw materials storage, cooking, dishing, portioning, meal tray set up, handling, and distribution to the aircraft. The stages were carried out sequentially to prevent haram contamination, foodborne illness, and product quality. Regarding the concepts of thayyiban, Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta has five critical control point areas, i.e., receiving, storage, cooking, blast chilling, and meal tray set-up.
3.1 3.1.1
Critical Control Point (CCP) Receiving
Receiving of raw material is the first stage in the food production line turning into the first CCP controlling the raw materials. Several assessments were conducted into the raw materials, including shape, size texture, weight, color, aroma, taste, and the internal temperature of the raw materials. Physical observations were carried out for dry materials, such as packaging condition, expiration date, contents of the product, and Halal label from LPPOM MUI. Whereas cold material would be checked the temperature, it should be less than 5 C. The raw materials which have a temperature between 5–8 C must be stored into a chiller immediately and must be rejected for the temperature above 8 C. The time of receiving halal material and non-halal material were separated by time completed with the assessment of the halal checklist.
3.1.2
Storage
The storage of raw materials was the second CCP, where the product stored based on the type of material. Based on McSwane, Rue, and Linton (2003) commonly CCPs in kitchen operations are cooking, cooling, reheating, and hot/cold holding. Raw materials such as fish, vegetables, cheese, milk yogurt, and juice required the temperature of storage around 5–8 C. Meanwhile, frozen materials such as beef, chicken, and fish would be stored at ( 34)–( 18) C. In terms of halal material protection at the storage room and dry material storage, to prevent crosscontamination from haram material into halal, every ingredient were completed with different code and separated in a different section. Halal and haram ingredients were forbidden to store on the same shelf. Indeed, frozen and chilled ingredients
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must be stored at different cold storage to prevent haram contamination. Haram contamination could occur from water condensation.
3.1.3
Hot Kitchen, Bakery and Pastry
The third CCP was the hot kitchen, bakery, and pastry, where the cooking process must be able to meet the specific minimum internal temperature. The internal temperature of different products was provided in Table 1.
3.1.4
Blast Chilling
The principal factor in controlling the safety of a refrigerated (chilled or frozen) food is its temperature. In many cases, the cooling rate to reach the desired temperature is also important. Concerning the safety issues of chilled ingredients, attention must be paid to every aspect of the cold chain from initial chilling or freezing of the raw ingredients, through storage and transport, to retail display (James & James, 2014). The blast chilling CCP regulated the process of blast chilling performed on freshly cooked food. This stage aimed to minimize the possibility of microorganism’s growth in cold products. Two blast chilling processes can be done on this stage, including: • The internal temperature of freshly cooked food was reduced from 60 to 10 C within 4 h • The internal temperature of cooked food was reduced from 60 to 21 C within 2 h, then continued to 5 C within 4 h
3.1.5
Meal Tray Set-Up
This CCP aimed to regulate the room temperature and exposure time at the preparation, pre-portion, and meal try-set up stages. The condition for the fifth CCP was: • If the room temperature was 21 C, then the time for exposing the food was 45 min, or the surface temperature of the food was 15 C. If the process exceeded the above two conditions, then the food must be discarded.
3.2
Halal Management System
HAS was an integrated management system covering several aspects such as material management, production process, product, human resource and procedure to maintain continuity of halal production process. HAS principles and implementation were conducted according to LPPOM MUI requirement based on HAS 23000 criteria of Halal Assurance System.
3.2.1
Halal Policy
The halal policy was the first standard in HAS 23000 and became fundamental in performing and implementing HAS. The halal policy was a written statement as the company’s commitment to producing halal product continuously, including consistency in using and providing material (raw additive, and supporting materials), as well as consistency in the halal production process. Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta had a halal policy document and the implementation of halal management was integrated with the food safety management system.
3.2.2
Halal Management Organization
Halal management organization was an internal organization in Aerofood IndonesiaYogyakarta. The organization was responsible for managing halal management functions and activities in producing the halal product. The organization included management representatives, Quality Assurance (Q.A.)/Quality Control (Q.C.), head of the production, head of research and development (R&D), head of purchasing, and head of warehouse/storage. Figure 1 provided the structure of the halal management organization of Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta.
3.2.3
Training Programmes
Scheduled training programs were conducted for all staff and employees. The internal training program held every once in a year and an external training program every 2 years. Training must involve all personnel whose jobs may affect the halalness of the product.
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LPPOM MUI TOP MANAGEMENT
AUDITOR HALAL INTERNAL
PURCHASING
HRD
QA
PRODUCTION
STOREE
Line of coordination Line of command
Fig. 1 The structure of halal management system of aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta
Based on LPPOM MUI (2008) the objectives of the training were: • improving employee’s knowledge on the importance of the halalness of product, critical points of materials and process • improving employee’s understanding of the Halal Assurance System
3.2.4
Materials
Materials must not contain pork or its derivatives, khamr or khamr derivatives, and other materials that were categorized as haram. The materials that were purchased by Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta must be checked using materials matrix including name of materials, company (name and country), suppliers, halal certification body, number of halal certification, and halal certificate validity. The materials matrix for the main course product in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta was provided in Table 2.
3.2.5
Product
Brand or product names must not imitate haram material or inappropriate practice related to Islamic law. Regarding retail food industries, the product that was distributed in Indonesia must be registered for halal certification by LPPOM MUI (2006). Aerofood Indonesia is inflight catering services supporting in providing food for Garuda Indonesia airlines, the name of the product was based on the ingredient of the product, i.e., honey chicken rice, Grilled chicken breast with orange sauce or chilly Seafood sauce.
Yeast extract Vegetable oil
9. 10.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Ingredients Rice Chicken boneless Onion Garlic Palm Sugar Soybean Sauce Coriander Honeybee
No. 1. 2.
Madu Murni Nusantara Ltd. Unilever Indonesia Tbk. Bina Karya Prima Ltd.
Heinz ABC Indonesia Ltd.
Saliman Riyanto Raharjo Ltd.
Company
Table 2 Material matrix of honey chicken rice
Trio Hutama Ltd. Trio Hutama Ltd.
Suppliers Painah Ltd. Saliman Riyanto Raharjo Ltd. Painah Ltd. Painah Ltd. Painah Ltd. Semangat Baru Painah Ltd Semangat baru LPPOM MUI LPPOM MUI
LPPOM MUI
LPPOM MUI
LPPOM MUI
Halal certification body
00060046730 00080022300902
00120088300418
00060010310699
12320004171016
No halal certification
3 April 2020 28 December 2019
Fresh Fresh Fresh 21 March 2019 Fresh 17 April 2020
Certificate validity Fresh 14 October 2018
Active Active
Active
Active
Active
Status
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3.2.6
Production Facility
Production line and supporting equipment must not be used alternately to produce halal products and products containing pork or its derivatives. Aerofood IndonesiaYogyakarta did not produce non-halal food; therefore the Industry did not need to provide an alternate production line. There were several standard operating procedures (SOPs) for critical activities, as follow: (a) SOPs for critical activities of purchasing Imported and non-imported raw materials were checked their haram critical points. Imported products were checked for their halal certification bodies and the validity of their certificates. Meat-based products without halal certification would be analyzed in the laboratory, whether it contains a haram ingredient or not. Product without a halal logo from LPPOM MUI would be considered as non-approved product and forbidden to be used. The decision tree of critical activities of purchasing was shown in Fig. 2. (b) SOPs for critical activities of processing Regarding the production process, there were several procedures to ensure halal management in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta, including: • Fresh material and processed products were analyzed the haram critical point • Raw material, i.e., milk, fish, and egg, which were completed with a halal certificate from LPPOM MUI would be received; the vice versa condition would be discarded. • Processed-animal based products would be received if they were completed with LPPOM MUI halal certificate • Raw materials which contained alcohol would be rejected • vegetable-based products considered as positive list products (c) SOPs for critical activities of production facilities Production facilities should be separated between halal and non-halal products production. Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta did not use non-halal ingredients, thus dividing production facilities was unnecessary. (d) SOPs for critical activities of transportation The transportation of the products into the airport should be monitored. The transportation should be designed to contain halal food to prevent haram crosscontamination. (e) SOPs for critical activities of loading The loading process from the airport into the aircraft should be separated between halal and non-halal products. The equipment used for the loading process should also be monitored.
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Are the materials imported products?
No
Yes
Unable to Obtain Halal certificate
Do they have Halal Certificate of MUI or overseas halal certification bodies approved by MUI and are still valid?
No
Valid certificate?
Are the materials contain syubhat ingredients (animal product, khamar)?
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Valid Certificate
No
Yes
Yes
Assessment of LPPOM MUI Halal certification No
Yes
Haram
HALAL Material cannot be used
Material can be used
Fig. 2 The decision tree of critical activities of purchasing (LPPOM MUI, 2006)
3.2.7
Product Handling for Nonconformance Product
Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta had a written procedure to handle the products which were already made from materials or produced in facilities that are not complying with criteria. The SOPs in Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta regulating
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the activities each department, halal food handling requirement, and corrective action for nonconformance products.
3.2.8
Traceability
Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta had written procedures to ensure the certified products were originated from approved materials and made in facilities that follow the criteria of halal production facilities. To provide the halal products, Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta had several SOPs, including SOPs of procurement, SOPs of Q.A., SOPs of production, and SOPs of the warehouse.
3.2.9
Internal Audit
The internal audit was performed based on schedule, at least once in 6 months. The results of internal audits were delivered to LPPOM MUI as a periodical report every 6 months.
3.2.10
Management Review
Top management must review the effectiveness of Halal Assurance System implementation once in a year, or more often if necessary. The results of the evaluation must be delivered to the parties who are responsible for each activity.
4 Conclusion Monitoring on the halal food includes raw materials, storage, preparation, product processing, portioning, meal tray set-up and distribution into the aircraft were well implemented by Aerofood Indonesia-Yogyakarta. Acknowledgments Thank you to the Quality Control staff of Aerofood Indonesia, Yogyakarta, which cooperated during the research and Universitas Brawijaya for conference and publication funding.
References Center, T. P. R. (2011). The future of the global Muslim population-projections for 2010–2030. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion and Public Life. Golnaz, R., Mohamed, Z., & Shamsudin, M. N. (2010). Non-Muslims’ awarness of halal principles and related food products in Malaysia. International Food Research Journal, 17(3).
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James, S. J., & James, C. (2014). Food safety management: Chilling and freezing (pp. 481–510). UK: Academic Press. Kamali, M. H. (2010). The halal industry from the Shariah perspective. Islam and Civilisational Renewal, 1(4), 595–612. LPPOM MUI. (2006). General guidelines of halal assurance system. Jakarta: LPPOM MUI. LPPOM MUI. (2008). General guidelines of halal assurance system. Jakarta: LPPOM MUI. McSwane, D., Rue, N., & Linton, R. E. (2003). Essentials of food safety and sanitation (3rd ed.pp. 169–196). NJ: Pearson Education. Omar, E. N., & Jaafar, H. S. (2011). Halal supply chain in the food industry—A conceptual model. In IEEE symposium on business, engineering and industrial applications, Langkawi, Malaysia. Wahington, DC: IEEE. Omar, E. N., Jaafar, H. S., & Osman, M. R. (2013). Halalan Toyyiban supply chain of the food industry. Journal of Emerging Economics and Islamic research, 1, 13. Riaz, M. (2004). The value of halal food production. International News on Fats Oils and Related Materials, 15(11), 698–701. Zainuddin, A., & Shariff, S. M. (2016). Preferences for Halalan Toyyiban retail supply chain certification: A case of hypermarket. Procedia Economics and Finance, 37, 405–411. Zakaria, N., & Abdul-Talib, S. N. (2010). Applying Islamic market-oriented cultural model to sensitize strategies towards global customers, competitors, and environment. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1(1), 51–62.
Halal Supply Chain of Chicken Meat in Negeri Sembilan Rafidah binti Mohd Azli, Nor Saadah binti Musa, Asnizah binti Ahmad, Muallim bin Bakri, Athira Ayuni binti Asmadi, Mohammad Nor bin Othman, Muhammad Syukri bin Ashmir Wong, and Noor Rashidah binti Ariffin
Abstract The objective of this paper is to discuss on the supply of chicken meat in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan. Chicken meat is regarded as one of the main ingredients in daily dishes of Muslim consumers. As there are only 13 halal slaughtering houses in Negeri Sembilan certified by JAKIM, it is important to identify and construct a database of halal chicken supply among Muslims consumers. This paper discusses on three patterns of chicken meat’s supply chain. The first pattern shows the complete halal supply chain starting from halal certified slaughterhouses to the restaurants. The second pattern shows the uncertain halal status (mashbooh) supply chain whereby the chicken meats are supplied by non-certified slaughterhouses. The third pattern of supply chain is considered as unknown due to some limitations. This paper found that Agro-markets situated in the city of Seremban are the most favorable premise for Muslim entrepreneurs to get their supply of chicken meat. Most of the suppliers in the market are selling the chicken meat from non-halal certified bird slaughterhouses. This paper contributes databases of halal supply chain and mashbooh supply chain of chicken meats. It is strongly suggested for the authorities to enhance the halal supply chain from the first tier of production to the end-product entrepreneurs. Keywords Chicken · Halal chain · Meat · Supply
R. b. M. Azli (*) · N. S. b. Musa · M. b. Bakri · A. A. b. Asmadi · M. N. b. Othman · N. R. b. Ariffin Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: rafi[email protected]; rafi[email protected]; [email protected] A. b. Ahmad Halal Division, Jabatan Hal Ehwal Islam Negeri Sembilan, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. S. b. A. Wong Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_33
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1 Introduction Halal chicken meat status has become an overwhelming issue in several states and cities in Malaysia. This paper discusses on the issue of supply chain of chicken meat to the Muslim consumers in the state of Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. It is important to examine the pattern of halal chicken meat supply chain. First, the halal supply chain is designed to discuss the effectiveness of halal certification. The robustness of the certification schemes can contribute in strengthening the halal food for tourist industry and the competitiveness of the majority and sizeable minority Muslim communities (Henderson, 2016). Second, halal supply chain can explain the development of halal transportation and halal warehouse. Based on the study by Ngah, Zainuddin, and Thurasamy (2014), halal transportation and warehouse adoption rates are still relatively low because of the existence of various barriers that may impede the production of the halal industry. The data of the suppliers in terms of the location, types of certification, knowledge of entrepreneur about Shariah requirements and hygiene status are ambiguous. Lack of database regarding the suppliers and slaughterers of the halal chickens would produce misrepresentation of halal certification among entrepreneurs in bazaar and food premises. This paper aims to identify the supply chains of chicken production towards Muslim consumers.
2 Literature Review The first tier of halal chicken meat supply chain begins with halal slaughterhouses. In Malaysia, important procedures relating to the management of halal slaughterhouses are indicated in the Manual Procedure for Malaysia Halal Certification (MPPHM), which provide the abattoir scheme and Halal Assurance Management System. Furthermore, Halal Assurance System has been discussed by van der Spiegel et al. (2012), Shahdan, Regenstein, Shahabuddin, and Rahman (2016), and Omar and Karim (2013). The studies concluded that halal assurance system should be standardized and enhanced globally. This is because Halal Assurance System (HAS) in a certain country is strongly related to halal tourism sector (Henderson, 2016). Malaysia is one of the examples of the halal hub provider. The HAS is the main motivation to the revolution that transforms halal from “a traditional cottage” to an industry with a “vibrant new economy” with estimated global market value of USD2.30 trillion. The capacity of Malaysia in providing halal food and services should be maintained by the government and industries in order to provide quality productions and resources. For halal slaughtering, previous works of literature suggest some improvements in slaughtering methods. For example, the study by Farouk, Pufpaff, and Amir (2016) suggested to provide extensive training and assessment of slaughtering, and to build the awareness among the entrepreneurs of slaughterhouses pertaining
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welfare of the livestock during halal slaughtering courses. The suggestions should be applied by Islamic organization or institutions such as the mosques or Muslim neighborhoods. Meanwhile, Demirci, Soon, and Wallace (2016), and Ratanamaneichata and Rakkarn (2013) have discussed on the food safety issue in HAS. However, the study of halal certification robustness and its effectiveness is still scarce. In the context of halal chicken supply, halal certification should include related factories, food premises and food establishments. Therefore, this paper aims to search a database of chicken meat supply chain by conducting a field study.
3 Method Two hundred entrepreneurs consisting restaurant, food stalls, outlets and mini market owners were interviewed pertaining to the source on the provision of chicken meat. To verify the information given by the entrepreneurs, they were asked to show invoices relating to the transactions. 13 out of 200 entrepreneurs avoided in providing any information.
4 Result and Discussion The descriptive analysis of 200 data found three patterns of chicken meat supply chain in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan.
4.1
First Pattern of Chicken Meat Supply Chain
Out of 200 respondents, only six halal certified slaughterhouses are the providers and producers of halal certified chicken meats to several supermarkets, stalls, restaurants, and grocery stores. Figure 1 shows the supply chain of halal certified chicken meats supplied from the slaughterhouses to supermarkets, and from the supermarkets s to stalls and restaurants. The meats are also provided from slaughterhouses directly to stalls and restaurants or grocery store. The lists of Halal certified slaughterhouses are shown in Table 1. Based on Table 1, it is shown that the halal certified slaughterhouses that are the producers of chicken meats are diversified in terms of states of origin, which are Negeri Sembilan, Melaka, Johor, Selangor and Perak. Therefore, the determinant factors of halal chicken meat producers’ diversification may include locality, pricing, delivery services and relationship value between the industries (B2B). According to Department of Islamic Religious Affairs of Negeri Sembilan (JHEAINS), there are thirteen slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan which are halal certified by JAKIM, to
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HALAL CERTIFIED
PATTERN 1 OF SUPPLY CHAIN SLAUGHTER HOUSES 6 SUPERMARKET GROCERY STORE STALL AND RESTAURANT
Slaughter house → stall and restaurant Slaughter house → Supermarket → stall and restaurant Slaughter house → Grocery Store
Fig. 1 First pattern of chicken meat supply chain Table 1 Halal certified slaughterhouses
Name of slaughterhouses AA Enterprise CP Chicken Era Bumi Ayamas (Klang) NB Poultry PK Agro HLRB poultry
Location Perak Negeri Sembilan Negeri Sembilan Selangor Johor Negeri Sembilan Melaka
provide halal chicken meat to the marketplace. Hence, it is observed that, the number of halal certified slaughterhouses especially in Negeri Sembilan is still not exhaustive. More halal certified slaughterhouses are needed to produce a mass production of chicken meat, and to fulfill the demand of Muslim consumers, especially in Seremban. The data shows two grocery stores or mini markets that are providing halal certified chicken meat to the Muslim consumers in city of Seremban, namely, Senawang Frozen Mart, Damia Darwish Resources and TF Value Mart, which are situated in Senawang, nearby the Seremban city. The sources of Halal chicken meats are stated as in Table 2. The results indicate that the mini markets that provide certified halal chicken meats are limited. The potential buyers of these premises are large in scale for example, households, stalls and restaurants owners, and school canteen operators. Therefore, it is important for the entrepreneurs of mini markets to ensure halal certification of the meat sold. Halal supply chain of chicken meats from halal slaughterhouses are presented in Table 3: Referring to Table 3, the analysis of the data found that only six restaurants are serving halal certified chicken meats to Muslim consumers. All these premises are situated in area of Senawang, Rantau and Seremban 2. These restaurants can be deemed as the most trusted halal chicken meat restaurants because the entrepreneurs
Halal Supply Chain of Chicken Meat in Negeri Sembilan Table 2 Halal supply chain from halal certified slaughterhouses to grocery store
Name of mini markets Senawang Frozen Mart Damia Darwish Resources TF Value Mart
399 Sources Ayam AA Enterprise Ayam AA Enterprise PK Agro, HLRB
Table 3 Halal supply chain of chicken meats from halal slaughterhouses to restaurants Name of restaurants Nasi Ayam
Type of food premise Food Court Giant
Location Senawang
Five Star
Food Stall
Kipmart
Eat & Repeat
Restoran
Senawang
Warung Rantau SJKC Chung Hwa
Stall
Rantau
Nasi Ayam Hainan Chinese Cuisine Syafiq Lee Nasi Ayam Thai & Grill
Restoran
Senawang
Food Court Aeon
Seremban 2
Sources CP CHICKEN CP CHICKEN CP CHICKEN CP CHICKEN Era Bumi HLRB
obtain the meats supply directly from the Halal certified slaughterhouses. Halal supply chain of chicken meats from halal hypermarket (MYDIN) to restaurants are presented as in Table 4: MYDIN is a Muslim hypermarket that sells the halal certified chicken meats. The main supplier of chicken meat is HLRB, which situated in Merlimau, Melaka. From Table 4, it is found that less than 20 restaurants serve halal chicken meats from MYDIN hypermarket. These restaurants can be listed as trusted restaurants that provide Halal meats, but the authority body should provide more inspections and validation towards their menus and chicken meat supply chain. From the findings above, it can be concluded that the halal supply chain of chicken meat is identified in certain area of Seremban. The importance of these information is to shed light on the general structure of halal supply chain. There are three major supply chains which are (1) Halal chicken meats from slaughterhouses to grocery stores, (2) Halal chicken meats from slaughterhouses to hypermarkets or markets, (3) Halal chicken meats from halal hypermarkets to restaurants. The listed restaurants should be highlighted by the authority body to the public to enhance and promote the halal supply chain of chicken meats. It can create awareness among the Muslim entrepreneurs to serve the chicken meat that are halal and certified by JAKIM. The analysis also found another halal supply chain of chicken meat certified halal by JAKIM to hypermarkets such as Tesco and Giant, but the halal chicken meats are displayed and supplied together with the uncertified chicken. Some hypermarkets are displaying halal chicken meats in separate section. The chain is presented as in Table 5:
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Table 4 Halal supply chain from MYDIN to restaurants Name of restaurants Nasi Ayam Selera Pantai Timur D’Bonda Houz Café Seremban Ria Nasi Berlauk Ngusik MZL Thai Tom Yam (MW Ocean Sdn Bhd) Nasi Ayam Sizzling Nasi Ayam, Roti John Ayam Goreng Awe Makanan Berlauk Nasi Bajet Mak Long Masakan Nogori Perniagaan Al-Khudus Cheesy Chicken Nasi Kandar NS (Al Falah) Rojak Singapore
Type of food premise Food court Mydin Food court Mydin Restaurant Restaurant Restaurant Stall Food court Giant Food court Giant Food court Giant Stall Stall Stall Stall Stall Stall Restaurant Restaurant
Location S2 S2 Labu S2 S2 S2 Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang Senawang
Table 5 Halal supply chicken meats from halal certified slaughterhouses to Tesco and Giant to food premises Name of restaurants Arif Pantai Timur Nasi Tengku Ayam Penyet Aiza Bistro Ikan Bakar & Ayam Penyet Aneka Thai Sate Mama Warisan Teabox Café Kawan Thai Wan Cu Pilah Zalela Mat Nor
Type of food premise Restaurant Restaurant Restaurant Restaurant Food court Giant Food court Tesco Food stall Café Restaurant Stall Stall
Location Nilai Nilai Nilai Nilai Senawang Nilai Mantin Nilai Nilai Pakar Paroi Senawang
According to Table 5, there are 11 food premises serving chicken meats purchased from Tesco and Giant hypermarket. From this result of analysis, it is found that, first, the awareness of non-Muslim entrepreneurs in leading hypermarkets is increased whereby they provide Halal certified chicken meats from Halal slaughterhouses. The packaging from Halal slaughterhouses were remained, so that consumers are aware on the halal certification given by JAKIM to the slaughterhouse company. Second, restaurants that serve the chicken meats from these hypermarkets should be inspected thoroughly so that the consumer know the halal status of their meals. Third, there are possibilities for these restaurants to choose the loose chicken
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meats sold by the hypermarkets. Muslim consumers are not guaranteed on the halal status of loose meats. Therefore, the entrepreneurs should provide the invoice as a proof of sale and purchase of Halal certified chicken meats.
4.2
Second Pattern of Chicken Meat Supply Chain
The analysis also found the second pattern of chicken supply chain that begins from non-certified slaughterhouses (Fig. 2). It is found that, the non-certified slaughterhouses produce mass-production of chicken meats to various parties, namely, (1) suppliers, (2) markets, (3) supermarkets, and (4) stalls and restaurants. The suppliers supply the chicken to market, and from market to grocery stores and lastly to stalls and restaurants. The markets also play an important role of supplying the chicken meats to grocery stores and grocery stores provide the meat to stalls and restaurants. There are also chicken meats provided by the supermarkets to stalls and restaurants. Most of these slaughterhouses hired certified Muslim slaughterers issued by JHEAINS. Based on the analysis, there are eight slaughterhouses identified as non-Halal certified by JAKIM, which are as stated in Table 6: These slaughterhouses have extensively provided chicken meat product at every stage and level of supply chain. Through delivery services, the poultry products are considered as reachable and durable in time. The entrepreneurs in markets are reported as the main suppliers of non-halal certified chicken meat in Seremban. From the analysis, it is shown that 60 food premises obtain their chicken meat from the abovementioned slaughterhouses. PATTERN 2 OF SUPPLY CHAIN
NON-HALAL CERTIFIED SLAUGHTER HOUSE
SUPPLIER
MARKET
SUPERMARKET
GROCERY STORE STALL AND RESTAURANT Slaughter house → stall and restaurant Slaughter house → Supermarket → stall and restaurant Slaughter house → Supplier → Market → stall and restaurant Slaughter house → Supplier → Market → Grocery store → stall and restaurant
Fig. 2 Second pattern of chicken meat supply chain in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan
402 Table 6 Non-Halal certified slaughterhouses
R. b. M. Azli et al. Name of slaughterhouses YF Poultry AM H2 GE HAHH Kilang Ayam Mr. T AC H/W Al-Has Kitchen
Location Rantau, Negeri Sembilan Pantai, Negeri Sembilan Sendayan Ampangan Kajang Rantau, Negeri Sembilan Rantau, Negeri Sembilan Sendayan, Negeri Sembilan
Table 7 List of agro-markets as suppliers to sample of study Name of Pasar Besar Pasar Besar Seremban Pasar Besar Nilai Pasar Besar Semarak Pasar Tani Ampangan Pasar Tani Senawang Pasar Besar Ampangan Pasar Besar Nilai 3 Pasar Besar Rantau Pasar Besar Lukut Pasar Besar Selayang Pasar Besar Putrajaya Pasar Besar Mantin Pasar Labu Pasaraya Bangi Pasar Segar (Nilai & Mantin) Pasar Mawar Total customers
Number of entrepreneurs as customers 20 12 6 1 1 1 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 60
Table 7 shows that more food premises (60 out of 200 samples) obtain their sources of chicken meat from markets. The halal status of chicken meat is unknown whereby most of the entrepreneurs rely on the personality and appearance of the suppliers in the markets (whether Muslim or Non-Muslim) and mouth-to-mouth information without inquiring about the Halal certification status of slaughterhouses. Furthermore, there are restaurants that receive the chicken meat directly from the non-certified slaughterhouses and markets as presented in Table 8. Based on Table 8, it is shown that there are several restaurants that rely on non-halal slaughterhouses and markets as their producers of chicken meats. Some of the slaughterhouses are established and conducted by non-Muslim operators.
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Table 8 List of restaurants that make the non-halal certified as their supplier of poultry Name of premises Green Shop Warung TML F Megaway Sizzling & Claypot Kitchen Joint Nasi Ayam PT KN Nasi Campur Restoran PI Restoran K. Z
4.3
Type of premises Restaurant Stall Stall Food Court Aeon Restaurant Stall Stall Restaurant Restaurant
Location Labu Labu Sikamat Seremban 2 Seremban 2 Nilai Sikamat Rantau Rantau
Producers of poultry AM AM AM NSK NSK NSK NSK YFP YFP
Third Pattern of Chicken Meat Supply Chain
This pattern of supply chain is regarded as unknown because of several factors (Fig. 3). Firstly, the chicken meats are obtained from various suppliers without specifically stating the details about the location of slaughterhouses. Secondly, the grocery stores have obtained the chicken meats from various suppliers and mixed the certified and non-certified meats during display and sales to customers. Based on Table 9, it is known that the suppliers of these food premises are various and ambiguous. The ambiguity of the background of suppliers leads to the ambiguity of the detail and status of slaughterhouses. UNKNOWN SOURCES CHAIN UNKNOWN SLAUGHTER HOUSE
SUPPLIER
MARKET
GROCERY STORE STALL AND RESTAURANT
Unknown slaughter house → Supplier → Market → stall and restaurant Unknown slaughter house → Supplier → Market → Grocery store → stall and restaurant
Fig. 3 Third pattern of chicken meat supply chain
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Table 9 List of restaurants which supply chicken meats from ambiguous suppliers Name of restaurants As-S Sizzling ITO Station Sri IN SS WS NU Makanan Goreng Nasi Berlauk A Restoran Nur NK TG MT AS WF Nasi Ayam M AM JM JC
Type Restaurant Food Court Stall Cafe Restaurant Restaurant Restaurant Food Court A Stall Restaurant Food Court A Food Court A Food Court Food Court T Food COURT T Stall Restaurant Restaurant Restaurant
Location Nilai G Senawang Mantin Nilai Nilai Senawang Nilai Seremban 2 Senawang Jln Pantai-Jelebu S2 S2 G Senawang Nilai Nilai Nilai Senawang Mantin Nilai
Suppliers Al-S Enterprise AZ Enterprise CB Frozen Taman Semarak CD Frozen CS Food Chow kit KL C Agro Dindin Esave FC Everyday FF KL FF KL Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur Kilang Ayam Mr. T S Jack KL Sento Sdn Bhd Sento Sdn Bhd
Table 10 List of food premises with the sources of chicken meats Name of restaurants Ayam Goreng S Chef Haji Z Nasi Campur D Gerai Depan KK Kafe L RS Thai Food Chicken Rice K of sup & bakso Ayam Panggang K Beriani W
Stall Restaurant Stall Stall Restoran Food court Food court Restaurant Stall Stall
Type of food premis Senawang Senawang Pakar Paroi Rantau Senawang Seremban town Seremban town Ampangan Jalan Pantai-Jelebu Jalan Pantai-Jelebu
Location FS FS FS Cengal FS Rembau FS Rembau Mhibbah Mhibbah Mhibbah Mhibbah Mhibbah
Table 10 shows the food premises and the sources of the chicken meats. The sources of chicken meats above are considered as mashbooh. This is because the authority does not recognize both suppliers as providers of halal certified chicken meats.
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5 Discussion and Recommendation The diversifications of chicken meat suppliers, namely halal certified and non-certified show the high demand of chicken meats among the entrepreneurs. In addition, the issue of halal integrity is traced whereby the chicken meat sources are unclear in most of the markets and grocery stores. According to Marco (2017) when halal integrity issues has been identified in slaughtering, manufacturing or processing and packaging, a supply chain perspective can highlight the improper aspects such as storage, handling and distribution. Thus, this paper has proved some of the improper of halal chicken meats distribution among Muslim in Negeri Sembilan. Marco (2017) also opined that managing halal integrity involves enhancing the strategies to control the risks and reputation of halal chicken meat production. Therefore, the marketing system by halal certified slaughterhouses should be revised. Halal certification should be promoted to the entrepreneurs by highlighting the benefits, advantages, and potential businesses. The halal certified chicken meats are promoted in limited areas and food premises. It is suggested to examine the determinant factors of halal certified chicken meat selections. The awareness level among the entrepreneurs should be enhanced by conducting press conference, information listed on websites and advertisements. The governments should provide incentives to halal certified entrepreneurs in order to enhance their marketing plan. This study shows that the agro-markets are the main source of chicken meats to Muslim entrepreneurs and consumers. Chicken meats supplied at low prices and with efficient delivery system are the major factor of suppliers’ selection. Halal certification become a less important factor of the selection. Halal certification process should be introduced by the authorities to entrepreneurs from time to time. The databases of entrepreneurs are important in order to build the screening system.
6 Conclusion From the discussion above, it can be concluded that the halal chicken meat supply chain in Malaysia is still not very comprehensive and competitive. The three patterns of chicken meat supply chain show the diversifications of chicken meat sources which are halal certified and non-halal certified. Acknowledgements We express our appreciation to the Halal Division, Department of Religious Affair of Negeri Sembilan (JHEAINS) for granting this research.
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References Demirci, M. N., Soon, J. M., & Wallace, C. A. (2016). Positioning food safety in halal assurance. Food Control, 70, 257–270. Farouk, M. M., Pufpaff, K. M., & Amir, M. (2016). Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review. Meat Science, 120, 60–70. Henderson, J. C. (2016). Halal food, certification and halal tourism: Insights from Malaysia and Singapore. Tourism Management Perspectives, 19, 160–164. Marco, T. (2017). Halal risk management: Combining robustness and resilience. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 8, 461–475. Ngah, A. H., Zainuddin, Y., & Thurasamy, R. (2014). Adoption of halal supply chain among Malaysian halal manufacturers: An exploratory study. Paper presented at the international conference on innovation, management and technology research, Malaysia. Omar, S. R., & Karim, M. S. A. (2013). Halalan Toyyiban: Perspektif Isu Logo Halal. In Halalan Thayyiban : Perspektif Malaysia. Serdang: Institut Penyelidikan Produk Halal Universiti Putra Malaysia. Ratanamaneichata, C., & Rakkarn, S. (2013). Quality assurance development of halal food products for export to Indonesia. Paper presented at the social and behavioral sciences symposium, fourth international science, social science, engineering and energy conference 2012 (I-SEEC 2012). Shahdan, I. A., Regenstein, J. M., Shahabuddin, A. S. M., & Rahman, M. T. (2016). Processing and products: Developing control points for halal slaughtering of poultry. Poultry Science, 95, 1680–1692. van der Spiegel, M., van der Fels-Klerx, H. J., Sterrenburg, P., van Ruth, S. M., Scholtens-Toma, I. M. J., & Kok, E. J. (2012). Halal assurance in food supply chains: Verification of halal certificates using audits and laboratory analysis. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 27, 109–119.
Risk Assessment on Bird Slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan Rafidah binti Mohd Azli, Nor Saadah Musa, Muallim Bakri, Athira Ayuni Asmadi, Mohammad Nor bin Othman, Nur Nabilah Azimoha, Noor Rashidah binti Mohamad Ariffin, Muhammad Syukri bin Mohd Ashmir Wong, and Asnizah Ahmad
Abstract The objective of this paper is to assess the risk management during the process of chicken slaughtering done by Muslim slaughterers of four slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan. The rationale of this research is the raising issues by the Muslim consumers on the halal status of chicken meat sold by entrepreneurs in Negeri Sembilan. To achieve the objective of this study, the method of direct observations on the bird slaughterhouses has been implemented. These premises have been assessed by using five critical control points of halal slaughtering processes. It is found that the process of bird slaughtering in two of the slaughterhouses is regarded as critical due to non-compliance on certain control points. Keywords Assessment · Chicken · Meat · Risk · Halal slaughtering
1 Introduction Allah SWT obligates Muslim to consume halal food. One of halal food consumable by Muslims is meat or poultry sources. Halal chicken meat as favorable poultry sources should meet requirements as stated by Al-Quran in Surah Al-Maidah verse 3–4. Allah SWT classifies the meat of the chicken as non-halal when the animals are dead by the way of strangulation, beaten, fallen, gored, partly eaten by wild beasts, and sacrificed to idols. Hence, every Muslim should aware of the sources of halal chicken meat. In a rural area, getting halal meat sources will not become a problematic issue as the sources of poultry may come from the villagers who are religious R. b. M. Azli (*) · N. S. Musa · M. Bakri · A. A. Asmadi · M. N. b. Othman · N. N. Azimoha · N. R. b. M. Ariffin · M. S. b. M. A. Wong Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: rafi[email protected] A. Ahmad Halal Division, Department of Islamic Affairs, Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_34
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Table 1 Sample of the study No. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Slaughterhouses EB Sdn Bhd AM Sdn Bhd AC Sdn Berhad AZ Sdn Bhd
Location Rembau Port Dickson Temiang Pantai
Halal certification status Certified Certified Non-certified Non-certified
persons and live within Muslim neighborhoods. However, in an urban area, the chicken meat sources will become an issue when the production is from the industry. The production of Halal chicken meat in urban area such as the city of Seremban, Malaysia becomes an imperative subject of discussion among Muslim leaders. The capital of the state of Negeri Sembilan covers several major areas of Muslim populations such as Nilai, Rasah, Bandar Seremban, Rantau, Ampangan, and Paroi. The city of Seremban is situated about 60 km south of Kuala Lumpur. As the sources of agriculture in these areas are dominated by Chinese entrepreneurs, the status of Halal chicken meat production has become a questionable issue. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to assess the risk management in four bird slaughterhouses situated in several districts of Negeri Sembilan which normally produce chicken meat to suppliers and entrepreneurs of restaurants, street stalls, and bazaar in Seremban. In order to achieve the objective of the paper, risk assessment is done on the four slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan. They are given fictitious names to avoid any issue of misinterpretations and to protect their confidentiality (Table 1). The first slaughterhouse is named as EB Sdn Bhd which situated in Rembau, Negeri Sembilan. It is certified by the Department of Islamic Development in Malaysia (JAKIM) as a halal slaughterhouse. The volume of production is about 3000 chicken meats per day. The second observed slaughterhouse is named as AM Sdn Bhd and located in Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan. The volume of production is the same as EB Sdn Bhd as has been certified Halal by JAKIM. However, the other two slaughterhouses named as AZ Sdn Bhd and AC Sdn Bhd are non-halal certified by JAKIM. The volume of production by AZ Sdn Bhd is 10,000 chickens per day, and about 1000 chickens per day by AC Sdn Bhd.
2 Literature Review The halal slaughterhouses in Malaysia are managed according to the Manual Procedure for Malaysia Halal Certification (MPPHM2019) under abattoir scheme and Halal Assurance Management System or recently known as HAS which is provided by JAKIM. In previous literature, Halal Assurance System has been discussed by van der Spiegel et al. (2012), and Omar and Karim (2013). The studies concluded that halal assurance system should be standardized and enhanced globally. This is because Halal Assurance System (HAS) in certain countries are strongly related to Halal tourism sector (Henderson, 2016). Malaysia is one of the examples of the Halal
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Table 2 Literature on stunning in halal slaughtering Literatures Aghwan, Bello, Abubakar, Imlan and Sazili (2016) Sabow et al. (2017) Fuseini, Knowles, Hadley and Wotton (2016) Shahdan et al. (2016), Nakyinsige et al. (2013), and Muzdalifah (2017)
Suggestions Methods of Shariah compliance bleeding process Frequency of stunning procedure Methods of observation on animals (pre-slaughtering) Model of meat production
Hub provider. The HAS becomes the impetus to a new revolution that transforms Halal from “a traditional cottage” industry to a “vibrant new economy” with estimated global market valued at USD 2.30 trillion. This country capacity in providing the Halal food and services should be maintained by the government and industries to provide quality productions and resources. Previous works of literature suggest some improvements in slaughtering methods for Halal slaughtering. For example, as Farouk, Pufpaff and Amir (2016) suggest providing extensive training and assessment of slaughtering, and to build the awareness among the entrepreneurs of slaughterhouses about the animal welfare during Halal slaughtering courses. The suggestions should be applied by Islamic organization or institutions such as mosques or Muslim neighborhoods. Meanwhile, Demirci, Soon, and Wallace (2016), and Ratanamaneichata and Rakkarn (2013) have pointed out about the food safety issue in HAS. The stunning process has become the major topic of discussion in halal slaughtering works of literature. According to Muzakarah Khas Jawatankuasa Majlis Kebangsaan, Malaysia in 2005, the usage of electrical stunning and water bath stunning is the only permitted stunning method to be used during halal slaughtering. However, scientists are still debating about the stunning process. There are two major blocks of scientist views pertaining to the stunning process. The first view is to propose the stunning process at the beginning of the slaughtering process to minimize the severity of cuts (Velarde et al., 2014). This view is supported by Sabow et al. (2015) and Anil et al. (2006) by proofing that the quality of slaughtered animal meat is maintained when the method of stunning is applied before the neck is cut. The stunning process also supported by Farouk (2013) and Anil et al. (2006) by suggesting the use of reversible head stunning for ruminants. The second view of the scientist is to oppose the procedure of stunning during or before the slaughtering process. This is because the process of stunning can increase the process of severity. The traditional process of slaughtering is better for the animals because the period of bleeding process has become shorter (Gibson, Dadios, & Gregory, 2015). Therefore, there are several works of literature suggesting solutions to enhance the discussion about halal slaughtering: Based on Table 2, it can be concluded that the implementation of stunning before slaughtering is allowable if the process regarding the conditions of Halal slaughtering is observed and complied with the Shariah. Beside the debates on
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stunning process, a group of researchers discuss pertaining to Shariah compliance study on slaughterhouses in Malaysia and Indonesia (Li, 2009; Lutfiana, 2016; Pisestyani, Nadadyanha, Santoso, & Latif, 2015; Rahman, 2007; Razaly & Zakaria, 2018; Sedek, 2010; Yana, Razali & Jalaluddin, 2017). The study on halal slaughtering in previous researches focuses on stunning in theory and Shariah compliance in the Halal slaughterhouse. These studies will become more comprehensive if it is associated with the assessment of risk management. In other words, risk management is very important in the process of halal certification of slaughterhouses through the implementation of Halal Assurance System. Risk management analysis is a combination of step between the Shariah compliance and science application whereby the Halal Assurance is observed in both practical and theory parts of Halal slaughtering process. Therefore, this paper suggests a risk assessment on a small sample of halal slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan to observe the implementation of halal slaughtering by using five critical control points as suggested by Shahdan et al. (2016).
3 Research Methodology This paper applies the qualitative method of direct observation. The risk management on slaughtering based on five critical points (as in Table 3) process was done using Halalan Tayyiban risk assessment scale (as in Table 4). According to Shahdan et al. (2016), halal slaughtering house should be assessed and evaluated based on five critical points. The first critical point is lairage. It is a stage whereby the fresh chicken is transported from the farm to slaughterhouse premises. The second critical control point is shackling. It is a process of hanging the chicken direct to the shackles. The procedure of stunning and slaughtering will be Table 3 Five critical control points in halal slaughtering
Control point (CP) CP1 CP2 CP3 CP4 CP5
Process Lairage Shackling Stunning Slaughtering Storage
Source: Shahdan et al. (2016) Table 4 Halalan Tayyiban risk assessment scale Likelihood Likely Moderate Unlikely
Severity/Impact Insignificant Moderate 4 Low 2 Low 1
Moderate Significant Moderate Low
7 5 3
Critical High Significant Moderate
9 8 6
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done after the process of shackling. Then, before the stage of packaging and storage, the dead chicken will be transferred to the boiler by using the conveyor. Two checkers must be allocated by the management. The first checker should observe the chickens right before the stunning process. The second checker should be allocated before the boiling process. It is to ensure the chicken completes the process of bleeding. The required time is 3 min between slaughtering and boiling.
4 Results The results of the assessment on slaughterhouses are stated below. The control points which have been assessed are; lairage, shackling, stunning, slaughtering and storage. The potential of non-compliance or contaminant is stated. The rationale for inclusion is mentioned and it is evaluated based on the likelihood and severity. Lastly, the control measures are suggested at the end of the assessment. (a) Risk assessment on AM Sdn Bhd
List of potential contaminant/noncompliance Ventilation of chickens during the process of lairage
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking Moderate— 3
Control point (CP) CP1
Process Lairage
CP2
Shackling
The short duration of shackling after slaughtering can cause incomplete bleeding/ death process
Risk of the accidental death in boiling water tank
Moderate— 5
CP3
Stunning
Death of chicken before the bleeding process is completed
Moderate— 5
CP4
Slaughtering
The incomplete process of cutting The slaughtering of dead chickens
Risk of accidental death by higher volts and longer stunning procedure Incomplete bleeding process—qualified as carrion
Rationale for inclusion Earlier death of chickens during the logistics Animal welfare
Moderate— 2
Control measures 1 Ensure the air—flow of boxes 2. Ensure the fans are provided 3. Records and documentation Verification of shackling duration period (3 min) given for every chicken to complete the bleeding Allocation of Muslim checker after the stunning process
The sharpness of the knife Qualified halal slaughterer (continued)
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Control point (CP)
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Process
Storage
List of potential contaminant/noncompliance because of stunning Meats have contact with the floor (crosscontamination)
Rationale for inclusion
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking
(haram to eat by Muslim) Freshness of meat
Moderate— 2
Control measures
The implementation of good manufacturing practices and good hygienic practices
(b) Risk assessment on EB Sdn Bhd
List of potential contaminant/ non-compliance Ventilation of chickens during the process of lairage
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking Moderate— 3
Control point (CP) CP1
Process Lairage
CP2
Shackling
The short duration of shackling after slaughtering can cause incomplete bleeding/ death process
Risk of the accidental death in boiling water tank
Moderate— 5
CP3
Stunning
Duration and volts of stunner did not comply with the MS1500
Risk of accidental death by higher volts and longer stunning procedure
Moderate— 5
CP4
Slaughtering
The unsharpened knife Uncertified slaughterer
Animal welfare, meat slaughtered by non-Muslim or incomplete bleeding process- qualified as carrion
Moderate— 5
Rationale for inclusion Earlier death of chickens during the logistics Animal welfare
Control measures 1. Ensure the air—flow of boxes 2. Ensure the fans are provided 3. Records and documentation Verification of shackling duration period (3 min) given for every chicken to complete the bleeding Allocation of the second checker Allocation of Muslim supervisor The sharpness of the knife Qualified halal slaughterer
(continued)
Risk Assessment on Bird Slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan
Control point (CP)
CP5
Process
Storage
List of potential contaminant/ non-compliance
Meats have contact with the floor (crosscontamination)
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Rationale for inclusion
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking
(haram to eat by Muslim) Freshness of meat
Moderate— Low—2
Control measures
The implementation of GMP and GHP
(c) Risk assessment on AZ Sdn Bhd
Control point (CP) CP1
Process Lairage
CP2
Shackling
CP3
Stunning
CP4
Slaughtering
List of potential contaminant/ non-compliance Poor ventilation and Poor sanitation of boxes and surfaces
The short duration of shackling after slaughtering can cause incomplete bleeding/ death process Duration and volts of stunner did not comply with the MS1500 No checker is allocated after the stunning process Knife, slaughterer status, compulsory veins to cut
Rationale for inclusion Earlier death of chickens Animal welfare
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking Likely—7
Risk of the accidental death in boiling water tank
Likely—7
Risk of accidental death by higher Voltan and longer stunning procedure
Likely—8
Animal welfare, meat slaughtered by non-Muslim or incomplete bleeding
Likely—8
Control measures More space is given to allocating the lairage boxes More boxes contained the alive chickens Cleanliness of related surfaces according to GMP Verification of shackling duration period of 3 min given for every chicken to complete the bleeding MS1500:2019, MPPHM2014
MS1500:2019, MPPHM2014
(continued)
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Control point (CP)
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Process
Storage
List of potential contaminant/ non-compliance
Meats have contact with the floor Water in the tank used to wash the meat is dirty (water is contaminated with blood)
Rationale for inclusion process—qualified as carrion (haram to eat by Muslim) Freshness of meat
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking
Likely—8
Control measures
MS1500:2019, GMP, GHP
(d) Risk assessment on AC Sdn Bhd
Control point (CP) CP1
Process Lairage
List of potential contaminant/ non-compliance Poor sanitation
Rationale for inclusion Earlier death of chickens
Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking Likely—8
Cross-contamination with pets (cats and dogs)
– The animals can transfer diseases to the alive chicken or meat
Likely—8
No machinery/ stunning equipment used NA – The slaughterers are certified by JAKIM Animal welfare – Meat slaughtered by non-Muslim or incomplete bleeding process- qualified as carrion (haram to eat by Muslim)
NA
CP2
Shackling
NA
CP3 CP4
Stunning Slaughtering
NA The uncertified slaughterer The tank which is used to put the slaughtered chicken is quite tall, which can affect the bleeding process after slaughtering
NA Likely—8
Control measures Ensure the lairage boxes are sanitized accordingly To ensure the pest control monitoring to be done as per schedule NA
NA 1. Only assigned certified slaughterer 2. The appropriate tank is allocated with the appropriate number of slaughtered chickens (continued)
Risk Assessment on Bird Slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan
Control point (CP) CP5
Process Storage
List of potential contaminant/ non-compliance Space is limited, the slaughtered poultry is allocated side-byside to non-halal meat
Rationale for inclusion – Cross-contamination Chicken meats can be contaminated when stored in the same cold room of non halal products
415 Evaluation of likelihood— severity— risk ranking Likely—8
Control measures Proper sanitation should be done daily and recorded
5 Findings Based on the halal assessments, it is found that there are certain contradictions of the slaughtering process between halal certified slaughterhouses and non-halal certified slaughterhouses. The contradictions are in term of the implementation of required standards (halal slaughtering process, cleanliness, documentation, and records). Thus, the risk of non-compliance slaughtering process in two of samples (AM Sdn Bhd, and EB Sdn Bhd) are much higher. However, there are certain control points that need to be assessed from time to time which are the stunning and slaughtering process. During the observation, the checkers and supervisors were unavailable. The process of slaughtering is done by the workers without proper supervisions from the authorities. The observations and risk assessments of non halal-certified slaughterhouses (AZ Sdn Bhd and EC Sdn Bhd) indicate contaminants or non-compliance processes according to Shariah and related standards.
6 Discussion In this section, this paper will discuss the issues related to Shariah. Ventilation is one of the major issues during the lairage process. Normally, the process of lairage is implemented by the poultry industries to transport the products to the slaughterhouses. Lairage is defined as a place where livestock is held temporarily before slaughter. Chicken should not be exposed to stressful conditions such as heat stress. Therefore, during the lairage, the ventilation should be favorable with forced air movement to reduce the probability of death before the slaughtering process. From
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the observations, it was observed that the slaughterhouses especially small size slaughterhouse did not provide adequate space to allow good ventilation. The short duration of shackling after the slaughtering process and before the boiling process is one of the major issues found in the observation of these slaughterhouses. The mass production of poultry within a day has become a significant factor. According to MS1500:2019, the appropriate duration of shackling process before the boiling process is 3 min. But the majority of these three slaughterhouses only allow the slaughtered chickens to be shackled about 2 min and a few seconds (less than the required duration). The stunning process is an important part of the halal slaughtering process. Although stunning is not recommended by JAKIM, most of the halal slaughtering industries are implementing the stunning process to improve the number of productions. However, during the observations, not all slaughterhouses are aware of the allocation of Muslim checkers, which are used to verify the “Hayyah Mustakhirrah” of the chickens before slaughtering and before boiling process. This is to avoid the risk of slaughtering the dead chicken which is regarded as filth in Islam. Furthermore, the process of bleeding should be verified by checkers as complete and fully dead before the boiling process to avoid the incidents of boiling the alive chickens. Slaughtering is the most important critical point that should be assessed thoroughly by the authorities. Halal certified slaughterhouses must provide at least two certified slaughterers. However, the non-halal certified slaughterhouses refused to support the Halal Slaughtering certification process because of their own reasons. Storage in halal slaughtering industries is important to be discussed. From the observations and assessments, it is observed that the storage process will become a serious issue when the chicken meats supplied through halal slaughtering process are stored within the same cold room of non-halal products. This incident will occur if the top management of the slaughterhouses are not aware of the supply chain of their products.
7 Recommendation and Conclusion Based on the discussion above, it is highly recommended for the halal industries to understand and observe the process of halal slaughtering according to Shariah. Halalan Tayyiban risk assessment should be applied from time to time by the Halal Executives or Muslim Supervisors to assure the compliance of process, slaughterers, equipment, facilities, and the quality of chicken meats. The authorities also play a major role in promoting the halal certification of birds slaughtering. In conclusion, the risk assessment of four bird slaughterhouses verifies some issues of management relating to Halal slaughtering process and Shariah compliance status of these industries. These major issues are derived from five critical control points by using Halal Tayyiban risk assessment scale. In future research, it is suggested to the researchers and expertise to extend the assessment to a larger sample of studies.
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Acknowledgement We would like to extend our gratitude to the Halal Division, Department of Islamic Affairs of Negeri Sembilan (JHEAINS) for providing research grant entitled as Management Issues of Slaughterhouses in Negeri Sembilan.
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Effect of Halal Product Variation and Display Layout Toward Visit of Interest China Town Bandung Vina Meliana and Donant A. Iskandar
Abstract Halal tourism demands are getting higher, especially in Muslim majority countries. Turns out that halal tourism can be adopted from Chinese culture which incidentally contains non-halal elements. Therefore, this study seeks to evaluate product variations and display layouts that influence visit of interest Chinese Town Bandung consumers. Primary data was collected from 200 studies used structured questionnaires. The data was analyzed descriptively by multiple regression and inferentially and presented through figures, tables and percentages. The findings indicate that variations were found to be significantly affected by visit of interest and design with feng shui based on the influence visit of interest China Town Bandung. The study recommends that China Town Bandung should provide a tour guide to explain the history of place establishment; make a connection with the descendants of Chinese ancestors and Chinese Muslims to develop more attractive halal tourism. Keywords Halal tourism · Product variations · Display layout · Visit of interest
1 Introduction Halal products are one of the people’s lifestyles. The background of this research is that the existence of a Muslim market has evolved significantly in recent years. Since 2010, the need for halal products has begun to emerge for the middle to upper class Muslim market. Then the awareness of life proceeding according to Islamic law is increasingly high in 2015 so that the halal criteria, initially were protectors in religion, are now a primary need for the community. Halal products not only assess the prohibition but also non-hazardous products. Therefore, issues related to halal products continue to grow in line from time to time. The General Chairman of the Indonesian Ulema Council, Ma’ruf Amin, explained that the halal criteria are not
V. Meliana (*) · D. A. Iskandar Faculty of Business, Institut Teknologi dan Bisnis Kalbis, Jakarta, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 N. N. M. Shariff et al. (eds.), Enhancing Halal Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4854-7_35
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limited to products but also extend to the service of economic, industrial and other aspects. One of the focuses of the government program in Indonesia is developing halal tourism. The Indonesian government will plan the provinces of West Nusa Tenggara and West Sumatra to become the center of halal tourism in the world. One of the uniqueness that emerged along with the planning was related to the development of China Town Bandung. Bandung is known as a multi-cultural tourist city because of the many migrants from outside the city and the attitude of friendliness and openness of its inhabitants, which opening up opportunities for the growth of various lifestyles. The existence of China Town as a residence or trading area of Chinese descent is a tourist attraction for it offers an atmosphere of oriental Chinese culture. In addition, the construction of China Town Bandung is the utilization of the Bandung Society Building which is managed by the indigenous population. China Town Bandung also offers different things namely halal products while still displaying elements of Chinese culture. China Town Bandung offers 77 culinary stalls, Chinese-style antique ornaments, Chinese historical infographics, costume rentals, photo studios, playgrounds, gift and clothing stores. Human needs and desires as individuals are dynamic so as to give rise to competition in the business world. The higher competition and uncertainty conditions force businesses to achieve competitive advantage in order to win the competition. One step towards achieving competitive advantage begins with creating differentiation among competitors. Differentiation or uniqueness becomes an attraction to create interest in the eyes of consumers. A consumer who is interested in an object will be encouraged to show people’s behavior to get it. Interest is one of the psychological aspects that influences a person’s behavior in wanting something. One of the factors that can foster consumer interest is the variety of products offered by a place. Product variations include line, quality, design, shape, brand, packaging, size, service, guarantee and others must be considered related to the overall value of product variation. Product variations must also be supported through a good display layout. A wellorganized and attractive display layout is expected to attract consumer buying interest to explore further the products offered. The display layout includes product layout or store, sequence or grouping of stores, consumer traffic flow, cashier and others will influence consumer behavior and facilitate consumers in finding needed items. The display layout and selection of product variations appropriately make the room give the impression of spacious and beautiful so that consumers can move comfortably. Consumers do not need to spend a lot of time so that consumers are expected to buy more products than previously planned. This study tries to test whether the influence of the existence of halal product variations and its display layouts can change consumer perceptions, giving rise to interest in visiting China Town Bandung. Thus, the conceptual model framework was developed as shown in Fig. 1.
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Fig. 1 A model of research
2 Literature 2.1
Product Variation
Products are everything that can be offered hence, it is noticed, in demand, bought and used therefore it meets the wants and needs of consumers. According to Mullin, Walker and Boyd (2008, p. 19) products that can be marketed can be physical products, services, ideas, experiences, locations and so on. However, Vargo and Lusch (2004, p. 2) states that there are no tangible and intangible products that can stand alone because the intangible takes place when exchange occurs or is known as the value-in-exchange. A study conducted by Rao, Raghunathan and Solis (1997, p. 236) states that product quality is a means to measure in understanding consumer needs. According to Garvin (1984, p. 40), the measurement of quality that functions strategically as a framework can be done through eight dimensions, namely performance, features, reliability, suitability, durability, ease of service, aesthetics, and perceived quality. Product variations are things that must be considered by the company to improve product performance. If the product is not diverse, the product will certainly be unable to compete with other products. Companies that focus on offering a variety of products must also pay attention to several factors such as quality, design, shape, brand, packaging and service to the overall product diversity. The ability of a product to carry out its functions consists of durability, reliability, accuracy, ease of use or repair, and other valuable attributes. Product quality is the most important thing that must be considered by a company because it is closely related to customer satisfaction. The concept of product variation in a service is also identical in the product category including product availability, appearance, composition, size and price (Kotler & Keller, 2016, p. 27). A packaging can interpret whether a product is having high quality or not. Packaging includes the activity of designing and making containers or packaging of a product. Labeling in packaging can be used to show brands that distinguish similar products, explain how to use and store, composition of product contents, as well as halal categories. Halal label is a guarantee given by the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) to ensure that a product has passed reliability testing of being halal.
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Halal literally means ‘legal’ or ‘permitted’ in Arabic. The teachings of the Prophet Muhammad contained in the Koran and Sunna teach Muslims to eat good and legitimate food that God has provided for them, but also state various restrictions. Strict definition of halal is that Muslims are implicitly prohibited from eating carcasses, spewing blood, pork or any meat from animals that have not been slaughtered according to traditional guidelines or known as haram. Ritual slaughter requires that the animal be killed in the name of God by making a fatal incision in the throat to drain as much blood as possible. In addition, other Islamic prohibitions are related to wine and drinks or other alcoholic substances which are considered unclean in any amount or type (Denny, 2006).
2.2
Display Layout
A company needs to pay attention to its layout design to make long run efficiency and gain a strategic advantage that supports differentiation, low cost and good response. The display layout in a tourist place needs to consider the interaction between company representatives with consumers. The display layout is one of the influential elements in creating an atmosphere of shops or entertainment venues (Berman & Evans, 2004, p. 545). The tourism manager must plan the location and facility of the store by utilizing the existing space as effectively as possible. There are indicators that must be considered in designing the store layout as follows: (a) Allocation of floor space for selling, personnel and customers, where managers should provide a space that can be used as a place to interact between consumers and waiters, employee rest rooms and waiting rooms. (b) Traffic flow, where the manager can implement some traffic flow provisions that are deemed appropriate to provide consumer convenience. The several patterns that can be implemented are grid layouts, loop layouts, spine layouts and freeflow layouts. Loop layout consists of grooves around the entire room then back to the main entrance. There is a spine layout pattern where there is a main alley from the front to the back of the store that can be passed in two directions. Finally, there is a free-flow layout where the fixture and goods are placed freely. In addition, a point of interest display is needed that serves to enhance the shopping experience so that it forms a store image, redirects store traffic and supports marketing plans. Elements in the point of interest display are the use of special themes to show uniqueness, assortment displays to show various types of products offered thus they can affect consumers and ensemble displays to group and display products in separate categories.
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Consumer Interest
Interest can be interpreted as an attitude of pleasure towards an object that makes individuals try to get the object by paying it with money or sacrifice some values (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2014, p. 478). Theory of Reasoned Action was first introduced by Trafimow (Trafimow, 2015, p. 246). This theory connects between beliefs, attitudes, will and behavior. Will is the best predictor of behavior, meaning that if you want to know what someone is going to do, the best way is to know the will of that person. However, one can make judgments based on completely different reasons (not always based on will). The important concept in this theory is the focus of attention (salience), which is to consider something that is considered important. Will is determined by subjective attitudes and norms (Trafimow, 2015, p. 247). Theory of Reasoned Action has been applied in many different settings, including analysis of travel behavior or tourist visits. Its most valuable contribution shows that the relationship between attitudes and social norms about visit behavior is mediated by intention. This shows the role of attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions in modeling visit behavior choices made by a consumer. The development of concepts regarding the role of attitudes on visit behavior (Gärling, Gillholm, & Gärling, 1998) is an interesting thing to study further.
3 Method This research belongs to the type of conclusive research design using primary data. Conclusions will be taken to find out the effect of variation products offered and display layouts on the interest of consumer visits with the object of research on tourist attractions in China Town Bandung. Questionnaires have two parts, the first part contains respondent information and the second part contains questions related to the research objectives. Questionnaires were made structured and close-ended response. This study applies the Four-point Likert scaling technique in assessing respondents’ answers. To analyze among variables, it is hypothesized that there are effects among variables partially and simultaneously. To test the hypothesis, customers who visited China Town Bandung were considered as the population with non-probability sampling method of purposive sampling techniques that were used. Sample size of research was 200 customers. This research is quantitative with multiple linear regression data analysis techniques.
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Table 1 Demograhic of respondent
3.1
Characteristic Gender Male Female
Percentage (%) 49.48 50.52
Age 20 years to less than 30 years 30 years to less than 40 years Above 40 years
27.84 65.98 6.18
Religion Muslim Non muslim
69.3 30.7
Occupation Student Gov. Organization Private Company Housewife Other
34.02 4.23 43.3 11.34 7.21
Analysis
Table 1 shows that the number of respondents who visited China Town Bandung had a balanced comparison between men and women. Then when viewed from the age side it is dominated by respondents with a 30–40 year age range of 65.98% and followed by 20–30 years of 27.84%. These characteristics are in line with observations in the field where respondents come in groups in the form of family and a group of young people. This is in accordance with the target market that tourism managers want to target. In addition, from the distribution of jobs consisting of students, government organizations, private employees and housewives showed that tourist entry rates are still in accordance with the purchasing power of various layers of society.
4 Result and Discussion 4.1
Reliability and Validity
This study uses the Pearson Correlation product moment validity test to find out whether 36 instruments measure each variable. The measurement results indicate that the research instrument is considered valid because it is above the value of
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0.3610. Then proceed with the reliability test with Cronbach’s Alpha with a value of more than 0.70.
4.2
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is done by multiple regression analysis so that the results are translated through significant values. The testing process is carried out in two stages, namely partial and simultaneous tests to test the effect of each hypothesis (Table 2). Based on the results of the t-test above, it is known that both the product variation variable and display layout significantly influence visit interest as evidenced by the significance value of less than 0.05. In addition, testing shows that the significance value is also less than 0.05, so it can be concluded that there are effects of product variations and display layouts simultaneously on consumer visit interest. On one hand, the statistical results also show the magnitude of the coefficient of determination through adjusted R square of 43.4%, on the other hand, 56.6% of consumer visits are still influenced by other factors.
4.3
Discussion
The researcher conducted a mean analysis of each dimension in the research variable. Variations in halal products are assessed based on four dimensions: Product availability, appearance, composition, size and price. Tourist variations that are always available for public enjoyment are the items that play the most role in the dimensions of product availability. The existence of a mess that is provided for picket employees and good coordination with SMEs partners is what makes this tour always ready according to the specified operating hours. The mean analysis revealed that culinary tourism was more dominant visited by consumers of 3.400 compared to infographics, museums, games, crafts and shopping. The concept of tourism offered has largely been attempted to adjust to Islamic teachings as a result, it is expected to be able to be enjoyed by all segments of society. On the contrary, the lowest indicator in terms of appearance of product variations is related to the suitability of the overall concept of the tour offered. It is Table 2 Hypothesis test of regression analysis Hypothesis H1: Halal product variation will have effect on customers’ visit of interest H2: Display layout will have effect on customers’ visit of interest H3: Halal product variation and display layout simultaneously will have effect on customers’ visit of interest
Sig. .000 .001 .000
Accepted/ Rejected Accepted Accepted Accepted
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not in accordance with Muslim teachings which is worth 2.834. Based on input from several visiting customers it is known that consumers feel a little disturbed by the presence of burning smoke. The hio smoke that symbolizes the worship of Gods, Goddesses and ancestral spirits in the Chinese tradition is considered to be contrary to Islamic teachings. In addition, there are still a number of shops that feature Maneki Neko statues well known as waving cats statue. The belief in inanimate objects that have certain supernatural powers is considered idolatrous in the Islamic religion. That causes some consumers to feel a little disturbed when enjoying tours in China Town Bandung. On the appearance side of product variations, the results of the mean analysis produced have a good average value. Good performances started from the beginning when consumers visited the tour up to serving food with Chinese descendants ornamental equipment. The main appearance of the entrance with shades of red, murals of Chinese traders, decorative lanterns and dragons made the tourist location of China Town Bandung very easy to recognize and attract the interest of prospective consumers. The uniqueness of the design on the exterior display is the highest indicator, as stated 3.334. The dimensions of the composition of product variations are in accordance with the tastes of the visiting consumers, making it the highest indicator of 3.295. If studied in more detail, then consumers can find out that the food offered includes the category of halal and alcohol free. That is because officers or traders can explain the composition of the raw materials used, namely through the value of the indicator 3.075. On the contrary, the halal logo displayed on the entrance is small so it is not explicitly recognized by consumers who visit. This is evidenced by the indicator value 2.223. In addition, from the dimensions of size also provided a variety of food portions, choice of clothing sizes, indoor and outdoor choices and so on to support the presentation of variations of products offered by China Town Bandung. The diversity of tourism in China Town Bandung makes its location look stacked but because it is neatly arranged through grouping tours such as culinary, games, souvenirs and others, it makes easier for consumers to visit existing tourism. This is evidenced by the layout indicator value through the display layout of 3.200. The unfortunate thing about layout is that the location plan is only located in front of the main door, so consumers have to ask the officer if they forget the tourist location they want to search, which is 2.880. Traffic flow is one important aspect in supporting consumers’ comfort in enjoying a tourist spot. Indicators of the placement of tables, chairs and equipment at the tourist sites of China Town Bandung are very good so as to provide convenience for consumers to get around with an indicator value of 3.265. Traffic density can sometimes have the opportunity to create impulse buying since consumers consider the crowd at a kiosk as a sign of attractive, unique, high-quality or low-priced products. However, the density of traffic flows can lead to obstacles or even negative conditions, namely theft if there are no officers who routinely monitor the situation. One proof of the obstacles in the form of inconvenience when consumers go around on holidays that this indicator rate is 2.960. This is happened also due to the distance
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of the nearby attractions, when the number of consumers is very large, the traffic flow becomes very crowded. Factors that influence buying interest are the presence of attention, interest, desire and action. On the earliest scale of interest is trying to find information about China Town Bandung with an indicator value of 3.245. The newly established China Town Bandung Tourism in 2017 began to attract interest in the community through the inauguration of West Java Governor Ridwan Kamil. Consumers who have visited China Town Bandung are willing to share positive things with their relations because this tour is not just an entertainment venue but also full of meaning to preserve culture as well as a symbol of tolerance between Chinese descendants and Bandung local communities and across religions. This is evidenced by the indicator value of 3.350. Consumers choose to visit China Town Bandung compared to other thematic tours such as the floating market, rabbit town and others in Bandung because of the uniqueness offered by them with an indicator value of 3.030. However, China Town Bandung has not become a halal tourism icon because brand awareness is not yet high in the community.
5 Conclusion This study aims to investigate the influence that determines the interest of consumer visits at a tourist location. Statistics show that variations in halal products are more of a priority in directing interest in consumer visits. Consumers emphasize the availability of products, appearance, composition, size and price offered because they are dominated by groups of college students to young adults. In addition, the results of the regression analysis state that there are effects of variations in halal products on the interest of consumer visits. While display layout is an aspect that must be considered so that a tour looks attractive in the same time creating comfort for its customers. The arrangement of display layouts covering product layout, cashier and consumer traffic flow are dimensions measured in this study. Regression analysis shows that there is an influence between display layout on consumer visit interest. The most important dimension is the tourist layout, which is oriental design that is considered unique, tidiness, the presence of signage from several shops or shops in tourist locations which are considered to create interest in the eyes of consumers. Based on the test results it is known that the variable variation in the product and display layout in explaining Chinese Town Bandung’s consumer interest is 43.4%, while the remaining 56.6% is explained by other factors. Further researchers can conduct further studies on co-branding that can be used as a form of collaboration to increase the benefits of promotion. This is like what was done at the Efteling amusement park in the Netherlands in collaboration with WWF in organizing PandaVision educational tours. Based on interviews with management it is known that China Town Bandung plans to collaborate with one of the halal local brands to increase brand awareness as well as a means of promotion.
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Index
A Agro, 113, 142–152, 209, 257, 402, 404, 405 Alcohol, 42, 50, 73, 74, 124, 220, 226, 239, 240, 270–274, 278, 283, 289, 384, 390 Analysis fuzzy logic, 270–274 measurement model, 353, 354 pearson, 146, 150, 151 PLS, 351, 353, 354 regression, 33, 34, 176, 178, 355, 357, 423, 425, 427 risk assessment, 407–416 trend, 217, 219, 229–232 Anti-microbial, 288–292 Artificial intelligence (AI), 41, 267, 271, 274 Association of Islamic Banking Institutions Malaysia (AIBIM), 130 Auditors, 53, 56–59, 205, 208
B Banana, 249–257 Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM), 126, 127, 130, 134, 135 Bitcoin, 119–127 Blockchain, 119, 122, 123, 127 Brunei, 5, 11–14, 68, 222, 282
C Consumer, 4, 23, 27, 43, 52, 114, 122, 138, 142, 168, 204, 216, 238, 270, 277, 297, 321, 329, 396, 420 Critical control point (CCP), 57, 385, 386 Crowdsourcing, 361–368
Cryptocurrency, 119–127, 225 Cyber, 104–106
D Dentistry, 288–292 Department of Islamic Development Malaysia (JAKIM), 50, 56, 59, 78, 204, 205, 207, 208, 270–274, 398, 400, 401, 408, 416 Derivatives, 238, 245, 246, 278, 388 DNA, 238–246, 265
E Endowment, 184–195 Enzymes, 239, 241, 244, 246, 249–257 Ethics, 33, 46, 58, 75, 104–106, 114, 136, 364, 365, 380
F Fatwa, 66, 71, 120, 122, 125–127, 217, 274, 282, 317–320 Fiqh, 20, 22, 23, 65–75, 121, 123, 135, 155, 157, 159, 217, 312–322 Food additive, 242, 270, 278, 279, 282, 297 aero, 383–392 coloring, 306 safety, 5, 8, 115, 220, 278, 283, 383, 384, 386, 387, 397, 409 security, 13, 109–115 Framework conceptual, 146, 184–195, 200, 330, 349, 350, 362
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430 Framework (cont.) fuzzy logic, 271–274 Islamic, 130, 131, 134, 135, 137, 146, 201, 362 theoretical, 56, 361–368
G Gadget, 99–107 Gelatin, 238, 239, 243–246, 296 God, 34, 50, 66, 69, 106, 111, 112, 184, 344, 346, 349, 368, 422, 426 Gold, 119, 125, 155–164, 334, 401 Good hygiene practice (GHP), 52, 411 Good manufacturing practice (GMP), 52, 59, 208, 209, 384 Guidelines, 5, 14, 50, 52, 53, 79, 88, 115, 120, 218, 219, 270, 272, 274, 320, 367, 372, 422
H Halal assurance, 41, 50–52, 59, 204, 205, 278, 384, 387, 388, 392, 408, 410 certificate, 5, 11–13, 50, 52, 59, 72, 142, 206, 207, 220, 384, 388, 390 certified, 42, 204, 221, 225, 226, 228, 238, 397–402, 404, 405, 408, 415, 416 concept, 4, 18, 23, 40, 50, 278 cosmetics, 50, 204, 216–218, 225, 226, 231, 384 food, 3–15, 20, 22, 23, 41, 53, 65, 70, 72, 73, 109–115, 206, 217–221, 226, 228, 250, 270–274, 277, 283, 297, 328–338, 384, 390, 392, 396, 407, 409 industry, 17, 51, 205, 216–218, 221, 225, 226, 229, 231, 232, 270, 271, 273, 274, 277–283, 328, 330–332, 338, 396 ingredient, 5, 6, 8, 10–14, 52, 53, 58, 61, 207, 246, 270, 278, 283, 383–385, 390 inspection, 50–61, 208 manual, 59, 205, 396, 408 manufacturer, 14, 112, 121–123, 127, 204, 210, 283, 328–338 organization, 384, 387 pharmaceutical, 50, 204, 217, 218, 225 policy, 4, 110, 112, 113, 130, 131, 134, 137, 373, 384, 387 process, 23, 51, 410, 416 product, 12, 14, 20, 23, 40, 50, 51, 61, 68, 168, 169, 172, 177, 179, 204, 206, 216–232, 278, 328, 384, 387, 392, 419–427
Index standards, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 21, 22, 42, 51, 53, 59, 271, 273, 274, 384, 385, 387, 415 supply chain, 112, 207, 334, 396–405 tourism, 23, 40, 41, 74, 79, 216–218, 228, 408, 420, 427 Halal assurance system (HAS), 387, 396, 397, 408 Haram, 14, 50, 112, 114, 120, 250, 278, 282, 283, 383–385, 388, 390, 411, 422 Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP), 52, 59, 384 Horse Mackerel, 295–309
I Index Jakarta Islamic, 168, 170, 172, 174, 177 travel, 40, 228, 229 Indonesia, 67, 123, 142, 156, 167, 187, 216, 238, 384, 410, 420 Influenza, 260–267 Investment, 40–47, 125–127, 131, 156, 159–162, 164, 168–172, 176, 184, 186, 187, 191, 207, 216–232, 379 Investors, 43, 45, 125, 168–172, 174, 176, 177, 179, 193, 222, 231, 232 Islamic banking, 130–138, 157, 231 fashion, 227 finance, 121, 126, 130, 136, 138, 216, 217, 220, 222, 223 leadership, 343–356 mediation, 197–201 perspective, 68, 69, 75, 104, 106, 109–115, 330, 345, 362, 364, 365, 368, 381
L Law, 3, 4, 14, 28, 42, 50, 52, 66, 70, 72, 88, 104, 106, 112, 120–123, 125–127, 135, 195, 199, 217, 220, 222, 226, 261, 274, 278, 316, 322, 345, 419
M Malaysia, 17, 28, 42, 67, 78, 90, 102, 113, 121, 130, 142, 156, 184, 199, 204, 223, 260, 270, 295, 320, 328, 396, 408 Management halal, 18, 20, 23, 226, 328–338, 383–392 innovation, 371–381 practice, 329, 376 process, 328–338
Index
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project, 343–356 risk, 205, 408, 410 total quality, 329, 378 Marketing concept, 143, 145 innovative, 143–147, 150–152 orientation, 144–147, 150–152 performance, 147, 150–152 strategy, 142–147, 150, 152 Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test, 289–291 Model, 30, 51, 137, 156, 172, 185, 199, 207, 261, 271, 300, 330, 344, 362, 373, 409, 420 bioreactor, 261 conceptual, 363, 368, 420 Waqf, 184–195 Muhammad, 14, 50, 68, 69, 71, 104, 113, 114, 121, 157, 184, 198, 200, 205, 316, 344, 346, 347, 422 MUI, 217, 220, 232, 239, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 421 Muslim, 3, 18, 28, 40, 50, 65, 78, 100, 112, 120, 133, 142, 162, 169, 184, 197, 204, 216, 238, 260, 277, 312, 345, 381, 383, 396, 407, 419
Maqasid, 65–75, 100, 104, 113, 134, 162, 261, 322, 330, 363, 367 Shariah Governance Policy Document (SGPD), 130, 134, 135, 137 Shubhah, 9, 250, 278, 283 Slaughter house, 401–404, 408, 410 Small and medium enterprises (SMEs), 142–152, 204, 206, 331, 425 Society, 14, 19, 28, 29, 35, 40–47, 66, 69, 70, 85, 88, 90, 100, 102, 104, 112–115, 133, 138, 184–188, 190, 191, 194, 200, 206, 210, 238, 278, 282, 320, 345 Statistical package for social science (SPSS), 6, 301 Stock price, 167, 168, 170–172, 174, 177 return, 167–179 volume, 172 Sukuk, 130, 189, 190, 192, 216, 222, 223, 231 Sulh, 197, 199, 200 Surah, 3, 4, 50, 69, 105, 111, 260, 261, 278, 362, 366, 367, 407 System, 29, 50, 77, 103, 113, 122, 133, 155, 177, 201, 204, 226, 239, 260, 271, 288, 300, 312, 333, 351, 363, 374, 384, 396, 408
P Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional (PTPTN), 197–201 pH, 243, 251, 252, 256, 261, 262, 280, 297, 298, 300, 302, 304, 307, 308, 321 Physicochemical, 296–309 Polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), 238–246 Pork, 5, 124, 238–246, 278, 284, 384, 388, 422 Poultry, 20, 23, 402, 403, 407, 415 Purification, 71, 313–319
T Takaful, 130, 134, 155–164, 186, 191, 223 Tayyiban, 112, 277, 278, 410, 416 Thermophilic bacterial isolation, 251 Tourism, 23, 40, 52, 65, 77, 216, 396, 408, 420 Trading, 125, 168, 170–173, 176–179, 217, 420 Transactions, 119–127, 132, 135, 156, 157, 164, 217, 346, 347, 397 Travel, 40, 65, 78, 158, 228, 344, 423 Turmeric, 281, 283, 284, 288–292
V Vaccine, 260–267 S Shariah committee, 130, 131, 134–138 compliance, 41, 42, 46, 72, 74, 134, 135, 137, 184–195, 206, 261, 263, 371–381, 409, 410, 416 compliant, 40–47, 70, 115, 132, 138, 184, 185, 249–257, 260–267
W Wakalah, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163, 186, 190, 191 Water, 19, 70, 71, 113, 124, 184, 241, 251, 252, 279, 289, 296, 298–301, 307, 312–322, 386, 409