English castles, 1200-1300 1846033748, 978-1-84603-374-2

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ENGLISH CASTLES 1200-1300

ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND ILLUSTRATOR C H R I S T O P H E R G R A V E T T is a former Senior Curator at the Royal Armouries, Tower of London, and a recognised authority on the arms, armour and warfare of the medieval world. He has worked as an advisor for numerous TV and film productions, and has written many books for Osprey. He currently works as the curator at Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire.

A D A M H O O K studied graphic design, and began his work as an illustrator in 1983. He specializes in detailed historical reconstructions, and has illustrated Osprey titles on the Aztecs, the Greeks, several 19th century American subjects, and a number of books in the Fortress series. His work features in exhibitions and publications throughout the world.

FORTRESS • 86

ENGLISH CASTLES 1200-1300

CHRISTOPHER GRAVETT

ILLUSTRATED BY A D A M HOOK Series editors Marcus Cowper and Nikolai Bogdanovic

First published in 2009 by Osprey Publishing Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford 0X2 OPH, UK 443 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, USA E-mail: [email protected]

DEDICATION

© 2009 Osprey Publishing Limited

EDITOR'S N O T E

All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers. ISBN 978 1 84603 374 2 E-book ISBN 978 1 84908 083 5

In memory of my mother and father.

Unless otherwise indicated, all the images in this volume are the property of the author.

ARTIST'S N O T E Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained by the Publishers. All enquiries should be addressed to: Scorpio Gallery, PO Box 475, Hailsham, East Sussex, BN27 2SL, UK

Editorial by llios Publishing Ltd, Oxford UK (www.iliospublishing.com) Cartography: Map Studio, Romsey, UK Front cover image: © iStockphoto.com/KarlDolenc Page layout by Ken Vail Graphic Design, Cambridge, UK (kvgd.com) Index by Auriol Griffith-Jones Originated by PPS Grasmere Ltd Printed in China through Bookbuilders 0910 11 12 13

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The Publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence upon this matter.

T H E F O R T R E S S S T U D Y G R O U P (FSG) The object of the FSG is to advance the education of the public in the study of all aspects of fortifications and their armaments, especially works constructed to mount or resist artillery. The FSG holds an annual conference in September over a long weekend with visits and evening lectures, an annual tour abroad lasting about eight days, and an annual Members' Day. The FSG journal FORT is published annually, and its newsletter Casemate is published three times a year. Membership is international. For further details, please contact: The Secretary, c/o 6 Lanark Place, London W9 1BS, UK Website: www.fsgfort.com

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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

4

CHRONOLOGY

8

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

10

Town defences . Building castles

THE PRINCIPLES OF DEFENCE

21

The development of the gatehouse . The barbican . The postern or sally port

TOUR OF A CASTLE: THE TOWER OF LONDON IN THE 13TH CENTURY

29

THE CASTLE AT PEACE

35

Chambers . Decoration . Kitchens . Chapels . Workshops and pens Gardens and parks . Prisons

THE CASTLE AT WAR

45

King John . Henry III - War in Wales - The Barons'War - Edward I

AFTERMATH

53

VISITING THE CASTLES TODAY

56

BIBLIOGRAPHY

60

GLOSSARY

62

INDEX

64

ENGLISH CASTLES 1200-1300 INTRODUCTION In the 1 5 0 years since the N o r m a n Conquest, England had bec ome a more unified nation. T h e 13th century would see conflict not between the conquerors and the conquered but between the king and factions o f his o w n baronage. In the t w o civil wars that dogged England, rebel factions tried to control the king but there were always magnates and lesser men w h o stood by their m o n a r c h . Only in the border regions of Wales and Scotland did English kings c o m e up against other sovereign states. T h e king at the turn o f the 1 3 t h century was J o h n , an Angevin with N o r m a n blood. T h o u g h in some ways a better ruler than his selfish brother and predecessor, R i c h a r d the Lionheart, J o h n alienated a section of the baronage. T h e controls imposed by his father, Henry II, John's own character, the loss of N o r m a n d y to France in 1 2 0 4 and failure to regain it brought matters to a head at Runnymede in 1 2 1 5 , where baronial demands were set down in the M a g n a C a r t a , which solved little. Civil w a r still broke out and the rebels invited Prince Louis, son of Phillip II of F r a n c e , to take the English throne. T h e r e was a possibility that Alexander II might descend from Scotland and the Welsh princes caused p r o b l e m s along the marches. J o h n had been busy

At Barnard Castle a large singleaisled timber hall was replaced in the early 13th century by a new stone building some 13.4 x 8.95m (44 x 29.4ft). The lord's chamber and the donjon were at one end (right) so the common door into the hall seems to have been placed at its opposite end.

recruiting troops from Poitou and Flemish mercenaries and strengthening many royal castles throughout England, whose garrisons threatened rebel lands and hampered their owners from using soldiers elsewhere. Following J o h n ' s death in 1 2 1 6 , many magnates continued to resist Louis w h o eventually withdrew. T h e war had been one of sieges with both sides reluctant to c o m m i t to the luck of pitched battle. John's son, n o w Henry III, was aged nine and so until 1 2 2 7 was under the tutelage o f H u b e r t de Burgh and his rival, Peter des R o c h e s . T h e w a r h a d allowed the Welsh Prince, Llywelyn the G r e a t , to seize nearly all o f Wales and in 1 2 1 8 the Treaty o f Worcester granted him royal castles at C a r m a r t h e n and Cardigan and the wardship o f the heir o f southern Powys. W h e n the great William M a r s h a l died in 1 2 1 9 Llywelyn attacked the h o n o u r o f P e m b r o k e , only to see the earl's son cross f r o m Ireland t o capture C a r m a r t h e n and Cardigan and secure the valley of the Tywi and northern Dyfed respectively. Royal power needed establishing in vital areas; Builth could watch Snowdonia and the Wye Valley, while M o n t g o m e r y could galvanize the eastern M a r c h e s and block access to Shrewsbury. Llywelyn died in 1 2 4 0 and his son, D a v i d , c a m e to L o n d o n and did homage for north Wales but failure to c o m e to arbitration gave H e n r y III the excuse to invade and overrun north Wales up to David's castle of D e g a n w y ( G a n n o c ) near the river C o n w y . H e n r y involved himself with G r u f f y d d , David's brother and captive, but following negotiations Gruffydd was taken instead to c o m f o r t a b l e captivity in the T o w e r o f L o n d o n and died in 1 2 4 4 trying to escape using knotted sheets. David soon revolted and Henry gathered an army, including troops f r o m Ireland. H e n r y had to withdraw and David died in February 1 2 4 6 . Gruffydd's sons, Llywelyn and O w a i n , continued to resist but then made peace and in 1 2 4 7 surrendered the lands between Chester and the C o n w y Valley. Eventually Llywelyn t o o k control and assumed the title 'prince of Wales' in 1 2 5 8 . H e made attacks on Builth and the m arc her lands until recognized by the Treaty of M o n t g o m e r y in 1 2 6 7 . In England Henry, a lover o f the arts and perhaps m o s t f a m o u s for rebuilding Westminster Abbey, faced the rising star of Simon de M o n t f o r t , earl of Leicester, and son of a ruthless French crusader; he had married Henry's

English Castles 1 1 0 0 - 1 3 0 0

6

sister and been given Kenilworth Castle as a residence. However, Simon became involved in baronial discontent that led to the Provisions o f O x f o r d in 1 2 5 8 , which formed the basis for the first parliaments in England. T h e L o rd E d w a r d (the future Edward I) seemed to be siding increasingly with Simon and, while Henry was in France, Llywelyn attacked south and then north Wales, seizing castles until the Treaty of M o n t g o m e r y called a halt to hostilities. Meanwhile Simon returned and, having attracted a rebel element around him, instigated a civil war k n o w n as the B a r o n s ' War. Henry was not militarily skilled but his brother, R i c h a r d , and son, the L o r d E d w a r d , organized the opposition. Although H e n r y and E d w a r d were captured after the battle o f Lewes in 1 2 6 4 , Simon's triumph was brief. Despite gaining authority in the west by the Pact of Worcester with the M a r c h e r lords in 1 2 6 4 his star w a s waning and, following Edward's escape in M a y 1 2 6 5 , Simon was butchered at the battle of Evesham. Lingering resistance was finally smothered and the rest of Henry's reign was relatively peaceful. After Henry died in 1 2 7 2 , E d w a r d t o o k the throne. S o m e w h a t violent and unpredictable, he w a s destined to b e c o m e o n e o f the m o s t f o r m i d a b l e o f English kings. Relatively secure on his t h r o n e he turned his attention first to Wales in 1 2 7 7 , where Llywelyn h a d stirred up revolt the previous year. In three invasions he effectively crushed all opposition by 1 2 9 5 , building a chain o f massive castles t o c o n t a i n a n y revolts. Already he w a s l o o k i n g towards Scotland, where he supported a puppet king in J o h n Balliol. W h e n a faction of the Scots rebelled under W i l l i a m Wallace and routed an English army at Stirling Bridge in 1 2 9 7 , E d w a r d m a r c h e d n o r t h and defeated the Scottish pike f o r m a t i o n s at Falkirk the following year. Wallace was captured and executed and although S c o t l a n d w a s quiet the borders w o u l d r e m a i n uncertain for centuries. As a separate k i n g d o m , Scotland's castles do not f o r m part of this b o o k but English-built castles in the principality o f Wales will be covered. T h e great E d w a r d i a n fortifications in Wales are the subject o f a separate volume.

The domestic block at Grosmont (c.1201 -04) had an undercroft, unequally divided into two, with a first-floor hall (with fireplace) and solar, originally reached via an external timber stair. It is likely to be Hubert de Burgh's work, perhaps inspired by his hall at Christchurch Castle. However, when he replaced the timber palisades in stone (c.1220s) two new doorways (centre) were punched through at ground level, the first-floor division was removed and a central dividing wall added. This was perhaps to alter the hall block into a service block (with a well and fireplace in the south-eastern ground floor room that may indicate a kitchen) to serve a new wooden hall butted against its long side.

CHRONOLOGY 1199

Death of Richard I, accession of John.

1204

Loss of Normandy.

1214

Battle of Bouvines, defeat of Anglo-Imperial army by Phillip II of France.

1215

1216

May

Siege of Northampton castle by rebels.

15 June

Magna Carta. Civil war breaks out.

OctoberDecember

Siege of Rochester Castle by John.

December 1215 to March 1216

Harrying expedition through England by John. Surrender of Rockingham, Belvoir, Pontefract, York, Richmond, Durham, Warkworth, Alnwick, Berwick, Skelton, Fotheringay, Bedford, Framlingham, Colchester, Hedingham and Hertford.

May

Prince Louis of France invades England on invitation of rebels.

May-July

Surrender to Louis of Reigate, Guildford, Farnham, Winchester, Odiham, Marlborough and Worcester.

July-October

Siege of Dover castle by Prince Louis.

September

John enters Lincoln.

October

Death of John, accession of Henry III under tutors Hubert de Burgh and Peter des Roches. Truce agreed at Dover.

1217

1218

November 1216

Surrender to Louis of Hertford, Berkhamsted, Colchester,

to January 1217

Orford, Norwich, Cambridge, Pleshey and Hedingham.

February

Louis returns to France.

April

Louis comes back to England.

May

Louis resumes siege of Dover. Siege and battle of Lincoln by William Marshal. Siege of Dover raised.

August

Sea battle off Sandwich, rebels defeated.

September

Louis agrees terms and leaves England. Treaty of Worcester gives Llywelyn Carmarthen and Cardigan castles.

1219

Death of William Marshal, Llywelyn attacks Pembroke.

1220

Henry III comes of age. Hubert de Burgh demands rebel strongholds be given up. Capture of Rockingham Castle.

1223

Hubert de Burgh leads army to relieve Builth.

1224

Siege of Bedford Castle by Henry III.

1231

Revolt of Llywelyn. Campaign of Elfiel by Hubert de Burgh and latter's fall from power.

1240

Death of Llywelyn the Great.

1241

Cardigan and Builth retaken by the English.

1244

Death of Gruffydd, son of Llywelyn the Great.

1245

Henry invades Wales; rebuilds Deganwy.

1246

Death of David, son of Llywelyn the Great.

1247

Peace of Woodstock between Henry and Welsh princes Llywelyn, son of Gruffydd, and his brother Owain.

1255

Llywelyn in civil war of Owain.

1256

Llywelyn attacks the four Cantrefs.

1257

Richard of Cornwall elected king of the Romans.

1258

The Provisions of Oxford. Llywelyn assumes title 'prince of Wales'

1262

Llywelyn attacks Mortimer and overruns Brecon.

1263

Llywelyn attacks Abergavenny, destroys Dyserth Castle and recovers Deganwy.

1264

February

Henry of Montfort tricks himself into Gloucester town. Robert de Ferrers storms Worcester.

April

Edward seizes Northampton town and then the castle. Partial capture of Rochester Castle by Simon de Montfort and recapture by Henry III.

May

Battle of Lewes: capture of Henry III and Prince Edward by Simon de Montfort.

1265

Battle of Evesham: death of Simon de Montfort.

1266

Siege of Kenilworth Castle by Henry III.

1267

Treaty of Montgomery: Henry III acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffydd as prince of Wales.

1272

Death of Henry III, accession of Edward I.

1276

Llywelyn refuses homage to Edward I.

1277

First Welsh War against Llywelyn ap Gruffydd.

1282

Second Welsh War against Llywelyn ap Gruffydd. Death of Llywelyn.

1283

End of Second Welsh War. Dafydd captured and executed.

1284

Prince Edward (future Edward II) born at Caernarfon. Statute of Rhuddlan creates new counties of Anglesey, Caernarfon, Merioneth, Cardigan and Carmarthen, with Caernarfon as the centre.

1287

Revolt of David.

1293-94

Third Welsh War against Madog ap Llywelyn.

9

1297

Edward invades Scotland. Battle of Stirling Bridge and defeat of English by William Wallace.

1298

Battle of Falkirk and defeat of Scots by Edward I.

1301

Prince Edward created prince of Wales. Capture and execution of William Wallace.

1307

Death of Edward I. Accession of Edward II.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT At the beginning o f the 1 3 t h century a few castles remained simple enclosures b o u n d e d by ditch and palisade, perhaps with a timber gate tower and some wall t o w e r s . T h e m o t t e and bailey added a m o u n d topped by palisades and a timber tower. Even in 1 2 0 4 King J o h n was repairing his w o o d e n castles in Shropshire. Stone walls and mural towers were n o t completed at Corfe until a b o u t 1 2 8 5 ; until then some parts were still o f timber. T h e replacement of palisades on a m o t t e with stone walls created a 'shell k e e p ' , within whose protective walls buildings were set around (such as W i n d s o r and Arundel). At R e s t o r m e l in C o r n w a l l a shell keep sits on natural high ground in the middle o f a ring w o r k . However, the great tower, or d o n j o n (from the 1 6 t h century also called a ' k e e p ' ) , was still the dominating feature o f m a n y castles. Their n u m b e r s had multiplied during the 1 2 t h century and in the later years of the century cylindrical versions began to appear but were mostly seen in the West C o u n t r y and in N o r m a n castles built in Wales. S o m e donjons that appear to sit on a m o t t e actually have their foundations on solid ground, with the earth piled a r o u n d the walls to protect the base o f the tower. However, some were p l a c e d on t o p , w i t h the weight o f stone o n a m a n - m a d e m o u n d risking subsidence. A classic instance o f this is Clifford's T o w e r in Y o r k ; floods in 1 3 1 5 - 1 6 w e a k e n e d the base o f the artificial m o u n d and caused subsidence, w h i c h had caused the t o w e r t o c r a c k in t w o places by 1 3 6 0 , as seen today. It has been suggested that the introduction of stronger curtain walls and flanking towers heralded the demise of the donjon. Lacking true arrow loops

and largely limited to passive defence, these structures m a y have seemed white elephants. However, many donjons appear to have been built as much as statements of lordship, for entertaining or as private suites and these functions continued throughout the period, sometimes assisted by upgrading architectural details such as windows, as was done by the sons o f William M a r s h a l in the 1 1 t h - c e n t u r y donjon at Chepstow. Their basements also remained useful storage areas. Existing donjons could be a m a l g a m a t e d within new w o r k as functional buildings - an example being the White Tower, the huge early donjon at the T o w e r of L o n d o n . This continuity of function would develop into the tower house o f the 1 4 t h and 1 5 t h centuries. It c a n n o t be denied tha t fewer new donjons were erected in the 1 3 t h century but they still appeared. T h e quadrilobe design of Clifford's Tower was copied f r o m Etampes in F r a n c e . At Pontefract a lobed donjon was erected by the Lacys and brought up to date in the 1 4 t h century by J o h n of Gaunt. T h e great cylindrical tower at B a r n a r d Castle w a s erected in a b o u t 1 2 0 0 , while Edward I was building a similar shape on the old motte at Cambridge in 1 2 8 8 and he seems to have favoured a shell keep at Builth, as did his father at Pickering. Edward erected another cylindrical but otherwise unique design in about 1 2 7 0 at Flint in Wales. A huge n u m b e r of castles were already established across Britain by 1 2 0 0 and this number actually reduced as the Angevin kings t o o k tighter c o n t r o l of unauthorized castle building. T h e r e f o r e m o s t o f the building w o r k carried out during the next century, especially in E n g l a n d , was n o t on new structures but on improving the lot of existing castles. S o m e new castles were built, such as Bolingbroke (Lincolnshire) and Beeston (Cheshire). T h e s e examples were essentially fortified enceintes, curtain walls set with mural towers and lacking a donjon, on similar lines to the earlier layout at F r a m l i n g h a m . W h a t h a d changed by the 1 3 t h century w a s the strength o f defence a f f o r d e d t o the perimeter. Higher, sturdier walls with cylindrical or D-shaped flanking towers - or in the case o f Dyserth, p o l y g o n a l - set m o r e regularly and in greater number, contrasted with m a n y earlier defences tha t had often been o f w o o d .

The early 13th-century castle at Skenfrith, Gwent, has a cylindrical donjon within a curtain with D-shaped towers like those at contemporary Grosmont. Together with White Castle these form the Three Castles' built by Hubert de Burgh in the area. The foundations of a contemporary range of three rooms lie close by.

Some castles, such as Chepstow, had m o r e than one bailey but were similar to Richard I's stronghold of Chatea u Gaillard in N o r m a n d y , in that an enemy was expected to fight his w a y t h r o u g h o n e defended area after another, sometimes with a d o n j o n (usually already existing) as a final defence. However, here strength relied m o r e on providing several obstacles, without necessarily having the benefit of supporting fire from all walls. T h e early use of concentric defences seen in the 12th-century w o r k at D o v e r continued but such layouts never achieved such popularity as might be expected. This design of two lines of wall mutually supporting one another has been described as the high peak o f castle design. However, it w a s by its very nature e x t r e m e l y 11

Towers

The Bailey Gate led from the town into the fortifications at Castle Acre in the early 13th century.

expensive owing to the amount of stone required. After Dover, very few castles in England would b e c o m e c o n c e n t r i c , a l t h o u g h e x c a v a t i o n s at B a n b u r y suggest concentric walls that m a y date to a b o u t 1 2 3 0 . However, the Englishbuilt Caerphilly, Denbigh, Harlech and Beaumaris in Wales (the latter pair the work of Edward I himself) are all concentric. As a c o m p r o m i s e to the massive costs involved in concentric defence, a n u m b e r o f castles were adapted so that only the weakest side or sides were provided with an extra line o f defence. This meant that where r o c k outcrops or cliff faces etc were utilized, a double line of walls would only be used on the weakest sides, the probable direction from which an attack would c o m e . T h e first stone building period of c . 1 2 7 5 at Kidwelly saw a straightforward quadrilateral layout with the four angles covered by large circular towers standing within a 12th-century semicircular ditch whose palisade was upgraded t o stone in the early 1 4 t h century, while the fourth (eastern) side was protected by the sharp drop to the river Gwendraeth below. However, as is evident f r o m the castle building carried out by E d w a r d I, there is no convenient direct line of development that can be used to illustrate a progression in castle design. O n e of the f o r e m o s t castle builders o f the time, Edward used a variety o f designs as seen in his Welsh fortresses: donjons that were almost m o t t e and bailey in design (Flint), fortified enceintes ( C o n w y and C a e r n a r f o n ) and concentric (Harlech, B e a u m a r i s ) .

TOWERS Clifford's Tower (1) was a quadrilobe building with a palisade round the summit of the motte. A central pillar supported the beams for the first floor with the royal apartments, where there was a chapel. Water from the river Foss was diverted into an artificial lake, the King's Pool. Pontefract (2) had an irregular lobed tower, built up around an earlier motte, the widening internal gap being filled in. A strong tower was built on the motte at Sandal (3). The large barbican tower with ashlar facings had a guardroom with latrine

and presumably rooms on the now-lost level above. Entrance from the bailey was over a bridge (footings remain); a pit 3.8m (12.5ft) long and over three metres (ten feet) deep formed the inner side of a turning bridge, with possible other defences. A right turn led to a door barring the bridge (again, footings remain) across the motte ditch up to the gate. This and rather weak bailey walls and gate suggest the garrison intended to concentrate on the inner castle. Plans of the polygonal donjon atTickhill (4) built by Henry II, c.1178-80 and Odiham (5) built by King John, c.1207-12.

Varieties

T h e most impressive advance in fortification was in the design o f the gatehouse. Already at the beginning of the century some powerful examples were being constructed with twin towers either side o f the gate passage as opposed to a single tower or none at all. By the end o f the century some o f the most powerful gates in Europe had been built, set with multiple defences and suites of domestic quarters above. T h e entrance to a castle, that most vulnerable area, had become its strongest part. As gates were strengthened, their outer side was sometimes provided with an additional fortification, the barbican. By 1 3 0 0 the castle had effectively reached its apogee. It was as secure as could be designed within the limits o f its owner's purse, with every defensive trick available if required. T h e king effectively held the majority o f powerful royal castles and under that m o s t formidable m o n a r c h , E d w a r d I, m o n e y had been poured into his fortresses to provide the equal of anything seen in Europe. T o w n defences M a n y towns had grown up with the planting of N o r m a n castles. N e w or rebuilt castles in potentially turbulent areas might spawn a town beside them, and these were actively encouraged by Edward I in Wales, and there are also many town walls in the north of England. O f t e n these t o w n walls were status symbols rather than military fortifications. T h e s e defences tended to appear in the 13th century (or even later), being financed by a murage grant that allowed taxes to be raised or tolls levied, although not all building was thus assisted

Hubert de Burgh blocked solid the Norfolk Towers, damaged after the 1216 siege of Dover, and added the cylindrical St John's Tower (far left) in the ditch, reached via a passage, to flay the area with missiles.

VARIETIES The late-13th-century shell keep at Restormel sits on a low natural motte, the bailey also protected by a curtain wall (1). Caerphilly not only has massive water defences but was also a powerful concentric castle (2), completed c.1290. A spit of gravel between two streams was cut off to create an island for the castle, connected to a smaller island (the West Platform), while the North Bank (made from earth from the ditches) created the outer bank of a moat as well. The North and South lakes were controlled by strongly defended dams to prevent the lakes being drained. Gilbert de Clare, present at the siege of Kenilworth, may have been inspired by those effective defences to construct his own version at Caerphilly.

Built in the late 13th century, Goodrich had stout rock ditches on the south and west sides but an outer wall was added on the two other sides to increase the fortification, making the castle partially concentric (3). Chepstow is sited along a cliff top overlooking the river Wye (4). The 11th-century donjon effectively cuts off the Upper Bailey and its barbican from the Middle and Lower baileys. Much of the castle is of various periods in the late 12th and 13th centuries, with Roger Bigod's work (c.1270-1306) seen in the domestic range and huge mural tower in the Lower Bailey (foreground). (5) Largely dating from c.1220-1240, Beeston's surviving section of outer curtain shows how it girdled the lower slopes of a crag, the inner ward crowning the summit beyond.

and, conversely, some grants were not used to build walls. Royal boroughs were usually given walls. F o r strategic or financial reasons walls might slice through existing street layouts. If a castle was present the walls usually met those of the castle (as at Ludlow). Sometimes stone replaced the timber palisades of previous centuries. Some towns that could not afford complete walls made do with gates across main roads, which also assisted in the charging of tolls. At Launceston in C o r n w a l l the walls and gates were built towards the end o f the 1 3 t h c e n t u r y (the E a s t g a t e and s o m e wall sections survive). Some gatehouses had a chapel as in castle construction. Nearly all the new towns in Wales were given defences and some o f the best walls o f the period are those at C o n w y and C a e r n a r f o n , described in a n o t h e r volume. T h e walls at N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e , dating f r o m the s e c o n d h a l f o f the 1 3 t h century, provide a useful insight into t o w n fortification. In places they are six metres ( 2 0 f t ) high and t w o metres (seven feet) thick, with the parados overhanging the rear face o f the wall and supported by corbels. M o s t towers are D-shaped and set at fairly regular intervals with a ditch dug in front after the walls were built. E a c h consists o f a single vaulted storey, lit by loops and accessed from the rear at ground level. T h e battlement level that rose above the walls either side was accessed via steps f r o m the wall w a l k . E a c h t o w e r was provided with a p e r m a n e n t set o f c o r b e l s , to carry w o o d e n hoardings to overlook the wall base. In order to supplement these towers there are in addition turrets that sit upon the wall at intervals but project b a c k w a r d s on corbels. Each is furnished with a single loop and gave some protection from the elements to sentries entering via the w a l l - w a l k . T h e b a t t l e m e n t level o f the turret was reached by an external stair. Together with these defences were several gates, each consisting o f a passage flanked by twin towers, the West G a t e with a barbican and also w a t e r gates and sally ports. Building castles R o y a l castle w o r k w a s largely under the c o n t r o l o f the local sheriff, w h o l o o k e d after the finances involved, while 'viewers', non-technical inspectors, checked progress and actively itinerant kings like J o h n saw at first hand what w a s being done. T o w a r d s the end o f the 1 2 t h century the financial side was passed usually t o the c o n s t a b l e o f a castle when m a j o r w o r k was to be done, and by a b o u t 1 2 1 0 supervision was being given to a m a n designated for a particular site o p e r a t i o n . T h e n a m e custodes operacionum - 'keepers of the w o r k s ' - began t o be applied to such men, w h o b e c a m e m o r e established under H e n r y III.

The 12th-century outer curtain at Dover was reinforced by King John and Henry III. The former built Crevecoeur Tower (far left) and Godsfoe Tower, whose square design may be attributable to it being the chamber block to a hall. Henry built the Constable's Gateway (far right) with flanking towers. 16

Ingeniatores (or engineers) under King J o h n include Fortinus, w h o received a robe in 1 2 0 3 - 0 4 for w o r k repairing Colchester Castle, and William Baiard at Nottingham ( 1 2 0 4 - 0 5 ) . M a s t e r Urri was mainly hired to oversee the royal siege engines, including those in F r a n c e and Ireland. M a s t e r Albert was rewarded by J o h n for his services, while M a s t e r Elyas of O x f o r d , w h o first appears on the Pipe Roll in 1 1 8 7 , worked for J o h n on O x f o r d , Portchester and the Tower before disappearing in 1 2 0 3 . Ingeniatores in the records o f the 12th and early 13th centuries m ay have been responsible for buildings or for siege engines (and on campaign) and do n o t seem to have as defined a role as the small band of master craftsmen employed such as M a s t e r Osbert, a m a s o n (petrarius) at Gloucester Castle in 1 2 0 7 and later Corfe. Both select groups were paid from the royal W a r d r o be . King J o h n had more carpenters working during his reign than other types, mainly because o f the requirements of siege warfare. M a s t e r N i c h o l a s de Andeli w a s a F r e n c h carpenter (who possibly worked on Chateau Gaillard in N o r m a n d y ) in service about 4 0 years under J o h n and Henry III, dying in 1 2 4 5 ; William the Englishman was a master (died 1 2 1 4 ) as was Richard de Arches (at O x f o r d Castle in 1 2 1 5 ) . Henry III had 5 8 royal castles directly under his c o n t r o l when he c a m e o f age in 1 2 2 7 but grants saw this increasingly fall to 4 7 at the time o f his death. He had several master craftsmen including some noted above: M a s t e r Stephen (master m a s o n at C o r f e in 1 2 1 3 and the n e w hall at W i n c h e s t e r ) ; M a s t e r Simon o f N o r t h a m p t o n (carpenter, m e n t i o n e d f r o m 1 2 2 6 - w o r k e d at Windsor and at Y o r k in 1 2 4 5 ) ; and M a s t e r H e n r y de R a y n s (given r o b e as master of king's masons in 1 2 4 3 - Y o r k in 1 2 4 5 ) . Special inquests highlighted m i s c o n d u c t by sheriffs in using funds f o r building, as f o r e x a m p l e at N o t t i n g h a m Castle in 1 2 5 5 , and the king decided to act. H e n a m e d M a s t e r J o h n o f G l o u c e s t e r ( m a s o n ) and M a s t e r A l e x a n d e r the c a r p e n t e r ' c h i e f masters of all w o r k s of castles, m a n o r s and houses on this side o f Trent and H u m b e r ' in 1 2 5 7 , and they were kept busy, as at Portchester Castle in 1 2 5 6 , viewing defects. W h e n both had died, R o b e r t o f Beverley was appointed 'chief viewer' of the Tower, Windsor, R o c h e s t e r and Hadleigh castles in 1 2 7 1 . 17

U n d e r E d w a r d I the m o s t f a m o u s m a s t e r w a s J a m e s o f St G e o r g e , a Savoyard w h o w a s the genius behind m a n y o f the king's greatest works in W a l e s . In the late 1 3 t h century Philip Scrope is recorded as a local mason w o r k i n g at C o r f e , while M a s t e r T h o m a s o f H o u g h t o n w a s a carpenter serving the king in E n g l a n d , Wales and S c o tland. A carpenter called R o b e r t o f C o l e b r o o k was w o r k i n g especially at the Tower. M a s t e r Peter was employed by R o g e r Leyburn to strengthen the hoardings at Sandwich and to organize the m a k i n g o f stone shot for the catapults; these were carefully shaped into spheres o f a required size by m a s o n s , not simply used as they c a m e out o f the ground; standardizing size and weight assisted in m a k i n g each shot fall within a similar target area. Castle planning w a s a m a t t e r o f c o n s u l t a t i o n between the king or lord and his master m a s o n . N e w castles might take a c c o u n t o f natural defensive features, such as cliffs, while r o c k f o u n d a t i o n s deterred mining and rivers were g o o d for access a n d controlling traffic. O n c e the site was agreed the defensive ditches or m o a t s could be dug by the ditch diggers (fossatores) and miners (minatores), w h o also w o r k e d on vaults and f o u n d a t i o n s . Ditches were the first obstacle to any attack and a b o o n when working in unsettled areas such as the m a r c h e s o f Wales o r S c o t l a n d . A natural source o f such l a b o u r w a s the fenlands o f eastern E n g l a n d , t o g e t h e r with N o r f o l k and Suffolk, although Y o r k s h i r e , Cheshire and N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e also sent high n u m b e r s . If a river needed diverting or was t o be utilized in flooding a m o a t then experienced w o r k e r s were needed to achieve this using dams or sluices. In potentially hostile areas timber palisades might be erected first to shield the men w o r k i n g on the stone walls. However, at R e s t o r m e l the gatehouse seems t o have been built first, to protect the weakest spot before the main walls were begun, while in 1 2 0 4 J o h n ordered the justiciar of Ireland to build the t o w e r at D u b l i n castle first, followed by 'a castle and bailey', so that the strongest point was established. Walls were built up often in levels with work carrying on until the w e a t h e r deteriorated, w h e n the stone would be covered by straw o r t h a t c h t o p r o t e c t it f r o m frost until spring. Sometimes it is possible t o trace each year's building period in a given wall. Different types of mason were used: hewers or quarriers (quareatores) freed the stone f r o m the quarry, using wedges t o split the r o c k ; rough masons (petrarii) then cut the blocks. Expensive, dressed ashlar stone was often limited to c o r n e r s , door, w i n d o w or loop surrounds, or battlements; for this, free masons were employed, w h o also carved capitals and decorated the window apertures in the finer r o o m s with tracery. Frequently walls were built as two skins, between which was a mass of rock and stone bonded with mortar and sometimes strengthened by rods or chains set across the wall to help bind everything together. L o c a l stone was often utilized; shillet was used at Restormel in Co rnwall, with only small areas of good white stone, probably brought 1 6 k m (ten miles) from Pentewan. R e d sandstone was used at many castles such as G o o d r i c h . M a g n e s i u m limestone was used at Clifford's Tower. M o r t a r was made from quicklime, the stone being heated in a furnace to break it up before being mixed with water on site by lime burners. Sometimes the original layout was altered following partial erection, as seems to have h a p p e n e d at G r o s m o n t and W h i t e Castle (and possibly at Caerphilly), where the axis o f the castles was turned through 9 0 degrees in the 1 2 6 0 s . N o t all w o r k w a s on n e w building or the replacement of timber by s t o n e . C o r f e h a d w o r k c a r r i e d o ut on the d o n j o n a n u m b e r o f times, especially w h e n King J o h n w a s building his residential suite, the 'Gloriette', T

The great hall at Winchester has the largest internal areas of any 13th-century hall, with twin rows of aisle pillars. On the wall hangs the 'Round Table', a 13th-century construction repainted in the 16th century and probably used in the pageants known as 'Round Tables'.

next to it. In 1 2 4 4 the exterior was r o u g h c a s t to deal with m a s o n r y defects and then whitened . T h e d o n j o n w a s heightened in 1 2 9 3 - 9 4 , overseen by Brother Bernard w h o seems to have been a carpenter. Towers were sometimes given n a m e s : at C o r f e in the 1 2 8 0 s , w o r k w a s c o m p l e t e d on f o u r t o w e r s called ' B u t a v a n t ' , ' C o c k a y n e ' , 'Plenty' and 'Sauveray'. Carpenters were required in great n u m b e r s , initially to provide the scaffolding, which was of t w o kinds, either placed against the walls or on horizontal beams supported in holes left in the wall face called putlogs. T h e diagonal or spiral setting of such holes on some buildings c a m e from Savoy and allowed stones to be dragged up the sloping planked trackway, rather than cranes having to be used, which slowed progress; human treadmills could turn larger examples. By this m e t h o d stones could be hoisted using pincers that utilized leverage to grip securely; winches were used to haul buckets. Carpenters also fashioned r o o f timbers and trusses, ceiling beams and f l o o r b o a r d s , the former set into holes in the wall or else supported on stone corbels. T h e great gatehouse doors and moveable bridge had to be constructed with perhaps a 19

timber bridge partly spanning the ditch. D o o r s and window shutters, drawbars, ladders, cupboards or wall cupboard doors, bed frames, tables, benches and a few chairs and footstools were needed. Defensive siege engines might also be required. Buildings in the bailey might be of timber and timber framing was c o m m o n l y employed instead of planking or posts, the spaces filled with wattle and daub - a mixture of straw, mud and manure - that was then whitewashed. T h e north tower at the fortified m a n o r of Stokesay has clay blockwork between the timbers of its projecting first-floor walls. Lead, tiles, wooden shingles or thatch could be used for roofing. Hurdatores made the hoardings, the timber galleries erected along battlements. Set squares, dividers and compasses, p l u m b lines and other instruments were basically similar to those of today. M e t a l tools would become blunt or break, so smiths were needed to sharpen or repair them constantly, as well as to produce hinges, latches, chains and the thousands of iron nails to hold things together. C o a l was brought to the site for their furnaces and for the mortar

BELOW LEFT The tower at Launceston, Cornwall, was built on the Norman motte probably after 1227 by Richard of Cornwall, within a slightly earlier shell wall. The gap between was roofed over, providing a wider fighting platform. Wing walls ran down the motte sides and a gatehouse stood at the base. (By kind permission of Anthony de Reuck) BELOW RIGHT The Norman motte at Pickering, Yorkshire, was given a shell keep (possibly on an earlier wall) between 1216 and 1236, very probably by Geoffrey de Nevill, sheriff of Yorkshire. Circular internally, the outer face is actually faceted with dressed ashlar at the shallow angles. (By kind permission of Anthony de Reuck)

20

fires. In 1 2 7 5 M a s t e r Henry of Lewes entered service as the king's smith at the T o w e r of L o n d o n , specifically creating military articles. Plasterers decorated r o o m interiors. M a s t e r W i l l i a m , the king's painter w h o supervised w o r k at W i n d s o r for Henry III, was a m o n k of Westminster. Carters and packhorses were a necessity to convey materials and this cost huge sums. F o o d and drink had to be provided, and in unsettled territory an armed guard provided. J o h n spent m o r e on castles than any other o f the Angevin kings - over £ 1 7 , 0 0 0 f o r his reign covering 9 5 castles. T h e south o f E n g l a n d needed protection from foreign invasion, hence J o h n spent much on Dover, Rochester and S o u t h a m p t o n (particularly at the latter after losing N o r m a n d y in 1 2 0 4 ) . In the west he spent over £ 1 , 4 0 0 on C o r f e , m u c h o f this on the 'Gloriette' in the early years o f his rule. H e built H a n l e y in Worcestershire but tended to leave protection o f the borders to the M a r c h e r lords. In his second expedition to N o r t h Wales in 1 2 1 1 he built or refortified perhaps ten to 1 4 minor castles (probably mainly earth and timber, mostly lost within t w o years). In the north castles were strengthened m o r e against English b a r o n i a l unrest than the Scottish t h r e a t . Despite rising prices, m u c h m o n e y was spent on castles, especially as the political situation deteriorated. As his reign drew on J o h n spent heavily on Lancaster, S c a r b o r o u g h and K n a r e s b o r o u g h (more on the latter t w o t h a n any others in his reign). By c o n t r a s t costs for L a u n c e s t o n barely ever reached £ 2 0 during his reign. H e n r y III spent approximately £ 8 5 , 0 0 0 on castle w o r k s during his reign, a b o u t £ 1 , 5 0 0 per a n n u m or one 2 0 t h o f his g o v e r n m e n t receipts. In total £ 1 5 , 0 0 0 was spent on Windsor, over £ 1 0 , 0 0 0 on Welsh castles, £ 9 , 6 8 3 on the

Tower of London, £ 9 , 6 5 5 on Winchester and £ 7 , 5 0 0 on Dover. In the first ten years of his reign the royal guardians initiated a new hall at Winchester and upgrades at Rochester, H e r t f o r d , L i n c o l n , Devizes, the west curtain o f Windsor, the Wakefield T o w e r at the T o w e r o f L o n d o n and a b a r b i c a n at Bristol. Windsor, Winchester, the Tower, N o t t i n g h a m , M a r l b o r o u g h , Bristol and Gloucester were also royal residences and so H e n r y lavished m o n e y on their decoration as well as defence, the cheapest outlay being Gloucester at £ 1 , 6 6 1 . Over £ 1 0 , 0 0 0 was spent on Corfe during Henry's reign: 2 7 , 0 0 0 nails were bought together with 8 0 0 o a k s a n d the same n u m b e r o f b o a r d s . £ 3 0 0 was spent on repairs to the donjon in 1 2 3 5 , while £ 6 2 went on partially replacing the palisades with walls. However, castles in outlying areas were often neglected unless the king happened to visit the area; even at Y o r k the motte received a new stone tower (Clifford's Tower) only when H e n r y arrived in 1 2 4 5 , some 4 0 years after the timber defences had blown down. Whe n Edward came to the throne there were no royal castles in north Wales. T h e Tower of L o n d o n , Bristol, Chester, Dover, Leeds (Kent), N o t t i n g h a m , Rockingham, Winchester and York were maintained for the king. Edward spent heavily on the Tower but also on Cambridge (to boost royal authority in East Anglia), Corfe (he completed the outer bailey o f J o h n ) , R o c k i n g h a m and at Chester, and St Briavel's (new gateways). Conversely, castles on the Welsh borders such as Hereford, Bridgnorth and Shrewsbury, were no longer vital following the king's Welsh invasions, and were allowed to decline. Some castles in England were licensed to local barons, but these were often still allowed to fall into disrepair.

THE PRINCIPLES OF DEFENCE T h e first line of defence in any castle was the ditch or m o a t . M a n y m o a t s were dry because o f the difficulty experienced in successfully diverting water f r o m a river or stream. Some sites were naturally wet, which would result in the b o t t o m o f the ditch being boggy and partly filling with w a t e r during w e t weather, enough to slow an attacker trying to cross it. Some ditch sides were revetted in timber or even in stone to m a k e them smooth and difficult to climb.

The inner gatehouse at Beeston, Cheshire, part of the new castle built in the 1200s by Ranulf, earl of Chester probably in response to increasing royal power after the civil wars of John's reign. (Copyright English Heritage. NMR) 21

Defence

Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire, was a strongly fortified enclosure built by Ranulf at about the same time as Beeston. (Copyright English Heritage. NMR)

Timber stakes could be planted to slow attackers threading between them and make them easier targets. A few castles had e n o r m o u s water defences, such as Kenilworth or at Caerphilly. However, some dry ditches are themselves quite formidable such as that at Beeston which w a s hewn f r o m the r o c k . T h e curtain walls of a castle provided the next obstacle. Some were built along the bank thrown up on the inner side o f the ditch during excavation, which added height. A counterscarp or b a n k might also be raised on the outer rim of the ditch. Walls were invariably topped by a fighting platform: a wall walk and battlements consisting of solid merlons and gaps to shoot through, the crenels (hence the licence to crenellate, or fortify a place). Surviving merlons from the late 13th century at Chepstow in South Wales, together with some in North Wales and northern England, show that carved figures might be placed on the top of each. Merlons were sometimes provided with arrow loops and the crenels with pivoting wooden shutters to protect soldiers further on the wall walk. T h e inner side of the wall occasionally also had a low wall (parados). T h e 13th century saw an increase in the n u m b e r o f mural towers set along the curtain to break it up and b l o c k m o v e m e n t for those reaching the wall heads. W o o d e n doors with bolts or d r a w b a r s usually controlled access f r o m the wall walks. O t h e r doors into towers were also defended; M a r t e n ' s T o w e r

Q

DEFENCE

Kenilworth Castle as it may have appeared in the siege of 1266 (1). It stood on a spit of land that was surrounded by a lake some 45ha (111 acres) in area, with the approach along the rear of the spit protected by a dry ditch. Note that the modern castle has extra buildings and the moat is now grass. There is little surviving walling where the outer ward once stood. Spur buttresses, as at Marten's Tower, Chepstow, presented solid masonry to an enemy (2). Heber Tower (3) on the town wall at Newcastle also has stone corbels for a wooden hoarding. A projecting corbelled latrine (not visible here) was provided next to it and a turret a short way off. Open-backed mural towers, possibly closed by wood, were

sometimes preferred to solid-backed towers. Dover had its 12th-century concentric defences extended in the 13th century to seal off completely the ridge it commands (4). After the siege of Dover in 1216 the vulnerable and damaged gate was completely blocked. Hubert de Burgh constructed a tunnel that emerged from the bank to a roofed section leading into St John's Tower in the moat with sortie doorways, then to an earthwork or spur (5). The dam defences at Caerphilly (6) were built in two stages: the heavily buttressed south platform (left) is c.1268-71, with a watermill; the north platform is c.1277-90, complete with hexagonal barbican tower in the moat.

at C h e p s t o w is a large example and every door in it originally had a portcullis running in slots up into the floor a b o v e . O n rugged sites single towers are sometimes seen at salient points o f the wall, such as at M o n t g o m e r y . Some towers were square but a few early in the century were octagonal to lessen the angles and so reduce the corner blind spot and provide fewer targets for a miner's p i c k a x e . Built in the 1 2 3 0 s by H u b e r t de Burgh, Hadleigh's p o l y g o n a l bailey plan still had square t o w e r s at some c o r n e r s , unlike his w o r k s ten years earlier at Skenfrith and G r o s m o n t with their cylindrical towers (possibly as a result of cost). By this time most towers were D-shaped, curved t o the field, or else completely cylindrical. In the late 1 2 t h or early 1 3 t h centuries an o p e n - b a c k e d , tim ber-fram ed rectangular mural tower at Deddington in O x f o r d s h i r e was inserted into the motte during an overhaul of the inner defences. At Beeston the D-shaped inner curtain towers had solid b a c k s , while the outer towers were o p e n - b a c k e d but m ay have been closed with timber. Towers were built out from the curtain and furnished with loops to enable the garrison to flay the face of the curtain with a r r o w s or bolts. T h e y were usually greater in height as well, so that they could overlook the curtain. Wall bases might be battered t o thicken the m and a l l o w missiles dropped from a b o v e to b o u n c e out. G o o d r i c h has t w o forms o f this strengthening around its t o w e r s , m irrored at Chepstow. C o m m a n d o f the wall base was achieved by erecting wooden hoardings or brattices, shed-like structures projecting from the battlements and supported on great b e a m s inserted through a line o f slots (putlog holes) under the battlements. Gaps in the planked flooring allowed offensive materials such as stones, boiling water, pitch, red-hot sand, arrows or bolts to be showered down on to the heads o f attackers. Loops were left in the front face of the hoardings to facilitate archers. However, being of w o o d they were vulnerable to fire so ideally should be daubed with clay or covered by rawhides but they could n o t withstand a heavy b l o w f r o m catapults. H e n r y III built one along the battlements of the south front of the White Tower, overlooking the entrance door. T h e logical progression from the w o o d e n hoarding was the expensive alternative of machicolation, bringing forward an entire section of battlements on stone corbels, with gaps between the corbels. W h e n used, machicolations tended to be confined to gateways and some towers, but are less c o m m o n in England than elsewhere in Europe. T h e development of the gatehouse At the beginning of the 1 3 t h century a gate might consist of a door through a wall with a mural tower beside it to protect it, such as the gate into the middle bailey at William Marshal's castle at Chepstow. Other castles had a single tower with an entrance passage running through it. T h e 12th-century version at Lincoln Castle's West Gate was heavily restored in 1 2 3 3 - 3 4 . Although both f o r m s w o u l d continue into the later M i d d l e Ages, gate defences were to improve beyond measure in the following decades, resulting in the most powerful gatehouses ever seen. T h e idea of using flanking towers side by side to create a passage between them had already been seen at Dover in the 1 1 8 0 s , but such new ideas were not universally taken up for many years. After the failed siege at Dover by Prince Louis in 1 2 1 6 an older tower was turned into a passage consisting of two D-shaped towers back to back. However, cylindrical or D-shaped towers were the usual form as twin-towered gates multiplied. Some of these early designs

were not so much towers as solid bastions. At the turn of the century de Warenne built such a gate on the north side of the town defences at Castle Acre, with another guarding the entry into the castle from the town. These each had two doors plus portcullises to block the passage, with a chamber each side of it. M o n t g o m e r y Castle was provided with a powerful gatehouse built in the ten or so years from 1 2 2 4 and is one o f the first in this style. Similar in date are the twin-towered gatehouses at Beeston in Cheshire and B o l i n g b r o k e in Lincolnshire, though their general layouts differ. Beeston's gates are the first of this design built by a b a r o n , R a n u l f o f Chester, rather than a king. A timber or stone bridge would span the m o a t or ditch, with a movable section by the gate. A few small castles m a y still have used bridges that were s o m e h ow run in, perhaps on rollers, w h e n necessary. O t h e r s were lifted by chains that ran through telltale slots in the wall face into an upper r o o m with a winch m e c h a n i s m . O n c e vertical the bridge often fitted into a rebate in the wall.

The ruins of the inner gatehouse of about 1229 at Montgomery, Powys. It covered much of the narrow southern end of the ward. Twin towers with solid masonry bases to deter mining extend back to provide a rectangular room each side that could not be accessed from the gate passage. The western room, originally entered from above and lacking natural light, may have been a prison; the eastern room was used to operate the drawbar for the main door. Upper rooms were reached by a timber stair built against the rear, a rare feature.

The Island at Tintagel, Cornwall, contains early structures and was reached from the inner gate, whose ruins can be seen here. The Inner Ward lay beyond, with the walls of the Lower Ward visible behind. The latter led into the Upper Ward and out to the mainland. Much appears to be the work of Richard of Cornwall in the 1230s.

The walls and mural towers of the inner ward at Pevensey, Sussex, were probably the work of Peter of Savoy in the mid-13th century, though the twin-towered gatehouse could even date from the early years of the century.

Less c o m m o n in England than Continental Europe was the bascule bridge, in w h i c h the bridge chains rose a l m o s t vertically to great w o o d e n beams that ran b a c k t h r o u g h slots in the w a l l , c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d at the rear t o assist lifting. H o w e v e r , quite a f e w castles m a d e use o f the turning bridge, which again utilized weights but this time attached at the rear o f the bridge itself, which ran b a c k into the gate passage. R e m o v i n g pins allowed the weighted rear to pivot d o w n into a lined pit while the f r o n t end swung up, thus presenting an additional obstacle. In some examples, only the long bridge beams (to which the planking w a s fixed) dropped into slots in the floor, or else the counterweights did, as at the B l a c k G a t e at N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e . T h i c k w o o d e n d o o r s p r o t e c t e d the p a s s a g e , secured by d r a w b a r s t h a t usually r a n i n t o slots in the s t o n e w o r k , a l t h o u g h s o m e turned on a central pivot. In a d d i t i o n , o n e o r m o r e portcullises c o u l d be added. T h e portcullis w a s a lattice, f r e q u e n t l y o f w o o d sheathed in iron but o c c a s i o n a l l y all metal,

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GATEHOUSES

The Constable's Gate at Dover (1), built by Hubert de Burgh between 1221 and 1227 to replace the old gate damaged by Prince Louis in 1216, was made by creating a passage through a cut-down tower of King John's reign (c.1205-14), protected by two D-shaped towers back to back. Adjacent towers gave flanking fire. The early inner twin gate at Beeston of c.1220 has a single room across the first floor (2). A room below the gate passage reached by a stair from the west tower may have been a prison or just possibly a sally port or postern, in the same vein as under gatehouses in some south Welsh castles. The ruined outer gate was probably very similar. The mid-13th-century gatehouse at Pembroke consists of a passage flanked by two rectangular towers but only one extends forwards to form a D-shaped tower (3). Two doors are each guarded by a portcullis and a meurtriere, a slot running across above the passage, with a third beyond the inner door. The mid-13th-century Black Gate at Newcastle guarded the entrance to the castle through an angled passage (4). It had a

turning bridge, whose counterweights fell into three slots, and flanking towers back to back. The inner east gatehouse at Caerphilly (5) of c.1268-71 is a massive structure built by Gilbert de Clare and almost certainly inspired by his father's almost identical gatehouse at Tonbridge castle in Kent. A water chute from the room over the passage opened on the wall above the inner doorway for dousing fires. The towers either side were provided with latrines and a chapel, while a hall complete with hooded fireplace and window seats occupied the whole top floor, probably for the constable. Unusually Goodrich (6) has one large flanking tower, with a chapel in the ground floor, but a much smaller tower the other side that held only a passage (far right) to a guard chamber at the front and latrine at the back but was furnished with a loop into the main gate passage. The turning bridge had three counterweights dropping into slots, then two doors with two portcullises between them. The portcullis chamber wall has cutaways to accommodate the winches of the first portcullis.

Gatehouses

running up and d o w n in grooves in the wall. Very occasionally, as at Cooling in K e n t , it ran over the outer face of the wall. In an emergency it was a matter o f a few m o m e n t s t o release the w i n c h a n d let the sheer weight drop the portcullis at speed. T h e area above the passage where the winch mechanisms operated could be m a d e into one or m o r e r o o m s by timber partitions. T h e gate passage itself w a s often vaulted or arched to carry timber floors that could be pierced by openings. T h e s e meurtrieres or 'murder holes' as they are called, were m o s t likely designed for pouring d o w n cold water to douse fires started by an attacker, but there is n o reason that offensive materials could n o t be loosed on t o the heads o f the unwary. T h e towers either side could be used to house porters and guards in time of peace, while garrison t r o o p s could use them to rush out on anyone breaching the defences. Some have loopholes opening into the passage as well as on to the outside. The barbican A barbican is a forework built in front of a gate to protect it. Occasionally of timber, only a small number of stone examples survive in Britain. T h e rebuilding of O x f o r d Castle after the siege of 1 2 1 6 resulted in a D-shaped barbican being built, the ditch sides revetted in clay (gravelly soil). T h e rear wall was timber

The remains of the mid-13th-century lobated tower set around and enclosing the Norman motte at Pontefract Castle, West Yorkshire. The lobed design is somewhat similar to that at Clifford's Tower, York. 28

framed on horizontal timbers, as with the barbican at Chepstow. D-shaped open barbicans were used at the T o w e r of L o n d o n (now concreted over) and Goodrich Castle, perhaps with lean-to buildings inside. Unusually, Sandal Castle was provided with a barbican in the bailey, a tower to guard the approach to the tower on the motte. T h e West Gate at Lincoln Castle was reworked in the late 12th or early 13th century and consists o f t w o parallel walls jutting out from the gate but n o w modified on the north to form a rectangular platform some one metre long by half that in width; w h a t it was for is not certain since only a very small catapult or spring engine could be sited here. T h e p o s t e r n o r sally p o r t Sally ports are small openings that could be utilized instead of lowering the drawbridge and raising the portcullis of the main gate; they might also allow the garrison to make surprise attacks on besiegers or provide access for a messenger. Some were guarded by a portcullis as well as one or more doors. M any, as at Bolingbroke, consist of only a narrow door set in the curtain. At M o n t g o m e r y , the walls blocking the ditch between middle and inner wards had posterns, while Sandal had a postern in the western wing wall that linked the bailey to the motte. Knaresborough had a postern with a portcullis guarding the passage (some 2 7 . 5 m ) midway. Bristol had a tunnel (16m) opening out near the bottom of the ditch. Henry Ill's circular tower at Winchester Castle had a passage leading from the basement through a tunnel under the ditch to emerge in the city, while a second c a m e out in the western suburb. Dover's tunnels, built by Hubert de Burgh after the 1 2 1 6 siege, linked St John's Tower in the moat to a forward spur. H e also built, on the eastern curtain, FitzWilliam Gateway with flanking towers en bee; designed mainly as a side gate or sally port, late in the century, the king was expected to use it if he arrived at night.

TOUR OF A CASTLE: THE TOWER OF LONDON IN THE 13TH CENTURY In 1 2 0 0 the T o w e r o f L o n d o n h a d already been in existence f o r a b o u t 1 2 5 years, a ditched and palisaded enclosure tucked into the south-east corner of the City of L o n d o n and protected on the south and east by the old R o m a n city wall. Already in the later 1 2 t h century R i c h a r d I had expanded the castle

The gatehouse at Rockingham Castle, Northamptonshire, has been restored but retains much fabric of the mid-13th century flanking towers.

The Wakefield Tower, the huge cylindrical residential tower built by Henry III on what were then the outer walls of the Tower of London. Henry's water gate (later the heightened Bloody Tower) is just visible to the left. On the right the arch of Edward I's new water gate, St Thomas's Tower, spans the dock. It is connected to the Wakefield Tower by the Victorian reconstruction of Edward's bridge.

The Byward Tower (left) at the Tower of London, with a late medieval or Tudor second floor. It is the inner of Edward I's two gatehouses and connects via a causeway to the Middle Tower standing in the moat (the latter was partly resurfaced in Portland stone in the 18th century). To far right can be seen the slots for the counterweights of the turning bridge that guarded the now vanished barbican, the Lion Tower.

westwards and defined a new boundary. T h e Bell Tower remains at the southwest corner o f this wall, its offset polygonal base made of marble to withstand the river w a t e r but with a cylindrical upper part. H e n r y III e x p a n d e d east a n d n o r t h , while E d w a r d I turned the T o w e r i n t o a p o w e r f u l c o n c e n t r i c c a s t l e , r e a c h i n g its m a x i m u m size. T h e tour begins w i t h the w o r k o f H e n r y . All the b a t t l e m e n t s visible t o d a y are 19th-century reconstructions. In the 1 2 2 0 s , during Henry's minority, work began on a massive cylindrical tower probably on a R o m a n bastion and sited in what had been the south-west corner o f the old N o r m a n castle, before Richard's extension. This is the

Wakefield Tower, then known as the Blundeville Tower or Hall Tower. A second tower was also begun, probably the Lanthorn Tower (rebuilt in 1 8 8 3 - 8 4 ) that is set at the south-east corner, the only mural tower with three floors rather than two. Both new towers were given chamber blocks that connected to a hall complex and m ay have been arranged for the king and queen. Henry certainly had r o o m s in the Wakefield Tower as well as the adjoining chamber. A curtain wall running north from the area of the Wakefield Tower, close to the original line of the N o r m a n wall, turned east to meet the donjon (the White Tower) at its south-west corner. Foundations in the grass here show Henry's ne w inner entrance, Coldharbour Gate, with its D-shaped flanking towers leading into his private palace area. Today only the Wakefield Tower and rebuilt Lanthorn Tower remain; their c h a m b e r blocks are gone and the palace area is n o w laid to grass. J u s t west o f the Wakefield Tower a water gate was built, the G a r d e n T o w e r (now with a 15th-century upper floor and called the B l o o d y T o w e r after its questionable association with the later disappearance of the 'Little Princes', Edward V and his brother).

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In 1 2 3 8 the Tower boundaries were pushed out northwards and eastwards with new curtain walls, so doubling the castle's area. T h e old R o m a n city wall running down to the Thames on the eastern side of the castle was n o w defunct and was probably dismantled; today only 'tramlines' in the grass within the castle indicate where it once formed the easternmost boundary of the Tower and indeed the City of London. Five powerful D-shaped mural towers were built along the new curtains. At the north-west corner is the Devereux Tower, then along the north side the Flint (rebuilt in the 19th century), Bowyer, Brick (also rebuilt) and Martin towers; down the eastern curtain are the Constable and Broad A r r o w towers, with the Salt Tower at the south-east corner. A postern door is located on the outside of the Broad Arrow Tower but is n o w about 2 . 8 m (nine feet) off the ground, since Edward I had the ground cut away and the foundations underpinned to heighten these towers when adding his outer ring in front.

Seen from the outer ward, the postern gate in the inner east wall beside the Broad Arrow Tower, shows the ground level in the mid-13th century. (© The Board of Trustees of the Armouries)

A new gate t o w e r was erected on the western curtain n o r t h o f the Bell Tower, being on a line with Great Tower Street beyond. However, on 2 3 April 1 2 4 0 the gate collapsed (as did a section o f wall, p r o b a b l y nearby, a year later). Archaeology has revealed the footings o f this tower. H e n r y ordered that the great donjon be given a c o a t o f w h i t e w a s h (no longer visible) and gave it the n a m e it retains to this day - the W h i t e Tower. D o w n p i p e s were added to stop rainwater spoiling the n e w l o o k .

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NEXT PAGE: TOUR OF THE TOWER OF LONDON

The plate depicts the Tower at its greatest expansion under Edward I, a huge concentric castle complete with wet moat and triple gate defences. At the heart of the complex stands the massive Norman donjon, the White Tower, which was still in use and now whitewashed by Henry III. King Richard's expansion west, marked by the polygonal Bell Tower at the south-west corner, allowed the original bailey south of the donjon to become a private ward for the king and queen, entered via Coldharbour Gate. Henry III pushed the new castle boundaries north and east with new curtain walls, before Edward added an outer ring. The new gate defences of Edward I begin with a half-moon barbican, the Lion Tower, from which access was afforded to the Middle Tower within the moat and thence the Byward Tower,

which also had a postern. Access between the inner and outer walls was also controlled by partition walls. Edward increased the firepower of the western inner wall with a powerful line of embrasures commanding the ground beyond and making use of the slope to the lower outer wall. They were supported by the great bulk of the Beauchamp Tower, which replaced the old gatehouse. Edward's new water gate, St Thomas's Tower, allowed boats to moor directly in the basin within its walls. The old water gate (in use before Edward claimed the land from the river for his new walls, and later named the Bloody Tower) stands behind on the inner walls, flanked by the cylindrical Wakefield Tower, part of the private royal lodgings.

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Richard I

Henry III

Edward I

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Edward I expanded the castle into a concentric fortress (a rarity in England) with a triple gatehouse defence and a new water gate. The work cost a staggering £ 2 1 , 0 0 0 , more than twice the amount spent by his father. T h e first item was a new wet m o a t . This was 5 0 m (160ft) or more in width and was fed from the river using sluices to control the level. So enormous was the w o r k that the diggers and hodmen were paid £ 4 , 1 5 0 over the six years from 1 2 7 5 until 1 2 8 1 . T h e m o a t bec am e so fetid over the centuries that it was drained in the 19th century and today we see a grassy ditch, the original bed in the centre being a b o u t 4 . 5 m (15ft) further down. Entry into the castle was via a newly sited triple-gateway c o m p l e x at the south-west corner, completed in 1 2 8 1 . T h e moat extended around the first obstacle, a semicircular open barbican called the Lion Tower because it became the site of the royal menagerie of wild animals. Pulled down in the 1 9 t h century, n o trace remains above ground, although archaeological e x c a v a t i o n in 1 9 9 9 revealed some foundations. Originally a causeway protected by a spur gate led across the m o a t to the barbican via a turning bridge whose weighted inner beams dropped into slots; these and the pit spanned by the bridge can be seen. A left turn through a 90-degree angle within the barbican led on to a causeway that ran a short distance across the moat to the first gatehouse, the Middle Tower. Standing within the moat, this gate is flanked by cylindrical towers and was guarded by a turning bridge, portcullis and doors. F r o m here the causeway (originally with high walls set with loops only the lower part of the south wall survives) continued across the moat, gave a slight kink and then reached the main curtain, here protected by a second great twin-towered gatehouse, the Byward Tower, slightly taller (the second floor is later) and timber backed (the present timber is not the original). Unlike the Middle Tower, a portcullis remains but the turning bridges have been replaced by a modern extension of the causeway. A postern gate is on the river side just east of this gatehouse (made into a tower called the Byward Postern in the 14th century). F r o m the Byward Tower the way led into the outer ward between the outer and inner walls, the south side being Water Lane. Edward's outer ring o f walls was lower than it is today to allow a field of fire for archers on the inner curtain. There were few towers on this outer ring: the north-west corner has a bastion called Legges M o u n t , at that time level with the low outer curtain, while the east wall had three rectangular bastions immediately south of the north-east corner, possibly for siting siege engines. T h e northernmost was somewhat disrupted when another bastion, Brass M o u n t , was added to this corner, partly of brick and fitted with multiple loops accessed from a gallery. At the same time all the outer walls and bastions on the landward side were heightened, possibly because of fitting in the Royal M i n t buildings. D o w n at the south-east corner of this outer curtain the rectangular Develin T o w e r is a 15th-century replacement for Edward's. Returning west along the river side is the L-shaped Well Tower, also p r o b a b l y Edward's w o r k . T h e ground floor vaulted c h a m b e r has t w o stone-lined chutes presumably used for drawing up water. Further west the gateway called the Middle Drawbridge p r o b a b l y m a r k s the position o f another o f Edward's postern gates. Westwards along the river the existing outer wall is o f 14th-century date. However, the new outer wall had m e a n t reclaiming the area from the river, which effectively ended the Wakefield Tower's role as a water gate. Across from it Edward I therefore built a ne w river gate, St T h o m a s ' s Tower, with a remarkably wide arch allowing b o a t access into a small dock inside with steps up. Originally the distance f r o m the inner curtain t o this dock was only a b o u t three metres (ten feet) but it latterly gained ground at the expense o f the dock area. A mural

St Thomas's Tower on the outer south wall of the Tower of London. The water gate (latterly renamed Traitors' Gate) is now half hidden by the wharf that was extended from the western end of the Tower in the 14th century under the supervision of Geoffrey Chaucer. St Thomas's Tower was restored by Anthony Salvin in 1864-66.

passage either side ran round the walls at ground level, providing access to numerous loopholes and r o o m s in the cylindrical south-west and south-east corner turrets, whilst above were a hall and c h a m b e r with surviving fireplaces and possibly a chapel in the east turret. T h e portcullis m e c h a n i s m was probably on the roof. This gate would later b e c o m e k n o w n as T r a i t o r s ' G a t e . A bridge (now a Victorian replacement) c o nnec ted the north-east turret to the upper c h a m b e r in the Wakefield Tower. C r o s s walls and gates were added between the inner and outer walls near the Bell Tower, St T h o m a s ' s T o w e r and Salt Tower, to further block access; these have all n o w vanished except for the partial remains of one connecting the Salt to the Well Tower. O n completion o f the new gates the massive D-shaped B e a u c h a m p T o w e r was built on the site of Henry's collapsed gate on the western inner curtain. Internally Flemish brick was used in the largest n u m b e r so far discovered in England. O n either side the curtain itself w a s rebuilt (also partly using brick) as a formidable firing platform, the rear pierced at ground level with a long line of embrasures (these n o w hidden b e h i n d T u d o r and Stuart buildings) allowing missiles to be loosed en masse f r o m b o t h this and wall-walk level. In the north-west part of the inner w a r d , near T o w e r Green, the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula was refurbished by H e n r y III but rebuilt by E d w a r d I in 1 2 8 6 - 8 7 . T h e Victorians revamped it in the 1 9 t h century. Finally a postern for foot traffic was added to the City wall north o f the Tower moat, since the latter's construction would have caused some demolition of the wall. Originally of three storeys, the postern's partial ground floor and basement are visible near the modern pedestrian underpass.

THE CASTLE AT PEACE M u c h of a castle's life was spent at peace. O d i h a m in Hampshire was built by J o h n in 1 2 0 4 so he could 'disport h i m s e l f in the forest, while Restormel in Cornwall, despite its battlements, has large windows rather than a r r o w loops. Castles were ideal for storing records and became centres for the dispensation of local government and for shire courts. T h e king's representative, the sheriff, often had his seat in a castle within a to w n , backed up by soldiers if necessary. 35

T h e h u b o f a c a s t l e w a s its h a l l , used f o r e a t i n g , sleeping (for s o m e ) , entertaining a n d business. In 1 2 4 1 the hall at W i n d s o r Castle and that in the d o n j o n w e r e used as r e c e p t i o n areas t o feed the p o o r o n G o o d Friday. As h e r e , larger fortresses m i g h t have t w o halls, o n e for the lord's inner circle and o n e f o r p u b l i c use. T h o s e f o u n d in g a t e h o u s e s w e r e a l m o s t certainly for use by the c o n s t a b l e during his lord's a b s e n c e . T i m b e r halls c o n t i n u e d in use, p e r h a p s w i t h o n e o r t w o aisles (rare in w e s t e r n B r i t a i n ) . Aisles widened a hall either allowing a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the r o o f o r by use o f a pitched or lean-to r o o f o f their o w n . Walls could be infilled w i t h w a t t l e a n d d a u b , o r staves, planks o r p o s t s . T i m b e r s might be raised on d w a r f s t o n e walls t o prevent the w o o d f r o m r o t t i n g f r o m c o n t a c t with the e a r t h . T i m b e r p a r t i t i o n s c o u l d supply smaller r o o m s . S t o n e halls increased a n d their cost indicated the r a n k o f the owner. At C o n i s b r o u g h the hall (c. 1 2 0 2 - 4 0 ) had four bays supported on octagonal pier bases. Earlier stone halls might be expanded. Sometimes repair w o r k was necessary, as at the mid-century hall at Hadleigh ( 1 7 x nine metres) only some 5 0 years later, owing either t o collapse or earth m o v e m e n t . As well as adding a central line o f eight t i m b e r s resting o n p a d s , e x t e r n a l buttresses

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DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS

The now ruined 'Gloriette' at Corfe (1) was a residential suite built by King John between c.1201 and 1204. It comprised a first floor hall of four bays above a vaulted undercroft, reached by a stair via the north end where there was a presence chamber (or possibly a chapel). At the south end and set at right angles to the hall, a door led into a long chamber above a barrel-vaulted undercroft. Corfe had six or seven suites. Roger Bigod Ill's domestic range at Chepstow (2) uses the slope of the ground. A transverse service passage leads into the large single-storey kitchen, with serving hatch. The high wooden roof probably had a louvre or similar in the centre to take smoke from a central hearth (the existing oven is later). A doorway led out northwards to the riverside wall and probably to a platform and then stairs up to the top chamber of the block that is sited at the eastern end of the kitchen. The lowest room of this block was entered from the bailey, which also had a door into the prison in the adjoining gatehouse. The two upper chamber rooms each had a latrine and decorated windows. A vaulted porch led into the eastern end of the hall, the doorway decorated with two painted

shields each hanging by a painted ribbon from a nail. A more central doorway in the service passage led up steps towards the hall with the buttery (right) and pantry (left), with a second set below. On the other side of the entrance passage a doorway led down steps, firstly to a landing with access to a platform overlooking a narrow cleft in the rock beside the river, then to a vaulted cellar with another opening similarly overlooking the creek; supplies could be winched up via a pulley whose floor bracket survived into the 19th century. The hall at Goodrich (3) ran along the west curtain, the lower end connecting to the South-west Tower housing the buttery and pantry (divided by a timber partition). The kitchen lay beyond, on the south side. The north end of the hall had a lobby and the North-west Tower formed a complex with the first-floor solar block on the north side. Plan of the late-13th-century shell keep at Restormel (4). The chapel just from the circular walls on the right, with the lady's chamber above and lord's below. Next to the latter is the hall, separated from the kitchen by a servery.

Domestic Arrangements

The rectangular fortified manor at Acton Burnell, Shropshire, built by Bishop Burnell in the late 13th century. The building consists of a rectangular domestic block with angle turrets and a projection in the middle of its west end; a chapel once stood in the larger north-east turret. The battlements are low and give the illusion of strength but there is little chance the castle could have withstood anything but a raid.

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supplemented on the inside by others (on the surviving east wall), in an attempt to stave off the imminent problem. By the end of the century the hall was in danger of collapse and may even have done so; a new hall was built with its west side on the old east wall. W h e n Sandal's new first-floor stone hall was built the old timber hall was utilized to house w o r k m e n building the stone castle. T h e size o f a hall varied, f r o m the modest late-13th-century rebuilt hall at Hadleigh ( 1 1 . 4 x 6 . 6 m . ) to the e a r l y - 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y halls at Skenfrith ( 2 5 . 6 x 6 . 7 5 m ) and C o n i s b r o u g h ( 2 2 x nine metres), both of which used a curtain wall t o save c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s , although security limited w i n d o w size. By 1 3 0 0 there w a s an increasing desire to increase interior area by removing aisle posts; the weight was instead taken by cruck r o o f timbers, supported on corbels and helped by collars and braces. F r a g m e n t a r y infill in the upper half o f a truss at the l a t e - 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y ground-floor hall at Stokesay suggests this w a s t o help vector s m o k e up to a louvre. W i n d o w s here were glazed only in their upper half, with shutters to keep out draughts in the lower part. O n e of Sandal's w i n d o w s shows an internal slot for a shutter. There were t w o halls at Launceston. O n e was a single-storey timber-framed building, with clay floor and a hearth at one end; it was probably the administrative building but later became a workshop before being renovated, with replastered walls and seating along the wall. T h e great hall lay some 2 0 m north-west, set over an earlier structure, with wall benches and a hearth near the dais; it was transformed into a first-floor structure with solar. T h e late stone hall at R u m n e y had a r o o f o f sandstone slabs and glazed earthenware ridge tiles, while the solar at Hadleigh was probably roofed in lead or shingles.

Chambers By the 1 3 t h century there was an increasing use o f private c h a m b e r s by the lord and his intimates. In the lower bailey at W i n d s o r new royal apartments were linked to a chapel via a cloister that enclosed a lawn, complete with a stone bench near the king's chamber. R o y a l nurseries were built for the b a b y Prince E d w a r d (born 1 2 3 9 ) and his sister, whilst at O l d Sarum (Salisbury) there was a nurse's chamber. At Winchester H e n r y III had a c h a m b e r provided for his stewards (between hall and k i t c h e n s ) , plus c h a m b e r s for his knights, the chaplain and priests. In some cases these facilities were repeated in order that the family might retain their o w n quarters. In the second half o f the 1 3 t h century the first-floor hall at Sandal w a s flanked by new quarters. Entered f r o m the hall, east and west c h a m b e r s each stood over a vaulted u n d e r c r o f t s u p p o r t e d by a single pillar. T h e Privy C h a m b e r to the north was quite possibly a c h a m b e r for latrines. N o r t h again lay the constable's lodgings, near the gate as is quite often seen, since the c o ns table c o n t r o l l e d a castle in the lord's a b s e n c e . T h e latter a n d his kin resided in the d o n j o n on the m o t t e . Hadleigh's m i d - 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y c h a m b e r was L-shaped a r o u n d a small c o u r t y a r d , w i t h plastered walls and glazed windows (red fragments were f o u n d ) . D o m e s t i c a r r a n g e m e n t s u n d e r w e n t rebuilding as taste and m o n e y dictated, as at the ground-floor hall at S t a m f o r d , with four piers (two a n d two) and a hearth. A r o u n d 1 2 0 0 a first floor w a s added to the solar, the hall was slightly n a r r o w e d , then the east end w a s extend ed , n o w with an arcade east wall (to a screens passage?) a n d the s o u t h e r n pair o f pillars w e r e removed. A porch was built on the north-east side in the 1 4 t h century. Henry III added additional wooden accommodation such as the c h a m b e r and w a r d r o b e complete with fireplace in plaster for a visiting bishop. Such buildings might be connected to the permanent r o o m s by numerous passages but were vulnerable to fire and so layouts could change regularly. T h e main beds might be made in sections to allow for transport. O n 18 November 1 2 9 6 , 2 d was itemized for five frames for the pavilion over the bed o f the Countess o f P e m b r o k e during her visit t o G o o d r i c h . T h e wardrobe was a storage r o o m not only for clothes but for anything of value: plate, jewellery and even the imported and often expensive spices, or the prized

The modest late-13th-century enclosure at Stokesay was mainly built by Lawrence of Ludlow, a highly successful wool merchant, who began work in about 1285 but died in 1296 before it was completed. It has a curtain wall that originally rose to a height of about 11 m (35ft) from the bottom of the moat, while the gatehouse was replaced in the 17th century. Inside the walls the buildings consist largely of a stone hall and chamber block, with a tower at each end; the north tower is now crowned with a Jacobean jettied upper storey that may have replaced a similar structure.

Richard FitzAlan is probably responsible for heightening the earlier gatehouse at Arundel, Sussex, in the later 13th century and adding the powerful barbican to protect it.

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The internal domestic buildings at Restormel, Cornwall, are set against the outer walls. The well is set below the antechapel with modern steps up to the large opening into the chapel. To left and right of it are the lady's and lord's chambers respectively; to right of the latter is the hall. The kitchen (not visible here) has a door and hatch into a servery, from which another door and hatch allowed food to be passed to those carrying it via an external roofed stairway to the hall.

powdered sugar perhaps flavoured with spices or flowers. These would be kept under lock and key and parcelled out as necessary to the castle c o o k ; some sugars were treated as medicine, as prescribed by M a s t e r Hugh of Evesham for Edward I's son together with liquorice. Decoration R e s t o r m e l h a d been plastered and limewashed to be even m o r e effective, and this w a s seen in a n u m b e r o f castles. C o m f o r t and c o l o u r in royal a c c o m m o d a t i o n is much in evidence, especially under Henry III. At Winchester the queen's c h a m b e r was painted green, while at W i n d s o r the wainscoting in one o f the queen's c h a m b e r s w a s green with gold stars, the cloister walk decorated with paintings o f the Apostles. King H e n r y ordered whitewashed walls and a ceiling of green with gold and silver spangles in the great chamber at Guildford Castle; the pillars and arches in the donjon were marbled. In 1 2 3 6 a glass w i n d o w in the gable of the queen's c h a m b e r in the upper bailey at W i n d s o r was painted with the Tree o f Jesse and t w o other windows glazed and shuttered (the c h a m b e r was nevertheless rebuilt the following year). T h e nurseries at W i n d s o r were two-storeyed timber buildings west of the queen's lodgings and built around a courtyard; in 1 2 3 9 that of young Prince Edward was wainscoted and provided with iron bars to stop anyone gaining access. At Winchester the c h a m b e r for the king's knights was vaulted and wainscoted. Even the king's seat in the great hall there was repainted, together with doors, w i n d o w s and the pictures above the dais. Bishop R o b e r t Grosseteste thought that (with a view t o allegory and symbolism) green, blue and red were the proper colours for the ideal castle. In 1 2 5 0 the ' t a b l e ' by the king's bed was to be painted with images of the guardians o f S o l o m o n ' s bed, the c h a m b e r s o f the king and queen to be paved with tiles, w o o d e n w i n d o w s to be m a d e in the gallery o f the queen's chapel, the privy c h a m b e r before the d o o r o f the J e w ' s T o w e r repaired and similarly the long c h a m b e r a b o v e the stables in the t o w e r where the w a r d r o b e was usually m a d e (Liberate R o l l s ) . H e n r y was constantly issuing orders for new latrines or the repair o f old ones. Baths are mentioned twice at O d i h a m under the countess o f Leicester. G r e a t b a r o n s also enjoyed c o l o u r and c o m f o r t . 40

The South-East Tower at Goodrich Castle, Herefordshire, showing the great spurs to thicken the base of a castle already sitting on a rocky site.

At M a r l b o r o u g h a writ to the constable o f 1 2 4 1 shows that even the cellar before the queen's c h a m b e r was to be provided with a fireplace, the walls wainscoted and whitened and a w i n d o w provided that was to be painted with a dove and barred with iron. Kitchens Some buildings m a y have been c h a m b e r s or kitchens, since a range of hearths can, without other evidence, be interpreted as either. As at C o n i s b r o u g h , the kitchen might be situated in a separate building t o minimize the risk o f fire. T i m b e r walls were w e a t h e r b o a r d e d instead o f being the usual w a t t l e a n d daub construction. At L aunc es ton the kitchen w a s separated f r o m the hall by a yard; a capped and slate-lined drain led o ut across the clay floor. K i t c h e n s w e r e often upgraded (often o n the s a m e site) t h r o u g h o u t a castle's working history. In 1 2 4 4 t w o kitchens were built at Ludgershall, one being e a r m a r k e d for H e n r y III whenever he visited the castle. T h e s e seem t o have replaced the k i t c h e n s m e n t i o n e d under K i n g J o h n , with ovens large enough to r o a s t t w o o r three o x e n . E y n s f o r d r e t a i n e d its 1 2 t h - c e n t u r y kitchen when a n e w one was built. T h e c o b - w a l l e d kitchen at W a l l i n g f o r d ( c . 1 2 0 0 ) was 1 2 . 5 x 8 . 5 m , consisting o f three r o o m s with hearths in the floor of c o m p a c t e d earth, clay and sand, the central r o o m being the largest; a n e w kitchen was built separately in 1 2 2 8 - 2 9 . If curtain palisades were rebuilt in stone, service r o o m s might be m o v e d against t h e m , as at Sandal, w h i c h h a d a late 1 2 t h - o r early 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y m a l t h o u s e with kiln for drying the c o r n , overlaid in the first half o f the 1 3 t h century with a n e w single-storey kitchen ( a b o u t 1 0 . 4 x 9 . 4 m ) with b a k e h o u s e t o the w e s t a n d larder t o the east. All had hearths (including unusually the l a r d e r ) , and the kitchen heart h h a d post holes presumably for spit supports. T h e kitchen also has evidence o f a drain linked to an open culvert, thence flushing into the b a r b i c a n ditch. T h e bakehouse (which is possibly later in date) w a s divided by a cross-passage f r o m the d o o r w a y i n t o three areas by t i m b e r p a r t i t i o n s , w i t h t w o ovens in its eastern p a r t a n d t w o larger o n e s t o the w e s t . M o n t g o m e r y h a d a brewhouse, built o f timber on d w a r f walls, with a t a n k for soaking barley; paving nearby w o u l d be for laying the barley o ut to germinate a f t e r w a r d s , after which it w o u l d have been transferred t o a small kiln f o r drying. 41

The great hall at Goodrich can be seen at centre, with a doorway from the courtyard and internal doors leading into the buttery and pantry in the South-West Tower beyond. The foundations of the kitchen can be seen to the right of the Norman donjon, while the doorway to its left led down into a vaulted prison (with a drawbar hole on the outside of the door!)

T h e shingle on the r o o f o f the great kitchen w a s removed in 1 2 6 0 when the c o n s t a b l e w a s ordered t o replace it with lead; however, the shingle was t o replace the t h a t c h lately t a k e n off the r o o f o f the outer c h a m b e r in the high tower. O n e of three dovecotes at Richard's Castle m ay possibly be of 13th-century date and w a s situated b e l o w the castle on the t o w n b a n k . T h e dovecote at Winchester stood behind the queen's chapel. A new dovecote was ordered to be erected by the castle at M a r l b o r o u g h in a writ to the constable dated 1 2 4 1 .

The high arches and central pillar of the solar block at Goodrich, now without its flooring. A vestibule stood behind the arches, with the North-West Tower beyond. To the left is the great hall with access from the courtyard into the lobby area by the angle with the solar.

O k e h a m p t o n had a cistern ( 2 . 5 m deep) cut in the rock at the base of the motte ( 1 2 t h - 1 3 t h centuries). It probably had a roof, or some form of protection, supported by walls on t w o sides. T h e well at Beeston is over 1 0 0 m (110yds) deep and perhaps as much as 1 4 6 m ( 1 6 0 y d s ) , with masonry to 6 1 m ( 2 0 0 f t ) , making it the deepest well in an English castle. A now-lost piped water supply m a y be the answer in some castles where n o obvious well or cistern exists. At Goodrich washbasins set in walls around the castle (often near gateways) were provided with piped water from the well. T h e ditch at O d i h a m w a s naturally marshy and partly filled with water, w h i c h led one enterprising custodian to ask the king for a licence to fill it with bream, ideal for fast days. T h e King's Pool, the artificial lake at Clifford's Tower, w a s used as a fishpond and the river Foss drove watermills.

Chapels M o s t castles had a chapel and possibly a more private one for the lord's use. At Winchester Castle the queen's c h a m b e r was provided with a beam on which was set a cross flanked by figures o f St M a r y and St J o h n , while St C h r i s t o p h e r bearing the infant Jesus and St E d w a r d giving his ring to a pilgrim were painted on the western gable. T h e Liberate Rolls recall that in D e c e m b e r 1 2 5 0 an instruction w a s sent to the sheriff o f H a m p s h i r e saying that the king's new chapel at Winchester was to be painted with the story o f J o s e p h and floored with tiles. A marble altar was installed in King Henry's chapel 42

and a new privy chapel built near his bed. As at Harlech and C a e r n a r f o n , the chapel at Clifford's Tower in Y o r k is over the gate and has the portcullis rising into it but this m ay have been a conversion to religious usage, with arcading brought from a chapel in the bailey at the end o f the century. At G o o d r i c h the chapel at the side o f the gate has a d r a w b a r hole in the wall for the bar closing the main gate next d o o r ; records o f 1 2 9 7 s h o w it was also used to store oats. Workshops and pens Castles needed a number of workshops to enable them to function. A blacksmith or farrier was essential given the number of horses to be shod and the metal items to be made or repaired. Larger castles would have an armourer to repair armour and weapons, though items o f quality would be bought elsewhere. Stables were a necessity though little survives from the period. Probably most were timber built, with stalls and provision for the stable boys, tack and food. Henry III provided a chamber with three beds and the harness by the stables at Winchester. Barns and a granary held food for the castle; storage areas had to be available in case of siege or in case the owner, be he king or baron, arrived with his retinue to stay for a while. Chickens were consumed in quantity and eggs were used in great numbers in cooking and thus poultry must have graced a castle, though additional supplies could be obtained from outlying manors and farms. At Christmas 1 2 0 6 a c o m m a n d went out to the sheriff of Hampshire for 1 , 5 0 0 chickens, 5 , 0 0 0 eggs, 2 0 oxen, 1 0 0 pigs and 1 0 0 sheep for the royal table. Pens could hold cattle, sheep and pigs. Kennels were built especially in castles near royal hunting areas, supervised by dogkeepers. Gardens and parks Castles might well have a garden for private use by the lord and his family. Tintagel under R i c h a r d of C o r n w a l l (or possibly earlier) had on the island section of the castle a quadrilateral walled enclosure about 2 3 x 1 5 m (75 x 5 0 f t ) , in which slabs set on edge marked paths running some two feet from the walls with another cutting in half the central bed. So windswept was this site on the coast that potted plants had to be brought over when Richard came to visit. T h e park at Ludgershall Castle was ditched and hedged in 1 2 4 4 . In 1 2 6 1 , Henry III wrote asking his chief gardener to buy pear trees to plant in the strip

The 'Gloriette' at Leeds, Kent, was built by Edward I after acquiring the castle in 1298. The private royal suite sits on a small island accessed via a covered bridge from the main castle, which also stands in the large moat. The upper floor and large windows are Tudor additions.

o f land beyond the tower m o a t (kept clear for defence), lately enclosed by a mud wall. At Conwy, R o g e r le Fykeys, a squire serving the queen, was paid 3d for watering the new lawn in front of her c h a m b e r (made from turves specially sent up the river and fenced with barrel staves) one evening in July 1 2 8 3 . Prisons

BELOW RIGHT The inner gatehouse at Corfe of 1250-80, leading to the 12th-century donjon; to its right stood King John's domestic suite, the 'Gloriette', now a ruin. BELOW LEFT The outer gatehouse at Corfe, built between 1250 and 1280.

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Castles are i n e x t r i c a b l y associated with prisons and d ungeons. B i s h o p s ' castles such as the one at Wells could be used to house ecclesiastical prisoners i n c a r c e r a t e d whilst awaiting a hearing (which c o u l d t a k e y e a r s ! ) , unlike laymen w h o received s u m m a r y justice after trial. A prison for w o m e n , with a chapel over it, was built in the bailey at the royal castle of Clifford's Tower in Y o r k between 1 2 3 7 and 1 2 4 1 . A prison (no sexual preferences mentioned) also f o r m e d part o f the ne w building there begun in 1 2 4 5 . Castles also held political prisoners, including men awaiting punishment for treason or those captured in battle awaiting ransom. Prince Edward was held at Wallingford after the battle of Lewes in 1 2 6 4 . A small party of loyalists broke into the outer w a r d but Edward himself ordered them to dissipate when the threat was made to send him back by mangonel (he subsequently escaped the following year). Unscrupulous kings and noblemen could and did sometimes ignore the laws - hence the clause in the M a g n a Carta of 1 2 1 5 specifying that n o freeman will be held prisoner without trial. J o h n notoriously flung his scheming nephew Prince Arthur into Corfe Castle, where he was castrated and blinded, subsequently dying from his wounds. Arthur's sister, Eleanor, was kept in comfortable confinement until her death in 1 2 4 1 after 4 0 years a prisoner in Bristol Castle or occasionally Gloucester. John's cruelty also fell upon William de Braose's wife, son and daughter-in-law, by all accounts starved to death in Windsor. In 1 2 1 2 he hanged 2 8 young Welshmen imprisoned in Nottingham Castle in retaliation for the Welsh seizure of royal castles and their decapitation of knights and other soldiers. However, in 1 2 0 3 another of John's prisoners, Saveric de M a l l e o n , apparently managed to break loose and actually blockaded himself in the donjon at Corfe. T h e records of Old Sarum suggest that breakouts were not that u n c o m m o n . It is w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g that m o s t w i n d o w bars were designed to stop people climbing in. T h e attempted b r e a k o u t o f Llewelyn ap Gruffydd from the T o w e r o f L o n d o n by sliding down k n o t t e d sheets went wrong when it b r o k e and he plummeted to his death. It should be noted that this suggests he w a s n o t kept in a ' d u n g e o n ' (derived f r o m ' d o n j o n ' , the great t o w e r ) . In a different twist, in 1 2 3 3 t w o g a r r i s o n sergeants rescued H u b e r t de Burgh, shackled in Devizes Castle, one night to save him from being murdered by the jealous bishop o f Winchester.

The inner gate and D-shaped towers of White Castle, seen from the outer ward, were probably added to the 12th-century walls either in 1263 or 1267-77 by the Lord Edward. The entrance was re-orientated from south to north.

THE CASTLE AT WAR M a n y castellans were often royal officials, holding royal castles. However, some of these men began to regard the p o s i t i o n as hereditary, and cause problems if the m o n a r c h challenged their title. Philip M a r k , sheriff o f D e r b y and N o t t i n g h a m , dragged his heels when the royal council w a n t e d to remove a deputy f r o m the bishop o f L i n c o l n ' s castles o f Sleaford and N e w a r k . T h e c o r o n a t i o n in 1 2 2 0 of the young H e n r y III required a baronial o a t h to surrender royal castles and wardships if required and to help crush those w h o refused (especially entrenched foreign b a r o n s ) . However, some castellans had held fortresses loyally for J o h n for years a n d w e r e well regarded by their English peers. T h e king might also wish to t a k e over private fortresses. Garrisons were chosen from either feudal rotas or hired men. Castle-guard was part of the feudal agreement and as such a m a n invested by his lord agreed to discharge service in his lord's castle (or one o f them) for a set n u m b e r of days per year. Service was usually 4 0 days in w a r or in peace but this could be c o m m u t e d to a m o n e y payment for the hiring o f mercenaries; in J o h n ' s reign this often meant crossbowmen. However, M a g n a Carta states that 'no constable shall compel any knight to give money instead of castle-guard if he is willing to do the guard himself or through another good m a n ' . It also takes sheriffs and royal bailiffs to task for obviously having bullied free men to give up horses and carts to carry materials for castle work, nor are they to take their timber for castle or other works without agreement. Siege engines might be held in castles, such as the mangonel and petrary sent to C o r f e Castle by order o f King J o h n in 1 2 1 4 . Some o f these machines were kept in storage, larger items in sections, so they c o u l d be taken wherever they were required for service.

The Black Gate was added to the castle at Newcastle-uponTyne in about 1250. It consists of two D-shaped towers back to back to form the passage, which took a right turn at the rear over another ditch and drawbridge. Three slots in the floor took the counterweights of the main turning bridge. The upper part is not original work.

B o t h J o h n and H e n r y III suffered civil w a r s and each reign demonstrates the formidable resources even relatively w e a k kings c o u l d muster against such threats. Ultimately rebel f a c t i o n s c o u l d n o t bring enough force to bear against royal power, despite seizing castles. N e i t h e r was the king p r e p a r e d to sit and starve out the rebel defenders, n o r were the defenders cowed into surrender by the size o f the royal forces before them. 45

Rear view of the gatehouse at Tonbridge, Kent, built by Richard de Clare, probably the model for the work of his son, Gilbert, at Caerphilly.

King John In 1 2 1 5 the rebels renounced fealty to J o h n and attacked N o r t h a m p t o n Castle, w h i c h held o u t for t w o w e e k s until the besiegers, lacking siege engines, grew tired and w i t h d r e w t o B e d f o r d followed by L o n d o n . King Philip Augustus o f F r a n c e even sent over a renegade m o n k , E u s t a c e , with engines t o assist the rebels. J o h n , having b r o u g h t over foreign m e r c e n a r i e s , began t o move on his enemies and sent forces t o raise the sieges at N o r t h a m p t o n and O x f o r d . T h e king t u r n e d t o w a r d s R o c h e s t e r in K e n t . A f t e r seven w e e k s a mine c o l l a p s e d o n e c o r n e r o f the d o n j o n but the defenders held out temporarily

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THE SIEGE OF BEDFORD, 1224

Falkes de Breaute refused to comply with royal requests to yield up castles and moved to Bedford Castle with his brother, William. Falkes had strengthened the Norman motte and bailey, enlarging the area, revetting ditches in stone and erecting new curtain walls and a new donjon on the motte. On 17 June William seized a royal justice, Henry de Braybrooke, and led him into Bedford Castle accompanied by over 80 soldiers. Braybrooke's wife rushed to Northampton and alerted Henry. The king wasted no time mobilizing and a messenger appeared at the castle to demand surrender but William replied that he answered only to Falkes. Henry flew into a temper and swore to hang the entire garrison. He moved to Newport Pagnell where, on 20 June, he sent orders for crossbow bolts, equipment for siege engines, pickaxes for miners but also wine for his household. He arrived at Bedford later that day. Within eight days supplies for the engines began arriving then the engines themselves: some from Lincoln by 7 July; mangonels from Oxford and engines from the sheriff of Northamptonshire. The Dunstable Annalist describes two mangonels on the western side 'which wore out the old tower' plus one each to north and south, both causing a breach in the walls. On the eastern side was a petrary and two mangonels whose purpose was to direct their missiles against the keep each day. A regular bombardment of the castle was met by crossbow bolts that killed at least one of the knights, many soldiers and

those working around the machines. Two huge siege towers were erected, from tall trees around Warden Abbey and nearby woods. The constant pounding by the catapults began to cause areas of wall to crumble. The first assault was aimed against the barbican, which was taken with minimal losses to the besiegers. However, the second attack to seize the outer bailey was stubbornly resisted and, though the object was achieved, it resulted in many casualties on both sides. The mine under the inner curtain was fired and the wall above collapsed. Royalist troops made a determined surge through the breach but the inner bailey was stoutly defended and a hail of missiles dispatched many attackers. A number of besiegers launched themselves at the donjon but failed to gain entry; instead ten of them were dragged inside. Henry's miners drove their tunnels under the foundations and, on 14 August, fired the props. Although the tower did not collapse, a disconcerting crack appeared in the walls and smoke billowed into the rooms. Obviously shaken by this turn of events, the rebels released Henry of Braybrooke and the other prisoners plus all the women, amongst them the wife of Falkes de Breaute himself. Having attempted to negotiate, the garrison marched out the next day and surrendered, hoping for mercy. However, Henry was obviously out to make an example and ordered 80 rebels to be hanged.

The siege of Bedford, 1224

behind the cross-wall o f the d o n j o n before surrendering. So impressive was this victory that n o other castle offered serious resistance. T r o o p s were set a b o u t L o n d o n to w a t c h the rebel headquarters but, perhaps unwisely, there w a s n o assault to end the revolt. J o h n progressed via N o t t i n g h a m north to B e r w i c k , with various t o w n s and castles opening their gates to his harrying a r m y o f mercenaries along the w a y : R o c k i n g h a m , Belvoir, Pontefract, Y o r k , R i c h m o n d , D u r h a m , W a r k w o r t h , A l n w i c k and Berwick, the latter stormed on 1 5 J a n u a r y 1 2 1 6 . H e m a r c h e d into Scotland in reprisal for Alexander Ill's siege o f N o r h a m ( 1 9 O c t o b e r t o late N o v e m b e r ) and then turned south, receiving the surrender o f Skelton, Fotheringay, Bedford and Framlingham. In E s s e x Colchester surrendered on 2 5 M a r c h 1 2 1 6 after a very short siege while H e d i n g h a m castle yielded in three days. J o h n also t o o k H e r t f o r d . W h e n Louis landed with French forces in M a y he captured Reigate, Guildford, F a r n h a m , Winchester, O d i h a m , M a r l b o r o u g h and Worcester. O d i h a m , with its octagonal and buttressed donjon, had a small but spirited garrison that sallied out on several occasions, in one incident seizing 13 prisoners. Louis fruitlessly besieged D o v e r f r o m J u l y t o O c t o b e r . Despite using a mine to collapse part o f one gate the breach w a s stoutly defended by Hubert de B u r g h a n d his m e n . T o add to Louis's p r o b l e m s m a n y loyal castellans refused to betray their king; B a r n a r d Castle successfully held out against the Scots and one o f the rebel leaders, Eustace de Vesci, was killed during the siege. D u r h a m stood firm, while W i n d s o r also resisted rebel t r o o p s . Beginning in N o v e m b e r , Louis t o o k H e r t f o r d , and then besieged B e r k h a m s t e d , the large m o t t e and bailey castle n o w with stone walls. T h e castle held for t w o w e e k s despite a pounding f r o m the besiegers' engines. A f t e r B e r k h a m s t e d w a s t a k e n , Colchester, O r f o r d , N o r w i c h , C a m b r i d g e , Pleshey and H e d i n g h a m followed. M e a n w h i l e J o h n , driven from Winchester, organized his defence plan from C o r f e and recruited t r o o p s in the west before striking east in mid-September. H e m o v e d past W i n d s o r to d r a w a w a y its besiegers, laid waste to the Isle of A x h o l m e and then a p p r o a c h e d and entered Lincoln, the castle held by the w i d o w of G e r a r d de Camville, N i c h o l a a de la Hay, w h o , says the Barnwell annalist, h a d freed herself from the siege by a m o n e y p a y m e n t . J o h n then organized supplies for his northern castles, prompting the king of Scots and northern rebels to leave the siege of Dover. Louis raised the siege and returned to L o n d o n but the F r e n c h threat receded following a royalist sea victory off Sandwich. However, J o h n died at N e w a r k Castle on 1 8 October. H e n r y III In spring 1 2 1 7 Louis returned but the M a r s h a l had all the captured castles dismantled. Louis promptly went to Winchester, restored the tower and walls and repaired the breaches, setting the C o u n t o f Nevers in charge of a strong garrison. M e a n w h i l e Gilbert de G a n t had seized the city of Lincoln but its castle w a s bravely defended by N i c h o l a a de la Hay. T h e royalist earls o f D e r b y and Chester had besieged M o n t s o r r e l in Leicestershire but by the time a rebel force a p p r o a c h e d the siege had been lifted, so they turned to assist in the siege o f Lincoln Castle. T h e castle sits in the south-western corner of the R o m a n city walls, which still survived except on the south. O n an eminence withi n the city walls w a s a space b e t w e e n castle and cathedral where the besiegers had concentrated. William M a r s h a l heard of this development while at N o r t h a m p t o n . N o t t i n g h a m , N e w a r k and Sleaford castles held royal m e r c e n a r i e s and n o w M a r s h a l detoured f r o m N e w a r k (where gathered

4 0 6 knights, some 2 0 0 sergeants a n d 3 1 7 c r o s s b o w m e n ) and m a d e f o r Lincoln. As he a p p r o a c h e d , Gilber t fled. O n 2 0 M a y the royalists arrived f r o m the n o r t h - w e s t early in the m o r n i n g a n d entered the castle via the western wall, w h e r e n o rebel t r o o p s h a d been p o s t e d . F a l k e s de B r e a u t e prepared to sortie f r o m the eastern (inner) gate o f the castle. T h e Bishop o f Winchester spotted a b l o c k e d - u p g a t e w a y further n o r t h along the R o m a n west wall; this was opened up and the royalists poured into the space between the castle and cathedral, catching the rebel besiegers gathered there. W i l l i a m M a r s h a l ordered that the c r o s s b o w m e n s h o o t at the horses, which tumbled to earth, leaving their riders to be t a k e n prisoner. T h e o n s l a u g h t sent the Frenchmen and rebels reeling down Steep Street into the city and in the melee the count of Perche was killed. A swinging d o o r in a n a r r o w gate held up the retreating troops and when a c o w was jostled into it the w h o l e access w a s blocked, resulting in m a n y prisoners. T h e R o m a n north gate was seized and counterattacks by the rebels thrown bac k. S o m e 4 0 6 royalist knights together with men-at-arms and 3 1 7 c r o s s b o w m e n h a d captured 3 0 0 enemy knights and put the other 3 0 0 to flight. T h e soldiery sacked churches and houses, smashing open chests and c u p b o a r d s . Despite a royalist sea victory that effectively ended the French intervention, Louis was still paid off with a huge bribe to go h o m e in September, ending the civil war. Hubert de Burgh declared Henry to be o f age in 1 2 2 0 and demanded the return of castles. T h e earl of Aumale shut the gates of R o c k i n g h a m but it was captured, so he t o o k two other strongholds, which resulted in fighting, his excommunication and banishment. It t o o k ten days for 1 2 carts loaded with parts for siege engines to traverse the roads to the siege of William de Forz at Bytham in Lincolnshire; at 1 6 k m (ten miles) per day it was about half the speed of the rest of the army, but William surrendered. In 1 2 2 4 Falkes de Breaute refused to give up Bedford Castle but it fell after a vigorous siege by the young king, which cost £ 1 , 3 1 1 18s 2 d . W a r in W a l e s In 1 2 2 3 the justiciar, Hubert de Burgh, led an army to relieve Builth and begin a new castle at M o n t g o m e r y (granted in 1 2 2 8 ) . By 1 2 3 1 H u b e r t controlled G r o s m o n t , Skenfrith , W h i t e C a s t l e , C a r d i g a n , C a r m a r t h e n , B r e c o n , Abergavenny, R a d n o r and others. Llywelyn revolted, having lost the lordship of Builth. T h e garrison in M o n t g o m e r y Castle, close to the pillaged lands, set out to quash the Welsh. Blocking their escape, the English killed some and captured o t h e r s , w h o were e x e c u t e d by o r d e r o f H u b e r t . Llywelyn sent a m o n k to lure out the garrison with a tale tha t Llywelyn and a small force

Looking north across the lake towards the walls of Caerphilly, showing the great expanse of water an attacker had to negotiate before encountering the two lines of walls. (By kind permision of Anthony de Reuck)

The eastern gatehouses at Caerphilly (1268-71). Much of the low outer concentric walls are rebuilt, as are the outer faces of the inner gatehouse towers. Note the Leaning Tower slighted after the English Civil Wars but rebuilt much as it once looked.

could be reached by fording the river. T h e Welsh drew b a c k towards a w o o d as the leading hors em en sank up t o the h o r s e s ' bellies in the mud and were set u p o n by the W e l s h . Llywelyn harried f r o m M o n t g o m e r y to R a d n o r , B r e c o n and C a e r l e o n , then south-west to Cardigan Castle. H u b e r t brought a royal a r m y to Painscastle, on the r o a d to H e r e f o r d , but waited m o n t h s while a stone fortress w a s built to replace the old Broase Castle. His campaign of Elfiel (near Builth) w a s thus a fiasco and a truce was made with Llywelyn. A truce m a d e in 1 2 3 4 allowed him to keep Cardigan and Builth. In 1 2 3 3 King H e n r y c a m e t o the siege o f R i c h a r d M a r s h a l in Usk and achieved results by asking, through bishops, that R i c h a r d yield up the castle to preserve his h o n o u r and he would receive it b a c k in 1 5 days. R i c h a r d did so, only to find that royal h o n o u r did n o t stretch to keeping faith! Llywelyn died in 1 2 4 0 and the following year Cardigan and Builth were r e t a k e n by royalist f o r c e s . H i s son David's failure t o c o m e to arbitration ended in H e n r y invading Wales; he had built a castle on the rocks at Dyserth near R h u d d l a n a n d decided to rebuild Deganwy. However, he had to pull out. O n David's death in 1 2 4 6 H e n r y n o w m a n a g e d to m a k e peace with the latter's n e p h e w s , Llywelyn and O w a i n but in N o v e m b e r 1 2 5 6 Llywelyn a t t a c k e d the F o u r C a n t r e f s . In 1 2 5 8 he assumed the title 'prince of Wales'. W h i l e H e n r y w a s in F r a n c e Llywelyn besieged the L o rd Edward's castle at Builth in J a n u a r y 1 2 6 0 a n d m e a n w h i l e t o o k fire and sword into south Wales and attacked Abergavenny. In 1 2 6 2 he attacked M o r t i m e r and overran B r e c o n . T h e Welsh t e n a n t s o f the M a r c h e r lords rose up and Llywelyn captured Edward's castles in the north. Using siege engines and a small fleet f r o m Ireland, Llywelyn destroyed Dyserth Castle and recovered Deganwy in 1 2 6 3 . T h e Treaty o f M o n t g o m e r y ended hostilities in 1 2 6 7 . Edward returned f r o m G a s c o n y , supplied D e g a n w y and D y s e r t h with mercenaries but lost them to the Welsh later that year, since n o help c a m e from the M a r c h e r lords.

The Barons' War English discontent found a focus initially in Prince Edward's steward, R o g e r Leyburn, and this self-interested group found a leader in Simon de M o n t f o r t . Despite the king's return w a r broke out, initially in the Welsh M a r c h e s . Henry o f M o n t f o r t was pushed b a c k by E d w a r d and tricked himself into Gloucester t o w n but n o t the c a s t l e . R o b e r t de Ferrers m a r c h e d south and stormed Worcester, h o p i n g t o m e e t up with those in Gloucester, but on 5 M a r c h E d w a r d w a s b a c k in G l o u c e s t e r C a s t l e . T h e b a r o n i a l a r m y was gathering 50

in N o r t h a m p t o n and Henry, j o i n e d by E d w a r d at O x f o r d , struck o u t f o r N o r t h a m p t o n . O n 6 April 1 2 6 4 , helped by friends inside N o r t h a m p t o n , Edward burst into the t o w n and the following day the castle surrendered. Henry moved towards Nottingham and Edward harried in Derbyshire and Staffordshire. T h e royal constable, R o g e r de Leybourne, held Rochester. O n 1 7 April Gilbert de Clare moved from his castle at Tonbridge and approached from the south or west. In response the garrison fired those suburbs lying towards Canterbury and also burned the king's hall in the castle (probably on the premise that a controlled fire n o w was better than an uncontrolled one later). Simon de M o n t f o r t meanwhile moved from L o n d o n and came through Strood, only to be beaten back at the M e d w a y as his troops arrived at the crossing place. After a second failed attempt he finally appears to have sent a fireship loaded with pitch, coals, sulphur and fat bacon against the bridge on 18 April, using the chaos (or smoke) to cover his force as it crossed, presumably over the fording place. A pre-arranged assault by Simon and Gilbert then captured the city in the early evening, their men looting church plate and destroying valuable records, while mounted men chased their enemies actually into the cathedral. T h e following day, 1 9 April, Simon's forces b r o k e into the bailey and the garrison pulled back into the great donjon, n o w repaired since its partial collapse in the siege of 1 2 1 5 . T h e next day being Sunday, hostilities were suspended but on M o n d a y siege engines were brought up and vainly battered the tower for a week. In the end the news that King H e n r y and Prince E d w a r d were approaching caused Simon and Gilbert t o retire and the siege was lifted on Saturday 2 6 April. T h e king found the castle badly d am aged but nothing was done a b o u t it; indeed, soon afterwards, constables were being accused o f pilfering stone for their own use, while in 1 2 8 1 permission w a s given t o demolish the hall and chambers that had been burned so the stone could be re-used in the castle. However, the place r e m a i n e d a decaying site until m a j o r rebuilding w a s undertaken in 1 3 6 7 . After Simon de M o n t f o r t ' s death at Evesham in 1 2 6 5 resistance continued at Ely, A x h o l m e and K e n i l w o r t h , w h e r e w a t e r o r m a r s h e s m a d e all three difficult to a p p r o a c h . Kenilworth, a strong castle in a marshy landscape with formidable w a t e r defences consisting o f a 4 5 h a ( I l l - a c r e ) lake f o r m e d by damning t w o steams, h a d been r a t h e r irresponsibly given t o S i m o n de M o n t f o r t by H e n r y in 1 2 5 4 . N o w it was held by his son and n a m e s a k e w h o

BELOW LEFT The end of the south dam platform and the town gatehouse (left), at the eastern end of Caerphilly Castle. The South Dam platform was provided with a watermill that utilized the water from the South Lake to give a good flow across an overshot mill wheel. (By kind permision of Anthony de Reuck) BELOW RIGHT The north dam wall at Caerphilly (1277-90). The towers have broken away, showing they were only butted against the main wall.

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brought in additional t r o o p s and went out to rally sympathizers, since royal forces did n o t arrive to challenge him until the spring o f 1 2 6 6 . As a gesture o f goodwill he released the king's brother, R i c h a r d o f C o r n w a l l , and agreed peace terms but the garrison was swelled by local men and refused to give in. T o m a k e matters worse a royal envoy had his hand cut off, which broke the rules o f war. S im on the younger had dallied in the priory at Kenilworth and w a s surprised by E d w a r d outside the castle. Despite escaping inside, most of the b a r o n s and knights with him were captured. Henry arrived and set up camp on land n o w occupied by the town, where was brought the Sword of State. T h e archbishop of Canterbury excommunicated the garrison but this was rebuffed when a surgeon dressed in suitable garments appeared on the battlements and 'excommunicated' the king, archbishop and the royal army. Henry refused to leave in order to attend his daughter's wedding at Windsor and the marriage took place in the siege lines at Kenilworth. Siege engines were set up on the north, south and east sides because of the width of the lake elsewhere and catapults began to b o m b a r d the fortifications as best they c ould. T h e defenders replied by lobbing missiles at the enemy catapults, which we are assured frequently collided in midair with those of the besiegers. W h e n this b o m b a r d m e n t proved relatively ineffective an assault was sent across the dry ditch but this had no more success than had the barrage. An amphibious assault, using boats sent from Chester, was launched across the lake but this also failed. T o add to the discomfort o f the besiegers the garrison launched several sorties to damage siege engines and cause mayhem, and their catapults managed to smash a belfry called T h e Bear', which was being used to overlook the castle and allow archers to pick off those working the catapults. By O c t o b e r the castle had still not been captured so lenient terms were drawn up in a council at Coventry but were rejected when offered. T h e frustrated king summoned forces from N o r t h a m p t o n to put an end to this troublesome fortress with an all out assault, but before this could be done disease broke out in the castle, p r o b a b l y typhoid, and it was this silent killer that finally broke the garrison's will. T h e y submitted on 1 2 October, using a clause in the original agreement that they could surrender within 4 0 days. Henry n o w enjoyed a period of peace until his death in 1 2 7 2 .

The gateway into the Upper Bailey from the Barbican (1219-45) at the western end of Chepstow Castle. A small postern gate is let into the wall on the right. 52

It is interesting to note that the n u m b e r o f sieges during the B a r o n s ' W a r was lower c o m p a r e d to the conflicts o f J o h n ' s day, t h a n k s largely t o the improvements in the defences and increased use o f stone walls. Edward I T h e peace established with the destruction o f the M o n t f o r t i a n party continued in England under its new king until the end o f the century but in the borderlands peace remained elusive. Wales refused to submit to English directions and finally Edward led the first o f his armed interventions in 1 2 7 7 and a second in 1 2 8 2 . His massive castle-building p r o g r a m m e and dealings with the Welsh princes has been covered in a n o t h e r volume in the series. A third Welsh war broke out in 1 2 9 3 but ended the following year and by 1 2 9 7 Edward had control of Wales and n o w marched into Scotland. H e spent the rest of his reign trying to deal with this neighbouring kingdom, becoming k n o w n as the ' H a m m e r of the S c o t s ' . Castles along the borders, as in Wales, were always on the alert for raids and at certain times for full-scale invasions by the Scots. Carlisle on the west coast and Berwick on the east found themselves on the front line and Berwick, together with its walled t o w n , would change hands numerous times in its history. In the lowlands, the royal siege in 1 3 0 0 of the triangular Caerlaverock Castle b e c a m e the celebrated subject o f a detailed poem that rather distorts the actual importance o f the event itself.

AFTERMATH During the t w o centuries after 1 3 0 0 there was n o significant growth in the n u m b e r o f castles. E n g l a n d and Wales were already t h i c k with fortresses, though there were times when it seemed prudent to consider building new ones. While England might seem more settled, the threat from Scotland would

The outer gatehouse at Chepstow, Gwent, dates between 1219 and 1245. Marten's Tower on the left (1270-1300) has huge spurs to deter mining.

ABOVE The hall in the Lower Bailey at Chepstow, with the porch on the right, built between 1270 and 1300. The D-shaped tower guarding the entrance to the Middle Bailey dates to around 1200.

BELOW A detail of a window embrasure at Chepstow. Remains of plaster decorated with red imitation masonry lines can just be made out.

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r e m a i n real until at least the 1 7 t h century while Welsh unrest remained c o n s t a n t . F r a n c e t o o remained a danger, especially after the outbreak o f the H u n d r e d Years W a r in 1 3 3 8 . After that w a r ended in 1 4 5 2 England drifted into the W a r s o f the R o s e s but, despite the potential p o w e r o f m o s t castles, they figured relatively little in the politics o f the day and military conflict tended to be settled on the battlefield rather than by siege w a r f a r e . In any case improved g u n p o w d e r m e a n t different f o r m s o f defence were becoming desirable. N e w , m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e t o w e r houses appeared that had much less defensive strength than earlier designs. M a n y castles had further w o r k done t o the m although this w a s often the addition, or the rebuilding, o f domestic ranges t o provide m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e a c c o m m o d a t i o n at a time when large m a n o r houses were b e c o m i n g an increasingly attractive alternative. In the 1 6 t h century military emphasis w a s being c o n c e n t r a t e d on forts designed to house artillery. T h e s e were low with thick walls to deflect enemy c a n n o n b a l l s but did n o t have suitable a c c o m m o d a t i o n for a lord so were not castles in the true sense o f a residence. S o m e castles were converted to suit increased residential use. C h e p s t o w h a d a n u m b e r o f w i n d o w s , doors and fireplaces inserted into the walls against w h i c h were built new buildings for the h o u s e h o l d o f the earl o f W o r c e s t e r ; similarly the gatehouse had large w i n d o w s inserted. B y c o n t r a s t , Castle Rising is reported even in the later 1 5 t h century as in decay so the m e n t i o n o f T u d or visits suggests the guests m a d e use o f newly built housing there; these guests included M a r y , sister of H e n r y V I I I a n d e x - q u e e n o f F r a n c e , and her h u s b a n d , Charles B r a n d o n . Similarly, R o c k i n g h a m w a s in such p o o r repair by 1 4 8 5 that H e n r y V I I had a hunting lodge put in the p a r k . E d w a r d W a t s o n turned the castle into a T u d o r m a n s i o n in 1 5 4 4 . In the 1 6 t h century Beeston had already developed the legend tha t the castle w o u l d rise to save England one day and a further

legend developed o f the treasure o f R i c h a r d II being hidden in the inner well (a short tunnel does lead off the shaft). M a n y castles saw their last stand in the English Civil Wars and fell foul o f the improved power of gunpowder, or were afterwards slighted by Parliament to prevent their being used again. Despite b e c o m i n g a T u d o r house, Rockingham's strength was noted and Royalists fortified the donjon. T h e castle suffered severely in the siege and subsequent capture by Parliamentary forces. It was gradually restored following the war. In the 19th century Anthony Salvin 'improved' its medieval appearance (not least by adding castellation), as he did at the Tower of London and other sites. In 1 6 4 3 , Parliamentary forces laid siege to C o r f e Castle but despite a bombardment and assaults the garrison lost only t w o men in contrast to over 1 0 0 lost on the Parliamentary side. By O c t o b e r 1 6 4 5 Corfe was besieged again. Lady Bankes refused the chance to escape offered by loyalists w h o got through enemy lines and the castle fell by treachery, w h e n soldiers disguised as reinforcements were allowed to enter. Parliament voted for its demolition the following year. C h e p s t o w was also b o m b a r d e d in 1 6 4 5 and again in 1 6 4 8 during the second Civil War. Four c a n n o n soon k n o c k e d a hole in the walls and prompted many of the royalist garrison to surrender before the anticipated attack c am e. After the Civil W a r Chepstow became a barracks until 1 6 8 5 and a prison for political prisoners. Goodrich was captured by Parliamentary troops in 1 6 4 6 partly as a result of the water supply being cut off and the castle w a s slighted. Pontefract underwent three sieges during the Civil W a r s , between 1 6 4 4 and 1 6 4 9 , and was noted as particularly powerful by Cromwell himself. However, despite the structure surviving generally, it was deliberately demolished after the third siege, becoming a complete ruin; only the main guard in the barbican escaped, to be used as a debtor's prison and to house French prisoners of w a r in 1 6 7 3 . In the later 19th century it became a pleasure park complete with romantic ruins. L a u n c e s t o n w a s already b e c o m i n g run d o w n by the time o f the B l a c k Prince's survey in 1 3 3 7 , w h i c h lists r o o f l e s s o r disjointed buildings a n d a prison that was a l m o s t useless; 1 6 years later the m a y o r and bailiffs w e r e ordered to stop pigs trampling d o w n the m o a t as it was likely to cause the walls to fall d o w n ! W o r k w a s d o n e t o m a k e the castle at least usable f o r judicial business but again it w a s so derelict following the Civil W a r s tha t it was n o t even considered necessary t o slight it. Already in 1 6 5 0 ho us es and gardens had sprung up in the ditch between the t o w n and castle. As with others, its role as a prison r e m a i n e d in the f o r m o f the N o r t h G a t e h o u s e ,

BELOW LEFT Barnwell, Northamptonshire, built by Berengar le Moine in 1264-66, taking advantage of Henry Ill's civil wars. (By kind permission of Anthony de Reuck) BELOW RIGHT The rectangular stone enceinte with four cylindrical corner towers at Kidwelly Castle was probably begun by Pain de Chaworth in about 1275.

where the c o n s t a b l e had his quarters. H e n r y Ill's aisled hall at Winchester w a s peaceably taken over in the 1 7 t h century for administration of the law. In the 1 8 t h century demolition was suggested for the now-decaying castle at R o c h e s t e r but a b a n d o n e d because o f the difficulty, followed by an unsuccessful attempt to turn it into a government barracks. In the 19th century it was converted into a pleasure garden although the remains of the gate to the city were destroyed in the process and a ne w entrance k n o c k e d through. H o w e v e r it did result in repairs being carried out generally. Dover remained a front-line stronghold, modernised in the 1 8 t h and 1 9 t h centuries, with its underground tunnels seeing service during World W a r II.

VISITING THE CASTLES TODAY A c t o n Burnell, Shropshire (English Heritage) A b o u t 1 3 . 4 k m ( 8 . 3 miles) south o f Shrewsbury off the A 4 5 8 . Take the left turn at the village c r o s s r o a d s ; access is a very short walk through a w o o d . A solitary gable end f r o m a 13th-century hall in nearby private grounds is said to be the site o f the first English parliament. Allington, Kent (Private) T urn n o r t h - e a s t s o m e f o u r k i l o m e t r e s ( 2 . 5 miles) n o r t h - w e s t o f central M a i d s t o n e off the A 2 0 . R e m a i n s of late 13th-century enclosure walls, towers and gatehouse, restored tastefully in the early 2 0 t h century. Arundel, Sussex (Duke of Norfolk)

The delightful small castle of Manorbier, Pembroke, begun by the de Barris in the 12th century, was strengthened in the next century by John de Barri.

1 5 . 9 k m ( 9 . 9 miles) north-west of W o r t h i n g o f f the A 2 7 . Late 13th-century enlarged gate and b a r b i c a n , strengthened 12th-century walls and a shell keep remains but m u c h else dates f r o m 1 8 7 0 - 9 0 . B a m b u r g h , N o r t h u m b e r l a n d (English Heritage) O n the B 1 3 4 1 , some 2 6 . 7 k m ( 1 6 . 6 miles) north-east of Alnwick off the A l . Situated on a cliff but accessed f r o m the village, where the G r a c e Darling M u s e u m c a n also be visited. Best viewed f r o m the beach below. H e n r y III built the gatehouse. B a r n a r d Castle, County D u r h a m (English Heritage) In the centre o f t o w n , 2 7 . 8 k m ( 1 7 . 3 miles) west o f Darlington on the A 6 7 . T h e B o w e s M u s e u m is nearby.

B arnwell, N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e (Private) 3 . 8 k m ( 2 . 4 miles) south o f P e t e r b o r o u g h , east of the A 6 0 5 . B e d f o r d , Bedfordshire (Beds C o u n t y C o u n c i l ) T h e castle was destroyed following the siege o f 1 2 2 4 and only the damaged motte remains, much of the bailey being built over. Bedford M u s e u m is next to it, with displays concerning the siege. Beeston, Cheshire (English Heritage) A b o u t a mile west o f the A 4 9 , s o m e 1 7 k m ( 1 0 . 6 miles) n o r t h - w e s t o f N a n t w i c h . L a r g e spectacular site but fairly ruinous castle. Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. (English Heritage) Eight kilometres (five miles) west of H e m e l H e m p s t e a d off the A 4 2 5 1 . Large motte and bailey with remains of stone walls. B o l i n g b r o k e , Lincolnshire (English Heritage) At O l d B o l i n g b r o k e , o f f the A 1 5 5 a b o u t 5 . 6 k m ( 3 . 5 miles) n o r t h - w e s t o f West Keal. Largely foundations remain. B r o u g h , C u m b r i a (English Heritage) 3 5 . 1 k m ( 2 1 . 8 miles) south-east of Penrith off the A 6 6 . 13th-century domestic buildings and heightening to d o n j o n . B r o u g h a m , C u m b r i a (English Heritage) O n the B 6 2 6 2 , 1 . 8 k m (1.1 miles) south o f Penrith on the A 6 6 . M a i n l y the inner gatehouse survives f r o m the 1 3 t h century. Caerphilly, M i d G l a m o r g a n ( C A D W ) 1 2 . 4 k m ( 7 . 7 miles) south o f C a r d i f f o f f the A 4 6 9 . H u g e 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y concentric castle with 14th-century hall, set within massive water defences complete with fortified dam platforms. Castell B r y n A m l w g , Shropshire (Shropshire C o u n t y C o u n c i l ) 2 2 . 5 k m ( 1 4 miles) south o f M o n t g o m e r y o f f the B 4 3 6 8 . T h e castle is n o w mainly an e a r t h w o r k close to the Welsh border. Chepstow, G w e n t ( C A D W ) O f f the A 4 8 and a b o u t 4 . 3 k m ( 2 . 7 miles) f r o m the M 4 8 . Extensive ruins set on top of a cliff. Clifford's T o w e r , Y o r k (English Heritage) In the city near the east b a n k of the river O u s e , on a huge m o t t e . C o r f e , Dorset (Natio na l Trust) 6 . 9 k m ( 4 . 3 miles) s o u th - w e s t o f W a r e h a m o n the A 3 5 1 . Best r e a c h e d by parking on the village outskirts and walking through the village. Dover, Kent (English Heritage) Massive castle on the eastern outskirts o f t o w n off the A 2 . If using a car, be prepared for queues approaching the t o w n and port. Alternatively, w a l k o r taxi from D o v e r Priory station in the t o w n . M o s t battlements have been lost. G o o d r i c h , Herefordshire (English Heritage) 6 . 8 k m ( 4 . 2 miles) south-west o f R o s s - o n - W y e off the B 4 2 3 4 . Grosmont, Gwent (CADW) 1 7 . 5 k m ( 1 0 . 9 miles) on the A 4 3 4 7 , north-east o f Abergavenny via the A 4 6 5 and Groesonen R o a d . A first-floor hall is set within curtain walls. Hadleigh, Essex (Essex C o u n t y C o u n c i l ) N e a r the Hadleigh Castle C o u n t r y P a r k b e t w e e n H a d l e i g h and Benfleet, about one kilometre ( 0 . 6 mile) south o f the A 1 3 and 9 . 1 k m ( 5 . 7 miles) west of Southend-on-Sea.

The gatehouse at Warkworth, Northumberland, was built in the early 13th century and heightened probably in the second half of the century. Machicolations overlook the doorway, with holes for the beams of hoardings around the twin towers. The remains of the contemporary semioctagonal Carrickfergus Tower are on the left.

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H o p t o n , Shropshire (Private) Small rectangular donjon a b o u t 1 2 . 1 k m ( 9 . 4 miles) north-west of Shrewsbury o f f the A 5 . K e n i l w o r t h , W a r w i c k s h i r e (English Heritage) O n the B 4 1 0 3 , 8 . 1 k m ( 5 . 1 miles) south-west o f Coventry off the A 4 2 9 , on the western outskirts o f Kenilworth. Large castle with early ruined gatehouse but the w a t e r defences are n o w dry. T h e r e is also a N o r m a n donjon and the 1 4 t h - c e n t u r y hall o f J o h n o f G a u n t . Kidwelly, D y f e d ( C A D W ) 1 4 . 9 k m ( 9 . 3 miles) n o r t h - w e s t o f Llanelli. A square curtain with c o r n e r towers and an outer ring wall on the landward side. L a u n c e s t o n , C o r n w a l l (English Heritage) 3 4 . 5 k m ( 2 1 . 5 miles) north-west o f Bodmin, close to town centre on the A 3 8 8 . A shell keep and t o w e r stand on the m o t t e . L i n c o l n , Lincolnshire (Lincolnshire C o u n t y C o u n c i l ) In the city centre. Large bailey with t w o m o t t e s , m u c h already built by 1 2 0 0 . G o o d views o f the cathedral. Ludlow, Shropshire (Earl o f Powis and Trustees o f the Powis Castle Estate) A b o u t 3 8 k m ( 2 3 . 6 miles) north of Hereford off the A 4 9 . 13th-century towers added t o the c u r t a i n s u r r o u n d i n g a 1 2 t h - c e n t u r y d o n j o n and chapel, and 1 4 t h - c e n t u r y domestic b l o c k . M a n o r b i e r , D y f e d (Private b u t open) About 9 k m (5.7 miles) south-west of Tenby on the B 4 5 8 5 . Mainly 13th century, with gardens inside. M i d d l e h a m , N o r t h Yorkshire (English Heritage) 1 7 . 5 k m ( 1 0 . 9 miles) south o f R i c h m o n d off the A 6 1 0 8 . Late 13th-century walls, modified later, enclose a large N o r m a n d o n j o n . M o n t g o m e r y , Powys ( C A D W ) A b o u t 1 2 k m ( 7 . 5 miles) f r o m W e l s h p o o l o f f the A 4 8 3 . T h e castle ruins are up a steep slope on the west side off the t o w n square. N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e , T y n e and W e a r (City o f N e w c a s t l e ) In the centre o f the city, o f f the A 6 9 . T h e railway passes very close to the d o n j o n . T h e B l a c k G a t e (gatehouse) has a bagpipe museum. T h e t o w n walls c a n be traced. O x f o r d , O x f o r d s h i r e ( O x f o r d Castle Heritage Project) O n the east b a n k o f the river, o f f the A 4 1 4 4 . Subsequently grew into O x f o r d Prison but n o w p a r t o f the M a l m a i s o n hotel c o m p l e x ; the castle can be visited. P e m b r o k e , Dyfed (Private C h a r i t a b l e Trust) A b o u t 1 7 . 7 k m ( 1 1 miles) south o f H a v e r f o r d w e st off the A 4 1 3 9 . T h e castle is set above the river to the north-west of the city centre. It is largely of c . 1 2 0 0 with a huge cylindrical d o n j o n . Pevensey, Sussex (English Heritage) 8 . 4 k m ( 5 . 2 miles) north-east o f E as tbo urne on the B 2 1 9 1 . T h e N o r m a n castle within the R o m a n fort w a s strengthened in the 1 3 t h century with a towered curtain and gate. Peveril, D e r bys h i r e (English Heritage) O n southern outskirts o f C a s t l e t o n , 1 6 . 3 k m ( 1 0 . 1 miles) east o f B u x t o n off the A 6 1 8 7 . 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y hall was placed in a corner o f the N o r m a n castle. Pickering, Yorkshire (English Heritage) 2 8 . 2 k m ( 1 7 . 5 miles) west o f S c a r b o r o u g h off the A 1 7 0 . 13th-century shell keep on a N o r m a n m o t t e , with w o r k o f various periods.

Pontefract, West Yorkshire (City of Wakefield M e t r o p o l i t a n District Council) 1 7 . 3 k m ( 1 0 . 8 miles) east o f Wakefield off the A 6 4 5 ; turn off at B r o a d L a n e for Castle C h a i n . Large but fairly ruinous castle enclosure. R e s t o r m e l , C o r n w a l l (English Heritage) 1 . 6 k m (one mile) n o r t h o f L o s t w i t h i e l o n w e s t b a n k o f river F o w e y . T h e domestic buildings are inside the circular shell keep. Rochester, K e n t (English Heritage) In the centre o f t o w n , by the river Stour facing Bridge R e a c h . T h e repaired corner o f the huge donjon, damaged by King J o h n ' s miners, is best seen by walking round the r o a d outside the castle. Sandal, Yorkshire (City of Wakefield M e t r o p o l i t a n District C o u n c i l ) About 3 . 7 k m (2.3 miles) from Wakefield, just off the A 6 1 . N o w much ruined. Provides a view of the battlefield o f Wakefield ( 1 4 6 1 ) . Skenfrith, G w e n t ( C A D W ) 1 9 . 9 k m ( 1 2 . 4 miles) north-east o f Abergavenny on the B 4 5 2 1 . T h e castle is relatively unspoiled. Stokesay, Shropshire (English Heritage) 1 1 . 7 k m (7.3 miles) north-west of Ludlow on the A 4 9 . Picturesque small castle or m a n o r house, with m o a t and 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y t i m b e r gatehouse. Tintagel, C o r n w e l l (English Heritage) A b o u t 9 . 7 k m (six miles) north-west o f C a m e l f o r d on the B 3 2 6 3 . Spectacular site on the cliffs but very ruinous. Tiverton, D e v o n 2 3 . 7 k m ( 1 4 . 7 miles) n o r t h o f E x e t e r o f f the A 3 9 6 . R e c t a n g u l a r late 13th-century castle with t w o surviving t o w e r s , a 1 4 t h - c e n t u r y gate and some later w o r k . Tonbridge, K e n t 8 . 5 k m ( 5 . 3 miles) north o f R o y a l Tonbridge Wells o f f the B 2 2 6 0 (High S t ) . T h e three-storey gatehouse and N o r m a n m o t t e with shell keep survive. T o w e r of L o n d o n (Historic R o y a l Palaces) N o parking facilities e x c e p t a m u l t i - s t o r e y paying c a r p a r k . Nearest Underground is Tower Hill on the Circle and District Line. T h e C r o w n Jewels are also displayed in the Tower, which c a n become very busy in the summer m o n t h s .

The remains of the barbican tower of c.1270 (left) at Sandal, Yorkshire, which stood inside the bailey and led across the ditch where the ashlar facings of the ruined D-shaped towers guard the stairs up the motte. The postern can be reached from the ditch.

Tretower, Powys ( C A D W ) 1 4 . 1 k m ( 8 . 8 miles) north-west o f Abergavenny off the A 4 7 9 . 1 2 t h -century shell keep with 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y cylindrical d o n j o n set inside it. N e a r the castle is later medieval T r e t o w e r C o u r t . W h i t e Castle, Gwent ( C A D W ) 1 2 . 1 k m ( 7 . 5 miles) north-east o f Abergavenny off the B 4 5 2 1 . 12th-century walls have 1 3 t h - c e n t u r y towers and a gatehouse. Winchester, Hampshire (Winchester City Council) T h e castle, n o w the h o m e o f the C o u n t y C o u n c i l , is on the south side o f the B 3 4 0 4 at the top o f the High Street. T h e great hall remains, n o w a museum where c a n be seen the ' R o u n d T a b l e ' . Outside is a reconstructed medieval garden. An excavated circular mural tower from the city wall is visible nearby. Windsor, Surrey (The R o y a l Collection) Walls and mural towers o f H e n r y III survive on the west side of the castle and south o f the m o t t e . T w o baileys and w o r k o f various periods, especially the 1 9 t h century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY In addition to the works cited, excellent guide books are available for many of the castles in England from English Heritage and for many Edwardian castles in Wales from C A D W , the Welsh tourist board. Amt, E., 'Besieging Bedford: military logistics in 1224', Journal of Medieval Military History, 2002, Vol.1, pp. 1 0 1 - 2 4 Ashbee, Jeremy. '"The Chamber called Gloriette": Living at Leisure in Thirteenth- and Fourteenth-Century Castles', Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 157 (2004), pp. 1 7 - 4 0 Baker, David and Evelyn, 'Bedford castle excavations', Bedfordshire Archaeological Journal, Bedfordshire Archaeological Council, 1979, vol. 13, 1979, pp. 7-64 , 'Bedford Castle', Castle Studies Group Journal 2 0 0 5 - 6 , Vol. 19, pp. 127-29 Beresford, M., New Towns of the Middle Ages (Lutterworth Press: London, 1967) Bradbury, J . , The Medieval Siege (The Boydell Press: Woodbridge, 1992) Brown, R. Allen, English Castles (2nd ed., Batsford: London, 1976) , Castles from the Air (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1989) Butler, Lawrence, Sandal Castle, Wakefield (Wakefield Historical Publications: Wakefield, 1991) Clark, G. T , Medieval Military Architecture in England (Wyman & Sons: London, 1884) Colvin, H. M., R.A. Brown, and A. J . Taylor, (ed.) A History of the Kings Works, The Middle Ages, 2 vols (HMSO: London, 1963) Davies, R. R., Conquest, Coexistence, and Change: Wales 1063-1415 (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1987), reprinted as: The Age of Conquest: Wales 1063-1415 (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1991) , The Revolt of Owain Glyn Dwr (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1995) Edwards, G , 'Edward I's Castle Building in Wales', Proceedings of the British Academy, 32 (1947), 16 Gies, Joseph and Frances Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle (Abelard: London, 1975) Goddard, A. R., 'The Great Siege of Bedford Castle', Bedfordshire Times (1906, reprinted 1985) Greenshields, Margaret, 'The siege of Bedford castle', Bedfordshire Magazine, vol. 4, pp. 1 8 3 - 9 0 Guy, John, Kent Castles (Meresborough Books: Rainham, 1980)

Harvey, Alfred, Castles and Walled Towns of England (Methuen & Co: London, 1911) Kenyon, J . R., Medieval Fortifications (Leicester University Press: Leicester, 1990) Kenyon, J . R., and R. Avent, (eds.), Castles in Wales and the Marches; Essays in honour of D.J. Cathcart King (University of Wales: Cardiff, 1987) King, D. J . C , The Castle in England and Wales (Croom Helm, 1988) , 'The defence of Wales', Archaeologia Cambrensis, vol. 126 (1977), pp. 1-16 Labarge, M. W., The Baronial Household in the Thirteenth Century (The Harvester Press: Brighton, 1980) McAleavy, Tony, Life in a Medieval Castle (English Heritage: London, 1998) McNeil, Tom, Castles (B T Batsford/English Heritage: London, 1992) Morris, John E., The Welsh Wars of Edward I (Alan Sutton: Stroud, 1997) Morris, Marc, Castle: A History of Buildings that Shaped Medieval Britain (Macmillan: London, 2004) Neaverson, E., Medieval Castles in North Wales: a Study of Sites, Water Supply and Building Stones (Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1947) Oetgen, J . , 'A regeneration issue: Bedford Castle Mound', The Archaeologist (2005) Vol. 57, pp. 1 2 - 1 4 Parker, Mike and Paul Whitfield, Wales - The Rough Guide, (Rough Guides Ltd: London, 1994) Parnell, Geoffrey, The Tower of London (B T Batsford/English Heritage, London, 1993) Pettifer, Adrian, Welsh Castles (The Boydell Press: Woodbridge, 2000) , English Castles, A guide by counties (The Boydell Press: Woodbridge, 1995) Piatt, Colin, The Castle in Medieval England and Wales (Seeker & Warburg: London, 1982) Pounds, N. J . G, The Medieval Castle in England and Wales (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1994) Powicke, Sir Maurice, The Thirteenth Century, 1216-1307 (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1962) Prestwich, M., Edward I (Yale University Press: London, 1997) Rickard, John, The Castle Community. The Personnel of English and Welsh Castles, 1272-1422 (The Boydell Press: Woodbridge, 2002) Roberts, Ian, Pontefract Castle (West Yorkshire Archaeological Survey: Wakefield, 1990) Salter, Mike, The Castles of The Thames Valley and The Chilterns (Folly Publications: Malvern, 2002) Sorrell, Alan, British Castles (William Clowes & Sons Ltd: London, 1973) Taylor, A. J . , 'Master James of St. George', English Historical Review, L X V (1950), pp. 4 3 3 - 4 5 7 , The Kings Works in Wales, 1277-1330 (HMSO, 1974) , 'Castle-Building in Thirteenth-Century Wales and Savoy', Proceedings of the British Academy, 63 (1977), pp. 2 6 5 - 9 2 , Four Great Castles: Caernarfon, Conwy, Harlech, Beaumaris (Gwasg Gregynog Ltd, Newtown, 1983) , Studies in Castles and Castle-Building (Hambledon Continuum: London, 1985) , The Welsh Castles of Edward I (The Hambledon Press: London, 1986) This previously as 'The King's Works in Wales' in Colvin above. Thompson, M. W., The Rise of the Castle (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1991) , The Decline of the Castle (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1987) Toy, Sidney, Castles, Their Construction and History (Constable: London, 1985) Warner, Philip, Sieges of the Middle Ages (G. Bell & Sons Ltd: London, 1968) Warren, W. L., King John (Eyre Methuen: London, 1978)

GLOSSARY Apse

A rounded end.

Ashlar

Smooth, flat masonry blocks.

Bailey

A courtyard.

Ballista

A projectile engine resembling a giant crossbow, utilizing the tension of a bow or the torsion of two arms thrust through skeins of cord. Usually for shooting large arrows or bolts.

Bar hole

A hole in a wall into which a drawbar slides.

Barbican

An outwork that protects a gate.

Barrel vault

A cylindrical plain stone vault.

Bascule bridge

A bridge lifted by chains suspended from counterweighted beams.

Batter

The base of a wall thickened with a sloping front.

Belfry

A wooden tower, often mobile, used either to overlook a wall or to transfer troops on to it.

Berm

The space between a wall and ditch.

Brattice

Wooden hoarding built out from a battlement to command the base of a wall.

Buttress

Stone support built against a wall to reinforce it.

Corbel

A supporting stone bracket.

Countermine

A tunnel dug from a castle aimed at breaking into an enemy mineshaft.

Counterscarp

The outer slope of a ditch.

Crenel

The open section of a battlement.

Crenellation

Battlement.

Cross-vault

A vault in which two barrel vaults intersect.

Curtain

A length of wall surrounding a castle or town.

Daub

A filling used to cover wattle walling, made from mud or clay sometimes mixed with dung and straw.

Donjon

A great tower or keep, but it can also refer to an upper bailey or lord's private area.

Drawbar

A wooden beam for securing the inside of a door, which runs back into a hole in the wall to allow the door to open.

Embrasure

An internal opening in a wall, sometimes for the use of archers.

Enceinte

The area enclosed by the castle walls.

Great tower

See Donjon.

Groined vault

A cross-vault whose edges are sharply defined.

Hourding

See Brattice.

Jamb

The side of an opening through a wall.

Joggled

Keyed together by overlapping joints.

Keep

A word used in England from the 16th century to describe a donjon.

Loop

A narrow opening in a wall that splays out internally, designed either to admit light or for shooting through.

Machicolation

Battlement brought forward on corbels to allow soldiers to command the base of a wall.

Mangonel

Variously used to describe a torsion catapult utilizing a skein of cord as a spring, or a trebuchet, often the type utilizing manpower.

Merlon

The solid section of a battlement.

Mine

A tunnel dug under a wall to weaken the foundations and bring it down.

Moat

A ditch, either wet or dry.

Motte

An earth mound.

Mural chamber

A vaulted chamber formed in the thickness of a wall.

Mural passage

A vaulted passage formed in the thickness of a wall.

Mural tower

A tower set along a curtain wall.

Murder hole

A hole in a passage vault or ceiling through which offensive material could be dropped on attackers, or water to douse fires.

Parados

A low, inner wall of a wall walk.

Parapet

The outer wall of a wall walk.

Petrary

A stone-throwing catapult.

Pilaster Portcullis

A shallow pier built against a wall to buttress it. A lattice made from wood clad in iron, or occasionally in iron alone, dropped to block a gate.

Postern

A small rear door.

Putlog

A hole in a wall designed to take the beams that support scaffolding.

Rampart

An earthen bank.

Revetment

The side of a ditch, bank or motte faced with wood, stone or brick.

Ring-work

A circular or oval earthwork with bank and ditch.

Scarp

The side of a ditch.

Spur

A solid, pointed stone reinforcement at the base of a tower; also, a finger of high ground.

Trebuchet

A catapult whose throwing arm utilizes the principle of counterbalance.

Truss

A timber frame designed to support a roof.

Turning bridge

A bridge like a see-saw, the rear half falling into a pit as the front section is raised.

Turret

A small tower.

Vault

A curved ceiling of stone.

Vice

A spiral stair.

Wall walk

A passage along the top of a wall.

Ward

See Bailey.

Wattle

Stakes interwoven with branches, used for walling.

INDEX Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations Abergavenny Castle 4 9 , 5 0 Acton Burnell manor 3 8 , 5 6 Allington Castle 5 6 Arundel Castle 1 0 , 3 9 , 5 6 baileys 10, 11 Bamburgh Castle 5 6 barbicans 2 8 - 9 Barnard Castle 4 , 1 1 , 4 8 , 5 6 Barnwell Castle 5 5 , 5 7 Barons'War 5 0 - 3 Beaumaris Castle 13 Bedford Castle 8, 4 6 , 4 6 , 4 8 , 5 7 Beeston Castle 1 1 , 1 5 , 2 1 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 42, 54, 57 Berkhamsted Castle 4 8 , 5 7 Berwick Castle 4 8 , 53 Bolingbroke Castle 1 1 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 9 , 5 7 brattices 2 4 Brecon Castle 4 9 , 5 0 bridges 2 5 - 6 Bristol Castle 2 1 , 2 9 Brough Castle 5 7 Brougham Castle 5 7 Builth Castle 5, 9, 1 1 , 4 9 , 5 0 Caerlaverock Castle 53 Caernarfon 16, 43 Caerphilly Castle 1 3 , 14, 2 3 , 2 3 , 2 6 , 49, 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 7 Cambridge Castle 2 1 , 4 8 Cardigan Castle 5, 9, 4 9 , 5 0 Castell Bryn Amlwg 5 7 Castle Acre 13 Castle Rising 5 4 castles, building of 1 6 - 2 1 carpenters and masons 1 7 - 2 0 costs 2 0 - 1 designs 1 0 - 1 3 , 15, 18, 6 2 - 3 methods 1 8 , 1 9 - 2 0 as residences 3 5 - 4 4 chambers, private 3 9 - 4 0 chapels 4 2 - 3 Chepstow Castle 1 1 , 1 5 , 2 3 - 4 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 28, 36, 52, 53, 54, 54, 55, 57 Chester Castle 21 Clifford's Tower, York 10, 1 1 , 12, 2 1 , 2 8 , 42, 43, 44, 57 Colchester Castle 1 7 , 4 8 concentric designs 1 1 , 13, 2 1 - 9 , 3 0 , 32 Conisbrough Castle 3 6 , 3 8 , 41 Conwy 16, 4 3

donjons 1 0 - 1 1 , 11 Dover Castle 8, 1 1 , 13, 1 5 , 16, 2 0 , 2 1 , 23, 24, 26, 29, 48, 56, 57 Dyserth Castle 1 1 , 5 0 Edward I, King 7, 9, 10, 2 1 , 3 0 , 3 2 , 4 4 , 5 0 , 53 castle designs 1 1 , 13, 15 Edward II, King 9 - 1 0 , 3 9 English Civil Wars 55 Evesham, battle of ( 1 2 6 5 ) 7, 9, 51 Eynsford Castle 41 Falkes de Breaute 4 6 , 4 9 Flint Castle 11 fortified enceintes 11 Framlingham Castle 1 1 , 4 8 gardens and parks 4 3 - 4 gatehouses 15, 2 4 - 8 Gilbert de Clare 1 5 , 2 6 , 51 Gilbert de Gant 4 8 , 4 9 Gloucester Castle 2 1 , 5 0 Goodrich Castle 1 5 , 18, 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 9 , 3 6 , 39, 41, 42, 42, 43, 55, 57 Grosmont Castle 7, 10, 2 4 , 4 9 , 5 7 Guildford Castle 4 0 , 4 8 Hadleigh Castle 3 6 , 3 9 , 5 7 halls 1 9 , 3 6 , 3 8 Hanley Castle 2 0 Harlech Castle 1 3 , 4 3 Henry III, King 5, 7, 8 - 9 , 3 0 , 4 5 , 4 8 - 5 3 castle building 1 7 , 2 0 - 1 , 3 1 , 3 9 , 4 0 Hertford Castle 2 1 , 4 8 Hopton Castle 58 Hubert de Burgh 4 , 5, 7, 8, 1 1 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 26, 29, 48 in Wales 4 9 - 5 0 John, King 4 - 5 , 8, 10, 3 5 , 3 6 , 4 4 , 45, 46, 48 castle building 1 6 - 1 7 , 2 0 Kenilworth Castle 7, 9, 2 3 , 2 3 , 5 1 - 2 , 58 Kidwelly Castle 13, 5 5 , 58 kitchens 4 1 - 2 Knaresborough Castle 2 0 , 2 9

Corfe Castle 10, 17, 2 1 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 8 , 5 5 , 5 7 'Gloriette' 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 0 , 3 6 , 4 4 crenels and crenellation 2 3 curtain walls 2 3

Lancaster Castle 2 0 Launceston 16, 2 0 Castle 3 8 , 4 1 , 5 5 , 58 Leeds Castle, Kent 2 1 , 4 3 Lewes, battle of ( 1 2 6 4 ) 7, 9 Lincoln Castle 2 1 , 2 4 , 2 9 , 4 8 - 9 , 58 Llywelyn ap Gruffydd 5, 7, 8, 9, 4 4 , 4 9 - 5 0 Louis of France, Prince 4 , 5, 8, 2 4 , 4 8 Ludgershall Castle 4 1 , 4 3 Ludlow Castle 1 6 , 5 8

David, Prince of Wales 5, 5 0 de Montfort, Simon (son) 5 1 - 2 de Montfort, Simon, earl of Leicester 5 , 7, 51 decoration, internal 4 0 - 1 Deddington Castle 2 4 defences 2 1 - 9 Deganwy (Gannoc) Castle 5, 9, 5 0 Denbigh Castle 13 Devizes Castle 4 , 2 1

machicolations 2 4 Magna Carta ( 1 2 1 5 ) 4 , 8 Manorbier Castle, Pembroke 5 6 , 58 manors, fortified 3 8 Marlborough Castle 2 1 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 8 Middleham Castle 58 moats and ditches 2 1 - 2 , 2 2 , 2 3 Montgomery Castle 5, 2 5 , 2 5 , 2 9 , 4 1 , 4 9 , 58 Montgomery, Treaty of ( 1 2 6 7 ) 5, 9, 5 0

64

motte and bailey 10 mural towers 10, 1 1 , 2 3 - 4 , 31 murder holes (meutrieres) 28 Newark Castle 4 5 , 4 8 Newcastle-upon-Tyne 1 6 , 2 3 , 2 6 , 2 6 Black Gate 4 5 , 5 8 Northampton Castle 5 0 Nottingham Castle 17, 2 1 Odiham Castle 12, 3 5 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 48 Okehampton Castle 4 2 Oxford Castle 1 7 , 2 8 , 5 8 Oxford, Provisions of (1258) 7 , 9 Pembroke Castle 5, 5, 2 6 , 58 Pevensey Castle 58 Peveril Castle 58 Pickering Castle 1 1 , 2 0 , 58 Pontefract Castle 1 1 , 12, 2 8 , 4 8 , 59 Portchester Castle 17 portcullises 2 6 , 28 prisons 4 4 Ranulf, earl of Chester 2 1 , 25 Restormel Castle 10, 14, 18, 3 5 , 3 6 , 40, 59 Richard of Cornwall 2 0 , 2 5 , 4 3 , 52 Richard I, the Lionheart 8, 1 1 , 2 9 - 3 0 Richard's Castle 4 2 Rochester Castle 2 0 , 2 1 , 4 6 , 4 8 , 5 1 , 56,59 Rockingham Castle 8 , 2 1 , 2 9 , 4 8 , 5 4 Roger Leyburn 1 8 , 5 0 , 5 1 Rumney Castle 38 St Briavel's Castle 21 sally ports (posterns) 2 9 Sandal Castle 12, 2 9 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 5 9 , 5 9 Sandwich Castle 18 Scarborough Castle 2 0 Scotland 4 , 7, 10, 4 8 siege engines 4 5 , 53 Skenfrith, Gwent 1 1 , 2 4 , 3 8 , 4 9 , 5 9 Southampton Castle 2 0 Stamford Castle 3 9 Stokesay Castle 2 0 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 59 Tickhill Castle 12 Tintagel Castle 2 5 , 4 3 , 59 Tiverton Castle 5 9 Tonbridge Castle 2 6 , 4 6 , 5 1 , 5 9 Tower of London 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 9 , 4 4 , 59 tour 2 9 - 3 1 , 3 2 - 3 , 3 4 - 5 Wakefield Tower 2 1 , 3 0 , 3 1 White Tower 1 1 , 3 1 town defences 1 5 - 1 6 Tretower Castle 6 0 Wales 5 , 7 , 8 - 9 , 1 6 , 2 0 , 5 3 Wallingford Castle 4 1 , 4 4 Warkworth Castle 4 8 , 5 7 Wells, Somerset, Bishop's Palace 3 6 , 4 4 wells and water supplies 42 White Castle 1 1 , 1 8 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 6 0 William Marshal 5, 8, 1 1 , 2 4 , 48 Winchester Castle 17, 19, 2 1 , 2 9 , 4 0 , 4 2 - 3 , 48, 56, 60 Windsor Castle 10, 17, 2 0 , 2 1 , 3 6 , 4 0 , 60

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Design, technology and history of key fortresses, strategic positions and defensive systems

ENGLISH CASTLES 1200-1300 Fr o m t h e e n d o f t h e 12t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s t h e En gl i sh cast l e b e ga n t o a d o p t t h e cl assi cal f o r m t hat d e f i n e s it t o t hi s day, a n d t hi s p e r i od sa w t h e c o n st r u c t i o n a n d e x p a n si o n o f so m e o f En gl a n d 's m o st f a m o u s f or t i f i cat i ons, i n c l u d i n g t h e Tow e r o f L o n d o n . T h e se f or t i f i cat i ons w er e t o b e t h o r o u gh l y t est ed ov e r t h e c o u r se o f t h e 13t h c e n t u r y as En gl an d w a s r i ven b y conf l i ct b e t w e e n t h e m o n a r c h y a n d p o w e r f u l m agn at e s. As w el l as p r o v i d i n g t h e f o c u s f or w ar f ar e, cast l es i n c r e asi n gl y b e c a m e t h e cent r es o f t h e l ocal c o m m u n i t y p r o v i d i n g j ust i ce a n d ad m i n i st r at i on , as w el l as a m o r e p e r m a n e n t b ase f or t h e l or d, hi s f am i l y a n d r et ai ner s. Th i s t i t l e det ai l s t h e d e si gn a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e se f or t i f i cat i ons t h r o u g h o u t En gl a n d , as w el l as t h e m aj or En gl i sh si t es i n Wal es.

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