Engendering Northern Plains Paleoindian Archaeology: Decision-making and gender roles in subsistence and settlement strategies 9780860549376, 9781407350127

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Engendering Northern Plains Paleoindian Archaeology Decision-making and gender roles in subsistence and settlement strategies

Caroline R. Hudecek-Cuffe

BAR International Series 699 1998

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 699 Engendering Northern Plains Paleoindian Archaeology © Caroline R. Hudecek-Cuffe and the Publisher 1998 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860549376 paperback ISBN 9781407350127 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860549376 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1998. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ABSTRACT

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

I n No r th Ame r ican P reh is to ry , e spec ia l ly P la ins P reh is to ry ,t h et e rm P a leo ind ian c on ju res u pi mage so fb i g g ame m ammo th a nd b i son h un te r s . Mo reove r , t h ef o cu so n t ypo logy , s ys tems a na lys is , a dap ta t ion , a nd t he e nv i ronmen t i n P la ins r e sea rch , c omb ined w i th t h e a s sump t ion t h a tg ende ri sa n i re leva n t a nd s t a t ic a spe c to f c u l tu re ,h a sr e su l ted i n av e ry me chan is t ic , f u nc t iona l , a nd e s sen t ia l ly d e -human ized v i ew o fP la ins P a leo ind ian l i f e . A n e xam ina t ion o f P la ins P a leo ind ian l i feways r e cons t ruc t ions r evea ls v e ry l i t t le e xp l ic i t e xam ina t ion o f g ende r a nd , i n s tead , ar e l iance u pon i mp l ic i t a nd q ue s t ionab le a s sump t ions a bou tg ende rr o le sa nd r e la t ions o fh un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s .

T h is v o lume i s ar ev ised v e r s ion o f my d i s se r ta t ion a nd I w ou ld l i ke t ot h ank s eve ra l p eop le a nd i n s t i tu t ions f o rt h e h e lp a nd a s s is tance t h a t t h ey h ave g iven m e d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f my r e sea rch . Ia m p a r t icu la r ly g ra tefu l t o my s upe rv iso r , R aymond L e B lanc , f o rh i se nd le s s s uppo r t , e ncou ragemen t , a nd a dv ice . A l l h i s v a luab le s ugge s t ions a nd c ommen t s o n t h e e a r l ie r d ra f t s o f my d i s se r ta t ion a r e g rea t ly a pp rec ia ted . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t o a cknow ledge t h e a s s is tance o f t h e o t he r m embe r s o f my s upe rv iso ry c omm i t tee , C ha r le s S chwege r a nd R u th G ruhn , f o r t h e i r e ncou ragemen t o ve r t h e y ea r s a nd t h e i r m any h e lpfu l s ugge s t ions a nd r e commenda t ion s c once rn ing my r e sea rch a nd d i sse r ta t ion . Ia l so a pp re c ia te t h eh e lp a nd a dv ice p rov ided b y c omm i t tee m embe r s E r ic H iggs , I a n MacLa ren , a nd A l ice K ehoe .

I nc reas ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , h oweve r , i s q ue s t ion ing t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re t ive m ode l st h a t a s sume t h e c en t ra l i ty o f b ig g ame h un t ing f o r a l l P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions a c ross t he c on t inen t . I n a dd i t ion , g ende r r e sea rch o ft h e p as t 3 0 y ea r s h a s c l ea r ly i lus t ra ted t h a t g ende r , i n s tead o fb e ing s t a t ic , b io log ica l ly b a sed , a nd a n i re levan tp a r to fc u l tu ra ld ynam ics , i sa n a c t ive a nd h i gh ly v a r iab le c u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t . R ecen t e thnog raph ic a nd a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ies h ave d emons t ra ted t h a t g ende r r e la t ions o f many h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ies a r e f r equen t ly c ha rac te r ized b y f l ex ib le , o ve r lapp ing , a nd c omp lemen ta ry r o le s . T h is f l ex ib i l i ty w ou ld h ave b een e spec ia l ly b enef ic ia l f o r N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , w ho w e re l i v ing d u r ing a t ime o f d ra s t ic c l ima t ic c hange . A l l P a leo ind ian i n d iv idua ls , i n c lud ing m en , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren , w ou ld h ave b een i nvo lved t o s ome d eg ree w i th a cqu i r ing i n fo rma t ion t h a tw a se s sen t ia l f o r m ak ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ions a nd , m o reove r ,e x t reme ly i mpo r tan ti nt h ec on tex to fi n c rea s ing v a r iab i l i ty a nd c hang ing e nv ironmen ts o f t he l a te P l e is tocene .N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w e re l i ke ly c ha rac te r ized b y i n te rdependency a nd c omp lemen ta r i ty i n g ende r r o le s , w i th a n e mpha s is o n f l ex ib i l i ty a nd f l u id i ty i nt h e i r g ende rr o le s , r e la t ions , a nd d e c is ion -mak ing p roce s se s .

I n a dd i t ion , as pec ia l t hank y ou g oe s o u t t o a l l t h ose i nd iv idua ls who p rov ided a dv ice , r e fe rences , a nd c ommen t s o n v a r ious d raf t s o f my p re l im ina ry r e sea rch p roposa l a nd p a r t s o ft h e d i s se r ta t ion , e spe c ia l ly C a ro l ine B i rd , C he ry l C laa ssen , D ena D incauze , L inda F ed igan , M i l ton F reeman , a nd J oan G e ro . I np a r t icu la r , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank Ma rce l K o rnfe ld f o r h i s d e ta i led r e v iew o f t h e d i sse r ta t ion , h i s e ncou rag ing c ommen t s , a nd t h e u se fu l r e commenda t ions f o r i mp rov ing t h e f i na l m anusc r ip t . I a l so a pp rec ia te t h ea s s is tance o f Mu r ie l le N agy w ho w ou ld a lway sb r ing a r t ic le sa nd b ook sd ea l ing w i th g ende r t o p ic s t o my a t ten t ion a nd A lwynne B eaudo in o f t he A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey , P rov inc ia l Museum o f A lbe r ta , w ho p rov ided m e w i th m any h e lpfu l p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r ef e rences . T hanks g o t o B ob D awe , a l so o f t h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey , f o rh i sh e lp i ns how ing m eh ow t o p roduce ac ompu te ri mage o fm y m ap . F inanc ia l a s s is tance f o r t h is s t udy w a sp rov ided i np a r t b y U n ive r s i ty o f A lbe r ta G radua te A s s is tan t sh ip s , a n I z aak Wa l ton K i l lam Memo r ia l S cho la rsh ip , a nd aP rov ince o f A lbe r ta G radua te F e l lowsh ip . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t o a cknow ledge t h e D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy f o r t h e i r h e lp i np rov id ing s pace a nd r e sou rce s , a sw e l l a st h e m any m embe r s o ft h e D epa r tmen t w ho a lway s e ncou raged m e t h roughou t my y ea r sa tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fA lbe r ta .

Wh i le a l a s pec ts o fg ende r c an n eve r b e r e cove red f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , e xam in ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies f r om t h e p e rspec t ive o f g ende r , i n fo rma t ion a cqu is i t ion , a nd d ec is ion -mak ing c an b e a n i mpo r tan t f i r s t s t ep f o r i n corpo ra t ing m en , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren b ack i n to d e -cu l tu red a nd h un t ing -dom ina ted m ode l so ft h ep a s t , a nd , i nt h ep roce s s ,r e s to r ing s ome s o r t o fb a lance t oo u rc oncep t ion o ft h eP a leo ind ian p a s t .

L a s t , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank my f am i ly f o r t h e i r c on t inu ing s uppo r t o ve r t h e y ea r s , a nd m os t e spec ia l ly m y h usband Ma r t in , f o rg iv ing m e e ncou ragemen t when In eeded i tt h e m o s t .

1 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS L IST OF F IGURES AND TABLES

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CHAPTER 1 :I NTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 P rob lem I den t if ica t ion 1 . 2R e sea rch G oa ls a nd P u rpose 1 . 3T heo ry 1 . 3 .1 I n t roduc t ion 1 . 3 .2 L im i ta t ions o fP roce s sua l A rchaeo logy : C r i t ic ism o fS c ience 1 . 3 .3 T he P lu ra l i ty a nd Amb igu i ty o ft h eP a s t 1 . 3 .4 R e la t iv ism a nd t h eE va lua t ion o fC la im s 1 . 3 .5 P ush ing A rchaeo log ica lI n f e rence t oi t sL im i t s : E xpand ing K now ledge 1 . 3 .6 T he I mpo r tance o f Mu l t ip le A pp roa che s a nd T heo r ie s 1 . 3 .7 T heo re t ica l O r ien ta t ion : S umma ry 1 . 4O u t l ine a nd P rocedu re

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 5 5 7

CHAPTER 2 : GENDER RESEARCH I N ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 2 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 2 . 2H is to ry o ft h eD eve lopmen to fG ende rS t ud ie s i nA n th ropo logy 2 . 2 .1 I n t roduc t ion : E a r ly G ende rS tud ie s a nd C la ims f o r Ma le B ia s 2 . 2 .2 T he A n th ropo logy o f Women 2 . 2 .3 F em in is tA n th ropo logy 2 . 3H is to ry o ft h eD eve lopmen to fG ende rS tud ie si nA rchaeo logy 2 . 3 .1 G ende ra nd E a r ly A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch : C la im sf o r Ma le B ia s 2 . 3 .2 T heo re t ica lA pp roa che st oG ende rS tud ie si nA rchaeo logy : G ende rF em in is tT heo ry a nd i t sC on t r ibu t ion t oA rchaeo logy 2 . 4C r i t ica l A na lys is o fG ende rR e sea rch i nA n th ropo logy a nd A rcha eo logy 2 . 4 .1 Ma jo rC on t r ibu t ion so fE a r ly G ende rR e sea rch : T he E xp lo s ion o fP rev ious A ssump t ion s 2 . 4 .2 A Mo re C r i t ica lL ook a tE a r ly G ende rR e sea rch 2 . 4 .3 P roce s sua l A rchaeo logy a nd t h eS tudy o fG ende r 2 . 4 .4 G ende rS tud ie sa nd P la in s A r chaeo logy 2 . 4 .5 F em in ism a nd t h eS tudy o fG ende r 2 . 4 .5 .1 A n th ropo logy 2 . 4 .5 .2 A rchaeo logy 2 . 4 .6 S oc iopo l i t ica l A na ly s is 2 . 4 .6 .1 I n t roduc t ion 2 . 4 .6 .2 V ic to r ian I nf luence s 2 . 4 .6 .3 S t a te -Leve l Mode ls 2 . 4 .6 .4 S umma ry

8 8 8 8 9 9 1 0 1 0

CHAPTER 3 : ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE S TUDY OF GENDER 3 . 1 T he Q ue s t ion o fS tudy ing G ende ri nA rchaeo logy 3 . 2 Me thods f o r S tudy ing G ende rA rchaeo log ica l ly 3 . 2 .1 Q ue s t ion ing S te reo type s a nd S t a t ic T ypo log ie s 3 . 2 .1 .1 C r i t ique o ft h eA s sump t ion o ft h eU n ive r sa l i ty o ft h eC a tego r ies o f Woma n a nd Mo the r 3 . 2 .1 .2 C r i t ique o ft h eC ommon ly H e ld V iew o ft h eS exua lD iv is ion o fL abou r 3 . 2 .1 .3 C r i t ique o ft h eC oncep to ft h eD ome s t ic /Pub l ic D icho tomy 3 . 2 .1 .4 S umma ry o fC r i t ique s 3 . 2 .2 S ee ing G ende ri nt h eA rchaeo log ica l R e co rd : T a sk D if f e ren t ia t ion 3 . 2 .3 A Mo re C omp rehens ive A rchaeo logy o fG ende r 3 . 3 S umma ry

2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0

CHAPTER 4 : THE H ISTOR ICAL DEVELOP MENT OF PALEO IND IAN S TUD IES 4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 4 . 2T he C o lon ia l P e r iod ( 1 520 -1780 ) 4 . 3 P e r spec t ive s , O ld a nd N ew ( 1780 -1859 ) 4 . 4T he L ong C h rono logy ( 1859 -1890 ) 4 . 5 R eexam ina t ion ( 1890 -1925 ) 4 . 6T he F o lsom D iscove ry : T he T u rn ing P o in t( 1925 1950 ) 4 .6 .1 T ypo logy a nd C h rono logy ( 1 925 -1950 )

3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 1 3 1 3 2 3

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i v

1 0 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 7 1 8

2 0 2 3 2 5 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

4 . 6 .2 I n te rp re ta t ions o fP a leo ind ian L i f eway s( 1 925 1950 ) 4 .6 .3 D i scu s s ion 4 . 7T he R ad ioca rbon R evo lu t ion ( 1 950 -1962 ) 4 . 7 .1 P a leo ind ian S t ud ie s( 1 950 1962 ) : A nI n t roduc t ion 4 . 7 .2 B ig G ame H un t ing I n te rp re ta t ion s 4 .7 .3 C h rono logy o fE a r ly P a leo ind ian C u l tu re sa nd t h e i rD is t r ibu t ion s 4 . 7 .4 I s sue o ft h eC och i se C u l tu re 4 . 7 .5 D i scu s s ion 4 . 8T he N ew A r chaeo logy : P roce s sua l S tud ie s( 1 962 -1980 s ) 4 .8 .1 T he S t a te o fP a leo ind ian S t ud ie s 4 . 8 .2 A nE nv i ronmen ta l -Eco log ica lF o cu s 4 . 8 .3 L i f eway sI n te rp re ta t ions 4 . 8 .4 C h rono logy ,D eve lopmen t , a nd D i s t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly P a leo ind ian C u l tu re s 4 .8 .5 I nf luence sf r om N ew A rchaeo logy 4 . 8 .6 D i scu s s ion 4 . 9R e cen tA rchaeo logy ( 1 980 sT oP re sen t ) 4 . 9 .1 I n t roduc t ion 4 . 9 .2 P l a ins P reh i s to ry a nd P a leo ind ian S t ud ie s

3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 8 3 8 3 8 3 9 3 9 4 0

CHAPTER 5 : A CR IT ICAL ANALYS IS OF PALEO IND IAN MODELS 5 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 5 . 2S oc iopo l i t ica lA na ly s is 5 . 2 .1 I n t roduc t ion 5 . 2 .2 H i s to r ica lD eve lopmen to ft h eB ig G ame H un t ing Mode l 5 . 2 .3 I n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eD a ta 5 . 2 .3 .1 P r econce ived I d ea s 5 . 2 .3 .2 D eve lopmen to f" S to r ie s "a nd " My th s " 5 . 2 .4 D iscu s s ion :I n f luence o ft h eS oc ia lC on tex t 5 . 3I mp l ic i tA s sump t ions a nd P a leo ind ian Mode l s 5 . 3 .1 F lu ted P o in t sa r eH un t ing Weapon s 5 . 3 .2 B one B ed sa nd F auna lR ema in sa r et h eR e su l to fH un t ing 5 . 3 .3 A dequa te S amp le o fP a leo ind ian S i te s 5 . 3 .4 C ommon V iew so fH un t ing 5 . 3 .5 G roup A dap t a t ion t ot h eE nv i ronmen t 5 . 3 .6 C u l tu ra l -H i s to r ica l a nd F unc t iona lP e r spe c t ive s 5 . 3 .7 T he P re sence o fF lu ted P o in t sI n d ica te s aB ig G ame H un t ing L i f e s ty le 5 . 3 .8 T he U se o fS e le c t ive a nd U nque s t ioned E thnog raph ic A na log ie s 5 . 3 .8 .1 I n t roduc t ion 5 . 3 .8 .2 U se o fE thnog raph ic A na log ie s f o rI n te rp re t ing P a leo ind ian G ende r 5 . 3 .8 .3 T he V a l id i ty o fE thnog raph ic A na log ie s 5 . 3 .8 .4 D iscu s s ion :T he U se o fE thnog raph ic A na logy 5 . 4S umma ry

4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 6 4 6 4 8 4 9 5 1 5 1 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 7 5 8

CHAPTER 6 : A CONSTRUCT ION OF P ALEO IND IAN SUBS ISTENCE AND S ETTLEMENT P A ' ! ERNS 6 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 2L a te P l e i s tocene -Ea r ly H o locene E nv i ronmen t s : S e t t ing t h eE nv i ronmen ta lC on tex tf o rP a leo ind ian P opu la t ions 6 . 2 .1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 2 .2 P a leoenv i ronmen ta lR econ s t r uc t ion s 6 . 2 .2 .1 L a te P l e i s tocene E nv i ronmen t s 6 . 2 .2 .2 N o r the rn P l a ins 6 . 3 N o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian S ubs is tence a nd S e t t lemen tS t ra teg ie s 6 . 3 .1 I n t rodu c t ion 6 . 3 .2 P a leo ind ian S ubs is tence P a t te rn s : We re T hey B ig G ame H un te r so rN o t? 6 . 3 .3 P a leo ind ia n S e t t lemen ta nd Mob i l i ty S t ra teg ie s 6 . 3 .4 S umma ry

6 0 6 0 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 3 6 4 6 6 6 7 7 2 7 6

CHAPTER 7 : ENGENDER ING NORTHERN P LA INS P ALEO IND IAN SUBS ISTENCE AND S ETTLEMENT ACT IV IT IES 7 . 1 P a leo ind ian S oc ia lL i f eA nd O rgan iza t ion 7 . 1 .1 D emog raph ic A spe c t sa nd C ompo s i t ion o fP a leo ind ian G roup s 7 . 1 .2 Ma le a nd F ema le D oma in sa nd R o le F l ex ib i l i ty 7 . 2P a leo ind ian D ec i s ion - Mak ing 7 . 2 .1 I n t roduc t ion 7 . 2 .2 S ub s is tence /Se t t lemen tD ec i s ion -Mak ing a nd G ende rR o le s 7 . 2 .3 L eve ls a nd C on t ro l o fD ec is ion -Mak ing

7 7 7 7 7 9 7 9 8 1 8 4

7 . 2 .4 N o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian C a se S t ud ie s 7 . 2 .4 .1 A ga te B a s in S i te 7 . 2 .4 .2 C a r te r /Ke r r -McGee S i te 7 . 2 .4 .3 L ange -Fe rgu son S i te 7 . 2 .4 .4 A nz ick S i te 7 . 2 .4 .5 I nd ian C r eek S i te 7 . 3T he I s sue o fG ende rE qua l i ty a nd S t a tu sf o rP a leo ind ian P opu la t ion s 7 . 4S umma ry 7 . 4 .1 T he I mpo r tance o ft h eA cqu i s i t ion a nd E xchange o fI n f o rma t ion f o rN o r the rn P l a in sP a leo ind ian s 7 . 4 .2 D ec is ion -Mak ing C once r n ing S t o rage a nd D is t r ibu t ion o fR e sou rce s 7 . 4 .3 P a leo ind ian G ende rR o le sa nd D ec i s ion -Mak ing : Wha tC an We S ay?

8 5 8 5 8 7 8 7 8 8 9 0 9 1 9 1 9 2 9 2

CHAPTER 8 : CONCLUS ION 8 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 8 . 2 AC r i t ica lR ev iew o ft h eR e su l t so ft h i sS t udy 8 . 3L ink ing G ende rw i th t h eA rchaeo log ica lR eco rd 8 . 4S umma ry

9 4 9 4 9 4 9 6 9 8

R EFERENCES C ITED

9

A PPEND IX A : C h rono log ica lL i s to fS e lec ted Ma jo rP a leo ind ian S t ud ie sa nd I n te rp re ta t ion s

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L IST OF F IGURES AND TABLES

F igu re 1 .R e la t ionsh ip b e tween G ende rR o le s ,D e c i s ion -Mak ing , a nd S ub s is tence a nd S e t t lemen tS t ra teg ie s

6 1

F i gu re 2 .S chema t ic I lus t ra t ion o fL a te G lac ia lE nv i ronmen t si nN o r th Ame r ica

6 3

F i gu re 3 .L oca t ion o fR epo r ted E a r ly P a leo ind ian S i te so n t h eN o r the rn P l a ins

6 9

F igu re 4 .N o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian Ma le /Fema le D oma ins a nd D ec is ion -Mak ing R ea lm s

7 9

F i gu re 5 .T he P roce s so fS ub s is tence /Se t t lemen tD ec i s ion -Mak ing

8 0

F i gu re 6 .F a c to r sC on t r ibu t ing t oS e t t lemen ta nd Mob i l i ty D ec is ion s

8 3

F ig u re 7 .A pp roa che s f o rL ink ing A spe c t so fG ende rw i th t h eA rchaeo log ica l R eco rd

9 7

T ab le 1 .R epo r ted E a r ly P a leo ind ian S i te so nt h eN o r the rn P l a in s ,c a . 1 ,000 -1 0 ,500 y e a r sB .P .

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CHAPTER 1 I NTRODUCTION 1 . 1 PROBLE M I DENTIFICATION I n No r th Ame r ican p reh is tory , t h et e rm P a leo ind ian c on ju re s u pi mage so fb ig g ame mammo th a nd b i son h un te r s , y e tl i t t le i s a c tua l ly k nown a bou t t he d e ta i ls o f P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence , s e t t lemen t p a t te rns , l i f eways , a nd a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s .H is to r ica l ly , t h is p opu la rn o t ion o fs pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un te r s o r ig ina ted f r om s eve ra l d i scove r ie s o n t he s ou the rn G rea t P la ins o f f l u ted p o in t s i n u nd ispu ted a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc tP l e i s tocene f a una ,b eg inn ing w i th t h e F o lsom d i scove ry i n 1 926 ( Bryan 1 991 :16 ) . A l though b a sed o r ig ina l ly u pon o n ly a f ew d i scove r ie s , t h is mode l o f a P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing t r ad i t ion e x is t ing a c ross t h e e n t ire c on t inen t b ecame s t rong ly e ng ra ined i n Nor th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy .

h un t ing o fb ig g ame b u tr a the ro np ra c t is ing mo re d ive r s if ied , g ene ra l ized e conom ie s , e xp lo i t ing av a r ie ty o fe nv i ronmen t s w i th r educed m ob i l i ty . S eve ra l a r chaeo log is t s ( e .g . , Me l tze r 1 993a ; O lsen 1 990 ) a r e t hus b eg inn ing t oq ue s t ion whe the r e a r ly P a leo ind ian g roups w e re t h e s pec ia l ized megaf auna h un te rs t hey a r e p o r t rayed t o b e i n t he a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re . H oweve r , d e sp i te t h is e v idence , w h ich i lus t ra te s t ha t t he No r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian r eco rd r ef lec ts r eg iona l ly d i s t inc t a nd d ive r se a dap ta t ions , a nd w h ich c onsequen t ly s e em s t os ugge s tt h a t t h e t r ad i t iona le n t renched v i ew o f P a leo ind ian l i f eways a nd t h e ir e nv i ronmen ts i s i naccu ra te , t he re i s , a s B ryan ( 1991 :16 ) n o ted , s t i l l c ons ide rab le r e s is tance t o r ev is ing t h is b ig g ame h un t ing m ode l o re ven c ons ide r ing a l te rna t ive s . 1 . 2 RESEARCH GOALS AND PURPOSE

T rad i t iona l i n te rp re t ive mode ls s e e P a leo ind ians a s h igh ly mob i le ,c omposed o fs ma l l g roups o fp eop le w i th e conom ie s f ocu s ing o n b ig g ame h un t ing w i th l i t t le o rn o k now ledge o f me thod s f o r b u lk p rese rva t ion a nd s t o rage . I n a dd i t ion t o empha s iz ing t he i mpo r tance o f b i g g ame h un t ing , t he se P a leo ind ian l i feway s r econs t ruc t ion s , e spec ia l ly t hose f o r P la ins p opu la t ions , we re a nd s t i l l a r e i nf luenced a nd c ha ra c te r ized b y c ommon u nsuppo r ted n o t ions f r equen t ly d e r ived f r om s e lec t ive a na log ie s w i th mode rn a nd h i s to r ic h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups . P a leo ind ian c u l tu re s o f ten t e nd t o b ev i ewed a s ac o l lec t ion o fi s o la ted t r a i t s , a sg roups a dap t ing t o t h e i r e nv i ronmen t i n mechan is t ic a nd p u re ly f unc t iona l w ay s . B e cause o ft h e f o cus o n a na log ie s , s y s tems a na ly s is , a dap ta t ion , t e chno logy , a nd s ubs is tence , t h e p eop le o fP la in s P a leo ind ian p reh is to ry h ave b ecome i nv is ib le , e s sen t ia l ly p a s s ive a nd i r re levan t p awns c on t ro l led b y al a rge r c u l tu ra l s y s tem . G ende rr o le su nc r i t ica l ly d e r ived f r om e t hnog raph ie s a nd i d ea l ized mode l so fb ehav iou ri ns t a te leve l s oc ie t ies t h a t s e e m en h un t ing a nd i n c ha rge o f t h e p o l i t ica l r ea lm a nd w omen g a the r ing a nd r e lega ted t o t he d omes t ic r ea lm u nde r l ie P la ins P a leo ind ian l i feway r econs t ruc t ions . Mo reove r , t he ma le -focused p e rspec t ive t ha t h as c ha ra c te r ized mos to fa r chaeo logy u n t i l o n ly r e cen t ly , a nd t h e e mpha s is u pon t h e mo re v i s ib le a nd s upposed ly mo re i mpo r tan t ma le h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s i nP la ins p reh is to ry h ave t e nded t om in im ize a nd i g no re t h ep o ten t ia l i mpo r tance o ft h e r o le s o fw omen a nd c h i ld ren , t h e i r l a bou r , a nd c on t r ibu t ions t os u b s is tence .

I n l i gh t o f t h e n ew d a ta s ugges t ing d ive rs if ied a nd g ene ra l ized P a leo ind ian e conom ie s , a nd t h e e xp los ion o f g ende r r e sea rch i nr e cen t y ea r s , i ti so bv ious t h a t t h e re i sa n eed t or e eva lua te t h e P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing mode l a nd i t sa s soc ia ted g ende rv i ew s , am ode l wh ich r e su l ted f r om a n i n te rpre ta t ion o f a s ma l l a nd s pa t ia l ly r es t r ic ted a r chaeo log ica l d a taba se a nd a r e l iance o n e co log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic a na logue s t h a t a r e n ow h igh ly q ue s t ionab le . T hus t h e g oa l o ft h is r e sea rch i st ob eg in t or e cons t i tu te t h e p resen t c u l tu ra l -ecosys tem " d iorama " o f P a leo ind ian l i f eway s , t h a t i s ,t oa t temp t t or e cons truc t a n a l te rna t ive a nd m o re a pp rop r ia te m ode l b a sed o n t h is mos t r e cen t e v idence , a nd u s ing a mo re c r i t ica l m e thodo logy a nd a pp roach i n m ode l -bu i ld ing . Empha s is w i l l b e p l aced u pon t h e a na lys is o fg ende rr o le s i n r e la t ion t o s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies f o r P a leo ind ian t imes , s pec if ica l ly f o cu s ing u pon d e te rm in ing o r c ons ide r ing t h e p o ten t ia l i nf luence a nd c on t r ibu t ions o f n o t o n ly men , b u t w omen a nd c h i ld ren a sw e l l , i nt e rm s o fd ec is ion -mak ing i n s ubs is tence , s e t t lemen t , a nd m ob i l i ty s t ra teg ie s . H ence , t h e m a jo r t h rus t o f t h e r e sea rch w i l l b e i t s a t temp t t o m ake p eop le mo re v i s ib le a sp reh i s to r ic a c to r s . T h is e f fo r tw i l l a l so i n c lude c r i t ica l ly e xam in ing h ow a r chaeo log is ts c ons t ruc t g ende r s ys tems i n t he ir i n te rp re ta t ions , a na lyz ing t h e i r a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r i np reh is to ry , a nd a na lyz ing t h e r e la t ionsh ip o f t h o se a s sump t ions t o t h e s oc ia l c on tex t i n w h ich t h ey w e re p roduced . A s w e l l , t h is s t udy w i l l r a ise t h e e n t i re i s sue o ft h e u se o f a na logy ; t h e re fo re , t h e v a l id i ty o f u s ing e t hnog raph ic a na logy i na r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion w i l l b e a dd re s sed a l ong w i th i mp l ica t ions o f a s sum ing c on t inu i ty i n g ende r r o le s f r om t h e r ecen t p as t b ack t o P a leo ind ian t ime s .

Mo re r ecen t ly , t he a ccumu la t ion o f more d e ta i led p a leoenv i ronmen ta l e v idence ( e .g . , G raham a nd L unde l ius 1 984 ; G raham a nd Mead 1 987 ; G u th r ie 1 984 ; Ma r t in e ta l . 1 985 ) i nd ica te s t h a t t he l a te P l e is tocene e nv ironmen t s i n w h ich P a leo ind ians l i ved a nd a dap ted w e re v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om a ny o f t h o se t oday o r i n t h e r ecen t p a s t . T h is n ew i n f o rma t ion c a l ls i n to q ue s t ion t h e u nc r i t ica l u se o f mode rn o rh i s to r ica l a na log ie s t oi n te rp re te nv i ronmen t s a nd l i f eway s f o rt h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod . Mo reove r , i n c rea s ing a moun t s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f o r e a r ly P a leo ind ian a dap ta t ions a c ross t h e e n t i re No r th Ame r ican c on t inen t ( s ee B onn ichsen a nd T u rnm i re 1 991 ; S of f e r a nd P ra s lov 1 993 ) a r e s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e re i s much mo re v a r iab i l i ty t h an o u r o r ig ina l mode ls a s sumed . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e se d a ta i nd ica te t h a t f i r s t , e a r ly P a leo ind ian C lov i s l i f eways a nd s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s w e re n o tu n ifo rm a nd h omogeneou s o ve rt h ee n t i re c on t inen t , a nd s econd ly , t h a t t he f o cu s w a s n o t n ecessa r i ly o n t he

P a r t o f t h e r e cons t ruc t ion w i l l a l so b r ief ly c ons ide r t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e n a tu re o f t h e No r the rn P la ins l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t a nd t h e w ays i n wh ich h uman g roup s m ay h ave m ade d ec i s ions w i th r e spe c t t op os i t ion ing t h emse lve s a c ro ss t h e l a ndscape i n o rde r t o make al i v ing f r om t h a t e nv i ronmen t . I n o t he r w o rds , b y e xam in ing t h e mos t r e cen t p a leoenv ironmen ta l d a ta , Iw i l l t ake i n to c ons ide ra t ion t h e c on tex t i n w h ich P a leo ind ian d ec is ionmake r sw ou ld h ave b een o pe ra t ing a nd i n te rac t ing . F rom t h is p e r spec t ive , o ne t h a t i sv e ry d i f fe ren t f r om t h e 1

v i ewed a s" M ickey Mou se l aws" o fl i t t le c once ivab le v a lue ( F lanne ry 1 973 :51) . A s w e l l , q ue s t ion s h ave a r isen a st ot h e p os s ib i l i ty o f e ve r c onc lus ive ly v e r if y ing h ypo the se s a nd u n ive rsa l g ene ra l iza t ions , w i th t he r e a l iza t ion t ha tn on umbe r o fp o s i t ive i n s tance s o f ah ypo the s is c ou ld d emons t ra t et h a ta h ypo the s is w a s t r ue s i nce t h e re w ou ld a lways b eu nexam ined s i tua t ion s t h a t c ou ld p rove i tt ob e f a l se ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :11 , 3 6 ) . Mo reove r , i ti st he r e sea r che r who u l t ima te ly c hoose s w he the r o r n o t at e s t h a s f a l s if ied o r s uppo r ted a h ypo the s is ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 :42 ) .

t r ad i t iona l t y po log ica l , f unc t iona l , a nd a dap ta t iona l v i ew o f P a leo ind ian s t ra teg ie s , Ih ope t od eve lop a n a l te rna t ive a nd a mo re r ea l is t ic a nd c omprehens ive i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . I nt h ep roce s s , my a im i st o q ue s t ion a nd a vo id r e l iance o n t h e s t e reo typ ica l v i ew o f P a leo ind ians t h a t f o r s o l ong h a s s t ruc tu red a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o fP a leo ind ian l i f eway s . H opefu l ly t h is s t udy w i l l c on t r ibu te t owa rd amuch n eeded r ev is ion o ft h e N o r th Ame r ican P l a ins P a leo ind ian s ub s i s tence / se t t lemen t mode l . 1 . 3 THEORY

T he N ew A rchaeo logy w i th i t s p os i t iv is t p e rspec t ive s h a s t e nded t op r omo te t h eb e l ief t ha t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , t h eo ry , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion a r e " s c ien t if ic ," a b so lu te , a nd v a lue -f ree ( Me l t ze r 1 983a :67 ) . F o r s c ience a nd a r chaeo logy , f a c t s a nd d a ta a r e b e l ieved t o e x is t a s p henomena wa i t ing t o b e d i scove red o r e xp la ined ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :296 ) . Howeve r , t h is v iew i s u nrea l is t ic a nd , mo reove r , m isconce ived ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :296 -297 ) . F ac t s d o n o t e x is t i n dependen t ly o f t heory a s K e l ley a nd H anen ( 1988 :296 -297 , 3 76 ) s t re ssed , b u t r a the r a r e a lway s s e le c ted i n r e f e rence t o as pec if ic t heory o r i d ea . I n e s sence , a r chaeo log is t s c hoose a nd g ive mean ing t o t he k ey f a c t s , d a ta , a nd v a r iab le s w h ich t h ey b e l ieve t ob e mos t r e levan t , o ve r look ing o ri g no r ing o t he r e v idence t h a t m ay n o t a ppea l t ot h em ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :259 ; Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :367 ; S hanks a nd T i l ley 1 992 :13 ) . Mo reove r , mean ing a nd k now ledge d on o tm e re ly e me rge p a s s ive ly f r om t h ed a taba se i ft h e a pp rop r ia te s c ien t if ic p rocedu re s a r e u sed , b u t r a the r a r e a cqu i red t h rough i n te rp re ta t ion , ad i a lec t ica l p r oce s s i n vo lv ing t h e a r chaeo log is t , t h eo ry , a nd t h ed a ta ( s ee S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 ) . C lea r ly , a n i nd iv idua l 's c oncep tua l f r amewo rk c an a low h im o rh e r t o s ee a nd a ccep t c e r ta in i d ea s a nd n o t o t he r s ( B le ie r 1 984 :3 ) a nd h ence c an n eve rb e e n t i re ly n eu t ra l .

1 . 3 .1 I n troduc t ion I n a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , h un te r -ga the re rs h ave g ene ra l ly b een v i ewed w i th in a n e vo lu t iona ry f r amewo rk o f b and , t r ibe , c h iefdom , a nd s t a te , o r h ave b een s een a s a dap t ive s ys tem s " i n h a rmony " w i th t h ee nv i ronmen t a nd m a in ta in ing ah omeo s ta s i so re qu i l ib r ium s t a te ( s e eB e t t inge r 1 991 a nd E . A . Sm i th 1 991 f o r r ev iews o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l t heo ry r e la t ing t o h un te r -ga the re rs ) . H oweve r , b o th t h e se p e rspec t ive s , t h e e vo lu t iona ry mode l a nd t h e e co log ica l o r n eofunc t iona l is t p e rspec t ive , a r e c ons ide rab ly f l awed a nd i n adequa te f o r s t udy ing h un t ingg a the r ing s oc ie t ie s( Be t t inge r 1 991 ;E .A . Sm i th 1 991 :3 -8 ) . T he n eofunc t iona l is t p e r spec t ive , w h ich w a s a dvoca ted b y p roponen t so ft h ep roce s sua l o rN ew A rchaeo logy , t e nded t o r ega rd h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s a sr e la t ive ly s t ab le , w i th c hange o ccu r r ing o n ly a s ar e su l t o fe x te rna l f a c to r s ( e .g . , B info rd 1 983 :221) . T he se e x te rna l p r e ssu re s w e re g ene ra l ly s een a s b e ing e i the r e nv i ronmen ta l o r d emog raph ic ( Lou rando s 1 988 :149 ) ,w he rea sl i t t le c ons ide ra t ion w a sg i ven t os oc ia l o ri n te rna l f a c to r sa sv a r iab le so fc hange . Mo reove r , t h ee mpha s i so ns y s tems a na ly s is d i dn o ta low f o r i n d iv idua l a c t ion , b u t r a the r v i ewed p eop le a nd t h e ir b ehav iou r a s c on t ro l led b yp roce sse s a nd c ons t ra in t s o ft h e l a rge r c u l tu ra l s ys tem , a nd u l t ima te ly r e l ied u pon w eak f unc t iona l e xp lana t ions a nd t e chno -env i ronmen ta ld e te rm in ism ( Hodde r 1 985 :7 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 :117 -118 ) . A l though N ew A rchaeo logy 's e mpha s is o n n eofunc t iona l ism a nd a dap ta t ion h a s b een a p roduc t ive a pp roach i n t he s ho r t t e rm b y p rov id ing much i n fo rma t ion a bou t p a leoenv i ronmen t s a nd p reh is to r ic h uman e co logy ( Be t t inge r 1 991 :215 ) , t h e re e x is t s t h e a lmos t c e r ta in p oss ib i l i ty t h a t v a r iab i l i ty c ou ld b e o bscu red b y g roup ing a l l i nd iv idua ls i n to as i ng le a dap t ive g roup .

T hu s t h e w ho le i d ea o f o b jec t iv i ty i n a r chaeo logy a nd i n s c ience h a s b een q ue s t ioned . S c ien t if ic m e thodo logy c an a nd h a s o f ten b een m an ipu la ted t os uppo r t p r e conce ived b e l ie f s ( s ee B le ie r 1 984 f o r amo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion ) . Mo reove r , a r chaeo logy , o ra ny s c ience f o r t ha t m a t t e r , i sn o t s epa ra te f r om o r u n inf luenced b y t h e s oc ie t ie s i n wh ich i ti s p e rfo rmed ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :100 ) . I ns tead , a r chaeo logy i s as oc ia l p rocedu re ( Ge ro e ta l .1 983 :2 ) , f i rm ly s e t w i th in a p a r t icu la r t ime a nd p lace ( S of fe r 1 983 :102 ) . S oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , i d eo log ica l , e conom ic , a nd c on tex tua l f a c to rs i nf luence t h e s e lec t ion o f q ue s t ion s a nd p rob lem s , a pp roache s a nd m e thodo log ies , d a ta , w ha t i sc ons ide red a c cep tab le a nd v a l id p roof i na r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch , a nd t h e r e su l t ing i n te rp r e ta t ions a nd e xp lana to ry o p t ions t ha t w i l l b e c ons ide red p lau s ib le ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :100 , 2 77 ; Wy l ie 1 992a :29 ; s e e r e la ted d i scuss ions i nG a the rco le a nd L owen tha l 1 990 ; G e ro 1 985 ; G e ro e t a l . , e d . 1 983 ; L ew in 1 987 ) . Mode rn a r chaeo logy a nd s c ience c l ea r ly o r ig ina ted f r om t h eE u ropea n i n te l le c tua l t r ad i t ion , a nd t h ei n f luence o f " deep -sea ted l e ga c ie s " o ft h is E u ropean h e r i tage u pon c u r ren t s c ien t if ic w o rk f u r the r q ue s t ions t he p os s ib i l i ty o f t r ue o b jec t iv i ty i na r chaeo log ica l a nd s c ien t if ic r e sea rch ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :123 -124 ) . A s B le ie r ( 1984 :4 ) i lus t ra ted , s c ience i sn o t ac omp le te ly n eu t ra l , v a lue -f ree , o b jec t ive p u rsu i to ft r u th , a nd i ti ss imp ly u n rea l is t ic t oe xpe c ti tt ob e .

1 . 3 .2 L im i ta t ion so fP roces sua lA rchaeo logy : C r i t ic i sm o f S c ience T hese c r i t ic isms o f t he n eofunc t iona l is t p e r spec t ive o f h un te r -ga the re r t h eo ry r e f lec t , i np a r t , t h e r e la t ive ly r e cen t q ue s t ion ing o f p rocessua l a r chaeo logy 's t heo re t ica l a nd me thodo log ica l o r ien ta t ions , a nd t h e q ue s t ion ing o fs c ience i ng ene ra lb yc e r ta in s cho la r s ( e .g . , H odde r 1 986 ; K e l ley a nd H anen 1 988 ; R osenau 1 992 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 989 , 1 992 ) . Nume rou sr e sea rche r sh ave c ome t or e a l ize t h a tt h ep o s i t iv is t v i ew o ft h e p h i losophy o f s c ience a nd t h e empha s is , f i r s t ly , o n t h e d educ t ive -nomo the t ic f o rm o fe xp lana t ion , a nd l a te r , t h e h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive a pp roach o n w h ich mos t o f t h e N ew A rchaeo logy w a s b ased , a r e i n adequa te ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :v i i i ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 989 , 1 992 ) . Many o ft h e s c ien t if ic l aw s a nd u n ive r sa l g ene ra l iza t ions f o r w h ich s ome e a r ly p roce ssua l a r chaeo log is t s s ea rched h ave b een l a be l led a s mean ing le s s ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :11) , a nd t h e r e su l t s

1 . 3 .3 T he P lura l i ty a nd Amb igu i ty o ft he P a s t T he r e a l iza t ion t h a t t h e c u l tu ra l m i l ieu a nd e nv i ronmen t i n w h ich o ne w o rk s g r ea t ly i nf luence t h e d o ing o fs c ience a nd 2

a cadem ic r e sea rch i nvo lve s t he q ue s t ion ing o f n o t o n ly o b jec t iv i ty , b u t a l so p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy 's e mpha s is o n p os i t iv ism , s c ience , a nd t he t e s t ing o f h ypo the se s . F o r a r chaeo logy , ama jo rc once rn t h en b ecome st h ep os s ib i l i ty o f e ve rr e cove r ing ar ea l o b jec t ive p a s t .

a r chaeo logy m u s t t h e refo re s uppo r t a n e x t reme r e la t iv ism i n w h ich i ti si mpos s ib le t od i s t ingu ish b e tween g ood a nd b ad c l a im s s i nce a l i n te rp re ted a nd r e cons t ruc ted p a s t sa r ev a l id? T h is k i nd o fr e la t iv ism ( e .g . , S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 989 , 1 992 ) i sc l ea r ly d i sab l ing . B y v i ew ing t h e d i sc ip l ine e n t i re ly a s a s oc ia l e n te rp r ise , a ccep t ing t ha t a l l a r chaeo log ica l c l a ims m ade a bou t t h e p a s t c an o n ly e ve r b e i d eo log ica l c on s t ruc ts a nd c an n eve rb e a ccep ted o rr e jec ted , a r chaeo logy b ecome s n o th ing mo re t han p e rsona l v iews a nd c l a ims , n eve r p rog re s s ing , l e a rn ing , o ri n c rea s ing o u rk now ledge .

I ti sq u i te a ppa ren t t h a t i n t h e p re sen t , c u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l o b jec t s a nd a c t ions f r equen t ly h ave m u l t ip le mean ings a nd v a lue s a t ta ched t o t hem b y t h e v a r iou s membe rs w i th in a nd b e tween s oc ia l g roups . I f t he re i sn o s i ng le mean ing o r i n te rp re ta t ion o ft he p re sen t a nd i t s c u l tu ra l a r t if ac t s , w hy i s o ne mean ing i n t he p a s t e xpec ted ( T i l ley 1 991 :173 )? I ti s mo re l o g ica l t o a s sume t ha t mu l t ip le i n te rp re ta t ions , mean ing s , a nd v a lue s f o r i t ems , c oncep t s , a nd b ehav iou rs e x is ted i nt h ep a s t a sw e l l ( s ee a l so H odde r 1 986 :149 -150 ) . No t o n ly m us t t he p os s ib i l i ty o f m u l t ip le a nd o ppos ing mean ing sa nd e xp lana t ion s g iven b yd i f f e ren ti nd iv idua ls a nd g roups i n t h e p a s t b e c ons ide red , b u t a l so i t mus t b e r e cogn ized t h a t b ecause o f d i f f e ren t c u l tu ra l c on tex t s a nd t ime p e r iod s , d ive r se r e sponse s a nd i n te rp re ta t ions c an b e e xpec ted o n t he p a r t o f t he mode rn a r chaeo log is t a s c ompa red t o t he a nc ien t a c to r s ( s ee r e la ted d i scu ss ion i n J oyce 1 993 :270 ) .

I n s tead , amo re r ea sonab le a nd med ia t ing p os i t ion i sn eeded ( s ee d i scuss ion i n Wy l ie 1 992a :21-22 ) . E ncou rag ing t he g ene ra t ion o f mu l t ip le i n te rp re ta t ions , a nd r e cogn iz ing t h a t f a c t s a r e t h eo ry laden a nd t h a t s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l f a c to r s i n f luence t h ed i re c t ion o fk now ledge d on o tn ece s sa r i ly h ave t ol e ad t ot h ea ccep tance o fr e la t iv ism ( Be l l 1 994 :86 -87 , 2 53 , 2 58 ) . A s Wy l ie ( 1992a :21 ; s ee a l so Wy l ie 1 983 ) d i scu ssed , a r chaeo log is t s mus t r ecogn ize t ha t w h i le k now ledge i s c ons t ruc ted a nd " bea rs t h e ma rks o f i t s m ake r s ," i ti sa l so c ons t ra ined t os ome d eg ree b ye x te rna l " r ea l i t ie s ," t h a ti s ,t h e e v idence o r d a ta , t h a t a r e n o t c rea ted b y a r chaeo log is t s . Whe reas a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sn o t as t ab le , g i ven f ounda t ion ( s ince r a re ly d oes e v idence c l ea r ly s uppo r t a s i ng le e xp lana t ion a nd e l im ina te a l l o t he r s ) ,i ti sc e r ta in ly n o t c omp le te ly p l a s t ic (Wy l ie 1 992a :25 ) a nd s ot h eo ry laden t h a t a r chaeo log is t s c an e a s i ly c r ea te a nd m o ld f a c t s t o s uppo r t t h e i rt h eo re t ica l b e l ief sa nd p re conce ived a s sump t ions ( Wy l ie 1 993a :25 ) . I n o the r w o rd s , w h i le f a c to r s s uch a s v a lue s , i n te res ts , a nd t heo re t ica l b ackground i nf luence w ha t a r chaeo log is ts s ee a nd a r e e xpec t ing t o s ee , t h ey c an b e q ue s t ioned a nd c ha l lenged o n e mp i r ica l a nd c oncep tua l g rounds (Wy l ie 1 992a :29 , 1 993a :25 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd m ay c ha l lenge c u r ren t i n te rp re ta t ions , t h e d a ta a c t ing a s " a n e twork o f r e s is tances t o t h eo re t ica l a pp rop r ia t ion" ( Shanks a nd T i l ley 1 992 :104 ; e mpha s is i n o r ig ina l ) . N ew a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd e va lua t ions c an a nd o f ten d o f o rce a r chaeo log is ts t o c ons ide r a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ions a nd p oss ib i l i t ie s (Wy l ie 1 993a :25 ) . Mo reove r , i ti s n o t o n ly e v idence f r om d i f f e ren t d imens ion s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , b u ta l so e v idence f r om aw ide v a r ie ty o fi n dependen t s ou r ce s , l i ne s o fa rgumen t s , a nd b ackg round k now ledge t h a t , e n te r ing t h e p roce ss o f i n te rp re ta t ion a t d i f f e ren t p o in t s , p rov ide s c ons t ra in t s a sw e l l (Wy l ie 1 992a :25 , 1 993a :24 -25 ) . T hese p reven t a rchaeo log is ts f r om f a l l ing i n to t o ta l s ub jec t iv i ty a nd r e la t iv ism . A l though a r chaeo log is t s c an n eve r c ons t ruc t a n o b jec t ive , f i na l , a nd t r ue v e r s ion o f p reh is to ry a nd t h e h uman p as t , t h e re a r e me thods f o r e l im ina t ing s ome v e r s ions o f t h e p a s t a nd s uppo r t ing o t he r s ( Yof f ee a nd S he r ra t t 1 993 :6 ) . A s T r igge r ( 1989a :409 ) i n d ica ted :

Wha t d oes t h is c onc lus ion m ean f o r a rchaeo logy? E s sen t ia l ly , i t means t h a t i ti sh i gh ly u n l ike ly t h a t t h e re i sa s i ng le , f i xed , o b jec t ive , a nd u na l te rab le p a s t , o r as imp le , s i ng le t r u th , c o r re c te xp lana t ion , o rc ause t oa ccoun t f o rp a s t e ven t st h a ta r chaeo log i s t sc an d i scove r .T he re w a s ar e a l p a s t t ha t h appened f o r p eop le ; h oweve r , t hose p eop le o f ten e xpe r ienced a nd i n te rp re ted i ti nd i f fe ren t w ays . T he re a r e mu l t ip le a nd c ompe t ing e xpe r ience sa nd i n te rp re ta t ions i nt h e p re sen t ,s oa r chaeo log i s t ss hou ld e xpec tn ol e ss f o rt h ep a s t . Mo reove r ,r econs t ruc t ion s o ft h ep a s t a r ep r ima r i ly b a sed o n ma te r ia lr ema ins , a nd t h e se a r eo f ten c ha rac te r ized b yb ia sed a nd l i m i ted s amp le s o f t h e t o ta l m a te r ia l c u l tu re . T hus , a s mos t a r chaeo log is ts r ea l ize , t h e e x t reme d i f f icu l ty o f r econs t ruc t ing t h e t o ta l p as t f r om t h e se p a r t ia l r ema ins f u r the r c on t r ibu tes t o t he a mb iguous n a tu re o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . A rchaeo log is t s c an p os s ib ly a g ree o n t h em a jo re ven t s o ft h ep a s t , t h e f u nc t ions a nd c ha ra c te r is t ics o fa r t if a c t s , a nd t h e i rc h rono log ica l p l acemen t ( a l though t h is i sn o t n e ce ssa r i ly a lway s t h ec a se ) , b u t t h ose i n te rp re ta t ions a nd r e cons t ruc t ions t h a tg ob eyond s imp le d a ta d e sc r ip t ion t o f o cu s o n s uch q ue s t ions a s w hy a nd h ow c an b e e xam ined f r om am u l t i tude o fp e r spec t ive s ,a nd c onsequen t ly c an r e su l t i na n i nf in i te n umbe r o fv e r s ion s . O bv ious ly , a r chaeo log is t s n eed t o a cknow ledge t ha t t h e amb iguous n a tu re o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ecord t ha t r esu l ts f r om f ac to rs o f p re se rva t ion , s amp l ing , v a r iab i l i ty , a nd mu l t ip le mean ings a nd p e r spec t ive s , a l lows f o r ap lu ra l i ty o f i n te rp re ta t ions , m any o f wh ich c an b e c o r rec t t ov a ry ing d eg ree s . A s T i l ley ( 1 991 :175 ) a r gued , mak ing s e nse o u t o f t h e p a s t d oe s n o t n e ce s sa r i ly mean p roduc ing as i ng le a ccoun t .

Wh i le i ti su n l ike ly t h a t s c ien t if ic p rocedu re s c an e ve r who l ly e l im ina te s ub jec t ive f a c to r s f r om t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta , t h ey c an s i gn if ican t ly e nhance t h e c ons t ra in t s t h a t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence e xe r t su pon t h e se i n te rp re ta t ions .

1 3 .4 R e la t iv i sm a nd t he E va lua t ion o fC la im s S i nce a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a r e t h eo ry laden , s c ience i sn o t v a lue -f ree , a nd mu l t ip le a nd c ompe t ing i n te rp re ta t ions , p e r spec t ive s , a nd e xpe r ience sr e la t ing t ot h ep a s ta r ep os s ib le a nd t e nab le , i tb ecomes a ppa ren t t h a t a r chaeo logy c an n eve r p r oduce ap u re ly o b jec t ive s i ng le a ccoun t o fw ha th appened i nt h ep a s t( Shank sa nd T i l ley 1 992 :11) . D oe st h is v i ew a l so i mp ly t ha t a r chaeo log is t s m e re ly s ub jec t ive ly c rea te t h e i r o wn f a c t s a nd a c t ive ly c ons t ruc t t h e p a s t , a nd , h ence , t h a t

T h is r e cen t c once rn a nd i n te re s t i n r e la t iv ism , a s Mu r ray ( 1993 :112 ) s ugges ted , i s n o t n ece ssa r i ly i nd ica t ive o f c omp le te d i sc ip l ina ry p a ra lys is b u t r a the r i s as i gn t ha t a r chaeo log is t s a r e a t temp t ing t od ea l w i th t h er ea l iza t ion t h a t t h e re a r e many o t he r m inds a nd c u l tu re s i na dd i t ion t ot h e i r o wn . I ne s sence , t h eu l t ima te p rob lem w i th r e la t iv ism l i e s i n 3

t h e b e l ief t h a t t h e re i sn o m e thod f o r j udg ing k now ledge c l a im s a nd d ec id ing b e tween a l te rna t ive v i ew s ( Mu r ray 1 993 :112 ) . I ti sm o re p roduc t ive , a s K e l ley a nd H anen ( 1 988 :162 163 ) a r gued , t o v i ew a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch a s a t temp t ing t ou nde r s tand p henomena i nt e rm s t h a t a r e n o t e n t i re ly r e la t iv i s t ic , w i th t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fc ons ide r ing s ome a c coun t s a s m is taken o r i n co r rec t , n o t s imp ly a s d i f f e ren t . C on sequen t ly , t ob e a b le t od i f f e ren t ia te b e tween p l au s ib le a nd m is taken c l a im s , a r chaeo log is t s n eed t o b e a b le t o e va lua te ap i ece o f a r chaeo log ica l w o rk o n s ome k i nd o f b a s i s .

1 . 3 .5 P u sh ing A rchaeo log ica l I n f erence t o i t s L im i t s : E xpand ing K now ledg e1 I n t h is r e sea rch , Ia m e mphas iz ing g ende r a nd i n d iv idua l d ec is ion -mak ing . T he se a spec t s o f t h e p a s t , u n l ike s ubs is tenc e , s e t t lemen t p a t te rns , a nd l i t h ic t e chno logy , a r e n o t r ef le c ted i n o bv iou s a nd d i re c t p hys ica l w ay s i n t h e m a te r ia l r e co rd . C lea r ly , a r chaeo log is t s a r e f a ced w i th l im i ta t ion sw hen d ea l ing w i th t h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd .O ra l h i s to r ie s a nd e t hnog raph ie s h ave i n d ica ted t h e r i ch l i ve s , t r ad i t ions , r e l ig ion s , a nd i d eo log ie s o fn a t ive g r oup s , y e t a r chaeo logy i so f ten u nab le t oe x t ra c td e ta i l s o ft h is k i nd o f i n f o rma t ion f r om m a te r ia l r ema ins a l one . D oe s t h i ss i tua t ion m ean t h a t a r chaeo log is t s s hou ld i g no re a spec t s s u ch a s t r ad i t ion , r e l ig ion ,g ende r , s o c ia l s t ruc tu re ,a nd i d eo logy ,a nd o p t f o r f o cus ing o n ly u pon t he d e sc r ip t ion o f m a te r ia l r ema in s a nd t h e e xam ina t ion o f a spe c t s o fs oc ia l l i f e t h a t h ave m o re d i rec t p hy s ica l r ema ins? T he a nswe r t o t h is q ue s t ion u l t ima te ly d epends u pon h ow ap e r son d e f ine s a r chaeo logy a nd s e e s h i s o r h e r r o le a s a n a r chaeo log is t . Wh i le s ome m ay a r gue t h a ta r chaeo logy s h ou ld b ep r ima r i ly t h e s t udy o fm a te r ia l r ema ins f r om t h e p a s t , t h is e mpha s is c ou ld l e ad t o av e ry m echan ica l , s t a t ic , a nd d e sc r ip t ive d i s c ip l ine . Mo re l i ke ly , t h em a jo r i ty o fa r chaeo log is t sw ou ld p r obab ly v i ew a r chaeo logy a s t h e s t udy o fp a s t c u l tu re s , h uman b ehav iou r , a nd c u l tu re c hange . F ew a r chaeo log i s t s , m yse lf i n c luded , b e l ieve t h a t t h e d i sc ip l ine s hou ld i n vo lve m e re ly t h e m ea su remen t a nd d e sc r ip t ion o f a r t if a c t s a nd m a te r ia lr ema ins a nd s hou ld d i s rega rd m ea n ing , s i gn if ica nce , a nd e xp lana t ion ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 :244 ) . I t em s o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re d ef in i te ly s e rved f u nc t iona l p u rpo se s ; h oweve r ,t h ey w e r ea l so a c t ive ly a nd m ea n ingf u l ly p roduced , m os t l i ke ly h av ing mu l t ip le m ean ing s a nd s i gn if icance t o v a r ious p eop le , a nd u sed t on ego t ia te s o c ia l p os i t ion a nd t o c r ea te c hange ( s e eH odde r 1 986 ) .

T he p r ob lem o ft h e e va lua t ion o fc ompe t ing c l a im s a nd t h e d e te rm ina t ion o fw ha ti sv e r if iab le a bou tt h ep a s th a sb een a c en t ra l i s sue f o r a r chaeo log is t s o ve rt h e l a s ts eve ra l d e cade s ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :11) . P roce s sua l a r chaeo logy a nd i t s e mpha s i s o n s c ien t if ic m e thodo logy s t re s sed t h e o b jec t ive t e s t ing o fs t a temen t s a ga ins t as o l id b ody o ff a c t t oe va lua te s t a temen t s , e i the r c onf i rm ing o rr e f u t ing t h em . H oweve r , a s n o ted a bove , t h e re i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly a n " ob jec t ive " w o r ld a ga in s tw h ich c l a im s a nd s t a temen t sc an b et e s ted . Mo reove r , i nc a se s i nw h ich t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a ppa ren t ly s uppo r t t h eh ypo the s is , a ny n umbe ro fd ynam ic sc ou ld h ave p r oduced t h a t s ame r e co rd a nd a ny n umbe r o ff u tu re s i tua t ions c ou ld d i sp rove t h eh ypo the s i s . I ft h es c ien t if ic m e thod o fh ypo the se s te s t ing d oe sn o ta lway s p r ov ide au n ive r sa l a nd r e l iab le w ay t oe va lua te a l c l a im s a nd f i nd t h ec o r re c ta nd f i na l a n swe r st op ropo sed q ue s t ions , t h en h ow d o a r chaeo log is t s g o a bou t e va lua t ing a nd v a l ida t ing t h e i ri n te rp r e ta t ions a nd r e con s t ruc t ion s? C an s u ch e va lua t ion s a nd v a l ida t ions e ven b e d one ? F i r s t o fa l , i ti s i mpo r tan t n o t t oa ccep t ah ope le s s r e la t iv ism a nd t h e b e l ie f t h a t i ti si mpo s s ib le e ve r t ou nde r s tand t h e w o r ld i nr a t iona l t e rm s ( B le ie r 1 984 :204 ) . Ib e l ieve , a s K e l ley a nd H anen ( 1988 :20 ) m a in ta ined , t h a t t h e re i s ar a t iona l c o re t o " s c ience ," a w ay t o d i s t ingu ish t h e r a t iona l f r om t h e n on ra t iona l . A l though a r chaeo log is t s c anno t d e te rm ine w he the r c l a im s a r e t r ue , s ome p ropos i t ions a nd t h eo r ie s c an b e f o rmu la ted s o t h a t t h ey a r e t e s tab le ( i . e . , r e fu tab le ) o r v u lne rab le t o e r ro r , s o t ha t w ha t i s n o t t r ue c an b e d e te rm ined , w ha ti sm is taken c an b ei d en t if ied , a nd w ha ta r e c on s ide red a l te rna t ive a nd b e t te r t h eo r ie s c an b e p ropo sed a nd p o s s ib ly f u r the r t e s ted ( s ee B e l l 1 994 f o r ad e ta i led a c coun t o ft h er e f u ta t ion is t v i ew o fs c ience ; s e e a l so P oppe r 1 959 , 1 969 , 1 972 a nd h i s e mpha s is o n t h e f a ls if iab i l i ty o f s t a temen t s ) .

A rchaeo logy , i nm y o p in ion , s hou ld n o tb ec onf ined o n ly t o t h e o bse rvab le a n d f u nc t iona l o rd i rec t ly t e s tab le a s pe c t s o f m a te r ia l r ema in s a nd t h e p a s t . A rchaeo log is ts h ave n o t h e s i ta ted t o d ea l w i th s uch a bs t rac t i s sue s a s s t y le a nd e t hn ic i ty ; t h e re f o re , w hy s hou ld t h e s t udy o f g ende r b e a vo ided b ecau se o f i t s a bs t rac t n a tu re a nd a ppa ren t u n te s tab i l i ty a c co rd ing t os c ien t if ic c r i te r ia ( s ee C onkey a nd G e ro 1 991 :14 , 2 0 -21 f o r as im i la r c l a im )? A r chaeo log ica l t h eo r ie s , mode l s , a nd i n te rp re ta t ions , w h i le n ece s sa r i ly g r ounded i nd a t a , o f ten d o a nd s hou ld g o b eyond t h e d a ta , b eyond t h e e v idence a va i lab le a ta ny p a r t icu la r t ime ; t h u s , t h ei mpo r tance o fi n duc t ion f o r a r chaeo log i ca li n te rp re ta t ion b ecome sa ppa re n t .D educ t ive r e a son ing c a nn e ve rg ob eyond w ha ti sa l ready k nown b ecau se t h ec onc lu s ion sa r ec on ta ined w i th in t h ep r em i s e s( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :5 1 ,2 48 ) ; t h a ti s , f r equen t ly , m any r e cons t ruc t ions , i n te rp re ta t ions , a nd h ypo the se s a r e m e re ly s umma r ie s o f o b se rved f a c t s a nd t h e re fo re h ave n o e xp lana to ry v a lue ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :226 ) . I ndu c t ive i n f e rence s , o n t h e o t he r h and , g o b eyond t h e p rem ise s . A s K e l ley a nd H anen ( 1988 :360 ) s t a ted , i n duc t ive r e a son ing i sn e ce ssa ry f o r a r chaeo log ica l w o rk a nd r e sea r ch , a nd e s sen t ia l f o r e xpand ing k now ledge a nd u nde r s tand ing t h ep a s t .

I na dd i t ion t ot h ef a ls if iab i l i ty o fp ropo s i t ions a nd c l a im s , a n e mp i r ica l p r opo s i t ion c an a l so b e d emon s t ra ted t ob e w e l l c onf i rmed ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :36 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s , c onc lus ions c an b e a ccep ted i f " t hey p rov ide t h e b e s t e xp lana t ion o f t h e d a ta , t a k ing a ccoun t o f a l l a va i lab le r e levan t i n fo rma t ion " ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :345 -346 ) . A ccep t ing t h e se e xp lana t ions , h oweve r , d oe sn o tn ece s sa r i ly s ugge s t ac omm i tmen tt ot h eb e l ie ft h a tt h ey a r et r ue ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :362 ) . Mo reove r , a ccep tance o fh ypo the se s o r e xp lana t ion s s hou ld b e r ega rded a s p rov is iona l ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :248 ) . W i th n ew d a ta a nd i n f o rma t ion , n ew p e r spec t ive s , a nd s h if t ing r e sea rch i n te re s t s , t h e se s o -ca l led b e s t e xp lana t ions a nd r e cons t ruc t ions a r e l i ke ly t o b e m od if ied o r e l im ina ted ( Ke l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :345 -346 ; Wy l ie 1 993b :11 ) .

H ence , c on t ra ry t ot h e e x t reme v i ews o f S hank s a nd T i l ley ( 1 992 ) , Ib e l ieve t h a t t h rough i n duc t ion , a nd c on t inua l IT he p h ra se " pu sh ing a r chaeo log ica l i n f e r enc et oi t sl i m i t s " o r ig ina te s i na n a r t ic le w r i t ten b y P a t ty J o Wa t son (Wa t son a nd F o t iad is 1 990 ) . 4

w h ich c an b er evea led t h rough t h eu se o fs c ien t if ic m e thods mu s t b er eeva lua ted . Know ledge i sn eve r c e r ta in , b u t r a the r a lway sp rov is iona l , a nd c an b ep re sen ted a ta ny t ime i n an ew f r amewo rk ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 : 2 1) . U nde r s tand ing t h e p a s t i s ad i a lec t ica l p roce s s f r equen t ly i n vo lv ing c on t inua l r ev is ion o fi d ea s , c oncep t s , a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 :108 ) ; h ence , " any i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e p a s t i s mu l t ip le a nd c ons tan t ly o pen t o c hange , t or e -eva lua t ion " ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 : 1 09 ) . T hus , Ic on s ide r m y r e sea rch a s a n o pen -ended ( s ee J oyce 1 993 :270 ) e xp lo ra t ion o f P a leo ind ian l i f eways , n o t a s au n ive r sa l c l a im t h a t t h is w a s h ow P a leo ind ian g roups d ea l tw i th d ec is ion -mak ing , g ende r , a nd s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s .

r e v is ion a nd u pda t ing b a sed o n n ew d a ta , n ew p e r spec t ive s , a nd c r i t ica l a na ly se s o fp rev ious i n te rp re ta t ion s ,a r chaeo logy , w h i le n eve r" d iscove r ing "t h eu l t ima te t r u th a nd r e a l i ty o ft h e p as t , c an p rogress t owa rd i mproved a nd i nc reased k now ledge . T h is i nc rease i n k now ledge i se xac t ly w ha t I w ish t o a ccomp l ish b y e xam in ing a spec t s o f g ende r a nd d ec is ion -mak ing f o r P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , a nd b y p ush ing a r chaeo log ica l i n f e rence a nd i n te rp re ta t ion t o i t s l im i t : am o re c omp rehens ive u nde r s tand ing o f p o ten t ia l r e la t ionsh ip sa nd l i feway so pe ra t ing i nt h ep reh is to r ic p a s t . 1 . 3 .6 T he I mpor tance o f Mu l t ip le Approaches a nd T heor ie s

1 . 3 .7 Theore t ica lO r ien ta t ion : S ummary

I n s ome i n s tance s , a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s d ea l ing w i th t h e s ame ma te r ia l r ecord b u t e xam ined f r om d if fe ren t p e r spec t ive sc o me t os im i la rc onc lus ion s , w h i le o t he rs t ud ie s r e su l t i ne n t i re ly o ppos i te o rc onf l ic t ing c onc lu s ions ( Sof f e r a nd P ra s lov 1 993 :22 ) . A s S of f e r a nd P ra s lov a r gued , t h is mu l t ip l ic i ty o fv a ry ing i n te rp re ta t ion sa nd p e r spec t ive si sn o t ac once rn b u t i nf a c t h igh ly d e s i rab le , empha s iz ing t h a t t h e p a s t , l i k et h ep re sen t , i s ac omp lex ,m u l t if ace ted e n t i ty t h a ti s b e s t a pp roa ched f r om d i f f e r ing p e r spe c t ive sa nd a ng le s , " l ike at h ree -d imens iona l , c ons tan t ly c hang ing j i gsaw p uzz le " ( Sof f e r a nd P ra s lov 1 993 :22 ) . D if f e ren t i n te rp re ta t ions t h a t c an r e su l t f r om d i f f e ren t p e rspec t ive s d o n o t n ecessa r i ly i mp ly c on f l ic to rd i sag reemen t , b u tr a the rc an p rov ide v a r ied y e t c on tex tua l ly v a l id r e cons truc t ions o ft h e p a s t . Mo reove r , mu l t ip le a nd c ompe t ing t heo r ie s a r e c ruc ia l f o r e xpos ing s t reng th s a nd w eakne sses a nd r e cogn iz ing a noma l ie s a nd i n cons i s tenc ies i n c u r ren t t h eo r ie s ( Be l l 1 994 :86 , 2 39 ) . A s Wy l ie s t ressed , d ive rgen t p e rspec t ives a nd v i s ions i n a r chaeo logy , r a the r t h an u nde rm in ing t h e i n teg r i ty o f t h e d i sc ip l ine ,r ep resen tt h e o n ly m e thod f o r " r ecogn iz ing w he re o u r b es t g uesses , a nd o u r mos t d eep ly e n t renched c onv ic t ions , a re l im i ted a nd l im i t ing" (Wy l ie 1 993b :12 ) . D if f e ren tp e rspec t ive sa nd v i ew so ft h ep a s t a low f o rc r i t ica l c ompa ra t ive a na ly se s , w i th e ach p o ten t ia l ly o f f e r ing i n s igh t s a nd p rog re s s t owa rd ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing a nd i lum ina t ion o f i mpo r tan t a spec t s a nd v a r iab le s o ft h e p a s t . I n e s sence , I s ee m u l t ip le p e rspec t ives f o r i n te rp re t ing t h e p as t a s a n a dvan tage a nd s t reng th , as i gn o f ah ea l thy a nd v i ta l d i sc ip l ine ( s ee s im i la r c l a ims i n K oh l 1 993 :14 ; Wy l ie 1 993b :12 ) .

T he t h eo re t ica l a pp roach u sed i nt h is s t udy i sc hosen w i th t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f t he a bove c r i t ic isms a nd t h eo re t ica l c once rns , a s w e l l a s t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f w h ich a pp roach w ou ld b e b es t s u i ted t o d ea l ing w i th t h e p rob lem o f d eve lop ing mode l s w i th af o cu s o n d ec is ion -mak ing , g ende r , a nd s ubs is tence f o r P l a ins P a leo ind ian l i f eway s . Ih e s i ta te t o p rov ide al a be l f o r t h is t h eo re t ica l o r ien ta t ion , a nd d o n o t w an to the r s t ol a be l my w o rk a sp a r t o f ac e r ta in p a rad igm o r s choo l o f t hough t , f o r t h e p r ima ry r ea sons t h a t l a be l l ing i s o f ten r e s t r ic t ive a nd l im i t ing , a nd t h a t Ih ave u sed a c omb ina t ion o fa pp roa che s a nd o r ien ta t ion s f r om n ume rou s p a rad igms a nd p e r spec t ive s . F i rs t , a nd v e ry i mpo r tan t , g ende r w i l l b e v i ewed a s a d ynam ic a nd i mpo r tan t c ons t ruc t i n s oc ia l l i f e . H e re t h e r e la t ionsh ip a nd d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e c a tego r ie s o f s ex a nd g ende r mus t b e c ons ide red ( s ee S co t t 1 988 :28 -50 ; S o rensen 1 992 :34 -35 ) . Wh i le s ex i s t h e p hys io log ica l d i s t inc t ion b e tween m an a nd w oman , g ende r i s as oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t c omp r is ing r o le s g iven t o a nd i d en t i t ie s p e rce ived b y men a nd w omen i n ap a r t icu la r s oc ie ty , t h a t i s , l e a rned a c t ion p a t te rns t h a t a r e c u l tu ra l ly a nd s ymbo l ica l ly c ons t i tu ted ( G ibb s 1 987 :80 ; T i l ley 1 991 :164 ) . T he a c tua l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s ex a nd g ende r i sl i t t le u nde r s tood , a nd i t may b e t h a t b io log ica l s ex h a s r e la t ive ly l i t t le t od o w i th g ende r . A s n o ted b y Whe lan ( 1995 :49 -50 ) , t h e c oncep t o f g ende rr e la tes t ob ehav iou ra l t r a i t s , s uch a st h ep rope rw ay o f mov ing , s peak ing ,d r e s s ing , a nd a c t ing i n ac e r ta in s oc ie ty . I n a c tua l i ty , t h en ,i ti st y p ica l ly b ehav iou ra nd n o tb i o log ica l s ex t h a t s i gna ls t h e g ende r o f ap e r son . I n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , t he re t e nd s t ob e c onfu s ion a nd o ve r lap b e tween t he c a tego ry o f s ex a nd t ha t o f g ende r ; f r equen t ly a r chaeo log is t s c l a im t o b e s t udy ing g ende r w hen t h ey a r e e xam in ing s ex a nd a s soc ia t ions p e rce ived i n r e la t ion t o b io log ica l s ex ( SO ren sen 1 992 :35 ) .

T he re f o re , Ia ma r gu ing t h a ti n s tead o fr e s t r ic t ing t h em se lve s t o as i ng le u n ive rsa l a pp roa ch , a r chaeo log is ts n eed t o r e cogn ize t ha t t h e re a re a p l u ra l i ty o f a pp roache s a nd p e r spec t ives f o r d ea l ing w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h is r e cogn i t ion o f mu l t ip le p e rspec t ive s a nd a pp roa che s a l lows f o r f l ex ib i l i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty w hen o ne r e cons tr uc t st h ep a s t . H oweve r , n o ta l m e thods a nd a pp roache s a r en e ce ssa r i ly t h e s ame o r e qua l ly v a l id , o r p roduce r e su l t s a s p laus ib le a s o t he r s . S ome m e thod i sn eeded f o r e va lua t ing t h e a dequacy o f i n te rpre t ive m e thods a nd a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge c l a im s , o r e l se t h e r e su l t c ou ld l e ad t or a c is t , c hauv in is t ic , n a t iona l is t , p o l i t ica l , a nd e s sen t ia l ly l e s sv a l id r e ad ing so ft h e p a s t ( s ee d i scu s s ion i nK oh l 1 993 :15 -16 ) . O f ten t h ec ho ice o f m e thod w i l l d epend u pon d a ta ,q ue s t ions a sked , a nd r e sea rch e mpha s is . T he i mpo r tan tp o in ti st h a t wh i le i ti se s sen t ia l f o r a r chaeo log is t s t o e xpe r imen t w i th d i f f e ren t m e thods a nd p e r spec t ives t h a t m ay l e ad t ot h e r e cons t ruc t ion o fd i f f e ren t b u t p l aus ib le p a s t s , t he re a lway s r ema ins t h e n eed t o b e c r i t ica l a nd r i go rous i no ne 's a pp roach a nd me thodo log ie s .

A l though i ti sg ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a tt h e re a r et wo s exe s a nd t wo c o r re spond ing g ende r s , i nr e a l i ty g ende r i sc once ived o f a s mo re t han ad i cho tomy b e twe en m a le a nd f ema le . I nf a c t , g ende r h a s a mu l t iface ted n a tu re ( s ee d i scus s ion i n J oyce 1 993 :271) , i s c on tex tua l ly d e te rm ined , a nd r ep re sen ts a c on t inuum r a the rt h an t wo d i cho tomou sc on s t ruc t s .T he s ame c l a im c an a l so b e made f o r s ex . A s S O rensen ( 1992 :35 ) n o ted , s ex i sn o t s imp ly b ina ry a nd s t a t ic ; r a the r , b o th m en a nd w omen g o t h rough d i f f e ren t s t ages i n t h e i r b io log ica l l i fe . Many N or th Ame r ican i nd igenous s oc ie t ies c oncep tua l ized g ende r i nw ay sr a d ica l ly d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se o fw e s te rn a nd o t he r s t a te leve l s oc ie t ies , a nd h ad a dd i t iona l a nd a l te rna t ive g ende r c a tego r ie s t o " ma le " a nd " f ema le , " i n c lud ing , f o r e xamp le , man -woman , o r b erdache . F o r

C lea r ly , t he w ho le i dea o f a n o b jec t ive , s i ng le , f i xed p a s t 5

e nv ironmen t , u l t ima te ly a l l d ec is ions , i n c lud ing t hose f o cu s ing o n a cqu is i t ion o ff ood a nd r e sou rces , a r ee mbedded i n as oc ia l c on tex t . H ence Ia m a t temp t ing t o m ove a way f r om a s imp le e nv iron men ta l d e te rm in ism , w i th t he r e a l iza t ion t h a ts ubs i s tence c ho ice sa nd a c t iv i t ie sa r en o to n ly i nf luenced b y e nv ironmen ta l f a c to r s b u t a l so b y s oc ia l d ynam ics s uch a s p refe rence s , c oope ra t ion , s ha r ing , i n fo rma t ion e xchange , g ende r , o b l iga t ion , r e la t ionsh ips , r i tua l , a nd r e l ig ious a nd i d eo log ica l b e l ief s t h a t u l t ima te ly s hape c ogn i t ion . I nt h is s t udy , t he s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t b ehav iou r o f ag roup o fh un te r -ga the re r s w i l l b e v i ewed a s t h e r e su l t o f as e t o f d ec is ions a nd c ho ices m ade b y i n d iv idua l s a nd g roups w h ich r e so lve s pec if ic i n te r re la ted p rob lem s ( J och im 1 976 :8 ) a nd w h ich a r e s imu l taneous ly a f f e c ted b yb o th e nv i ronmen ta l a nd s o c ia l v a r iab le s .

i n s tance , H o l l imon ( 1997 ) d i scu ssed t h e p re sence o f at h i rd g ende r , t h a to ft h e " two sp i r i t " u nde r take r , a mong t h en a t ive p eop le o fC a l ifo rn ia . H e rd t ( 1994 ) c l ea r ly d emons t ra ted t h a t i n d iv idua ls w ho t r anscend t h e c a tego r ie s o fm a le a nd f ema le , m a scu l ine a nd f em in ine , a s d ef ined b y w e s te rn c u l tu re , a r e mo re c ommon i n s oc ie t ie s t h roughou t t he w o r ld t h an t r ad i t iona l ly b e l ieved . Many s t ud ies d ea l ing w i th g ende r t o p ics i g no re t h ep oss ib i l i ty o fa l te rna t ive g ende r s , a l though t h e l i ke l ihood o f t h e i r p re sence i sr e la t ive ly h igh . C lea r ly , t h rough i n te rac t ion w i th o the rs , i nc lud ing p roce sses o f d ec is ion -mak ing a nd s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies a nd t a sk s , i nd iv idua ls c on t inua l ly a nd d ynam ica l ly c rea te a nd r e cons t ruc t t he i r g ende r i d en t i ty , r o le s , a nd r e la t ions w i th o t he rm embe r so ft h e i rg r oup . I n t h is s t udy , s oc ie t ie s w i l l n o t b e v i ewed a st h e " adap t ing " e n t i ty , a sa s sumed b y many t r ad i t iona lp roces sua l s t ud ie s a nd s y s tem ic a na lyse s . H av ing n o b ounda r ie s o rc onsc iousne s s , s oc ie t ie s c anno tb e a dap ted o ra dap t ing t ot h e i r e nv i ronmen t ( M i then 1 990 :6 ; S hank sa nd T i l ley 1 987 ) .I n s tead , f o l low ing M i then ( 1 990 ) , i tw i l lb et h ei n d iv idua l sw i th in t h eg roup t h a t w i l l b ev i ewed a sa c t ive ly mak ing t h ed ec i s ions t oa l te rt h e i r s oc ia l a nd p hys ica l e nv ironmen t . T hus i n t h is s t udy , t h e p rocess o f a dap ta t ion w i l l r efe r mo re t o p rocesses o f f l uc tua t ions a nd a d jus tmen ts b eg inn ing w i th i nd iv idua ls , whe the r t hey a re t he r e su l t o f t he i r r esponses t o e nv i ronmen ta l s t imu l i ( phy s ica l o r c u l tu ra l ) o r t o h uman c ho ice s ,l e a rn ing , a nd k now ledge t r ansm i s s ion .

U s ing t h is t h eo re t ica l p os i t ion a s ab a se , m y w o rk w i l l a im t o c r i t ique t h et r ad i t iona l P a leo ind ian m ode l , e xpos ing i t se r ro r s a nd u nque s t ioned a s sump t ions . Iw i l l t h en c ons t ruc t am ode l f r om a n a l t e rna t ive p e rspec t ive a nd e mphas is , u s ing , i n a c r i t ica l a nd r i go rous m anne r , e thnog raph ic a na logy a s t h e p r ima ry m e thod o f a na lys is . T he a pp roach o u t l ined a bove , w h i le d i f f e ren t f r om t h et r ad i t iona l p roce s sua l a r chaeo log ica l e mpha s is o n s c ien t if ic me thodo log ie s a nd i d eas o f h ypo the se s te s t ing , p os i t iv ism a nd e mp i r ic ism , d oe s n o t i mp ly at o ta lr e jec t ion o ft h es c ien t if i c m e thod . A sp r ev ious ly n o ted , Id i sag ree w i th t h e p os i t ion o f e x t reme r e la t iv ism a dvoca ted b ym a ny o ft h ec r i t ics o fs c ience .I n s tead , Ib e l ieve s t rong ly i nt h e i mpo r tance a nd v a lue o fs c ien t if ic r i gou r a nd m e thods . T he a c tua l p roce s s o f s c ience , h oweve r , d oe s n o t o n ly i n vo lve h ypo the se s te s t ing a nd a dhe rence t op o s i t iv ism a nd t h e s ea rch f o r o b jec t ive t r u th , b u t r a the r , c ons is t s o f v a r ious t e chn iques a nd me thodo log ie s . S c ience i sn o t a m ono l i th ic e n t i ty , b u t r a the r a n " en te rp r ise c omposed o f n ume rous a nd d i f fe ren t g oa ls a nd t a sk s ," e mp loy ing a l te rna t ive t o o ls a nd m e thod s f o r t ho se v a r ious g oa ls a nd t a sk s( Be l l 1 994 :26 ) . D e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a t Ia m n o te mp loy ing ar i g id p os i t iv i sm a nd h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive p e r spec t ive w h ich w a s s t rong ly a dvoca ted b y s ome e a r l ie r p roce s sua l a r chaeo log is t s , Ia m n o t s ac r if ic ing r i gou r o r c r i t ica l m e thodo logy i n my r e sea rch . Is t i l l v i ew my w o rk a s a s c ien t if ic e n te rp r ise , empha s iz ing r ea son , l o g ic , r a t iona l i ty , a nd c ons is tency i n my a na lys is . T he re i sn o n eed f o r a d i cho tomy t oe x i s tb e tween g ende r t h eo ry ( am o re c on tex tua l a nd s ymbo l ic a pp roach ) a nd s c ien t if ic t h eo ry ( s ee r e la ted d i scu ss ion i n Wy l ie 1 991a :48 ) . I ns ome c a se s ,g ende rm ode l s c an b et r ea ted r i go rous ly a nd t e s ted . I no t he rc a se s , mode l so f g ende rc an b er e la t ive ly a bs t rac t a nd u n te s tab le a cco rd ing t o s c ien t if ic c r i te r ia . B u t t h is s i tua t ion d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly t h a t t h e r e su l t s a nd i n te rp re ta t ions w e re d e r ived u s ing n on r igo rous m e thods , a nd s hou ld t he re fo re b e c ons ide red l e ss v a l id t h an t h o se t h a th ave b een s ub je c tt ot e s t ing .

Empha s iz ing t h e a c t ive i n d iv idua l , t h is s t udy c on sequen t ly w i l l f o cus c h ief ly o n d ec is ion -mak ing . C hange s i nh uman s oc ie ty t h a ta r er e co rded i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a r e " a l l u l t ima te ly u nde rw r i t ten b y p eop le mak ing d ec is ions w h i le g o ing a bou t t h e i r d a i ly b u s ine s s " (M i then 1 990 :1) ; t h us , t h e s i gn if icance o f d ec is ion-mak ing a nd i nd iv idua l is t ic a pp roache si na r chaeo logy b ecome s a ppa ren t .M i then ( 1990 ) c l ea r ly d emons t ra ted b o th t h e f e as ib i l i ty a nd v a lue o ft h e se t ype s o fa pp roache s i nh i s a t temp t t oc ons t ruc t e xp lana t ion s f o r p a t te rns p resen t i n t h e Meso l i th ic a nd P a leo l i th ic a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t h rough af o cus o n d ec is ion -mak ing b y i nd iv idua ls ( s ee a l so B e l l 1 994 :281-305 f o r ad i scus s ion o f t h e u se o f t h e i nd iv idua l is t ic m e thod i n a rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch ) . T he s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f ap opu la t ion a c ros s t h e l a ndscape , t h e s e lec t ion a nd p rocu remen t o f f ood r e sou rce s a nd ma te r ia ls n eeded t o m ake t oo ls , a nd t h e e xchange o f t h ose r e sou rce s a nd i mp lemen t s r equ i re i n d iv idua ls t om ake d ec is ions a nd , a tt ime s , a c tu pon t h em a s ag roup ( Bam fo r th 1 988 :v ) . Mo reove r , i t mus t b e r emembe red t ha t h uman a c t ions a r e i n ten t iona l , i nvo lv ing d e l ibe ra te c ho ices a nd mo t iva t ions ; p eop le a r e c apab le o f u nde rs tand ing a nd f o l low ing r u le s , o fj udg ing t h e i r a c t ions a nd t hose o fo t he r s , o f mak ing d i s t inc t ions , a nd , i n m any c a se s , o f a l te r ing t h e c ond i t ion s a r ound t h em ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 :34 -35 , 5 5 5 6 ) . T he c l a im o fS hanks a nd T i l ley ( 1992 :55 -56 ) , t h a t " t he s hee r c omp lex i t ie so fh uman s oc ia l a c t iv i t ie sg o s ubs tan t ia l ly b eyond t h e b a s ic n ece s s i t ie s o f s u rv iva l , " i s much d i f f e ren t f r om t h e t r ad i t iona l v i ew t h a t h uman b ehav iou r a nd a c t ions a r e c on t ro l led s o le ly b y e x te rna l s t i mu l i , n eeds , a nd r o le e xpec ta t ions ( s ee r e f e rence s i nS hank sa nd T i l ley 1 992 :35 ) .

My a pp roach , b y f o cus ing u pon d ec is ion -mak ing , g ende r , a nd t h e i nd iv idua l , w i l l p rov ide mo re c r i t ica l a nd d ynam ic c oncep tua l iza t ions a nd c ons ide ra t ions o f P a leo ind ian s t ra teg ie s , b ehav iou r s , a nd t h e i rv a r iab i l i ty , i nc ompa r ison t o t h ep roduc t ion o ft h es t y l ized , m echan is t ic , a nd r i g id p i c tu re s t h a t f r equen t ly r e su l t w i th t y po log ica l a nd a na log ica l s t ud ie s a nd t h e s oc ie ta l g r oup a dap ta t ion v i ew o fh un t ing -ga the r ing g roups o f ten c ha rac te r is t ic o f more r e cen t p roce ssua l a r chaeo log ica l w o rk . I nm ak ing t h i s s t a temen t , t h ough , Ia m n o t c l a im ing t h a t m y a pp roach i ss i ngu la r ly t h eb e s t m e thod f o rd o ing t h eo re t ica l ly s ound a r chaeo logy , t h a ti tw i l l p rov ide ac omp le te t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk t o e xp la in P a leo ind ian h un t ing -ga the r ing s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rns , t h a t

Wh i le t h e i mpo r tance o f c ons ide r ing t h e e nv ironmen ta l c on tex t i nw h ich t h e se p reh is to r ic a c to r s m ade t h e i r c ho ice s w i l l b e a cknow ledged b y b r ief ly c ons ide r ing t he l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t s o fP a leo ind ian p eop le s , Iw i l l a l so s t ress t ha t a l though h uman g roups a r e c lose ly t i ed , i n te rconnec ted , a nd r e spons ive i n c omp lex ways t o t h e i r 6

t h e re s hou ld b e au n ive rsa l t heo re t ica l p e r spec t ive a nd m e thodo logy f o ra pp roach ing a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch , o rt h a t my r e su l t ing i n te rp re ta t ions a nd c ons t ruc t ions r ef lec t t h ep a s t e xac t ly a si tw a s f o rP a leo ind ian p eop le s .

i n te res t ing a nd r e levan t e xp lana to ry d e ta i l t h a t c an b e p rov ided b y ap e r spec t ive s uch a sg ende r .

Mo reove r , i td oe s n o t i mp ly t ha t Ia m t o ta l ly r e jec t ing p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy a nd i t s me thodo log ie s a nd r e sea rch . I n many c a se s , p roce s sua l r e sea rch h a sb een v e ry p roduc t ive a nd e n l igh ten ing . A s s ome p os t -p roce s sua l is t s ( e .g . , S hank s a nd T i l ley ) f a i l t o r ea l ize , n o t a l l p roce s sua l r e sea rch h a s n eces sa r i ly s uppo r ted t h ee x t reme p os i t iv ism a nd h ypo the se s t e s t ing v i ews a dvoca ted b y t h e e a r l ie r N ew A rchaeo log is t s . T hese p os t -p rocessua l is t s h ave a t e ndency t o a dop t a n a h is tor ica l p e rspec t ive when c r i t ic iz ing p roce ssua l a r chaeo logy , f o cu s ing o n e a r l ie rp roce s sua l w o rk a nd c l a im s , mos t o fw h ich w e re n eve r a c tua l ly a ccep ted o rp rac t ised b y a l l a r chaeo log is t s ( s ee d i scuss ion i n Y of f ee a nd S he r ra t t 1 993 :4 -5 ) . I nr e a l i ty , many a r chaeo log is t s s oon r ea l ized t h a t as ea rch f o r u n ive r sa l l aws , a s t h e e a r ly p roce ssua l is ts s t rong ly p romo ted , w a s f u t i le ; t hu s , n o t a l l p roce ssua l is t s w e re a nd a r es ea rche r s f o rc u l tu ra l l aw s , s uppo r t ing e x t reme f u nc t iona l is t , a dap ta t ion is t , p os i t iv is t , a nd r educ t ion i s t i d ea s o fc u l tu re .

I nt h er ema inde r o ft h ev o lume , my a im i st or e vea l , a s Is e e i t , t h e m a jor s ho r tcom ings o f t he P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing mode l , a nd t o d eve lop a mo re b a lanced v i ew o f P a leo ind ian l i f eways . T he f o l low ing c hap te r w i l l p rov ide a b road t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk o n w h ich t h e r e sea rch w i l l b e b a sed , b r ief ly n o t ing t h ee xp los ion o fg ende r re la ted r e sea rch a nd d a ta t h a t h a s o ccu r red i nr e cen t y ea r s i na n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy , a nd c r i t ica l ly e xam in ing t h e p o r t raya l a nd a na lys is o f g ende r i n a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch . C hap te r 3w i l l c on t inue t h is d i scu s s ion o fg ende r , n a r row ing t h e f o cu s t od eve lop ing ac r i t ica l , p l au s ib le w ay f o ra r chaeo log is t s t oe xam ine g ende r .

1 . 4 OUTL INE AND PROCEDURE

C hap te r 4w i l l t h en s h if t t h e empha s is t ot h e s ub jec t o ft h e P la ins P a leo ind ian p e r iod . I nr e cogn i t ion o ft h ei mpo r tance o f e xam in ing t he h is to r ica l c on tex ts o f d i scove ry a nd i n te rp re ta t ion , t h is c hap te r w i l l b r ief ly o u t l ine t h eh i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t o f P a leo ind ian r e sea rch i nN o r th Ame r ica i n o rde r t o r evea l t h e t h eo re t ica l a nd i n te l lec tua l c on tex t i n w h ich i d ea s a nd mode ls h ave d eve loped a nd i nf luenced h ow t h e p a s t w a s i n te rp re ted . I nC hap te r 5 ,t h i s c on s ide ra t ion o f P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s w i l l b e e xpanded t h rough a c r i t ica l a na lys is o ft h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e b i g g ame h un t ing mode l t h a t w i l l e xpose t h e u nde r ly ing , u nque s t ioned a s sump t ions u pon w h ich i ti sb a sed . A t t h is p o in t i tw i l l b e n ece ssa ry t o i n t roduce t h eb roade r c on tex t o fP la in s a r chaeo logy i no rde r t od emons t ra te t h e o r ig ins o f t h e l im i ta t ions c ha rac te r iz ing t he P a leo ind ian mode l . U s ing a s a b as is n ew p a leoenv iron men ta l e v idence , g ender r esearch , a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , a nd t he t heo re t ica l p os i t ion o u t l ined a bove , C hap te rs 6 a nd 7 w i l l p roceed t o c ons t ruc t a n a l te rna t ive mode l f o r P a leo ind ian l i feway s . T he f i na l a nd c onc lud ing c hap te r w i l l d i scuss t h e i mp l ica t ions o f t h is r e sea rch , a ny l im i ta t ions a nd p rob lem s e ncoun te red , a nd t h e p rospec tf o rf u tu re r e sea rch .

I ,t h e re f o re ,d o n o tw an tt op a in t ag ene ra l ized a nd i n accu ra te p i c tu re o f p roces sua l is ts , s imp l ify ing a nd m is rep re sen t ing s c ience a nd p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy i nt h ep roce ss , a s Wa t son ( 1990 ) c l a imed p os t -processua l is ts h ave d one . Wha t Id o q ue s t ion , t h ough , i st he c l a im t h a t a n a pp roach r evo lv ing a r ound p o s i t iv i sm , e mp i r ic ism , a nd h ypo the se s te s t ing i st h e o n ly c o r rec t w ay t od o a r chaeo logy . I n f a c t , p os i t iv ism a nd e mp i r ic is t s c ience a nd a r chaeo logy i so n ly o ne mode o f p e rcep t ion a nd e xp lana t ion ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 992 , :xx i i ) . A nd w h i le many p rocessua l a r chaeo log is ts h ave d one i mpo r tan t a nd v i ta l w o rk , t he f r equen t f o cus o n t ypo logy , a dap ta t ion , s y s tem s a na ly s is , o b jec t iv i ty , u n ive r sa l l aw s , a nd ar i g id p os i t iv ism a nd h ypo the se s te s t ing a pproach b y s ome h a s t e nded t o l e ad t o t he p e rpe tua t ion o f u nques t ioned a s sump t ions a nd t h e u nc r i t ica l u se o fs e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ies . C lea r ly , t h e u se o f as c ien t if ic a pp roach a nd h ypo the se s te s t ing d oe sn o tn ece s sa r i ly g ua ran tee m ean ingfu l w o rk . Id o n o t , h oweve r , w ish t o d eny t h e i mpo r tance o f t e s tab le t h eo r ies a nd t he u se o f s c ien t if ic s t anda rd s w hen a s se s s ing , mod ify ing , o r r e jec t ing t h eo r ies . A s B e l l ( 1994 ) d emons t ra ted , t h e u se o f t e s tab le ( i .e . , r e fu tab le ) t h eo r ie s , w h i le n eve r d i scove r ing t he t r u th , c an g rea t ly a s s is t a r chaeo log is t s i n mov ing t owa rd b e t te r t h eo r ie s a bou t t h e p a s t b y e xp lo i t ing e r ror s i n c u r ren t ly a ccep ted t h eo r ie s , r educ ing t ha t e r ro r , a nd d i scove r ing wha t i s n o t t r ue . N on te s tab le t h eo r ie s ,h oweve r , c an a l so b eo fs ome v a lue a nd c an p rov ide ap e r spec t ive f r om w h ich t oi d en t ify w eakne sses i nc ompe t ing t h eo r ie s( Be l l 1 994 :53 ) . C onsequen t ly , at h eo ry s hou ld n o t b e d i sm is sed me re ly b ecause i ti sn o t t e s tab le ( Be l l 1 994 :53 ) . Mo reove r , a ts ome p o in t an on te s tab le t h eo ry m ay a c tua l ly e vo lve i n to at e s tab le t h eo ry ( Be l l 1 994 :53 ) .

F o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f t he mode l , a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leoenv i ronmen ta l d a ta w i l l b e c o l lec ted e xc lu s ive ly f r om t h e N o r the rn P la ins o fN o r th Ame r ica , w h ich , i nt h is c a se , w i l l i n c lude t h eP la in sr e g ion b ounded b y t h eR ock ie s o n t h e w e s t , e x tend ing e a s twa rd i n to t h eD ako ta su s ing t h eM is sou r i R ive r a r b i t ra r i ly a s a n e a s te rn b ounda ry , s ou thwa rd t oa nd i n c lud ing Wyom ing a nd n o r the rn C o lo rado , a nd b o rde red o n t h e n o r th b y t he p rov ince s o fA lbe r ta a nd S a ska tchewan . A n e mpha s is w i l lb ep l aced o n t h ea r ea o f Wyom ing /Mon ta na , a s i ta ppea r s mo re a bundan t P a leo ind ian i n fo rma t ion c an b e d e r ived f r om t h e se r e g ions . T he t empo ra l p e r iod f o r t h is r e sea rch mus ta l so b e s pec if ied . T he f o cus w i l l b e u pon t he t ime r a nge o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 ,000 t o1 0 ,500 y ea r sa go , at ime e xpe r ienc ing t h ed rama t ic c l ima t ic w a rm ing o f t he l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene . B ecause o f t he r ap id ly c hang ing c ond i t ions o f t h e l a te P l e is tocene , at ime r a nge a s n a r row a s p oss ib le s hou ld b e c hosen ,y e tt h el im i ta t ions a nd a ccu racy o fd a t ing t e chn ique s a nd t h e l a ck o fw e l l -da ted i ns i tu e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s o n t h eP l a ins mus tb er e cogn ized a sw e l l .

T he re i so bv ious ly an eed t o d eve lop d i f fe ren t b u t c r i t ica l w ays o f l ook ing a t t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f o r r e inco rpo ra t ing a c t ive p eop le b ack i n to p reh is to ry , a nd f o r p rov id ing a w ide r p e r spec t ive a nd a l te rna t ive v iewpo in ts r a the r t han l im i t ing t h e f ocu s e xc lus ive ly u pon t o o l t y pe s , a dap ta t ion , s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies , a nd s e lec t ive a nd u nques t ioned a na log ie s . A s Wy l ie ( 1991a :47 ) a rgued , B info rd 's s c ien t if ic a pproach a nd f ocus o n e vo lu t iona ry , a dap t ive p a t te rns , a nd f unc t iona l a dap ta t ions , w h i le y i e ld ing i mpo r tan te xp lana to ry i n s igh t s ,w i l lr e su l ti nt h el o ss o fm uch 7

CHAPTER 2 GENDER RESEARCH I N ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY d i v is ion o fl a bou ra nd g ende rp r ima r i ly t h rough a n e mpha s i s o n h un t ing . A s D ah lbe rg ( 1981 :1-2 ) a nd Z ih lman ( 1981 :82 , 1 991a :5 ) n o ted , m any r e sea rche rs b e l ieved t h a t i th ad b een t h e d emands o ft h e h un t ( wh ich w a s c ons ide red a n a l l -ma le a c t iv i ty )a nd m ea t -ea t ing t h a th ad s epa ra ted h umans f r om t h e a pe s , p roduc ing h uman c ha rac te r is t ics s u ch a si n te l l igence , m anua l s k i l l , t o o l m ak ing , s oc iab i l i ty , l a nguage , b i peda l ism , a nd c oope ra t ion ( e .g . , Da r t 1 953 ; L augh l in 1 968 :304 ; Wa shbu rn a nd L anca s te r 1 968 ) . B u t t h e " Man t h e H un te r " c onf e rence h e ld i nC h icago i n 1 966 h ad ag r ea t i mpac t a nd i n f luence o n t h ed i sc ip l ine . T he i n f o rma t ion p re sen ted i nt h e r e su l t ing v o lume ( Lee a nd DeVo re , e d . 1 968 ) , e spec ia l ly R icha rd L ee ' s ( 1 968 ) s t udy o fw omen g a the re r s ,p rov ided t h e b a s is f o r q ue s t ion ing t h is h un t ing mode l , a nd f o r s h if t ing a t ten t ion t o w omen a s b e ing i mpo r tan t i n c o l lec t ing , p roce s s ing , a nd d i s t r ibu t ing f o od t oo t he rg r oup m embe r s .

2 . 1 I NTRODUCTION I tw a sn o tu n t i l t h ea dven to ff em in i s tt h eo ry i nt h e 1 970 st h a t as pec if ic i n te re s ti ns t ud ie so fw omen a nd g ende rd eve loped i na n th ropo logy ( e .g . , A lbe r s a nd Med ic ine 1 983 ; D ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 ; F r ied l 1 975 ; Ma t th ia s son , e d . 1 974 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , e d . 1 981 ; R e i te r , e d . 1 975 ; R osa ldo a nd L amphe re , e d . 1 974 ; S anday 1 981 ; T if fany , e d . 1 979 ) . A s im i la ri n te re s t ,h oweve r , w a s s l ow t od eve lop i nt h e f i e ld o f a r chaeo logy (Wy l ie 1 991b :17 ; s ee Wy l ie 1 991a , 1 991b f o r d e ta i led d i scu s s ion a nd e xp lana t ions t oa c coun t f o r t h is l a te d eve lopmen t ) , a nd o n ly r e cen t ly h a s t h e s t udy o f g ende r b ecome a n a c t ive a nd g row ing a rea o f r e sea rch i n a r chaeo logy ( e .g . , C laa s sen , e d . 1 992 ; C laa ssen a nd J oyce 1 997 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; d u C ros a nd Sm i th 1 993 ; G e ro a nd C onkey 1 991 ;G ibbs 1 987 ;J och im 1 988 ; K o rnf e ld , e d . 1 991 ; N e lson 1 997 ; S pec to r 1 983 , 1 993 ; Wa lde a nd W i l lows 1 991 ; Wr igh t , e d . 1 996 ) . T he p u rpose o f t h e n ex t t wo c hap te rs i s , f i r s t , t op rov ide ab road p e r spec t ive o ft h e h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t o f g ende r s t ud ies i n b o th a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy , c r i t ica l ly e xam in ing t h e t h eo re t ica l a pp roache s a nd mode ls t h a t h ave b een u sed t o s t udy g ende r . T he f o l low ing c hap te rw i l l n a r row t h ef o cus o f t h is t h eo re t ica l b ackg round o n g ende r w i th ad i scuss ion o f t h e s i gn if icance a nd i mp l ica t ions o f c onduc t ing g ende r s t ud ie s i n a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy , a nd , mo re i mpo r tan t ly , ac ons ide ra t ion o fh ow e xac t ly a n a r chaeo log is t s hou ld o r c an a pp roach a spec t s o f g ende r , o r i fi ti se ven p oss ib le t oe xam ine a nd r e cons t ruc t g ende r r e la t ions b a sed o n a r chaeo log ica le v idence .

T h i sn ew r e sea rch i n te re s ti ng ende r , a nd i np a r t icu la r , f ema le r o le s a nd a c t iv i t ie s , w a s f u r the r a dvanced b y t h e f em in is t movemen t o ft h e 1 970 s . O ne r e su l t o ft h i s i n te re s t w a s t h e p ub l ica t ion o fn ume rous s t ud ies a nd a r t ic le s i d en t ify ing s o c a l led a nd rocen t r ic o r ma le b ia s i n t h e a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , o ne o f t h e f i rs t b e ing S a l ly L in ton 's ( 1971) e xposu re o f t h e m a le b i a s i nt h e "Man t h e H un te r " mode l , c l a s s ica l ly p o r t rayed b y Wa shbu rn a nd L anca s te r ( 1968 ) ( Dah lbe rg 1 981 :3 ) . L in ton ( 1971) , f o l lowed b y o the r s ( Dah lbe rg 1 981 ; Z ih lman 1 981 , 1 991b ) , c l a imed t h a t r e cons t ruc t ion s o fe a r ly h uman s oc ia l l i f e s u ch a st h e "Man t h e H un te r " m ode l , w h i le r evo lv ing a r ound m a le a gg re s s ion , m a le d om inance , a nd m a le h un t ing , s imp ly h ad n eg lec ted t o c ons ide r w omen a sa c t ive p a r t ic ipan t s i nh uman c u l tu re ( s ee B le ie r 1 984 f o r am o re r e cen t c r i t ica l a na ly s is o ft h e "Man t h e H un te r " t h eo ry ) . Wh i le t h e men h ad b een o u t h un t ing , d eve lop ing c oope ra t ive s k i l ls , l a nguage , a r t , t o o ls , a nd w eapons , t h e d ependen t f ema les h ad r ema ined a t t h e h omeba se h av ing o ne c h i ld a f te r a no the r , w a i t ing f o r m en t o b r ing h ome t h ef o od , a nd e s sen t ia l ly f a d ing i n to r e p roduc t ive , p a s s ive , a nd i n v i s ib le r o le s( S locum 1 975 ; Z ih lman 1 98 1 :75 ) .

2 . 2 H ISTORY OF THE DEVELOP MENT OF GENDER S TUDIES I N ANTHROPOLOGY 2 . 2 .1 I n troduc t ion : E ar ly G ender S tud ie sa nd C la im sf o r Ma le B ia s T he s exua l d i v is ion o fl a bou r a nd o t he rg ende r re la ted t o p ics h ave l ong b een o fs ome g ene ra l i n te re s t i na n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch ( s ee R oge r s 1 978 a nd S ack s 1 979 f o r mo re d e ta i led d i scus s ions o ft h ei n te re s ti ns ex ,g ende rr o le s , a nd w omen i n e a r ly V ic to r ian a nd mo re r e cen ta n th ropo logy ) . I nt h em id -t o l a te -n ine teen th c en tu ry , n ume rou s s cho la r s , i n c lud ing L ew is H en ry Mo rgan a nd F r ied r ich E nge ls , s uppo r ted t h e i d ea t h a t m a t r ia rcha l s oc ie t ie s h ad e x is ted a s a n a nc ien t p ha se o f h uman l i f e , b u t t h is r u le o f w omen e ven tua l ly h ad b een o ve r th rown b y men ( e .g . , B achof en 1 861 , 1 967 :69 -207 ; E nge ls 1 972 :120 ; Mo rgan 1 965 :66 , 1 28 ) . L a te n ine teent hc en tu ry d i scu s s ions o fh uman e vo lu t ion , s u ch a st h ew o rk o f D a rw in ( 1874 :723 -727 , 7 66 -768 ) , a l so t ouched o n g ende r r e la ted a spe c t sb yi n c lud ing t h eme s o f ma le s upe r io r i ty , m a le c ompe t i t ion f o r p ossess ion o f w ive s , a nd ma le c ho ice i n s exua l s e lec t ion . I na dd i t ion , af ew a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie si n t h ee a r ly a nd m idd le p a r to ft h et wen t ie th c en tu ry e mpha s ized g ende r t o p ics , s uch a s Mu rdock 's ( 1937 ) c ompa ra t ive s t udy o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta d ea l ing w i th t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r , a nd E vans -P r i tcha rd 's ( 1965 ) c ompa r ison o f t h e p os i t ion o f w omen i n " p r im i t ive " s oc ie t ie s a nd i n w e s te rn s o c ie ty .

T he se c l a ims o f " ma le b ia s " w e re n o t l im i ted o n ly t o r e cons t ruc t ions o f e a r ly h om in id s oc ia l l i f e , b u t w e re a l so m ade f o r t h ed i sc ip l ine a s aw ho le . E s sen t ia l ly , i tw a s a r gued ( e .g . , F r ied l 1 975 :4 ; K e ss le r 1 976 :9 ; T if f any 1 979 :5 ; a nd m o re r e cen t ly , C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :4 ; F ra t t 1 991 :246 ; K ehoe 1 992 :25 ; T roco l l i 1 992 :96 ) t h a t , i nt h e p a s t , b ecau se a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s h ad b een p r ima r i ly u nde r taken b y w e s te rn , w h i te , m id -uppe rc l a ss men , a n th ropo log ica l a nd , i n p a r t icu la r , e t hnoh is to r ica l a ccoun ts h ad t e nded t o mu te w omen ; t h a t i s , t h ey h ad p a id l i t t le a t ten t ion t o w omen 's a c t iv i t ies , h ad f o cused o n ma le i n fo rman t s a nd m a le a c t iv i t ie s , a nd w hen w omen w e re a c tua l ly c on s ide red , h ad o n ly d i scus sed s upposed ly f ema le c once rns , t h a ti s ,d ome s t ic c once rns . T he r e a sons g i ven f o r t h is n eg lec t o f w omen i n a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie si n c luded t h ef o l low ing : t h eb e l ie ft h a t t h e mo re p ub l ic ma le s phe re o f a c t iv i t ie s w as mo re s i gn if ican ti nu nde r s tand ing t h es oc ie ty ( Kehoe 1 992 :25 ) ; t h e a s sump t ion t h a tt h em a le p e r spec t ive w a sm o re r e p re sen ta t ive o ft h e e n t i re c u l tu re ( s ee d i scus s ions i nC onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :4 ; L ede rman 1 990 :45 , 5 4 ; R e i te r 1 975a :12 ; R us se l l 1 991 :347 ; T if fany 1 979 :5 , 2 0 ) ; a nd t he b e l ief i n t h e i n acce s s ib i l i ty o fw omen 's w o r ld s a nd mode l s , e s pec ia l ly f o r t h e m a le e t hnog raphe r ( s ee d i scuss ions i n A rdene r 1 975 ;

L a te r i n te rp re ta t ions o ft h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l l i f e o fe a r ly h uman s oc ie ty a l so d ea l t w i th i s sues r e la ted t o s exua l 8

G rego ry 1 984 ) . Wha teve r t h ec au se , i tw a sc l a imed b y n ume rous w r i te r st h a t t h e o ve ra l l r e su l t o f t h is n eg lec t o f t h e f ema le w o r ld , c omb ined w i th t h e s o -ca l led d eep ly r oo ted ma le o r ien ta t ion i na n th ropo logy ( Re i te r 1 975a :12 ) , h ad l e d e t hnog raphe r s t o f r equen t ly p o r t ray women a s s ubm i s s ive , p a s s ive , a nd p e r iphe ra l ( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :4 ;L amphe re 1 974 :97 9 8 ) ; a s s ou rce s o f c on tam ina t ion a nd p o l lu t ion ( Go t t l ieb 1 990 ; T if f any 1 979 :20 ; e . g . , s ee Y oung a nd B acdayan 1 965 :230 a nd t h e i r e xam ina t ion o f m ens t rua l t a boos ) ; a s c ommod i t ie s o f e xchange i n ma le -con t ro l led ma r r iage a c t iv i t ie s( Be l l 1 980 :266 ; T if fany 1 979 :16 ; e . g . , s e eH a r t a nd P i l l ing 1 960 a nd t he ir d i scuss ion o f t he T iw i o f No r th A us t ra l ia ) ; a nd a s p e rfo rm ing d u l l , m ono tonou s d ome s t ic c ho re s w h i le m en 's a c t iv i t ie s f o rmed t h ee conom ic , p o l i t ica l , a nd r e l ig iou s b a se o fs oc ie ty ( Be rnd t 1 981 :176 -177 ; R e i te r 1 975a :12 ) . Many s cho la r s ( e .g . , L e ibow i tz 1 975 :22 ) i den t if ied t h e u l t ima te r oo t o f t he se " and rocen t r ic" r e cons t ruc t ions o f w omen ' sl i ve sa nd t h es exua l d iv is ion o fl a bou ra se xp re s s ive o f t he u nde r ly ing b e l ief p reva len t i n e a r ly a nd l a te r e t hnog raph ic s t ud ies t h a t b ecause m en a nd w omen w e re p hys ica l ly d i f fe ren t , t hey t e nded t o h ave i n te l lec t s a nd e mo t ion st h a t made t h em s u i ted f o rc e r ta in k i nds o fr o le s . I n o t he rw o rd s , a sC onkey a nd S pec to r( 1 984 :8 ) a r gued , w omen w e re s e en a s r e s t r ic ted b y t he i r b i o log ica l c ha rac te r is t ics a s soc ia ted w i th p regnancy , l a c ta t ion , a nd c h i ldb i r th , a nd a lmo s t i mmob i l ized b y t h e i r p re sumed r o le s i nc h i ld c a re . Many a n th ropo log ica ls t ud ie s( e .g . ,E vans -P r i t cha rd 1 965 :46 , 5 0 , 5 1 -52 ;G ough 1 975 ; Mu rdock a nd P rovos t 1 973 :211-2 12 ; S e rv ice 1 966 :10 , 4 0 , 5 0 ) , i n c lud ing s ome b y e a r ly f em in is t s ( e .g . ,S anday 1 981 :77 -79 ) , a s sumed as t r ic td iv is ion o fl a bou r i nw h ich m en w e re i nc ha rge o ft h ep ub l ic s phe re ,h ad g r ea te r a u tho r i ty a nd r e spec t , a nd w e re t h e o n ly o ne s w ho h un ted ( hun t ing b e ing c en t ra l t o t he h uman a dap ta t ion ) , a nd w ho p roce s sed h a rd r aw m a te r ia ls s uch a sm e ta l , s t one , b one , a nd w ood ; w omen , h oweve r , b e ing r e s t r ic ted b yc h i ld c a re , w e re c onf ined t ot h e h ouseho ld , w o rked w i th s o f te r m a te r ia ls t o p roduce p o t te ry , b a ske t ry , a nd m a t s , a nd w e re a ccep t ing o f t h e f a c tt h a tt h e i rl i ve sr evo lved a r ound t h ec amp ,c ho re s , a nd f am i ly . I ne s sence ,b o th e a r l ie ra nd l a te r w r i te r s ( e .g . , B e rnd t 1 981 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; Dah lbe rg 1 981 ; G o t t l ieb 1 990 :115 ;L in ton 1 971 ; R e i te r 1 975a ,T if fany 1 979 ; Z ih lman 1 981) w ho s e t o u t t o r evea l t h e a nd rocen t r ic n a tu re o f a n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch w e re a r gu ing t h a t a n th ropo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s h ad d en ied w omen a n a c t ive p lace i n s o c ia ll i f e .

c ha rac te r ized b y c a l ls t o b r ing women b ack i n to a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie si na n a t temp tt ob u i ld u p n ew d a ta o n w omen a nd t he i r a c t iv i t ies i n o rde r t o c oun te r a ma le , w e s te rn , e t hnocen t r ic b ia s t h a t h ad b een i d en t if ied i n t h e d i sc ip l ine ( M i l le r 1 993 :11 ; Moo re 1 988 :1-2 ) . Wha t r e su l ted w a s a n i n c rea sed v i s ib i l i ty a nd k now ledge o ft h e p roduc t ive r o les a nd a c t iv i t ie s o f w omen , a nd c onsequen t ly t he r e def in i t ion o fq ue s t ions a nd t h eo r ie s , a nd t h e f o rmu la t ion o f n ew p roposa ls a nd r e cons t ruc t ions r e la t ing t ow omen ' s r o le s i nh uman s oc ia l l i f e a nd e spec ia l ly i nh uman e vo lu t ion ( e .g . , F ed igan 1 986 ; L in ton 1 971 ; Mo rgan 1 985 ; T anne r a nd Z ih lman 1 976 ; Z ih lman 1 981 ; Z ih lman a nd T anne r 1 978 ) . O the r a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ies t ha t r e su l ted f r om t h is i n c rea sed a t ten t ion g iven t o t h e s t udy o f w omen f o cused m o re o n e xp lana t ions t oa ccoun t f o r t h e s t a tus , p os i t ion , a nd r o les o f w omen i n v a r ious c u l tu res a nd s oc ie t ie s . F o r e xamp le , i n v iew o f t he i n c reas ing e t hnog raph ic a nd a n th ropo log ica l k now ledge d ea l ing w i th w omen , s eve ra l a n th ropo log is t s p roposed au n ive r sa l d iv is ion o f t h e w o r ld i n to a d omes t ic /pr iva te /fema le s phe re a nd a p ub l ic /ou t s ide /ma le s phe re ( e .g . , K e ss le r 1 976 ; L amphe re 1 974 :100 ; O r tne r 1 974 ; R e i te r 1 975b :275 ; R osa ldo 1 974 ) . B o th R osa ldo ( 1974 :23 -24 ) a nd O r tne r ( 1974 ) a r gued t h a t b ecause w omen s pen t mos t o f t h e i r t ime g i v ing b i r th a nd r a is ing c h i ld ren , t h is r o le h ad l e d t o ad i f f e ren t ia t ion o f d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic s phe re s o fa c t iv i ty . T h i sd ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy h a s b een a v e ry p owe rfu l mode l i n s oc ia l a n th ropo logy ( Moo re 1 988 :21) , a nd h a s b een a dvanced a sa u n ive r sa l m ode l f o rt h e e xp lana t ion o f ab e l ief h e ld b y m any e a r ly f em in is t a n th ropo log is t s o n t h e u n ive r sa l i ty o f m a le d om inance a nd w omen 's s ubo rd ina t ion ( e .g . , O r tne r 1 974 :72 ; R osa ldo 1 974 :41) . Women w e re c ons ide red u n ive rsa l ly d eva lued a s t h e s e cond s ex a nd s ubo rd ina ted t om en , o n ly h av ing i n fo rma l i n f luence a nd p owe r , whe rea s men h ad p owe r o ve r w omen , a nd h ad m o re o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r p ub l ic i nf luence a nd p re s t ige i ne ve ry k nown s oc ie ty i nt h e w o r ld ( e .g . , C ucch ia r i 1 981 :33 ; F r ied l 1 975 :5 , 7 ;K e s s le r 1 976 :12 ; O r tne r 1 974 :67 -71 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , e d . 1 981 :x ; R osa ldo 1 974 :17 , 2 1 , 1 980 :393 -394 ; R osa ldo a nd L amphe re 1 974 :3 ) . Mo reove r , i tw as a rgued t ha t t h e b e l ie f i n t h e i n fe r io r i ty o f w omen w a s a ccep ted a nd p e rpe tua ted b y w omen t h emse lve s ( e .g . , K e s s le r 1 976 :28 , 6 9 , 1 63 ; R osa ldo a nd L amphe re 1 974 :1) . T h is b e l ief i n t he u n ive r sa l d om inance o fm en o ve r w omen w a s n o t l im i ted o n ly t ot h e se e a r ly f em in is t a n th ropo log is t s , b u t w a s a l so s uppo r ted b y n ume rou s o t he r r e sea rche r s i n t h e d i sc ip l ine ( e .g . , E vans P r i t cha rd 1 965 :54 ) . 2 . 2 .3 F em in i s t An thropo logy

2 . 2 .2 T he An thropo logy o f Women

A s t h e i n te re s t i n t h e " an th ropo logy o f w omen " g rew , r e su l t ing i n ab u rgeon ing a moun t o f n ew e t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd r ev ised i n te rp re ta t ions a nd r e cons t ruc t ions f o cus ing e xc lu s ive ly o n w omen , n ume rous r e sea rche r s b egan t os h if t t h e i r a t ten t ion t ot h eq ue s t ion o fw he the r o rn o tw omen w e re s pec ia l ly q ua l if ied t os t udy o t he rw omen ( s ee Moo re 1 988 f o r ad e ta i led d i scu ss ion o f t h e h i s to ry o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f f em in is t a n th ropo logy ) . I n o the r w o rds , w a s t h e s o -ca l led " ma le b i a s " t h a t h ad b een i d en t if ied i nt h e d i sc ip l ine s imp ly b e ing r ep laced b y ac o r re spond ing " f ema le b i a s " ( Moo re 1 988 :5 )? I f f ema le e t hnog raphe rs w e re p r iv i leged w hen s t udy ing w omen , t h en e s sen t ia l ly t h is s uppo s i t ion w ou ld c a s t d oub t o n t h e a b i l i ty o fw omen t os t udy m en , a nd u l t ima te ly c a s td oub to n t h ew ho le o fa n th ropo logy ( Moo re 1 988 :5 ) .

Wh i le t h e r oo t s o f g ende r s t ud ies i n a n th ropo logy c an b e e x tended b ack t o t h e s i gn if ica n t wo rk o f Ma rga re t Mead ( 1935 , 1 949 ) a nd P hy l l is K abe r ry ( 1939 , 1 952 ) ( M i l le r 1 993 :9 -10 ) , i tw a sn o tu n t i l t h ei d en t if ica t ion o ft h is a ppa ren t m a le b i a s , n eg le c t , a nd d i s to r t ion o ft h er o le s a nd a c t iv i t ie so f w omen i n e t hnog raphy a nd a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s i n t h e 1 970 s a nd 1 980 s t h a t n ume rous r e sea rche rs s h if ted t h e i r f o cu st ot he s t udy o fw omen , t h e i ra c t ions ,t h e i rt hough t s , a nd t h e i rp e rcep t ion s( e .g . , A lbe r sa nd Med ic ine 1 983 ; D ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 ; E t ienne a nd L eacock , e d . 1 980 ; K e ss le r 1 976 ; Ma r t in a nd V oo rh ie s 1 975 ; Ma t th ia s son , e d . 1 974 ; R e i te r , e d . 1 975 ; R osa ldo a nd L amphe re , e d . 1 974 ; S anday 1 981 ; T if f any , e d . 1 979) . T h is p hase , i den t if ied a s t he " an th ropo logy o f women " b y Moore ( 1988 ) , w a s 9

t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd ( wh ich h ad a l ready b een a r gued b y f em in is t a n th ropo log is t s t o b e a nd rocen t r ic b ecau se o f i t s f o cu s o n m a le i n fo rman t s a nd ma le a c t iv i t ie s ) i ns t ruc tu r ing a r chaeo log ica l w o rk ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :3 ) , a nd , s e cond , t h e d e r iva t ion o fi mp l ic i t a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r f r om b o th t h e a nd rocen t r ic e t hnog raph ic r eco rd a nd t h e r e sea rche r 's o wn c u l tu re -bound n o t ions a bou t g ende r ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :5 ) . B y r e ly ing u pon t h e se s t a t ic a nd u nqu e s t ioned v i ews o ft h ed iv i s ion o fl a bou ra nd g ende r r o le s ( s uch a s t h e i mp l ic i t a ssump t ion t h a t i n p reh is to r ic h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s , ma le sh un ted a nd made a nd u sed s t one t oo l s , a nd f ema le s g a the red a nd d i d d ome s t ic w o rk ) , i t l o g ica l ly f o l lowed t h a ta r chaeo log is t sw ou ld b el e dt ob e l ieve t h a t w omen w e re l e s s v i s ib le t han m en i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( B i rd 1 993 :22 ) .F o re xamp le , T homa s ( 1983 , c i ted i n K o rnfe ld 1 991 :2 ) c rea ted w ha t h e t e rmed t he " Amaz ing ly I nv is ib le Women ," a rgu ing t ha t ma le e cof ac t s ( bone ) a nd a r t if ac t s ( p ro jec t i le p o in t s ) h ad much h i ghe r v i s ib i l i ty t h an f ema le c oun te rpa r t s ( Ko rnf e ld 1 991 :2 ) . H is u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion w a s s ha red b y m any o the r a r chaeo log is t s ( e .g . , H ayden 1 977 :185 , 1 979 :14 ;I s aac 1 979 :12 1) .

T h is q ues t ion ing o f t he p r iv i leged s t a tus o f f ema le e t hnog raphe r s ( e .g . , M i l ton 1 979 ; S t ra the rn 1 981) l e d t oa f e a r t ha t t h e " an th ropo logy o f w omen" w ou ld b ecome i s o la ted w i th in t he d i sc ip l ine , c ons is t ing o n ly o f w omen s t udy ing w omen (Moo re 1 988 :5 ) . Wha t r e su l ted f r om t h is c ons ide ra t ion w a s t h e e s tab l ishmen t o fn ew a pp roache s ; i n p a r t icu la r , as h if t o ccu r red f r om t h e s t udy o fw omen t ot h e s t udy o f " gende r ." T hese a pproaches i nc luded t he e xam ina t ion o ft h e i n te r re la t ions b e tween w omen a nd m en , a nd t h e r o le o f g ende r i n s t ruc tu r ing h uman s oc ie t ie s a nd t h e i r h i s to r ie s , i d eo log ie s , e conom ic s y s tem s , a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tures (Moore 1 988 :6 ) . T h is n ew " Fem in is t A n th ropo logy " w a s n o t s imp ly a bou t " add ing w omen " i n to t he d i sc ip l ine , b u t a bou t c onf ron t ing c oncep tua l a nd a na ly t ica l i n adequac ie s o f a n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry ( Moo re 1 988 :4 ; f o rr e cen te xamp le s , s ee a r t ic le si nd iL eona rdo 1 991 d ea l ing w i th v a r ious a spec t so ff em in i s ta n th ropo logy a nd t h e s t udy o fg ende r ) . 2 3 H ISTORY OF THE DEVELOP MENT OF GENDER S TUD IES I N ARCHAEOLOGY

I ti sc l ea rt h a t a sl o ng a sw e d o n o t c o r rec t f o r t h e i mba lance c r ea ted b y t h e d u rab i l i ty o f b one a sc ompa red w i th t h a t o fp l an t r e s idue s , s t ud ie s o fh uman e vo lu t ion w i l l t e nd t oh ave a ma le b i a s ! ( I saac 1 979 :121)

2 . 3 .1 G ender a nd E ar ly A rchaeo log ica lR e search : C la im s f o r Ma le B ia s A s h a s a n th ropo logy , a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h a s a lways s hown s ome i n te re s t i ni s sue s o fg ende r . H oweve r , m o s t o f t h ee a r l ie ra r cha eo log ica l s t ud ie s t h a th ad i n c luded a spec t s o f g ende r i nt h e i r r e cons truc t ions a nd i n te rp re ta t ions d i d n o t f o cus o n t h e e xp l ic i t e xam ina t ion o f g ende r ; r a the r , t h ey u l t ima te ly r e so r t ed t or e ly ing u pon u nque s t ioned a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r a nd t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r i n o r de r t o e xam ine o t he r i s sue s s uch a s k insh ip , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , c e ram ics , a nd s ubs is tence p a t te rns ( e .g . , Dee tz 's 1 965 a na lys is o f s t y l is t ic c hange i n A nka ra c e ram ics a nd i t s r e la t ion t os oc ia l o r gan iza t ion ) .

2 .3 .2 T heoret ica l Approaches t o G ender S tud ie s i n A rchaeo logy : G ender F em in ist T heory a nd i t s C on tr ibu t ion t oA rchaeo logy W i th t h e se r e la t ive ly r e cen t c l a i ms f o r a nd rocen t r ic a nd e t hnocen t r ic b i a s i np a s t a nd p re sen t a r chaeo log ica l w o rk , n ume rous a r chaeo log is t s h ave i nd ica ted t h a t t h e re i s an eed f o r an ew p e r spec t ive a nd t h eore t ica l a pp roach f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l s t udy o f g ende r . I th a s b een a r gued t h a t t h e p o s i t iv is t p roce s sua l s c ien t if ic m e thod i sn o t a n a pp rop r ia te f r amewo rk f o r s t udy ing g ende r a s ac u l tu ra l a spec t ( s ee H odde r 1 991 :15 ) , a nd i sn o t s uf f ic ien t t o g ua rd a ga ins t d i s to r t ions t h a tc an p e rs is t w hen r e sea rche r s " ope ra te w i th a s e t o fc oncep tua lb l inke r s " ( s e e Wy l ie 1 99 1b :22 ) . E ven m o re r e cen t p os t -p ro ce s sua l a r chaeo logy , w i th i t s empha s is o n p lu ra l i ty , r e la t iv ism , a nd t h e a c t ive p a r t ic ipa to ry n a tu re o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re ( Damm 1 991 :130 ) , h a s b e en c r i t ic ized f o r t h e w ay i td ea ls w i th , o r , m o re c o r rec t ly , d oe s n o t d ea l w i th g ende r s t ud ie s , c on t inu ing i nt h e s ame a nd rocen t r ic v e in a s p roces sua l a r chaeo logy , a nd l a ck ing a n u nde r s tand ing o f g ende r a sh i s to r i ca l ly , s oc ia l ly , a nd s ymbo l ica l ly c ons t i tu ted ( s ee E nge ls tad 1 991 :118 -119 ; Wy l ie 1 992a :17 ) . T he re fo re , m any o ft h e se a r chaeo log is t sh ave a dvoca t ed t h a ta n a l te rna te t h eo re t ica l a pp roach i sn eeded i n a rchaeo logy i n o rde r t o c o r rec t t h e a nd rocen t r ic a nd e t hnocen t r ic b i a se sp reva len t i n t h e d i sc ip l ine , a nd t h e reby t o v i ew t he s o c ia l w o r ld a s a c r ea t ion o fb o th m a le a nd f ema le a c to r s , a nd t oi n co rpo ra te g ende ra s amu l t if a ce ted ,h i gh ly v a r iab le c u l tu ra lc ons t ruc t .

I n f luenced b yg ende rf em in is tt h eo ry a nd w ha tw a so ccu r r ing i na n th ropo logy i nt h e 1 970s w i th t h e s t udy o fw omen a nd g ende r , s eve ra l a r chaeo log is t si nt h e 1 980 s b egan t oe xam ine g ende r mo re c r i t ica l ly a nd i n mo re d e ta i l , m ak ing c l a im s f o r t h e p resence o f a nd rocen t r ic a nd e t hnocen t r ic b i a s i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch ( e .g . , B o len 1 992 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; E isne r 1 991 ; Ge ro 1 983 , 1 985 , 1 991a ; M i tche l l 1 992 ) . I tw a s a r gued ( e .g . , B o len 1 992 :53 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :13 -14 ; E isne r 1 991 :352 ; M i tche l l 1 992 ) t ha t i n t he a r chaeo log ica l l i te ra tu re t he c on t r ibu t ions , a c t iv i t ie s , p e rcep t ions , a nd p e r spec t ive s o ff ema le sh ad b een g ene ra l ly t r iv ia l ized , s t e reo typed , o rs imp ly i gno red ; t h a t i s , m en t ended t o b e p o r t rayed a s a c t ive , a gg res s ive , a nd i mpo r tan t , a nd , a st h em a jo rp ro tagon is t s i nh uman i ty 's p a s t , mo re r e spons ib le f o r g roup ma in tenance a nd p ro tec t ion , w h i le w omen , b y b e ing a cco rded as e conda ry o r i n c iden ta l d ependen t r o le , w e re c ons ide red a s n onac t ive a gen t s i n p reh is to r ic c on tex t s , b e ing c onf ined t ot h e d ome s t ic s phe re w he re t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s w e re r e s t r ic ted b y t h e i r r o le s a sw ive s a nd mo the r s . I tw a s a l so a r gued ( e .g . , C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :7 ) t ha t t he re h ad b een t endenc ies amongs t a r chaeo log is t sb o th t ol i nk c e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s a nd a r t if ac t sw i th e ach s ex w i th n o j us t if ica t ion o r s uppo r t f o r t hese a s soc ia t ions , a nd t op lace g rea te r v a lue a nd mo re e mpha s is o n t h er o le s ,a r t if ac t s , a nd a c t iv i t ie sa s soc ia ted w i th m a le s .

R ecen t ly , n ume rous a r chaeo log is ts ( e .g . , B o len 1 992 ; C onkey 1 991 ; C onkey a nd G e ro 1 991 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; Mau re r 1 99 1 ; S pence r - Wood 1 991 ; Wy l ie 1 991b ; s e e a l so a r t ic le s i nd u C ro sa nd Sm i th 1 993 ) h ave b egun t od raw u pon t h e g row ing b ody o ft h eo ry f r om o ve r t wo d ecade s o f g ende r f em in is t t h eo ry a nd s t ud ie s . P os tmode rn is t g ende r f em in is t t h eo ry h a s q ue s t ioned t h e v a l id i ty o ft h e s c ien t if i c me thod , a rgu ing t h a t a n a nd rocen t r ic b ia s h a s p e rvaded

T he p r ima ry r e a sons p rov ided b yC onkey a nd S pe c to r( 1 984 ) f o r t h is s o -ca l led e t hnocen t r ic a nd a nd rocen t r ic b i a s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re i n c luded , f i r s t , t h ed ependence u pon 1 0

a c t ive a gen t si nt h es o c ia l l i f eo f amu l t i tude o fc u l tu re s , a nd s e cond ly , t h e i r q ue s t ion ing o f n o t ions c ommon i n t h e a n th ropo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic l i te ra tu re t h a t h ad s ugges ted w omen 's r o le s a nd t a sks w e re l im i ted . C on sequen t ly , m any o f t h e s imp l is t ic a nd r i g id n o t ion s o f s e xua l d i v i s ion o fl a bou r o f ten p re sen t i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l l i t e ra tu re w e re c ha l lenged a s w e l l ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :16 17 ) .

s c ience f o r al o ng t ime , o b scu r ing " wom en 's " e xpe r ience a nd p e r spec t ive s ( Wy l ie 1 991a :4 1 ) . T he t h e o re t ica l a pp roa ch o f g ende r f em in i sm d oe sn o ts imp ly i n vo lv ea dd ing t h et o p ic o f g ende r ; i ta l so i nc lude s c r i t ique s a nd d econs t ruc t ion s o f a nd rocen t r ic m ode ls , a s sump t ions , a nd c a tego r ie s , a sw e l l a s t h e i den t if ica t ion a nd c o r rec t ion o f t h e se b i a ses a nd s u b je c t iv i ty i ng ende red a nd u ngende red c on s t ruc t ions o ft h e p r e sen ta nd p a s t( E isne r 1 99 1 :352 ; S pen ce r - Wood 1 991 :234 2 35 ) . Mo r eove r , wh i le g ende r f em in ism p rov ide s r oom f o r p l u ra l i sm ,t h a ti s , av a r ie ty o fi n te rp re t a t ions a nd av a r ie ty o f r e ad ings , i ti sn o t m e re ly a bou t a l te rna t ive s c ena r ios o r r e p la cem en t s ( Conkey 1 991 :28 ) . I n s tead , o ne o ft h e i r m a jo r g oa ls i st oe xpose e r ro r a nd i mp rove o n p rev iou s a c coun t s ( Wy l ie 1 99lb :21 ) , n o tb ys imp ly a dd ing w omen a nd f o cu s ing e xc lus ive ly o nw omen ,b u tb yr e concep tua l iz ing a l k ey i d ea s o f t h o se p r ev ious a nd rocen t r ic a na ly s e s ( Wy l ie 1 991b :22 ) . S uch f em in i s t t heo ry v i ew s g ende r n o t a s ab io log ica l c l a s s if i ca t ion , b u t a s amu l t if ace ted s o c ia l p henomena t h a t v a r ie s c r o s s -cu l tu ra l ly a nd t empo ra l ly ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :15 , 1 6 ) . G ende r i s c ons ide red i mpo r tan t f o r u nde r s ta nd ing n o t o n ly m a le a nd f ema le e xpe r ience sb u t f o r o t he r p henomena s uch a s c l a s s , s t a te s , a nd s oc ia l c hange ( Conkey 1 991 :29 ) . Many r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , B o len 1 992 :53 5 4 ;C onk ey 1 991 :27 ; Mau re r 1 991 :4 15 )h ave a r gued t h a to ne o ft h em a in v a lue so fg ende rf em in is ts t ud ie sf o ra r chaeo logy i si t s r e in s ta temen t o ft h e i n d iv idua l s a nd a gen t sb eh ind t h e a ppea r ance o fa r t if a c t s a nd t e chno logy a sa c t ive p a r t ic ipan t s i na nd c r ea to r so ft h e i rw o r ld , w ho m ade d ec is ion s , a nd w e re n o tm e re ly p a ss ive ly b u f f e ted b yp r o ce sse s .

A s ar e su l t o f t h e se s t ud ie s , t h e e no rmou s c r os s -cu l tu ra l r a nge o f a c t iv i t ie s u nde r taken b y w omen c ame t o l i gh t , e xp lod ing n ume rou sp r ev iou s ly h e ld a s sump t ions , e s pe c ia l ly t h e n o t ion t h a t h un t ing w a s e xc lus ive ly a m a le a c t iv i ty . E thnog raph ic a c coun ts o f f ema le h un t ing a mong h un te rg at he re r s a nd h o r t icu l tu ra l i s t s i nv a r iou s p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld w e re a nd h ave b een d i scove red , r ed iscove red , a nd e mpha s ized ( s ee E s t ioko -G r if f in a nd G r if f in 1 981 :140 ) . T he re a r er e f e rence st ow omen h un t ing i ns u ch g roup sa st h e A us t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s ( Gooda le 1 971 :151-158 , 1 68 -169 ; K abe r ry 1 939 :22 ; R oh r l ich -Leav i t te ta l . 1 975 :114 ) , t h eA g ta o f t h e P h i l ipp ine s ( E s t ioko -G r if f in a nd G r iff in 1 981) , t h e N ew G u inea V ana t ina i ( Lepowsky 1 990 :182 ) , t h eO j ibwa o f C anada ( Lande s 1 938 :135 -137 ; L eacock 1 978 ) , t h e E a s te rn C ree o ft h eJ ame sB ay r e g ion o fC anada ( F lanne ry 1 935 :83 ) , t h e Me sca le ro A pache i n s ou thea s te rn Mex ico ( F lanne ry 1 932 :29 ) , t h e S ioux ( Lande s 1 968 :165 -166 , 1 91) , t h e C h ipewyan o f n o r thwe s te rn S a ska tchewan ( Br umba ch a nd J a rvenpa 1 997 ) , t h e A thapa skans o f t h e Y ukon T e r r i to ry ( C ru ik shank 1 979 :9 , 2 6 -27 ; 1 990 :315 -316 ) , t h e A la skan T l ing i t ( K le in 1 980 :93 ) , t h e A laskan K oyukon ( Ne lson 1 983 :25 ) , I n u i tg r oup s ( B r igg s 1 974 :271 ; J e nne s s 1 991 :206 ; Mu rdoch 1 892 :4 13 ,c i ted i nB odenho rn 1 990 ;N agy 1 994 :717 2 ,7 3 ,7 5 ) , a nd i nv a r iou so t he rc u l tu re s( s ee E s t ioko -G r if f in a nd G r if f in 1 98 1 :140 ) .

I nr e cen ty e a r s , g ende rf em in is ta na lys i sh a st h u se me rged a s ac a ta ly s t f o r s kep t ic ism a bou t e n t renched c oncep t ions o f w omen a nd g ende r ( Wy l ie 1 991b :20 ) , a nd r e cen t ly t h is m ovemen t h a s b ecome e spec ia l ly r e levan t f o r a r chaeo logy . Many o ft h e se a r chaeo log i s t sb e l iev e t h a tt h ea r chaeo logy o f g ende rb a sed o n s u ch f em in i s t t h eo ry i sn o ts imp ly p o l i t ica l ( e .g . , Wy l ie 1 991b :22 , 1 992a ) , b u t ab e t te r w ay o f d o ing a r cha eo logy .F u r the rmo re ,C la a s sen ( 1992 :6 )e ven s t a ted t h a t e ve ry th ing i na r chaeo logy c an a nd s hou ld b ee xam ined f r om ag ende rp e r spec t ive .I th a sb e en a r gued t h a ti fa r chaeo log is t s a r e e ve r t o h ave a m o re c omp le te , a nd m o re h uman ized p i c t u re o ft h e p a s t , ac r i t ica l a r ch aeo logy o fg ende r a nd t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o fg ende r a sa n a c t ive a gency c on t r ibu t ing t o t h ep r oduc t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log i ca lr e co rd a r ei n d i spensab le t ot h e d i sc ip l ine a s aw ho le ( s ee B o len 1 991 :400 ; C onkey 1 99 1 :29 ; Wy l ie 1 991b :18 ; Z ih lm an 1 991a :8 ) .

A no the r n o t ion q ue s t ioned a s ar e su l t o f e a r ly g ende r r e sea rch w a st h a to ft h ei mpo r tance o fh un ted m ea ti nt h ed i e t o fh un te r -ga the re r s . W i th in n ume rou s n on -a rc t ic " h un t ing " s o c ie t ie s , i tw a sr e a l ized t h a tt h ec on t r ibu t ion o fh un ted m ea t t os ub s i s tence w a sl e s s c r uc ia l t h an p l an t f o od s ( s ee L ee a nd D eVo re , e d . 1 968 ) . I n m any c a se s , f ema le s i n m ode rn h un t ing -ga the r ing s o c ie t ie s u sua l ly g a the red e nough f o od t o s uppo r tt h em se lve sa nd t h e i rf am i l ie s ; t h u si tw a s a r gued t h a t t h ev i ew t h a t f ema le sw e re d ependen to n m a le s f o rf o od w a s u n ju s t if ied ( S locum 1 975 :43 ) . O the r c ommon ly h e ld b e l ie f s t h a t w e re d i scoun ted b y e a r ly g ende r r e sea rch i n c luded t h e a s sump t ions t h a t o n ly f ema le s w e re p o l lu te r s b ecau se o f t h e i r s ubo rd ina te s t a tu s ( s ee F a i tho rn 1 975 ) , t h a t m a le v i ewpo in t s w e re r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e c u l tu re ( s ee R e i te r 1 975b :253 ; R oge r s 1 978 ; S a ck s 1 979 :90 -92 ) , a nd t h a t w omen w e re e xc luded f r om s oc a l led m a le -dom ina ted p o l i t ic s a nd p r even ted f r om h o ld ing p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty ( s ee F a i tho rn 1 975 :129 ; K l ima 1 979 ; V an A l len 1 979 ) .

2 . 4 CR ITICAL ANALYSIS OF GENDER RESEARCH I N ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 2 . 4 .1 Ma jor C on tr ibu t ion s o fE ar ly G ender R e search : T h eE xp lo s ion o fP r ev iou sA s sump t ion s A s n o ted a bove , w i th t h e f em in is t movemen t a nd t h e n ume rous c l a im s m ade f o r " m a le b i a s " i n a n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch , n ew e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s a nd r e ana lyses o f p r ev iou sw o rk sw e re u nde r t ake ni na n a t temp tt oc o r re c tt h is p e r ce ived b i a s . T he se s t ud ie s ( e .g . , A lbe r s a nd Med ic ine 1 983 ; D ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 ; F r ied l 1 975 ; Ma t th ia s son , e d . 1 974 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , e d . 1 981 ; R e i te r , e d . 1 975 ; R o sa ldo a nd L amphe re ,e d . 1 974 ; S a ck s 1 979 ; S anday 1 981 ; T i f f any , e d . 1 979 ) f o cused o n h igh l igh t ing t h e r o le s a nd c on t r ibu t ion s o fw omen i ns p e c if ic c u l tu re s , a nd e xam in ing f ema le p a r t ic ipa t ion a nd i nf luence i n v a r ious i n s t i tu t ions ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :17 ) . Two v a luab le c on t r ibu t ion s o ft h e se w o rk si n c luded f i r s t ly ,t h e i ri lu s t ra t ion o fw omen a s

2 . 4 .2 A Mor eC r i t ica lL ook a tE ar ly G ender R e search D e sp i te t h ev a luab le c on t r ibu t ion sr e vea l ing t h a tg ende rr o le s a nd r e la t ions w e re much m o re b road a nd c omp lex t h an p r ev iou s ly b e l ieved , e a r ly g ende r r e sea rch w a s n o t i mmune i t se lf f r om r e ly ing u nc r i t ica l ly u pon u n ive r sa l i t ie s a nd g ene ra l iza t ions . T h is t e ndency w as e v iden t i n t h e ir a s sump t ion s o f u n ive r sa l m a le d om inance ( e .g . , C ucch ia r i 1 98 1 ; F r ied l 1 975 ; K e ss le r 1 976 ; O r tne r 1 974 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , e d . 1 981 ; R o sa ldo 1 974 , 1 980 ) , a nd o f t h e 1

a n th ropo logy , a nd i n s p i te o f t h e c omm i tmen t t or e cove r w ho le p as t s oc ie t ies ( s ee B info rd 1 962 ) , p roce ssua l a r chaeo log is t s o f t h e 1 970 s a nd 1 980 s t e nded t od e -cu l tu re a nd d e -peop le t he p a s t , a nd t o c ons ide r t h e g ende r o f t h e a c to ra su n impo r tan ta nd i re levan tf o rr e cons t ruc t ing t h ep a s t ( C laa s sen 1 992 :2 ) . W i th a n e co log ica lp a rad igm p r eva len t i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l s t ud ie s o fh un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s , t h e f ocus o f a r chaeo log is ts t ended t o b e t u rned t owa rd s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t , w i th l i t t le e mpha s is o n t h en a tu re o fs o c ie ty ( Duke 1 991 :280 ) .

u n ive rsa l i ty o f n a ture /cu l ture a nd d omes t ic /pub l ic d i cho tom ie s( e .g . ,K e s s le r 1 976 ; O r tne r 1 974 ; R o sa ldo 1 974 ) , a l l u l t ima te ly b a sed o n t h e u nde r ly ing b e l ief t h a t " woman " w a s au n ive r sa lc a tego ry ( s ee d i scu s s ion i n Moo re 1 988 :191) . A s Me igs ( 1990 :108 ) n o ted , many e a r ly a n th ropo log is t s a nd o t he r r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , E vans -P r i tcha rd 1 965 ; T ige r 1 969 ) o r ig ina l ly h ad v i ewed f ema le s f r om ab i o log ica l d e te rm in i s t ic v i ewpo in t , a s sum ing t h a tt h es t a tus a nd r o le s o fw omen w e re g i ven b yn a tu re a nd t h a ti tw a s au n ive r sa lb i o log ica l f a c tt h a t w omen w e re s ubo rd ina te . S im i la r ly , many e a r ly g ende r r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , K e ss le r 1 976 :18 ) , b y d e scr ib ing ma le d om inance a su n ive r sa l , s eemed a l so t os ugge s t t h a t f ema le s ubo rd ina t ion e i the r h ad r e su l ted d i rec t ly f r om h uman b i o logy o rw a si n he ren ti nh uman c u l tu re s d ue t oc ons t ra in t s o f h uman b io logy ( Lepowsky 1 990 :171) . I n s uppo r t ing t h e b e l ief o f t h e u n ive r sa l i ty o f ma le d om inance , L amphe re ( 1974 :98 ) a r gued t h a ta n th ropo log is t s s hou ld t h e refo re s t udy h ow w omen d ea l t w i th t h is m a le c on t ro l . C onsequen t ly , m any e a r ly g ende r r e sea rche r s t e nded t op o r t ray w omen a s o pp re s sed b y m en i n a ma le -dom ina ted s oc ie ty , a nd a s r e so r t ing , o u t o f n eces s i ty , t o u nde rhanded , man ipu la t ive s t ra teg ie s t oa ch ieve t h e i r o wn e nds ( e .g . , A nde r son 1 974 ) . B y v i ew ing w omen i nt h is manne r , e a r ly g ende r r e sea rche r s w e re u nab le t r u ly t o c ons ide r s oc ie t ies i n w h ich w omen a c tua l ly d id h ave c on t ro l a nd a u tho r i ty , a nd w e re a u tonomous , i fn o t i na l l p a r t s o ft h e i r l i f e , a tl e a s t i ns ome p a r t s . T h is n a r row v i ew p e rpe tua ted t h e b e l ief t h a t w omen w e re s ubo rd ina te t o men , a nd t h a t men a nd t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s w e re m o re v a lued .

S im i la r ly , t h e s ys tem ic a nd e cosy s tem a pp roach a dvoca ted b y B info rd , a nd i t s f ocus o n b road p roce s se s a nd f u nc t iona l p e r spec t ive s a l so c on t r ibu ted t o t h e d e -empha s is o f t h e i mpo r tance o fg ende r (Wy l ie 1 991b :19 ) . C u l tu ra l s ub sy s tem s ( e .g . , e conom ic , i d eo log ica l , a nd p o l i t ica l s ubsy s tem s ) w e re c ompa r tme n ta l ized a nd i s o la ted , a nd s e en a sr i g id ( Mau re r 1 991 :415 ) . T he i n d iv idua l a c to r s w ho p rocu red r e sou rce sa nd m ade d ec is ions b ecame i nv is ib le i fn o t i r re levan t a nd s ub se rv ien tt ot h el a rge rc u l tu ra l s ys tem ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :22 ) . Ma te r ia l c u l tu re w a sg iven ap a s s ive r o le , s e en a sa d i re c t a nd p a ss ive r ef lec t ion o f s oc ia l o r gan iza t ion ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :23 ; D amm 1 991 :130 ) ; t h us , p roce ssua l a r chaeo log is t s a s sumed g ende r d i f f e rence s w e re d i rec t ly r e p re sen ted i nm a te r ia l e v idence ( S0 rensen 1 991 :121 ) . T he s ea rch f o r a nd a ccep tance o fu n ive r sa l l aw s , t h e u se o f c onven t iona l e conom ic a nd s y s tems m ode l s ( Spence r - Wood 1 991 :234 ) , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly a r chaeo logy w a s a lmos t e xc lus ive ly d om ina ted b y s c ho la rs w ho w e re m a le ( Duke 1 991 :280 ) l e d t o t h e c on t inu ing u nque s t ioned a ccep tance o n t h e p a r t o f p roce ssua l a r chaeo log is t s o f u nsuppo r ted n o t ions o f g ende r r e la t ions . C a tego r ie s a nd c l a s s if ica t ions t h a t r ef le c ted m ode rn m a le -o r ien ted d i v is ions o f ten s ubsumed w omen a sw e l l a sm en ,d epe r sona l iz ing t h em i nt h e n ame o fo b jec t ive s c ience ( Spence r -Wood 1 991 :238 ; Y en t sch 1 991 :255 ) . W i th t h e d e -empha s is o ft h e i nd iv idua l a s as oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l a c to r , h umans w e re r e p re sen ted a s f a ce le s s a nd s ex le s s , d ef ined m a in ly i nt e rm so ft h e s pace i n w h ich t h ey moved o r t h e e ne rgy t h ey e xpended ( G raham 1 991 :470 ) . I n e s sence , many p roces sua l a r chaeo log is t s a pp roa ched t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i nd epe r sona l ized w ay s , d i vo rced f r om t h e r e a l i t ie s o f i n d iv idua l h uman b ehav iou r a nd e xpe r ience ( G raham 1 991 :470 ) . G ende rw a sp e rce ived a s as t ab le , b i o log ica l g i ven , a nd t h u sw as c on s ide red i re levan t t ot h ee xp lana to ry u nde r s tand ing o fc u l tu ra ld ynam ic s ( Wy l ie 1 99 1b :19 ) .

O f ten r e la ted t ot h e a s sump t ion o fu n ive r sa l d om ina t ion o f men w a s t h e b e l ie fi n t h e u n ive rsa l c u l tu ra l d eva lua t ion o f w omen , f o re xamp le , i nt h e f o rm o fp o l lu t ing a nd d ange rou s f ema les ( e .g . , K ess le r 1 976 :28 ) , o r i n O r tne r 's ( 1974 ) f o rmu la t ion t h a tn a tu re w a st oc u l tu re a sf ema le w a st o ma le . O r tne r 's ( 1974 ) f o rmu la t ion t h a t u n ive r sa l ly f ema le s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th n a tu re a nd t hu s d eva lued h ad aw ide i mpac t o n t h e d i sc ip l ine i n t he l a te 1 970s . H oweve r , a s Moo re ( 1988 :19 ) a rgued , t he n a tu re /cu l tu re :f ema le /ma le mode l a s sumed ac u l tu ra lu n i ty t h a t w a su n jus t if ied . E ssen t ia l ly t h e m ode l l e f tl i t t le , i fa ny , r oom f o rt h ep os s ib i l i ty t h a td i f f e ren t g roups i ns oc ie ty m igh ts ee a nd e xpe r ience t h ings i nd i f f e ren t w ays . " Na tu re " a nd " cu l tu re " a r e c u l tura l c ons t ruc ts ; c onsequen t ly , a l l s oc ie t ie s d id n o t o r d o n o t n eces sa r i ly p e rce ive t h em a sd i s t inc t a nd o pposed c a tego r ie s i nt h e w ay t h a tw e s te rn c u l tu re d oe s ( s ee Moo re 1 988 :16 -20 ) . I n e s sence , b ecause o f t hese b e l ief s i n u n ive rsa l m a le d om ina t ion a nd t h eu n ive r sa l c u l tu ra l d eva lua t ion o fw omen , m any e a r ly g ende rr e sea rche r s a ppea red t oi n te rp re t t h e d a ta i n s uch a w ay a s t o s uppo r t t h e se b e l ief s , i n t roduc ing , a s R oge rs ( 1978 :142 ) n o ted , c ons ide rab le t a u to logy i n to t h e i r a r gumen t s . I np a r t ,t h ey w e re p e rpe tua t ing t h ev e ry "Man t h e H un te r " mode l s a nd s cena r io s t h a t t h ey h ad b een c r i t ic iz ing a nd c i t ing a s e v idence f o r a nd rocen t r ism i n t h e d i sc ip l ine ( e .g . , K e s s le r 1 976 ) . B ya s sum ing u n ive r sa lm a le d om inance , m any o f t he se r e sea rche rs w e re u nab le t o c ons ide r t h e d ynam ics o f i n te rac t ion a nd c hange ; t h a t i s , s i nce f ema le s ubo rd ina t ion w a s c ons ide red an a tu ra l a nd i n ev i tab le s t a te , e xp lana t ion w a s b o th u nnece s sa ry a nd i mposs ib le ( B le ie r 1 984 :157 ) .

R e sea rch c ha rac te r ized b y t h is p roce ssua l a pp roach , a nd p e rpe tua t ion o f u nques t ioned a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r r e la t ions w a s a nd i ss t i l l c ommonp lace i nt h e d i sc ip l ine . I n f a c t , n ume rous a r chaeo log ica l , a s w e l l a s a n th ropo log ica l , s t ud ie s s t i l l s imp ly a dd w omen t oe t hnocen t r ic m ode ls o ft h e p a s t ( e .g . , H ughe s 1 991) , r e ta in ing t h e b a s ic f e a tu re s o ft h e " Man t h e H un te r " mode l . Many a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s t e nd t ob eg in w i th t h e u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion o f ar i g id s exua l d i v is ion o f l a bou r , w i th h un t ing a l loca ted u n ive rsa l ly t o m a le s a nd c o l lec t ing t o f ema le s . A cco rd ing t o H ayden ( 1 992 :35 ) , t h e s exua l d i v is ion o fl a bou r i nw h ich m a le s i n h un t ing -ga the r ing g r oups h un ted , m ade w a r , a nd e ngaged i n o t he r e xc lus ive ly m a le a c t iv i t ie s , w h i le w omen c oncen t ra ted m o re o n g a the r ing a nd i n f an t c a re w a s s uppo r te d b y av e ry l a rge b ody o f o b jec t ive o bse rva t ions . H ayden ( 1992 :35 ) c onc luded t h a t t h e re w a s l i t t le d oub t t ha t t h i s p a t te rn ing o f g ende r b ehav iou r w a s t h e e xp re ss ion o f af u ndamen ta l p r inc ip le o f o rgan iza t ion o fh un t ing -ga the r ing s o c ie t ie s a nd

2 . 4 .3 P roce ssua lA rchaeo logy a nd t he S tudy o fG ender D esp i te g row ing g ende r r e sea rch a nd k now ledge i n 1 2

m o re c omp lex t r ad i t iona l s oc ie t ie s . D obk in d e R ios a nd H ayden ( 1985 ) b ased t he i r c onc lu s ion o f ar i g id s exua l d i v is ion o fl a bou r f o r h un te r -ga the re r s o n s e lec t ive a nd o l de r e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . , t h e mo s tr e cen t w o rk t h ey c i ted w a s E van s -P r i tcha rd 1 965 ) ; t hey c omp le te ly i g no red t he p rev ious 1 5 y ea rs o f a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ies f o cus ing o n g ende r , a nd i np a r t icu la r , t he r o le s o f w omen . Mo reove r , D obk in d e R ios a nd H ayden ( 1985 ) s ugge s ted t h a t w omen w e re e xc luded f r om t h e h un t b ecause o f t h e i r s ex l inked o dou rs w h ich ,u n l ike ma le o dou r s , c ou ld n o tb ec on t ro l led o r m in im ized ( Dobk in d e R ios a nd H ayden 1 985 :220 , 2 23 ) . T hey a ppea red t o b e a s sum ing t h a t a l w omen w e re e i the r m ens t rua t ing , g e s ta t ing , o r l a c ta t ing ( s ee K e l ly 1 986 f o r a c r i t ique o fD obk in d eR ios a nd H ayden ' s a r gumen t ) .

s oc ie t ie s i nw h ich r e sou rce s w e re s t re s sed , a nd , t o al e sse r d eg ree , i nw h ich w a rf a re a nd h om ic ide w e re h i gh . H oweve r , t h e m anne r i n w h ich t h ey a s s igned s t a tus t o w omen i s q ues t ionab le . F i rs t , b ecause t h ey f e l t t h a t w omen 's s t a tus d u r ing c h i ldbea r ing y ea rs w ou ld b e mos t i mpo r tan t , t h ey r e s t r ic ted t h e i r s t a tus c ha rac te r iza t ions t oy oung a nd m idd le a ged w omen o n ly ( Hayden e ta l . 1 986 :453 ) . T h i s r e s t r ic t ion c ou ld p o ten t ia l ly r e su l t i n av e ry i n comp le te a nd p os s ib ly b ia sed v iew . S econd , t h ey a s s igned s epa ra te s t a tus f o r w omen i nb o th t h ed ome s t ic a nd p o l i t ica l r e a lms ( Hayden e t a l . 1 986 :453 ) . H oweve r , a r et h e se r ea l ly a na ly t ica l ly s epa ra te s phe re s , o ra r eH ayden e ta l . ( 1986 )r e ly ing u pon t h e w e s te rn o rs t a te leve l a s sump t ion t h a tp o l i t ica l a nd d ome s t ic s phe re s c an b ee a s i ly d i s t ingu ished a nd d i cho tom ized?

T hese a r gumen ts a re c l ea r ly r em in iscen t o f b io log ica l e xp lana t ion st oa ccoun t f o rt h ep os i t ion a nd r o le s o fm en a nd w omen . I n f a c t , Hayden ( 1992 :39 -40 ) e n te r ta ined t h e i d ea t h a t ab io log ica l a rgumen t may p o ten t ia l ly e xp la in t h is s oc a l le du n ive r sa l d iv is ion o fl a bou r ; t h a t i s , f ema le h o rmone s h ave ap os i t ive e f f ec t o n f i ne m o to r s k i l ls a nd a n a dve rse e f f ec t o nh un t ing re la ted s pa t ia l t a sk s( s ee H ayden 1 992 :39 ) . T hese e xp lana t ions , b ased a s t h ey a re o n b io log ica l s t e reo typ ing ,t e nd t op re sen tt h e i mage t h a tw omen a r ew eak , c anno tm ake d ec is ions o n t h e i ro wn ,a nd a r ee a s i ly c on t ro l led b ym en ,w i th ma le d ec is ions f o rced u pon t h em .F o re xamp le , a cco rd ing t oH ayden e ta l . ( 1986 :458 ) , w omen i nh un t ingg at he r ing s oc ie t ie s w e re f o rced t o a ccep t l owe r s t a tus i n t ime s o f r e sou rce s t ress . A ny f ema le o ppos i t ion t o ma le d ec is ions w a s f u t i le a nd d ange rous b ecause o f ma le a gg re s s ivene ss a nd men 's u se o f f o rce . I s i tn o t p oss ib le , h oweve r , t h a t women made t h e i r o wn d ec is ions ; t h a t t h ey w e re i n te l l igen te nough t or e cogn ize when t h es u rv iva l o ft h e g roup w a s a t r i sk b ecause o f s t re ssed e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions ; t ha t t h ey u sed , a s d i d men , aw ide r ange o f s t ra teg ie s t o c ope w i th d i f f e ren t s i tua t ions ; a nd t h a t when t h ey d i d m ake d ec is ions , i tw a s n o t n ece s sa r i ly b ecau se m a le s ,o ra nyone e l se f o rt h a tm a t te r , w e re f o rc ing t h em t od o s o ?

I n s umma ry , t he se k i nds o f a pp roache s t o g ende r s t ud ie s , w h ich a r e o f ten c ha rac te r is t ic o fp roce s sua l a r chaeo log ica l w o rk , c omp le te ly d i sm iss t he r ecen t r e sea rch t ha t h a s d emons t ra ted t h e v a r ie ty a nd f l ex ib i l i ty o ff ema le a nd m a le r o les a nd r e la t ions . I ns tead , t hey t e nd t o s uppo r t a nd p e rpe tua te r i g id u n suppo r ted v i ew s o f s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r . E ssen t ia l ly , p reconce ived a s sump t ions d e r ived f r om s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ie s , ab e l ief i n a n o b jec t ive s c ien t if ic r e a l i ty t h a t i si mmune t o c u l tu ra l b ia se s , a nd a f ocus o n g ene ra l t r end s a nd a ve rage b ehav iou r s c an o n ly r e su l t i n n a r row a nd s t a t ic v i ew s o fp reh is to r ic g ende rr e la t ions . 2 . 4 .4 G ender S tud ies a nd P la in s A rchaeo logy A f ew g ende r s t ud ie s h ave b een u nde r taken i n P la ins a n th ropo logy ( e .g . , A lbe r s a nd Med ic ine 1 983 ; We is t 1 980 ) ; i ng ene ra l , h oweve r , l i t t le r e sea rch e xp l ic i t ly i n ve s t iga t ing g ende r s y s tems f o r P l a ins p reh is to ry , i n c lud ing t h ose o ft h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod , h a sb een u nde r taken ( f o r e xcep t ion s , s e e Duke 1 991 ; Guen the r 1 991 ; H ughe s 1 991 ; K o rnfe ld 1 991 ; K o rnf e ld a nd F ranc is 1 991 ; O 'Br ien 1 991 ; S pec to r 1 983 , 1 993 ; Whe lan 1 995 ) . A s K o rnfe ld a nd F ranc is ( 1991 :444 ) n o ted , o n ly f i ve a r t ic le s i n t h e l a s t 1 5 y ea rs i nt h e j ou rna l P la in sA n thropo log i s t h ave e xp l ic i t ly a dd ressed i s sue s o f g ende r r o le s . I n s tead , i d eas o f g ende r a r e o f ten e xp re ssed i mp l ic i t ly i nP la ins a r chaeo log ica l r e cons t ruc t ions ( Ko rnf e ld a nd F ranc is 1 991 :444 ) ; t h a t i s , t h ey a r e e i the r u ns ta ted a nd a s sumed , o rn o t e ven c ons ide red r e levan t a nd c onsequen t ly i g no red ( s ee C hap te r 5f o re xamp le sa nd c r i t ica ld i scu s s ion o f t h e f ew g ende r r e cons t ruc t ions f o r P la ins P a leo ind ian l i f eway s ) . A s Wy l ie ( 1991a :33 -34 ) n o ted f o r a r chaeo logy i n g ene ra l ( wh ich Ib e l ieve i se qua l ly a pp l icab le f o r P la ins a r chaeo logy ) , o ne e xp lana t ion f o r t h is l a ck o f i n te res t i n g ende r i s sue s i st h e a s sump t ion t h a t g ende r s t ruc tu re s a r e s t ab le , b e ing b a sed o n b io log ica l f a c to r s , a nd t h u s i r re levan t t oe xp la in ing c u l tu ra l d ynam ics . P a s t g ende r s t ruc tu re s a r e t h e ref o re s een a s e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame a s t h ose t oday . T he ma jo r f a c to rs w h ich I b e l ieve t o b e p reven t ing P la ins a r chaeo logy a nd P a leo ind ian a r chaeo logy f r om d ea l ing m o re s ucce s sf u l ly w i th i s sue s o fg ende r a r ea ne mpha s i so n c u l tu re h i s to ry , a f ocus o n p os i t iv is t , f unc t iona l -processua l a pp roache sw h ich e mpha s ize t h ep r imacy o ft h ee nv i ronmen t a nd g roup a dap ta t ion a nd a l so s t re s s t h e i mpo r tance o f h ypo the se s te s t ing , t h e s ea rch f o r m a te r ia l c o r re la te s o f g ende r , t h e u se o f s t a t ic a nd r e s t ra in ing c l a s s if ica t ions , c a tego r ie s , a nd d ef in i t ions , t h e b e l ief t h a t g ende r i ss t a t ic , f i xed , a nd b io log ica l ly b ased a nd t hu s n o t v e ry r e levan t f o r d i scuss ions o f c u l tu ra l p roce ss , a nd t h e u nc r i t ica l a nd s e lec t ive d ependence u pon e t hnog raph ic a na logy f o r a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o fl i f eway s ( s ee b o th C hap te r s 3a nd 5f o r mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ions r e la t ing t ot h e se i s sue s ) .

A rgumen t sh ave a l so b een m ade t h a t o cca s iona l h un t ing b y w omen i si mpos s ib le t oi d en t if y i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd w ou ld n o t b e s i gn if ican t u n le ss i tw a s ar ou t ine t y pe o f w omen 's a c t iv i ty ( s ee Hayden 1 992 :34 ) . T h is v i ew c l ea r ly r ef lec t st h e empha s is o n t he i mpo r tance o fa nd t h es ea rch f o r g ene ra l t r ends a nd u n ive r sa l i t ie s , a nd t h e t o ta l d i s rega rd f o r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fv a r iab i l i ty a nd f l ex ib i l i ty i nl i f eway s a nd s o c ia l s t ra teg ie s w h ich m igh t h ave b een i mpo r tan t a nd v i ta l t os u rv iva l . B e cau se o ft h i su nque s t ioned b e l ief i nt h is r i g id a nd u n ive r sa l s e xua ld iv is ion o fl a bou r , i th a sb een s ugge s ted t h a ti fw omen h ave b een f r equen t ly n eg lec ted i np reh is to ry , i th a s l a rge ly b e en b ecau se o ft h ed i ff icu l ty i nd i s t ingu ish ing t h e i ra c t iv i t ie s f r om ma les o n t h e b a s is o f s t one t oo ls ( e .g . , H ayden 1 992 :42 ) . T h i sb e l ief p e rpe tua te st h e a s sump t ion t h a t w omen a r ei n v is ib le i nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd t h ei mp re s s ion d e r ived f r om s t a temen t s s uch a sH ayden 's i st h a tt h e s t udy o f w omen i su nne ce s sa ry a nd p o in t le s s . N ume rous s t ud ie s h ave a l so a t temp ted t o d ea l w i th a nd p rov ide e xp lana t ions f o r t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e s t a tus o f w omen b e twe en h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s ( e .g . , Dobk in d e R ios a nd H ayden 1 985 ; H ayden e t a l . 1 986 ) . B a sed o n a s amp le o f 3 3 h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ies , H ayden e t a l . ( 1 986 :458 )c onc luded t h a tw omen 's s t a tus w a sm uch l owe ri n 1 3

Many e a r ly f em in is t s t e nded t o p e rce ive t h e d i f f e rence s b e tween s e xe s i nt e rm s o fh ie ra rchy a nd i nequa l i ty , t h a t i s , t h a t w omen w e re c ons is ten t ly r ega rded a s i n f e r io r t om en . N ume rou ss t ud ie s , h oweve r , d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h en o t ion o f m a le d om inance a nd s upe r io r i ty w a sf a rf r om b e ing ac u l tu ra l u n ive r sa l ( M i l ton 1 979 :53 ) . I n f a c t , a s M i l ton ( 1 979 :53 ) i n d ica ted , i tw a s o f ten c on t rad ic ted b yb o th ma le a nd f ema le a c to r s ( e .g . , s e eB r igg s 1 974 ; Go t t l ieb 1 990 ; L ede rman 1 990 ; L epowsky 1 990 ; Me igs 1 990 ; R e i te r 1 975b ; R icha rd s 1 974 ; S anday 1 990a ; S ch lege l 1 990 ) . I n s ome c u l tu ra l c on tex t s a nd s i tua t ions , i tw a s c l ea r t h a t women h ad more p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty t h an g ene ra l ly b e l ieved ( Webs te r 1 975 :154 ) . Mo reove r , a l s oc ie t ie s d i d n o t n ece s sa r i ly s ha re as i ng le u n ive r sa l h i e ra rch ica l n o t ion o ft he r e la t ive v a lua t ion o fm en a nd w omen a nd t h e i r r e spec t ive w o rk ( s ee S ack s 1 979 :89 9 0 ) , n o rd id a l l s oc ie t ie s r a nk e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd s oc ia l r e la t ions a nd l i f e i n aw ay t h a t men a nd t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s w e re a lway s v a lued o ve r w omen a nd t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s . T he c oncep t o f ma le d om inance , a s f o rmu la ted b y e a r ly f em in is t a n th ropo log is ts , w a s t h e refo re i l -de f ined , a nd a s M i l ton ( 1979 :53 ) a r gued , w a s b e t te r c ons ide red a sa n e va lua t ion o f t h e r e la t ion b e tween t he s exes o n t h e p a r t o f f em in is t a n th ropo log i s t s , t h a ti s , mo re ap roduc to ft h e ir c once rn w i th t h e i rp os i t ion i nt h e i ro wn s oc ie ty .

2 .4 .5 F em in i sm a nd t he S tudy o fG ender 2 .4 .5 .1 An thropo log y Many o ft h ea n th ropo log is t s who w e re a mong t h ef i r s tt od ea l w i th g ende r i s sue s i nd e ta i l i nt h e 1 970 s a cknow ledged t h a t t h ey w e re i ns ympa thy w i th t h e f em in is t movemen t a nd t h a t i th ad i nf luenced t h e ir w ork ( e .g . , F r ied ! 1 975 :6 ; R e i te r 1 975a :11) ( M i l ton 1 979 :41) . T he p a s s ion s u r round ing t h e s t rugg le t o c hange t he p os i t ion o f w omen o f ten l e d m any w r i te rs t o s ubs t i tu te c on trove rs ia l a nd q ue s t ionab le a s sump t ions f o r o pen i nqu iry (Why te 1 978 :3 ) . S eve ra l i n cons is tenc ie s a re t hus e v iden t i n t h e a rgumen t s o f m any e a r ly f em in is ta n th ropo log is t s( s ee M i l ton 1 979 f o r ad e ta i led r e v iew o fm any o ft h ese i n cons is tenc ie s ) . O f ten t h e e x is tence o f ma le b ias a nd d om inance i n a l l s oc ie t ie s w a s a s sumed a nd t hus w a s b e l ieved t or e qu i re n o p roof ( e .g . , K ess le r 1 976 :12 ; O r tne r 1 974 :71 ; R e i te r 1 975a :11) ( M i l ton 1 979 :41) . Mo reove r , many e a r ly f em in is t a n thropo log is ts c ons ide red t ha t ma le d om inance a nd w omen 's s ubo rd ina t ion l a ya tt h el e ve l o fc u l tu ra le va lua t ions ( e .g . , K es s le r 1 976 ; O r tne r 1 974 ) ; s o e ven i fw omen h ad s ome d eg ree o fs oc ia l p owe r o ve r men , t h e se p owe r s w e re c ons ide red i n s ign if ican t ( e .g . , K e ss le r 1 976 :17 -18 ) ( M i l ton 1 979 :42 ) . F o r e xamp le , R osa ldo ( 1974 :20 ) i mp l ied t h a t d e sp i te t h ef a c tt h a t women c ou ld a ppo in t a nd d epose c h ie f s i nI r oquo is s oc ie ty , o n ly men c ou ld b ecome c h ief s , a nd t h is s i tua t ion w a s a n i nd ica t ion o ft h ed eva lua t ion o fw omen a nd t h e i r l a ck o fc u l tu ra l ly v a lued a u tho r i ty . H oweve r , a sM i l ton ( 1979 :43 ) n o ted , R osa ldo a s sumed t h a t t he I r oquo is h ad v a lued t h e i r c h ief s mo re h igh ly t h an t h ey h ad v a lued t h e p eop le w ho h ad a ppo in ted t hem . H e r a s sump t ion l i ke ly o r ig ina ted f r om t h e w e s te rn n o t ion o f c h ief a s t h e h i ghe s t a u tho r i ty r a the rt h an f r om a na c tua l c ons ide ra t ion o fI r oquo is v a lue s ( M i l ton 1 979 :43 ) .

I n m o re r e cen t f em in is t a n th ropo log ica l w o rk , r emnan t s o f t h e se a s sump t ions a nd p reconce ived b e l ie f s h e ld b y e a r l ie r f em in is t r e sea rche rs a r e a ppa ren t . F o r e xamp le , Moo re ( 1 988 :79 , 1 85 ) c l a imed t h a t w omen s hou ld n o t b e r e ga rded a s p a ss ive l o se r s , b u t r a the r a s a c t ive p a r t ic ipan t s w ho " s t rugg le " a ga ins t t he s i tua t ions i n w h ich t h ey f i nd t h em se lve s , t h a t i s , s t rugg le a ga ins t t h e d emands m ade o n t h e i r l a bou r , t ime , a nd r e sou rce sb y t h e i rh u sbands a nd o t he r m a le k i n , a nd b y s t a te o pp re s s ion . C lea r ly t hen , f o r m any f em in is t s , t h e u nde r ly ing i mage o f women i nb o th w e s te rn a nd n on -we s te rn s oc ie t ie si so ne o fv i c t im so ft h es t a te a nd o f m en . T hus , wh i le m any e a r ly f em in is t a n th ropo log is t s ( e .g . , R e i te r 1 975a :12 -13 ; R osa ldo 1 974 :17 ; R osa ldo a nd L amphe re 1 974 :15 ) a ccused a n th ropo log is t s o f t r ea t ing w omen 's l i ve s a sl e ss i mpo r tan t t h an t h o se o f men p r ima r i ly b ecause o fc u l tu ra l b i a s , i ns eve ra l c a se s , t h ey w e re e qua l ly g u i l ty o f b e ing i nf luenced b y c u l tu ra l b i a s , i nt h is c a se , a s t rong f em in is tp e r spec t ive a nd t h ep reconce ived b e l ie fi nt h e u n ive r sa l i ty o fm a le o pp re s s ion o ff ema le s .

S ome e a r ly f em in is t a n th ropo log is t s , s uch a s O r tne r a nd R osa ldo , o f ten u sed e x is t ing e t hnog raph ie s t os uppo r t t h e i r a r gumen t t h a t ma le d om inance w a s aw ide sp read c u l tu ra l f e a tu re ( M i l ton 1 979 :44 ) . A s M i l ton ( 1979 :44 ) p o in ted o u t , t h ough , t h is a s se r t ion w a s i n cons i s ten t w i th t h e i rc l a im s t h a t a n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch a nd e x is t ing e t hnog raph ie s w e re c ha rac te r ized b y ma le b ias . I t l og ica l ly f o l lowed t ha t w ha teve r w a sc i ted f r om t h e se e t hnog raph ie s a se v idence f o r t h e e x is tence o f ma le d om inance w as b ia sed e v idence ( M i l ton 1 979 :45 ) . F o r e xamp le , We is t ( 1980 ) c r i t ic ized P la ins e t hnog raph ic l i te ra tu re f o r i t s a ppa ren t ma le b i a s a nd f o cu s o n m a le a c t iv i t ies a nd i n fo rman t s , y e t s he u sed t h o se s ame e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t st os ubs tan t ia te h e r c l a im t h a t i n g ene ra l , w omen h ad b een s ubo rd ina ted w i th in aP la ins m a le d om ina ted s oc ie ty . I n s o me s i tua t ions , t hen , t h e se e a r ly f em in is t s w e re g u i l ty o f t he s ame b ia s o f w h ich t h ey h ad a ccused o t he r a n th ropo log is t s ; t h a t i s , i nu s ing i n fo rma t ion w h ich t hey h ad a rgued was a cqu ired f r om ma le e t hnog raphe r s a nd i n fo rman ts , a nd p resen t ing i ta s t h e c u l tu ra l e xp res s ion o f t he who le s oc ie ty , t hey w e re e s sen t ia l ly i gno r ing t he f ema le p o in t o f v iew ( M i l ton 1 979 :45 ) . Mo reove r , many o ft h e se e a r ly f em in i s tr e sea rche r s f a i led t ot a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e f a c t t h a t s ome e t hnog raphe r s a c tua l ly d i dp o r t ray w omen a nd c h i ld ren a si mpo r tan t , n o t ing t h a t t h e ir c on t r ibu t ions w e re r ecogn ized a s c ruc ia l f o r s u rv iva l . I ns tead , t hey t ended t o g ene ra l ize f o r a l l a n th ropo log is t s , t h a t a l l w e re a nd rocen t r ic a nd p roduced m a le -b ia sed w o rk .

2 .4 .5 .2 A r chaeo logy A sp rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted w i th a n th ropo logy ,i n as im i la rw ay , af em in is t i nf luence i so f ten a ppa ren t i nt h e w o rk o fs ome a r chaeo log is ts . T he se f em in is t a r chaeo log is ts f r equen t ly c ha rac te r ize t h e w o rk o fm any p roces sua l a nd n on -f em in i s t a r chaeo log is ts a s a nd rocen t r ic a nd e thnocen t r ic , u s ing o r i n te rp re t ing a s i ng le o r af ew c a ses i n s u ch a w ay a s t o s uppor t t h e ir b e l ief i n t he a nd rocen t r ic n a tu re o f a l l a r chaeo logy . A lso , s ome f em in is t a r chaeo log i s t s t e nd t or e ly u pon u nque s t ioned a s sump t ions a bou t g ende rr o le s b a sed o n s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s ( e .g . , E h renbe rg 1 989 ) , a p roce s s t h ey a c tua l ly h ave a rgued r e su l ted i n t h e m any a nd rocen t r ic a nd e t hnocen t r ic a r chaeo log ica lr e con s truc t ion s o f t h e p a s t . I n s ome c a se s , t he se f em in is t r e con s t ruc t ion s e mpha s iz ing w omen a nd g ene ra l iz ing a bou tt h ea nd rocen t r ic n a tu re o f a r chaeo logy a re o f ten j us t a s u nc r i t ica l a nd q ue s t ionab le a st h ea r chaeo logy t h ey a r ec r i t ic iz ing . F o r e xamp le , i n Wom en i n P reh is tory , E h renbe rg ( 1989 ) 1 4

d augh te r s i nt h e a r t o fp o t te ry manuf ac tu re ( Dee tz 1 965 :97 ) . Mo reove r , D ee tz ( 1965 :29 ) n o ted t h a t w omen w e re c h ief p a r t ic ipan t si nh ouse c ons t ruc t ion , a nd w e re o wne r s , t e nde r s , a nd h a rve s te rs o f t h e g a rdens . A l though D ee tz may h ave o ve rempha s ized t h e i mpo r tance o f m a le t r ade a nd m a le a ccumu la t ion o fw ea l th t os ome d eg ree , ac l ose re xam ina t ion o fD ee tz ( 1965 :36 -37 ) r evea ls t h a t m en , a sw e l l a sw omen , w e re a l so p o r t rayed p a ss ive ly , c on t ro l led b y l a rge r f o rce s s uch a sr ad ica l c hange s i nt h e i r w ay o fl i f ed ue t oe co log ica l r e ad jus tmen t s , E u ropean e xpan s ion , d i sea se , a nd p opu la t ion d ec l ine .

a t temp ted t o e xam ine P a leo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s oc ie t ie s w i th as pe c if ic e mphas is o n t h er o le w omen h ad p layed . S he a r gued t ha tm ode rn h un t ing -ga the r ing s o c ie t ie sc ou ld p rov ide a na log ies f o r t hese s oc ie t ies . H oweve r , h e r w o rk i s c ha rac te r ized b y ar e l iance o n as t a t ic a nd q ue s t ionab le v i ew o fb o th mode rn h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s a nd t h e s exua l d i v is ion o fl a bou rw i th in t ho se s oc ie t ie s .S he u nque s t ion ing ly s t a ted t ha t t h e f i xed d iv is ion o f l a bou r b e tween m en a nd w omen i nt h e se s oc ie t ie s ( i . e . , men a sh un te r s a nd w omen a s c o l lec to rs ) w a s r e la ted t o c h i ldb i r th a nd c h i ld r ea r ing ( Eh renbe rg 1 989 :65 -66 ) . Mo reove r , s he a r gued t h a tb e cau se w omen p rov ided a n e qua l s ha re o f t h e f ood t h rough t h e g a the red p l an t f ood t h ey c o l lec ted , s o c ia l e qua l i ty b e tween w omen a nd men wa s ak ey f ea tu re f o r t he se s oc ie t ies ( Eh renbe rg 1 989 :61) . B a s ing h e r i n te rp re ta t ion o n t h is u nc r i t ica l a na logy w i th mode rn h un te r -ga the re r s a nd an a ive a nd s imp le v i ew o fe ga l i ta r ian ism a nd t h e " o r ig ina l a ff luen t s oc ie ty " ( s ee S ah l ins 1 972 ) , E h renbe rg c onc luded t h a t t h e " l if e o f aP a laeo l i th ic o r Me so l i th ic w oman may h ave b een q u i te p lea san t " ( Eh renbe rg 1 989 :62 ) , a nd t h a t b ecause t h e se w omen g a the red t he b u lk o f t h e d i e t i n p lan t f oods , h igh s t a tus w a se nsu red f o rt h em .

T he p o r t raya l o f A nka ra s oc ie ty b y D ee tz w a s p r ima r i ly a r e su l t o f h i s d ependence u pon e t hnog raph ic a ccoun ts e xh ib i t ing e t hnocen t r ic b ia s , h i s r e l iance o n as t a t ic v i ew o f g ende r a nd o n r i g id a nd u nque s t ioned n o t ions a bou t t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r , h i s s t rong ly t ypo log ica l a nd s y s tem ic p o in t o fv i ew w h ich s aw p a s s ive i n d iv idua ls a c t ing a s g roups , a nd h i s w ay o f r e la t ing c hange i n t h e ma te r ia l r e co rd t o c hange i nb ehav iou r o r n on -ma te r ia l a spec t s o f c u l tu re ( i . e . , t h e b e l ief t h a t m a te r ia l g oods p a ss ive ly r ef lec t b ehav iou r ) . A t t h e t ime o fh i s s t udy , h e c ons ide red A nka ra i nvo lvemen t i n t r ade o ne o f t h e m a jo r f a c to rs i n b r ing ing a bou t s oc ia l c hange , a nd t h is v iew e xp la ins w hy h e e mpha s ized t r ade . Ib e l ieve t h a t t h is e mpha s is w a s n o t a n i n ten t iona l , d e l ibe ra te a t temp t t oa c t iva te m en a nd d im in ish t h e r o le o f w omen , b u t r a the r t h e r e su l t o f t h e p a ss ive r o le g iven t o g ende r a nd t he d en ia l o f a c t ive a nd d i rec t p a r t ic ipa t ion o n t h ep a r to fi n d iv idua ls ,b o th men a nd w omen .

A sw e l l ,p o s s ib ly a s ar e su l to fh e r a t temp tt or e c t ify b o th t h e a r chaeo log ica l empha s is o n ma le a c t iv i t ie s a nd r o le s a nd t h e c o r re spond ing n eg lec t o r m i sunde r s tand ing o ft h e r o le s a nd a c t iv i t ie s o f f ema les , h e r r e cons truc t ion t e nd s t o g o t o t h e e x t reme o fe mphas iz ing w omen a nd i g no r ing men ; t h a t i s , s he a r gued t ha t i n s tead o f t he m a le b e ing s een a s t he p ro tec to r , h un te r , a gg resso r , a nd p rov ide r , f ema le s h ad p redom inan t ly i n sp i red a l l c ruc ia l s t eps i n h uman d eve lopmen t( Eh renbe rg 1 989 :50 ) , i n c lud ing t h ei n ven t ion o f c on ta ine r s a nd e a r ly t oo ls , a nd t h ei nven t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l t e chn ique sa nd p o t te ry .T he se t y pe so fr e cons t ruc t ion s ,w h ich a l l b u te xc lude ma le s o rg ive t h em p a s s ive r o le s , a nd , i nt h is p a r t icu la r c ase , r e ly u pon u nc r i t ica l c ompa r isons b e tween p re sen t -day h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s a nd t h ose t h a t l i ved c l ose t ot wo m i l l ion y ea rs a go , a r ei ne s sence n o t much b e t te r t h an t h o se a r chaeo log ica l r e cons t ruc t ions t h a tr evo lve s o le ly a r ound m a le a c t iv i t ie sa nd r o le s .

A si lu s t ra ted b yt h et wo e xamp le sd i scu s sed a bove , t h ew o rk o f f em in is t a r chaeo log is t s , a s t h e w o rk o f a ny o the r a r chaeo log is t o rr e sea rche r , c an a tt ime s b ec ha ra c te r ized b y t h e t e ndency t o c hoose d a ta s e lec t ive ly o r u nc r i t ica l ly i n te rp re t i ti n s uch a w ay a s t o s uppo r t p reconce ived a s sump t ions a nd m ode ls a bou t w omen i n p reh is to ry a nd a bou t h ow p rev ious a r chaeo log is t s h ave " and rocen t r ica l ly " d ea l t w i th g ende r . B u t t h e re i s much d ive rs i ty amongs t a r chaeo log is t s , w he the r i n f luenced b y f em in is t a pp roache s , p roce s sua l p e r spec t ive s , o rp os t -p roce ssua l t r end s ; t h e refo re , Ir ea l ize t h a t n o t a l l f em in is t a r chaeo log is t s ( o r f o r t h a t m a t te r , a l l p roce s sua l a r chaeo log is t s o r p os t -p roce s sua l is t s ) a r eg u i l ty o ft h es ame m is take s , n o rc an t h ey b ec ha rac te r ized a sh av ing t h es ame b e l ie f s a nd v i ew s , a nd a su s ing t h e s ame a pp roache s a nd p e r spec t ive s . I n s eve ra l c a se s , f em in is t a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s h ave b een r i go rous a nd c r i t ica l , a nd h ave p rov ided i n s igh t a nd i n sp i ra t ion w i th r ega rd t o i n te rp re ta t ions o ft h ep a s t .

A no the r e xamp le o fr e cen t f em in is t a r chaeo log ica l w o rk i s M i t che l l 's ( 1992 ) c r i t ique o fD ee tz 's ( 1965 ) s t udy o fA nka ra c e ram ic s . I n b r ief , D ee tz 's ( 1965 ) a im w a s t od emons t ra te t h a t t h e c hang ing s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o f t h e A nka ra a way f r om a m a t r i loca l r e s idence p a t te rn d u r ing t h e e i gh teen th c en tu ry w as r ef lec ted i n c e ram ics , mo re s pec if ica l ly , i n g rea te rs t y l is t ic v a r ia t ion i nt h e i rc e ram ics .

D e sp i te t h is d ive r s i ty w i th in f em in is t a r chaeo logy , n o t o n ly M i tche l l ( 1992 ) , b u t n ume rou s o t he r f em in is t a r chaeo log is t s a sw e l l ( e .g . , B o len 1 992 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; E isne r 1 991) h ave c l a imed t h a t much o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l w o rk d one i nt h e p a s t a nd p re sen t , s pec if ica l ly t h a t o fp roce s sua l a r chaeo log is ts , i s a nd rocen t r ic . B u t c an p rocessua l a r chaeo logy b eb o th a nd rocen t r ic a nd d e -peop led a tt h e s ame t ime , a s many h ave c l a imed ( e .g . ,C laa s sen 1 992 :2 )? Ib e l ieve t h a t b o th " and rocen t r ism " a nd " ma le b i a s " a r e i n app rop r ia te t e rm s t ha t h ave o u t l ived t h e i r u se fu lne s s , n o t o n ly b ecause t h ey b o th h ave p e jo ra t ive c onno ta t ions a nd i mp ly d e l ibe ra te a nd i n ten t iona l n eg le c ta nd d i s to r t ion o fw omen i np reh is to ry , b u t a l so b ecau se i ti sn o t o n ly men who c an r e ly u pon u nque s t ioned a nd s o -ca l led " and rocen t r ic " a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r . A l l a r chaeo log is t s a r e s u scep t ib le t o r e ly ing u pon u nc r i t ica l a s sump t ions , w he the r i n f luenced b y p r econce ived i d ea s a nd mode ls , p reva i l ing v i ewpo in t s , a s sump t ions b a sed

M i tche l l ( 1992 ) p o in ted o u t s ome v a l id c r i t ic i sm s o fD ee tz 's w o rk , i n c lud ing h i s a s sump t ion st h a t o n ly w omen h ad made p o t te ry , t ha t p o t te ry p roduc t ion h ad b een c onnec ted t o d ome s t ic u n i ts , t h a tt h e re h ad b een as t r ic td i v is ion o fl a bou r w i th o n ly men t r ad ing , a nd t h a t men 's i n vo lvemen t i nt r ade u nque s t ion ing ly h ad r e su l ted i nd ec rea sed f ema le s t a tu s a nd i n c rea sed ma le s t a tu re .M i tche l l 's c l a im ,h oweve r , t ha tD ee tz h ad g i ven c ons ide rab le a t ten t ion t ot h e t r ade o f men a nd t h e m a le p osse ss ion o f w omen , p o r t ray ing m en a s a c t ive a nd p l ay ing v i ta l e conom ic r o le s , w h i le i g no r ing t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f w omen a nd p o r t ray ing t h em a sp a s s ive a nd n on inf luen t ia l i n s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s phe re s ( s ee M i tche l l 1 992 :90 , 9 1) , s hou ld b e c ons ide red l e ss v a l id , a nd a mo re s ub jec t ive i n t e rp re ta t ion . I nf a c t , women a nd t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s w e re m en t ioned b yD ee tz . T hey w e re p o r t rayed a sa c t ive i nt h a tm o the r si n s t ruc ted t h e i r 1 5

o nw e s te rn o rs t a te leve ls oc ie ta l b e l ie f s , o rp o l i t ica l a genda s . B o th " ma le b i a s " a nd " and rocen t r ism " a r e l o aded , p o l i t ica l t e rm st h a tc a r ry t h ei mp l ica t ion t h a tc e r ta in t r a i t s a nd p a t te rns o ft h ink ing a r ea s soc ia ted w i th b io log ica l s ex ; mo reove r ,t h ey c onno te t h a t w omen h ave a c l ea re r , mo re p r iv i leged v i ew t h an m en . A s Wy l ie ( 1993b :10 ) s ugge s ted , a n e mpha s is i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re o n h un t ing a s semb lage s a nd o n s t e reo type sa bou tg ende rr e la t ions t h a td i s rega rd f l ex ib i l i ty i n g ende rs y s tem s m os t o f ten d oe s n o t i n vo lve a n i n ten t iona l o r ad e l ibe ra te a t temp t t od eva lue w omen a nd t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s a nd l e g i t im ize g ende r i n equ i ty . I t mo re l i ke ly r e f lec t s a n a r row ing , u nc r i t ica l p e rspec t ive o r , a s Wy l ie ( 1 993b :11) t e rmed i t ,a n u n ref lec t ive , ma le -cen t red p e r spec t ive ; t h a t i s , u n t i l r e cen t ly b o th a r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy h ave b e en m a le -dom ina ted f i e ld s f o cus ing o n ma le i n f o rman t s a nd k i l l s i tes , a nd r e ly ing u pon w es te rn o r s t a te leve l c ommon n o t ion s a nd a s sump t ion s .

a gg re ss ive , a nd h a rd w o rk ing w e re i n na te ly i n f e r io r t o t h e V ic to r ian l a dy ( Kehoe 1 983 :56 ) . N o t s u rp r is ing ly , No r th Ame r ican I nd ian w omen w e re i n te rp re ted b y s ome t r ave l le rs , m is s iona r ie s , a nd f u r t r ade r s a s b ea s t s o f b u rden a nd s l aves , o ccupy ing a l ow ly a nd i n f e r io r p l ace i nt h e i r s oc ie ty , p r ima r i ly b ecause t h ey w e re s een a s l e ad ing a l i fe o f u nend ing t e d ious l a bou r , b e ing d en ig ra ted b y t h e w o rk t h ey w e re " f o r ced " t op e rf o rm , b e ing b ough t a nd s o ld a s p awns i n ma le e conom ic t r ansac t ions , s ub jec ted t op o lygyny , a nd h av ing n o a ppa ren t c on t ro l o ve r t h e i r s exua l i ty ( Abe l 1 993 :22 ; L eacock 1 980 :27 ; We is t 1 980 :256 , 1 983 :31-36 ) . F o r e xamp le , H oebe l ( 1940 :119 ) , i n ar e cons t ruc t ion o fC omanche e que s t r ian l i f e o f 1 870 , w ro te t h a t w omen , h o r se s , a nd d ogs w e re c l a ssed a s p r iva te p rope r ty , w i th w omen b e ing t r ea ted e s sen t ia l ly a s c ha t te l . H oweve r , a s A be l ( 1993 :22 ) q ue s t ioned , d id t h is i mage r ef lec tr e a l i ty o rs imp ly E u ropean v a lue j udgmen t s?

2 . 4 .6 S oc iopo l i t ica l Ana ly s i s A l though t h el a te e i gh te en th -cen tu ry e xp lo re rS amue lH ea rne p o r t rayed t h e s oc ie ty o f N o r the rn C h ipewyan I nd ian s a s m a le -dom ina ted , i nw h ich w omen h ad t oo bey t h e i rh u sbands ( Hea rne 1 971 :90 , 3 10 ) a nd w e re c on s ide red p rope r ty f o r w h ich m en w re s t led ( Hea rne 1 971 :104 ) , h av ing l i ve s t h a t w e re " one c on t inued s cene o fd rudge ry " ( Hea rne 1 971 :336 ) , H ea rne d id m ake i nd irec t a nd d i rec t r e f e rence s t o t h e i mpo r tance a nd v a lue o f t h e e conom ic c on t r ibu t ions o f w omen . F o r e xamp le , H ea rne ( 1971 :12 ) r e f e r red t ot h e f a c t t h a t Mose s N o r ton , t h e G ove rno r o fP r ince o f Wa le s 's F o r t , h ad o rde red h im n o t t o t a ke a ny w omen o n h i s s e cond a t temp t t oj ou rney t ot h e a r c t ic s ho re t os e a rch f o r c oppe r m ine s , e ven t h ough N o r ton k new t ha t H ea rne c ou ld n o t d o w i thou t t h e w omen 's a s s is tance . I n f a c t , H ea rne 's I nd ian g u ide , Ma tonabbee , i n fo rmed h im t ha t i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t o t r ave l f o r a ny l e ng th o ft ime i nt h e i r c oun t ry w i thou tt h eh e lp o fw omen , e spec ia l ly i nm ak ing c lo th ing , s e t t ing u p t e n t s , a nd c a r ry ing l o ads ( Hea rne 1 971 :55 ) . Ma tonabbee e ven p r ided h im se lf o n t h e h e igh t a nd s t reng th o fh i s w ive s a nd t h e ir a b i l i ty t o h au l h eavy l oads , a n a b i l i ty t h a t w a s c ons ide red v e ry a t t rac t ive a nd v a luab le i nw omen i nt h e i r s oc ie ty ( Hea rne 1 971 :88 -90 ) . A s B rown ( 1 990 :64 -66 )n o ted , s ome r e co rd s f r om t h e l a te 1 700 s empha s ized t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e c on t r ibu t ions o f I nd ian w omen a tt h e e a r ly f u r t r ade p o s t s a nd i nt h ej ou rney s o fe a r ly e xp lo re r s , e ven i mp ly ing t h a t many e a r ly e xp lo re r s a nd t r ade rs w e re a c tua l ly d ependen t t o s ome d eg ree o n n a t ive w omen . S im i la r ly , S chwege r ' s ( 1983 ) s t udy i lus t ra ted t h a t m any e a r ly w ha le r s a nd e xp lo re rs i n t h e A rc t ic d epended u pon n a t ive s , a nd p a r t icu la r ly w omen , t om ake a nd r epa i r t h e i r c l o th ing . Mo s t l i ke ly , a s Smed ley ( 1974 :220 ) c l a imed s pec if ica l ly f o r t h e B i rom o f N ige r ia , t h ose w r i te rs w ho h ad d ep ic ted w omen s o le ly a sl i t t le m o re t h an b ea s t s o fb u rden , s ubo rd ina ted b y d om inan t m a le s , d i d n o t f u l ly u nde rs tand t h e n a tu re a nd p roce s se so ft h ed a i ly l i f eo fn a t ive p eop le s .

2 .4 .6 .1 I n t roduc t ion I ti sa ppa ren tt h a tm any o f ar e sea rche r 's a t t i tude sa bou tm a le a nd f ema le r o le s a nd g ende rr e la t ions i no t he r c u l tu re s a nd i n p reh is to ry a r e i nf luenced b y mode rn c u l tu re a nd h i s o rh e r c u l tu ra l e xpe r ience a nd e duca t ion ( Bruhns 1 991 :421 ; E isne r 1 991 :352 ; E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :4 ; Z ih lman 1 981 :76 ) . T h is s i tua t ion i s p a r t icu la r ly a ppa ren t w i th r ega rd t o r e cons t ruc t ions o fg ende rr o le s f o re a r ly h om in ids ,b eg inn ing w i th s ome o ft h ee a r l ie s ti n te rp re ta t ions ( s ee L ew in 1 987 f o r ad e ta i led a ccoun t o f t h e i nf luence o f s oc ia l c l ima te u pon i n te rp re ta t ions o fe a r ly h om in id l i f eway s ) . S ome o ft h em o re r e cen tr e cons t ruc t ion so fg ende rr o le s o fe a r ly h om in id sh ave a ppea red t o b e r em in iscen t o f t wen t ie th -cen tu ry w e s te rn i ndus t r ia l c ap i ta l ism , w i th t he p o r t raya l o f man a s t h e p rov ide r , p ro tec to r , a nd c on t ro l le r o f t h e f ema le a nd t h e n uc lea r f am i ly (Whe lan 1 991 :358 ; Z ih lman 1 981 :96 , 1 991b :64 ) . T h is p o r t raya l t e nds t op e rpe tua te t h eb e l ie ft h a ta r i g id s exua l d iv is ion o fl a bou r , ap a i r b ond ma t ing s y s tem , a nd s ome f o rm o fg ende r i n equa l i ty h ave b een p a r t s o ft h e h uman a dap ta t ion t h roughou t p reh is to ry a nd h i s to ry , a nd , h ence , w e re d ue t oi n he ren t b io log ica l d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e s exe s (Whe lan 1 991 :358 ; Z ih lman 1 981 :76 , 1 991b :64 , 1 993 :32 ) . 2 .4 .6 .2 V i c tor ian I nf luence s Much o f t he w ay e i gh teen th - a nd n ine teen th -cen tury a r chaeo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log is t s h ad r e cons t ruc ted e a r ly h om in id a nd p reh is to r ic l i f eway s , a nd h ad a s se s sed t h e s t a tu s a nd v a lue o fn on -we s te rn p eop le s , t h e i rl a bou r , a nd s oc ie t ie s , w a s g rea t ly i n f luenced b y V ic to r ian v a lue s . A s K ehoe ( 1 983 :57 )n o ted , V ic to r ians h ad b een t a ugh tt h a tb o th s c ience a nd r e l ig ion a g reed o n t he n a tura l i n fe r io r i ty a nd s ubo rd ina t ion o f w omen t o men . Wi th t he i ndus t r ia l r evo lu t ion , i n c rea s ing c ompe t i t ion f o r j obs , a nd t h e d eve lopmen to f am idd le c l a s s d u r ing t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry , many w omen h ad l o s t t h e i r p roduc t ive a c t iv i t ie s a nd r o le s , a nd h ad b e come m o re d ependen tu pon m en (We i s t 1 983 :38 ) . T he I ndu s t r ia lR evo lu t ion a nd r i se o fc ap i ta l ism h ad d i vo rced h ouseho lds f r om p l ace s o f emp loymen t , f o rc ing w omen t o c hoose b e tween c ompensa ted e mp loymen t a nd m o the rhood ( Kehoe 1 983 :56 ) . T he V ic to r ian n o t ion a r ose o f t h e i d ea l w oman ( i .e . , f r a i l , p u re , n u r tu r ing , p as s ive , l e isu red , a nd o r namen ta l t oh e rh usband ) , a nd l e d t ot h e v i ew t h a t w omen i no the r s oc ie t ie s w ho w e re p hys ica l ly s t rong , i ndependen t ,

A s w e l l , t h e w ide sp read i nf luence o f n i ne teen th -cen tu ry s oc ia l t h eo ry w h ich a dvoca ted ar i g id d iv is ion o fs oc ia l l i f e i n to d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic s phe re s w a s a nd s t i l l i se v iden t i n a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions ( s ee d i scus s ion i n Moo re 1 988 :22 ) .T h is V ic tor ia nm ode l o fs o c ia l l i f e s epa ra ted t h e d ome s t ic f r om t h e p ub l ic s phe re , w i th t h e b e l ief t h a t t h e h ome w as a r e fuge a nd n u r tu ran t h aven e n t i re ly s epa ra te f r om t he p ub l ic w or ld o f b us ine ss a nd p o l i t ic s . Wh i le w omen 's d oma in w a st h ed ome s t ic s phe re a nd t h e h ome , m en g ove rned s oc ie ty a nd t h e p o l i t ica l r e a lm , a nd o f ten men a nd w omen a c t ive ly c on t r ibu ted t o t h e 1 6

t oa s sump t ions a nd v i ew s e qua t ing d om inance w i th p ub l ic l e ade r sh ip ( Leacock 1 978 ; S ack s 1 976 ; S anday 1 981 :113 ) , m ay d i s to r th ow a n th ropo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s i n te rp re t g ende rr e la t ions i no t he r g roups a nd i nt h ep a s t . T he b e l ie f s t h a t w omen w e re a nd a r e n onpo l i t ica l , o r t h a t ma le a nd f ema le a u tho r i ty i su nequa l r a the r t h an d i f f e ren t , w i th s o c a l led " f o rma l " a u tho r i ty o fm en mo re v a lued t h an s o -ca l led " i nfo rma l " a u tho r i ty o fw omen i np re -s ta te s oc ie t ie s a nd i n t h e p reh is to r ic p a s t , a r e e s sen t ia l ly t h e r e su l t o f s t a te b i a s ( Sack s 1 976 ; S anday 1 981 :114 ; T if f any 1 979 :13 ) . T h i s s t a te b ias a ssumes t ha t w omen p a r t ic ipa te i n p o l i t ics o n ly i n d i re c t ly t h rough h usbands , h ave l i t t le f o rma l i nf luence a nd p owe r , r a re ly h o ld p os i t ions o f l e g i t ima te a u tho r i ty , a nd i n s tead h ave a cce s sp r ima r i ly t oi n fo rma l a nd i nd i rec tc on t ro l a sc omp la ine r s a nd g os s ips ( e .g . , C o l l ie r 1 974 ; Ma t th ia s son 1 974 :423 ; We is t 1 980 :261-262 ) . H oweve r , i ti sq ue s t ionab le w he the r t e rms s uch a s " f o rma l" c an e ven b e a pp l ied t o a u tho r i ty a nd r i gh t se xe rc ised b y m a le si nn on -s ta te s o c ie t ie s . A s Wy l ie ( 1992b :56 -57 ) a r gued , w omen t e nd t oa ppea rt of i t t he s t e reo type s o f p owe r le ss , p ass ive , a nd m an ipu la t ive p e r sons w hen c ons ide red i nt e rms o fw e s te rn a nd s t a te leve l ma scu l ine c oncep t s o f p owe r . C lea r ly , ar eeva lua t ion o f w e s te rn -def ined p o l i t ica l t e rm s s uch a sf o rma l a nd i n f o rma l , l e g i t ima te a u tho r i ty , a nd d i rec ta nd i n d i rec tc on t ro li sn eeded , e spec ia l ly i nc a se s w he re t h e se t e rm s a r e a pp l ied t og roups s uch a sh un te r -ga the re r s . I ti sh igh ly u n l ike ly t h a t " f o rma l" a nd " i nfo rma l " p owe r a nd i nf luence h ad o r h ave t h e s ame s i gn if icance a nd v a lue f o r o t he r s oc ie t ies a s f o r s t a te leve l s oc ie t ie s ( s ee R oge r s 1 978 f o r am o re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion ; s ee a l so Wy l ie 1 992b , who h a s p rov ided ad e ta i led d i scuss ion a nd e va lua t ion o f t h e i d ea s o f s oc ia l p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty , f o rma l a nd i n fo rma l p owe r , a nd t h e f r equen t c onfu s ion o f t h e se c oncep t s ) .

d eve lopmen t o f t h is s epa ra t ion ( s ee Wa l l 1 994 ) . Women w e re c on s ide red d ependen t u pon m en , a nd d i f f e ren t r i gh t s w e re g iven t o t hose i n t he se s epa ra te s phe re s ( Moo re 1 988 :22 ) . T he i nf luence o ft h i s d ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy c an c l ea r ly b e s een i nt h e e a r ly "Man t h e Hun te r " m ode l , i n e a r ly f em in is t s ' r econs t ruc t ions ( e .g . , K e ss le r 1 976 ; S anday 1 981) , a nd i n many o the ra r chaeo log ica l r e cons t ruc t ions t h a t h ave p o r t rayed men a s t h e a c t ive m embe rs o fs o c ie ty , b e ing t he h un te r s o f a n i ma ls , t he p rov ide r s , t he p ro tec to r s , i n c ha rge o fp o l i t ica l a nd t r ade a c t iv i t ie s , w h i le w omen w e re s een i n m o re p ass ive r o le s a s mo the r s , w ive s , g a the re r s o f p lan ts , c ooks , t ende r s o f t he h ome , a nd p e rfo rme r s o f d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s . 2 .4 .6 .3 S ta t e -Leve l Mode l s I n aw ay s im i la r t o n i ne teen th -cen tu ry a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy , p resen t d ay a r chaeo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s a r e n o t i mmune f r om c u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l i n f luence s . S ince a rchaeo logy h as l a cked a n e xp l ic i t f r amework f o r c oncep tua l iz ing a nd r e sea rch ing g ende r , t he re h a s b een a t e ndency f o ra r chaeo log is t st od r aw u pon af r amewo rk t h a ti s i mp l ic i t a nd r oo ted i n t he i r o wn c on tempo ra ry e xpe r ience ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :1-2 ) .I no t he rw o rd s , " r e sea rche r s b r ing t ot h e i r wo rk p reconce ived n o t ions a bou tw ha te ach s ex o ugh t t od o , a nd t h e se n o t ions s e rve t o s t ruc tu re t h e w ay a r t if a c t sa r ei n te rp re ted " ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :10 ) . T hus , m any a r chaeo log is t s h ave u nconsc ious ly c ons t ruc ted a p as t i n t h e i mage o f mode rn m ode ls a nd p reconce ived a ssump t ions . F o r e xamp le , i n w es te rn a nd s t a te leve l s oc ie t ie s , b ecause c h i ldbea r ing a nd c h i ld c a re a r e o f ten s een a s ah i nd rance t o f ema le p a r t ic ipa t ion w i th in w ide r s oc ie ty ( Bo len 1 992 :49 ) , r e sea rche r s t e nd t op ro jec t s im i la r n o t ions o n to p reh is tor ic c ons t ruc t s ( Bo len 1 992 :49 ) o r o n to o the r c u l tu re s , a s sum ing l ow s t a tus f o r mo the rhood e ve rywhe re a nd e ve ry p lace ( Dah lbe rg 1 981 :21) . R e la ted t ot h is v i ew i s t h e a s sump t ion t h a t ma les c hoo se f ema le ma te s a nd h ave c on t ro lo ve rt hem a nd t h e i r o f f sp r ing ;t h is b i a sa l so h o ld st h a t l ong te rm monogamy w a s a n e a r ly h uman d eve lopmen t a nd i s an o rma l c ha rac te r is t ic o f a l h uman g roups ( S locum 1 975 :44 ) .T he i dea l mode rn p a t te rn o fo ne ma le s uppo r t ing a d ependen t w ife a nd c h i ld ren h a s c l ea r ly f i l te red t h rough t o s ome a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ions .

Two g ende r s , m a le a nd f ema le , a r e c ommon ly i d en t if ied i n w e s te rn c u l tu re , b u t t h is c l a s s if ica t ion d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i n d ica te t h a ta r chaeo log is t s a u toma t ica l ly k now w ha ti tm ean t t ob e aw oman o r aman i n ac e r ta in p reh is to r ic c u l tu re .T he se p a s t g roup s m ay o rm ay n o t h ave c r ea ted o rd ef ined c u l tu ra l c a tego r ie s t h a t a r e c ompa rab le t o mode rn w e s te rn o ne s ( Bo len 1 99 1 :401 -402 ) . T hus , o ne c an q ue s t ion t h ev a l id i ty o f ama le a nd f ema le d iv is ion f o r p reh is to r ic h un te r -ga the re rs : w a s t h e m a le a nd f ema le d i cho tomy i mpo r tan t i n s hap ing t h e i rs oc ia lr o le s? B yl o ok ing a tt h ed a ta f r om t h ep e r spec t ive o f a ma le -fema le d icho tomy , a re o the r u nde r ly ing r e la t ionsh ips , w h ich may b e mo re i mpo r tan ti nu nde r s tand ing c u l tu re , h i dden ( E isne r 1 991 :356 )? D iv is ion o fl a bou r b a sed o n s ex i so n ly o ne p oss ib le f o rm o fl a bou r o rgan iza t ion , a nd i tc an b e s imu l taneous ly i n f luenced b y v a r iab le s s uch a sa ge a nd c l a s s ( Ho l l imon 1 991 :462 ) .

I na dd i t ion , mode rn w e s te rn a na ly t ica l a nd s c ien t if ic t r ad i t ion h a s p r e se rved t he n ine teen th -cen tu ry V ic to r ian d iv is ion o f s epa ra te ma le a nd f ema le s phe re s ( Rosa ldo 1 980 :407 ) . C on sequen t ly , m any a r chaeo log i s t sh ave i mp l ic i t ly a s sumed t h a t t h e d iv is ion o f t h e w o r ld i n to d ome s t ic /p r iva te / f ema le s phe re a nd t he p ub l ic /ou ts ide /ma le s phe re c an b e a pp l ied t o p reh i s to ry . E ven t h e "Woman t h eG a the re r " mode l p roposed i n r e sponse t o t h e "Man t h e H un te r " mode l p e rpe tua ted s e xua l ly s t e reo typed s phe re s ,b a sed o n V ic to r ian d i cho tom ie s a nd b i o log ica l t e rm s , r e info rc ing t h e v i ew t h a t w omen 's e conom ic r o le s w e re l im i ted , a nd t h ep r ima ry f ema le f o cu s w a s m o the rhood a nd d ome s t ic c once rns ( Mo rgan 1 985 :163 ; R o sa ldo 1 980 :410 ) . B u t t h is c oncep tb o th c ons t ruc t st h ep a s t i nt h e i mage o f t h e p re sen t , a nd , i n a dd i t ion , p ro jec t s t h e c u r ren t l ow s t a tu s g iven t o d omes t ic w o rk o n to t h e p a s t ( Mau re r 1 991 :416 ; S pence r - Wood 1 991 :237 ) .

A s w e l l , t he s i gns t ha t many a n thropo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s i n te rp re t a s t yp ica l ly i nd ica t ive o f ma le d om inance a nd f ema le d en ig ra t ion ( i .e . , f ema le p o l lu t ion , e xc lus ion f r om r e l ig ion a nd p o l i t ics , f ema le i n f an t ic ide ) m ay i nf a c t h ave b een i n te rp re ted e t hnocen t r ica l ly ; t h a t i s , t h ey m ay b e mo re a pp l icab le t o mode rn w e s te rn o r s t a te leve l s oc ie ty . A l te rna t ive ly , t h e s i gns s imp ly m ay b e i n accu ra te ly v i ewed a nd n o t n ecessa r i ly v a l id f o r p a s t s oc ie t ie s . F o r e xamp le , H a r r is ( 1993 :59 ) a rgued t ha t t h e b e l ie f t ha t m ens t rua t ing w omen w e re p o l lu t ing , a nd t h e e xc lus ion o f w omen f r om men 's s ec re t r i tes , p o l i t ics , a nd d ec is ion mak ing , w e re a l l i nd ica to r s t h a t g ende r r o le s w e re n o t b a lanced i n h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ies . H oweve r , i ti s p os s ib le t h a t p a s t g roups h ad n o c oncep t o r av e ry d i f f e ren t v i ew o fd om inance a nd s ubo rd ina t ion , c oncen t ra t ing o n t h e

A s w e l l , t he a s sump t ion t h a t m a le d om inance i su n ive rsa l ( e .g . ,C ucch ia r i 1 981 :33 ; F r ied l 1 975 :7 ;K e ss le r 1 976 ; O r tne r 1 974 :67 -71 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , e d . 1 981 ; R osa ldo 1 974 :17 , 2 1 ; 1 980 :393 -394 ) , w h ich i t se lf i sp robab ly r e la ted 1 7

c e remon ie s , c l ose ly r e la ted t o t hose o f men w i th t h e s ame b e l ief s a nd t o tem ic a nce s to r s ( Kabe r ry 1 939 ) . As im i la rc a se i se v iden t f o r I nu i t s oc ie t ies . B ecau se o f t he p re sence o f f ema le i n f an t ic ide , mens t rua l t a boo s , a nd s exua l p rac t ice s , c ommon t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ions h ad v iewed E sk imo w omen a sd eva lued , i n f e r io r t o , a nd d om ina ted b ym en ( e .g . , F r ied ! 1 975 :45 ) . O the r s t ud ies , h oweve r , s uch a s t h a t o f B r iggs ( 1974 :287 -288 ) , c l ea r ly p rov ided e v idence t h a t E sk imo m en d i d n o tc onsc ious ly d e roga te w omen , b u tr a the r p e rce ived w omen a nd t h e i rs k i l ls a si n d ispensab le t os u rv iva l a sm en .

d i f f e rence s b e tween m a le s a nd f ema le s i n ac omp lemen ta ry a nd " d if f e ren t -ye t -equa l " a spec tr a the rt h an f r om ad om inan t s ubo rd ina te p e r spec t ive . S ta te b i a si so f ten e v iden ti nt h ef a c t t h a t d i f fe rence s a nd a symme t ry t e nd t o b e i n te rp re ted b y a n th ropo log is t s a s i n equa l i ty a nd h i e ra rchy ( Leacock 1 978 ; Moo re 1 988 :2 ; S ack s 1 976 ) ; h oweve r , t h e p resence o f d i f fe rence s i n f r equenc ie s o f b ehav iou r s b e tween m en a nd w omen d oe s n o t n ecessa r i ly i mp ly a g ende r h ie ra rchy ( Z ih lman 1 993 :39 ) . T he f a c t t ha t i ns ome s oc ie t ie s m en a nd w omen m ake d i f f e ren t c on t r ibu t ions t o s oc ie ty a nd h ave d i f f e ren t s phe re s o fi n te re s t , c on t ro l , a nd a c t iv i ty , d oe s n o t a u toma t ica l ly i nd ica te ah ighe r s t a tus f o r o ne s ex o ve r t h e o t he r . D if f e rence n eed n o tb es imp ly e qua ted w i th i n f e r io r i ty a nd s upe r io r i ty , o rd om inance a nd s ubo rd ina t ion . B ecau se a r chaeo log is t s , a n th ropo log i s t s , a nd o the r a cadem ic r e sea rche r s c ome f r om a n e x t reme ly h ie ra rch ica l c u l tu ra l m i l ieu , a ccen tua ted b y ac l a s s s t ra t if ied s oc ie ty , t h e re i sa t e ndency t ov i ew o t he rc u l tu re s t h rough t h is m ind -se t( B le ie r 1 984 :139 ) , c ons t ruc t ing c a tego r ie s , s e t t ing u p o ppos i t ions a nd d i cho tom ies t o c on ta in s oc ia l d i f f e rences , a nd t hen h i e ra rch ica l ly r ank ing t hem i n t e rms o f p owe r ( Re i te r 1 975a :15 ) , e s sen t ia l ly a s sum ing t h a t s oc ia l r e la t ions mus t a lway s b e h i e ra rch ica l ly s t ruc tu red ( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :10 ) . D om inance h i e ra rch ie s , s t ra t if ica t ion , p owe r , a nd c on t ro l a r en o tn ece s sa r i ly i nhe ren t i nn a tu re o rp re sen t i na l s oc ie t ie s i n t h e s ame w ay s a nd f o rm s a s i ns t a te s oc ie t ies ; t h e ref o re , p ro jec t ing t h is c oncep tua l f r amewo rk o n to n on s t a te a nd p reh is to r ic s oc ie t ie s i ss imp ly i n app rop r ia te ( B le ie r 1 984 :139 ) . 2 . 4 .6 .4 S umma ry I ti so bv ious t h a t a n th ropo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s c anno t d eny t h e g rea t i n f luence t h a t s oc ia l c l ima te , p o l i t ica l v i ews , p e r sona l e xpe r ience s , a nd k now ledge o f t h e t ime h ave h ad u pon t h e i r r econs t ruc t ions a nd i n te rp re ta t ions . I n e s sence , o f ten ar e sea rche r 's a s sump t ions , v a lue s , a nd mode l s d e r ived f r om mode rn w e s te rn o r s t a te leve l c u l tu re , f r om h i s o rh e r o wn c u l tu ra l m i l ieu a nd e xpe r ience s , a r e u nques t ion ing ly a pp l ied t o a nd u sed t o e va lua te m a le -fema le b ehav iou r i n n on s ta te s oc ie t ie s a nd t h ep reh is to r ic p a s t . T he se i nf luence s c an r e su l t a nd h ave f r equen t ly r e su l ted i nm is in te rp re ta t ions a nd d i s to r t ions o f ma le a nd f ema le r o le s a nd r e la t ions . F o r e xamp le , n ume rou se t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o fA us t ra l ia p o r t ray w omen i n ap os i t ive w ay , w he rea so t he r sp o r t ray w omen i na m o re n ega t ive f a sh ion . T he c l a im b y Mon tagu ( 1 937 :23 ) t h a t A u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ina l w omen w e re n o tu n l ike " dome s t ica ted c ows " a l igned w i th b o th Ma l inow sk i ' s ( 1 913 :278 ) b e l ie ft h a t w omen w e re s l ave s t ot h e i r h usband s a nd f o rced t od o t h e h eav ie r w o rk ( Roh r l ich -Leav i t t e ta l . 1 975 :114 ) , a nd w i th H a r t a nd P i l l ing 's ( 1 960 :14 , 1 9 ) r e f e rence t oo l de rA u s t ra l ian w omen a s a nc ien t o r t oo th less h ags a nd c rone s , a nd t h e i r p o r t raya l o f women a s c ommod i t ie s i nt h e ma le -con t ro l led g ame o f ma r r iage . H oweve r , t he r e sea rch d one b y K abe r ry ( 1939 ) , G ooda le ( 1971) , a nd B e rnd t ( 1981) p resen ted a t o ta l ly d i f f e ren t p i c tu re o fa bo r ig ina l w omen , c on t rad ic t ing e a r l ie r i mage s o fw omen b e ing c on t ro l led b y men , e qua ted w i th t h eu nc lean , a nd e xc luded f r om r i tua l l i f e( s ee a l so G a le 1 986 ) . T he i mpo r tance o f t he e conom ic c on t r ibu t ion o f w omen h ad b een i nf a c t r e cogn ized b y A us t ra l ian s oc ie t ies ( Be rnd t 1 981 :192 -193 ; R oh r l ich -Leav i t t e t a l . 1 975 :123 ) : w omen w e re b a s ica l ly e conom ica l ly i ndependen t o f m en ( Be rnd t 1 981 :192 -193 , 1 986 :70 ) ; t h ey h un ted k anga roo a nd s ma l l g ame ( Be rnd t 1 981 :164 ; Ham i l ton 1 980 :11 ; R oh r l ich L eav i t t e ta l . 1 975 :114 ) ; a nd t hey h ad t h e i r o wn r i tua ls a nd 1 8

I n s ome s i tua t ions , t h e c on t rad ic to ry p o r t raya l o ft h e s t a tus a nd p os i t ions o f w omen a nd men w i th in a s oc ie ty a r e p rov ided b y t h e s ame a u tho r i nt he s ame w r i t ten w o rk . F o r e xamp le , L eacock ( 1992 :230 ) i lus t ra ted h ow , o n o ne h and , L ande s( 1938 )h ad p o r t rayed O j ibwa w omen a si n dependen t , mo re v e rsa t i le t han men , a ccus tomed t o s uppo r t ing t h em se lve s b yh un t ing , a nd r e cogn ized p ub l ic ly a sm idw ive s a nd h e rba l d oc to r s ; t h e se r o le s g a ined t h em p re s t ige f o r f i ne w o rk , a nd t h em en o f ten b ragged a bou tt h e i rw ive s ' w o rk . O n t h e o t he r h and , L ande s a r gued t ha t O j ibwa women w e re i n f e r io r , s imp ly o n looke r s a nd a dm i re r s o f men , w i th t h e i r w o rk t o ta l ly i g no red a nd t h e i r t a lk c ons ide red o n ly g os s ip . A no the r e xamp le o f as i ng le wo rk c on ta in ing a ppa ren t c on t rad ic t ions a bou t t h e p os i t ion a nd s t a tus o f w omen i s We is t 's ( 1980 ) d i scus s ion o fN o r th Ame r ican P la ins I nd ian w omen . S he a r gued t h a t , o ve ra l l , women h ad b een e s sen t ia l ly s ubo rd ina ted i n ama le -dom ina ted P la ins s oc ie ty , g a in ing p re s t ige o n ly f r om m a le r e la t ive s (We is t 1 980 :261) , l a ck ing f r eedom t o c on t ro l a ccess t o t he i r o wn b od ies ( We is t 1 980 :258 ) , a nd b e ing p e r iphe ra l t op o l i t ic s( We is t 1 980 :259 ) . Y e t s he n o ted t h a t w omen h ad r ece ived p r a ise f o r f ema le p u r su i t s (We i s t 1 980 :262 ) , h ad t he o p t ion t os t r ive f o r m a le g oa ls i f t hey s o d es i red (We is t 1 980 :263 ) , wh ich i s s ugge s t ive o f s ome f r eedom o f c ho ice , a nd a t tended a nd s poke i n c ounc i ls . T he i mp l ica t ion d e r ived f r om t h e se a ccoun t s c l ea r ly s ugge s t s t h a t a t temp t ing t ol a be l w omen o r m en i n as pec if ic s o c ie ty a sb e ing d om inan t o rh av ing h i gh s t a tus o rl ow s t a tus i se x t reme ly d i ff icu l t . C on t rad ic t ions s u ch a st h e se c once rn ing t h ep os i t ion o f women i nc e r ta in s oc ie t ie s m ay b e p a r t ly d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t r esea rche r s a re d ef in ing s t a tus a cco rd ing t od ive r se c r i te r ia ( G iovann in i 1 992 :243 ) , a nd a r e i nf luenced b y c u r ren t w es te rn o r s t a te leve l v a lue s r e ga rd ing s t a tu s . O nt h e o t he rh and , t h ese d i f f e rences a c tua l ly m ay b e r ef lec t ing r e a l c on t rad ic t ions p e r ta in ing t ow omen 's p os i t ion i n t h ose s oc ie t ie s t h a t h ave a lway s b een t h e re , o r m ay r e f lec t t h e r e su l t o f E u ropean c on tac t a nd c hang ing v a lue s y s tem s . T he se e xamp le s s ugge s t t h e p reca r iousne s s a nd p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th r e ly ing c omp le te ly a nd u nc r i t ica l ly u pon s i ng le e t hnog raph ic a c coun t s , w he the r e a r l ie ro r mo re r e cen t , f o r a s sump t ion s a nd i d ea si nb u i ld ing t heo re t ica l f r amewo rk s a nd a r chaeo log ica l mode ls t h a t r econs t ruc t l i f eways a nd g ende r r e la t ions . I ft h e s t a tu s a nd r o le s o fe i the r women o r m en a r e d i s to r ted d ue t o p reconce ived u nques t ioned a s sump t ions a nd d ef in i t ions , e s sen t ia l ly t h e t o ta l s oc ia l s y s tem i si n accu ra te ly p o r t rayed , s i nce t h e r e la t ionsh ip s o f w omen a nd m en a r ei n te r locked . Much o ft h ep r ob lem c an b e t r aced t ot h e t y p ica l w e s te rn a h i s to r ica l a pp roach t og ende r w h ich s ee s s exua l d i f f e rence s , s ex r o le s , a nd r e la t ion s a s r ema in ing i d en t ica l a nd r i g id a c ross a l l c on tex t s a nd c u l tu re s ( Sanday 1 990b :8 ) , a nd t h roughou tt ime , r educed t ob io log ica l f a c to r s . T he r e su l ti s ar e cons t ruc t ion o f as t a t ic p a s t , a nd t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e p resen t i s a n i n tac t r emnan t o f t h is

u nchanged p a s t( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :5 ) . I ti st h e re f o re o bv iou s t h a t , a s m uch a s i ti sl im i ted b y t h e f r agmen ta ry n a tu re o ft h e d a ta , a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge o ft h e p a s t i s l i m i t ed a sw e l lb ye p i s temo log ie s ( Wy l ie 1 981 ) , b y m e thod s f o r a na lyz ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , a nd b y e t hnocen t r ic a s sump t ion s , r e sea rch q ue s t ions , p re conce ived m ode ls a nd d ef in i t ions , a nd c a tego r ie s o fa na ly s i s ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :2 1 ;S pence r - Wood 1 991 :235 ) .

1 9

CHAPTER 3 ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE S TUDY OF GENDER 3 . 1 THE QUESTION OF S TUDYING GENDER I N ARCHAEOLOGY

3 . 2 .1 .1 C r i t ique o ft he A ssump t ion o ft h e U n iver sa l i t y o f t he C a tegor i e so f Woman a nd Mo the r

G iven t h en a tu re o fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta , i si tp os s ib le t os t udy g ende r a r chaeo log ica l ly? Mo reove r , i st h e e xam ina t ion o f g ende r r e levan t , n ecessa ry , o r e ven i mpor tan t f o r a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch? N ume rou s a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s e mphas iz ing g ende r ( e .g . , A lbe rs a nd Med ic ine 1 983 ; D ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 ; F r ied ! 1 975 ; Ma t th ia sson , e d . 1 974 ; M i l le r , e d . 1 993 ;O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead ,e d . 1 981 ; R e i te r , e d . 1 975 ; R osa ldo a nd L amphe re , e d . 1 974 ; S anday 1 981 ; S anday a nd G oodenough 1 990 ; T if fany , e d . 1 979 ) h ave c l ea r ly d emons t ra ted t he e no rmous d ive rs i ty o f g ende r s y s tem s . I f g ende r s ys tem s a r e d e r ived f r om t he h uman b i o log ica l s t ruc tu re , t h is e no rmous v a r iab i l i ty w ou ld l i ke ly n o t e x is t ( Sanday 1 981 :15 -16 ) . C onsequen t ly , g ende r a nd g ende rr e la t ion sc an n o l onge rb ec on s ide red s imp ly t or ef lec t o r e l abo ra te u pon b io log ica l ly b ased d i f f e rence s b e tween w omen a nd men ( B le ie r 1 984 ; C onkey a nd G e ro 1 991 :8 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead 1 981 :1 ; S anday 1 981 :15 -16 ) ; r a the r , t h ey a r e mo re c o r rec t ly s een a sp r ima r i ly p roduc t s o fs oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l p rocesses ( B le ie r 1 984 ; C onkey a nd G e ro 1 991 :8 ; O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead 1 981 :1 ; R o sa ldo 1 980 :393 ; S anday 1 981 :15 -16 ) . I n e s sence , g ende r i s af undamen ta l c u l tu ra lc ons t ruc tt h a ts t ruc tu re s t h e s oc ia l l i f ea nd b ehav iou r o f a l l membe rs o f s oc ie ty i n c lud ing men , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren , p e rmea t ing a lmos t e ve ry a spec t o fh uman c u l tu re f r om l a nguage t ol a bou rp roce s se s a nd s oc ia l r o le s ( Rosa ldo 1 980 :390 ; S a s saman 1 992 :76 ;J .C . Sm i th 1 991 :85 ; S pence rWood 1 991 :234 ) .

E a r ly f em in i s t a n th ropo log is t s a s sumed t h e u n ive r sa l i ty o f t h e c a tego ry " woman" b y b e l iev ing i n t he p r iv i leged r e la t ionsh ip b e tween f ema le e thnog raphe r a nd f ema le i n fo rman t ( e .g . , K e ss le r 1 976 :143 ) , a nd b y p re sum ing t h e u n ive rsa l d om ina t ion o f m en a nd s ubo rd ina t ion o f w omen ( Moo re 1 988 ) . H oweve r , w i th g row ing r e sea rch f o cu s ing s pec if ica l ly u pon g ende r i s sue s a nd w omen , i tw a s s oon r ea l ized t h a t b o th t h e c a tego r ie s o f m an a nd w oman w e re d ependen t u pon c on tex t , w e re p roduc t s o f s oc ia l r e la t ion s , a nd w e re c u l tu ra l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if i c . F o r e xamp le , B r iggs ( 1974 :261) n o ted t h a t i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t og ene ra l ize a bou t t h eq ua l i ty o f a" t yp ica l" E sk imo w oman 's l i f e ; r a the r , t h e re e x is ted ag r ea t v a r ie ty o fw omen 's l i ve s . S im i la r ly , i na d i scuss ion o f r ank ing , s oc ie t ie s , a nd c h ief ta insh ip o f t h e P la ins C ree , Mande lbaum ( 1990 ) d emons t ra ted t h e i n accu racy i na s sum ing t h a ta l C ree m en h ad h i gh s t a tu s a nd i n v i ew ing t h em a s as i ng le c a tego ry . I n s tead , a mong t h e C ree , m en h ad mu l t ip le a nd v a r iab le s t a tu s a nd r o le s w i th in t h eb and a nd t h roughou tt h e i rl i f ec yc le s . I na dd i t ion , Moogk ( 1991 :106 ) n o ted t h a t aN uu -chah -nu l th w oman f r om t h e N o r thwe s tC oa s tc ou ld b ei n i t ia ted i nt h e Wo lf r i tua l a nd t h u s t a ke o n am an ' s s t a tus . C lea r ly , t h e se e xamp le s s ugge s t t h a t w i th in a s oc ie ty , a nd n o d oub t b e tween s oc ie t ies , t h e c a tego r ie s , m ea n ing , a nd l i ve so f" woman " a nd " man " a r ef a r f r om i d en t ica l a nd u n ive r sa l . T he re i s ,i nf a c t , n ou n ive r sa l i ty i n" woman" a nd " womanne s s " ( S t ra the rn 1 98 1 :682 ) , o r , f o r t h a t ma t te r , i n t h e c a tego ry " man ," e ven t h ough i n t h e i r mode ls a nd i n te rp re ta t ions , s ome a r chaeo log is t s t e nd t ot r ea t t h em a sh omogeneous c a tego r ie s .

T hu s , f a r f r om b e ing f i xed , u n ive r sa l , a nd i r re levan t , g ende r i sa c tua l ly a s oc ia l ly c ons t ruc ted , h i s to r ica l a nd d ynam ic p roce s s , c ons t ruc ted a s as e t o fr e la t ionsh ip s a nd e mbedded i n c u l tu ra l e xpe r iences , i deo log ies , a nd ma te r ia l s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ions ( Conkey 1 991 :26 ; C onkey a nd G e ro 1 991 :9 ) . I n o the r w o rds , g ende r s ys tem s c an a nd s hou ld b e e xpe c ted t o b eh i gh ly v a r iab le f r om o ne c u l tu re t oa no the r o ve rt ime a nd s pace ( Sch lege l 1 990 :23 ) . S ea rch ing f o r c ross -cu l tu ra l g ene ra l iza t ions a nd u n ive r sa l mode ls o f men 's a nd w omen 's e xpe r ience c an n o l onge r b e j u s t if ied . T he refo re , h av ing e s tab l ished t h e i mpo r tance a nd v a r iab i l i ty o f g ende r , a nd g i ven t h a tt h e " o rgan iza t ion o fg ende rb ehav io rr e la te s t oa nd i si n t ima te ly a p a r t o f mos t o t he r a spec ts o f p a s t c u l tu ra l s y s tem si nw h ich a r chaeo log i s t sh ave a lway sb e en i n te re s ted " ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :28 ) , h ow t h en d o a r chaeo log is t s g o a bou ts t udy ing g ende r ; mo reove r ,c an i tb es t ud ied a ta l? 3 .2 METHODS FOR ARCHAEOLOG ICALLY

S TUDYING

I n many c a se s , t h e c a tego ry " woman" i sc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t ha t o f " mo the r ," a nd i d ea s a bou t t h e c oncep t o f " mo the rhood ," a sw e l l a s " f a the rhood " a nd " f am i ly " r e ta in t r emendous i n f luence f r om V ic to r ian i d ea ls a nd s oc ia l t h eo ry r evo lv ing a r ound t h e s epa ra t ion o ft h e d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic s phe re ( Moo re 1 988 :22 ) . I nf luenced i np a r tb y Ma l inowsk i ' s ( 1913 ) v i ew o ft h e f am i ly ( s ee Moo re 1 988 :24 ) , t h e g ene ra l a t t i tude d eve loped t h a t mo the rhood w a s b i o log ica l ly b a sed a nd c ons t ra in ing ; t hus t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r w a s n a tu ra l , w i th w omen b e ing t i ed a nd b ound t oc h i ld ren a nd t h e " home " ( s ee d i scus s ion i nB o len 1 992 :51-52 ) . T h i sv i ew w a s e ven p e rpe tua ted b y e a r ly f em in is t a n th ropo log is ts ( e .g . , K ess le r 1 976 :14 -15 ) , a s s een i n B rown 's ( 1 979a :39 -40 ) i n f luen t ia l a r gumen t t h a t w omen w e re l im i ted b y c h i ldb i r th i n t ha t t he ir s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s a nd t a sk s h ad t o b e c ompa t ib le w i th c h i ld c a re , a nd t he re fo re n eeded t o b e r epe t i t ive , mono tonous , r equ i r ing l i t t le c oncen t ra t ion , p e rfo rmed n ea r t h e h ome b a se , n o t d ange rou s , a nd e a s i ly i n te r rup ted a nd r e sumed . T h is n o t ion i ss t i l l c ommonp lace i n mo re r ecen t a n th ropo log ica l l i te ra tu re ( e .g . , J och im 1 988 :132 ) . F o r e xamp le , C l ique t ( 1984 :121) c i ted a s o ne f a c to r l e ad ing t om a le d om inance "Women 's h eav ie r b u rden i nr ep roduc t ion , a n a c t iv i ty w h ich , u n t i l r e cen t ly , a bso rbed mos t o f t h e i r e ne rgy d u r ing t h e i r f e cund l i f e a nd w h ich c ons ide rab ly r e s t r ic ted t h e i r a b i l i ty t op a r t ic ipa te i n s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies ." T he i mp l ica t ions a r e c l ea r , t h a t r ep roduc t ion a nd r a is ing c h i ld ren a lmo s t c omp le te ly p reven t w omen f r om d o ing a ny th ing e l se , t h a t r a is ing c h i ld ren i sn o t as oc ia l o rc u l tu ra l a c t iv i ty , a nd t h a t i ti sd one i ni s o la t ion

GENDER

3 . 2 .1 Que s t ion ing S tereo types a nd S ta t ic T ypo log ies T he r e l iance u pon s t e reo type s ,u n ive r sa l i t ie s , a nd t h el i ke c an o n ly b e r e s t r ic t ive a nd l im i t ing i n t h e w ay a r chaeo log is t s c hoose t he i r d a ta , e xam ine t hem , a nd i n te rp re t t hem . P o ten t ia l ly t h ey d i s to r t a nd o b scu re v a r ia t ion a nd a mo re r ea l is t ic p ic tu re o f g ende r r e la t ions . C onsequen t ly , t h e p re l im ina ry s t ep i ne xam in ing g ende r a r chaeo log ica l ly i st o b ec r i t ica l o fa nd q ue s t ion t h e c ommon n o t ion s a bou tg ende r a nd s t a t ic t y po log ie st h a tt e nd t oi n f luence h ow g ende ri s sue s a nd r e la t ions a r ev i ewed . 2 0

f r om t h er e s to ft h es oc ie ty a nd c u l tu re .

( Bo len 1 992 :52 ) .

O the r s h ave c l a imed , h oweve r , t h a t c h i ld c a re h a s n o t p reven ted w omen i n many s oc ie t ie s f r om p e rfo rm ing a n e no rmou s r a nge o fp roduc t ive t a sk s a nd e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s ( s ee d i scu s s ion i nS ack s 1 979 :67 -68 ;s e ea l so P ea cock 's 1 991 e xam ina t ion o f w omen 's w o rk a mong t h e E f e , w h ich c ha l lenged s ome o f t h e a s sump t ions m ade b y B rown w i th r e ga rd t om en a lway s p e r f o rm ing s t reng th j obs a nd w omen a lway s p e r fo rm ing a c t iv i t ie s s upposed ly " c ompa t ib le " w i th c h i ld c a re ) . I n f a c t , i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t i n m any s oc ie t ie s w omen h ave p l aced t h e i r w o rk f i r s t a nd t h en a d jus ted s pac ing a nd r e a r ing o f c h i ld ren t os u i t t h e i r w o rk n eed s ( s ee D ah lbe rg 1 981 :21 f o r r e f e rence s ; F r ied l 1 975 :8 , 1 37 ) . T he re i sa mp le e v idence t o i n d ica te t h a t w omen i n m any s oc ie t ie s w o r ldw ide s ucce s sfu l ly h ave c omb ined mo the rhood w i th t h e e xe rc ise o f p o l i t ica l p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty a nd w i th t h ep e r f o rmance o fs i gn if ican tp roduc t ive a nd t r ad ing t a sk s ( Sa ck s 1 979 ) . T h is e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h ea c t iv i t ie s a nd mob i l i ty o fm any w omen w e re a nd a r en o t n ece s sa r i ly c on s t r ic ted t o ag r ea td eg ree b y m o the rhood a nd c h i ld c a re ( s ee R oge r s 1 978 :135 -137 f o r f u r the r r e fe rence s a nd e xamp le s ) .

Mo reove r , a l c u l tu re s d o n o tn ece s sa r i ly a s soc ia te " mo the r " a nd " woman , " a nd d o n o t d e f ine w omen a s n u r tu re r s a nd p r oduce r s o fl i f e w i th ac l ose r e la t ionsh ip t ot h e h ome o r d ome s t ic s phe re , a s i st h e s i tua t ion i n m any w e s te rn a nd s t a te leve l s o c ie t ie s ( Co l l ie r a nd R osa ldo 1 98 1 :275 ; Moo re 1 988 :25 ) . I nf a c t , i nm any s o c ie t ie s , t h e p roce s se s o fb i r th a nd p r egnancy a r et h ec once rn so ft h ew ho le s o c ie ty , n o tj u s t w omen o rt h ed ome s t ic d oma in , a nd t h ec oncep to f" mo the r " m ay n o t b e n ece s sa r i ly a s soc ia ted w i th m a te rna l l o ve , d a i ly c h i ld c a re , o rp hy s ica l p rox im i ty ( Moo re 1 988 :26 , 2 8 ) . T hu s t h ec oncep t o fm o the rhood a sc ons t ra in ing t h ea c t iv i t ie s a nd m ob i l i ty o f w omen , a nd t h e mode l o f i n du lgence a nd c ons tan t f e ed ing a nd c a r ing o f c h i ld ren b y ab i o log ica l m o the r d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly h o ld t r ue f o r o t he r c u l tu re s ; c onsequen t ly , t h ey m ay n o t b e a pp l icab le f o r p reh i s to ry ( Bo len 1 992 :54 ) . T he c oncep t o f m o the r , l i ke t h a t o f " woman " a nd " man , " i sn o tm e re ly g i ven i nn a tu ra lp r oce s se s b u t i sa l so ac u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t ion w h ich d i f f e ren t s oc ie t ie s b u i ld u p , d ef ine , a nd e l abo ra te i n d i f fe ren t w ay s ( Moo re 1 988 :25 ) . S i nce i th a s b een i lu s t ra ted t h a t " woman " a nd " man " a nd " mo the r " a r e c u l tu ra l ly a nd s i tua t iona l ly d e f ined , t h en t h e re e x is t s n o a na ly t ica l m ean ing i nc oncep t s s u ch a s" un ive r sa l m a le d om inance a nd s ubo rd ina t ion o f w oman" ( Moo re 1 988 :7 ) . I nm any a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s , r e sea rche r sh ave a t e ndency t o f o cus e xc lus ive ly u pon e v idence s upposed ly s u gge s t ing f ema le s ubo rd ina t ion , a u toma t ica l ly a s sum ing t h a t a l m a le s a r e d om ina n t , o pp re s s ing a nd c on t ro l l ing w omen . H oweve r , c l ose r e xam ina t ion o f n ume rou s e t hnog raph ic a c coun t s s ugge s t s t h a t i n s ome s oc ie t ie s , y ounge r m en a s w e l l a s y oung w omen w e re , a t t ime s , s ubo rd ina ted , o pp re s sed , r e s t r ic ted , a nd c on t ro l led t os ome d eg ree b y o t he r p eop le , l i neage s , g r oup s , o rt r ad i t ions w i th in t h es o c ie ty . F o r e xamp le , Mande lbaum ( 1990 )d i s cu s sed h ow o l de rm embe r s o ft h e a l -ma le P l a ins C ree Wa r r io r S oc ie ty c ou ld d i s t r ibu te t h e p o s se s s ions o ft h e y ounge r w a r r io r s w i thou t c onsu l t ing t h em , a nd h ow w a r r io r s h ad t o f o l low s pec if ic r u le s a nd o b l iga t ions r e gu la t ing t h e i r b ehav iou r , i n c lud ing b e ing r e qu i red c on s tan t ly t o g i ve a way w ea l th a nd h o r se s . T he i n i t ia t ion p roce s s f o r y oung Mbu t i b oy s w a s c ons ide red b y t h e Mbu t i t ob e a n " unnece s sa r i ly b ru ta l r i tua l " i n vo lv ing c i rcumc i s ion , t e s t s o fe ndu rance , a nd n ume rou s r e s t r ic t ion s ( Tu rnbu l l 1 961 :220 -225 ) , y e t t h e e l ima c e remony , t h e i n i t ia t ion f o r y oung Mbu t i g i r ls w i th t h e f i r s t a r r iva l o f m en s t rua l b l ood ( s ee T u rnbu l l 1 961 :184 -200 ) , w a s s e en a sa j o y fu l o cca s ion , ac e leb ra t ion o fl i f ea nd a du l thood ( Tu rnbu l l 1 96 1 :187 ) .

T he re a r e w ide sp read r e f e rence s t ow omen b e ing a c t ive a s mo the r s w h i le p e rfo rm ing a w ide v a r ie ty o f o t he r r o le s . T he re a r e r e f e rence s t ow omen r i d ing h o r seback w i th t h e i r b ab ie s s t rapped t ot h e i rb a ck s , a nd n o th e s i ta t ing t os t op a nd c a tch h o r se s f r om a w i ld h e rd ( e .g . , L imbaugh 1 973 :8 ) ; t a k ing y oung c h i ld ren w i th t h em w he reve r t h ey w en t , w he the r t o t emp le c e remon ie s o r t o t h e r i ce f i e lds ( e .g . , E b iha ra 1 974 :307 ) ; a nd c a r ry ing t h e i rb ab ie sw h i le t h ey w e re p e rfo rm ing d a i ly t a sk s a nd c o l lec t ing a c t iv i t ies ( e .g . , B uenaven tu ra -Posso a nd B rown 1 980 :124 ; L ee 1 992 :38 ; McC l in tock 1 992 :467 ) , a nd e ven w hen s w imm ing ( e .g . , Ma randa 1 974 :189 ) . T he re a r e r e f e rence s t o A thapa skan w omen h un t ing a nd s na r ing n o t o n ly s ma l l g ame , b u t a l so l a rge r g ame s u ch a s c a r ibou , a nd e ven t a k ing t h e i r b ab ie s w i th t h em o nh un t ing t r ip si n to t h eb u sh ( C ru ik shank 1 979 :9 , 2 6 -27 ; 1 990 :315 -316 ) . Among t h e Mbu t i P ygm ie so ft h eI t u r i F o re s ti nc en t ra l A f r ica ( s ee T u rnbu l l 1 981) , t h re e d ay s a f t e r c h i ldb i r th , w omen r e tu rned t od a i ly h un t s . S im i la r ly , f o rt h e B la ckf oo t , G r inne l l ( 1962 :197 198 ) n o ted t h a t , i n s ome c a se s , w omen h ad r e sumed w o rk ad ay a f te r c h i ldb i r th , a nd i no ne p a r t i cu la r s i tua t ion w h i le t h e g roup w a s t r ave l l ing , a w oman h ad h a l ted , g i ven b i r th , a nd c augh tu pw i th t h ec amp , a l w i th in f o u rh ou r s . B rown 's ( 1 979a ) a s sump t ion t h a t w omen w e re l im i ted b y c h i ld c a re f a i led t ot a ke i n to a c coun t t h a t i nm any s o c ie t ie s , c h i ld c a re w as o f ten , t o s ome d eg ree , c o l lec t ive . E thnog raph ic a ccoun ts o f h un ter -ga the re rs h ave d emons t ra t ed t h a t t h e re w e re a nd a r e n ume rou s a l te rna t ive s t ot h e b i o log ica l m o the r a s t h e p r ima ry c a re g i ve r , o ne o f t h em b e ing o l de r c h i ld ren a nd o t he r a du l t s w ho o f ten t o ok c h a rge o fy ounge rc h i ld ren a nd i n f an t s ( Bo len 1 992 :54 ) . F o r e xamp le , i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e i r s u b s is tence w o rk , b o th m en a nd w omen a mong s tt h e ! Kung w e re e qua l ly a b sen tf r om t h e c amp , b u t a du l t g roups t e nded t oa l te rna te s o a tl e a s t o ne t h i rd o f a du l t s w ou ld a lway s r ema in i n c amp ( D rape r 1 975 :86 , 9 0 ) . Mbut ic h i ld ren , i ne s sence , w e re c on s ide red t o h ave ap lu ra l i ty o fm o the r s , b o th m a le a nd f ema le ( Tu rnbu l l 1 981 :214 ) . F u r the rmo re , e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s h ave a l so i n d ica ted t h a t n o t a l l w omen i ns oc ie ty a r e u nde r t h e s o c a l led " phy s io log ica l c onf inemen t s " o f e t e rna l m o the r ing ; t h a t i s , n o t a l w omen c ons tan t ly o r e ve r p roduce c h i ld ren

Many a ccoun t s i mp ly t h a t s ome w omen i n p a r t icu la r s o c ie t ie s m ay h ave h ad r e la t ive ly mo re p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty t h an g ene ra l ly a nd u nque s t ion ing ly a s sumed f o ra l w omen i n t h a ts o c ie ty .F o re xamp le ,a mong t h eB la ck f oo t , t h ef i r s tw if e o r" s i t s -be s ide -h im " w if eo f am an d i rec ted a nd h ad a u tho r i ty o ve r a l o t he r w ive s o f h e r h u sband , a nd w a s a lowed a t i n f o rma l g a the r ing s t os moke t h ep i pe a nd p a r t ic ipa te i nt h e c onve r sa t ion ( G r inne l l 1 962 :217 -2 18 ) . S im i la r ly , t h ea r t ic le s i nK le in a nd A cke rman ( 1995 ) d emon s t ra te t h a t w omen i n m any n a t ive N o r th Ame r ican s o c ie t ie s h ad ,b o th h i s to r ica l ly a nd mo re r e cen t ly , mo re p owe r a nd a u tho r i ty t h an m any p r ev ious o bse rve r s h ave s ugge s ted . C oncep t s o fu n ive r sa l m a le d om inance a nd u n ive r sa l f ema le s ubo rd ina t ion w i th in a nd b e tween s o c ie t ie s c l ea r ly a r e f r equen t ly d i s to r t ing a nd i n app rop r ia t e . 2 1

w e re t h er i gh t s o fd i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h e c on t ro l o fc hanne ls o f d i s t r ibu t ion o fv a lued g oods a nd s e rv ice s , r a the r t h an r i gh t s a nd c on t ro l o ve r p roduc t ion . S ack s ( 1974 ) a rgued t h a t t h e i s sue w a s w he the r o rn o t w omen w e re a lowed t op a r t ic ipa te i na nd c on t ro l t h e s oc ia l p roduc t ion o fg oods f o r e xchange , a nd S anday 's ( 1973 , 1 974 ) mode l o f f ema le s t a tus r e s ted h eav i ly o n w omen 's c on t r ibu t ion t o p roduc t ion a s a n i n te rven ing v a r iab le . H oweve r , a s Moo re ( 1988 :29 , 3 5 ) n o ted , i ti sd i ff icu l t t os e e h ow t h e s t a tu s o fw omen o rw ha t " woman" m eans c u l tu ra l ly i na ny s oc ie ty c an b ed i rec t ly a nd s imp ly d e te rm ined f r om w ha t w omen d o i ns oc ie ty a nd t h e i r p os i t ion i nt h er e la t ions o fp roduc t ion .

S im i la r ly ,t h ed emons t ra t ion t h a t" woman " a nd " man " a r en o t u n ive rsa l c a tego r ies w i th in a nd b e tween c u l tu re s a l so i n d ica tes t h a t as imp le s t a temen t c ha rac te r iz ing t h e s t a tu s o f m en a nd w omen i n as oc ie ty c anno tb e made . T he re r ema ins c on t rove rsy o ve r wh ich mea su re s o r s i gns a r e t h e mo s t r e levan t f o r i nd ica t ing f ema le s t a tus ( M i l le r 1 993 :7 -8 ) . I n f a c t , b ecause t h ey h ave b een i n te rp re ted e t hnocen t r ica l ly a nd i n co r rec t ly , s ome o ft h e v a r iou s s i gns t h a t w e re a s sumed t o h ave s t a tu s i mp l ica t ions f o r women m ay h ave n one (Why te 1 978 :169 ) . F o r e xamp le , a n i nd ica to r o f ten c i ted a sh av ing s t a tus i mp l ica t ions f o rw omen ( i n t h is c a se , i n d ica t ing l owe r , s ubo rd ina te s t a tus ) i st h ep re sence o fm ens t rua l t a boos ( e .g . , H a r r is 1 993 :59 ; Young a nd B acdayan 1 965 ) . H oweve r , o t he r sh ave a r gued t h a t mens trua l t a boos a nd t h eb e l ie fi nt h e p o l lu t ion o fw omen a r e a c tua l ly s ymbo l s o fh igh p owe r a nd s t a tu s o fw omen ( s ee D eve reux 1 950 , c i ted i n Why te 1 978 ) . F o r e xamp le , We is t ( 1980 :260 ) n o ted t h a t r e s t r ic t ion s o n m ens t rua t ing w omen i n No r th Ame r ican P la ins s oc ie t ie s a ppea red t ob e a s soc ia ted , n o t w i th i d ea s o f p o l lu t ion , b u t w i th c oncep t ions o ft h e p owe r o fm ens t rua l b l ood . Ma randa ( 1974 :183 , 2 01) e ven n o ted t ha t w omen a mongs t t he Me lanes ian L au o f t h e S o lomon I s lands r ega rded t he ir s e c lus ion i nt h e i rm ens t rua l a nd b i r th h u t s , n o ta s ah a rd sh ip , b u t r a the r a s a" mon th ly v aca t ion" a nd a s h avens f r om h usband s a nd e ve ryday l i f e . T he q ue s t ion i mmed ia te ly a r ise s a st ow hy i t mus t b e a s sumed t h a ti tw a s men w ho b an ished w omen t o mens t rua l h u t s , i n s tead o fw omen p os s ib ly m ak ing t h ec ho ice o fb e ing i s o la ted d u r ing m ens t rua t ion . Among t h e A thapaskans o f t he Yukon T e r r i to ry , a t t he o nse t o f m ens t rua t ion , ay oung w oman w a s s e c luded f r om t h e m a in c amp f o r ap e r iod l a s t ing f r om af ew w eek st os eve ra l mon th s ( s ee C ru ik shank 1 979 :5 , 1 4 ; 1 990 :10 -11) . A t t h is t ime , s he h ad t o o bey s t r ic t f ood t aboos , c ou ld b e v i s i ted o n ly b y w omen , a nd , mos t i mpo r tan t ly , r e ce ived d e ta i led i n s t ruc t ion f r om t h eo l de rw omen a bou th e rp owe r s a s aw oman , a sw e l l a st h e a pp rop r ia te r o le s f o r w omen a nd t h e t e chn ica l s k i l ls n eeded t o p e rfo rm t hose r o le s a nd t a sks . O ra l a ccoun ts r e co rded b y C ru ik shank ( 1990 :10 -11 , 3 59 ) i nd ica ted t h a t i n s tead o f v i ew ing s ec luded w omen a s p o l lu t ing , t h e se w omen w e re a c tua l ly a dm ired a nd g iven h igh s t a tus , e spec ia l ly t h ose w omen who h ad l o ng s e c lus ion p e r iod s . T he r eason f o r t h is a dm ira t ion , a cco rd ing t o C ru ikshank ( 1 990 :11) , w a st h a ts eque s te r ing w a sa s soc ia ted w i th l e a rn ing r i tua l a nd p ra c t ica lk now ledge u nava i lab le t om en .

A no the r s i tua t ion t ha t f u r the r c onfuse s t he i s sue o f d e te rm in ing s t a tu si st h ef a c tt h a ti nm any s o c ie t ies , a l though m en w e re r ep re sen ted a sb e ing d om inan t a nd h av ing h ighe r s t a tu s w i th in t h e s oc ie ty , a nd b o th w omen a nd men a c t ive ly e ngaged i n ma in ta in ing t h is i lus ion , w omen a c tua l ly p os se s sed a nd w ie lded c ons ide rab le a moun t s o fp owe r— they w e re a b le t o a c t , s peak o u t , a nd m ake d ec is ions . T h is s i tua t ion i so f ten r e f e r red t oa st h e " my th o fm a le d om inance " ( e .g . , F r ied l 1 967 ; Ma randa 1 974 ; Me ig s 1 990 :106 ; s ee R oge r s 1 975 a nd S k inne r 1 993 f o ra dd i t iona l e xamp le s ) . I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t t h e d e te rm ina t ion o fs t a tus a nd v a lue o fa p a r t icu la rg ende r o rs ex i sp rob lema t ic a nd n o t a ss imp le a nd s t ra igh tf o rwa rd a s many a s sume . S t a tus d e te rm ina t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ions o f d om inance a nd s ubo rd ina t ion r equ i re e va lua t ion o ft h et h ing s m en a nd w omen d o a nd s ay ( M i l ton 1 979 :49 ) , a nd a r chaeo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s o f ten b r ing w e s te rn o rs t a te leve l a s sump t ions a bou ts t a tus ,p owe r , v a lue , a nd e qua l i ty i n to t h e i r w o rk . E ve ry c u l tu re , h oweve r , h a s i t s o wn c oncep t ion o f t h e p os i t ion a nd v a lue o f men , w omen , a nd i nd iv idua ls i ns oc ia l l i f e (Why te 1 978 :119 ) . Mo reove r , a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s ( e .g . , G o t t l ieb 1 990 :129 ; L ede rman 1 990 ; Me igs 1 990 ; S anday 1 990a ; S ch lege l 1 990 ) e ven s ugge s t t h a t f o r s ome s oc ie t ies t h e re a r e mu l t ip le g ende r i d eo log ie s , mu l t ip le mode ls o f g ende r s ymbo l ism , a nd mu l t ip le s t a tu se s a nd g ende r mean ings f o r m en a nd w omen wh ich c hange t h rough a n i n d iv idua l 's l i f ec yc le .F o re xamp le , S o lway ( 1992 :50 ) d emons t ra ted t h a ti nB akga lagad i s oc ie ty , t h e re t e nded t ob e ab lu r r ing o fs ex ro le d i s t inc t ions t owa rd m idd le a ge , a nd a n i n c rea se i no ppo r tun i t ie s f o r w omen f o r t h e a ch ievemen t o f h igh s t a tus ( s ee a dd i t iona l a r t ic le s i n K e rns a nd B rown 1 992 t ha t emphas ize t h e c hang ing p o s i t ions a nd " s ta tu s " o f w omen d u r ing t h e i r m idd le -aged a nd p os tmenopau sa ly ea r s ) .

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e a rgumen t o ve r t h e i nd ica to rs o f f ema le s t a tu s , t h e re i sa l so d i sag reemen t o ve r w h ich f a c to r s a r e t h e mos t i mpo r tan t f o r d e te rm in ing h igh a nd l ow s t a tus f o r w omen . S ome r e sea rche r s p ropo sed t h a t t h ee x ten t t ow h ich t h e d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic s phe re s w e re d i cho tom ized w a s a m a jo rd e te rm in ing f a c to r o ff ema le s t a tu s ; t h a ti s , i nc a se si n w h ich t h ed ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic w e re h i gh ly d i f f e ren t ia ted a nd w omen w e re i s o la ted i n t he d ome s t ic r ea lm , t h ey h ad l ow s t a tus , whe reas i n c ases i n wh ich t he s phe res w e re o ve r lapp ing , t a sk s w e re i n te rchangeab le , a nd w omen h ad a cce s s t oe x t radome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h us h ighe r s t a tu s a nd a u tonomy ( e .g . ,L epow sky 1 990 :177 , 1 79 ; R osa ldo 1 974 :36 ) . S anday ( 1981) s ugge s ted t ha t i n h a r she r a nd mo re h os t i le p hy s ica l h ab i ta t s a nd s oc ia l e nv i ronmen t s , w omen t e nded t o h ave l owe r s t a tus . L eacock ( 1992 :232 ) a r gued t ha t f ema le s t a tu s d epended u pon h ow women 's e conom ic c on t r ibu t ion w a s s t ruc tu red , t h a t i s , whe the r o rn o t w omen c on t ro l led t h e c ond i t ions o ft h e i r w o rk a nd t h e d i spensa t ion o ft h e g oods t h ey p roduced . S im i la r ly , F r ied ! ( 1975 :61) p roposed t h a t t h e e s sen t ia l e l emen t s f o r u nde r s tand ing d i f f e rence s i n p owe r b e tween t h e s exe s , wh ich wa s u l t ima te ly r e la ted t o s t a tus ,

I na dd i t ion t ot h ef a c to r so fc u l tu re a nd a ge ,i n d iv idua l i ty w i l l a l so r e su l t i n v a r ia t ion i n s t a tus a nd v a lue d e te rm ina t ions . E a ch p e r son , r e ga rd le s so fg ende r ,i su n ique ,m ake sh i s o rh e r o wn c ho ices a nd d ec is ions , a nd n ego t ia te s d i f f e ren t ly w i th p eop le d epend ing u pon t he s i tua t ion a nd c on tex t . I n o ne s i tua t ion o r d oma in o f s oc ia l l i fe , aw oman o r am an m ay h ave c on t ro l , h i gh s t a tus , r e spec t , a nd p owe r , w he rea s i n a no the r s i tua t ion , h e o rs he m ay n o t , a s Me igs ( 1990 ) n o ted f o r t h e H ua o fP apua N ew Gu inea a nd L ee ( 1982 :39 ) n o ted f o r t h e ! Kung . I no t he r w o rds , t h e i d en t i ty o fa n i n d iv idua l , i n c lud ing a spec t s o fp owe r a nd s t a tu s , i sn o t ac ons tan t , b u t r a the r may b e ar ad ica l ly n ego t iab le , c on tex t -dependen t c ons t ruc t (Wy l ie 1 992b :60 ) . I n a dd i t ion , a s S o lway ( 1992 :50 ) s ugges ted , o f ten t he d oma ins o fs oc ia ll i f ei nw h ich i nd iv idua l sc an a t ta in p re s t ige a nd s t a tus a r e d i f f e ren t f o r men , w omen , t h e y oung , a nd t h e o l d , a nd t hus a r e n o t n ece ssa r i ly c ompa rab le i na l r e spec t s . 2 2

t h e B a r i t r op ica l h o r t icu l tu ra l is t s i n C o lomb ia -Venezue la ( Buenaven tu ra -Pos so a nd B rown 1 980 :118 -119 ) , t h eI l ongo t o fP h i l ipp ine s oc ie ty ( Rosa ldo 1 974 :39 ) , a nd t h e V ana t ina i o n a n i s land s ou thea s t o f t he New Gu inea ma in land ( Lepowsky 1 990 ) .

H oweve r , w omen 's s t a tu s c an b e s t ud ied o n ly i nr e la t ion t o s ome th ing e l se , a nd t h a t s ome th ing e l se i s mos t o f ten s ome v ague n o t ion o f men 's s t a tu s ( M i l le r 1 993 :13 ) . H oweve r , a s M i l le r ( 1993 :13 ) a sked , i s men 's s t a tu s au n ive r sa l a ga ins t wh ich w omen 's s t a tu s a t a ny p lace a nd a ny t ime c an b e a s se s sed? Mo re l i ke ly , ma le s t a tus a l so v a r ie s a cco rd ing t o c u l tu re ,c on tex t , a nd s i tua t ion .

Among t h e E sk imo ( s ee B r igg s 1 974 :270 -271) a nd mo re s pec if ica l ly t h e I f l up ia t ( s ee B odenho rn 1 990 :60 ) , men a nd w omen w e re n o t s een a si n capab le o fd o ing t a sk s g ene ra l ly a s s igned t o amembe r o f t h e o ppos i te s ex . D e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t i tw a s w omen w ho g ene ra l ly d id t h e s ew ing , m en 's h un t ing k i ts a lways c on ta ined a s e t o f s ew ing t oo ls ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :60 ) . I f af am i ly w a s s ho r t o fd augh te r s , a s on may h ave b een b rough t u p t o h e lp h i s mo the r . C onve rse ly , i f af am i ly h ad n o s ons , ad augh te r may h ave b een b rough t u p a s ah un te r . I ft h e re w a s as ho r tage o fm en , w omen w e re r e c ru i ted t o g o o n t he w ha le b oa t . Mu rdoch ( 1892 :413 , c i ted i n B odenho rn 1 990 ) p rov ided n ume rous a ccoun t s o f g ood f ema le h un te r s ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :60 ) . I n f a c t , a dm i ra t ion w a s e xp re ssed f o r w omen who w e re g ood h un te rs , a nd m en f r equen t ly s ough t t h e i r o p in ions ( Br iggs 1 974 :271) . T he r e su l t s o f ar e cen t I nuv ia lu i t o ra l h i s to ry p ro jec t ( Nagy 1 994 :112 ) l e nd f u r the r s uppo r t t o t h e c l a im t h a t I nu i t g ende r r o les w e re much mo re f l ex ib le t han t y p ica l ly p o r t rayed , a nd t h a tm any I nuv ia lu i tw omen w e re , i n f a c t , v e ry p rof ic ien t i nt r app ing a nd h un t ing s k i l ls , s k i l ls n o t e xc lu s ive t om en .

I n ac omp rehens ive c r os s -cu l tu ra l s t udy e xam in ing h ow a w ide r a nge o f " a spec t s " o f t h e s t a tu s o f w omen r e la t ive t o men v a r ied , Why te ( 1978 :116 ) c onc luded t ha t t h e re w a s n o e v idence f o rt h ee x is tence o fa ny g ene ra l " s ta tu s o fw omen " c omp lex t h a t v a r ied c ons is ten t ly f r om c u l tu re t o c u l tu re ; r a the r ,t h es o -ca l led i nd ica to r sa nd a spec t so fs t a tus t e nded t o v a ry i n dependen t ly f r om c u l tu re t o c u l tu re . C lea r ly , t h e e v idence s ugge s t s t ha t s t a tus i s ad ynam ic p henomenon a nd n o t au n id imens iona l f e a tu re ( So lway 1 992 :49 -50 ; T if fany 1 979 :4 ) . T he refo re , o ne c anno t s ea r ch f o r t h e b e s t s i ng le i n d ica to ro ft h es t a tu so fw omen ( o rm en , f o rt h a tm a t te r ) , o r f o r au n ive r sa l p os i t ion o f w omen i ns oc ie ty ; i n s tead , o ne mus t s t a r t w i th t he a s sump t ion t h a t t h e re i sn o c ohe ren t c oncep t o f o r n o s imp le e n t i ty a s t h e s t a tus o f w omen ( o r m en ) t h a tc an b e i den t if ied a c ros s o rw i th in c u l tu re s ( B le ie r 1 984 :140 -141 ; Why te 1 978 :170 ) . 3 . 2 .1 .2 C r i t ique o ft he C ommon l y H e ld V iew o ft he S exua l D iv i s ion o fL abour I na dd i t ion t od emons t ra t ing t h ev a r iab i l i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f t h e c a tego r ie s o f " woman ," " man , " a nd " mo the r ," g ende r r e sea rch h a s a l so i lu s t ra ted t h a t i nm any c a se s t h ec ommon v i ew o f ar i g id s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r c ha rac te r ized b y m en a sh un te r s a nd p ub l ic l e ade r s , a nd w omen a sg a the re r s a nd d ome s t ic w o rke r si si n app rop r ia te a nd v e ry r e s t r ic t ive . I n f a c t ,d a ta f r om v a r iou se t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s a ppea rt od eny t h e u n ive r sa l i ty o ft h e w oman the -ga the re r , man the -hun te r mode l ; i n s tead , t hey a dvance t h e i d ea t h a t h un te r -ga the re r s ( s ee E s t ioko -G r iff in a nd G r iff in 1 981 :143 ) a nd o t he r n ons t a te a nd n on -wes te rn s oc ie t ie s w e re a nd a r e r ema rkab ly f l ex ib le i n t he i r o rgan iza t ion . A s Z ih lman ( 1981 :103 ) c onc luded , n o s pec if ic p hys ica l c ha rac te r is t ics c an b e i n te rp re ted t o s i gn ify t ha t o n ly m a le s h un t a nd f ema les g a the r ; t h u s , ad iv is ion o f l a bou r p robab ly e vo lved l a te i n h uman e vo lu t ion a nd h a sb een n eve rf i xed a nd a bso lu te .

I n a dd i t ion t o f l ex ib i l i ty i n t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r , a no the r f e a tu re m o re r e cen t ly r evea led b y g ende rr e sea rch a s f r equen t ly c ha rac te r is t ic o f n on -s ta te a nd n on-wes te rn s oc ie t ie s i st h a t o f t h e c omp lemen ta ry n a tu re o f m en 's a nd w omen 's p roduc t ive r o les , a nd t he i n te rdependen t c oope ra t ion b e tween m en a nd w omen , r a the r t h an o ne s ex b e ing h igh ly e conom ica l ly d ependen t u pon t h e o the r , a s i mp l ic i t ly s ugge s ted b y t h e " Man t h e H un te r " mode l . T he re a re r e fe rences t o men 's a nd w omen 's w o rk b e ing c omp lemen ta ry a nd i n te rdependen t , a nd ma jo r e conom ic t a sk s o f ten b e ing p e r fo rmed c oope ra t ive ly b y b o th s exe s a mong , f o r e xamp le , t h e Mbu t i o ft h e I t u r i F o re s t ( Tu rnbu l l 1 961 :154 ) , t he V ana t ina i ( Lepowsky 1 990 :184 ) , t he A us t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s ( Be l l 1 980 :244 ; K abe r ry 1 939 :27 , c i ted i n R oh r l ich -Leav i t t e ta l . 1 975 :115 ) , t h e Me lanes ian L au o ft h eS o lomon I s land s ( Ma randa 1 974 :200 ) , t h eC oa s ta l A lgonk ian ( s ee G rume t 1 980 :56 f o r d e ta i ls a nd r e f e rence s ) , v a r ious n o r theas t F lo r ida g roups p r io r t o c o lon iza t ion ( T roco l l i 1 992 :96 ) , a nd t h e B a r i o n t h e C o lomb ia -Venezue la b o rde r ( Buenaven tu ra -Posso a nd B rown 1 980 :118 -119 ; s ee a l so t h ev a r ious a r t ic le s i nD ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 wh ich s ugge s t b a lance a nd i n te rdependen t c oope ra t ion b e tween t h e s exe s f o rn ume rous o t he rn on -we s te rn s oc ie t ies ) . Many o t he rw o rk s ( s ee t h e a r t ic le s i nE t ienne a nd L eacock , e d . 1 980 )h ave a l so d i scussed t h e i mpo r tance o f t h is p r inc ip le o f f ema le -ma le c omp lemen ta r i ty f o r m any n on -we s te rn s oc ie t ie s , a nd i t s i n ev i tab le c l a sh w i th t h e h ie ra rch ica l o rgan iza t ion t h a t w a s i n t roduced w i th E u ropean c o lon iza t ion .

I n c rea s ing e t hnog raph ic e v idence f r om h un te r -ga the re r s a nd o t he r n on -s ta te s oc ie t ie s i sn ow e me rg ing t h a t s ugge s t s t h a t w omen a nd men o f ten h ave mu l t if ace ted a nd f l ex ib le r o le s ; mo reove r , t he i r a c t iv i t ie s a nd s phe re s f r equen t ly o ve r lap , w i th ac ons ide rab ly l e ss r i g id d i s t inc t ion b e tween m a le a nd f ema le r o le s t han p rev ious ly b e l ieved ( D rape r 1 975 :77 ) . D e sp i te h av ing wo rk t h a t i ss een a s t yp ica l ly w omen 's o r men 's , i n many s oc ie t ie s i nd iv idua ls o f ten c ross s ex l i ne s w i thou t h e s i ta t ion a nd w i thou t l o s ing s t a tus o r r e spec t . T u rnbu l l ( 1 961 :110 , 1 54 ) n o ted f o rt h e Mbu t i P ygm ie s o ft h e I t u r iF o re s tt h a t wha tl i t t le s pec ia l iza t ion e x is ted a cco rd ing t o s ex w a sn o te xc lus ive ; f o re xamp le ,w omen c ou ld p a r t ic ipa te i nt h ed i scu ss ions o fm en , w h i le m en w ou ld f r equen t ly p i ck mush rooms a nd n u t s , a nd w a sh a nd c l ean b ab ies . T h is s i tua t ion o fr o le f l ex ib i l i ty a nd o ve r lap h a s b een n o ted f o r m any o t he rn on -s ta te s oc ie t ie s , i n c lud ing t h e ! Kung ( D rape r 1 975 :87 ) , t he C ree o f t he J ame s B ay r eg ion ( F lanne ry 1 935 :82 -83 ) , I nu i tg roups ( Br igg s 1 974 :270 -271 ; B odenho rn 1 990 :60 ) , t h e C oa s ta l A lgonk ian ( Grume t 1 980 :54 -56 ) , t h e A thapa skan I nd ians o f t h e Y ukon T e r r i tory ( C ru ik shank 1 990 :10 ) , N o r th Ame r ican P la in s g roups (We is t 1 980 :262 ) ,

T h is c omp lemen ta ry n a tu re o f r o les a nd t a sk s w as a cknow ledged b y v a r ious g roups , a nd w a s f r equen t ly r ef lec ted i nt h e i r i d eo logy a nd t h e v a lue t h ey p l aced o n m en a nd w omen a nd t h e i r w o rk . Wh i le d i f f e rence s b e tween men a nd w omen a nd t h e i r r o le s a nd w o rk w e re f r equen t ly n o ted , t hey w e re e qua ted , n o t n ecessa r i ly t o i nequa l i ty a nd h ie ra rch ica l n o t ions o f v a lue , b u t r a the r o f ten t o c omp lemen ta r i ty , i n te rdependence , a nd b a lance ( s ee d i scu s s ion o f t he c oncep t o f c omp lemen ta r i ty i n J oyce 2 3

t h e n o r the r n b o rea l f o re s t o fC anada ( Sha rp 1 981 :228 , 2 30 ) , a nd t h e M i s ta s s in i C ree o f Quebec ( Tanne r 1 979 :153 ) , a s s oon a s t h e m ea t p rocu red b y m en w a s b r ough t i n to t h e c amp ,i tb e came t h ep r ope r ty o ft h ew if eo rm o the r ,w ho t h en h ad t h er i gh tt oc on t ro l t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h a tm ea t . F o rt h e ! Kung , aw oman r e ta ined c on t ro l o ve r t h e f o od s h e h ad g a the red a nd i t s d i s t r ibu t ion , b u t am a le h un te r h ad l i t t le e f f ec t ive c on t ro l o ve r t h e l a rge g ame m ea t t h a t h e h ad b rough t i n to c amp , a s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f m ea t w a s c i rcum sc r ibed b y s o c ia l r u le s a nd d emand s o ff e l low c amp m embe r s( D rape r 1 975 :84 ) .

1 993 :27 1-272 ) . A s n o ted b y T u rnbu l l ( 1 961 ) , a mong t h e Mbu t i , a l though s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion w a s am a jo rp r inc ip le o fs o c ia lo r gan iza t ion , t h e Mbu t iw o rked h a rd a te mpha s iz ing t h e c omp lemen ta r i ty a nd i n te rdependence o f t h e s exe s ( Tu rnbu l l 1 981 :219 ) , a nd c ons ide red w omen a s e s sen t ia l p a r tne r s i n t h e e conomy ( Tu rnbu l l 1 961 :206 ) . F o r t h e I üup ia t , t h e i n te rdependence o f m en a nd w omen i n b o th h un t ing r i tua ls a nd s u rv iva l w a s a cknow ledged a nd a pp rec ia ted ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :65 ) . B ecause w i thou t f u r c l o th ing a nd w a te r sk in b oo t s , am an c ou ld f r eeze t od ea th , t h es k i l l so fw omen w e re p e rce ived a sb e ing a si n d i spen sab le t oE sk imo s u rv iva l a st h ose o fm en ( B r igg s 1 974 :288 ) . T he i d eo log ie s o f t h e Nuu -chah -nu l th o f t h e w e s t c oa s t o f V ancouve rI s land ( s ee Moogk 1 991 :106 ) a nd t h eT oke lauan s a nd t h e S amoan s f r om t h e i s land s o ft h e c en t ra l P ac if ic ( s e e H un t sman a nd H oope r 1 979 ; T if f any 1 979 :21-22 ) , w h i le s t re s s ing t h e d i f f e rence sb e tween t h e s e xe s a nd t h e f a c t t h a t m en a nd w omen w e re n o tt h es ame , a l so t e nded t oe mpha s ize t h a tb o th m en a nd w omen w e re v a lued , n e i the rw a ss upe r io r , a nd b o th w e re e qua l ly i mpo r tan t a nd c omp lemen ta ry t ot h e s o c ie ty .

I n a dd i t ion t ot h e n ume rou s r e f e rence s t ow omen h un t ing a mong s ome h un t e r -ga the re r s a nd n on -we s t e rn s o c ie t ie s ( s ee C hap te r2 ) , t h e re a r ea l so a c coun t so fw ome np a r t ic ipa t ing i n s p i r i tua l a nd h ea l ing a c t iv i t ie s a s m ed ic ine w omen a nd p hy s ic ian s . F o r e xamp le , G rume t ( 1980 :53 -54 ) p rov ided r e fe rence s t h a t a t te s ted t ot h e p re sence o fm ed ic ine w omen a mong s t t h eC oa s ta l A lgonk ian , a nd C r u ik shank ( 1 979 :35 ) n o ted t h a tt h e re w e re a c coun t s o fw omen h ea le r s a mong t h e A thapa sk an I n d ians o ft h eY ukon T e r r i to r y .

A long w i th t h is e v idence f o rt h ei mpo r tance o fr o le f l ex ib i l i ty a nd c omp lemen ta r i ty a mong h un te r -ga the re r s a nd o t he rn on s t a te s o c ie t ie s , m any e t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ic a c coun t s i n d ica te t h a t w omen h ave p e r f o rmed am uch w ide rr a nge o f a c t iv i t ie s t h an s ugge s ted b y s t e reo typ ica l v i ews o f g ende r r o le s . F o r e xamp le , t h e re a r e i n d ica t ions t h a t w omen i n C oa s ta l A lgonk ian s oc ie ty ( G rume t 1 980 :56 -58 ) , i nT l ing i t s o c ie ty ( K le in 1 980 :93 , 9 7 ) , a mong t h e N ew G u inea Mend i ( Lede rman 1 990 :49 ) , a nd i n V ana t ina i s o c ie ty ( Lepow sky 1 990 ) , t on ame b u t af ew ,p l ayed c en t ra l a nd p rom inen tr o le s i nt r ade , t r ad i t iona l e xchange , a nd m anag ing w ea l th , h ad t h e a u tonomy t od e te rm ine t h ea loca t ion o ft h ep r oduc t so ft h e i r l a bou r , a nd , i n d o ing s o , o f ten t r ave l led a s f a r a s m en t o e xchange g ood s . A lso , i nm any s oc ie t ie s , w omen p a r t ic ipa ted i ns i gn if ican t w ay s i n t h e s o -ca l led p o l i t ica l a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e i r g r oups . Among t h e I r oquo is ( s ee B rown 1 975 , 1 979b ) , a l though w omen c ou ld n o ts e rve o n t h eC ounc i l o fE lde r s ,m a t ron sh ad t h ep owe rt or a i se a nd d epo se r u l ing e l de r s , a nd i nf luence t h e d e c is ion s o fC ounc i l a nd t h o se r e la ted t ot h ec onduc t o fw a r a nd t r ea t ie s ( B rown 1 975 :238 -239 ) . G rume t ( 1 980 :49 -53 ) i d en t if ied n ume rous e t hnog raph ic a c coun t s t h a t r e f e r red t o w omen a mong t h e M idd le A t lan t ic C oa s ta l A lgonk ian b e com ing c h ie f s , l e ad ing g r oup sa tb o th t h ev i l lage a nd t r ibe l e ve l . A sw e l l , w omen i nm any s o c ie t ie sw e re c l ea r ly a b le t o p a r t ic ipa te i n p ub l ic ly r e cogn ized w ays i n p o l i t ica l , e conom ic , a nd s oc ia l d ec is ion -mak ing p roce sse s ( e .g . , F a i tho rn 1 975 :129 ; L epow sky 1 990 ) . F o re xamp le , L ea cock ( 1 980 :29 )n o t ed t h a ta mong t h e Mon tagna i s -Na skap i ,w omen w e re i n vo lved i n m ak ing i mpo r tan t d ec is ions a bou t t h e g r oup 's m ovemen t s , j ou rney s , a nd w in te r ing s , w h ich w ou ld a f f e c t t h ee n t i re g r oup a nd n o tj u s t t h e s o -ca l led " dome s t ic " a r ena .

C on t ra ry t ot h ec ommon n o t ion t h a tw omen w e re c onf ined t o t h eh ome c amp w h i le m en w e re t h eo ne sw ho t r ave l led ,k new t h el a nd , a nd w e re r e spon s ib le f o re x te rna lr e la t ion s , w omen a mong t h e V ana t ina i h ad ar ema rkab le d eg ree o fp hy s ica l m ob i l i ty f o r a t tend ing f e a s t s a nd u nde r tak ing j ou rney s ( Lepow sky 1 9 90 :187 ) . S im i la r ly , b e cau se i tw a st r ad i t iona l ly t h e w oman 's j o b a mong t h eI f l up ia t t ob r ing t h eh un t ed m ea t b ack h ome , t h ey k new t h el a nd a sw e l l a st h em en , a nd w e re o f ten b e t te r d og h and le r s a nd t r acke r s ( Bu rch , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , c i ted i nB odenho rn 1 990 :60 ) . Mo reove r , w omen a mong n o r the rn h un te rs w ou ld n eed i n t ima te k now ledge o ft h et e r ra in n o t o n ly f o r t r an spo r t ing m ea t , b u t a l so f o r o t he r a c t iv i t ie s s u ch a s c o l lec t ing a nd t r anspo r t ing r e sou r ce s l i k eb e r r ie s , s p ruce r oo t s , a nd b i rch b a rk ( Cha r le s S chwege r , p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 995 ) .H ea rne ( 1 971 :90 ) n o ted t h a ta mong t h eN o r the rn C h ipewyan I n d ian s , w heneve r t h e m en h ad k i l led a ny l a rge a n ima l , i tw a st h e w omen w ho b rough t i tb a ck t o c amp f o r p roce s s ing a nd c ook ing . Mo reove r , t h e f a c t t h a t w omen t r ave l led w i th H ea rne f o r p a r t s o fh i s e xped i t ion t ot h e a r c t ic s ho re i nt h e e a r ly 1 770 s , a nd c a r r ied t h e h eavy l o ads , a nd , w hen s e pa ra ted f r om t h e m en , m anaged t ot r ave l a nd s uppo r t t h em se lve s , i n d ica te s t h a t t h ey n ece s sa r i ly h ad t ob e a s k now ledgeab le a bou t t h e t e r ra in a nd r e sou rce sa r ound t h em a st h em en . K o rnf e ld a nd F r a nc is ( 1 99 1 :444 -445 ) o u t l in ed t h ew ide r a nge o f a c t iv i t ie s u nde r taken b y n a t ive N o r th Ame r ican P l a in s w omen . Mo re s p ec if ica l ly , r e f e rence s h ave b een m ade t o w omen p a r t ic ipa t ing i nw a r f a re a nd r a id ing a c t iv i t ie sa mong t h e C row , G ro s V en t re , Mandan , P awnee , C heyenne , a nd B lack foo t ( e .g . , Ewe rs 1 969 :190 ; G r inne l l 1 923 :157 ; Med ic ine 1 983 ; We is t 1 980 :263 ) . S tud ie s d ocumen ted a c coun t s o f S i oux w omen o f c h i ldbea r ing a ge w ho h ad d r iven b uf f a lo o nh o r seba ck ( Lande s 1 968 :49 , 6 9 , 1 65 ) , h ad i n s t iga ted a nd j o ined w a rp a r t ie s ( Lande s 1 968 :39 , 5 0 , 11 , 2 06 ) , a nd h ad s t a lked , s ca lped , a nd m u t i la ted e nem ie s , e a rn ing w a r h onou r s , a sm en d i d , f o r b r av e d eed s ( Lande s 1 968 :49 ,6 9 , 1 66 ,2 12 ,2 13 ; Wh i tehead 1 98 1 :9 1 ) . A sw e l l , a n a u tob iog raphy o f aN o r the rn C heyenne w oman n amed I r on T ee th , i na dd i t ion t od i scu s s ing w omen i nb a t t le , r e coun ted h ow s h eh ad o f ten h un ted b o th w i th h e rh u sband a nd a l one , a nd h ad s e a rch ed f o r w i ld h o rse s t h a t s h e w ou ld t ame a nd b r eak h e r se lf ( L imbaugh 1 973 :8 , 1 5 -16 ) . Among t h eP e igan , w omen w ho e xh ib i ted c ha rac te r is t ics o f a gg re s s ivene s s ,

I n s ome c a se s , w omen h ad s i gn if ican t c on t ro l o ve r t h e e conom ic o r gan iza t ion a nd p roduc t ion o f t h e s oc ie ty . F o r e xamp le , w i th t h e i rc on t ro lo ft h es t o red f o od a nd t h er i gh tt o d i s t r ibu te a nd d i spense a l f o od , e ven t h a tp rocu red b y m en , a sw e l l a st h e i rc on t ro l o fs upp ly ing h un t ing , w a rp a r t ie s , a nd v i l lage f e s t iva ls , w omen h e ld a p owe rfu l p os i t ion i n I r oquo ian s o c ie ty ( Brown 1 975 :248 , 2 50 -251 ) . A s i n t h e c a se so fm any o t he rs oc ie t ie s , f o re xamp le t h e Mundu rucü o f t h e Amazon r e g ion ( Nade lson 1 981 :246 ) , t h e C h ipewyan o f 2 4

ag r ea td ea l o fc oope ra t ion a nd c o l lec t iv i ty i nd ome s t ic w o rk b e tween h ou seho ld s , a sw e l l a st h e u se o fk i nsh ip a nd n on k i nsh ip l i nk s b y w omen t og a in a cce s s t or e sou rce s o u t s ide t h eh ouseho ld , a nd t oe s tab l ish a nd m a in ta in l i nk s b e tween g r oup s ( s e e Moo re 1 988 :6 1 , 1 65 f o r f u r the r d i scu s s ion a nd r e fe rence s ) . H ou seho ld s c anno t n ece s sa r i ly b e r e duced t o e i the r t h e s o -ca l led p r iva te o rd ome s t ic s phe re . I nf a c t , t h ey w e re m o re l i ke ly t h e c en t re s o f aw ide r a nge o fi n d iv idua l a nd g roup a c t iv i ty r e su l t ing i nt h e f o rma t ion o f s o c ia l a nd e conom ic a l iance s . A s J oyce ( 1993 :272 ) c l a imed f o r p re H ispan ic s ou the rn C en t ra l Ame r ican s oc ie t ie s , a nd s e em s l o g ica l f o r o t he r p reh is to r ic a nd c on tempo ra ry s o c ie t ie s , h ou seho ld so f ten w e re v e ry p ub l ic p l ace s .

b o ldne s s , i n dependence , a nd s e xua l i ty , mo s t o fw hom w e re p os tmenopausa l , w e re g iven man ly h ea r t s t a tus , a p henomenon w e l l d ocumen ted b y O sca r L ew is ( 1941) . D empsey ( 1 980 :71) made r e f e rence t o am an ly h ea r ted w oman n amed R evenge Wa lke r , w ho w a s as i s te r o f R ed C row , t h e h ead c h ief o ft h e B lood T r ibe i nt h e l a te 1 800 s . R evenge Wa lke r " r ode l i ke am an , h un ted b uf f a lo , a nd w a s a n e xce l len t s ho t ." G r inne l l ( 1923 :156 ) r epo r ted t h a t C heyenne w omen p o s se s sed g rea t i nf luence e spec ia l ly i n t r iba l m a t t e r s a nd w e re " t he f i na l a u tho r i ty i nt h e c amp . " I n t h e r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e K iowaApache , C heyenne , A rapaho , G ros V en t re , S i oux , C ree , a nd B lack f oo t , w omen p l ayed c en t ra l s ymbo l ic a nd r i tua l r o le s ( We i s t 1 980 :2592 60 ) , a nd a mong t h e M is sou r i R ive r g roups , w omen p a r t ic ipa t ed i ni n te r t r iba l t r ade n e two rk s ( We is t 1 980 :262 ) . G r inne l l ( 1 962 :216 , 2 86 ) n o ted t h a t m any o ft h e d oc to r s o f t h e h i ghe s t r e pu ta t ion a mong s t t h e B lack f oo t w e re w omen , n am ing Wood C h ief Woman a nd Two B ea r Woman a s e xamp le s ( s ee a l so McC l in tock 1 992 :324 ) . Among t h e B lack f oo t ,w omen m ay h ave h ad c on s ide rab ly m o re p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic i nf luence a nd p owe r t h an t r ad i t iona l ly a s sumed . AB la ck foo tw oman m ade a nd o wned t h el o dge a nd a lmo s te ve ry th ing i ni t .S i nce w omen ' sl a bou rp r oduced m o re f i n ished p r oduc t s t h an m en ' sh un t ing , i ti sl i ke ly t h a tw omen c on t ro l led c ons ide rab le a moun t s o f w ea l th ( Cona ty 1 995 :407 ) .

T he s t ruc tu ra l o ppos i t ion i n he ren t i n t h i s p r iva te /pub l ic d i cho tomy m ode l m ay b e a pp rop r ia te i n s ome c a se s f o r w e s te rn o r s t a te leve l , i ndus t r ia l , s ubu rban s oc ie t ies ( h oweve r , e ven t h is v i ew i sh i gh ly q ue s t ionab le ) , b u ti tm os t l i ke ly d i s to r t s t h es t ruc tu re a nd c ha rac te r o fg ende r r e la t ion s i nn on -we s te rn , n on -s ta te , a nd p reh is to r ic g roup s ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :19 ; L eacock 1 978 ) . F o r s ma l le r s c a le c ommun i t ie s t h a t a r en o t s t ruc tu red a l ong c l a s s l i ne s , w he re h ou seho ld p r oduc t ion a nd m anagemen t a r e s imu l taneou s ly p ub l ic , e conom ic , a nd p o l i t ica l , t h e a na ly t ica l s e pa ra t ion o f s o c ia ll i f ei n to d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic s phe re sm ake sn os e nse a t a l ( s ee L ea cock 1 992 :226 , 2 28 , 2 29 ) . T he s oc ia l w o r ld c anno t b e s imp ly r e duced t os phe re s o fp r iva te a nd p ub l ic , w i th p owe rl im i ted t om a le si nt h es o -ca l led p ub l ic a r ena ( s ee d i scus s ions a nd e xamp le s i n B odenho rn 1 990 ; L amphe re 1 974 ;N e l son 1 974 ) .

I n s umma ry , f r om t h e f ew e xamp le s p r e sen ted h e re a nd t h e g row ing r e sea rch d ea l ing w i th g ende ra s pe c t s , i th a sb e come a ppa ren t t h a t t h e re i sn o c ommon a nd l o g ica l c o r re la t ion b e twe en ap a r t icu la r t o o l , c r a f t , t a sk , o ri d ea l ized b ehav iou r a nd as p ec if ic s ex ( Bruhn s 1 991 :427 ) ; t h u s , t h e u n ive r sa l i ty o f ar i g id s exua ld iv i s ion o fl a bou rc an n ol o nge rb e a s sumed ( Wy l ie 1 99 1b :18 ) .

T he e xamp le s p rov ided i nt h is c hap te r , a nd n ume rou s o t he r e t hnog raph ic a c coun t sa nd s t ud ie so fm a le / f ema le r o le s( e .g . , A lbe r sa nd Med ic ine 1 983 ;C laa s sen ,e d . 1 992 ;D ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 ; Ma t th ia s son , e d . 1 974 ; R e i te r , e d . 1 975 ; T i f f any , e d . 1 979 ) h ave i lu s t ra ted t h a t w omen 's a nd m en 's a c t iv i t ie s f l ex ib ly c r o s st h ea r t if ic ia ld i cho tomy o ft h ef ema le d ome s t ic s phe re a nd t h e m a le p ub l ic s phe re . G ende r r e sea rch h a s c l ea r ly s hown t h a t t h e d ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy i s p rob lema t ic , a r t if ic ia l , a na ly t ica l ly c ons t ra in ing , a nd p o ten t ia l ly d i s to r t ing ( Moo re 1 988 :30 , 4 9 ) . B y v i ew ing t h e w o r ld d i cho tom ized i n to d ome s t ic / f ema le a nd p ub l ic /ma le s phe re s , a r cha eo log is t sc r ea te a n i n a ccu ra te f o cu so fr e sea rch o n t h e m u tua l ly e xc lu s ive s e pa ra t ion o fw omen 's a nd m en 's r o le s , r a the r t h an o n t h ef l ex ib le , c hang ing w ay s t h a tw omen a nd m en i n te rdependen t ly i n te rac ted i nt h e p a s t ( Spence rWood 1 99 1 :237 ) .

3 . 2 .1 .3 C r i t ique o ft h e C oncep t o f t h e D ome s t i c /Pub l i c D i cho t om y A sd emon s t ra ted a bove , t h et e ndency f o ra n th ropo log is t sa nd a r chaeo log i s t st ot r ea t" woman " a nd " man " a ss i ng le ,n a tu ra l , f i xed , y e to ppo s ing c a tego r ie si sq ue s t ionab le . Mo reove r , t h e p ro jec t ion o f ad ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy o n to t h is s uppo sed d i cho tomous f ema le /ma le d i v is ion i ss u spec t a s w e l l ( s ee J oyce 1 993 :272 f o r a mo re d e ta i led d i scuss ion ) . T h is d ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy , d e r ived i n l a rge p a r t f r om n ine teen th -cen tu ry V ic to r ian i d ea ls , h a s l o ng i nf luenced a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion . O f ten t h e b e l ie f st h a tt h ed ome s t ic s phe re i su n ive r sa l ly d emeaned a nd s ubo rd ina te t ot h e m a le p ub l ic s phe re , a nd c onsequen t ly t h a t w omen a r e s omehow s e en a sl e s s t h an p e r sons b ecause t h ey a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e d ome s t ic s phe re , u nde r l ie m any a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l mode ls . H oweve r , t h is a s sump t ion o ft h e d en ig ra t ion o ft h e d ome s t ic s phe re i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly c r o ss -cu l tu ra l ly v a l id ( s ee d i scus s ion i n Moo re 1 988 :40 ) . Mo reove r , w omen ' s d ome s t ic a nd r e p roduc t ive l a bou rc a nno tb e a s sumed t ob e as e t o fn a tu ra l ly g i ven t a sk s c ommon t oa l s oc ie t ie sa ta l t i me s , a ny m o re t h an i tc an b e a s sumed t h a t a l l w omen p e r f o rm ed t h e se t a sk s ( s ee Moo re 1 988 :53 -56 f o r mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion a nd r e f e rence s ) .

3 . 2 .1 .4 S umma ry o fC r i t ique s G ende r r e sea rch o ft h e p a s t 3 0 y ea r sh a s d emon s t ra ted b o th t h e d i ve r s i ty o fi d eo log ie s o ff ema lene s s a nd m a lene s s , a nd t h e t r emendous v a r iab i l i ty i n s ex r o les , r e la t ions , a nd h i e ra rch ie s w i th in a nd b e tween c u l tu re s , e spec ia l ly w i th r e f e rence t o t h e w ide r a nge o f a c t ive a nd p owe r fu l r o le s p e r f o rmed b yw omen ( Wy l ie 1 992a :26 , 1 992b :53 ) .A s Moo re ( 1988 :73 ) a r gued , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange i s a c on t inuou s p roce s s w h ich i sc ons tan t ly t r ansf o rm ing a nd r e c rea t ing t h e s e xua l d i v i s ion o fl a bou ra nd g ende rr e la t ions . I n e s sence , g ende r s y s tems a nd r e la t ion s h ave n o f i xed u n ive r sa l e s sence ; t h ey v a ry a c ros s t ime a nd s p ace , a r e f l u id a nd f l ex ib le , a nd a r e s i tua ted w i th in t h e c on tex t o f a p a r t icu la r c u l tu re ( F lax 1 987 :642 , c i ted i nB o len 1 991 :403 ; S t ine 1 991 :499 ) . A s Why te ( 1978 :168 ) n o ted , t h e e mpha s is o n u n ive r sa ls m u s t b e a bandoned a nd t h e r e a l i ty o f c r o s s c u l tu ra l v a r ia t ion a cknow ledged . B ecau se o ft h is l a ck o fa ny

I n a dd i t ion t o n o t a s sum ing t h a t t h e n a tu re o f d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd h ou seho ld o rgan iza t ion a nd r e la t ion s i sf i xed a nd k nown , a r chaeo log is t s a nd a n th ropo log is t s c anno t a s sume t h a tt h eh ou seho ld w a s ab ounded u n i t , a nd t h u s g i ve l i t t le c on s ide ra t ion t ow omen ' s i n vo lvemen t i nk i n a nd n on k i n n e two rk so u t s ide t h eh ou seho ld .T he re i s ,h oweve r , o f t en 2 5

a t temp t t o a s c r ibe g ende r t o a r chaeo log ica l d a ta p r ima r i ly f o cuse su pon d e te rm in ing ma te r ia l c o r re la te so fg ende rr o le s , t h a ti s ,a s s ign ing g ende ro rs ex b a sed o n t a sk s a nd a s soc ia ted m a te r ia l i t ems . F o r e xamp le , S pec to r ( 1 983 ) w a s o ne o ft h e f i r s t t o d ea l w i th t h e p rob lems a nd d i f f icu l ty i n vo lved i n s t udy ing t a sk d i f fe ren t ia t ion a nd a t t r ibu t ing a r chaeo log ica l s i te p a t te rn ing t o ma le o r f ema le a c t iv i t ie s . B y c omb in ing p e rspec t ive s o f c on tempo ra ry a r chaeo logy a nd f em in is t a n th ropo logy , s he d eve loped a n a na ly t ica l f r amewo rk d ea l ing w i th m a le / fema le t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion , u s ing a s ac a se s t udy t h e n ine teen th -cen tu ry H ida t sa I nd ians . S pec to r 's ( 1983 ) a pp roach , a s s he n o ted , i ss im i la r t o e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l r e sea r ch .E xam in ing e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t so ft h en i ne teen th c en tu ry H ida t sa , s he f o cu sed o nd e te rm in ing t h eo rgan iza t ion o f ma le s a nd f ema le s i nt h e e xecu t ion o ft a sk s , a nd s pa t ia l , t empo ra l , a nd ma te r ia l d imens ions o f t h ose t a sk s . H e r n ex t s t ep i n vo lved e mpha s iz ing s e ts o fr e la t ion sh ip sb e tween t a sk s a nd t h e d imens ions o ft a sk d i f fe ren t ia t ion b y c ons t ruc t ing a s e r ie so fa c t iv i ty maps o ft a sk sa nd l o ca t ions .

u n ive r sa l i ty i ng ende rr e la t ionsh ips a mongs th un te r -ga the re r s a nd o the r n on-wes te rn g roups ( Duke 1 991 :281) , a r chaeo log is t sc anno ta s sume t h a tg ende ri n equa l i ty , as exua l d i v is ion o fl a bou rw i th r e s t r ic ted f ema le r o le s , a nd ad iv is ion o f f ema le d ome s t ic a nd m a le p ub l ic s phe re s , n ece ssa r i ly e x is ted i np a s tc u l tu re s . T hus , t h e re i s a n o bv ious n eed t o move a way f r om t h e c u l tu ra l s t e reo type s o f s t a te leve l s oc ie ty a nd a way f r om l a be ls , c a tego r ies , a nd b l anke t u n ive rsa l j udgmen t s a bou t g ende r r o le s a nd g ende r s y s tem s . I n s tead , f ocu s s hou ld b e p laced o n c onf l ic t , v a r iab i l i ty , a nd c on t rad ic t ions w i th a n e mpha s is o n c on tex t ( e .g . , s ee a r t ic le s i n S anday a nd G oodenough 1 990 ; S anday 1 990b :1) . A s T if fany ( 1979 :3 ) n o ted , s oc ia l r ea l i ty i sr a re ly s o s imp le t h a t i tc an n ea t ly b e c a tego r ized w i thou td i s to r t ion . I nf a c t , mo re o f ten t h an n o t , i t i st h e a r chaeo log is ts a nd a n th ropo log is t s who h ave c r ea ted c a tego r ie s a nd d ef in i t ions t h a td i cho tom ize men a nd w omen , p ub l ic a nd d ome s t ic , h un te ra nd g a the re r , n a tu re a nd c u l tu re , a nd h igh a nd l ow s t a tu s . A rchaeo log is t s mus t a bandon t h e i r u nque s t ioned s t a te -de r ived n o t ions o fm a le a nd f ema le r o le s a nd r e la t ions , g o ing b eyond t he l im i ta t ions o f t h e c l as s ic b ina ry s cheme s ( f ema le /weak /dome s t ic a nd m a le / s t rong / p ub l ic )s op reva len ti na n th ropo logy ( Go t t l ieb 1 990 :130 ) a nd c a r r ied o ve ri n to a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch .

A s S pec to r ( 1983 :96 ) n o ted f o r h e r a t temp t i n s t udy ing m a le /f ema le t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion , t h e se t y pe s o f s t ud ie s a r e h ampe red b y m any d i ff icu l t ies a nd l im i ta t ions . S he a r gued t h a t t h e re w a s an eed f o r mo re e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l f i e ld s t ud ie s b efo re t h e t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion f r amewo rk c ou ld b e a dap ted f o r a pp l ica t ion t o a rchaeo log ica l a s semb lage s ( Spec to r 1 983 :93 ) . C lea r ly , o ne o ft h e m a jo r r e a sons f o r t h e d i f f icu l ty i n a s s ign ing g ende r r o les a nd s t udy ing t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion i st ha t t h e b ounda r ie s o f g ende r -o rgan ized t a sk s a r e n o t c l ea r ly u nde r s tood ( Guen the r 1 991 :9 ) . A s p r ev iou s ly d i scu ssed , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti ns ome s i tua t ions a nd c u l tu re s , g ende r -ba sed d i v is ion o f l a bou r m ay h ave b een m o re f l ex ib le ,w i th m en e ngag ing i nw ha tw a sg ene ra l ly s e en a s " f ema le a c t iv i t ies " a nd w omen p a r t ic ipa t ing i n " men 's w o rk " ( Guen the r 1 991 :20 ) . B ecause o ft h i sp o ten t ia l f o r t h e o ve r lapp ing o f ma le a nd f ema le t a sk s b o th w i th in a nd b e tween s oc ie t ie s , d i rec t g ende r a t t r ibu t ion o f t oo ls t h us r ema ins p rob lema t ic ( Ge ro 1 991b :176 ) .

3 . 2 .2 S ee ing G ender i nt he A rchaeo log ica l R ecord : T ask D i f f eren t ia t ion C annon ( 1 991 :148 ) a rgued t h a t g ende ra s as oc ia l d iv is ion i s w i thou t ma te r ia l c u l ture r e fe ren t , a nd t hus g ende r i s a r chaeo log ica l ly i r re levan t a s as t r ic t ly d ef ined s oc ia l c a tego ry . A sw e l l , C laa s sen ( 1992 :4 ) s ugge s ted t h a tt h eh igh p robab i l i ty t h a t g ende r i si nv is ib le i np reh is to ry a ccoun ted f o r t he u nce r ta in ty a bou t h ow t o d o a n e ngende red a r chaeo logy ( C laa s sen 1 992 :5 ) . S he a r gued t h a td e sp i te N ew A rchaeo logy , p os t -p rocessua l , a nd f em in is t a pp roache s , a r chaeo log is t s s t i l l a pp roa ched a r t if ac t s , e cof ac t s , f e a tu re s , a nd t h e i r m a t r ix i ne s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame w ay a st h ey h ad f o r 1 00 y ea r s ( C laa s sen 1 992 :6 ) . T he re r ema ins at e ndency t o a dop t af u nc t iona lv i ew o fg ende r , s e e ing i ta se nsu r ing s oc ia l m a in tenance a nd r ep roduc t ion a nd t h u sl e g i t im iz ing w omen 's c onf inemen tt ot h ed ome s t ic r ea lm ( Conkey 1 991 :28 ) .

H oweve r , t h e re s t i l l r ema ins t he t e ndency a mongs t a r chaeo log is t s t ol i nk u nque s t ion ing ly c e r t a in a c t iv i t ie s a nd a r t if ac t s w i th e ach s ex, s uch a sl i nk ing p ro je c t i le p o in t sw i th m a le s a nd c e ram ics w i th f ema le s ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :7 ) o ra s sum ing t h a t p reh is to r ic s t one t o o l make r s a nd u se r s w e re p redom inan t ly m a le ( e .g . , Wh i te a nd O 'Conne l l 1 982 :87 , c i ted i n B i rd 1 993 :23 ) . T h is l a t te r a s sump t ion i s p a r t icu la r ly u n rea l is t ic . Women wou ld h ave n eeded t ou se v a r ious t y pes o f s t one t oo ls i n p e rfo rm ing t he i r d a i ly a c t iv i t ie s ; i ti su n l ike ly t h a tt h ey wa i ted f o r am an t op roduce af l ake o rt o o l ,o re l se b o r rowed f l ake sa nd t o o ls f r om m en a l t h e t ime . I n s tead , i tw ou ld h ave b een m o re e f f ic ien t f o r w omen t o make t h e i r o wn t o o ls r a the rt h an r e ly ing u pon m en f o r t h e se n eed s ( Ge ro 1 991b :170 ) . Women , n o d oub t , h ad a cce s s t ol i th ic s ou rce s , a nd , i fn o t e xo t ic r aw m a te r ia l , t h en c e r ta in ly , a tl e a s tl o ca l s t one s ou rce s ( s ee d i scu s s ion i nG e ro 1 99lb :171-173 ) . A s S chu l tz ( 1992 ) d emons t ra ted , l i th ic e ndsc rape r s r equ i re f r equen t r e sha rpen ing ( o ve r 1 00 t ime s ) d u r ing t h e s c rap ing o f as i ng le b i son h ide . I fw omen d i d t h e m a jo r i ty o fh i de w o rk ing , a se t hnog raph ic a c coun t s s ugge s t , t h en i ti sh igh ly u n l ike ly t h a tt h ey w ou ld i n t e r rup tt h e i rw o rk o ve r 1 00 t ime s t o a sk men t o s ha rpen t h e i r h ide -sc rap ing t o o ls . Mo reove r , i f women c ou ld s ha rpen l i t h ic t oo ls , i t s e em sp l au s ib le t h a tt h ey w e re c apab le o fm ak ing s t one t o o ls a sw e l l . A sG e ro ( 1991b :175 ) i lus t ra ted , t h e r ei sn or e a son t o a s soc ia te w omen s o le ly w i th e xped ien tt o o l m anuf a c tu re a nd u se a nd a s sume t ha t t h ey d id n o t p roduce f i ne ly f i n ished

I ti sf a i r ly a ppa ren tt h a t g ende ra f f ec t s ,i sr e p re sen ted i n , a nd m ay c r ea te t os ome d eg ree m a te r ia l c u l tu re p a t te rn ing ( G ibbs 1 987 :80 ,c i ted i nB o len 1 991 :403 ) . Mo reove r , a r chaeo log is t s m us t a cknow ledge t ha t c onve rse ly , m a te r ia l c u l tu re a c t ive ly s t ruc tu re s g ende r a r rangemen t s a nd o the r s oc iocu l tu ra l p henomena ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :24 ) . Whe lan ( 1995 :50 )c l a imed t h a t g ende rs hou ld b eh igh ly v i s ib le i nt h e m a te r ia l r e co rd , g iven t h a t g ende r c a tego r ie s a r e n o t o n ly m a rked b ehav iou ra l ly , b u t a l so m a te r ia l ly a nd s pa t ia l ly . B u t a l though g ende r may b e man if es ted i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re , u l t ima te ly , a s a" cu l tu re c ons t ruc t ," t h e c oncep t r e s t s a s a s oc ia l r e a l i ty , n o t ap hy s ica l o ne ( Bo len 1 991 :403 ) . I fg ende r i s ac u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t , t h en ,w ha ti mp l ica t ions d oe st h is v i ew h ave f o r a r chaeo logy , ad i sc ip l ine w h ich f o cuse s o n m a te r ia l s t ud ie s? G ende r , a s ap r inc ip le w h ich o rgan ize s s oc ia l a r rangemen t s , i sc on t inua l ly r enego t ia ted , r econs t i tu ted , c onf i rmed , a nd m a in ta ined b ecau se i te x is t s t h rough p eop le 's c r ea t ion a nd c oncep t ion o f i t( Bo len 1 991 :404 ) ; t he refo re , i tb ecomes e x t reme ly d i ff icu l t t o a s c r ibe g ende r -spec if ic m ean ing t o a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T he ma jo r i ty o f r e sea rch t ha t d oes 2 6

a ccoun t s made b y e a r ly e xp lo re r s t h a t h ad d e sc r ibed I nd ian m en i d ly s mok ing w h i le w omen c on t inua l ly w o rked , t a nn ing h ide s , c ook ing , a nd c o l lec t ing w a te r . I ft h is d e sc r ip t ion i s r e l iab le , t h en a r chaeo log is t s a r e a c tua l ly f o rced t oc onc lude t h a tt h e ma jo r i ty o fa r chaeo log ica l s i te sr e su l ted f r om f ema le a c t iv i t ies ( Guen the r 1 991 :20 ) . B u td eny ing a nd l e ssen ing t h e s i gn if icance o f men 's c on t r ibu t ion t o s ubs is tence , a nd v i ew ing w omen a s s l ave s t om en i sn o d oub t t h e r e su l t o f b ia sed s t a temen t s made b y E u ropean o b se rve r s a bou t a d i v is ion o fl a bou r a nd l i fe s ty le t h a t w a s u nfam i l ia r t ot h em ( Ro thenbe rg 1 980 :70 ) . Mo reove r , t h e a s sump t ion t h a t w omen w ho p a r t ic ipa ted i n al a rge s ha re o ft h e l a bou r w e re e s sen t ia l ly r educed t o s l ave ry a nd c on t ro l led b y men ( a s m any h ad a s sumed f o r A u s t ra l ian a sw e l l a sN o r th Ame r ican n a t ive g roups ) , i g no red t h ep os s ib i l i ty t h a t ag rea te r i n pu t i n e conom ic t a sk s may h ave a lowed w omen g r ea te r d ec is ionm ak ing p owe r t h an o r ig ina l ly a s sumed ( Leacock 1 972 :34 ; R oh r l ich -Leav i t te ta l . 1 975 :112 ) .

t o o ls , whe the r made o f s t one , b one , o r o the r ma te r ia l . A l though t h e C h ipewyan n o l onge r u se many s t one t o o ls , B rumbach a nd J a rvenpa ( 1997 :30 ) o bse rved t ha t w omen c a refu l ly m a in ta in a nd c u ra te a s semb lages o f i mp lemen ts u sed t op roce ss moose a nd c a r ibou h i de s . T he se i mp lemen t s a r e n o t e xped ien t i n n a tu re , b u t r a the r a r e h igh inve s tmen t c u ra ted t o o ls . I ti se n t i re ly p oss ib le t h a t p reh is to r ic w omen a l so ma in ta ined a nd c u ra ted t he i ro wn t o o ls ,w he the rm ade o f l i t h ic , b one ,o r wood , f o rs pec if ic t a sk s . B i rd 's ( 1993 ) r ev iew o fe v idence f o r w omen mak ing s t one t o o ls i nA u s t ra l ia a nd N ew Gu inea s ugge s ted t h a t , i ns ome c a se s , t h e re m ay b e ad i f f e rence b e tween men a nd w omen i n t h e i rc ho ice o fr aw ma te r ia ls , manuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique s , a nd t o o l k i t . Wh i le t h is i s ap o ten t ia l ly p rom is ing a venue o f r e sea rch f o rd e tec t ing c e r ta in p a t te rn st h a t may r ep re sen tm en a nd w omen i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a r chaeo log is ts s hou ld b e c a refu l n o t t o g ene ra l ize a nd r e so r t t ou n ive rsa l a s sump t ion ss uch a st h eb e l ief t h a ta l w omen u sed l o ca l r aw m a te r ia l s a nd made e xped ien t t oo l s . A s G e ro ( 1991b :174 , 1 75 ) a s se r ted , ma le /fema le t a sk d i f fe ren t ia t ion , a nd c onsequen t ly t h er aw m a te r ia ls t h a te a ch u sed , t h e t o o ls t h a t e ach m ade t op e rfo rm t hose t a sk s , a nd i ng ene ra l t h e t a sk s w omen a nd m en p e rfo rmed w i th in t o o l p roduc t ion w ou ld b e c ond i t ioned b y t he c on tex t o f s oc ia l r e la t ions , a nd b y t h e s oc ia l a nd s ymbo l ic v a lue o fw ha t w a s b e ing made o rd one ; t hu s d i f f e rence s c ou ld b e e xpec ted i ne ach s oc ie ty a nd e ach c on tex t .

3 . 2 .3 A More C omprehen s ive A rchaeo logy o fG ender S ince i ti sd i ff icu l t i fn o t i mpos s ib le t od e te rm ine w h ich s ex o r g ende r made o r u sed a n i t em , d oe s t h is d i ff icu l ty m ean t h a t a r t ifac t s a nd o t he r m a te r ia l e v idence o f p a s t s oc ie t ie s mu s tr ema in g ende r -f ree c ommod i t ie s , a nd t h a t a r chaeo logy s hou ld d i spense w i th a g ende r -ba sed p e rspec t ive? I s i t n ecessa ry t ha t a r chaeo logy l im i t i t se lf t o e xam in ing f undamen ta l ma t te rs s uch a s s ubs is tence a nd e conomy , c h rono logy a nd d a t ing , a nd t h e f u nc t ion o ft o o ls a nd f e a tu re s ( i .e . , t hose a spec ts o f c u l tu re t ha t a r e mo re c l ea r ly r e p re sen ted b y m a te r ia l r ema ins ) , o rc an a r chaeo log ica l d a ta p rov ide i n fo rma t ion d ea l ing w i th a l a spe c t s o fp a s ts oc ie t ie s , i n c lud ing t h a to fg ende r?

T h is d i ff icu l ty i n i den t ify ing g ende r re la ted p henomena i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , t ha t i s , d is t ingu ish ing a r chaeo log ica l ly b e tween ma le a nd f ema le a c t iv i t ie s , r o le s , a nd a r t ifa c t s , h as made i te a sy f o r a r chaeo log is t s , w hen r econs t ruc t ing p reh is tor ic g ende r r o les , t o t u rn t o a n u nc r i t ica lr e l iance u pon s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s a nd s t a te leve l a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r . T h is p rac t ice , i nt u rn , f r equen t ly l e ads a r chaeo log is t s t oc onc lude t h a t w omen a r e e s sen t ia l ly " i nv is ib le " i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( e .g . , H ayden 1 977 , 1 979 ; I s aac 1 979 ; T homa s 1 983 ) . H oweve r , r e cen t s t ud ie s o f g ende r r o le s a nd s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s i n c on tempo ra ry a nd h i s to r ic h un te r -ga the re r s a nd o t he r n onw e s te rn s o c ie t ies h ave s ugges ted t h a tt h es upposed ma le b i a s o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd w i th w omen b e ing i n v is ib le m ay b ed ece iv ing i n many c a se s ( B i rd 1 993 :23 ) .

A rchaeo logy i sd e s t ined t oh ave p rob lem s i mp lemen t ing a nd s t udy ing g ende r b y s o le ly u s ing t h e t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a pp roa ch a nd f o cus ing o n d e te rm in ing m a te r ia l c o r re la te s f o r g ende rb y c onnec t ing g ende r o rs ex t oa r t if ac t s a nd d ev is ing t e s tab le h ypo the se s . B y a pp roach ing g ende r i n t h is s t a t ic m anne r , a r chaeo log is t s a r er e s t r ic t ing h ow mu ch c an a c tua l ly b e s a id , s i nce g ende ri s ac u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t a nd n o t s oe a s i ly r ep re sen ted m a te r ia l ly i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he r e su l t so f ten a r es imp ly t r i v ia l i n s igh t sa bou tg ende rr e la t ions . T he d i ff icu l ty i nt r y ing s imp l i s t ica l ly t oc onne c tg ende rt ot h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd h a s l e d s ome a r chaeo log is t s t o t h e c onc lus ion t h a t g ende r i si n acce s s ib le i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . Mo reove r , b ecause o ft h e a s sump t ion t h a t m en w e re a s soc ia ted w i th h a rd d u rab le m a te r ia ls t h rough t h e i rh un t ing a c t iv i t ie s ( i .e . , b one a nd l i th ic ma te r ia l ) , a nd w omen w e re a s soc ia ted w i th s of t m a te r ia ls t h rough t he i r f ocus o n g a the r ing ( i . e . , p l an t s a nd w ood ) , i ti sc onc luded t h a tw omen a r e n ece ssa r i ly i n v is ib le i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he a r chaeo log ica l i nv is ib i l i ty o f f ema le s , h oweve r , i s mo re l i ke ly d ue t o af a lse n o t ion o f o b jec t iv i ty a nd g ende r p a rad igm s t h an a n i n he ren ti n v is ib i l i ty o fs uch d a ta ( Conkey a nd S pe c to r 1 984 :6 ; K ehoe 1 991) . Ic on tend t h a t g ende r i s o n ly i n acce ss ib le a nd w omen a r e o n ly i nv is ib le i ft he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h e s t udy o fg ende r i sa pp roa ched b y r e ly ing o n u nque s t ioned a s sump t ions , s t a t ic c a tego r ie s , a nd s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s , a l l b a sed w i th in a p os i t iv is t f r amewo rk e mpha s iz ing t e s tab le h ypo the se s a nd m a te r ia l c o r re la te s o fg ende r . A sD omma sne s( 1992 :3 )n o ted , p rocessua l a r chaeo logy a nd i t s i lus ion o f s c ien t if ic o b jec t iv i ty , a s w e l l a s i t s e mpha s is o n p o s i t iv ism a nd t h e v e r if ica t ion o fh ypo the se su s ing r i g id t e s tp rocedu re s , h ave a t e ndency t o e xc lude c e r ta in q ue s t ions a nd p rob lems ,

F o r e xamp le , why d o T homa s ( 1 983 ) a nd I s aac ( 1979 ) a s sume t h a t b one i ss t r ic t ly a m a le e cof ac t? T he re i sc l ea r e v idence f o r w o men h un t ing i ns ome s oc ie t ie s ( s ee C hap te r 2 ) ; t h u s f a una l ma te r ia l c anno t b er ega rded a s i n d ispu tab le e v idence o f ma le h un t ing a c t iv i t ies ( B ird 1 993 :23 ) . Mo reove r ,i fw omen p roces sed a nd c ooked , a sw e l l a sh e lped i n t h e h un t , t he re w ou ld b e al a rge f ema le c on t r ibu t ion t o b one r ema ins r ecove red i n a n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t . S im i la r ly , l i th ic t oo ls a r e o f ten a t t r ibu ted t o men ; h oweve r , t h e re i sa bundan t e v idence d emon s t ra t ing t h a t w omen m ade a nd u sed n o to n ly t o o ls made f r om o rgan ic ma te r ia ls b u ta l so t h ose m ade f r om s t one ( e .g . , B i rd 1 993 ; s ee a l so d i scuss ion a nd r e f e rence s i n G e ro 1 991b ) , i n c lud ing a t l e a s t o ne e t hnoh is to r ic o bse rva t ion ( e .g . , H o lme s 1 919 :316 ) o f No r th Ame r ican n a t ive w omen mak ing p ro jec t i le p o in ts ( Ge ro 1 991b :170 ) . E thnog raphe rs t r ad i t iona l ly p o r t rayed No r th Ame r ican h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie sa sh av ing w e l l -def ined s epa ra t ion o ro rgan iza t ion o ft a sk s d iv ided a l ong g ende r l i ne s . B u t t h is v i ew i nf a c t may r e la te , a s Guen the r ( 1991 :20 ) s ugge s ted , t o 2 7

c a tego r ie s w i l l b er eeva lua ted , a nd p eop le w i l l b e come mo re v i s ib le a sa c t ive a gen t so ft h ep a s t .

i n c lud ing t h ose o fg ende r , f r om b e ing c ons ide red a ccep tab le a nd e ven p oss ib le t op ics f o r s t udy . B y t h e s imp le a c t o f a s s ign ing s e xt om a te r ia l i t em s ,a r chaeo log is t sa r ec l a s s ify ing u s ing s t a t ic c a tego r ie s t h a t a r e u l t ima te ly r e s t ra in ing a nd d i s to r t ing , a nd wh ich c an p reven t t he c ons ide ra t ion o f d ynam ics , p rocess , v a r ia t ion a nd f l ex ib i l i ty , a nd i n te r re la t ions .

C lea r ly t h e r ei s an eed t ov i ew w omen a ss oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l a c to r s w ho a c t ive ly s hape t he i r c u l tu re , w ho w e re a nd a r e a c t ive a gen t si nt h e g a the r ing a nd p roduc t ion o fk now ledge , w ho e mp loy s t ra teg ies t oa ch ieve t h e i r g oa ls a nd c ope w i th p rob lem s o fe ve ry d ay l i f e , who c r ea te a nd u se p owe r f o r mak ing s oc ie t ie s a nd c u l tu re s wo rk i n p os i t ive w ay s f o r t h em , a nd w ho a r e n o t p a ss ive ly u nde r t h e c on t ro l o f men ( Co l l ie r 1 974 :95 ; L amphe re 1 974 :111 ; S pence r - Wood 1 991 :239 ; S t ack 1 974 :114 ; Wi l l iam s 1 987 :31 , c i ted i n S pence r - Wood 1 991 :239 ) . Moreove r , i ti sa ppa ren t t h a t i n o rde r t o e xam ine g ende r r e la t ions o pe ra t ing w i th in p reh is to r ic s oc ie ty , a r chaeo log is t s mu s t g o b eyond t he c onf ine s o fc on t empo ra ry s t a te leve l g ende r c oncep t ions a nd b eyond c ons ide r ing o n ly " domes t ic " m o the r ing r o les f o r women ( Bo len 1 991 :400 , 1 992 :56 ) ; i n s tead , t h ey mus t c ons ide r t h ep os s ib le w ay s t h a t women w e re i n vo lved i na nd i n f luenced b o th t h e " dome s t ic" a nd " pub l ic" a r ena s . O f c ou rse , t h is c ons ide ra t ion o f a c t ive i n d iv idua ls a nd much b roade r r o le s a pp l ies e qua l ly a s w e l l f o r t h e e xam ina t ion o f ma le r o le s a nd a c t iv i t ie s i np reh is to r ic s oc ie t ies . T he g ende r r e sea rch t h a t h a s b een u nde r taken i n r e cen t y ea r s h a s d emons t ra ted t h ei mpo r tance o fc ons ide r ing , n o tj u s tw omen , b u t a l p eop le ,w he the rm a le , f ema le , o l d , o ry oung ,a sa c t ive i n d iv idua ls a nd d e c is ion -make r s , a sp a r t ic ipan t s , a sf o rce s i n c rea t ing t he a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd ( Bo len 1 991 :400 , 1 992 :56 ) ,r a the rt h an a sp awns w i th in a ne qu i l ib r ium s y s tem .

H ence , am o re c omp rehens ive a pp roach t os t udy ing g ende r a r chaeo log ica l ly i s much mo re c omp l ica ted a nd d ynam ic t h an g ende r a t t r ibu t ion , t h a t i s , s imp ly f i nd ing men a nd w omen a nd i d en t ify ing o ne s e t o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd t o o ls w i th m en a nd a no the r w i th w omen ( Conkey a nd G e ro 1 991 :9 , 1 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :26 ) t h rough a n empha s is o n t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd ma te r ia l c o r re la te s o fg ende r . G iven t h e n a tu re o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord , i ti s u n l ike ly t h a t a r chaeo log is t s w i l l e ve r b e c e r ta in o f k now ing who p e rfo rmed wha t t a sks ( G raham 1 991 :470 ) . A s S t ine ( 1991 :499 ) a r gued , d eba te s a s t ow he the r aman o r w oman made o r u sed a n a r t if ac t a r e p rov ing t o b e u np roduc t ive w i thou t t h e d eve lopmen t o f t heor ie s a bou t g ende r a s a n o rgan iz ing p r inc ip le i nl a bou r . I n s tead ,d ef in ing w omen 's a nd men 's r o le s s hou ld b e am eans r a the r t h an a n e nd ( G raham 1 991 :470 ) .T he i mpo r tance l i e si ne nv is ion ing w ho m ay h ave b een r e spons ib le f o r s pec if ic t a sk s a nd h ow t hey w e re e xecu ted ( G raham 1 991 :470 ) . I no t he rw o rd s , t h ef o cus n eed s t ob ep l aced o n t h ed ynam ic a spe c t so fg ende r , a nd p roce s se s s uch a sd ec is ion -mak ing , i n te r re la t ions , a nd i mp lemen ta t ion o f a c t iv i t ie s , r a the r t han s o le ly o n t h e a s s ign ing o f s ex t o s t a t ic m a te r ia l i t ems a nd t a sks . F o r e xamp le , G ibbs ( 1987 ) a t temp ted t oi d en t ify a nd i n te rp re t g ende r r ep re sen ta t ion i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , b u t n o t i nt h e s imp l is t ic a nd r i g id manne r c ha rac te r is t ic o f p rocessua l s t ud ies a nd t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a pp roache s . B a s ing h e r i n te rp re ta t ions u pon t h e b e l ie f t h a t g ende r r e la t ions a c t ive ly s t ruc tu re ma te r ia l c u l tu ra l p a t te rn ing , G ibbs ( 1987 ) a t temp ted t o i d en t ify i n te r re la ted t r ends a nd f e a tu re s i n s eve ra l c on tex t s f o r t h e p reh is to ry o f Z ea land , D enma rk , i n o rde r t o r e cogn ize m an if e s ta t ions o fg ende r t e ns ion a nd g ende r n ego t ia t ion f o r s oc ia l p owe ri nm a te r ia l c u l tu re p a t te rn ing . Ac ruc ia l p a r t o f e ngende r ing p reh is to ry t h e refo re i nvo lves a t temp t ing t o u nde r s tand h ow g ende rw o rk si na l o fi t sd imens ions : g ende r i d eo logy , g ende r r o le s , a nd g ende r r e la t ions ( Conkey a nd G e ro 1 991 :13 -14 ) .

I n a dd i t ion , i tn eeds t ob e s t ressed t h a t b ecause e a ch s ex i s i n ex t r icab ly r e la ted t o t h e o the r , t h e a na ly ses o f w omen c anno t b e d one a pa r t f r om t h ose o fm en ( Roge r s 1 978 :153 , 1 61 ; S pence r -Wood 1 991 :239 ) . B o th m en a nd w omen mu s t b e c ons ide red a sh av ing a c t ive r o le s i nm ak ing mean ing a nd i n c on t r ibu t ing t o s oc ie ty , b ecause b o th t h e i r g oa ls a nd s t ra teg ie s a r e a ne s sen t ia l p a r t o ft h e p roce sse s o fs o c ia l l i f e ( Go t t l ieb 1 990 :116 ) . A s l o ng a s a r chaeo log is t s c on t inue t o a ccep t t h a t t h e s o -ca l led d omes t ic s phe re o ff ema le s c an b e d i s t ingu ished f r om t h el a rge rw o r ld o fm en ,w omen w i l lb e a m e re a dd i t ion t oe x is t ing m ode ls . T h is r e l iance o n d ua l ism , d i cho tom ie s , a nd t h e a s sump t ion o f t wo o pposed s phe re s c a r r ie sw i th i tt h e s ugges t ion t h a tw omen m u s tb eu nde r s tood a pa r t f r om m en ( Rosa ldo 1 980 :409 ) . C on sequen t ly , af i a t , n on i l lum ina t ing p i c tu re o f w omen ( a nd m en ) w i l l r e su l t ( Rosa ldo 1 980 :409 ) , a sw i l l n o d oub t , ad i s to r ted p i c tu re o f g ende rr e la t ion s i nt h a t s oc ie ty . C lea r ly , t h ec ons ide ra t ion o f b o th m en a nd w omen i na n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s , r a the r t h an a n o ve rempha s is o n o ne o r t he o the r , i s an eces sa ry r equ iremen t f o r p rogress ing t owa rd a n a dequa te u nde r s tand ing o f t h e g ende r r e la t ion s b e tween m en a nd w omen ( Roge r s1 978 :153 , 1 61) .

O f c ou rse , c en t ra l t o t h is emphas is o n d ynam ics , i n te r re la t ion s , a nd p roce s se s o fg ende r i st h e s ubs t i tu t ion o f u nsuppo r ted g ende r n o t ions , s t a t ic c a tego r ie s , a nd as t a t ic , b io log ica l v i ew o f g ende r w i th a c t ive i nd iv idua ls a nd a g ende r t h a t i sc u l tu ra l ly a nd c on tex tua l ly c ons t ruc ted . B y a s sum ing t h a tg ende ri sa n i r re levan t f i xed a spec t o fc u l tu re , f ew w i l l a sk g ende r q ue s t ions ; h ence , a s S pence r - Wood ( 1991 :235 ) h a s c l a imed f o r h i s to r ica l a r chaeo logy , w hen r e cons t ruc t ing g ende rr o le sa nd r e la t ionsh ips ,r e se a rche rs w i l l t e nd t o r e ly u pon t he u nconsc ious u se o f b io log ica l r educ t ion s , s imp l is t ic d ua l isms , a nd s t e reo typ ic a s sump t ions d e r ived f r om b o th e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s o fh un te r -ga the re r s a nd t h e mode rn s t a te leve l w o r ld v i ew . I n e s sence , m en , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren b ecome p a ss ive p awns o r i r re levan t s pec ta to r s i n p reh is to r ic s oc ie ty , d ef ined b y s t e reo typ ica l v iews . C onsequen t ly , a r chaeo log is ts a r e i n d ange r o f s e r ious ly m is in te rp re t ing g ende r r o les a nd r e la t ions . I n c on t ra s t , b y a dop t ing g ende r a s ac oncep tua l a nd a na ly t ica l c a tego ry , t h a t i s , b y a s sum ing t h a t g ende r i sa n a c t ive a nd i mpo r tan t v a r iab le i n s oc ia l l i fe , a r chaeo log is t s a r e a b le t o a sk awho le n ew r ange o f q ue s t ions , s t a t ic d ef in i t ions a nd

I ns u mma ry , t h e re i s an eed t o move a way f r om r e s t ra in ing s t a t ic d i cho tom ie s a nd c a tego r ies , a way f r om p o r t ray ing c u l tu re a s ac o l lec t ion o ft r a i t s , t owa rd av i ew o fc u l tu re a sa d ynam ic e n t i ty c ha rac te r ized b yg ende rr e la t ion s t h a ti n vo lve a c t ive , c ons tan t ly d ynam ic i n te rp lay a nd n ego t ia t ion s , a nd m ade u p o fp eop le w ho a r et h ink ing , s oc ia l a c to r se mp loy ing v a r ious s t ra teg i e s . B y v i ew ing i nd iv idua l s a sa c t ive , g ende r s t ud ie s c an r e in teg ra te t h e a gen ts i n p reh is to ry ( Mau re r 1 991 :415 ) . 3 . 3 S U MMARY R e sea rch i nc u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy ( e .g . , D ah lbe rg , e d . 1 981 ; 2 8

c onnec t ing ac u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t s uch a s g ende r t om a te r ia l r ema in s , a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o fg ende r a r e v e ry d i f f icu l t a nd c omp lex . I ti sh i gh ly u n l ike ly t h a t a r chaeo log is t s w i l l e ve rb ea b le t or e cons t ruc tt o ta l g ende rs y s tem sa nd r e la t ion s f o r p reh is to r ic s oc ie t ie s . B u t t h is p rob lem d oe s n o t n ece ssa r i ly i mp ly t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l s t udy o f g ende r s hou ld b e a bandoned ( s ee D uke 1 991 :282 f o r as im i la r c l a im ) .

O r tne r a nd Wh i tehead , e d . 1 981 ; R e i te r , e d . 1 975 ; R o sa ldo a nd L amphe re , e d . 1 974 ; S anday a nd G oodenough 1 990 )h a s s hown t h a ti no r de r t oe xp la in a dequa te ly c u l tu ra l v a r ia t ion , o ne m us tt a ke a s pec t so fg ende ri n to c on s ide ra t ion ( Ko rnf e ld 1 991 :1) . S pec if ica l ly i n a r chaeo logy , r e cen t s t ud ie s ( e .g . , C laa s sen , e d . 1 992 ; C laa ssen a nd J oyce 1 997 ; C onkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 ; G e ro 1 985 ; J och im 1 988 ; Wa lde a nd W i l low s 1 991 ; Wr igh t , e d . 1 996 ) h ave i nd ica ted t h a t c ons ide r ing g ende r c an h ave g rea t i n f luence o n h ow t h e p a s t i s i n te rp re ted ( Ko rnfe ld 1 991 :1) . T he re i sn ow a g row ing r e a l iza t ion t h a tg ende ri s af u ndamen ta l s t ruc tu r ing p r inc ip le , a nd t h a t g ende rr e la t ions m u s t b et r ea ted a sc on tex tua l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if ic c ons t ruc t s . A s Wy l ie ( 1991a :39 ) r ema rked , g ende ri s ap r inc ip le t h a tc an n ol o nge rb ei g no red . C on sequen t ly , n ume rou s r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , C laa s sen 1 992 :6 ; Moo re 1 988 :6 ) h ave a r gued o r i mp l ied t h a t a l r e sea rch i n a r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy c an a nd s hou ld h ave ag ende r c omponen t .

I n co rpo ra t ing g ende r a sa n a c t ive a gency c on t r ibu t ing t ot h e p r oduc t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ( s ee B o len 1 991 :400 ) m ake sp o s s ib le am o re h o l is t ic a nd m o re h uman ized p i c tu re o f t h e p a s t . A t t h e v e ry l e a s t , ag ende r p e r spec t ive i n a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s w i l l r e vea l a ny i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion s a bou t g ende r , a nd a low a r chaeo log is t s c r i t ica l ly t oe xam ine t h em , f o rmu la te n ew q ue s t ions , a nd p u r sue d i f f e ren tl i ne s o f r e sea rch . I n a dd i t ion , af o cus o n g ende r w i l l r em ind a r chaeo log is t s o f t h e i n d iv idua l a c to r s w ho p roduced t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , t h e m en , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren o f p r eh is to ry w ho i n te ra c ted a nd m ade d ec is ions , a nd w ho h ad l i ve s b eyond t h a t o fh un t ing a nd s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s . B u t t h e s imp le a dd i t ion o f g ende r a nd t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o f w omen i np r eh is to r ic s c heme s i sn o ta dequa te , a nd i sn o tt h e m a jo r s t umb l ing b l ock t od ea l ing w i th i s sue s o fg ende r i n a r chaeo logy . A long w i th t h is n eed f o r ag ende rp e r spe c t ive i s t h e n eed t o i n co rpo ra te p eop le i n t h e p a s t , t h e n eed t o e xam ine b i a sed a nd u nque s t ioned a s sump t ion s a bou t m en a nd w omen a nd g ende r r e la t ions , a nd , l a s t ly , a nd p e rhap s m os t i mpo r tan t ly , a sB o len ( 1 992 :56 ) a r gued , t h e n eed f o r c r i t ica l a nd s e lf ref lex ive a r chaeo log ica l a na lys is w i th v a r iou s l i ne s o fe v idence i no r de r t oc on t inue t h e e no rmou s t a sk o fr e con s t ruc t ing p r eh is to r ic s o c ie t ie s .

H oweve r , Id o n o t b e l ieve t h is a im i sv e ry r e a l is t ic o re ven n ece ssa ry . Wha t i sn ece s sa ry i s ac r i t ica l r e eva lua t ion o f u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion s a bou t g ende r i n a r chaeo log ica l w o rk sa nd i n te rp re ta t ion s ,e spec ia l ly i ft h o se a s sump t ions a r e b a sed o n s e lec t ive a na log ie s a nd s t a te leve l v i ew s o f m a le a nd f ema le r o le s , t a sk s , a nd r e la t ion s . T he re i sn o d eny ing t h a t P l a in s r e sea rch i sv e ry t e chno log ica l , t y po log ica l , a nd m echan is t ic ; i tf o cu se s o n g roup a dap ta t ion , e nv i ronmen t , a nd t e chno logy , much o fw h ich i sn o t c onduc ive t og ende r a na ly s i sb e cau se o ft h em e thodo log ica l a pp roach a nd s ub jec t m a t te r ( e .g . , t yp ing p o in ts , e s tab l ish ing c h rono log ie s , d e te rm in ing f unc t ion o f t oo ls f r om u se -wea r a na ly s is , d e te rm in ing r aw m a te r ia l t y pe s a nd s ou rce s , a nd i d en t if y ing f a una a nd f l o ra p re sen t i na r chaeo log ica l d epos i t s ) . H ence , much o f P l a ins a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch a nd r e su l t ing i n te rp re ta t ions a bou tp r eh i s to ry d on o td i rec t ly a nd e xp l ic i t ly d ea l a ta l w i th g ende r . O the r r e sea r ch , h oweve r , m ay t o uch u pon g ende r i n d i rec t ly , r e ly ing u pon u nque s t ioned n o t ion s a bou t g ende r t o s uppo r t o r f l e sh o u t a r gumen t s . I ti st h e se s t ud ie s , i n w h ich g ende r p l ay s o n ly a s e conda ry r o le i n a na ly s i s , a nd t h eu nde r ly ing p rem i se s a bou t g ende r i nt h e se s t ud ie st h a tn eed t ob er e exam ined . I n a c tua l i ty , t h e r e -app ra isa l o f g ende r r o le b i a ses a nd s t e reo type s c an p o ten t ia l ly l e ad t o n ew i n te rp re ta t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( E isne r 1 991 :356 ) ; t h us , ag ende r p e r spec t ive c an h ave av a luab le i mpac t o n a r chaeo log ica l m e thod s a nd t h eo r ie s a s aw ho le ( E isne r 1 991 :352 ) . A nd w h i le m uch w o rk i nP l a ins a r chaeo logy w ou ld g r ea t ly b enef i t b y e xam ina t ion f r om ag ende rp e r spec t ive , e s pec ia l ly t h o se i n te rp re ta t ion st h a tg ob eyond s imp le d a ta d e sc r ip t ion , n o ta l a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch c an o r n ece ssa r i ly s hou ld b e c onduc ted f r om a g ende r p e rspec t ive . U ngende red c ons t ruc t ions a re n o t n ece ssa r i ly b ad . N eve r the le ss , a r chaeo log is t s who i g no re g ende r i n t h e i r c ons t ruc t ions s hou ld b e a b le t o d emons t ra te t h a t a spec t s o f g ende r a r e i re levan t t o t h e i r s t ud ie s . Ib e l ieve , h oweve r , a l ong w i th o t he r s ( e .g . , E isne r 1 991 :352 , 3 56 ) t h a t g ende r s t ud ie s d e se rve a nd n eed t ob e i n co rpo ra ted mo re c omp le te ly i n to m a in s t ream a r chaeo logy , t ob e i n teg ra ted w i th m a jo r t h eme s i nt h ed i sc ip l ine , r a the r t h an r ema in ing o n t h e f r inge s o ft h e d i sc ip l ine . T he r e cen t a ccumu la t ion o fd a ta a bou t g ende r s y s tem s h a s r e ve a led t h ee no rmou sd i ve r s i ty a nd i mpo r tance o fg ende ri n s oc ie ty . H oweve r , b ecause v e ry l i t t le i sk nown a bou t t h e d ynam ics o f g ende r , a nd b ecause o f t h e d i f f icu l ty i n 2 9

CHAPTER 4 THE H ISTORICAL DEVELOP MENT OF PALEO INDIAN S TUD IES e xp lana t ion sw e re a ccep ted a s ameans o fr e cons t ruc t ing t h e p a s t a nd a s s uppo r t f o r t h e b e l ief i n as hor t c h rono logy o f w o r ld h i s to ry (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :12 , 1 3 ) . B ecau se N o r th Ame r ican n a t ive s d i d n o t a ppea r i nb ib l ica l l i t e ra tu re , t h ey h ad t o b e e xp la ined o u t s ide r e ce ived h i s to ry . S ome b e l ieved t h em t ob e d e scendan t s o f t h e T en L os t T r ibe s o f I s rae l , wh i le o t he r s s aw t h em a s d e scendan t s o f t h e l o s t w o r ld o fA t lan t i s , o rd e scendan t s o fN o r semen o rS cy th ians ( s ee W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :15 -16 a nd W i lm sen 1 965 :173 f o r f u r the r d e ta i ls r e la t ing t o e a r ly b e l ief s c once rn ing t h e o r ig in o f N o r th Ame r ican n a t ive s ) . A s e a r ly a s 1 590 , h oweve r , F ray J ose d e A cos ta , aJ e su i t p r ie s t , s ugge s ted i n h i sH is tor ia N a tura l yMora ld e l a sI nd ias t h a tt h e Ame r ica s h ad b een p eop led b y s ma l l w ande r ing b ands o fh un te r s f r om S ibe r ia , w ho s l ow ly h ad m ig ra ted o ve r an a r row l a nd b r idge i n t h e B e r ing S t ra i t r e g ion o f t he h igh n o r the rn l a t i tude s ( Bea ls 1 957 ) . S ix ty y ea r sl a te r , T homa s G age a l so s ugge s ted aB e r ing S t ra i t r ou te ( Thompson 1 958 ) ; h oweve r , t h ese v i ews w e re n o t g ene ra l ly a ccep ted , a nd t h e s pecu la t ions o f I s rae l i te o rN o r semen o r ig in sr ema ined d om inan t f o ra no the r 7 5 y ea rs (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :16 -17 ; W i lmsen 1 965 :173 ) .

4 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION W i lm sen ( 1965 :172 ) s t a ted o ve r 3 0y ea r s a go t h a t mode s o f t h ough t a ta ny g i ven t ime a r e f i rm ly r oo ted i n t h e e t hos o f t h et ime , a nd a r es eve re ly c i rcum sc r ibed b yt h ee x ten to ft h e k now ledge a tt h a t t ime . A s T r igge r ( 1989a ) i lus t ra ted i nA H i s tory O fA rchaeo log ica lT hough t , ac l ose r e la t ionsh ip d oe s e x is t b e tween a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion a nd s oc ia l c on tex t , w i th s oc ia l f a c to rs h e lp ing t os hape i d ea s t h a th ave s t ruc tu red a r chaeo log ica l w o rk . H oweve r , c on t ra ry t o t h e b e l ief s o f s ome p os t -p roce ssua l is t a r chaeo log is ts ( e .g . , S hank s a nd T i l ley ) , a r chaeo logy i s mo re t han a me re p ro jec t ion o fc on tempo ra ry s oc ia l c once rns i n to t h ep a s t , o ra s imp le p a s s ive r ef lec t ion o rm i r ro r o fc on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty ( T r igge r 1 986 :188 , 1 989a :410 ) . I n s tead , t he re e x is ts a d i a lec t ica l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty a nd p reh is to r ic a r chaeo logy ( T r igge r 1 986 :188 ) . Wh i le v a lues a nd s oc ia l c on tex t i nf luence h ow a rchaeo log is ts i n te rpre t t he p as t , a rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion i sa l so a f f ec ted t os ome d eg ree b y t h e c u r ren t d a taba se , t h ec o l lec t ion m e thods u sed , t h et e chno log ica l a nd a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s a va i lab le , e s tab l ished b e l ief s a bou t w ha t h a s b een l e a rned f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd t h ed om inan tt h eo re t ica l o r ien ta t ion sw i th in a r chaeo logy a nd o the r d i sc ip l ine s ( T r igge r 1 989a :15 -18 ) . Mo reove r , o f ten c e r ta in i dea s a bou t t h e p a s t c an r ema in i nf luen t ia l i n a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion e ven a f te rt h er e a son ing t h a tl e d t o t h e i r d eve lopmen t h as b een r e jec ted a nd a bandoned ( T r igge r 1 978 , c i ted i nT r igge r 1 989a :19 ) , a nd t h is p rob lem a ppea r s e spec ia l ly t op lague No r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , p a r t icu la r ly w i th r ega rd t o t h e b ig g ame h un t ing mode l . I n t h e p re sen t c hap te r , Iw i l l b r ief ly o u t l ine a nd a na lyze t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t o f P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , a nd i n p a r t icu la r t h is b ig g ame h un t ing t heme , f o cus ing p r ima r i ly o n i n te rp re ta t ions a nd mode ls d e r ived f r om P la ins d a ta , w i th o n ly o cca s iona l r e f e rence t oe a s te rn P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s ( s ee A ppend ix A f o r d e ta i l s o fs e lec ted P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s ) . C ons ide ra t ion w i l l b e g i ven t o h ow t h e s oc ia l c on tex t , t h eo re t ica l o r ien ta t ions , a nd p reconce ived i d ea s h ave i nf luenced P a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ions ( s ee Me l tze r 1 983b , W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 , a nd T r igge r 1 989a f o r s yn the se s o f a nd m o re c omp le te r e f e rence s r e la t ing t o t h e h i s to ry o f a r chaeo log ica l t h ough t i nN o r th Ame r ica ) . T he f o l low ing c hap te r w i l l c on t inue t h is e xam ina t ion w i th a c r i t ica l a na ly s is o f w hy t h e b ig g ame h un t ing mode l h a s r ema ined s o d om inan t , a nd w hy t he re i s an eed t o " decons t ruc t " i ta nd l o ok a tP a leo ind ian d a ta i na l te rna t ive w ays . W i lm sen ( 1 965 ) o u t l ined s i x p e r iods o fd eve lopmen t o f" Ea r ly Man" a nd P a leo ind ian s t ud ie si nt h e Un i ted S ta te s , e ach c o inc id ing w i th t r ends i n t h ough t c once rn ing t he e a r l ie s t i n hab i tan t so f No r th Ame r ica . Iw i l l f o l low h i sb a s ic o u t l ine w i th t h ea dd i t ion o fs eve ra l l a te rp e r iod s( po s t -1965 ) .

4 . 3 PERSPECTIVES , OLD AND NE W ( 1780 -1859 ) A f te r 1 780 , m o re f o rma l ly e duca ted p eop le t o ok u p t h e p rob lem o ft h e a n t iqu i ty o fh umans i nN o r th Ame r ica ( e .g . , T homa s J ef f e r son , C a leb A twa te r ) , a nd i n s ome c a ses , o bse rva t ions r ep laced c asua l a cqua in tance w i th a r chaeo log ica lr ema in s a s ab a s is f o rd i scu ss ion (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :29 -30 ; Wi lmsen 1 965 :172 ) . H oweve r , a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions w e re s t i l l d om ina ted b y s pecu la t ion , a ss een i nt h e a r gumen t s t h a t e a r thwo rk s a nd mounds i nt h eO h io a nd s u r round ing r e g ions c ou ld n o th ave b een b u i l t b y t h e " s avage s " r e s id ing i nt h e se a r ea s o r t h e i r a nce s to r s , b u t i n s tead mus t h ave b een e r ec ted b y al o s t c i v i l ized r a ce ( s ee T r igge r 1 989a :104 -108 a nd W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :20 f o r d e ta i led d i scuss ions o f t h e v a r ious t h eo r ie sr e la t ing t ot h e Moundbu i lde r s ) . P r io r t ot h e 1 850 s , m ino r a t ten t ion w a s g i ven t ot h e P l a ins a r ea o f No r th Ame r ica p r ima r i ly b ecause o f t h e " G rea t Ame r ican D e se r t My th " h e ld b y e a s te rne r s , e xp lo re r s , a nd s cho la r s s uch a sS choo lc ra f t ( 1851-57 ) , H aven ( 1856 ) , a nd e ven L ew is H en ry Mo rgan (Wh i te 1 959 ) . T he P la ins w e re v i ewed a sa n i mpa s sab le b a r r ie r , ab l eak , b a r ren d e se r t , u nf i t f o rh uman u se e xcep t a s ar e g ion t ob ec r os sed a sq u ick ly a s p os s ib le (Wede l 1 982a :83 -84 , 1 982b :136 -138 ) . O ccupa t ion o n t h e P la ins p r io r t o t h e a cqu is i t ion o f t he h o rse w a s c on s ide red i mpo s s ib le . B y t he 1 830 s , C ha r le s L ye l l 's wo rk i n E u rope ( T h e P r inc ip les o f G eo logy , 1 830 -1833 ) a nd h i s s uppo r t o f u n ifo rm i ta r ian a s sump t ions m ade s cho la r s r ea l ize t h e n eed f o r al o nge r c h rono logy i nE u rope . T he se v i ews b egan t o i nf luence t h e c oncep t o ft ime d ep th i nt h e Ame r ica s a sw e l l (W i lm sen 1 965 :176 ) . T he w o rk o fC ha r le s Da rw in ( On t h e O r ig in o fS pec ie s , 1 859 ) , i n sp i red i np a r t b y u n if o rm i ta r ian g eo logy a nd a dvoca t ing t h e c oncep t o f n a tu ra l s e lec t ion , w ou ld h ave e ven mo re i nf luence o n b o th E u ropean a nd N o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion .

4 . 2 THE COLON IAL PERIOD ( 1 520 -1780 ) T he C o lon ia l P e r iod ( 1520 -1780 ) w a s c ha rac te r ized b y s pe cu la t ions c once rn ing t h eo r ig in a nd a n t iqu i ty o f Ame r ican I nd ians , a ccoun t s t ha t w ere p resen ted p r ima r i ly b y E u ropean s , mos to fw hom h ad n eve rb een i nN o r th Ame r ica (W i lmsen 1 965 :172 ) . A rchaeo logy w as n o t y e t a n e s tab l ished d i sc ip l ine , a nd t heo log ica l a nd b ib l ica l 3 0

1 983b :15 16 ) . C on sequen t ly , b y t h e 1 890 s , t h ep o s i t ion t h a t s im i la r f o rm i mp l ied s im i la r a ge c ame u nde r q ue s t ion , a nd t h e l o ng c h rono logy t h a t A bbo t t a nd h i s c o l league s h ad a dvoca ted f o rs ol o ng s u f f e red am a jo r s e tback . T he l a ck o f r e a le mp i r ica l e v idence f u r the rw eakened t h ec a se f o rN o r th Ame r ican P l e i s tocene c u l tu re s( W i lm sen 1 965 :178 ) .

4 . 4 THE LONG CHRONOLOGY ( 1 859 -1890 ) I n te l lec tua li d ea sf r om E u rope h ad g r e a te f f ec t so n t h er i se o f Ame r ican a r chaeo logy d u r ing t h em idd le a nd l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :34 ) . T he d i scove ry i n E u rope t h a t h uman a n t iqu i ty r e ached f a r b ack i n to t h e P l e is tocene , a l ong w i th c oncep t s o fg eo log ic s e quence a nd b i o log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l s ucce s s ion , s t imu la ted as e a rch f o r P a leo l i th ic p opu la t ions i n N o r th Ame r ica o f a n t iqu i ty c ompa rab le t ot h a tb e ing f ound i nE u rope ( Me l tze r 1 991 :15 ; W i lm sen 1 965 :176 ) . T he re w a s ar e a l iza t ion , h oweve r , t h a t t h eN o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log ica l a nd g eo log ic r e co rd w a s d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t o fE u rope . T he re w e re n o e xpo su re s o f d eep ly s t ra t if ied a l luv ia l v a l leys a nd t h us n o c l ea r s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence , n o c ave s w i th h uman a r t if ac t s a nd P l e is tocene f a una , a nd f ew o l d d epo s i t s c on ta in ing b one i n N o r th Ame r ica ( Me l tze r 1 983b :1 ; W i lmsen 1 965 :176 ) . C onsequen t ly , b ecau se o ft h e se i n adequac ie s a nd al a ck o f k now ledge c once rn ing Qua te rna ry g eo logy i n N o r th Ame r ica , s c ho la r s t u rned t ot h e i d ea t h a t s im i la r i ty i nf o rm b e tween E u ropean a nd Ame r ican i mp lemen t s i n d ica ted t h e s ame a ge ( Me l tze r 1 983b :1) . E u ropean f i nd s b ecame t h e s t anda rd a ga ins t w h ich a l l Ame r ican d a ta w e re m ea su red ( W i s s le r1 9 16 :234 ) .

F o rt h en ex ts e ve r a ly ea r sH o lme s , a l ong w i th A le sH rd l icka , b ecame am a jo r f o rce i n d i scoun t ing e v idence f o r al o ng c h rono logy o f h umans i n t h e Ame r ica s . H rd l icka , a C ze cho s lovak ian p hy s ica l a n th ropo log is t w ho h ad c ome t o t h e U n i ted S ta te s N a t iona l Museum i n 1 903 , u sed t h e p r inc ip le o f mo rpho log ica l d a t ing t od a te t h e a n t iqu i ty o f s ke le ta l r ema ins ( Me l tze r 1 983b :29 -30 ) . H e b e l ieved t h a t a ny s ke le ta l r ema in s o ft h e P l e is tocene a ge h ad t od i sp lay p r im i t ive c ha rac te r is t ic s ; i ft h ey r e semb led h i s to r ic n a t ive Ame r ican s ke le ton s , t h en h ec on s ide red t h em o fr e cen t a ge . I n t h e f o l low ing y ea rs H rd l icka s t ud ied n ume rous " P le i s tocene " c a se s , a nd , w i th r e len t le s s c r i t ic ism s a nd s c a th ing a ta ck s ,h ed i scoun ted t h em a l a sm ode rn o rr e cen t i na ge ( Me l tze r 1 983b :29 -30 ; W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 980 :49 5 0 ) .

4 . 5 REEXAM INAT ION ( 1890 -1925 )

T h roughou tt h ee a r ly 1 900 s , H o lme s a nd H rd l ick ap r iva te ly s ough t t ob l ock p ub l ica t ions a nd p r even t n ew a u tho r i t ie s f r om e xam in ing n ew c l a im s ( Me l tze r 1 99 1 :24 ) . I na dd i t ion , t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy a nd t h e U n i ted S t a te s G eo log ic S oc ie ty ,b o th c en t red i n Wa sh ing t on ,D .C . , a dop ted as kep t ica l a t t i tude t owa rd c l a im s o f e v idence o f h uman a n t iqu i ty t or i va lE u ropean P a leo l i th ic a s semb lage s ( T r igge r 1 989a :126 ) . B o th o r gan iza t ions s y s tema t ica l ly a temp ted t o a t tack t h ose c l a im s a nd t h e p eop le w ho b e l ieved i n t h e P l e is tocene a n t iqu i ty o f h uman s i n Ame r ica ( s ee Me l tze r 1 983a , 1 983b , a nd 1 991 f o r m o re d e ta i led a c coun t s o ft h e r o le b o th t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy a nd U n i ted S t a te s G eo log ic S oc ie ty p l ayed i nt h e c on t rove r sy o ve r t h e a n t iqu i ty o fh umans ) . Me l tze r ( 1 983a , 1 983b ) p a r t icu la r ly i lus t ra ted h ow p o l i t ics a t t h e se i n s t i tu t ions f e d t h e c on t rove r sy . Ma jo r p roponen t s o f " ea r ly m an " i n N o r th Ame r ica ( e .g . , C . C . A bbo t t , F .W . P u tnam , G . F . Wr igh t ) w e re e a s te rne r s a nd a nx ious t o p l ace t h e i r w o rk i n t h e c on t ex t o fE u ropean s c ho la r sh ip a nd g a in r e cogn i t ion f r om E u ropean s ( Me l tze r 1 983b :9 ) , w he rea s m any o ft h e c r i t ic s w e re b o rn a nd e duca ted i nt h e M idwe s t o fN o r th Ame r ica a nd d i sda ined E u ropean s c ience ( Me l tze r 1 991 :25 ) , w an t ing t o d emons t ra te t h e u n iquene s s o f t h e N o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ( Me l tze r 1 983b :24 -25 ) .

I nt h ee a r ly 1 890 s , W . H . H o lme s , a n a r chaeo log is tw i th t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy ,b a s ing h i sv i ew o nh i sw o rk a tt h e P i ney B ranch q ua r ry ( Ho lme s 1 890 ) , a r gued t h a t a r t if ac tf o rm h ad n oc h rono log ica l s i gn if icance a ta l ; t h a ti s , a na r t if a c tm igh ta ppea rc r ude b e cau se i tw a su nf in ished a nd n o t n ece s sa r i ly b ecause i tw a s a nc ien t ( Ho lme s 1 892 ) . H o lme s t h e ref o re b e l ieved t h a t t h ea ge o fa n a r t if a c t h ad t o b e d e te rm ined i n dependen t ly b y g eo log ica l c on tex t a nd n o t s imp ly b y f o rm ( Ho lme s 1 892 ; Me l tze r 1 991 :16 ) . H e f u r the r a r gued t h a t i tw a s m is lead ing t oa s sume t h a t i mp lemen t s w i th ac r ude a ppea rance w e re p roof o f aP a leo l i th ic a ge i n N o r th Am e r ica ( Ho lme s 1 892 ) . A f te r e xam in ing n ume rou s " Pa leo l i th ic " s i te s a nd q ua r r ie s i ne a s te rn N o r th Ame r ica , H o lme s ( 1 892 ) c onc luded t h a t t h e se s o -ca l led p a leo l i th a r t if a c t sw e re m o re l i ke ly t ob er e f u se a nd u nf in ished b l ank s m ade b y m o re r e cen t n a t ive s , t h e i r c r ude a ppea rance r e su l t ing f r om t h e i r r e jec t ion e a r ly i n t h e m anuf ac tu r ing p r oce s s r a the r t h an f r om t h e i r s o -ca l led g r ea t a ge ( Me l tze r

A s K . B ryan ( 1937 :139 ) n o ted , d u r ing t h is p e r iod a r chaeo log is t s h ad b ecome e xpe r t i n d i sc red i t ing f i nd s p u rpo r t ing t os how t h e e x is tence o fa nc ien t h uman s i nt h e N ew Wo r ld . O p in ion h ad c r y s ta l l ized i n to ad ogma t ot h e e f f ec t t h a t h uman p opu la t ion s w e re c ons ide red t ob e r e cen t i mm ig ran t s i n to N o r th Ame r ica ( B ryan 1 937 :139 ) .W i th t h e s ub jec t o f P le is tocene p opu la t ions i n Ame r ica v i r tua l ly t a boo , f o cus w a s s h if ted t o m o re r e cen t p opu la t ion s a nd p e r iods ( Me l tze r 1 991 :24 ) . T h is s h if t r e su l ted i n t h e i mp re s s ion o f l i t t le t ime d ep th f o r Ame r ican p r eh is to ry ( W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 980 :50 ) .H oweve r , af ew a r gumen t s f o r P l e i s tocene o ccupa t ions o cca s iona l ly s u rf aced d u r ing t h is t i me .F o re xamp le ,i n1 916 ,S e l la rd s( 1 9 17 :2 1-24 )a s s igned a P l e is tocene a ge t oh uman s ke le tons a s soc ia ted w i th e x t inc t P l e i s tocene f a una a tV e ro , F lo r ida , e ven t h ough H rd l icka d i scoun ted t h e g eo log ic a nd p a leon to log ica l e v idence a nd c onc luded t h a t t h e s ke le tons w e re o f r e cen t a ge ( Me l tze r 1 983b :30 -33 ) .

I n 1 876 , C ha r le s C . A bbo t t , d u r ing as t udy o ft h e T ren ton G rave ls i nN ew J e rsey , d i scove red a r g i l l i te t o o ls i ns t ra ta t h a t h e b e l ieved d a ted t og l ac ia l t i me s ( Abbo t t 1 877 ) . H e a t r ibu ted t h e t o o ls t o aN o r th Ame r ican P a leo l i th ic c u l tu re e ven t h ough g eo log ic s t ud ie s a nd d a t ing a tt h e s i te w e re i n conc lu s ive . H is c onc lus ions w e re b a sed s o le ly o n m o rpho log ica l a na logue s w i th E u ropean P a leo l i th ic a r t if ac t s ( Me l tze r 1 983b :8 ) . O ve rt h e n ex t s e ve ra l d ecade s f o l low ing t h eT ren ton G rave ls f i nd s , n ume rou so t he r" Pa leo l i th ic t o o l s " w e re r e po r ted a c ros s N o r th Ame r ica . E ve ry n ew f i nd t h a t l o oked c r ude o rw a ss im i la rt oE u ropean P a leo l i th ic t o o l s , o r w a s f ound i n as uppo sed a nc ien t g eo log ic a s soc ia t ion w a s a s s igned t ot h eP l e is tocene a ge a nd d e c la red a sp r oo ff o rt h e g r ea t a n t iqu i ty o f h umans i n t h e N ew Wo r ld ( Me l tze r 1 991 :15 ; W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :49 ) . B y t h e e nd o f t h e 1 880s , t h e b e l ie f t h a t g l ac ia l -age p opu la t ions h ad b een p r e sen t i nN o r th Ame r ica w a s a lmo s tu n ive r sa l ly a c cep ted b y a r chaeo log is ts a nd g eo log is t s ( Me l tze r 1 983b :10 , 1 99 1 :15 ) . T he Ame r ica s w e re c ha rac te r ized b y al o ng c h rono logy , o ne t h a tc ou ld r i va lE u ropean p r eh is to ry .

3 1

e xam in ing t h es i te ( Robe r t s 1 937 :153 -155 ) .

S pec if ica l ly w i th r e ga rd t ot h eP l a ins , t h el o ng -he ld c oncep t t h a t t h e re w a s n op r e -ho r se P l a in sc u l tu re w a s k ep t a l ive b y s c ho la r ss u ch a sW is s le ra nd S t e rn s( s e e Wede l 1 982a :89 -93 ) i nt h ee a r ly 1 900 s , w i th t h eb e l ie ft h a tt h e re c ou ld h ave b een n o " buf f a lo c u l tu re " w i thou t t h e p r e sence o f t h e h o r se . H uma n m ig ra t ion i n to t h e P l a in s w a sb e l ieved t oh ave b een o n ly r e cen t .

T he d i scove ry w a s r epo r ted a tt h e a nnua l m ee t ing o ft h e Ame r ica n A n th ropo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ;h oweve r ,a sR obe r t s ( 1 937 :155 ) n o ted , m o s t a n th ropo log is t s c on t inued t od oub t i t s v a l id i ty . I n 1 928 , B a rnum B rown h eaded m o re d e ta i led e xcava t ions o f t h e s i te i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH is to ry a nd t h eC o lo rado Mu seum .W i th t h er e cove ry o fa dd i t iona lp o in t sa s soc ia t ed w i th b i son ,t h e re w a s f i na l ly ag ene ra l c onsensu s a mong a r chaeo log i s t s t h a t t h e f i nds i n d ica ted t h a t h uman s h ad b een p re sen t i n t h e Ame r ican S ou thwe s t much e a r l ie r t h an o r ig ina l ly b e l ieved ( Robe r t s 1 937 :155 ) . Mos t o f t h e c r i t ic s o fp rev iou s y ea r s n ow e ndo r sed t h eF o lsom m a te r ia ls ( Robe r t s 1 937 :155 ) . A s f o r H o lme s a nd H rd l icka , t h ey d i d n o t d i spu te R obe r t s ' c onc lu s ion ( Me l tze r 1 991 :25 ) , a nd n eve r a ga in a t ta cked c l a im s f o r " e a r ly m an" ( Me l tze r 1 983b :37 ) . A s Me l t ze r ( 1983b :37 ) p o in ted o u t , i n d i rec t ly i tw a s H o lme s ' a nd H rd l icka 's i n s is tence o n s c ien t if ic c au t ion a nd a u then t ic e v idence t h a te ven tua l ly l e d t ot h ea c cep tance o ft h eF o l som f i nd s .

O bv iou s ly t h en , b y t h e 1 910 s o ne o f t h e m os t s e r iou s s ho r tcom ing s o f Ame r ican a r chaeo logy w a s al a ck o f c h rono log ica lc on t ro l( T r igge r 1 989a :187 ) .T he s t e reo typ ica l v i ews o f " p r im i t ive " n a t ive s a nd t h e b e l ie f i n ar e la t ive ly c hange le s s a nd s t a t ic p reh is to ry p e r s is ted . P reh i s to r ic t ime s w e r en o ts e en a sq ua l i ta t ive ly d i s t inc t f r om t h ee t hnog raph ic p re sen t , a nd t h us a r chaeo logy b ecame d ependen t u pon e t hnog raphy ( T r igge r 1 989a :125 ) . E spec ia l ly i n P l a ins a r chaeo logy , t h e re w a s f r equen t u se o ft h e d i re c t h i s to r ica l a pp roa ch ( Wede l 1 982a :99 ) . Two f a c to r s , h oweve r , w e re s l ow ly c hang ing t h e b e l ief i n as ho r t c h rono logy o fn a t ive h i s to ry a nd e ncou rag ing t h e v i ew t h a t n a t ive s w e re c apab le o fc hange : F ranz B oa s ' o ppos i t ion t or a c ism a nd h i s s uppo r t o fc u l tu ra lr e la t iv ism ( T r igge r 1 989a :187 ) , a nd t h ei n c rea s ing k now ledge b e ing g a ined f r om s t ud ie s o f s t ra t ig raph ic s e quence st h a ti n d ica t ed t h a tc hange h ad i n deed o ccu r red i n t h ep a s t .

H ence , t h eF o lsom s i te w a s t h e f i r s te xcava ted s i t e t h a th ad p r ov ided u nequ ivoca le v idence f o rt h ea s soc ia t ion o fh uman s a nd e x t inc t a n ima ls ; t h e reby , t h e s i te s ugge s ted a m uch g r ea te r a n t iqu i ty f o r h uman p opu la t ion s i nN o r th Ame r ica t h an p r ev iou s ly b e l ieved ( Se l la rd s 1 952 :147 ; Wo rm ing ton 1 949 :19 ) . T he b e l ief w a s t h a t " t he F o l som p o in t w on t h e b a t t le f o r e a r ly m an i nt h e Ame r ica s b ecau se i tp r ov ed t h a t h eh ad h un ted e x t inc t b i son , c ame ls , m ammo th s , p ecca r ie s , a nd h o r se s" ( Ma cGowan 1 950 :115 ;e mpha s is a dded ) .

4 . 6 THE FOLSO M D ISCOVERY : THE TURNING POINT ( 1 925 -1950 ) O ne o f t h e f i r s t m a jo r e ven t s r e gene ra t ing i n te re s t i n t h e p os s ib i l i ty o f P l e is tocene o ccupa t ions i n t h e Ame r ica s o ccu r red i n 1 925 w hen H a ro ld C ook ( 1 925 ) p ub l ished a p r e l im ina ry r e po r t o n t h e L one Wo lf C reek b i son k i l l s i te ( W i lmsen 1 965 :180 -181 ) . L oca ted i nT exa s , t h is s i te h ad p roduced e x t inc t b i son r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th p ro jec t i le p o in t s . C ook ( 1 925 ) c l a imed t h a t t h e a s soc ia ted f o s s i lb i son a nd o the r f a una i nd ica ted a P l e is tocene a ge f o r t h e u nd is tu rbed d epos i t s , t h a t t h e b i son a nd a r t ifa c t s w e re c on tempo raneou s , a nd t h u st h a tt h ef i r s td ef in i te e v idence f o r P l e is tocene p opu la t ion s i n t h e Ame r ica s h ad a tl a s t b een f o und .

T he i mpac t o ft h e e v idence r e cove red a tt h e F o l som s i te u l t ima te ly s t imu la ted i n te re s t i n " E a r ly Man " s t ud ie s a nd s e a rche s f o r c ompa rab le f i nd s i nN o r th Ame r ica ( J enn ing s 1 974 :84 ; S e l la rds 1 952 :147 ) . T he F o lsom d i scove ry i mmed ia te ly r e su l ted i nn ume rou s o t he rs u ch f i nd so fh uman a r t if ac t s i ni n d ispu tab le a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc t f a una . T he f i r s t c onc lus ive e v idence o f h umans c oex is t ing w i th a nd a ppa ren t ly h un t ing mammo th c ame a f ew y ea r s a f te r F o lsom ,i n1 932 ,a tD en t , C o lo rado ,w he re af l u t ed p r o je c t i le p o in t w a s f o und i n a s soc ia t ion w i th m ammo th r ema ins ( F igg ins 1 933 ; H ayne s 1 966 :105 ) . S ub sequen t e xcava t ions b y t h e D enve r Mu seum r e vea led a n a dd i t iona l f l u ted p o in t a l ong w i th t h e b one s o f e l even i mma tu re a nd o ne a du l t m ammo th ( Se l la rd s 1 952 :31 ) . No t l o ng a f te r , i nt h e s ame y ea r , p ro jec t i le p o in t s o f as im i la r t y pe ( i . e . , f l u ted ) w e re d i scove red a s soc ia ted w i th m ammo th b one s n ea r C lov i s , N ew Mex ico , a tB lackwa te r D raw L oca l i ty N o . 1( Co t te r 1 937 ; H e s te r 1 972 ; H owa rd 1 935 ) . T he e a r l ie s t e x cava t ion s ( 1 933 -1937 )r e cove red f l u ted p o in t sa s so c ia ted n o to n ly w i th m ammo th b u t a l so h o r se , b i son , t u r t le , a nd v a r iou s s ma l l m amma l s( Robe r t s 1 937 :155 157 ; S e l la rd s 1 952 :29 ) .

J .D . F igg ins , ap a leon to log is t a nd t h e d i rec to r o f t h e C o lo rado Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H i s to ry ,w a so ne o ft h e f i r s tt o r e cogn ize t h e s i gn if icance o f t h e se f i nds (W i lmsen 1 965 :181 ) . E a r ly i n 1 926 , i nt h e h ope s o f f i nd ing s im i la r m a te r ia lt ot h a tf o und a tL one Wo lf C reek ,F igg in sa nd C ook b egan t oc heck as i te n ea rF o lsom , N ew Mex ico , w h ich h ad b een r epo r ted t o F igg ins b y l o ca l r e s iden t s ( F igg ins 1 927 :232 ; Me l t ze r 1 983b :35 ; R obe r t s 1 937 :153 -155 ) . T hey w e re s ucce s sfu l a nd r e cove red t wo p o in t s i n i mmed ia te a s soc ia t ion w i th l a te P le is tocene b i son r ema ins ( F igg in s 1 927 :232 ) ;h oweve r ,t h is d i scove ry w a ss kep t ica l ly r e ce ived , m any a r gu ing t h a t t h e p o in t s w e re i n t rus ive ( Robe r t s 1 937 :153 155 ) . T he f o l low ing s umme r( 1 927 )w hen a no the r p o in t w a s f o und , i tw a s l e f t i ns i tu w h i le i n v i ta t ions w e re s e n tt ov a r iou se a s te rn i n s t i tu t ions t os e nd r e p re sen ta t ive st o e xam ine t h e d i scove ry ( Me l tze r 1 983b :35 ; R obe r t s 1 937 :153 -155 ) . F rank R obe r t s , a n a r chaeo log i s t w i th t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , w a ss e n t t oF o l som . A f te r a f ew d ay s o f e xam in ing t h e s i te , h e c onc luded t h a t t h e p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd t h e b i son b one h ad e n te red t h e f o rma t ion a t t h e s ame t ime ( Me l tze r 1 983b :35 ) . A . V . K idde r , w ho s pen t ad ay w i th R obe r t s a t t h e s i te , a nd B a rnum B rown , w ho r e p re sen ted t h e Ame r ican Mu seum o f N a tu ra l H is to ry , a l so s uppo r ted R obe r t s ' c onc lus ion a f te r

I nt h e f o l low ing y ea r s , n ume rous o t he r s u ch d i scove r ie s o f e x t inc ta n ima l sa nd a s soc ia ted a r t if a c t sw e r em ade a tv a r iou s P l a ins l o ca l i t ie s , i n c lud ing t h e M iam i l o ca l i ty i nT exa s i n 1 934 ( Howa rd 1 935 :148 ; S e l la rds 1 952 :18 -29 ) , a nd t h e L indenme ie r s i te i n C o lo rado ( Robe r t s 1 935 , 1 936 , 1 937 :158 -160 ; W i lm sen 1 974 ; W i lm sen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 ) . I nv i ew o ft h e se d i scove r ie s , H owa rd ( 1 935 :149 -151 )a r gued t h a t t h e re w a s n o l o nge r a ny q ue s t ion t h a th uman s h ad b een c on tempo raneous i n Ame r ica w i th t y pe s o f a n ima l s n ow e x t inc t , a nd t h a tt h e se o ccupa t ion sh ad b een d ef in i te ly o fl a te g l ac ia l t ime s . T h is v i ew r ef lec ted t h e o ne h e ld b y m o s t a r chaeo log i s t sa tt h et ime . 3 2

c onfus ion h ad d eve loped i n P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t n omenc la tu re a nd c l a s s if ica t ion t h a t ac onf e rence w a sh e ld i n S an ta F e ( 1941) t o d i scus s t e rm ino logy . T he F o lsom l ike c l a s s if ica t ion w a s d ropped a nd r e p laced w i th C lov is F lu ted ( r ep re sen t ing a l l l a rge f l u ted P a leo ind ian p o in t s a s soc ia ted w i th mammo th k i l ls ) a nd O h io F lu ted ( r ep re sen t ing e a s te rn f l u ted P a leo ind ian p o in t s ) ;h oweve r , a sW i lm sen ( 1965 :183 ) n o ted , n o f o rma l r e su l t s w e re e ve rp ub l ished . T he c onf u s ion a nd p reoccupa t ion w i th P a leo ind ian p o in t t ypo logy , c h rono logy , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion c on t inued , a nd , a s H au ry ( 1950 :521 , c i ted i nW i lmsen 1 965 :183 ) n o ted i n1 950 , t h e m ake r so ft h ep o in t sh ad e s sen t ia l ly b een f o rgo t ten .

A dd i t iona ld i s cove r ie s o fb i son k i l l s i te s s uch a sS co t t sb luf f ( Ba rbou r a nd S chu l tz 1 932 ) a nd L ip scomb ( Schu l tz 1 943 ) , a nd mammo th k i l l s i te s s uch a sN aco a nd L ehne ri nA r izona i nt he 1 950 s ( Hau ry 1 953 ; H au ry e ta l . 1 959 ) f u r the r a dded t o t he i n c rea s ing amoun t o f e v idence i nd ica t ing a l a te P le is tocene h uman o ccupa t ion i nN o r th Ame r ica . Mo reove r , w i th t he se d i scove r ie s , P la ins a r chaeo log is ts w e re f i na l ly a b le t ol a yt or e s tL ew is H en ry Mo rgan 's n o t ion o f1 859 t h a t t h e p ra i r ie w a s m ade i nhab i tab le t on a t ive p opu la t ions o n ly a f te r t hey h ad r ece ived t he h o rse a nd r i f le (Wede l 1 982a :105 ) . A s Wede l ( 1982a :96 ) n o ted , " f rom t he se b eg inn ing s , t h e s ea rch f o r P a leo Ind ian r ema ins i nt h ep l a ins h a sb ecome am a jo r f o cu so fs c ien t if i ci n te re s ti ns ubsequen t y ea r s . . . . "

4 .6 .2 I n terpre ta t ion s o f P a leo ind ian L if eway s ( 19251 950 )

4 . 6 .1 T ypo logy a nd Chrono logy ( 1925 -1950 ) T he e v idence r e cove red f r om t he 1 928 F o lsom s i te e xcava t ions , i n c lud ing 2 3 p a r t ia l ly d i sa r t icu la ted b i son s ke le tons a s soc ia ted w i th F o lsom p o in t s , w a s i n te rp re ted b y B a rnum B rown a s r ep re sen t ing a l o ca t ion w he re F o lsom h un te r s h ad s u r rounded , k i l led , a nd s ubsequen t ly b u tche red t h eb i son ( s ee B ryan 1 937 :141) . I no ne o ft h ee a r l ie s ts t ud ie s d ea l ing w i th t h ee v idence f o r" e a r ly m an " i nN o r th Ame r ica , H owa rd ( 1935 ) f o cu sed o n t wo o ccur rence s i nN ew Mex ico ( Bu rne t C ave a nd B lackwa te r D raw ) t h a t h ad e s tab l ished a s soc ia t ions o fe x t inc t a n ima l s a nd s t one a r t if ac t s . A l ready p re sen t i n i n te rp re ta t ions w a s t h e b e l ief t ha t t h e se e a r ly p opu la t ions h ad b een ah un t ing p eop le , a sw a s i n d ica ted b y t h e se a s soc ia t ions o f s t one t o o ls w i th l a rge r m amma ls , i n p a r t icu la r t h e b i son ( e .g . , H oward 1 935 :128 , 1 51) . A f ew y ea r s l a te r , F rank R obe r t s ( 1937 :160 ) , i n d i scus s ing t h e " Fo lsom P rob lem " a nd t h ec ha rac te r iza t ion o f" Fo lsom Man " n o ted t h a td e sp i te t h el a ck o fh uman r ema ins a nd s he l te r s ,

A f te r t h e 1 920 s , t he ma jo r f ocu s i n No r th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy w a s d i rec ted t owa rd s e r ia t ion , c h rono logy , h i s to r ica l t a xonom ie s , s t ra t ig raph ic e xcava t ions , a nd c u l tu re h i s to r ica l s yn the se s o fa r ea s a nd r e g ions ( e .g . , t h e w o rk o f McKe rn 1 939 a nd K idde r 1 924 , 1 927 ) (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :83 ) . F o r P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s a nd P la ins a r chaeo logy , t h e f ocu s s h if ted t o t ypo logy a nd c l a ss if ica t ion o f " Ea r ly Man" p ro jec t i le p o in t s , wh i le o the r a r t if ac t t ypes w e re s e r ious ly n eg lec ted (W i lm sen 1 965 :183 ) . R enaud ( 1932 )w a s t h e f i rs t t oc l a s s ify t h e e a r ly p o in t s i n to as imp le t wo -f o ld d iv is ion o f F o lsom p o in t s ( t hose p o in ts w i th f l u t ing ) a nd Yuma p o in t s ( t hose w i thou t f l u t ing ) . F o l low ing i n 1 935 , H owa rd ( 1 935 ) a dded y e t a no the r c l a s s if ica t ion t ot h e t wo f o ld s ys tem , " Fo lsom l ike " p o in t s ( l a te r c a l led C lov is p o in t s ) , w h ich i n c luded f l u ted p o in t sl a rge r a nd t h icke r t h an F o lsom p o in t s( s ee A ppend ix A ) .

. . i ts e em s o bv ious t h a th ew a s at y p ica lh un te r d epend ing e n t i re ly u pon g ame -ma in ly b i son b u t o cca s iona l ly t h e m ammo th a nd a s t ray c ame l -f o rh i sm a in tenance a nd s u s tenance .

B y 1 940 , h uman o ccupa t ion o f t h e N ew Wo r ld d u r ing t h e P le is tocene w a s g ene ra l ly a ccep ted , a l though d a t ing a nd c or re la t ion w i th g lac ia l e ven ts w a s s t i l l p rob lema t ic (W i lm sen 1 965 :184 ) .F o re xamp le , i nd i scus s ing t h eg eo logy o f F o lsom d epos i ts i n N ew Mex ico a nd C o lo rado , B ryan ( 1937 :140 ) n o ted t he e x is tence o f a p rob lem w i th d e te rm in ing t h e g eo log ic a ge o ft h eF o lsom c u l tu re b ecause o f t he l a ck o f e s tab l ished a nd g ene ra l c h rono logy o f P le is tocene a nd p os t -P le is tocene t ime i n w es te rn N o r th Ame r ica . O n ly a pp rox ima te e s t ima te s o f 1 5 ,000 -10 ,000 y ea r s B .P . w e re a va i lab le (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :121) , a nd t h e se d a te s w e re b a sed p r ima r i ly o n g eo log ic e v idence . T he w o rk o f E rns t A n tevs w a s o f p a r t icu la r i mpo r tance d u r ing t h i st ime , a sh ew a s o ne o ft h e f i r s tp r io rt ot h ea dven t o fr ad ioca rbon d a t ing t op rov ide a c tua l e s t ima te s o fa ge s f o r v a r iou s e ven t s . F o r e xamp le , b a sed o n g eo log ic e v idence , A n tev s d a ted t h e N aco mammo th k i l l s i te i n A r izona a t 1 ,000 -10 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Hau ry 1 953 ) , a nd t h e n ea rby L ehne rm ammo th k i l l s i te a t1 3 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Hau ry e ta l . 1 959 ) .

R obe r t s ( 1937 :160 ) d i d s ugge s t , h oweve r , t h a t " Fo lsom Man " h ad u ndoub ted ly s upp lemen ted " h is p r eponde ran tm ea t d i e t " w i th w i ld p l an ta nd s e ed r e sou rce s . A d ecade l a te r , o p in ions h ad n o t c hanged d ra s t ica l ly , a s e v idenced i n Wo rm ing ton ( 1949 ) . S he c onc luded t h a t t h e l a rge f l u ted p o in t s ( i . e . , C lov is p o in t s ) h ad b een e spec ia l ly made f o r h un t ing l a rge a n ima ls ( mammo th ) . T ak ing h e r a r gumen t e ven f u r the r , s he p roposed t h a t t h e m ake r s o fa l l f l u ted p o in t s o n t h e H igh P la ins h ad b een d ependen t u pon b i son a nd m ammo th ( Wo rm ing ton 1 949 :35 ) . A s e a r ly a st h e 1 930 s , t h e i d ea w a s p ropo sed t h a t h umans h ad p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e " g rea t d rama " o f t h e e x t inc t ion o f P le is tocene mamma l ian f auna ( s ee S e l la rds 1 937 :210 ) . C o lbe r t ( 1937 ) , h oweve r , q ue s t ioned h ow s ma l l b ands o f " p r im i t ive m en , " e ven t h ough " s avage a nd a gg re s s ive , " c ou ld r e su l t i n t h e e x t inc t ion o f mamma ls s o n ume rous a s P le is tocene h o rse s a nd mammo ths . A s w e l l , i t w a s r e cogn ized e a r ly o n t h a tt h e se e a r ly c u l tu re s a s soc ia ted w i th e x t inc t f a una h ad e x is ted d u r ing a p e r iod w hen c l ima t ic c ond i t ions h ad b een v e ry much d i f f e ren tf r om t h o se o ft o day , at ime w hen g l ac ie rs h ad b een mo re e x ten s ive a nd t h e c l ima te h ad b een c oo le ra nd w e t te r( e .g . ,A n tev s 1 937 ; B ryan 1 937 :152 ; G ladw in 1 937 :135 ; H owa rd 1 935 :61) .

T he t e rm " Pa leo Ind ian " w a s f i rs t i n t roduced i n 1 940 b y F rank R obe r t s( 1940 ) i nt h e t i t le o fh i sc umu la t ive s yn the se s o f wo rk d ea l ing w i th " ea r ly man" s t ud ie s i n Ame r ica . T he t e rm w a sn o td ef ined a nd a ppea red o n ly o nce i nt h et e x t , b u t W i lmsen ( 1 974 :10 ) a rgued t h a ti tw a sc l ea r t h a tR obe r t sw a s r e f e r r ing t o" hun t ing p eop le s r ep re sen ted b y s i te s a s soc ia ted w i th e x t inc t a n ima ls a nd p re sumed t o d a te t o t h e f i na l p o r t ion so ft h eP le is tocene ." B y t h e 1 940 s , w i th d i scove r ie s o ff l u ted p o in t s t h roughou t t h e P la ins a nd s l ope s o ft h e R ocky Moun ta ins , s uch s e r iou s 3 3

s yn the se s o f P a leo ind ian a nd No r th Ame r ican p reh is to ry a ppea red ( e .g . , S e l la rd s 1 952 ; Wo rm ing ton 1 957 ) . A f te r F rank R obe r t s ( 1940 ) i n t roduced t h e t e rm " Pa leo Ind ian " i n 1 940 , i tw a s i mmed ia te ly a dop ted b y No r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log is t s ;h oweve r , i tw a sn o tu n t i l S e l la rd s 'E ar ly Man i n Amer ica t h a t t h e t e rm w as d ef ined e xp l ic i t ly a s t h ose o ccu r rence s o fh uman o rh uman r e l ic s o fs uch a n t iqu i ty a st o b e a s soc ia ted w i th s pec ie s o fa n ima ls o rp l an t s n ow e x t inc t ( Se l la rd s 1 952 :5 , 1 0 ) . A sw e l l , S e l la rd s( 1 952 :17 ) i n t roduced t h et e rm " L lano c omp lex " t or e f e rt ot h o se s i te s i nw h ich t h e C lov is a r t if a c t a s semb lage , c ha rac te r ized b y t h e d i s t inc t f l u ted C lov is p o in t , w a s f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc t P le is tocene a n ima ls o n t h e s ou the rn H igh P la ins . T he t e rm h ad b een d e r ived f r om t h e " L lano E s ta cado ," al a rge p l a teau m ak ing u p t h e s ou the rn H igh P la in s i nw es te rn T exa s a nd e a s te rn N ew Mex ico w he re s eve ra l e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s , i n c lud ing B la ckwa te rD raw L oca l i ty N o . 1 ,h ad e a r l ie rb een d i scove red .

4 . 6 .3 D i scu ss ion I n s umma ry , t h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing t h e F o lsom d i scove ry w a sc ha ra c te r ized b yg ene ra l ized i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . A rchaeo log is t s w e re q u ick t o c onc lude t h a t P le is tocene p opu la t ions h ad b een p r ima r i ly h un te r so fl a rge a n ima ls . T he r e a sons f o rt h is u nques t ion ing a dop t ion o f ah un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion a r e n ume rous . F i r s t , P a leo ind ian a r chaeo logy w a s an ew a nd y oung s t udy w i th ar e la t ive ly s ma l l s amp le o fP a leo ind ian s i te s ,p r ima r i ly k i l l s i te s f r om t h eN o r th Ame r ican P la ins a nd S ou thwe s t ,a va i lab le f o rs t udy . F ocu s i mmed ia te ly s h if ted t o p ro jec t i le p o in t t ypo logy a nd c h rono logy , t he c once rn p reva len t i n mos t o f N or th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy a tt h a t t ime . Mos to t he rc once rns w e re c ons ide red s econda ry o rn o t o f v i ta l i mpo r tance . T he re w as n o n eed t o q ue s t ion t h e h un t ing c onc lus ion o r t h e a s soc ia t ion o fp o in t s a nd a n ima l b one s b ecau se i tw a sb e l ieved t h a ta r chaeo log ica l s i te s s uch a s F o lsom , C lov is , a nd D en t w e re p rov id ing i nd ispu tab le p r oo f t ha t h umans h un ted e x t inc t f auna . Moreove r , a r chaeo log is ts w e re e xube ran t o ve r t he f ac t t ha t o ve rwhe lm ing p roof h ad f i na l ly b e en d i scove red t os uppo r t t h e a r gumen t f o r P le is tocene o ccupa t ions i nN o r th Ame r ica t h a t f o r s o l o ng h ad b een a daman t ly d en ied a te ve ry t u rn b y t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy . A t l ong l a s t No r th Ame r icans h ad d i scove red ah i s to ry t h a tp os s ib ly r i va led t h a t o f t h e O ld Wo r ld : t h e s pec tacu la r i mage o f t h e m igh ty P l e is tocene h un te rt a k ing d own l a rge P l e i s tocene mamma l s .

4 . 7 .2 B ig Gam e Hun t ing I n terpre ta t ion s T hese s yn the se s o f No r th Ame r ican p reh is to ry ( Se l la rd s 1 952 ; Wo rm ing ton 1 957 ) , a sw e l l a so t he rl i t e ra tu re d ea l ing w i th " ea r ly m an " f i nds ( e .g . , H au ry 1 953 ; H au ry e ta l . 1 959 ) , r evea led t h a t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t p romo ted t h e i d ea o f f l u ted p o in tm ake r s o r" Pa leo Ind ian s " b e ing d ependen tu pon mammo th a nd b i son w as f i rm ly e n t renched i n N o r th Ame r ican p reh is to ry a tt h i st ime . T he re w a s ac on t inuance o f t h e b e l ief f r om t h e 1 930 s a nd 1 940 s t h a t t h e a s soc ia t ion o f f l u ted p ro je c t i le p o in t s ( a s sumed t ob ew eapons ) a nd a n ima l b one sp rov ided i n d ispu tab le p roof f o rh un t ing b yh umans .

4 . 7 THE RADIOCARBON REVOLUTION ( 1950 -1962 ) T he d eve lopmen t o fr ad ioca rbon d a t ing i nt h e e a r ly 1 950 s h ad a m a jo r i nf luence o n t he o rde r ing , l e ng then ing , a nd s ho r ten ing i ns ome c a se s , o fc u l tu ra l s equence s t h roughou t t h e Ame r ica s (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 980 :156 ) . A rchaeo log is t s w e re a t l a s t f r eed f r om a n o ve rwhe lm ing c once rn w i th e s tab l ish ing c h rono logy . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing a l lowed f o r c o r re la t ion w i th g lac ia l -p luv ia l r ema ins a nd s equence s a s w e l l a sm o re a ccu ra te d a te s , c h rono log ie s , a nd c o r re la t ions b e tween P a leo ind ian a ssemb lages ( Haynes 1 969 :709 ; W i lmsen 1 965 :185) . I n e ssence , t he r esu l t w as a r e cons ide ra t ion o f t h e n a tu re o f c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t i n N o r th Ame r ica (W i lm sen 1 965 :186 ) .

We k now d ef in i te ly t h a t Ame r ican m en o nce k i l led , s k inned , a nd a t e a n ima ls t h a t a r e n ow e x t inc t , f o r w e f i nd men 's w eapons a nd af ew o f t h e i r b one s m ing led w i th t h e f o ss i ls o f e x t inc tm amma ls . ( MacGowan 1 950 :224 ) S e l la rds ( 1952 :17 ) d i d s ugge s t , t h ough , t h a t w he re a va i lab le ag r ea tv a r ie ty o fp l an t ( i . e . , s eeds ,b u lb s , f r u i t s , a nd n u t s ) a s w e l l a s a n ima l s pec ie s h ad b een e xp lo i ted b y p reh is to r ic g roup s o f t h eL lano c omp lex ; h oweve r , h e s t i l l a r gued t h a t w he re a n ima l s h ad b een p l en t ifu l , m ea t h ad b ecome a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e d i e t , a nd t h a t s t one p ro jec t i le p o in t s f r om B lackwa te rD raw L oca l i ty N o . 1h ad b een c l ea r ly t h ose o f ah un t ing p eop le ( Se l la rds 1 952 :17 , 4 2 ) . Mo reove r , h e s t a ted t h a t e v idence f r om s eve ra l F o lsom s i te s i n c lud ing L indenme ie r , F o lsom , L ubbock , B lackwa te r No . 1 ,a nd L ipscomb u nm is takab ly p rov ided p roof t ha t F o lsom p ro jec t i le p o in t s h ad b een u sed i n t h e h un t ing o f b i son ( Se l la rds 1 952 :60 ) . H oweve r , h e a l so c au t ioned t h a tF o lsom p o in t s may n o th ave b een e xc lus ive ly u sed f o rb i son h un t ing , b u t may h ave b een u sed o n o t he r g ame f o rw h ich ap o in t o f t h e i r s i ze w a ss u i tab le ( Se l la rds 1 952 :60 ) .

T he re w a s a l so a g row ing a wa rene s s t ha t t h e c u l tu ra lh i s to r ica l a pp roach w a s i n adequa te f o r u nde r s tand ing h ow p r eh is to r ic c u l tu re s f u nc t ioned a nd c hanged . C onsequen t ly , a r chaeo log is ts we re b eg inn ing t o t u rn t owa rd more f unc t iona l a nd c on tex tua l a pp roaches f o r u nde rs tand ing h uman b ehav iou r ( T r igge r 1 989a :244 ; W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :130 -180 ) .T he m a jo rp laye r si na dvoca t ing af u nc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion i n a r chaeo logy i n c luded Wa l te r T ay lo r a nd J u l ian S t ewa rd . I nAS tudy o fA rchaeo logy , T ay lo r ( 1948 ) s eve re ly c r i t ic ized t h es t a te o f Ame r ican a r chaeo logy a nd i t s p reoccupa t ion w i th c h rono logy , p ropos ing h i s " con junc t ive a pp roach ," w h ich f o cu sed o n s i te s , f e a tu re s , r e la t ionsh ips , a nd c on tex t s . A lso g a in ing p rom inence a tt h is t ime w a s a c once rn w i th c u l tu re a nd t he e nv i ronmen t . T he p r inc ipa l f i gu re i nt h is n ew e nv i ronmen t -evo lu t iona ry t r end w a sJ u l ian S t ewa rd ( s ee W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :151 ) , who s uppo r ted t h e i d ea t h a t e co log ica l f a c to r s w e re i mpo r tan t i n s hap ing p r eh is to r ic s y s tem s .

I ns p i te o fS e l la rd s ' ( 1 952 :17 ) s ugge s t ion t h a t ag rea tv a r ie ty o fp lan t a nd a n ima l s pec ie s h ad l i ke ly b een u sed b y t h e se e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , a nd d e sp i te h i s " s caveng ing " e xp lana t ion f o r t h e mammo th r ema ins r e cove red f r om t h e M iam i l o ca l i ty i nT exa s ( s ee A ppend ix A ) , i n te rp re ta t ion s c on t inued t o b e d om ina ted w i th t he i dea o f a c t ive , s pe c tacu la rb i gg ame h un t ing ( s ee A ppend ix A : H au ry 1 953 ; H au ry e ta l . 1 959 ; I rw in e ta l . 1 962 ) . F o re xamp le , H au ry e t a l . ( 1959 :28 ) w en ts o f a r a st op ropose a n a ge -se lec t ive c u l l mode l f o r t h e L ehne r s i te , a nd I rw in e t a l . ( 1962 :836 ) s ugge s ted t h a t a tt h e Un ion P ac if ic m ammo th s i te , d e sp i te

4 . 7 .1 P a leo ind ian S tud ies ( 1950 -1962 ) : An I n troduc t ion Mo re s pec if ica l ly f o rP a leo ind ian s t ud ie sa tt h is t ime ,s eve ra l 3 4

a nd t o o l a s semb lage s ( s ee mo re r e cen t s t ud ie s b y Wa te r s 1 986a , 1 986b , a nd Woos ley a nd Wa te r s 1 990 t h a t h ave r e exam ined s i te s p rev ious ly d e s igna ted a sb e long ing t ot h e S u lphu r S p r ing s t age o f t he C och ise c u l tu re a nd h ave d emons t ra ted t h a t H au ry w a s c o r rec t . T he S u lphu r S p r ing s t age i sn ow p l a ced b e tween 6 , 050 a nd 8 , 050 B .C . , p e rhap s a s e a r ly a s 8 , 450 B .C . , w h ich i nd ica te s t ha t i tw a s n o t c on tempo raneou s w i th ,b u tp o s t -da ted C lov is ) .

t he l a ck o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s ( t he b ig g ame h un te rs ' " weapon" ) , t he mammo th h ad b een s l augh te red a nd b u tche red b yP a leo ind ian h un te r s . T he p opu la r v i ew d u r ing t h e m id -1950 s w i th r ega rd t ot h e e a r l ie s t i nhab i tan ts o f t he Ame r ica s w a s r evea led i n a n a r t ic le i n N a t iona l G eograph ic ( Henry 1 955 ) . I t , t oo , r ef lec ted t h is a c t ive b ig g ame h un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion f o r P a leo ind ian r ema ins , b u t a l so s t res sed t h e b e l ief i n ah a r sh l i f e f o r t h e se b ig g ame h un te r s . I tw a s a rgued t h a t C lov isF o lsom " man" mus th ave l i ved a" hand t o mou th " e x is tence , c on t inua l ly mov ing , w i th l i t t le l e isure t ime ( Hen ry 1 955 :793 ) , a nd w i th " a h igh d eg ree o f i n te l l igence a nd c ou rage t op u t h i s f e eb le b ody a ga ins t t h e mammo th a nd b i son a nd ' make al i v ing ' o u to ft h em " ( Hen ry 1 955 :797 ) . I n y e t a no the r N a t iona l G eograph ic a r t ic le , I rw in e ta l . ( 1962 ) v i ewed l a te P le is tocene h umans a s l im i ted i nt h e i r h un t ing w i th o n ly s t one , b one , a nd w ooden t o o ls ; t hus am ammo th k i l l w a s s e en a s aw indf a l l , " av e r i tab le moun ta in o fm ea t , " t h ed i f f e rence b e tween " me re s u rv iva l a nd p len ty f o rw eek s , p e rhap se ven mon th s " ( I rw in e ta l . 1 962 :836 ) .

4 . 7 .5 D i scu s s ion I ns umma ry ,P a leo ind ian a r chaeo logy i nt h e 1 950 s w a s s t i l l a r e la t ive ly y oung s t udy . N ew f i nd s , p r ima r i ly f r om t he w e s te rn p a r t o ft h ec on t inen t , a ppea red t os uppo r t t h ee a r l ie r i n te rp re ta t ions o f ab ig g ame h un t ing l i f e s ty le . W i th t h eb a s is f o r c h rono logy a nd t ypo logy o f P a leo ind ian c omp lexe s e s tab l ished , q ue s t ions a nd r e sea rch c ou ld n ow b e s h if ted t o o the r t op ics s uch a s l i feways . T h is i n te re s t i n l i feways , h oweve r , n a tu ra l ly f ocused o n t he a spec t o f b ig g ame h un t ing , w h ich s upposed ly w a s t h ec ha rac te r is t ic l i f e s ty le o f t h e se P a leo ind ian g roups . Q ues t ions r evo lved p r ima r i ly a r ound t h e m e thods a nd t e chn ique s o fh un t ing i na t temp t s t o e xp la in t he r ema ins f ound a t P a leo ind ian l o ca l i t ies . I n te rp re ta t ions w e re r e la t ive ly g ene ra l ized , b e ing b a sed o n e t hnog raph ic c ompa r isons a nd t h e b e l ief i n ah a rsh l i fe d ependen t o n b ig g ame w indf a l ls . I n te re s t t e nded t o b e c hanne led t owa rd e xp la in ing i n d iv idua l s i tes r a the r t h an e xam in ing ab roade r o ve rv iew o f P a leo ind ian c u l tu re a nd r e la t ionsh ips ( w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t h e C och ise i s sue ) . D e sp i te t h is i n te re s t i n l i f eway s ( i .e . , b i g g ame h un t ing ) , t h e re s t i l lr ema ined ad om inan tr e sea rch f o cu s o n c h rono logy a nd t y po logy o fP a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s , a si se v iden t t h roughou tt h ee n t i re h i s tory o fP a leo ind ia n s t ud ie s .

4 . 7 .3 C hrono logy o f E ar ly P a leo ind ian Cu l ture s a nd t he ir D i s tr ibu t ions D u r ing t h e 1 950 s , t h ep opu la r b e l ie f , a sH ayne s ( 1966 :105 ) n o ted , w a s t h a t t wo s epa ra te g roup s o f h un te r s e x is ted i n w es te rn N o r th Ame r ica d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene : t h e e a r l ie r C lov is mammo th h un te r s ( Se l la rds ' L lano c omp lex ) a nd t h el a te rF o lsom b i son h un te r s . A l ready b y 1 952 i tw a s n o ted t h a tt h eL lano c u l tu re w a sn o t o n ly o l de r t h an F o lsom b a sed o n s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence , b u t a l so mo re w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted t h an F o lsom , o ccu r r ing o ve r much o f N o r th Ame r ica ( Se l la rds 1 952 :149 ) . S e l la rds ( 1952 :106 ) e xp la ined t h is d i s t r ibu t ion b y s ugges t ing t ha t t he p ro jec t i le p o in t d eve loped b y " Fo lsom man " h ad b een s pec ia l ly d e s igned f o r b i son h un t ing , a nd t h us w a s n o t l i ke ly t o b e f ound i n a bundance much b eyond t h e r ange o f b i son h e rds o f t h e g rea t i n te r io r p la ins . Mo reove r , t h e C lov is p o in t , w h ich s eemed t oh ave b een u sed p r ima r i ly i n e l ephan t h un t ing , w ou ld r e a sonab ly b e e xpec ted t ob e f ound t h roughou t m os t o f t h e c on t inen t , s i nce t h e r ange o f t h e e l ephan t h ad b een c on t inen t -w ide a to ne p o in t( Se l la rd s 1 952 :106 ) .

4 .8 THE NE W ARCHAEOLOGY : PROCESSUAL S TUDIES ( 1962 -1980 s ) T he c hange t o ac once rn w i th f unc t ion a nd h ow c u l tu re s c hanged a nd o pe ra ted m a rked t h e b eg inn ing o f ap roce ssua l s t udy o f p reh is to r ic c u l tu re s i na r chaeo logy , r ep lac ing t h e c u l tu ra l -h is to r ica l a pp roach o ft h e e a r ly 1 900 s a nd r e su l t ing i n ar e newa l o ft i e s w i th a n th ropo logy ( T r igge r 1 989a :288 ) . L ew is B info rd p opu la r ized t h e se n ew c once rns ( s e e B info rd 1 962 ) , a nd w a s b a s ica l ly r e spons ib le f o r much o ft h e e a r ly d eve lopmen ta nd s yn the se s o ft h is " New A rchaeo logy , " a si t w ou ld e ven tua l ly b ecome k nown ( s ee B info rd 1 965 , 1 967 , 1 977 ) . C ha rac te r ized b y ar ev iva l o fe vo lu t iona ry t h ink ing , t h eN ew A r chaeo logy w a si nf luenced h eav i ly b y t h ew o rk o f L e s l ie Wh i te a nd J u l ian S tewa rd , t h e i n t roduc t ion o fs y s tem s t heo ry , t he u se o f d educ t ive r ea son ing a nd e xp l ic i t h ypo the se s te s t ing , ap os i t iv is t a pp roach , a nd t h e g oa l t o f o rmu la te l aws o f c u l tu ra l d ynam ics . I n a dd i t ion , N ew A rchaeo logy a dvoca ted t h e e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l a pp roach f o r e s tab l ish ing c o r re la t ions b e tween b ehav iou r a nd m a te r ia l i t ems i n o rde r t o i n f e r b ehav iou r f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he a pp l ica t ion o ft h e se a pp roaches a imed p r ima r i ly t o e l im ina te t h e s ub jec t ive e l emen t w i th in a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , a nd e s tab l ish ab a s is f o r t h e o b jec t ive s c ien t if ic i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( T r igge r 1 989a :30 1 ) .

4 . 7 .4 I s sue o ft he C och i se C u l ture T he i s sue o ft h e r e la t ionsh ip o f " L lano m an t h e h un te r " t o " Coch ise m an t he c o l lec to r " a r ose i n t h e 1 950 s w i th t h e d i scove ry o fa s semb lage s( l abe l led a st h eC och ise c u l tu re )i n s ou theas te rn A r izona w h ich i nd ica ted a g a the r ing -ba sed e conomy , b u t o ne a ssoc ia ted w i th l a te P le is tocene mammo th , h o rse , a nd b i son r ema ins , e spec ia l ly i n e a r l ie r a s semb lage s . B o th S e l la rds ( 1952 :79 ) a nd Wo rm ing ton ( 1949 :88 ) a r gued t h a t t h ea r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n d ica ted t h a tt h eC och ise c omp lex h ad b e en c once rned p r ima r i ly w i th f ood g a the r ing o f w i ld s eeds , n u ts , a nd r oo ts w h ich c on s t i tu ted t h e ma jo r p a r t o f t h e i r d i e t , wh i le h un t ing h ad b een p rac t ised b u t o n ly t o al im i ted e x ten t . A n a r chaeo logy s em ina r i n 1 955 t o d ea l w i th t h e i s sue c onc luded t h a t t h e C och i se D e se r t c u l tu re , a l though t h e s ame a ge a st h eL lano c omp lex , w a s s uff ic ien t ly d i s t inc t f r om t h a t o ft h eb i g g ame h un te rc u l tu re t ot e s t ify n o to n ly t o ad i f f e ren te nv i ronmen ta l a dap ta t ion b u t t o ad i f f e ren t o u t look a s w e l l ( Hau ry e ta l . 1 959 :26 ) .H au ry e ta l .( 1959 ) ,h oweve r , a daman t ly s uppo r ted t h e v i ew t h a t t he L lano b ig g ame h un t ing s t age h ad b een a n teceden tt ot he C och i se c o l lec t ing s t age b ecause o fd a t ing

S ince c u l tu re w as v iewed a s t he h uman o rgan ism 's e x t ra soma t ic m eans o f a dap ta t ion ( B inf o rd 1 962 :2 18 ) , t h a t i s , a sp a r t o f ah omeos ta t ic e qu i l ib r ium s y s tem , f a c to r s t h a t b rough t c hange t o t h e s ys tem w e re e s sen t ia l ly s e en a s e x te rna l ( B info rd 1 983 :221) . E co log ica l e xp lana t ions o f c hange w e re d om inan t ( T r igge r 1 989a :305 ) , w i th t h e 3 5

s oc ie t ie s " a sa c tua l f unc t ion ing e n t i t ie sr a the rt h an c a tego r ie s o fc h ipped -s tone t y pe s " (W i l ley 1 966 :44 ) .

r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t e chno logy a nd e nv ironmen t c ons ide red k ey f a c to r s i nd e te rm in ing c u l tu ra l s y s tem s a nd h uman b ehav iou r ( T r igge r 1 989a :302 ) . A l though t h e N ew A rchaeo log is t s a nd B info rd ( 1962 :219 ) s uppo r ted t h eb e l ie f t h a t a l l a spec t s o f c u l tu ra l s ys tems w e re r ef lec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd t hus i fc o r re c t ly i n te rp re ted c ou ld p rov ide a c omp le te a nd u nd is to r ted p i c tu re o f e x t inc t c u l tu re s ( T r igge r 1 989a :357 -358 ) , t h e ma jo r i ty o f N ew A rchaeo logy s t ud ie st e nded t of o cus o n s ub s is tence p a t te rns , t r ade , a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion .

4 . 8 .3 L i f eway sI n terpre ta t ions I n 1 962 , Ma son ( 1962 :229 ) e xp re ssed t h e b e l ief h e ld b y mos t No r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log is t s a tt h a t t ime , n ame ly , t h a tt h eb i gg ame h un t ing p r ac t ised b yP a leo ind ian t r ad i t ions r epresen ted a s i ng le l i feway c ha rac te r ized b y v e ry s ucce s s fu l , f u l l t ime e xp lo i ta t ion o fb i g g ame a n ima ls , s i nce n oc l ea re v idence h ad b een r e cove red t oi n d ica te t h a ts e ed o r o t he rw i ld v ege ta t ion h ad b e en c o l le c ted .

4 . 8 .1 T he S ta te o fP a leo ind ian S tud ie s

. . p robab ly t h e mo s ts i ngu la r ly p o ten t f a c to rt o wh ich m an h ad t o a dap t w a s t h e g rea t r e se rvo i r o f l a rge h e rb ivo re s o n w h ich w e k now t he f ood -ques t r e l ied . . .. (Mason 1 962 :243 )

B yt h em id -1960 s ,a ne a r l ie rC lov is a nd l a te rF o lsom h o r izon h ad b een d ocumen ted f o r t h e No r th Ame r ican H igh P la ins a nd S ou thwe s t (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 :160 -161 ) . I tw a s a ppa ren tt h a tC lov is a nd C lov is l ike a s semb lage sh ad am o re w idesp read d i s t r ibu t ion t han F o lsom , a nd t he g ene ra l i n te rp re ta t ion w a s t h a t e a r ly h un te r s o ft h e l a te P le is tocene h ad s p read o ve r mos t o f No r th Ame r ica w i th C lov is l ike t e chno logy .T hen ,l a te rp o in t f o rms e vo lved f r om C lov i si n to an umbe ro fs epa ra te r eg iona lp o in t s t y le si n c lud ing F o l som , P la inv iew , M id land , Y uma , a nd E den i n t h e w e s t , a nd S uwannee a nd D a l ton i nt h e e a s te rn a r ea o f No r th Ame r ica (W i l ley a nd S ab lof f1 980 :160 -161 ) .

W i l ley ( 1966 :26 -77 ) p rov ided as umma ry o ft h e p reva i l ing v i ew d u r ing t h e e a r ly a nd m id -1960s o f " The B ig -Game H un t ing T rad i t ion ," e ncompass ing t hose e a r ly c u l tu ra l c omp lexe s a dap ted t o g ras s land e nv i ronmen t o f t h e l a te P le is tocene , a nd c ha rac te r ized b y d i s t inc t ive l a nceo la te p ro je c t i le p o in tt y pe s ( i . e . , C lov is ,F o lsom , s i ng le shou lde red S and ia , a nd P l ano t y pe s ) a nd o t he r a s soc ia ted l i t h ic r ema ins . A l l t he se p ro jec t i le p o in t t y pes h ad b een " i n teg ra l p a r t s o f c omp lexe s w h ich r ef lec ted aw ay o fl i f ep r ima r i ly d ependen t o n k i l l ing l a rge g ame a n ima ls , many o f t h e s pec ie s n ow e x t inc t " (W i l ley 1 966 :38 ) . Mo reove r , " man " b y 1 0 ,000 B .C . i n t h e N ew Wo r ld h ad b een " a s pec ia l ized h un te r o f b i g g ame , a dep t i nt h e p roduc t ion o fl a nceo la te f l in t p o in t s f o r t h i sp u rpo se " ( W i l ley 1 966 :37 ) .

4 . 8 .2 An E nv ironm en ta l -Eco log ica lF ocu s T he n ew -found f o cus o n c u l tu ra l -eco log ica l , e vo lu t iona ry , a nd f unc t iona l a pp roache s t h a tb egan i nt h e 1 940 -1950 s , a nd c u lm ina ted i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e N ew A rchaeo logy , b egan t oi nf luence P a leo ind ian s t ud ie si nN o r th Ame r ica ( s ee W i lm sen 1 965 :186 ) . S eve ra l s t ud ie s p rac t is ing a c u l tu ra l e co log ica l a pp roa ch a ppea red d u r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s , d ea l ing w i th t h e e f fec t s o f c hanges o f c u l tu re a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t o n o ne a no the r . E xamp le s i n c luded Wendo rf s ( 1 961) p a leoeco log ica l s t udy o ft h eL lano E s tacado , P au l S . Ma r t in 's ( 1963 ) p a leoeco log ica l s t udy o f A r izona a nd h i s e xam ina t ion ( Ma r t in 1 958 ) o f P le is tocene e x t inc t ions a nd h uman i nvo lvemen t , H es te r 's ( 1975 ) s t udy o f t he p a leoa rchaeo logy o ft h e L lano E s tacado , a nd Wendo rf a nd H e s te r 's ( 1962 ) r e cons t ruc t ion o f t h e n a tu re o f t h e G rea t P l a ins e nv i ronmen t t h rough p o l len a nd i n ve r teb ra te s t ud ie s i na n a t temp tt od e te rm ine h ow e a r ly h umans m ay h ave u sed t h i s e nv i ronmen t . F o l low ing a n e xam ina t ion o fP a leo ind ian s i te s o n t h eL lano E s tacado , Wendo rf a nd H e s te r( 1962 :159 , 1 69 ) c onc luded t h a t t h e " Pa leo Ind ian c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion " p rac t ised t h roughou tt h eG rea tP la ins f r om L lano ,F o lsom , t o P a ra l le l F laked t imes , h ad a dap ted t o t h e u se o f t h is e nv i ronmen t p r ima r i ly t h rough b ig g ame h un t ing . A t t h is t ime t h e re w a s ac l ea ra ck now ledgmen tt h a t l a te P l e is tocene e nv i ronmen t so nt h eP la ins h ad b een v e ry d i f f e ren tf r om t h a t o f t oday ( e .g . , H a r r is 1 977 ; Ma r t in 1 958 ; Wendo rf a nd H e s te r 1 962 :164 ) .

D e sp i te b r ief ly s ugge s t ing t h a t t he b ig g ame h un t ing a spec t m ay h ave b een o ve r -empha s ized b ecause o f t h e i n f e rence t h a t many o ft h e s i te s p e r ta in ing t o t h is t r ad i t ion w e re n o mo re t han k i l l l o ca t ions , W i l ley ( 1966 :38 ) r ema ined c onv inced t h a t t h e " b ig -game p u rsu i t " h ad b een ac en t ra l f e a tu re o f t h e i r l i f e s ty le , t h a t t h e re w a s n o q ue s t ion t h a t i t w a s . . an a c t iv i ty o f g rea t a nd , p robab ly , p r ima ry i mpo r tance . V iewed i nt h ep e r spec t ive o fa l l o f p re -Co lumb ian N ew Wor ld h i s to ry , i t i mpa r ted a d e s ign , as t y le t o t h e ir l i ves . (W i l ley 1 966 :38 ) I n 1 975 , H e s te r ( 1975 ) , i n a n a r t ic le d ea l ing w i th p a leoa rchaeo logy o ft h eL lano E s tacado , a l so s uppo r ted t h e b e l ief t h a tb ig g ame h un t ing h ad b een o fp r ima ry i mpo r tance f o re a r ly P a leo ind ians . F o rH e s te r ( 1975 :251 ) , t h eb one sa nd t oo l t ype s r e cove red f r om P a leo ind ian s i te s v e r if ied t h e a s sump t ion t h a t " t he ma ins tay o f t h e i r e conomy w a s b i g g ame h un t ing . "

T h is e nv i ronmen ta l /eco log ica l i n te re s t w a s a ppa ren t i n P la ins a r chaeo logy b y t h e s h if t i nf o cu s i nt h e 1 970 s t oa n i n te rd isc ip l ina ry a pp roach c a l l ing u pon s uch d i sc ip l ine s a s z oo logy , e t hnobo tany , g eo logy , a nd c l ima to logy i no rde r t o r e cons t ruc t e nv i ronmen ta l r e la t ionsh ips o f h umans i n t h e P la ins a tt h e a r chaeo log ica l l e ve l ( s ee Wede l 1 982b :143 ) . Mo reove r , b ecause s o f ew t r ace s r ema ined o f P a leo ind ian h un te rs , W i l ley ( 1966 :44 ) n o ted t h e i mpo r tance o f a nd r e l iance o n t h e s t udy o f p a s t e nv i ronmen t s e spec ia l ly f o r r e cons t ruc t ing P a leo ind ian c u l tu re h i s to ry . H e a r gued t h a t e nv i ronmen t sp rov ided ab e t te ri mage o fa nc ien tc u l tu re sa nd

A l so a ppa ren td u r ing t h is p e r iod w a st h a t at wo -fo ld d i v is ion o rp a t te rn h ad b een d e r ived f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica lr ema in s ; t h a t i s , C lov is h un te r s w e re c ons ide red s pec ia l is t s i n t h e p u rsu i t o f mammo th , wh i le F o lsom a nd l a te r h un te r s h ad f o cused o n b i son ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 966 :111 , 1 970 :81 ; H e s te r 1 967 :179 , 1 975 :251 ; Ma r t in 1 967 ; Ma son 1 962 ; Wendo r f a nd H e s te r 1 962 :166 ; Whea t 1 971) . T he re w a s at e ndency t h roughou t t h i s t ime , h oweve r , t o a cknow ledge b r ief ly t h a t e conom ic p u r su i t s o t he r t h an b ig g ame h un t ing m ay h ave b een p rac t ised o r we re a va i lab le , b u t t hese 3 6

Ma son 1 962 :243 -244 ) , e spec ia l ly w hen t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h e r ap id ly c hang ing e co log ica l n iches o f t h e l a te P l e i s tocene .

a cknow ledgemen t s w e re r a re a nd o f ten b r ie f a s ide s ( e .g . , H e s te r 1 975 ) . Wa rn ica ( 1966 :355 ) , b a s ing h i s v i ew o n f u r the r e xcava t ions a tB lackwa te r D raw , s ugge s ted t h a t t h e C lov is w ay o fl i f eh ad b een p e rhap sn o t e n t i re ly d ependen t u pon b i g g ame h un t ing , a nd d u r ing p e r iod s o f h eavy p r ec ip i ta t ion ,e d ib le s e ed sf r om l u xu r ian tg r a s se sw ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le f o r f ood . J enn ing s( 1 974 :9 1) p o in ted o u tt h a t n oo b se rved p eop le sh ad e ve rc oncen t ra ted u pon o ne s p ec ie s a l one , s o aw ide rs ubs i s tence b a se t h an t h eP a leo ind ia n f i nd s c ou ld d ocumen t h ad t o b e a s sumed . W i th r e ga rd s t ot h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fn on -hun t ing s ubs i s tence a c t iv i t ie s , h oweve r , J e nn ing s ( 1 974 :92 ) m en t ioned o n ly i nb r ie fp a s s ing t h a t f o r t h e P l a in s , " whe re m any t a s ty v ege tab le a nd b e r ry s pec ie s a bound , i ti sr e a sonab le t o a s sume t h a t t h e L lano p eop le s u t i l ized t h e se i n s ea son ." A s w e l l , Wendo rf a nd H e s te r ( 1 962 :168 ) , Whea t ( 1 971 :24 , 2 6 ) , a nd H e s te r ( 1 972 :178 ; 1 975 ) a l n o t ed t h a t af ew s ma l l a n ima ls , b i rd b one s , s e ed s , a nd g r ind ing s l ab s w e re k nown f r om P a leo ind ian s i te s , b u t t h ey a r gu ed t h a tt h ee v idence o ve rwhe lm ing ly p o in ted t ob i g g ame a st h es t ap le i nt h ed i e t , w h i le t h e " c a sua l u se " o fw i ld p l an t s( Whea t 1 971 :26 ) a nd t h eh un t ing o fs ma l la n ima l sh ad p l ayed o n ly a m ino r r o le i n t h e e conomy ( Wendo r f a nd H e s te r 1 962 :166 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s , s ma l le r g ame a nd e d ib le p l an t s h ad b een t a ken o ppo r tun i s t ica l ly ( Hayne s 1 966 :111 , 1 970 :8 1 ; H e s te r 1 967 :179 ; Wendo r f a nd H e s te r 1 962 :166 ; W i l ley 1 966 :38 ) i n ap a s s ive , i n cons equen t ia lm anne r .

B y t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s , n ume rou s f l u ted p o in t s s im i la r t o t h ose b e ing d i scove red i n w e s te rn k i l l s i te s h ad b een r e cove red f r om v a r iou s e a s te rn l o ca l i t ie s s u ch a sS hoop i n P enn sy lvan ia ( W i t thof t 1 952 ) , B u l l B rook i n Ma s sachu se t t s ( Bye r s 1 954 , 1 955 ) , R eagen i n V e rmon t ( R i tch ie 1 953 ) , D ebe r t i nN ova S co t ia ( MacDona ld 1 968 ) , a nd D u tche s s Q ua r ry C ave i nN ew Y o rk ( Funk e ta l . 1 969 ) . I ti sb eyond t h e s cope o f t h i s s t udy t o d ea l i nd e ta i l w i th P a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ions f o r e a s te rn s i te s ( s ee D unba r 1 99 1 ; E l l is a nd L o th rop 1 989 ; L eppe r a nd Me l tze r 1 991 ; Ma cDona ld 1 971 ; Ma son 1 962 ; Me l tze r 1 988 ; a nd S to rck 1 991 f o r f u r the r d e ta i ls a nd r e f e rences ) , b u t i t a ppea rs t h a t e a s te rn P a leo ind ian a r cha eo log is t s w e re m o re w i l l ing t oa c cep t t h e f a c t t h a t a l te rna te s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s s uch a s h un t ing s ma l l a nd d i ve r se g ame a nd c o l lec t ing p l an t f o od sm ay h ave b een p r ac t ised b ye a s te rn P a leo ind ians ,b ecau se f ew , i fa ny , f l u ted p o in t sh ad b een f ound d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th e x t inc t a n ima ls s uch a s m ammo th a nd m a s todon i nt h e e a s t ( e .g . , G raham e ta l . 1 981 :1116 ; G r iff in 1 965 :656 , 6 58 , 1 978 :226 ; J e l inek 1 967 :198 ) .T he m a jo r i ty o fe a s te rn f l u ted p o in t sw e re s u r f a ce f i nd s . N eve r the le s s , t h ei d ea t h a t t h e l i f e o ff l u ted p o in tm ake r s i n t h e e a s t r evo lved a r ound h un t ing ( e .g . , G r iff in 1 978 :226 ) , a nd e spec ia l ly b i g g ame h un t ing , w a s d i ff icu l t t ol e t g o . Many a r chaeo log is ts b e l ieved t h a t t h e s pec ia l ized s ub s i s tence b a se o fb i g g ame h un t ing i nt h e w e s te rn p a r t o f t h ec on t inen th ad g r an ted h umans t h e m ob i l i ty t oc u t a c ro s s e co log ica lb a r r ie r sa nd p ene t ra te a nd o ccupy t h ee a s t( Ma son 1 962 :246 ) .W i th r e ga rd t ot h e P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ion i nt h e s ou th ea s t ,W i l l iam s a nd S t o l tman ( 1 965 :674 ) s ugge s ted t h a t a l though C lov is f i nds i nt h e s ou thea s t h ad b een p r ima r i ly f r om t h e s u r f ace a nd t h a t n o w e l l a u then t ica ted a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc t f a una w a s k nown , t h e re w a s ac o r re spondence b e tween t h e g eog raph ic r a nge o fC lov is p o in t s a nd t h a t o f m a s todon , m ammo th , a nd e x t inc t b i son . A rchaeo log is t s v i ewed t h is c o r re spondence a nd t h ep r e sence o ff l u ted p o in t s a si n d i rec t s uppo r t f o r t h e i d ea t h a t p eop le i nt h e e a s t h ad h un ted b i gg ame a st h e i rw e s te rn c oun te rpa r t s w e re b e l ieved t oh ave d one ( e .g . , Whea t 1 97 1 :27 ; W i l l iam s a nd S t o l tman 1 965 ) . L a te r i n te rp re ta t ions c ons ide red t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f c a r ibou a st h e m a jo r g ame a n ima l o fe a s te rn P a leo ind ian s ( e .g . , MacDona ld 1 971 :32 ) d e sp i te t h e l a ck o f a bundan t , s o l id , d i rec t e v idence . Mo re r e cen t ly , Me l tze r ( 1 988 ) h a s a r gued t h a t , f o re a s te rn P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s , t h e re w a s a g ene ra l is t a dap ta t ion p r ac t ised i nt h e u ng la c ia ted s ou the rn b o rea l /dec iduou s f o re s t r e g ions , a nd a h igh ly m ob i le , s p ec ia l ized h un t ing a dap ta t ion i n vo lv ing t h ee xp lo i ta t ion o f c a r ibou p rac t i sed i nt h e t u nd r a /open s p ruce p a rk land a r ea t o t h e n o r th . A s Mo r lan ( 1991 :305 ) n o ted , t h ough , t h is s uppo sed P a leo ind ian r e l iance o nc a r ibou i sb a sed l a rge ly o n s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze , a nd l a you t , e t hnog raph ic d a ta , a nd e v idence f o r c a r ibou a s soc ia t ions , s ome o f w h ich a r e q ue s t ionab le , a to n ly af ew s i te si n c lud ing D u tche s sQ ua r ry C ave s ( New Y o rk ) , t h e Wh ipp le s i te ( New H amp sh i re ) , a nd B u l l B rook ( Ma s sachuse t t s ) . Mo reove r , t h e re a r e s t i l l s t a temen t s c l a im ing t h a tt h eh un t ing o fl a rge m amma l s h ad b een ac en t ra l f o cus o fe a r ly P a leo ind ian e conom ie s i nt h e e a s t , m o re p a r t icu la r ly t h eG rea tL ake sr e g ion ( e .g . , S eeman 1 994 :275 ) . E s sen t ia l ly , t h e p r e sence o f af l u ted p o in t h ad b ecome a n u nque s t ionab le i n d ica to r o f t h e p ra c t ice o fb i g g ame h un t ing .

W i th r e ga rd t o h un t ing m e thods , Wendo rf a nd H e s te r ( 1962 :166 ) a r gued t h a t t h e mos t c ommon P a leo ind ian h un t ing p a t te rn , a ss ugge s ted b yt h e i rr e v iew o fP a leo ind ian s i te s f r om t h eL lano E s tacado , h ad b een t h a to fs t a lk ing a nd k i l l ing b i son /mammo th a st h ey w e re d r ink ing i ns t ream sa nd p ond s( s ee a l so W i l ley 1 966 :39 f o rs im i la rc onc lu s ion s ) .T he s e cond m o s tc ommon p a t te rn h ad b e en t h a t o ft h es t ampede , i nw h ich b i son w e re d r iven i n to a n a r royo , s t ream , o ro ve r a c l if f( Wendo r fa nd H e s te r 1 962 :167 ) . I n 1 966 , H ayne s ( 1966 :111) , i n ar e v iew o fm ammo th k i l l s i te s a nd p o s s ib le m e thods o fh un t ing m ammo th , p ropo sed f o rt h eD en ts i te t h a tt h em ammo th h ad b een s t ampeded o ve r ab l uf f ;f o rt h eC lov is s i te , h ea r gued t h a tt h em ammo th sh ad b e en s t ampeded i n to s ha l low w a te r ; a nd f o r t h eL ehne rs i te , h es uppo r ted H au ry 's s e lec t ive -age c u l l ing m ode l . S im i la r ly , H e s te r ( 1967 :179 ) e choed H ayne s ' v i ews o n m ammo th h un t ing m e thod s , t h a t e a r ly g roup sh ad h un ted b y s t ampede a nd f i r ed r ive ,a nd u sed d i f f e ren t ia l s e lec t ion o fy oung o ft h e s p ec ie s . Whea t ( 1971 :24 ) a r gued t h a t s i nce t h e m a jo r i ty o f m ammo th k i l ls i tes w e re a s soc ia t ed w i th w a te rho le sa nd t h u s p os s ib ly l u sh g r az ing , a mbu sh h ad b een t h ep r inc ipa l m eans o fa tack , a i ded i n mo s tc a se sb y s ome f o rm o fc on ta inmen t s u ch a sc u t t ing f o o tt e ndons o rt h eu s eo ff i re s u r round . T hu s t h em id 1960 sv i ew o fP a leo ind ian l i f eway sd ef in i te ly s uppo r t ed t h e i d ea o fa c t ive , s u cce s s fu l l a rge g ame h un t ing ( e .g . , H ayne s a nd A gog ino 1 966 ; H emm ing s a nd H ayne s 1 969 ; H e s te r 1 972 ;J enn ing s 1 974 ) .P a leo ind ian " man "i nt h e N ew Wo r ld w a s s een a s a" s k i l led a nd s oph i s t ica ted h un te r " ( W i l ley 1 966 :72 ) , f o l low ing , w ound ing , h a ra s s ing , a nd g r adua l ly k i l l ing l a rge a n ima ls s u ch a st h em ammo th ( W i l ley 1 966 :39 ) . T h i sb e l ie fi nt h es ucce s s fu l , e f f ic ien tP a leo ind ian p r eda to rb r ough tt ot h ef o ref ron to nce a ga in t h ec on t rove r s ia l i d ea o fP l e i s tocene o ve rk i l l ( s ee Ma r t in a nd Wr igh t 1 967 ) . T h is c oncep t w a s e spec ia l ly a dvoca ted b y P au l S . Ma r t in ( 1 967 , 1 973 ) , a nd s uppo r ted o r c ons ide red p os s ib le b y n ume rou s o t he r r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , H e s te r 1 967 :170 ; I rw in W i l l iam s 1 967 :337 -338 ; J e l inek 1 967 ; J enn ings 1 978 ; 3 7

e a r l ie s ti n hab i tan t si nt h eN ew Wo r ld ;t h us , t h ev i ew t h a tt h e C och i se c u l tu re c ou ld h ave b een c on tempo raneou s w a s n o t c ons ide red b e cau se i td id n o t f i t w i th t h e b i g g ame h un t ing m ode l .

4 .8 .4 Chrono logy , D eve lop men t , a nd D is tr ibu t ion o f E ar ly P a leo ind ian Cu l ture s Du r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970s , t he P a leo ind ian B ig G ame H un te r s t age , s een a s c ove r ing a c ons ide rab le t ime s pan ( 12 ,500 -7 ,000 y ea r sB .P . ) , w a s e s sen t ia l ly d i v ided i n to t h ree s equen tg roups : L lano , F o lsom , a nd P lano . L lano s i te s w e re c harac te r ized b y t h e a s soc ia t ion o f m ammo th b one s a nd C lov is f l u ted p o in t s , F o lsom s i tes b y t h e r ema ins o fe x t inc t b i son a nd f l u ted F o lsom p o in ts , a nd P lano s i te s b y t h e p re sence o fu nf lu ted P lano p o in t s a nd mode rn f a una ( e .g . , J e nn ing s 1 974 :81-83 ) .B yt h el a te 1 970 s a nd e a r ly 1 980 s , t h e C lov is c omp lex w a s b e l ieved t o b e r e s t r ic ted i n t ime t o 1 ,500 -11 ,000 y ea r sB .P . , wh i le t h eF o lsom c omp lex r a nged f r om 1 ,000 t o 1 0 ,000 y ea rs B .P . ( e .g . , B ryan e t a l . 1 978 :1277 ;H ayne s 1 980 , 1 982 ) .

4 . 8 .5 I n f luen ce sf ro m N ew A rchaeo logy B y t h e 1 970 s , t h e b e l ief a dvoca ted b y N ew A r chaeo log is t s t h a t a l l a spe c t s o f c u l tu re c ou ld b e r ecove red f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord , b egan t o i nf luence P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s . Many a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions o fP a leo ind ian d a ta w e re n o l o nge r me re ly s t a temen t s t h a t P a leo ind ian c u l tu re h ad b een c ha rac te r ized b y ab ig g ame h un t ing l i fe s ty le . I n s tead , t h e re a ppea red at r end t owa rd e xam in ing a spec t s r e la ted t ob u t b eyond t he s imp le h un t ing l i f e s ty le i n te rp re ta t ions , s uch a s c once rns w i th s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , p opu la t ion m ovemen t s , g roup f o rma t ion a nd m a in tenance , t e r r i to r ia l i ty , a nd d emog raphy ( e .g . , H e s te r 1 975 :255 -256 ; J enn ings 1 974 :91-94 , 1 04 ; Wi lmsen 1 974 ; W i lm sen a nd R obe r ts 1 978 :179) . L i th ic s tud ies i nvo lv ing t he d e te rm ina t ion o f r aw ma te r ia l a nd q ua r ry l o ca t ion s w e re e spec ia l ly b e com ing p opu la r i n a n a t temp t t or e cons t ruc t p opu la t ion m ovemen t s a nd t r ade . W i th t h ese s t ud ie s c ame t h er e a l iza t ion t h a tP a leo ind ian p opu la t ions h ad t e nded t ou se h i gh q ua l i ty l i t h ic sf r om l o ng d i s tance q ua r r ie s .T h is f a c tw a s o f ten i n te rp re ted a s e v idence f o r w ide sp read t r ade ( e .g . , Whea t 1 971 :22 ) o rh igh mob i l i ty ( e .g . ,H ayne s 1 980 ) a mong P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions .

W i l ley ( 1 966 :51) b e s ts umma r ized t h ep reva i l ing v i ew a tt h e t ime w i th r ega rd t o t h e r e la t ionsh ip a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e se v a r iou se a r ly c u l tu re s . C lov is ,s een a s ac on t inen t -w ide c omp lex ( He s te r 1 972 :179 ) , w a sc ons ide red t h ee a r l ie s t , a nd a st ime p a s sed an umbe r o fr eg iona l a dap ta t ions d eve loped t h a t c hanged t h is e a r l ie r b ig g ame h un t ing p a t te rn . F o lsom , r e s t r ic ted t ot h e Ame r ican H igh P la ins , w a s o ne o ft h e f i r s t o ft h ese a dap ta t ions , a nd a ppa ren t ly h ad b een r e la ted t ot h e s h if t f r om m ammo th t o b ison h un t ing o n t he P la ins . A dap ta t ions h ad o ccu r red a sw e l l i nt h ee a s t , f o l lowed b y t h e f i na l e xp re ss ions o n t h e P la ins o f t h e B ig -Game H un t ing t r ad i t ion i nt h e f o rm o fn ume rous P lano t r ad i t ions (W i l ley 1 966 :51 ) .

A s w e l l , i nf luence s o fp roce s sua l a r chaeo logy w i th i t s f o cus o n N ew A rchaeo log ica l m e thods s uch a st h e h ypo the t ico d educ t ive a pp roach a nd af o cu s o n s t a t is t ic sb egan a ppea r ing i nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , a sc an b e s een i nW i lm sen ' s ( 1 974 ) s t udy o ft h e o r gan iza t ion o fP le is tocene s oc ie t ie s i nN o r th Ame r ica . W i lm sen ( 1974 ) a daman t ly a r gued f o rt h en eed t o f o rmu la te m ode ls b y means o f as ys tema t ic s e r ie s o f h ypo the se s i n o rde r t o c onnec t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta t o t h eo re t ica l c oncep ts , t ha t i s , t o c ons t ruc t mode ls f r om t heo re t ica l s t a temen ts i n o rder t o p red ic t e mp ir ica l c onsequence s . T h is m e thod e s sen t ia l ly w a s t h eb eg inn ing o f at r end i nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s f ocus ing o n t h e d eve lopmen t o fp red ic t ive m ode ls .

T he re w a s ac ommon b e l ief t ha t t h ed ec rea se i nt h e s i ze a nd c hange i ns hape o ff l u ted a nd l a nceo la te p ro jec t i le p o in t sh ad b een r e la ted t o t h e t ype o f f auna h un ted ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 969 :710 ) . G ene ra l ly , t h e c hange f r om t h e u se o fC lov i s t o F o lsom p o in t s w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t he e x t inc t ion o f t h e m ammo th , a nd t h us t h e c hange f r om mammo th t ob i son a s t h ep r inc ipa l m ea ts t ap le . S im i la r ly , t h ec hange f r om F o lsom t oP a ra l le l F laked p o in t s w a s a ssoc ia ted w i th t h e c hange i n b i son s pec ie s h un ted ( e .g . , Wendo rf a nd H e s te r 1 962 :168 ) . D e sp i te t hese c hanges i n f ocus o n g ame s pec ies , a r chaeo log is t s t e nded t oi n te rp re t t h e a ppa ren t s im i la r i ty i n t o o l i n ven to ry , t ypes o f s i te s , h un t ing a nd b u tche r ing t e chn ique s , a nd s i te l o ca t ions a mong a l l P a leo ind ian c omp lexe s a s s ugge s t ing a s t rong P a leo ind ian c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion w h ich h ad e x tended w i thou t ab reak f r om t h eL lano h o r izon u n t i l t h e b eg inn ing o f t he A rcha ic t r ad i t ion ( e .g . , Wendo r fa nd H e s te r 1 962 :168 -169 ) .

Mo reove r , t h e re w a s ar e a l iza t ion t h a t r e cons t ruc t ions o f e a r ly P a leo ind ian l i f e s ty le s r e s ted o n l i t t le s o l id d a ta , a nd h ence t h e re w a s an eed t o r e ly g rea t ly o n t h eo ry a nd e spec ia l ly e t hnog raph ic a na logue s ( e .g . , J enn ings 1 974 :90 ) . F o r i n s tance , J e nn ings ( 1974 :91-92 ) p ropo sed al o ne -hun te r a na logy t oc ha rac te r ize L lano h un t ing p rac t ice s , u s ing t he O na t r ibe f r om S ou th Ame r ica a sa n a na logue ( s e eA ppend ix A ) . F rom t h i s a na logy h e p os tu la ted t h e n uc lea r /ex tended f am i ly a s t h e p r ima ry s oc ia l a nd e conom ic u n i t , s pa rse p opu la t ion , f ew ma te r ia l p osse ss ions , a nd a c on t inuous s ea rch f o r f o od . S im i la r ly , H e s te r a nd G rady ( 1977 ) o u t l ined t h e c ha rac te r i s t ics o f a" t yp ica l" h un t ing -ga the r ing s o c ie ty b a sed o ne t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s , a nd t h en p roceeded t oa r gue t h a t s t a t is t ica l a na ly se s o f P a leo ind ian s i te d a ta f r om t h e L lano E s tacado s uppor ted t h is g ene ra l a na logy . A s w e l l , W i lm sen ( 1 974 :117 -118 ) t u rned t oe t hnog raph ica l ly k nown h un t ing s oc ie t ie s s uch a s t h e G rea t B a s in g roup s a nd t h e ! Kung B u shmen b ands f o r af u l le r p i c tu re o f P a leo ind ian b and o rgan iza t iona l s t ruc tu re s .

I n v i ew o f t h e d a ta f r om t he L indenme ie r s i te t h a t h ad i n d ica ted t h ec on tempo rane i ty o fe a r l ie rF o lsom c omponen t s w i th p a r t o f t h e C lov is s equence , W i lmsen a nd R obe r t s ( 1 978 :175 ) c ha l lenged t h i s p reva len t b e l ief t h a t C lov is w a s u n ifo rm ly o lde r t h an F o lsom , a nd t h a t t he re h ad b een a s equen t ia l d i sp lacemen t o f C lov is b y F o lsom t ype s . T hey a r gued f o r t h e n eed t or e exam ine t h e f l u ted p o in t c a tego ry a nd i t s m any r eg iona l v a r ian t s . A s w e l l , t h e i s sue o f t h e C och ise c u l tu re a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o t he " B ig -Game H un t ing T rad i t ion " c on t inued t o r ema in a c once rn a tt h is t ime . W i l ley ( 1966 :58 ) , i n n o t ing t h a t t h e S u lphu r S p r ing p ha se , t h e e a r l ie s t o f t he C och ise , w a s a s soc ia ted w i th e x t inc t f a una a nd h ad r ad ioca rbon d a te s ( 7 ,350 -6 ,270 B .C . ) t h a t w e re o u t o fl i ne w i th t h e f a una l a s semb lage , c onc luded t h a tm ammo th m us th ave l i nge red o n i ns ou the rn A r izona t o ar e la t ive ly l a te p e r iod . A l ready t h e re w a s af i xed v i ew t h a t C lov is /Fo lsom b ig g ame h un te rs h ad b een i nd ispu tab ly t h e

4 . 8 .6 D i scu s s ion T he l a te 1 960 sa nd e a r ly 1 970 s s aw ac on t inu ing s uppo r tf o r 3 8

s e rv ing t ypo log ica l p u rpose s , t h ey w e re p e rhap s t he l e a s t mean ingfu l a r t ifac t s i n a n e n t i re a s semb lage ( Shafe r 1 977 :191) . A rgu ing t h a t " l if eway s s hou ld n o t b e d e sc r ibed m e re ly o n t h eb a s is o fp o in t f o rm s o rt h ep r e sence o ra bsence o fo ne k i nd o fa r t if ac t , " h e s ugge s ted t h a t r e cons t ruc t ion o f l i f eways s hou ld b eb a sed o n e nv i ronmen ta l d a ta ( i . e . , p l an t s , a n ima l s ,r aw m a te r ia ls ) , a nd t h e t o ta l a s semb lage o fa r t if ac t s w h ich r e p resen ted b ehav iou rp roduc t so fh uman a dap ta t ion s t ot h ee nv i ronmen t( Sha f e r 1 977 :195 ) .

t he b e l ief t ha t t he L lano s t age /C lov is c omp lex w as c ha rac te r ized b y a c u l tu re o f h igh ly s k i l led a nd t e chno log ica l ly a dvanced h un te rs s pec ia l iz ing i n h un t ing mammo th a nd o the r l a rge g ame , v e ry s ucce s sfu l a sa t te s ted b y t he i r r ap id e xpans ion t h roughou t t h e e n t i re c on t inen t ( e .g . ,H ayne s 1 969 :710 , 1 970 :81 , 9 0 ;H ayne sa nd H emm ings 1 968 :186 ; H e s te r 1 972 :179 ; Ma son 1 962 :245 ) . T he l i f e s ty le a nd o rgan iza t ion o ft h eF o lsom c u l tu re w a sc ons ide red t ob e n o t ag rea t c hange f r om t h a t o fC lov is t ime s e xcep t f o r t h e s h if t t ob i son h un t ing a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e n ew ma s s k i l l t e chn ique ( e .g . , J enn ings 1 974 ; Whea t 1 971) . S ome a r chaeo log i s t s s ugge s ted t h e p os s ib i l i ty o ft h e g a the r ing o f p l an t f ood sh av ing s upp lemen ted t h e P a leo ind ian m ea t d i e t , b u t i ta ppea r s t ha t t he n o t ion t h a t m ammo th a nd b i son h ad b een t h e mos t i mpo r tan t f ood r e sou rce s o f t he se e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ( e .g . , H aynes 1 980 ; H es te r 1 967 :169 ;J enn ings 1 978 ; Ma son 1 962 :244 ; Whea t 1 971 :26 ) h ad b ecome s o f i rm ly e n t renched i na r chaeo log ica l t h ough t t ha t i t t ook o n ma jo r i mpo r tance i n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s .

T he i n f luence o fN ew A rchaeo logy c an b e c l ea r ly s e en i n t h e se ( Shaf e r 1 977 ; Wendo rf a nd H e s te r 1 962 ) a nd o t he r c a l ls ( e .g . , Wi lm sen 1 970 :81) f o r as h if t a way f r om af o cu s o n p ro jec t i le p o in t s , c h rono logy , t y po logy , a nd h un t ing i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s t o af ocus o n l i f eways , e nv i ronmen t , a dap ta t ion , a nd b ehav iou r . H oweve r , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t N ew A rchaeo log ica li nf luence sw e re b eg inn ing t o" open u p " P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s t o n ew m e thods a nd f o cuse s , n ew i n te rp re ta t ions w e re n o t c ons ide red . T he b i g g ame h un t ing mode l f ound u nque s t ion ing s uppo r t f r om t h e u se o f u nque s t ioned a nd g ene ra l ized e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s ( e .g . , H es te r a nd G rady 1 977 ; J enn ings 1 974 ; W i lm sen 1 974 ) ; f r om t h e a s sump t ion l a rge ly b a sed o n t h ev o lume e d i ted b y L ee a nd D eVo re ( e d . 1 968 ) o f au n ive r sa l , t y p ica l h un t ingg at he r ing s oc ie ty ; f r om t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s t a t is t ics a nd h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive t e s t ing ( e .g . , J udge 1 973 ; W i lmsen 1 970 , 1 974 ) ; a nd f r om t h e i n corpo ra t ion o fe nv i ronmen ta l e co log ica l d a ta i ni n te rp re ta t ions ( e .g . , H e s te r 1 975 ; Wendo r f a nd H e s te r 1 962 ) .

I n s umm a ry , i n te rp re ta t ions o fP a leo ind ian l i feways d u r ing t h is t ime f r ame w e re s t i l l r e la t ive ly b a s ic a nd g ene ra l ized ( s ee A ppend ix A ) . C onc lus ions w e re o f ten f ounded o n av e ry s ma l l s amp le o f s i tes ; mo reove r , t he a s sump t ion w a s p rom inen t t h a t o ne o r af ew s i te s w e re r ep re sen ta t ive o ft h e c u l tu re ( e .g . ,H ayne s 1 980 , 1 982 ; H e s te r 1 975 ) . T he c once rn was s t i l l w i th i nd iv idua l s i tes r a the r t han w i th a c ons ide ra t ion o ft he l a rge rp i c tu re .T he u nc r i t ica l a ccep tance o ft h e b i g g ame h un t ing mode l p reven ted t h e c ons ide ra t ion o ft h e p os s ib i l i ty o fa l te rna t ive s ubs i s tence m e thod s , d e sp i te t h e g row ing e v idence t os ugge s t o t he rw ise . T he s imp l is t ic b l ack a nd w h i te d iv is ion e qua t ing C lov is w i th m ammo th a nd F o lsom w i th b i son s t i l l u nde r lay m any i n te rp re ta t ions ( e .g . , H e s te r 1 967 :179 , 1 975 :251 ; Ma r t in 1 967 ; Ma son 1 962 ; Whea t 1 971 ) .

4 . 9 RECENT ARCHAEOLOGY ( 1980 s TO PRESENT ) 4 . 9 .1 I n troduc t ion B y f ocus ing o n s c ien t if ica l ly a nd o b jec t ive ly c rea t ing n omo the t ic g ene ra l iza t ions a bou t h uman b ehav iou r , a nd b y v i ew ing i nd iv idua ls a tt h e m e rcy a nd c on t ro l o ft h e l a rge r s e lf regu la t ing s y s tem , N ew A rchaeo logy h ad s ucce ss fu l ly d e -human ized a r chaeo logy . I nd iv idua ls w e re s e en a sp a s s ive , h uman b ehav iou r a s p red ic tab le a nd d e te rm ined ( Hodde r 1 985 :21) . T he p r ima ry g oa l w a s t o r ea ch n o t t h e p e r son b eh ind t h e a r t if ac t b u t t h e s ys tem b eh ind b o th p e r son a nd a r t ifac t ( F lanne ry 1 967 :120 ) . B y t h e 1 970 s a nd 1 980s , a r chaeo log is t s w e re b eg inn ing t or e a l ize t h a tt h e re w a s m uch mo re d ive r s i ty i n b o th p reh is to r ic c u l tu res a nd h uman b ehav iou r t h an t h e N ew A rchaeo logy a nd i t s u n ive r sa l l aw s h ad e ve ra n t ic ipa ted .

Du r ing t h e 1 970 s , mo s ta na lyse si nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie sw e re f o cu sed o n s t one a r t ifac t s ( and o f ten o n ly p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd f i n ished t o o ls ) a nd t he i r t e chno log ica l a nd f unc t iona l v a r iab le s a nd s pa t ia l c l us te r ing ( e .g . , W i lmsen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 ) . T h is f i xa t ion w i th s t one t o o ls ( p r ima r i ly " p ro jec t i le p o in t s " ) a nd ac once rn w i th c h rono logy i sr ef lec ted i n many o f t h e c on tempora ry w r i t ing s o f t h e t ime ( e .g . , J enn ings 1 974 ; MacDona ld 1 971 ; Wi l ley 1 966 ) . F o r e xamp le , i n W i l ley 's ( 1966 ) i n t roduc to ry b ook o f Ame r ican p reh is to ry , t h e s ec t ion d ea l ing w i th t h e B ig -Game H un t ing T rad i t ion w a s c ha rac te r ized b y d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ions o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s ( a long w ith t h e ma jo r i ty o fp ho tog raph s a nd f i gu re s c ons is t ing o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s ) a nd d i scuss ions o f t he c h rono logy o fp o in t sa nd t r ad i t ions .

Mo re r ecen t ly , aw ide sp read q ues t ion ing o f t h e b as ic p recep t s t h a t g u ided N ew A rchaeo logy h a s r e su l ted i nt h e d eve lopmen t o f n ume rous a pp roache s , o f ten r e fe r red t oa s p os t -p roces sua l ( s ee E a r le a nd P reuce l 1 987 ; H odde r 1 985 , 1 986 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 987 , 1 989 , 1 992 ; T r igge r 1 989a ) . T hese a pp roache s a r e r e la ted i n p a r t t o t h e l a rge r p o s tmode rn ism t r end o ccu r r ing w i th in o t he r d i sc ip l ine s ( s ee R osenau 1 992 ) t h a t h a s a f f ec ted a nd i nf luenced a cadem ics a nd i n te l lec tua ls i n t h e 1 980s ( Ch ippenda le 1 993 :27 ) . P os tmode rn ism r e jec ts t r ad i t iona l s c ien t if ic a pp roache s , i n c lud ing t h e b e l ie f i nc e r ta in k now ledge a nd t r u th , i n a le ncompa s s ing w o r ld v i ew s , a nd i n t h e a b i l i ty t oe va lua te i n te rp re ta t ions , b ecause t h ese a pp roache s t e nd t o l e ad t o n a r row e v idence , s imp l if ica t ion , a nd t r iv ia l s t a temen t s . I n s tead , p os tmode rn is ts o p t f o r p lura l ism , s ub jec t ive r e la t iv ism , mu l t ip le r e a l i t ie s , a nd t h eb e l ief t h a t t h e re a r e n o u n ive rsa l c r i te r ia a va i lab le f o r e va lua t ion ( Rosenau 1 992 :137 ) .

A lready i n 1 962 , Wendo rf a nd H e s te r ( 1962 :169 ) h ad i den t if ied t hese d om inan t a nd p rob lema t ic t r ends i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ies . T o c o r rec t t h em , t h ey c a l led f o r mo re c omp le te d ocumen ta t ion o fP a leo ind ian s i te se spec ia l ly w i th r ega rd t of a una ld a ta ,l i th ic r aw ma te r ia l ,p a leoenv i ronmen ta l d a ta , a nd , m os ti mpo r tan t ly , d e ta i ls o ft h em anufa c tu re o fa l l a r t if ac t s , n o tj u s t p ro jec t i le p o in t s . S im i la r ly , S ha f e r ( 1977 ) , i n d i scus s ing e as te rn T exas e a r ly l i th ic a s semb lages , i d en t if i ed af ew o ft h em a jo rp rob lem si nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s d u r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s , t h a t i s , t h e f o cu s o n p ro jec t i le p o in ts , a nd t h e a ssump t ion t h a t t h e p re sence o f l a nceo la te p o in t f o rms i nd ica ted P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing . H e b e l ieved t h a t i t wa s u nfo r tuna te t h a t p ro jec t i le p o in t s h ad a t t rac ted t h e a t ten t ion o f a r chaeo log is t s b ecause , o the r t h an 3 9

Mo re s pec if ica l ly , v i ew s o fP la ins P a leo ind ian l i f eway s i n t h e 1 980 s a nd 1 990 s a r e b a s ica l ly ac on t inua t ion o fe a r l ie r b i gg ame h un t ing m ode l s . A s Me l tze r( 1 993a :295 )n o t ed ,t h e n o t ion o f ac on t inen t -w ide P a leo ind ian a dap ta t ion t o s p e c ia l ized h un t ing o fl a rge t e r re s t r ia l f a una i ss t i l lp e rva s ive ( e .g . , B onn ich sen e ta l . 1 987 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) . C lov i s a nd F o l som p eop le s a r e s e en a s c apab le , a c t ive , a nd v e ry s u cce s sfu l h un te r s ( e .g . , A genb road 1 980 ; F r ison 1 986a , 1 987 , 1 990a , 1 990b , 1 991a ; H ayne s 1 982 :392 ;J oh nson e ta l . 1 980 :113 ; J one s 1 990 ; R eeve s 1 990 ; S aunde r s 1 978 /79 :8 , 1 980 :89 , 1 992 ; Webb 1 992 ) . C lov is h un te r s u sed t h e k now ledge o f t h e b ehav iou ra l manne r i sm s o f m ammo th s ( J ohn son e ta l . 1 980 :113 ) , w e re s e le c t ive a nd d e l ibe ra te i n h un t ing , c ommon ly a mbu sh ing t h em a tw a t e rp l ace s( Hayne s 1 982 :392 ) o re ven c onf ron t ing e n t i re h e rd s a nd d i spa t ch ing t h em ( Saunde r s 1 977 , 1 980 , 1 992 ) . W i th t h e b eg inn ing o f m ega f auna le x t inc t ion , P a leo ind ian h un te r s( i . e . ,F o lsom a nd l a te rp opu la t ion s )s h if ted t h e i rf o cus t ob i son , a nd h un ted b y c ommuna l ly o r gan ized m a s s k i l ls ( F r i son 1 991a ; Whea t 1 971 :25 ) . P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re t h e l e tha l w eapon ry o ft h e " w ise " P a leo ind ian h un t e r , w ho m o s tl i ke ly t e s ted e a ch p o in t c a ref u l ly b e fo re u se t oa vo id f a i lu re o fh i s w eapon ry a tt h e c r uc ia l m omen t ( F r ison 1 993 :243 -244 ) . A l though b r ie f m en t ion i s o ccas iona l ly m ade t o t h e l i ke l ihood o f t h e se p eop le c o l lec t ing p l an t f ood s ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 980 :119 ) , s c aveng ing mammo th c a rca s se s ( e .g . , S aunde r s 1 978 /79 :10 , 1 980 :97 ) , a nd h un t ing o t he r a n ima ls ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 980 :117 ) , t h e b e l ief i s s t i l l s t rong t h a t P a leo ind ian s ub s is tence w a s p r ima r i ly b ased o n h un t ing m ammo th a nd b i son f o r f o od a nd m a te r ia l r e sou r ce s ( e .g . , A genb road 1 978 ; B am fo r th 1 985 , 1 988 ; D av i s a nd G re i se r 1 992 :276 , 2 80 ; F r ison 1 991a , 1 993 ; G re i se r 1 985 ; H ayden 1 982 ; H ayne s 1 982 :383 , 3 90 ; H ofman a nd I n gba r 1 988 :343 ; J ohn son 1 978 ; J udge 1 973 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; R eeve s 1 990 ; S aunde rs 1 980 :87 ; Whea t 1 972 ) . A s Me l tze r ( 1 993a :297 ) p o in ted o u t , t h e re a r e s t i l l t h e o cca s iona l s t a t emen t s w h ich , r a the r t h an i g no r ing o rb r ief ly d i scu s s ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty , d ownp lay t h e s i gn if icance o fp l an t f o od s i n e a r ly P a leo ind ian d i e t s . F o r e xamp le , We s t ( 1 983 :375 ) a r gued t h a t t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t p l an t f o od s h ad b een a s i gn if ican t p a r t o f t h e C lov is d i e t w a s n o t p rovab le n o r l o g ica l s i nce t h e re w a s n o e v idence o f p l an t r ema in s i n C lov is s i te s( Me l tze r 1 993a :297 ) .

I n te re s t s i n p os tmode rn i s t a r chaeo logy a r e n ow b e ing f o cu sed o nt h er o le o fn one conom ic f a c to r si nb r ing ing a bou t s oc ia l c hange , w i th ag row ing e mpha s is o n s ymbo l ic a nd s t ruc tu ra l a s pec t s ( s ee H odde r 1 982 ) . F ocu s i sb e ing p l a ced o nt h ei n d iv idua la sa na c t ive s o c ia l a gen t( s ee H odde r 1 985 , 1 986 ) . T he re i s ar e jec t ion o f t h e p os i t iv is t v i ew , a nd i n c rea s ing d oub t st h a ta n o b jec t ive u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep a s t c an e ve r b e a t ta ined ( e .g . , H odde r 1 986 ; S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 989 ; T i l ley 1 991) . T he re i s a l so a r e a l iza t ion f r om e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s t h a t i n m any c a se s , m a te r ia l c u l tu re d oe s n o t r e f lec t h uman b ehav iou r b u t r a the r i s m ed ia ted b y t h e c oncep tua l f r amewo rk s a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s o f t h e p eop le m ak ing a nd u s ing t h o se m a te r ia l i t em s ( T r igge r 1 989a :394 ) . Ma te r ia l c u l tu re i ss e en a s a n a c t ive m ean ingfu l e l emen t i n g roup r e la t ion s , g a in ing i t s s i gn if icance t h rough i t s s oc ia l u sage , a nd n o t a s am e re r ef le c t ion o fe co log ica l a dap ta t ion ( e .g . , H odde r 1 985 , 1 986 ; T i l ley , e d . 1 990 , 1 99 1) . 4 . 9 .2 P la in sP reh i s tory a nd P a leo ind ian S tud ie s T he se r e cen tp o s t -p roce s sua l t r end si na r chaeo logy h ave h ad l im i ted i nf luence i nP l a in s a r chaeo logy . T oday , t h e re i sa t e ndency a mong a r chaeo log is t s t ov i ew a s pec t s o fN o r the rn P l a ins p r eh is to ry a sr e la t ive ly s t a t ic a nd u nchang ing f r om P a leo ind ian t ime s t o m o re r e cen t p reh is to r ic t ime s . M ich lov i c ( 1 986 :2 10 )s t a ted t h a t" P la ins a r cha eo logy r e vea l s w ide sp read c on t inu i ty i n t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing l i f e s ty le , f r om P a leo Ind ian t h rough L a te P reh is to r ic t ime s , w i th s i gn if ican t d ev ia t ions a t t r ibu tab le t ot h e i n t ru s ion o fs o c ia l a nd t e chno log ica l i n nova t ions f r om t h e e a s t o rs ou thwe s t . " Wede l ( 1 982c :169 ) b e l ieved t h a t t h e re h ad b een aP la in s c u l tu re a r ea c ha rac te r ized b y ab i son -hun t ing t r ad i t ion f o r a v e ry l o ng t ime . A l though t h eb ounda r ie s a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions o f t h a t c u l tu re a r ea h ad c hanged o ve r t ime , h e a r gued t h a t ac en t ra lc o re d om ina ted b yt h i sc ohe ren tw ay o f l i f e d i s t ingu ished i t f r om s u r round ing a r ea s (Wede l 1 982c :169 ) . F r i son ( 1 99 1a :19 )e ven a r gued t h a t " t he P a leo ind ian h un t ing g r oup w a s a bou t t h e s ame s i ze a nd o ft h e s ame c omp lex i ty a st h e t e rm ina l L a te P reh i s to r ic p e r iod h un t ing g roup a nd b o th w e re p ra c t ic ing a v e ry s im i la r l i f eway ." A s w e l l , B amf o r th ( 1 988 :155 ) m a in ta ined t h a tt h e s im i la r i ty b e tween P a leo ind ian a nd L a te P reh is to r ic a r cha eo log ica lr e co rd s( i . e . , b o th a r e d om ina ted b y l a rge m amma l k i l l s i te s a nd a l so c on ta in as ma l le rn umbe ro fc amp sp roduc ing e v idence f o ra l e s se rr e l iance o n o t he r f o od s ) s uppo r ted t h e i d ea o fs im i la r l i f eway s ,t h a ti s , af o cu so nh un t ing .

H igh ly mob i le l i f e s ty le s c ha rac te r ized t h ese b i g g ame h un te r s ( Bamf o r th 1 988 ; B o ldu r ian 1 99 1 ; G re ise r 1 985 ; H ofman a nd I n gba r 1 988 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; R eeve s 1 990 ) . T h is v i ew w as s eem ing ly s uppo r ted b y t h e s im i la r i t ie s i n t o o l k i ts f r om t h e e a s t a nd w e s t ( Hayne s 1 980 :119 )a nd t h e i ru se o fe xo t ic l i th ic s( F r i son a nd S t anf o rd 1 982 ;G oodyea r 1 989 ;H ayne s 1 980 :118 ) .E a r l ie rb e l ie f st h a t s aw C lov is r e s t r ic ted i nt ime t o 1 ,500 11 ,000 y ea r s B .P . h ave r e cen t ly b een r e cons ide red b a sed o n as t a t is t ica l r e ana lys is o f s uppo sed ly r e l iab le r a d ioca rbon d a te s ( s ee H ayne s 1 993 ) . T he a ve rage a ge f o r C lov i s i sn ow s e en a s s l igh t ly y ounge r ( 1 0 ,920±40 y ea r s B .P . ) t h an t h e o r ig ina l 1 ,200 y ea r s B .P . , w he rea s t h e a ve rage o fs i x AMS d a te s f r om t h eF o l som s i te s ugge s ta n a ge o f1 0 ,890±50 y ea r sB .P . f o r F o lsom ( Hayne s 1 993 :220 -223 ; F r i son 1 990b :15 ) . I f c o r re c t , a sF r i son ( 1 990b :15 )s t a ted ,t h i sd a t ing s ugge s t st h a t t h e t i me l a p se b e tween t h e C lov is a nd F o lsom c omp lexe s c ou ld h ave b een q u i te s ho r t ; t h e c omp lexe s m ay a c tua l ly h av eo ve r lapped i nt i me .

I t i s a ppa ren t t h a t t h e s t ab i l i ty o f t h e b i son h un t ing a dap t a t ion , t h eP l a in sp eop le s ' d ependence o nb i son , a nd t h e l o ngev i ty o f t h i s t r ad i t iona l p a t te rn a r e u nque s t ion ing ly a c cep ted a sf a c tb y m any P l a in s a r chaeo log i s t s . I ne s sence , a n i mage o fs t a t ic , u nc rea t ive , u n innova t ive p opu la t ions a t t h e m e rcy o f t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd p roduc t iv i ty o f b i son p opu la t ions h a s b een c r ea ted . F o r e xamp le , F r ison ( 1 991a :289 )a r gued t h a tp r eh is to r ic P l a in sg r oup sh ad a lway s b een s ma l l , o pe ra ted a tt h e l e ve l o f t h e b and , a nd w e re " c lose ly i nt u ne w i th t h ee nv i ronm en t . " Mo reove r , . . they o n ly r e tu rned t ot h es ame l o ca t ion w hen n a tu ra lc ond i t ion sa lowed t h e f o od s ou rce s t o b e p roduc t ive e nough t o s uppo r t t h e g roup . ( F r i son 1 99 1a :289 )

A s I n gba r ( 1 992 :172 ) n o ted , i nt h e p a s t f i teen y ea r s t h e re h a s b een a n a t temp t t o l i nk a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s o f 4 0

h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s t og ene ra l p rope r t ie s o fh uman g r oup a dap ta t ion , p r ima r i ly w i th a f o cu s o n s ub s is tence p a t te rns a nd m ob i l i ty r eg ime s ( e .g . , B info rd 1 978 , 1 980 ; K e l ly 1 983 ;S ho t t 1 986 ) .T h is v i ew i se v iden ti nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s ( s ee A ppend ix A ) , w i th a n o bv iou st r end a way f r om t h e p rev iou s f o cus o n p ro jec t i le p o in t s , t y po logy , a nd c h rono logy ,a nd as h if tt owa rd m o re i n -dep th e xam ina t ion o f P a leo ind ian l i f eways a nd s oc ia l a s pec t s . A s w e l l , t h e re i sa r e a l iza t ion t h a t e nv i ronmen t s w e re d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se o f t o day ( i . e . , r e duced s ea sona l i ty ) a nd r a p id ly c hang ing a tt h e e nd o f t h e P le is tocene , a nd s ome a r chaeo log is t s a r e a temp t ing t oi n co rpo ra te t h i sf a c to ri n to P a leo ind ian m ode l s ( e .g . , B am f o r th 1 988 ; B onn ich sen e ta l . 1 987 ; G re ise r 1 985 ; J ohn son 1 991 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; Ma r t in e ta l . 1 985 ) . C u r ren t P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s t e nd t o f o cu s o n l i th ic r aw m a te r ia l a nd o r ig ins , a nd a spec t s o fl i t h ic t e chno logy ( e .g . , A nd ref sky 1 991 ; B o ldu r ian 1 991 ; E l l is a nd L o th rop 1 989 ; G oodyea r 1 989 ; H ofman 1 992 ; I n gba r 1 992 ; Me l tze r 1 989 ) , a nd t h ed eve lopmen to fp r ed ic t ive m ode ls o fs ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rns ( e .g . , B amfo r th 1 988 ; G re ise r 1 985 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) . I na dd i t ion , t h ea c t ive r o le o fh uman s i nP l e is tocene e x t inc t ions i ss t i l lc on s ide red p o s s ib le ;t h a ti s , t h e c omb ina t ion o fs k i l led l a te P l e i s tocene h un te r s a nd t h e e nv i ronmen ta l s t res s b rough t a bou t b y l a te P le is tocene c l ima t ic c hange s c ou ld h ave l e d t ol a rge sca le m ega f auna l e x t inc t ion ( e .g . , A genb road 1 984 :103 ; H ayne s 1 982 :398 ; S aunde r s 1 978 /79 , 1 980 :96 , 1 992 :140 ; s e eG ray son 1 980 f o r a n i n -dep th e xam ina t ion o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f v a r iou s e xp lana t ions , i n c lud ing t h a t o f o ve rk i l l b y P le is tocene h un te r s , f o rP l e i s tocene e x t inc t ion s ) .

s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s , a nd g a the r ing p l an t s a nd h e rb s f o r m ed ic ina l p u rpose s , t op ics w h ich a r chaeo log i s t s h ave h e s i ta ted t oc ons ide r . Y e tt h e se n ove l s s t i l l c a r ry w i th t h em m any o f t he q ue s t ionab le a s sump t ion s t h a t c ha rac te r ize a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions o f P a leo ind ian l i f eway s , e s sen t ia l ly b ecau se t h ea u tho r s a r eb a s ing t h e i rs t o r ie su pon t h e c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions . F o r e xamp le , a s P o l lak ( 1 991 ) i lu s t ra ted f o r A ue l ' sb ook s , t h e g ende rb i a se s p r eva len t i nt h e s cho la r ly l i t e ra tu re o ft h e 1 970 s a nd 1 980 s a nd u l t ima te ly b a sed o n s t e reo typ ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic v i ew s o fh un te r -ga the re r s , a r e f a i thf u l ly r ef lec ted i nA ue l 's r e cons t ruc t ions o f O ld Wor ld P le is tocene c u l tu re s . S pec if ica l ly f o r N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ians , t h e se n ove l s p o r t ray p opu la t ions a s ma in ly h un te r s o f g ame s u ch a s m ammot h , b i son ,c a r ibou , mu skox , a nd h o r se . I na dd i t ion t o t h e c en t ra l r o le w h ich h un t ing l a rge g ame p l ay s i nt h e se s t o r ies , t h e i nf luence o f e t hnog raph ic i mage s o f h un te r g a the re r s , e spec ia l ly n o r the rn -adap ted g r oups s u ch a s t h e I nu i t , i sq u i te o bv ious . H igh m ob i l i ty , t h e i mage o f l a te P le is tocene l i f e a s a s t rugg le t o s u rv ive , a nd t h e u nque s t ioned n o t ion o f as t r ic t d i v i s ion o fl a bou r w i th m en h un t ing a nd w omen b e ing s ubse rv ien t t oa nd d en ig ra ted b y m en a nd t a k ing c a re o ft h ec h i ld ren a nd g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s , u nde r l ie m any o ft h e se s t o r ie s . I ns umma ry , c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s t e nds t o f o cu s o n m e thod s o f d i spa t ch ing a nd b u tche r ing P le is tocene f auna ( e .g . , a c tua l is t ic a nd e xpe r imen ta l s t ud ie s s uch a s F r ison 1 986b , 1 989 ; L amb 1 992 ; S t anf o rd e ta l . 1 981) , e co logy ( e .g . , B am f o r th 1 988 ) , a nd c l ima t ic a nd g eomo rpho log ica l r e cons t ruc t ions o f P a leo ind ian e nv i ronmen t s a nd t h er e su l t ing h uman a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s ( e .g . , G re ise r 1 985 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) . I n e f f ec t , a sn o ted b yG e ro ( 1 993 :35 ) , t h er e se a rch e mpha s ize s t h er e sou rce sa va i lab le f o re xp lo i ta t ion a nd t h es t ra t eg ie sa nd p a t te rn su sed t oa cqu i re t h em . T h is s i tua t ion i sp a r t ia l ly d ue t o t h e f a c t t ha t p roce ssua l m e thods o f a na lys is a nd i n te rp re ta t ion p re sen t ly d om ina te P l a ins a r chaeo logy a nd , e spec ia l ly , P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , w h i le p os t -p roce s sua l a pp roache sh ave h ad l i t t le , i fa ny ,i nf luence ( f o ra ne x cep t ion w i th r e ga rds t oP l a ins a r chaeo logy , s e e D uke a nd W i lson 1 995 ) . A s G e ro ( 1 993 :35 ) r ema rked , w ha t a bou t t h e s o c ia l w o r ld o f P a leo ind ians? A cqu i r ing a nd e a t ing m ega f auna m us th ave b een o n ly as ma l l p a r t o ft h e w ho le d ynam ic s o f P a leo ind ia n s oc ie ty ( Ge ro 1 993 :35 ) .

U p t o t h is p o in t , t h e d i scuss ion h a s m a in ly f o cused o n p r of e s s iona l a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion o fN o r th Ame r ican P l e i s tocene p opu la t ion s , b u tw ha ta bou tt h ep opu la ri mage o f P a leo ind ian l i fe? I n p a s t y ea r s , t h e p ub l ic h a s b een i nf luenced b y p o r t raya ls o f P a leo ind ian l i f e f r om t h e N a t iona l G eograph ic magaz ine . A r t ic le s s uch a s t h ose w r i t ten b y H en ry ( 1955 ) , S tanf o rd ( 1 979 ) , a nd Meh r inge r ( 1 988 ) h ave t e nded t o s uppo r t t h e b ig g ame h un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion b y s t ress ing b eau t ifu l ly c r af ted f l u ted p ro jec t i le p o in t s a s w eapons o f t h e P a leo ind ian , a nd t h e h un t ing o fI c e A ge m amma ls , a l r e inf o rced w i th d r ama t ic p i c tu re so ft h ek i l l ing o fs c o re so ff r an t ic b i son ( s ee S t anf o rd 1 979 ) a nd i mage s o f t h e i mmen se t a sk o f b u tche r ing s pe c tacu la r ly l a rge i c ea ge b i son ( s ee H en ry 1 955 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly , n ove ls d ea l ing w i th P l e is tocene p opu la t ion s h ave b e come e no rmou s ly p opu la r . I n i t ia l s t o ry l i ne s f o cu sed o n t h eO ld Wo r ld a nd t h et ime s u r round ing t h ee me rgence o f m ode rn H omo s ap ien ss ap ien s a nd t h e i rc o -occu r rence w i th N eande r ta l p opu la t ions . F o r e xamp le , J ean M . A ue l ' s Mammo th H un t er s a nd B jö rn K u r th 's Dance o ft h e T i ger c ha rac t e r ized l a te P l e is tocene p opu la t ion s i nt h e O ld Wo r ld a s p rac t is ing a w ide s ubs is tence b a se r a ng ing f r om t h e g a the r ing o fp l an tf o od sa nd f i sh ing ,t ot h eh un t ing o fs e ve ra l t y pe s o f g ame a n ima ls , i n c lud ing t h e a c t ive h un t ing o f m ammo th s . N ow , n ove ls a r e a va i lab le t h a td ea l e xc lu s ive ly w i th N ew Wo r ld p reh is to r ic p opu la t ion s , s eve ra l o fw h ich f o cu s o n t h eP a leo ind ian e r a ( e .g . , W i l l iam S a rabande 's T h e F i r s t Ame r ican s s e r ie sa nd W .M .G ea ra nd K a th leen O 'Nea l G ea r ' s P eop l eo ft h e W o l fs e r ie s ) . I ns ome w ay s , t h e se p o r t raya ls a r em o re h uman i s t ic b ecau se t h e a u tho r s h ave a dded t h e h uman e l emen t , d ea l ing w i th a w ho le r a nge o fc u l tu ra l a s pec t s i na dd i t ion t oh un t ing , s u ch a s h uman i n te rac t ion , g ende r r e la t ions , r i tua l , a l te rna t ive 4 1

CHAPTER 5 A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PALEOIND IAN M ODELS 5 . 1 I NTRODUCTION

5 . 2 SOCIOPOLIT ICAL ANALYSIS

A s e v iden t f r om t h ed i scu s s ion i nt h ep rev ious c hap te r , a nd n o ted b y F i she r ( 1992 :51) , c o -occu r rence s o f P a leo ind ian a r t if ac t s w i th mammo th a nd b i son b one s i nN o r th Ame r ican s i te s h ave p romo ted t h e b e l ief t h a t l a te P l e is tocene p eop le s w e re s pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un te r s .

5 . 2 .1 I n troduc t ion T he r e cen t p o s t -p roce ssua l a nd p os tmode rn is t t r ends i n a r chaeo logy a nd t he o the r s oc ia l s c iences , a nd t he ir q ues t ion ing o f t he p os i t iv ism a dvoca ted b y t h e N ew A rchaeo logy s choo l h ave r e su l ted i n t h e a wa rene ss t h a t a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions a r e i nf luenced b y t h e s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t i n w h ich t h e a r chaeo log is t o pe ra te s , a s w e l l a s t h e c u l tu ra l b e l ief s a nd b i a se s o f t h e a r chaeo log is t( T r igge r 1 989b :31) . T he re f o re , t h e f i r s ts t ep i n d econs t ruc t ing i st oa sk h ow t h is b ig g ame h un t ing m ode l d eve loped a nd b ecame s o d om inan t , a nd w ha t w e re t h e m a jo ri nf luence so ni t sd eve lopmen t .

T he se e no rmous b one s b ege t v iv id i mage s o f a nc ien th un te r sc on t r iv ing t os l ay t h e se r ugged a n ima ls a nd s ubsequen t ly f e a s t ing o n t h e a bundan t mea t , o rgans , a nd o t he rc a rca s sp a r t s . ( F ishe r 1 992 :51) Mo reove r , t h e b e l ief t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f P a leo ind ian f l u ted p ro jec t i le p o in ts t h roughou t t h e N o r th Ame r ican c on t inen t i n d ica te s t h e w ide sp read p re sence o f as pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un t ing e conomy s t i l l u nde r l ies many i n te rp re ta t ions ( e .g . , K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) . I n e f f ec t , t h e se a ssump t ions h ave f o rmed t he b as is f o r d ef in ing a P a leo ind ian p e r iod i nN o r th Ame r ica c ha rac te r ized b y b ig g ame h un t ing ( Bryan 1 991 :20 ) . H oweve r , a s S aunde rs ( 1978 /79 :8 ) n o ted , t he b i g g ame mode l m ay b e " mo re o u r own i mag ina t ive c ons t ruc t ion , r a the r t han a t r ue c ha rac te r iza t ion o f t he C lov is l i f eway i t se lf ." T he r e cen t a ccumu la t ion o fd a ta , e spec ia l ly f o r C lov is a dap ta t ions , h a s s ugges ted t ha t P a leo ind ian l i feways a nd s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s w e re n o t s o u n ifo rm a nd h omogenous o ve r t h e e n t ire c on t inen t ( s ee B onn ichsen a nd T u rnm ire 1 991 ; Me l tze r 1 993a :304 ; S of f e r a nd P ra s lov 1 993 ) . N ew d a ta a nd r eeva lua t ion s o fo l d a nd m o re r e cen t d a ta ( e .g . , G . H ayne s 1 991 ;J ohnson 1 991 ; K o rnf e ld 1 988 ; T odd e ta l . 1 990 , 1 992 ) a r e n ow f o rc ing a r chaeo log is t s t or e cons ide r t h e i r p rev ious b ig g ame h un t ing i n te rpre ta t ions f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s .

5 . 2 .2 H i s tor ica l D eve lopmen t o ft he B ig G ame Hun t ing Mode l A s n o ted i nt h e p rev iou s c hap te r , e a r ly v i ew s i n Ame r ican a r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy w e re g rea t ly i nf luenced b y E u ropean d a ta a nd mode ls . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o fm ammo th h u t -dwe l l ing c u l tu re s o fc en t ra l E u ra s ia a sa c t ive m ammo th h un te r s n o d oub t g rea t ly i nf luenced N o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log is t s i n t h e i r i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e F o lsom a nd C lov is f i nds . A s w e l l a s O ld Wo r ld a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion a nd r e sea rch i n f luenc ing P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , O ld Wo r ld e vo lu t iona ry s t ud ie s a nd r e con s t ruc t ions o f t h e l i fe o f e a r ly h om in ids a l so g rea t ly c on t r ibu ted t o N o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log ica l v i ews o n P a leo ind ian d a ta . U n t i l t h e 1 950 s , D a rw in ian b e l ief s t h a t s aw h uman c ha rac te r is t ics a s a n o u tcome o f n a tura l s e lec t ion d om ina ted a n th ropo log ica l t h ough t . A s L ew in ( 1987 :314 ) n o ted , i tw a s n o t u n t i l 1 953 t h a t R aymond D a r t ( 1953 ) h ad e s tab l ished a b a se f o r an ew e xp lana to ry e r a , "Man t h e K i l le r A pe ," w i th h i s a r t ic le e n t i t led " The P reda to ry T rans i t ion f r om A pe t o Man ." I n v i ew o f w ha t h e s aw a s s i gns o f mu rde rous v io lence i n t h e f o ss i l r e cord ( Lew in 1 987 ;314 ) , D a r t c onc luded t h a t h umans w e re b y n a tu re v i o len t k i l le r s a nd h un te r s . T hu s e me rged t h e p owe rfu l h un t ing h ypo the s i s o f h uman o r ig in s , w h ich r ep laced t h eD a rw in ian v i ew w i th t h e b e l ief t h a t i th ad b een t h e d emands o ft h e h un t w h ich h ad m ade u s h uman a nd s epa ra ted u s f r om o t he r p r ima te s ( e .g . , L augh l in 1 968 :304 ; Wa shbu rn a nd L anca s t e r 1 968 ; s e eb o th C a r tm i l l 1 983 a nd L ew in 1 987 f o r d e ta i led r ev iew s o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e h un t ing mode l ) . A l though t h e h un t ing h ypo the s is h ad b een p roposed e a r l ie r i nt h e 1 910 -1920 s b y s eve ra l B r i t ish s c ien t is ts ( s ee d i scuss ion i n C a r tm i l l 1 983 :68 ) , t h es c ien t if ic c ommun i ty a sw e l l a st h ew o r ld w a s n o tp repa red t oh ea r a bou t t h e " k i l le r a pe " u n t i l a f te r Wo r ld Wa r I a t roc i t ie s , F reud a nd p sychoana lys is , a nd t he r e su rgence o ft h en o t ion o fh uman d ep rav i ty ( Ca r tm i l l 1 983 ; L ew in 1 987 :315 ) . T h is m ode l o ft h e h un t ing k i l le r a pe w a s l a te r p opu la r ized b y t h e p l ayw r igh t R obe r t A rd rey i n a n umbe ro fb ook s( A rd rey 1 961 , 1 976 ) .

I ti st h u so bv ious t h a tt h e re e x is t s an eed t oa na lyze c r i t ica l ly o r " decons t ruc t " P a leo ind ian mode ls e mphas iz ing t he c en t ra l i ty o fb ig g ame h un t ing . D econs t ruc t ion i st h e t e rm f o r a p os tmode rn me thod o f a na lys is t ha t i nvo lves " demy s t ify ing at e x t , t e a r ing i ta pa r t t or evea l i t s i n te rna l , a r b i t ra ry h i e ra rch ie s a nd i t sp re suppos i t ions . I tl a y s o u t t h e f l aw s a nd t h e l a ten t m e taphys ica l s t ruc tu re s o f at e x t . A d econs t ruc t ive r ead ing o f at e x t s eek s t o d i scove r i t s a mb iva lence ,b l indnes s , l o gocen t r ic i ty " ( Rosenau 1 992 :120 ) . A s n o ted b y H odde r ( 1986 :146 ) , at e x t r e f e r s t o ac onc re te p roduc t w r i t ten t od o s ome th ing , t h e p roduc t o fd i scou rse . F o r p o s tmode rn is t s , t h e i n ten t o f d econs t ruc t ion i sn o t t o i mp rove , r e v ise , o r o f f e r ab e t te r v e rs ion o f t e x t ( Rosenau 1 992 :x i ) . H oweve r ,b ecau se d econs t ruc t ion e s sen t ia l ly o pens t e x t st on ew r ead ings ( Ya te s 1 990 :276 ) , Iw i l l d oj u s tt h a t i n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r s ;t h a ti s , Iw i l lr e cons t ruc tt h e " t ex t , " i n t h is c a se , aP a leo ind ian s ub s is tence / se t t lemen t m ode l , f r om a n a l te rna t ive p e r spec t ive . I nt h ep re sen tc hap te r Iw i l l f o cus o n d econs t ruc t ing , o rw ha ti se s sen t ia l ly c r i t iqu ing , t h is " b ig g ame h un t ing " mode l , f i r s tt h rough as oc iopo l i t ica l a na ly s is , a nd s econd b y r evea l ing t he i mp l ic i t a s sump t ions a nd c on t rad ic t ion sa s soc ia ted w i th t h em ode l .

T h is e mpha s is o n h un t ing a nd i t s a ppa ren t i mpo r tance f o r h uman e vo lu t ion p e rmea ted a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions , a nd P a leo ind ian s t ud ie sw e re n oe xcep t ion .B u tt h e " Man t h e H un te r " c onf e rence i n 1 966 ( Lee a nd D eVo re , e d . 1 968 ) m od if ied t h is s t o ry s omewha t . T he i n fo rma t ion p re sen ted a t t h ec onf e rence p rov ided t h eb a s i s f o rq ue s t ion ing t h eh un t ing 4 2

1 990 :815 ) . N o d oub t t h e d om inance o fk i l l a nd b u tche r ing l o ca l i t ies a mong t he se P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l s i te s s e r ious ly b ia sed t h e v i ew o f P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence a nd l i f eways ( s ee d i scu ss ion i nB am fo r th 1 988 :155 ) . F rom t h e se b eg inn ings , P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s " have c onve rged w i th e x t rao rd ina ry s i ng le -m indedne ss o n a n u ncon te s ted ( o r p e rhaps o n ly v e ry r e cen t ly q ue s t ioned ) r e sea rch c ons t ruc t " ( Ge ro 1 993 :34 ) , t h a t i s , o ne o fs pec ia l ized , s ucce s sfu l , b i g g ame h un te r s . I tw a s n o t r ea l ly u n t i l t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s , w i th i n c rea s ing d i scove r ie s o f aw ide rv a r ie ty o fP a leo ind ian s i te t ype s t h an k i l l s i te s , t h a t d a ta w e re a va i lab le t os ugge s t c onv inc ing ly ap os s ib le a l te rna t ive t oo r b roaden ing o ft h e b i g g ame h un t ing mode l . Mo reove r , i t mus t b e r emembe red t h a t i nt h e e a r ly a nd m idd le p a r t o ft h is c en tu ry , e xcava to r s o f P a leo ind ian s i tes w e re r a re ly c once rned w i th f i nd ing e v idence f o r s y s tema t ic p lan t u se . I n m any c a se s s t anda rd e xcava t ion p rocedu re sd id n o te ven a l low f o r t h er e cove ry o f s ma l l a r t if ac t s a nd b o tan ica l r ema ins . I n a dd i t ion , N ew Wo r ld P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s b egan a nd d eve loped l a rge ly a r ound t h e t y po log ica l a na ly s is o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s ( F r ison 1 990b :14 ) , f u r the r a dd ing t o t h e e mpha s is o n h un t ing , a n e mpha s is s t i l l r em in iscen t i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ies t o day . F u r the rmo re , a sG e ro ( 1993 :35 ) n o ted , p r io r t or ad ioca rbon d a t ing , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f P a leo ind ian ma rke rs h ad b een o n ly v e r if ied b y a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc t P le is tocene m amma ls . I n mos t o f t h e e a r l ie r P a leo ind ian d i scove r ie s ( e .g . , B lackwa te r L oca l i ty No . 1 , D en t , L indenme ie r , L ubbock L ake ) , i tw a s t h e m egaf auna l r ema ins t h a t l e d t o d i scove ry ( Me l tze r 1 993a :294 ) . T hus , h i s to r ica l ly , t he e qua t ion o f" ea r ly man " w i th m egaf auna a nd t h e h un t ing o f b i g g ame w a s c ruc ia l a nd n ece ssa ry t op rov ing t h a t " man" w a se a r ly ( Ge ro 1 993 :35 ) .

mode l b ecause o f t he g row ing amoun t o f e v idence t h a t i nd ica ted t h a tg a the r ing a nd f ema le c on t r ibu t ions p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n h un t ing s oc ie t ie s ' l i feways . T he e d i to r s ( Lee a nd D eVo re 1 968 :4 ) e ven n o ted i nt h e i r i n t roduc t ion t h a t t h e t e rm " hun te r s " w a s o n ly a c onven ien t s ho r thand , s i nce t h e m a jo r i ty o f p eop les c ons ide red i n t h e v o lume s ubs is ted p r ima r i ly o n r e sou rce s o the r t h an m ea t , s uch a s w i ld p lan t s a nd f i sh . Mo reove r , t he e thnog raph ic d a ta , e spec ia l ly t h a t o ft he ! Kung ( Lee 1 968 ) , s eemed t oi nd ica te t h a t h un te r -ga the re rs d id n o t a nd h ad n o t l i ved h a r sh a nd s uf f e r ing l i ve s , s t rugg l ing f o r me re e x is tence a s h ad b een b e l ieved f o r s o l ong , b u t we re p e rhaps much more p roduc t ive a nd s ucce s sfu l , a se v iden tb y S ah l ins 'p roposa l o f t h ep h ra se " t he o r ig ina l a f f luen t s oc ie ty " t od e sc r ibe mode rn a nd P a leo l i th ic h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ion s ( Sah l ins 1 968 :85 ) . C onsequen t ly , b y t he 1 970 s t he h un t ing h ypo the s is a nd t h e " k i l le r a pe " s c ena r io b egan t of a l l a pa r t , e ven m o re s o a f te r t h e p ionee r ing t a phonom ic wo rk o f B ra in ( 1981) a nd h i s d emons t ra t ion t h a t t h ea us t ra lop i thec ine sh ad p l ayed n o r o le i n t h e g a the r ing o f t h e a n ima l b one s f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e i r o wn s ke le tons . A s L ew in ( 1987 :317 -318 ) i nd ica ted , i nr e sponse , n ew h ypo the se s o fh uman e vo lu t ion w e re p ropo sed , f o cu s ing o n s ha r ing a nd c oope ra t ion ( e .g . , I s aac 1 978 , 1 979 ) , monogamous b ond ing ( e .g . , L ove joy 1 981) , a nd t h e mo the r infan t b ond a nd f ood s ha r ing ( e .g . , T anne r a nd Z ih lman 1 976 ; Z ih lman 1 981 ; Z ih lman a nd T anne r 1 978 ) . Mo reove r , a n i n c rea s ing n umbe r o f s t ud ie s w e re d emon s t ra t ing t h a t s caveng ing c ou ld h ave p rov ided a n i mpo r tan t a nd r egu la r s ou rce o f a n ima l f ood s f o r e a r ly h om in id s ( e .g . , B lumensch ine 1 987 , 1 989 ) , a nd t h a t i tw a s a mo re p robab le e xp lana t ion t o a ccoun t f o r t h e f auna l a ccumu la t ions a te a r ly h om in id s i te s ( e .g . , B info rd 1 981 , 1 988 ; S h ipman 1 983 , 1 984 , 1 986 ; s ee a l so B lumensch ine a nd C ava l lo 1 992 a nd t h e i rd e ta i led d i scu s s ion r e la t ing t ot h e i mpor tance o fs caveng ing , a s o pposed t oh un t ing , f o r e a r ly h om in ids a nd h uman e vo lu t ion ) . A n a gg re ss ive i mage o f h uman o r ig ins w a s t hus r ep laced w i th amo re p ea ceab le o ne ( s ee d i scu s s ion i nL ew in 1 987 :318 ) .

W i th i n c rea s ing d i scove r ie s t h a t b egan t oi n d ica te t h a t t h e f l u ted p o in t w a s w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t N o r th Ame r ica , a r chaeo log is t s a s sumed t ha t t h is d i s t r ibu t ion j u s t if ied t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f as i ng le , c on tempo raneous , c on t inen t -w ide a dap ta t ion t o s pec ia l ized h un t ing o f l a rge t e r res t r ia l f a una ( e .g . , Ma son 1 962 ) . Empha s is w a sp l aced o n t h es im i la r i t ie sr a the rt h an d i f f e rence si nt h em o rpho logy a nd t e chno logy o f a r t ifac t s b e tween P a leo ind ian a s semb lage s o ve r t h e e n t i re c on t inen t . B ecau se p o in t s a nd a s semb lage s " a ppea red " t ob e s o s im i la r a c ros s t h e c on t inen t , i tw a s t h en b e l ieved t h a tt h e se f l u ted p o in t make r s mus th ave b een d o ing t h e s ame t h ing a tt h e s ame t ime ; t h a t i s , t h ey w e re r e ly ing u pon b ig g ame ( Me l t ze r 1 993a :294 ) . T h is r a p id a ccep tance o f a u n ive rsa l P a leo ind ian s t age o ccu r red b ecause a r chaeo log is t s i mmed ia te ly a s sumed P a leo ind ians h ad t o h ave b een t h e e a r l ie s t o ccupan t s o f t h e N o r th Ame r ican c on t inen t f r om wh ich s ubsequen t , mo re s pec ia l ized p opu la t ions l a te r d eve loped . T hus , s im i la r i ty w a s t o b e e xpe c ted f o r t h e se o r ig ina l p opu la t ions . A s G e ro ( 1993 :35 ) n o ted , P a leo ind ian w as s een a s t he e a r l ies t c ommon d enom ina to r t h a t a r chaeo log is t s c ou ld s t udy e ve rywhe re i n t h e c oun t ry . I t mu s t b e r emembe red t h a t t h is n o t ion o f a w ide sp read P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing t r ad i t ion m ade p e rf ec t t h eo re t ica l s e nse f o r e a r l ie r a r chaeo log is t s b ecause i t e xp la ined t h e r ap id s p read o f f l u ted p o in t s a c ros s t h e c on t inen t , a nd t h ea ppa ren ts im i la r i ty i nt o o l k i t sa nd r e l iance o n e xo t ic l i th ics ; m o reove r , i ta l so a ccoun ted f o r w hy P a leo ind ians w e re h igh ly mob i le ( Me l tze r 1 993a :294 ) . S pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un t ing b y t h e e a r l ie s t P a leo ind ian s w a s c ons ide red t h e m echan ism b y w h ich t h ey w e re a b le t o o ve r r ide t h ee co log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o ft h el a te P le is tocene a nd e xpand q u ick ly i n to u noccup ied r e g ions ( Me l tze r 1 993a :298 ; e . g . , Ma son 1 962 :243 ,2 46 ) .

D e sp i te t h e se ma jo rs h if t s i nt h ough t , r emnan t s o ft h eh un te r mode l p e r s is ted , e spec ia l ly i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ies . T he i n f luence o ft h e "Man t h e Hun te r " c onf e rence o nP a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ions , a nd t h e r eve la t ion t ha t g a the r ing w a s a n i mpo r tan t a spec t o f s o me h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ies , r e su l ted i no n ly b r ief a cknow ledgemen t st h a to t he ra c t iv i t ie s s uch a sg a the r ing a nd s ma l l g ame h un t ing m igh t h ave b een p rac t ised b y N o r th Ame r ican P le is tocene p opu la t ions ( s ee p rev iou sc hap te r ) . T he f o cus r ema ined o n h un t ing a spe c t s o f t he c u l tu re , w i th t h e b e l ief s t i l l s t rong t h a t h un t ing h ad p layed am a jo r e conom ic r o le i n P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence . Howeve r , t h e n ew d a ta s ugges t ing h un te r -ga the re rs w e re a ff luen t , s uccessfu l s oc ie t ie s r e su l ted b o th i n t h e d ee mpha s i so ft h e 1 940 -1950 sv i ew t h a tP a leo ind ians h ad l i ved ah a r sh a nd b ru ta l e x is tence ( e .g . , H en ry 1 955 ; I rw in e ta l . 1 962 ; J e nn ings 1 974 :92 ) , a nd i n ar enewed c ons ide ra t ion t ha t P l e is tocene p opu la t ions h ad b een s uch e f f ic ien t a nd s k i l led h un te r s t h a t t h ey h ad l e f tb eh ind t h em al a nd d evo id o fP l e i s tocene mega f auna ( e .g . , Ma r t in 1 967 , 1 973 ) . Documen ta t ion o fa r t if ac t s w i th in e x tens ive b one b eds , f i r s t a tF o l som a nd t h en l a te r a to the r b i son a nd mammo th k i l ls ( s ee p r ev ious c hap te r ) , p layed as i gn if ican t r o le i nt h is e a r ly d eve lopmen t o f a nd c on t inued e mpha s is o n t h e v i ew o f P a leo ind ians a s s pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un te r s ( Todd e ta l . 4 3

5 . 2 .3 I n terpre ta t ion o ft he D a ta

f a c ta nd h ave b ecome f o lk w isdom a nd my ths a bou tt h ep a s t . I n h i s r ev iew o f b o th N o r th Ame r ican a nd O ld Wo r ld m ammo th " k i l l" s i te s ( G . H ayne s 1 991) , h e d i scove red t h a t m os tc onc lu s ion s s ugge s t ing t h a tt h er ema in sw e re ar e su l to f a c t ive h un t ing h ad b een a c tua l ly b ased u pon m e re p l aus ib i l i ty . F o r e xamp le , h e d i scus sed h ow " a rcheo log ica l s t o r ie s " h ad b een d ev ised t oa ccommoda te l a rge f e a tu re s o f m ammo th b one s i n l a te P le is tocene s i te s i n c en t ra l a nd e a s te rn E u rope ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :208 ) . T he d rama t ic i mage o f mammo th -hun t ing s pec ia l is t s l i v ing d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a leo l i th ic i nt h ec o ld s t eppe s o fc en t ra l E u ra s ia h a sb ecome f i rm ly e s tab l ished i n O ld Wo r ld a r chaeo log ica l t h ough t , d esp i te i t s b e ing b a sed o n av e ry s e lec t ive s amp le ( G . H ayne s 1 991 : 2 14 ) . I nr ev iew ing v a r iou ss i te sa nd d a ta ,G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 : 2 14 ) a rgued t ha t t h e l a ck o f k i l l a nd b u tche r ing s i te s , a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i t se lf , i n d ica ted t h a t P a leo l i th ic c u l tu res o f n o r the rn E u ra s ia h ad b een a c tua l ly s ub s i s t ing o n n ume r ica l ly m o re a bundan ta n ima ls i n t h e i rh ome r a nge s , a nd h ad b een o n ly o ppo r tun is t ic u t i l ize r s o f mammo th . S of f e r ( 1993 ) made s im i la r a r gumen t s , c i t ing e v idence w h ich s ugges ted t h a ti tw a sn o t o n ly t h eh un t ing o f m ammo th w h ich a ccoun ted f o r t h e p re sence o f t h e g r ea t a moun t s o fm ammo th b one a t many U ppe r P a leo l i th ic s i te s i n c en t ra l a nd e a s te rn E u rope , b u t a l so t h e c o l lec t ion o f m ammo th b one s f r om n a tu ra l b one a ccumu la t ions . T he r omance o fh un te r s w ho l i ved i n s ide s t r uc tu re s made f r om t h e b one s o ft h e i r p rey i se xc i t ing a nd t e nds t ob e a c cep ted w i thou tq ue s t ion ( G .H ayne s 1 991 : 2 16 ) .

5 . 2 .3 .1 P reconce ived I dea s T he d eve lopmen t o ft h eb ig g ame h un t ing mode l h ad much t od o w i th h ow t h ed a ta h ad b een i n te rp re ted ,e spe c ia l ly w i th r e spec t t o h ow p reconce ived i deas h ad i nf luenced i n te rp re ta t ion s . I ti sn ow w ide ly r e cogn ized i na n th ropo logy t h a t p reconce ived b e l ief s a nd n o t ions c an a nd d o i nf luence h ow d a ta a r e i n te rp re ted a nd g iven mean ing . R oge r L ew in ( 1987 ) p rov ided n ume rou s e xamp le s i nw h ich t h e p owe r o f p reconce ived b e l ief s a nd i mp l ic i t a s sump t ions h ad g u ided i n te rp re ta t ions o ft h e f o s s i l r e co rd t h roughou tt h eh i s to ry o f p a leoan th ropo log ica l w o rk . P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s a r e n o e xcep t ion ; p reconce ived i deas a nd e xpec ta t ions h ave i nf luenced , a s w e l l , i n te rp re ta t ions o f P a leo ind ian d a ta t h roughou ti t sh i s to ry . A s G ladw in ( 1937 :133 ) s t a ted f o rt h e t ime p r io rt ot h eF o lsom d i scove ry : E ve r s i nce t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e s t udy o f Man i n t h e N ew Wo r ld , i nves t iga t ion h a s b een h i nde red b y c e r ta in f i xed b e l ief s w h ich h ave m in im ized o rd es t royed t h e v a lue o fe v idence w h ich c ou ld n o t b e r e conc i led w i th t h ese b e l ie f s . G ladw in b e l ieved t ha t w i th t he F o lsom d i scove ry , a r chaeo log is t s h ad b een l i be ra ted f r om t h e se r e s t r ic t ions . H oweve r , i ti sa ppa ren t t h a t t h ey e s sen t ia l ly h ad c r ea ted a n ew s e t o fr e s t r ic t ions f o r t h emse lve s , o ne s w h ich c onf ined t h em t oa n i n te rp re ta t ion o f ab ig g ame h un t ing l i f e s ty le a nd a l i t sr e la ted a s sump t ions .

T he d eve lopmen to ft h eP a leo ind ian b i gg ame h un t ing m ode l h a s f o l lowed a l ong s im i la r l i nes . S pa rse d a ta w e re i n te rp re ted a se v idence i n d ica t ing b ig g ame h un t ing , a nd t h is i n te rp re ta t ion w a s t r ansfo rmed i n to at r u th o rk now ledge o f t h e p a s t . I n e s sence , w i th t ime , t h e P a leo ind ian b i g g ame h un t ing mode l b egan t o t a ke o n ar e a l i ty o f i t s o wn . T h roughou t t h e e n t i re d eve lopmen t o fP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , t h e h un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion w a s r a re ly , i fe ve r , q ue s t ioned . A rchaeo log is t s n eve r e n te r ta ined a ny d oub t t h a t t h e f amous C lov is s i te s w e re a ny th ing o the r t h an t r ue k i l l s i te s ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :311) . E ssen t ia l ly , t h e P a leo ind ian b i g g ame h un t ing m ode l w a s a nd h a s b een p e rpe tua ted a nd s u s ta ined b y t a u to log ica l a r gumen t s . I fn ew d a ta s omehow d i d n o t f i t t h i s mode l w i th r e ga rd t oe i the r s ub s is tence o rd a t ing , t h en i mmed ia te ly r e sea rche r s w ou ld q ue s t ion t h e r e l iab i l i ty a nd i n teg r i ty o f t h e d a ta ( s ee r e la ted d i scus s ion a nd s im i la r c l a im si nD incauze 1 984 c once rn ing t h ed eba te o ve rt h ec a se f o rP re -C lov is o ccupa t ions i nt h e Ame r ica s ) , o re l se a t temp t e i the r t o f o rce o r s e lec t ive ly c hoose t h e d a ta t o f i t t h e p reconce ived i d ea t ha t h un t ing h ad b een t h e d om inan t e mpha s is i n s ubs is tence . F o r e xamp le , a s n o ted b y G e ro ( 1993 :34 ) , a f te r t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e P a leo ind ian s i te o f L indenme ie r ( Robe r t s 1 935 ) , t h e r e cove red d a ta s e emed t o s ugge s t amuch w ide rr ange o ft oo ls a nd f a una t h an h ad b een i n te rp re ted p rev iou s ly f r om P a leo ind ian m ammo th a nd b i son k i l ls . Howeve r , i n te rp re ta t ions s t i l l s e emed t o f o cus e xc lus ive ly o n t h e c en t ra l i ty o f m ea t a nd g ame f o r P a leo ind ian e x is tence ( e .g . , s ee Wo rm ing ton 1 957 :35 , a s c i ted i n G e ro 1 993 :34 , a nd h e r f ocus o n t h e a r t if ac t s a nd t he i r s upposed u sefu lness i n s hap ing w eapon s ha f t s , b u tche r ing , a nd p repa r ing h ides ) . I n a no the r e xamp le i lu s t ra t ing t h e m o ld ing o f d a ta t o f i t p r econce ived i d ea s , G a ry H ayne s ( 1 991 :311) n o ted t h a t t h e re e x i s ted a n ap r ior i t h eo ry t h a t h uman s w ho h ad k i l led e l ephan t s w ou ld l e ave b eh ind af ew t o o ls , t o o ls t h a t w ou ld o n ly b e e xpec ted t ob e f o und w i th b one s o fa n ima ls i ft ho se a n ima l sh ad b een k i l led o ru sed i ns ome w ay . A l l f a c t s a bou t C lov is s i te s a nd t h e

Du r ing t h e l a te 1 800 s a nd e a r ly 1 900 s , w i th t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy 's f o cu s o n t h e e t hnog raph ic p re sen t a s b e ing c ompa rab le t o t h e p a s t , a nd t h e u se o f t h e d i rec t h i s to r ica l a pp roach i nP la ins r e sea rch b y W . D . S t rong a nd o the r r e sea rche rs , i t i s n o t s u rp r is ing t ha t many a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions , i n c lud ing t h ose d ea l ing w i th P la ins P a leo ind ian d a ta , w e re c o lou red b y p reconce ived b e l ief s d e r ived f r om e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s . T he i mage o f h i s to r ic b i son h un te rs , a nd t h e b e l ief t h a t l i f e h ad b een d i ff icu l t a nd s ea sona l o n t h e P la ins a nd o n ly p oss ib le w i th a f o cus o n b i g g ame ( i .e . , b i son ) , r a the r t h an s u rv iva l o n ly o n p l an t f ood s a nd s ma l l g ame , g rea t ly i nf luenced t h ose e a r ly P a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ions . 5 . 2 .3 .2 D eve lopmen to f" S tor ie s" a nd "M y th s" T he re i s af i ne l i ne b e tween p reconce ived i d ea s i nf luenc ing o ne 's i n te rp re ta t ions a nd t h e a c t o fa c tua l ly e x t rac t ing f r om t h e d a ta t h e p a t te rn t ha t o ne e xpec ted o r w an ted t o s ee , i g no r ing e v idence n o t a g reeab le t oc onf i rm o ne 's e s tab l ished v i ew s o rt h eo ry . Amb iguous a nd p a r t ia l e v idence r e la t ing t o t h e p a s t c an a nd i so f ten r e ad i ly man ipu la ted t oc r ea te , a s G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 :318 ) t e rmed i t , " f ic t ions o fa lmo s t a ny s o r t , " w h ich i nt u rn a r e t h en t r an sfo rmed i n to i n te rp re ta t ions t h a t a r e e qua ted w i th k now ledge a nd t r u th a bou t t h e p a s t , a nd u sed a s p roof o f o the r i n te rp re ta t ions ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :260 ) . Mo reove r , o nce t he se u np roven a s sump t ions h ave b een t r ansfo rmed i n to t r u ths , i tb ecome s e x t reme ly d i ff icu l tt oc ha l lenge a nd r e fu te t h em ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :260 ) . T h is h a s h appened , G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 :260 , 2 62 ) a r gued , w i th p robosc idean s i te i n te rp re ta t ions ; t h ey a r eg ood s t o r ie s , n o t k now ledge a bou tt h ep a s t , t h a th ave b een p roc la imed a s 4 4

o r ien ted t a sk s ( Ge ro 1 985 :344 ) . A s C onkey a nd S pec to r ( 1984 :7 ) n o ted , a nd a s i lus t ra ted p rev ious ly , t h e " Man t h e Hun te r " mode l o u t l ined b y Wa shbu rn a nd L anca s te r ( 1968 ) c l ea r ly r e semb les c on tempo ra ry g ende r s t e reo type s . G e ro ( 1983 :53 , 1 985 :344 ) e ven s ugge s ted t h a t t h e s ame s exua l r o le s a r ev i s ib le i nt h e f i e ld o f No r th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy , w i th t h ea r chaeo log ica l e n te rp r ise b e ing d om ina ted b yw h i te , m idd le c l a s s m a le s . I na n e xam ina t ion o ft h e s t ruc tu re o ft h e mode rn N o r th Ame r ican a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch c ommun i ty a nd h ow r e sea rche rs a re f o rced t o f o l low e s tab l ished p a rad igms , G e ro ( 1993 :36 -38 ) a r gued t h a t w omen t e nded t o b e e xc luded f r om P le is tocene l i th ic a nd f auna l a na lys is , h av ing l i t t le a cce ss t o b o th k now ledge p roduc t ion a nd u nexam ined P a leo ind ian ma te r ia ls b ecause f i e ldwo rk w a s d om ina ted b y a f ew ma les . A cco rd ing t o h e r , t he a r chaeo log ica l c ommun i ty a nd t h e o l d -boy , ma le -dom ina ted n e two rk ing s ys tem , b y s eem ing ly s uppo r t ing w omen -a th ome a nd d i scou rag ing t h e i re n t ry i n to t h ef i e ld , r ef le c ted t h e i d ea l ized r o le s o fm an the -hun te r a nd w oman -a t -home ( Ge ro 1 983 :53 ) .

f o s s i lr e co rd h ave b een e xpec ted t of i tt h is t h eo ry , a nd i fn o t , t hen a re o f ten f orced i n to p lace b y " pa radoxe s a nd s ub t le t ie s "( G .H ayne s 1 991 :311) . T hus , t h e n o t ion o f b ig g ame h un t ing P a leo ind ians h ad b ecome r e a l i ty , a ccep ted w i thou t c r i t ica l e va lua t ion a s a c onsequence o fo ve r in te rp re ta t ion o ft h es pa r se d a ta , w h ich , a s G a ry H aynes ( 1991 :205 ) ma in ta ined , i s s imp ly a n " exe rc ise i nm ak ing o ne s t o ry p l au s ib le a tt he e xpense o f o the r s t o r ie s . " No t o n ly P a leo ind ian mode ls , b u t a l so o the r a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leon to log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions h ave f r equen t ly d eve loped i n to " my th s " a bou t t h e p a s t , a sn o ted b y B inf o rd ( 1 981) , w ho f o cused o n t h e my ths t h a t h ad b een g ene ra ted b y a r chaeo log is t s t h rough t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f f a una l m a te r ia ls ; b y B ryan ( 1991) , w ho d i scu s sed h ow t h e " C lov is f i r s t " mode l h ad b ecome amy t h ; a nd b y E ise ley ( 1945 , 1 946 ) , who e xam ined h ow t h e my th o f t h e r ecen t s u rv iva l o fm ammo th i nt h e N ew Wo r ld h ad d eve loped i n t h el a s th a lf o ft he e i gh teen th a nd e a r ly p a r to ft h en i ne teen th c en tu r ie s .

H oweve r , i t mus t b e n o ted t ha t t he n umbe r o f e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s a nd c onsequen t ly t he a moun t o f P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l i sr a the rs ma l lr e la t ive t o l a te rN o r th Ame r ican p reh is to r ic s i te s . Mo reove r , t h e re h ave b een a n umbe r o f f ema le a r chaeo log is ts ( e .g . , D ena D incauze , S a l ly G re ise r , R u th G ruhn , C yn th ia I rw in W i l l iams , E i leen J ohnson , R u thann K nudson , Ma r ie Wo rm ing ton ) w ho h ave s ucce s sfu l ly a nd i n te l l igen t ly d ea l t w i th No r th Ame r ican P le is tocene a nd P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch , a nd w ho a r e w e l l r e spec ted f o r b o th t h e i r f i e ld w o rk a nd a cadem ic w r i t ings . B u t t h e re i ss t i l l t h e i mp re ss ion t h a t a ny P l e is tocene /Pa leo ind ian r e sea rche r mu s t f o l low e s tab l ished p a rad igms ( i .e . , f u nc t iona l , p roce ssua l , a nd e nv i ronmen ta l f o cuse s ) t o g a in a cce ss t o P a leo ind ian d a ta , a nd t h a tt h ea cce s s a nd a ccep tance i ss t i l l c on t ro l led b y an e two rk o f as e lec tg roup o fa r chaeo log is t s . I no t he rw o rds , t h e s t udy o f P le is tocene b ig g ame h un t ing h a s b ecome a h igh -p re s t ige r e sea rch n i che ( Ge ro 1 991a :100 ) , w i th a t e ndency i ns ome c a se st of a vou rt h ose r e sea rche r s f o l low ing af u nc t iona la nd e nv i ronmen ta l a pp roach .

L andau ( 1 984 ) made a n i n te res t ing c onnec t ion b e tween e vo lu t iona ry s cheme s a nd s t o r ie s o rn a r ra t ions . S he n o ted t h a t m any o ft h e mode ls o fe a r ly h om in id e vo lu t ion c an b e s een t of o l low t h e s ame s t ruc tu re a st h a t o ft h e f o rm o ft h e t r ad i t iona l h e ro my th , w i th a nce s t ra l h om in ids l i v ing i nt h e t r ee s a nd s t rugg l ing t or e ach t h eu l t ima te g oa l o fl e av ing t h e t r ee s a nd b ecom ing h uman . P a ra l le ls c an b e s een i n P a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ions , w i th P le is tocene h un te rs s t rugg l ing t oo ve rcome t h e h a r sh P l e is tocene e nv i ronmen t a nd c o lon ize t h en ew c on t inen tb yh un t ing l a rge P le is tocene b ea s ts , e ven tua l ly s o s ucce ssfu l ly t h a t t h ey d rove t h em t o e x t inc t ion . L andau ( 1984 :262 ) a r gued t ha t s e ldom d o a n th ropo log is ts a nd o t he r s c ien t is t s r e cogn ize t h e e x ten t t o wh ich t h ey u se n a r ra t ive i nt h e i rt h ink ing , c ommun ica t ion o f i d ea s , a nd i nt h e i rs c ien t if ic t h eo r ie s . T he i d ea l ized i mage o f s c ience a st h e s oph is t ica ted , o b jec t ive , u nb ia sed s ea rch f o r t he " t ru th " i sj us t t h a t , i d ea l ized . I n r ea l i ty , s c ience i s s t o ry te l l ing o f as pec ia l k ind ( E ld redge a nd T a t te r sa l l 1 982 :1 ) . A s T r igge r ( 1989a :408 ) n o ted , t h e re i sa lway s at emp ta t ion t o l e ap t o c onc lu s ions i n t h e a b sence o f s uf f ic ien t d a ta , p rope r m e thods o f i n te rp re ta t ion , a nd a dequa te a na lys is . E spe c ia l ly i ft h ei n te rp re ta t ion i ss e en a sc ommon s ense , t h e a r cha eo log is t may b eu nawa re o fh i s o rh e ra s sump t ions a nd p oo r ly t e s ted e xp lana t ions . T h is s i tua t ion o f ten a l lows i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta t os u rv ive e ven t h ough t h et h eo re t ica l o r f a c tua l b a s is h a sb een d i sc red i ted ( T r igge r 1 989a :408 ) . C oncep t s a nd m ode ls b ecome t r u th s a nd f a c t s , a si st h ec a se w i th t h eP a leo ind ian b i g g ame h un t ing mode l . Many a r chaeo log is t s h ave t a ken t h e h un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion , t r ans f o rmed i ti n to at r u th , a nd h ave s uppo r ted i ts o s t rong ly t ha t i t h as b l inded t hem t o i t s w eaknesses a nd i n con s i s tenc ie s .

5 .3 IMPLICIT A SSU MPTIONS AND PALEOINDIAN M ODELS F rom t he p reced ing d i scuss ion , i t i s a ppa ren t t ha t p reconce ived i d ea s , p reva i l ing p a rad igms , a nd t h e c u r ren t s oc ia l a nd i d eo log ica l c on tex t , w h i le n o t t o ta l ly b l ind ing a r chaeo log is ts , g rea t ly i n f luence h ow t hey i n te rp re t d a ta , p ose q ue s t ions , a nd u l t ima te ly a t temp t t o a nswe r t h ose q ue s t ions . I nt h is n ex t s t ep i nd econs t ruc t ing t h e b i g g ame h un t ing mode l , Iw i l l e xpose i n mo re d e ta i l t h e n ume rous i mp l ic i ta nd u n te s ted a s sump t ions a nd q ue s t ionab le p rem ise s u nde r ly ing P a leo ind ian mode ls empha s iz ing t h ec en t ra l i ty o f b ig g ame h un t ing . I tw i l lb en ece s sa ry i ns eve ra l i n s tance si n t h is c hap te r t o i n t roduce t h e b roade r c on tex t o f P la ins a r chaeo logy i no rde r t oi lus t ra te h ow , f r om w he re , a nd i n w ha t c on tex t t h e se m ode ls a nd a s sump t ions d e r ived . A s i n e vo lu t iona ry s cheme s ( s ee d i scus s ion i n L ew in 1 987 :44 ) , t h e se P a leo ind ian m ode ls t e nd t ob e d om ina ted b y i mp l ic i t a s sump t ions o f ten d e tached f r om t he d a ta , ma ny o fw h ich h ave b een p a r t o ft h e e n t i re P a leo ind ian m ind -se t s i nce t h e F o lsom d i scove ry a nd e a r ly i n te rp re ta t ions ; i ne f f ec t , t h e se a s sump t ions h ave r e su l ted i nt h e c on t inu ing d om inance o f t h eb i gg ame h un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion f o rP a leo ind ian d a ta .

5 .2 .4 D i scu s s ion : I n f luence o ft h eS oc ia lC on tex t I ti sc l ea r t h a t t he s oc ia l c on tex t i n wh ich a r chaeo log is t s o pe ra te i nf luence s t o s ome d eg ree a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n te re s t sa nd i n te rp re ta t ions . A sd i scus sed i nC hap te r s 2a nd 3a nd i nm o re d e ta i l l a te r o n i nt h is c hap te r , g ende r mode ls t e nd t or e cons t ruc t ma le a nd f ema le r o le si nt h ep a s t much a s t h ey a r es t e reo typed t o day ;t h a ti s ,m a le sa r es e en p e rfo rm ing more p ub l ic , p roduc t ive , a nd f a r rang ing t a sks , wh i le f ema le s p rac t ise a mo re n a r row r ange o f p a ss ive , h ome 4 5

5 . 3 .2 B one B eds a nd F auna l R ema in s a re t he R e su l t o f Hun t ing

5 . 3 .1 F lu ted P o in t sa re Hun t ing Weapon s T he b e l ief t h a t f l u ted p o in t s w e re w eapons u sed i nh un t ing g ame o r ig ina ted e a r ly i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , a nd w a s p e rvas ive t h roughou t s ubsequen t i n te rpre ta t ion o f P a leo ind ian d a ta , whe the r s t a ted d i rec t ly ( e .g . , C ook 1 925 :460 ; MacGowan 1 950 :224 ; S e l la rds 1 952 :60 ; Wo rm ing ton 1 949 ) o r i mp l ied ( e .g . , H owa rd 1 935 :128 ) . Mo re r e cen t i n te rp re ta t ions h ave c on t inued t h e s uppo r t f o r t h is a s sump t ion , a nd t hu s h ave p layed a ma jo r r o le i n s u s ta in ing t h e b ig g ame h un t ing mode l . F r ison ( 1987 :184 ) n o ted t h a t t he p resence o f C lov is p ro jec t i le p o in ts i n m ammo th c a rca sses w a s s t rong e v idence f o r t h e i r u se i n k i l l ing t h e a n ima ls . S im i la r ly , Wi lm sen ( 1974 :105 ) n o ted t h a t " ap o in t f ound a tL indenme ie r i nt h en eck v e r teb ra o fa b i son i sg ood i n f e ren t ia l e v idence t h a t t h e se w e re e f f ec t ive w eapons . "

B o th G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 :205 ) a nd T odd ( 1987 ) i mp l ied t h a t t h e e v idence f o r P a leo ind ian h un t ing a nd p roce s s ing o f p robosc idea ns a nd b i son w a s a ppa ren t ly f a r l e ss s ub s tan t ia l t h an h ad b een p rev ious ly c l a imed , d ue t o t h e f a c t t ha t P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log is ts i n t h e p a s t , a nd s t i l l i n t h e p re sen t , h ave h ad a t e ndency t o a s sume t h a t a l l f a una l r ema ins f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th o r n ea r s t one t oo ls ( p r ima r i ly p ro jec t i le p o in t s ) w e re t h er e su l t o fa c t ive h un t ing b y h umans . H oweve r , t h e m e re e x is tence o fs t one t o o ls i na b one b ed d emons t ra te s n e i the r t ha t a c t ive h un t ing o ccu r red , n o r , f o r t h a t m a t te r , t h a t t h e p a t te rn ing e v iden t w i th in t h e b one a s semb lage w a s s o le ly t h e r e su l t o f h uman a c t iv i ty . R a re ly i sc on s ide ra t ion g i ven t o t a phonom ic s t ud ie s o ft h e b one d epos i t s , a nd t h e p os s ib i l i ty o fs c aveng ing o rn a tu ra l c au ses a s f a c to r s i n b one a ccumu la t ion . A s T odd ( 1987 ) i n d ica ted , b i son a nd m ammo th b one b eds a r e n o t f o s s i l ized e ven ts . A w ide r ange o f p o ten t ia l p os t -occupa t iona l p rocesses m ay h ave mod if ied t h e f a una l r ema ins ( Todd 1 987 :260 ) . I nf a c t , s uch " k i l l s i te s " m igh th ave b een c r ea ted b y t ime a ve rag ing , d epos i t ion , m ix ing o fn on -cu l tu ra l a nd c u l tu ra l e ven t s , a nd mu l t ip le e ven t s ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :260 2 61 ; s ee a l so r e la ted d i scus s ion i nD incauze 1 984 :306 -307 w i th r e ga rd t ot h e i mpo r tance o ft a phonom ic s t ud ie s f o r t h e e va lua t ion o f P re -C lov is b one a s semb lages a nd b one " t oo l s " ) .

H oweve r , a sK ehoe ( 1992 :28 ) n o ted ,t h ep rac t ice o fl a be l l ing b i fac ia l ly f l aked , s y mme t r ica l p o in ted s t one a r t ifac ts a s p ro jec t i le p o in t s i s a" good e xamp le o f a r chaeo log ica l f o lk lo re . "D e sp i te i nd ica t ions f r om s t ud ie s o fl i th ic r educ t ion p roce sse sa nd u se -wea ra na lys is , w h ich s ugge s tt h a tm any o f t h e se p ro jec t i le p o in ts w e re a c tua l ly u sed a sk n ive s o rw e re r ewo rked i mp lemen t s , t h ey c on t inue t ob eg iven t h el a be l o f p ro jec t i le p o in t( Kehoe 1 992 :28 ) . F o re xamp le , O de l l ( 1981) d i scussed s eve ra l p ro jec t i le p o in t w ea r p a t te rn s t ud ie s ( e .g . , A b le r 1 971 ; G re ise r 1 977 ) t h a t h ad i lus t ra ted t h a t m any o f t h ese s o -ca l led p o in ts d id n o t s how t r aces o f w ea r i n te rp re tab le a s h av ing b een c aused b y u se a s a rma tu re s . I n s tead , i n t hese s t ud ies , t he mo rpho log ica l c a tego ry " p ro jec t i le p o in t " a c tua l ly s e rved a s amu l t i -func t iona l t o o l i n k i l l ing , b u tche r ing , s k inn ing , a nd o the r a c t iv i t ie s ( Ode l l 1 98 1 :324 ) . S pec if ica l ly w i th r e ga rd t oP a leo ind ian p ro je c t i le p o in t s , E i leen J ohnson ( 1991 :227 ) n o ted i n a n a na lys is o f C lov is p o in t sf r om s eve ra l S ou the rn P la ins s i te s , t h a ts eve ra l p o in t s h ad i mpac t s ca rs o n t he t i p i nd ica t ing u se a s a w eapon , w h i le o the r p o in t s h ad t h e l a te ra l e dge s a nd /o r t i p r ewo rked a s w e l l a s a dd i t iona l d amage t ha t i nd ica ted u se o t he r t h an a s aw eapon . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion c l ea r ly i n d ica ted t h a t t h e C lov is p o in t w a s , i n s ome c a se s , a tl e a s t ad ua lf u nc t ion t o o l ( a s aw eapon a nd f o ru se i nb u tche r ing ) , i fn o ta m u l t i -func t iona l t o o l ( J ohnson 1 991 :227 ) .

S of f e r ( 1993) n o ted s im i la r p rob lems r e la t ing t o i n te rp re ta t ions c once rn ing c en t ra l a nd e a s te rn E u ropean U ppe r P a leo l i th ic s i te s . S he a rgued t h a t , f o r b o th N o r th Ame r ican a nd U ppe r P a leo l i th ic s i te s , t h e a s sump t ion w a s a lways made t h a t a s soc ia t ions o f m ammo th b one w i th c u l tu ra l i n ven to r ie sr ef lec ted c ause a nd e f f e c t ; t h a ti s ,h uman a c t ion w a s s o le ly r e spons ib le f o r t h e a ccumu la t ion o f t h e d ead mammo th s . C onsequen t ly , t h e se a s semb lage s w e re n o t s ub jec t t o a s r i go rous t a phonom ic a nd p a leon to log ica l r e sea rch a s t h o se a s semb lages t ha t l a cked e v idence f o r h uman a c t ion ( Sof f e r 1 993 :32 ) . I n p r ev ious w o rk ( Sof f e r 1 985 ) , s he i lu s t ra ted t h a t m a s s d ea th s g ene ra ted b y n a tu ra l p roce sse s c ou ld a nd d id y i e ld c a ta s t roph ic a ge p rof i les ; t h e reby , s he c ha l lenged t h e a s sump t ion t h a t c a ta s t roph ic p rof i le s c ou ld h ave r e su l ted o n ly f r om h uman d r iv ing a nd k i l l ing o fw ho le h e rd s ( Sof f e r 1 993 :33 -34 ) . S he a l so p o in ted o u t t h a t m any o f t h e mammo th b one s a tR uss ian U ppe r P a leo l i th ic s i te s w e re c ha rac te r ized b y v a ry ing s t age s o f w ea the r ing a nd d i f f e ren t ia l d eg ree s o fc a rn ivo re a nd r oden t g naw m a rk s . T h is e v idence s ugge s ted d i f f e ren ta ge s o fd ea th f o r s ome o ft h e se mammo th ( Sof f e r 1 993 :37 ) . E v idence f o r i n tens ive u t i l iza t ion o fa n ima ls s pec ie s o t he rt h an m ammo th l e d S of fe r ( 1993 :38 ) t o q ues t ion t h e a s sump t ion t h a t m ammo th h ad p rov ided a n a bundance o fm ea t a tt h e se s i te s . I nv i ew o ft h e se o bse rva t ions , S of f e r ( 1 993 ) t h us o f f e red a n a l te rna te s cena r io : n a tu ra l m ammo th b one c eme te r ie s , w h ich p rov ided a n a bundance o f as i gn if ican t r aw m a te r ia l , h ad o f ten a t t rac ted h uman s e t t lemen t s , a nd t he refo re t h e m ammo th b one p re sen t a tm any o ft h e se U ppe r P a leo l i th ic s i te s mos t l i ke ly r ep re sen ted b o th c o l lec t ion f r om n a tu ra l b one a ccumu la t ions a nd t h er e su l ts o fh un t ing .

T he l a be l " p ro jec t i le p o in t " h a s b een d e r ived f r om t h e m o rpho logy o ft h ea r t if ac tt h a tl i nk si n to t h ew ho le p a rad igm " hun te r , " w ho i sc ons ide red t o b e m a le ( Kehoe 1 992 :28 ) . P e rhaps t h e se i t em s a c tua l ly h ad mu l t ip le f unc t ions , w e re c ons ide red t h e f o ca l p o in t o f t h e t o o l k i t b ecause o f t h e i r mu l t ipurpose n a tu re , a nd w e re f r equen t ly u sed a s t oo ls o f w omen ( J ohnson 1 991 :227 ; K ehoe 1 992 :28 ) . T ypo log ica l t e rm s a r ed e sc r ip t ive c a tego r ie s o n ly , a nd h ave n o n ece s sa ry r e la t ion t ot o o l f unc t ion ( McBrea r ty a nd Mon iz 1 991 :75 ; s e e a l so Ode l l 1 981) . E thnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f mode rn p eop le w ho u se s t one t oo ls h ave d emons t ra ted t ha t t he m ake r s ' f unc t iona l t oo l c a tego r ie s s e ldom m a tch t h e t ypo log ica l c a tego r ie s o f a r chaeo log is ts ( s ee McBrea r ty a nd Mon iz 1 991 :75 f o r r e fe rence s ; s ee a l so O de l l 1 981 :323 a nd h i s d i scu ss ion r e la t ing t ot h el a ck o fc o r re spondence b e tween t h e f o rm a nd f unc t ion o f s t one t oo ls a mong n ume rous e t hnog raph ic g roups ) . I ti se v iden tt h a tt h e a s sump t ions t h a t f l u ted p o in t sw e re u sed a sw eapons t ok i l lb ig g ame , a nd t h a t t h e P a leo ind ian t oo l k i t r e f lec t s af o cu s o n h un t ing , n eed t o b e r eeva lua ted i n t e rms o f e xpe r imen ta t ion a nd u se -wea r a na ly s is .

D u r ing t he 1 970 s a nd 1 980 s , t a phonom ic a nd a c tua l is t ic s t ud ies b ecame c o mmon t o d e te rm ine p oss ib le f a c to r s r e spons ib le f o rb one a ccumu la t ions i ne a r ly h om in id s i te s i n t h e O ld Wo r ld ( e .g . , B inf o rd 1 981 ; B lumensch ine 1 986 ; B ra in 1 981 ; B unn 1 986 ; B unn e ta l . 1 988 ; H i l l 1 984 ) . N o t 4 6

p a t te rn s s uch a sc a ta s t roph ic a ge p rof i le sa nd a u tumn d ea th s , w h ich c ha rac te r ized F i she r 's b u tche red a s semb lage s , a r e i n d ica to r se xc lu s ive ly o fa c t ive h un t ing ( s ee S of f e r 1 993 a nd d i scuss ion a bove ) . Mo reove r , c r i te r ia u sed t o d e l inea te b e tween b u tche red a nd n on -bu tche red s amp le s , s uch a s c u t ma rk s a nd p a t te rns o f b one d i s t r ibu t ion , a r e c e r ta in ly n o t e n t i re ly e xac t , f oo lp roof , a nd u nque s t ionab le i n d ica to r s .

u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly h ave s im i la r s t ud ie s b egun t od ea l w i th t h is i s sue w i th r ega rd t oN ew Wo r ld l a te P le is tocene s i te s ( e .g . , C a r l son a nd S tee le 1 992 ; F i she r 1 987 ;F i she r 1 992 ; G . H aynes 1 991 ; T odd 1 987 ; T odd a nd F r ison 1 986 ) . T he e a r l ie s t o f t h e se t aphonom ic s t ud ie s t e nded t o f o cus o n e a s te rn P a leo ind ian s i te s , i n w h ich n o d i rec t a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e f a una l r ema ins a nd s t one t oo ls w a s e v iden t . T aphonom ic s t ud ie s w e re a nd , s t i l l i ns ome c a se s , a r e o f ten c ons ide red u nnecessa ry a t s i tes t h a t d emons t ra te a n a ppa ren t ly c l ea r a nd o bv ious a s soc ia t ion b e tween b one r ema ins a nd s t one t o o ls , b ecause i ti si mmed ia te ly a s sumed t h a t a l l t h ef a una lr ema ins a r et h ep roduc to f ac u l tu ra l e ven t ( i .e . , h un t ing ) . A s H ofman a nd I ngba r ( 1988 :343 ) n o ted , m any o ft h ea n ima lr ema ins r epo r ted f r om F o lsom s i te sh ave n o tb een d e sc r ibed w i th e nough d e ta i lt oa low a s se s smen to f t h e i r c u l tu ra l u se o r mod if ica t ion , b ecau se i tw a s a s sumed t h ey h ad a l l b een t h e p roduc t o fh un t ing . T h is s i tua t ion i s s omewha t t r ue f o r s eve ra l C lov is m ammo th s i te s a s w e l l ( e .g . , H au ry e ta l . 1 959 ) . J ohnson a nd H o l l iday ( 1997 ) h ave r ecen t ly d emons t ra ted t he i mpo r tance o f c onduc t ing t a phonom ic a na lys is o f f auna l c o l lec t ions o b ta ined f r om e a r l ie re xcava t ions o fP a leo ind ian s i te s( s ee A ppend ix A ) .

Mo re r ecen t ly , J ohn F ishe r ( 1992 ) a t temp ted t o s eek d i agnos t ic a t t r ibu te s a nd p a t te rns i n t h e L amb S p r ing l a te P l e is tocene b one a s semb lage t h a t w ou ld d i s t ingu ish r e l iab ly b e tween h uman a c t iv i t ie s a nd n onhuman p rocesse s a nd a gen t s . H e u sed e xpe r imen ta l a nd a c tua l is t ic r e sea rch o n e l ephan t b u tche r ing i n t h e I t u r i f o re s t o f Z a i re , b u t h i s c onc lus ions w e re amb iguous . Human o r n onhuman p rocesses c ou ld h ave b een r e spons ib le f o r t h e b one a s semb lage . Many i n te rp re ta t ions o f P a leo ind ian h un t ing , e spec ia l ly o f b i son , h ave r e l ied h eav i ly u pon o ra r e d rawn d i rec t ly f r om e t hnog raph ic o r e thnoh is to r ic c ases a nd i n te rp re ta t ions d eve loped f r om L a te P reh is to r ic P la ins k i l l s i tes ( Todd 1 987 :252 ) . I ti sa s sumed t h a tt h er o le o fP a leo ind ian k i l l s i te s w a s f unc t iona l ly i d en t ica l t ot h a t o fl a te r d ocumen ted No r th Ame r ican P la ins b i son h un t ing g roups , i n w h ich f ood p roce ss ing a nd s t o rage w e re i mpo r tan t c omponen t s ( e .g . , F r ison 1 978 ; Whea t 1 972 ) . H oweve r , i n a d e ta i led t a phonom ic a na lys is o fN ew Wo r ld k i l l -bu tche ry s i te s , T odd ( 1987 ) d emons t ra ted t ha t t h ese i n te rp re ta t ions w e re , i n a c tua l i ty , v e ry q ue s t ionab le . T he P a leo ind ian d a ta d id n o t c onfo rm t ot h e se L a te P reh is to r ic mode ls ( Todd 1 987 :228 ) . H ea r gued t h a tb i son b one f r om t h eH o rne r a nd J one s -M i l le r P a leo ind ian s i te s i nd ica ted t h a t h uman a c t iv i ty h ad b een a l im i ted c omponen ti nt h ec r ea t ion o fp a t te rns w i th in t h eb one b eds . T he se b one b ed s d id n o t s how a ny s i gns o fi n tens ive p rocess ing o f m ea t c a rca sse s a s d i d L a te P reh is to r ic o ne s ; t h a t i s , N o r the rn P la ins L a te P reh is to r ic b one b eds w e re c ha rac te r ized b y ag rea te r d eg ree o f s egmen ta t ion a nd d i smembe rmen t o f a na tom ica l u n i t s , whe rea s P a leo ind ian b one b eds w e re c ha rac te r ized b y t h e d e le t ion o f c omp le te l imb u n i t s ( Todd 1 987 :259 ) . T odd ( 1987 ) c onc luded t h a t t h e P a leo ind ian g oa l w a s n o t s t o rage , a s w i th L a te P reh is to r ic h un te rs ; i n s tead , t h e P a leo ind ian g oa l a ppea red t o b e c once rned w i th f ood p rocu remen ta nd p roce s s ing o fm ea t f o r r e la t ive ly s ho r t p e r iods o f t ime . T he i mp l ica t ion o f t h is s t udy , t h en , i st h a t L a te P reh is to r ic P la ins k i l l a nd h un t ing p a t te rns c anno t b e u sed a s c omp le te a nd e xac t i n te rp re t ive a na logue sf o rP a leo ind ian p a t te rn s .

G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 :263 ) , i n at a phonom ic e xam ina t ion o f t h e f o s s i lr e co rd b a sed o n a c tua l i s t ic s t ud ie s , c onc luded t h a t mos t N o r th Ame r ican mammo th " k i l l " s i te s f a i led t oy i e ld u nequ ivoca l p roof t h a t h umans h ad s l a in p robosc ideans b efo re p rocess ing t h e c a rca sse s . H e a rgued t h a t C lov is s amp le s w e re mos t s im i la r t o m ode rn n on -cu l tu ra l b one a s semb lage s , a nd d id n o t l ook l i ke e thnog raph ica l ly b u tche red s amp les o f e l ephan ts ( G . H aynes 1 991 :312 ) . I n s tead , h e s ugges ted t ha t c os t s i nvo lved i n h un t ing p robosc ideans n o rma l ly h ad b een f a r t o o g rea t f o r s uch a n e conom ic a c t iv i ty t o h ave b een r ou t ine i n P le is tocene /Ho locene e pochs ( G . H aynes 1 991 :314 ) . H oweve r , d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene , w hen p robosc ideans w e re u nde r g rea t e nv i ronmen ta l s t re s s , t h e i r a ppea l a sp rey i n c rea sed .O n ly a f te rh umans h ad f o und t h is r e sou rce , w h ich w a s b ecom ing v u lne rab le d ue t oe nv i ronmen ta l s t re s s , d id t h ey o ppo r tun is t ica l ly s p read t h e i r w o r ldw ide r ange i n to n o r the rn r e g ions ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :284 ) .T hus h ea r gued t h a t l a rge C lov is mammo th a ssemb lages w e re a c tua l ly t he r ema in so fd i e -of f se xp lo i ted b yp eop le w ho h ad m ade f l u ted p o in ts ; t h a t i s , t he m ammo th s w e re e i the r d ead o r d y ing w hen e ncoun te red ( G . H ayne s 1 99 1 :314 ) . L a te P le is tocene h un te r -ga the re rs w e re n o t mammo th s pec ia l is t s w ho h ad c aused t h e d i sappea rance o f m ammo th s b ecause o f t he ir s upe r io r i ty a sb ig g ame h un te r s ,b u tr a the rt h ey h ad e xp lo i ted t h e m a s s ive d i e -of f s o fe nv i ronmen ta l ly s t re ssed m ammo th s ( G . H ayne s 1 991 :284 ) . Wh i le h i s c onc lus ions a r e mo re d e sc r ip t ive a nd s pe cu la t ive t h an a ny th ing e l se , a nd h i s mode l i mp l ie st h a tP a leo ind ian p opu la t ion sc ou ld n o th ave a c tua l ly c oped e conom ica l ly w i th h un t ing mammo th , H ayne s ' t a phonom ic s t ud ie sr a ise s o me i n te re s t ing q ue s t ions .

I nt h ep a s t , t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween a r t if ac t s a nd b one s w a s c ons ide red s uff ic ien t p roof o fh un t ing a nd b u tche r ing . N ow t h e re i sa n i n c rea s ing a wa rene s s o f t h e n eed f o r d e ta i led s t udy o f b one b eds b efo re r e l iab le s t a temen t s a bou t p a s t h un t ing , b u tche r ing , a nd e co logy o fp rey c an b em ade ( Todd 1 987 :230 ) . H oweve r , a sT odd ( 1987 )n o ted , i ti sa mb iguou s a nd d i f f icu l t t od ef ine w ha t c on s t i tu tes e v idence o fh uman a c t ion w i th r ega rd t oP a leo ind ian b one b eds . Mo re a c tua l is t ic r e sea rch i sn eeded t oh e lp d e te rm ine mo re c onf iden t ly w ha t f a una l r ema ins a r e t h e r e su l t o f h uman a c t iv i ty . A s w e l l , a r chaeo log is t s mu s t r ea l ize t h a t ap laus ib le a l te rna t ive t o a c t ive p reda t ion i st h e s c aveng ing o fa n ima ls t h a t d i ed f r om n a tu ra l c ause s s uch a ss t a rva t ion ; m o reove r , s c aveng ing a nd p reda t ion n eed n o t b e v iewed a s mu tua l ly e xc lus ive s t ra teg ie s( F ishe r 1 992 :52 ) .

I na no the rt a phonom ic s t udy ,D an ie lF i she r( 1987 )c ompa red t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ex , a ge , a nd s e a son o fd ea th w i th in a nd b e tween s amp les o fs o -ca l led b u tche red a nd n on -bu tche red m a s todon i nd iv idua ls t oe va lua te t h e r e la t ive i n c idence o f h un t ing a nd s caveng ing a ssoc ia ted w i th P a leo ind ian u t i l iza t ion o f mas todon t s i n t h e G rea t L ake s r eg ion d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene . B ecause t h e p a t te rns b e tween t he b u tche red a nd n on -bu tche red s amp le s w e re d i f f e ren t , h e a r gued t h a t t h is d i f fe rence c ons t i tu ted s t rong s uppo r t f o r p rocu remen t o f a l l b u tche red c a rca sse s b y h un t ing ( F ishe r 1 987 :359 ) . H oweve r , i ti s q ues t ionab le whe the r c e r ta in 4 7

5 . 3 .3 Adequa te S amp le o fP a leo ind ian S i tes

t h e re fo re n o t e xpec t s im i la r t ype s o fs i te s a nd r ema ins o ra s im i la rd eg re eo fv i s ib i l i ty f o rt he P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . S pec i f ica l ly f o rC lov is k i l l s i te s , Me l tze r( 1993a :296 ) e ven s ugge s ted t h a t p e rhap s t he p rob lem w i th p re se rva t ion a nd d e tec t ion o f t he se e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s w a s n o t a s s eve re a sm o s tb e l ieved .H ea r gued t h a tt h e re w e re t h ou sand s o fn on -a rchaeo log ica l t e rm ina l P le is tocene f o s s i ll o ca t ion s o f e x t inc t mega f auna t h roughou t No r th Ame r ica i na r ea sw he re C lov is a r t if ac t sh ave b een f ound , a nd o ne w ou ld e xpe c tm o re d i rec t a s soc ia t ions i fC lov is g roups a nd e x t inc t m ega f auna h ad b een c ha rac te r ized b y ap reda to r -p rey r e la t ionsh ip ( Me l tze r 1 993a :296 ) . T hus i t may b e p oss ib le t h a t a r chaeo log is t s a r e n o t f i nd ing t h e C lov is k i l l s i te s b ecause t h ey a r e j u s t n o t t h e re , n o t b ecau se o fp r e se rva t ion f a c to r s ( Me l tze r 1 993a :296 ) .

A ma jo r a s sump t ion s us ta in ing t h e b i g g ame h un t ing m ode l i st h eb e l ie ft h a tt h e P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i sa n a dequa te r ep re sen ta t ive s amp le f r om w h ich g ene ra l iza t ions a nd i n te rp re ta t ions a bou t P a leo ind ian l i f eways c an b e d e r ived ( e .g . , H e s te r a nd G rady 1 977 ) . T he re i s af a i lu re t o r e a l ize t h a tt h eb i gg ame h un t ing mode l w a s a nd i sb a sed o n o n ly a f ew s i te s , p r ima r i ly f r om t h e H igh P la ins a nd d om ina ted b y k i l l a nd b u tche ry l o ca l i t ie s . S tud ies b a sed o n t h e r e la t ive ly f ew P a leo ind ian s i tes a nd s pa r se d a ta h ave o f ten t e nded t o r e su l t i n v e ry b road , b a s ic , a nd s imp le i n te rp re ta t ions . G ene ra l iza t ions b a sed o n e v idence f r om a v e ry f ew P a leo ind ian s i tes a r e made a nd t h en a pp l ied t o P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions i n ap a r t icu la r r eg ion o ra c ros s t h e e n t i re N o r th Ame r ican c on t inen tr ega rd le s s o fe nv i ronmen ta l d i f f e rence s ( e .g . ,F r ison 1 982a , 1 987 , 1 990a , 1 990b ; H ayne s 1 980 , 1 982 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) . F o r e xamp le , F r ison 's ( 1976 , 1 982a , 1 987 :210 ) b e l ief i n t h e u se o f f r ozen m ea t c a ches a s aP a leo ind ian w in te r s u rv iva l s t ra tegy w a s o r ig ina l ly b a sed o n t h e p re sence o f af ew m ammo th b one p i le s a tt h e C o lby s i te a nd o n e thnog raph ic a na logy w i th I nu i tp rac t ice .T h i si n te rp re ta t ion w a st h en " app l ied " t oo t he r N o r the rn P la in s P a leo ind ian s i te s ; h oweve r , t h ed a ta a r e f a r f r om s ubs tan t ia l a nd c onc lus ive . R ecen t ly , s ome a r chaeo log is t s a r e b eg inn ing e xp l ic i t ly t o r ecogn ize t h is p rob lem o f s pa r se P a leo ind ian d a ta , o f ten s t a t ing t h a t t h e d a ta m ay s uppo r tt h e i r mode ls b u td on o tn ece s sa r i ly p rov ide ar i go rou st e s to ft h em ( e .g . ,B amf o r th 1 988 ; G re ise r 1 985 ) .

A s G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 :314 ) ma in ta ined , t h e s i te s t h a t d i d e n te rt h e f o ss i lr e co rd mus tb er ega rded a sb i a sed s amp le s o f t h et y pe s o fd e c is ions a nd t h er ange o fb ehav iou r o fn o to n ly C lov is p eop le s b u t a l l P a leo ind ian a nd P l a ins p opu la t ion s . H oweve r , t h is f a c to r i sr a re ly , i fe ve r , t a ken s e r iou s ly i n to c ons ide ra t ion ; t h e r e su l t i s a n o ve rempha s is o n h un t ing , k i l l ing , a nd s ea sona l i ty s t ud ies i n P la ins a nd P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s ( e .g . , D av is a nd W i lson 1 978 ; F r i son 1 978 , 1 991a ; R ehe r a nd F r ison 1 980 ) . L anda ls ( 1990 :123 ) a r gued t h a t mos t a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions t e nded t of o cu s o n l a rge c ommuna l b i son k i l l s i te s , w h i le e v idence f o r s ma l l -sca le h un t ing e i the r w as n o t r ecogn ized o r w a s c ons ide red i re levan t , a nd t h u s o f ten w a s n o tr epo r ted . S he s pe c if ica l ly t a rge ted F r ison 's o ve rempha s is o n l a rge sca le c ommuna l h un t ing s t ra teg ies , a nd h i s d ownp lay ing o f h i s tor ic , e t hnog raph ic , a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r s ma l l sca le h un t ing s t ra teg ie s s uch a s r unn ing a n ima ls i n to w a te r , s nowd r if ts , a nd o n to i c e ( Landa ls 1 990 :147 ) . D e sp i te F r ison 's ( 1991a :155 ) s t a temen t t h a t s ma l l g roup a nd i n d iv idua l h un t ing p robab ly r e su l ted i nm o re a n ima l s k i l led t h an t h e mo re s pec tacu la r c ommuna l k i l ls ( c o r ra ls , j ump s , t r aps ) , h e a nd o t he r a r chaeo log is t s s t i l l t e nd t of o cus o n t h e mo re h igh ly v i s ib le c ommuna l k i l ls w i th t h e i r t r emendou s b one b ed s . T h is f o cus i s mos t l i ke ly d ue t ot h e u nde r ly ing b e l ief t h a t t h e l a rge r t h e s i te , t h e g rea te r t h e a moun t o fd a ta a va i lab le f o r i n te rp re ta t ion , a nd t hus t h e g r ea te r i mpo r tance o ft h e s i te . T h is b e l ief i st r ue t o s ome e x ten t a nd t h e e a r ly w o rk o fF r ison a nd o t he r s i nd ocumen t ing t h e se b one b ed s p rov ided much -needed i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing s e a sona l i ty a nd b u tche r ing p rac t ices . H oweve r , t h e c on t inua l e mpha s is o n l a rge s i te s a nd d i s rega rd ing o f s ma l l s i t es h a s n o d oub t r e su l ted i n as kewed p i c tu re o fp reh is to r ic s ub s is tence , a nd , mo reove r , p e rpe tua te s t h e b e l ief t h a t c ommuna l , b i g g ame h un t ing w a sc en t ra l t oP la ins l i f eways .

T h is i s sue o fa dequa te ,r ep re sen ta t ive s amp l ing t o uche su pon t h e w ho le a spec t o f p re se rva t ion . Wh i le t h e re h ave b een n ume rou s s u r f a ce f i nd s o fe a r ly P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s a c ros s t h ec on t inen t , t h e re e s sen t ia l ly a r er e la t ive ly f ew w e l l p r e se rved a nd u nd is tu rbed e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s . Mo reove r , a s A lbane se ( 1977 :28 ) s t re ssed , t h e s amp le o fP a leo ind ian s i te s a va i lab le t ot h e a r chaeo log is t m ay n o t n ece s sa r i ly b e r e p re sen ta t ive o ft h e t ype s o fs i te s m o s t c ommon ly u t i l ized b yP a leo ind ians i nt h ep a s t ,b u ti n s tead r e p re sen t st ho se m os t e a s i ly p r ese rved .I to f ten t a ke s au n ique s e quence o fg eo log ic e ven t s t op re se rve as i te ; i ns imp le s t t e rm s , a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a r e p re se rved i na r ea s i nw h ich s ed imen t s a ccumu la te , a nd a r e d es t royed i n a r ea s w he re s ed imen t i s r emoved ( A lbane se 1 977 :28 ) . F u r the rmo re , t h e re a r e p oss ib i l i t ie s f o r p re se rva t ion o r d e s t ruc t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls b y n a tu ra l f o rce s i nP l e is tocene e nv i ronmen t s f o r wh ich t h e re a r e n o a na logue s a va i lab le t o day ( D i l lehay 1 989 :32 ) . O n ly a f te r t h e re w a se x tens ive n a tu ra l a nd h uman d i s tu rbance s o f t h el a nd s u r f ace d i dt h e d i scove ry o fs i te s o fe a r ly " b ig g ame h un te r s " i n c lud ing F o lsom , C lov is , H e l l G ap , a nd o t he r s o ccu r (Wede l 1 982b :142 ) . T h is s i tua t ion s ugges ted t o Wede l ( 1982b :142 ) t h a t t he re h ad b een d ras t ic c hange s i n e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ings s i nce P a leo ind ian t ime s wh ich h ad p os s ib ly c on t r ibu ted t ot h e " nega t ive " r e su l t s o fa r chaeo logy i nt h ep a s ty ea r s .

T h is f ocus o n l a rge r s i tes i s e spec ia l ly a ppa ren t i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s . H ofman a nd I ngba r ( 1 988 :337 )p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e F o lsom o ccupa t ion o ft h e N o r thwe s te rn P l a ins w a s b e s t k nown p r ima r i ly t h rough r epo r t s d e sc r ib ing c amp a nd k i l l /bu tche r ing l o ca l i t ie s . I n a c tua l i ty , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c omp le te v a r ie ty o f F o lsom s i te s h a s n o t b een v e ry w e l l d ocumen ted h a sr e su l ted i n av i ew o fF o l som p e r iod a c t iv i ty t h a ti sh eav i ly s kewed a nd n o tr ef le c t ive o ft h et r ue d i ve r s i ty o fF o lsom s i te s e t t ings ( Hofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 :338 -339 ) . Wh i le i ti sa s sumed t h a t l im i ted a c t iv i ty s i t e s o fF o lsom a ge a r e p re sen t o n t h e N o r thwes te rn P la ins , d ocumen ta t ion o f t h e se s i te si se x t reme ly r a re ( Hofman a nd I n gba r 1 988 :339 ) . Sma l l F o l som s i te s , e i the r t h o se o n t h es u r f a ce o rt h o se w i th f ew s pec imens , a r e g ene ra l ly c ons ide red o f s e conda ry i mpo r tance a nd r a re ly r epo r ted , wh i le mu l t i componen ts i te s

P e rhaps ah igh n umbe r o fk i l l s i te sh ave b een p re se rved a nd s ubsequen t ly e xpo sed b ecause o ft h e i rl o ca t ion i no rc l o se t o r i ve r c hanne ls , b og s ,p ond s , a nd a r royo s , w he rea sc amp s i te s a nd o t he ra c t iv i ty s i te sl o ca ted f a r the rf r om t h e se f e a tu re s o n f l a t o pen a r ea s o rt e r race s a r e s t i l l c ove red b y many m e t re s o fd epos i t s , o rf o r t h a t ma t te r , w e re e xposed t ow ea the r ing a nd mo re d e s t ruc t ive f a c to r sa nd e nv i ronmen t su nf avou rab le f o rp re se rva t ion . Mo reove r , i ti sa l so p os s ib le t h a tt h en a tu re o fP a leo ind ian a c t iv i t ie sw a sv e ry d i f f e ren tf r om t ha to fl a te r a nd mo re r e cen t n a t ive p opu la t ions . A rchaeo log is t s s hou ld 4 8

1 991a :139 -143 ) . F r ison ( 1993 :241) e ven i mp l ied t h a t t h e n a tu re o f h un t ing c ou ld n o t b e a na lyzed s o le ly b y o b se rva t ion o n t h ep a r t o ft h e a r chaeo log is t , b u th ad t oa l so i nvo lve p a r t ic ipa t ion a nd a cqu is i t ion o f s ome a pp rec iab le mea su re o f e xpe r t ise i n o rde r t o o b ta in a mo re c omp le te u nde r s tand ing o fw eapon ry a nd p reh is to r ic h un t ing . Wh i le t h is p rac t ica l e xpe r ience a nd e xpe r t ise w ou ld b e e x t reme ly v a luab le f o r d eve lop ing mode ls o f h uman b ehav iou r a nd h un t ing , t h e se t ype s o f c l a im s t e nd t o e xc lude f r om t h e d eba te a l l t hose a cadem ic r e sea rche rs w ho h ave n o t h ad d i rec te xpe r ience w i th h un t ing .

w i th o ccu r rence so fF o l som a r t if ac t sa r eu sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t o s caveng ing b y p os t -Fo lsom p eop le ( s ee d i scuss ion i n H ofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 ) . I n d i scu s s ing t h e A dobe s i te i n e a s te rn Wyom ing , aF o lsom h un t ing o ve r look s i te w i th a s ma l l s u rf ace a s semb lage , H ofman a nd I ngba r ( 1988 :341) a r gued t h a t a r chaeo log is t s mus t b eg in t o d ocumen t t h e se s ma l l t empo ra ry o r l im i ted a c t iv i ty s i tes t o g a in a b e t te r a pp rec ia t ion f o r t he d ive r s i ty o fF o lsom p e r iod a c t iv i t ie s o n t he Nor thwe s te rn P la ins . S im i la r ly , K ornfe ld ( 1988 ) d i scussed t h e R ocky F oo lsm s i te , w h ich w a s c ha rac te r ized b y as ma l l F o lsom a s semb lage , a nd i t s i mp l ica t ions f o r F o lsom c u l tu ra ld ynam ics . H ea r gued t h a t ad i f f e ren tp i c tu re o f F o lsom l i f eways w ou ld eme rge w i th t h e d ocumen ta t ion a nd a na ly s i s o f o the r s uch s ma l l s i te s , t ha t i s , ap i c tu re d i f fe ren t f r om t ha t o f t he b i son -dependen t s ubs is tence s t ra tegy v i ew ( e .g . , A genb road 1 978 ;B amfo r th 1 985 ; F r ison 1 978 ; J ohnson 1 978 ; J udge 1 973 ; Whea t 1 972 ) t h a t h a s d om ina ted P a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ions s i nce t h e F o lsom d i scove ry i n1 926 ( Ko rnf e ld 1 988 :216 ) .

F r ison ( 1991a :140 -141) s t a ted t h a t " mos t a n ima l s s t and l i t t le c hance w hen p u r sued b y a n a ccomp l ished h un te r . .. t he u l t ima te f a te o ft h e l a rge m amma ls i sn eve r i nd oub t w hen p u r sued b y h uman p reda to r s . " Wh i le h un t ing w a s n o d oub t h a rd w o rk a tt ime s a nd , a si lu s t ra ted f o r t h e V a l ley B isa o f Z amb ia ( Ma rk s 1 976 ) a nd t h eK u t ch in a nd K oyukon p eop le s o fA la ska ( Ne lson 1 973 , 1 983 ) , r e qu i red h igh ly d eve loped a nd s pec if ic s k i l ls i n c lud ing c ons ide rab le a nd d e ta i led k now ledge o f t h e t e r r i to ry a nd a n ima l b ehav iou r a nd p rope r ly d es igned e qu ipmen t a nd e xpe r t ise i n u s ing t h a t e qu ipmen t , a tt ime s i tw a s p robab ly s omewha t u nexc i t ing a nd r ou t ine . F o r m any h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s , h un t ing w a s l i ke ly v e ry much d i f fe ren t f r om t h e w e s te rn i mage o f b ig g ame t r ophy h un t ing t ha t f r equen t ly p e rmea tes a n th ropo log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ions . I nf a c t , a s s ugges ted b y n ume rous e thnog raph ic a nd p resen t d ay g roups , h un te r s f r equen t ly h ave a t t i tudes o f r eve rence , g ra t i tude , a nd r e spec t f o r t h e a n ima ls t h ey c ap tu re . F o r e xamp le , a mong t h e M is ta ss in i C ree , h un te r s h ad t os how r e spe c t t og ame a n ima l s a nd a vo id o f f end ing t h em , i no rde r t oe nsu re t h e c on t inued a ppea rance o f g ame . T hey s howed t h is r e spec tb y f o l low ing aw ho le s e r ie s o ft a boos , r u le s , a nd r i tua ls w i th r e spec t t o p re -hun t p repa ra t ions , t h e a c tua l h un t ing , t h e a nnounc ing a nd d i sp lay ing o f t h e k i l l , t h e b u tche r ing o f t h e a n ima l , t h e e a t ing o f t h e p roduc t s , a nd l a s t ly , t h e d i sposa l o ft h e b one s ( Tanne r 1 979 :108 181) . I n a no the rc a se i lus t ra t ing r e spec t f o ra n ima ls , w hen B lack foo t i nd iv idua ls c augh t a n e ag le , ap i ece o fp emm ican w ou ld b e p laced i ni t s m ou th s o t h a t i t s s p i r i t w ou ld t e l l o t he r e ag le s t h a t p eop le w e re f e ed ing i ta nd t r ea t ing i tw e l l ( G r inne l l 1 962 :240 ) . N e l son ( 1983 ) a l so p rov ided n ume rou s e xamp le s o ft h e many r u le s a nd t a boos t h eK oyukon p eop le so fA la ska f o l lowed t o s how r e spec t t o k i l led a n ima ls a nd h a rve s ted p l an t s .

I ne s sence ,b ecause t h eb i son u t i l iza t ion s y s tem o ve r shadow s a l l o the rc u l tu ra lp roce s se sa r chaeo log ica l ly , i n te rp re ta t ion i s e ven mo re b i a sed t owa rd l a rge g ame p rocu remen t( Ko rnf e ld 1 988 :212 ) . P a leo ind ian b i son a s w e l l a s mammo th " k i l l" s i te s a r e m o re v i s ib le a nd s pec tacu la r , a nd c ons ide red mo re i mpor tan t f o r d ocumen ta t ion a nd a na lyses . F ur the r c on t r ibu t ing t o t h is v iew i s t h e f a c t t h a t t he a c tua l b yp roduc t s o fh un t ing a r e b e t te r p re se rved a nd t hus r e ce ive g rea te r a t ten t ion f r om a r chaeo log is t s a sc ompa red t op l an t g a the r ing a nd r e la ted a c t iv i t ie s ( s ee K eene 1 981 :188 f o r a s im i la r s t a temen t w i th r ega rd t oL a te A rcha ic G rea t L ake s a r chaeo logy ) . Mo reove r , f r equen t ly i n te rp re ta t ions r e la t ing t o h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions , a nd s pec if ica l ly P la ins h un te r -ga the re r s , a r e u nde r la in b y t h e i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion t h a t mea t w a s t h e i r mos t f avou red f o od , a nd t h a tt h eh ighe s t p res t ige w a s t hus c onfe r red o n t h e h un te r ( e .g . , F r ied l 1 975 :13 ; F r ison 1 978 ) . Howeve r , t h is a s sump t ion i st oo g ene ra l iz ing a nd d i s to r t ing . G r inne l l ( 1 962 :181) n o ted t h a t , t ot h eB lack f oo t , mea th ad b een t h eo n ly f o od t h ey c a red f o r , y e t h e a nd McC l in tock ( 1992 ) d e sc r ibed t h eg rea tv a r ie ty i n t he d ie t o f t h e B lackfoo t ( G r inne l l 1 962 :203 -207 ) , t h e n ume rou s c e remon ie s a nd p raye r s t h a th ad b een p e rfo rmed t oe nsu re g ood h a rve s t s o fb e r r ie s ( G r inne l l 1 962 :277 -278 ) , wh ich h ad b een a h igh ly d e s i red r e sou rce ( McC l in tock 1 992 :466 ) , a nd t h ei mpo r tance o fb e r r ie sa nd o t he rv ege tab le f oods i n c e remon ie s a nd g i f t e xchange ( McC l in tock 1 992 :367 ,4 08 ,4 67 ) .T he re i sc l ea r ly a na wa rene s st h a tp l an t f oods p robab ly p layed s o me r o le i n p reh is to r ic h un te rg a the re rd i e t s , b u tb ecause t h e re i s al a ck o fs o l id e mp i r ica l p roof f o r p l an t u se , a r chaeo log is t s t e nd t o n eg lec t a nd d i s rega rd t h e p os s ib i l i ty o f t h e u se o f t h e se f ood i t em s i n f avou r o f af o cus o n mo re v i s ib le h un t ing a c t iv i t ies . A s Me l tze r( 1 993a :298 )n o ted , f o rP a leo ind ian a r chaeo logy , t h e r ea l b ia s l i e s i n t he f a c t t ha t , t o d a te , t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd b ad ly u nde r -represen t s p lan t g a the r ing , a nd i s c ha rac te r ized b yh igh ly v i s ib le m ega f auna l k i l l s i te s .

Wh i le t he w e s te rn a n th ropo log ica l mode l h a s d ef ined " hun t ing " a s ap r ima r i ly ma le -dom ina ted e ven ti n vo lv ing t h e s ea rch a nd k i l l ing o f a n ima ls b y means o f m a te r ia l t e chno logy , r e cen t e thnograph ic s t ud ies h ave c l ea r ly i nd ica ted t ha t many h un te r -ga the re rs e x tended t he i r d ef in i t ion o f h un t ing w e l l b eyond t he p hy s ica l a c t o f s l augh te r ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :65 ) . I n a c tua l i ty , h un t ing i sa c ompos i te o fb ehav iou r s : p repa ra t ion o ft o o l s a nd w eapons , g a the r ing i n fo rma t ion , p lann ing , d i scuss ion , s p ir i tua l o bse rvance s , s ea rch ing , e ncoun te r ing , s t a lk ing , p u r su ing , b r ing ing d own , k i l l ing , p r ima ry a nd s e conda ry b u tche r ing , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd p roce s s ing ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :55 ; M i then 1 990 :111 ; Z ih lman 1 981 :105 ) . F o r e xamp le , a s N e lson ( 1973 ) d emons t ra ted f o r t h e A la skan K u tch in , h un t ing i nvo lve s m o re t h an j u s tt h ek i l l ing e ven t . I nf a c t , i tw a s o n ly a f te r a n a n ima l w a s k i l led , t h a t t h e " r ea l w o rk " ( i .e . , b u tche r ing , c ach ing , a nd t r anspor t ing ) b egan ( Ne lson 1 973 :98 ) . C ree h un te r s ( Tanne r 1 979 :109 ) t r ea ted k i l l ing a s as equence o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd a c yc l ica l p roce s s i n c lud ing

5 . 3 .4 C ommon V iew so f Hun t ing A rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions , i n c lud ing many o f t hose p e r ta in ing t oP a leo ind ian d a ta , t e nd t og l o r ify a nd p e rce ive h un t ing a s c ha l leng ing a nd a c onque s t o ve r n a tu re a nd a n ima l s w h ich i sn ea r ly a lway s s ucce s sfu l , w i th t h e f o cus f r equen t ly p l aced u pon t h en ece s sa ry b u te x t rao rd ina ry s k i l l s t h a t h un te r s , a s sumed t o b e e xc lus ive ly ma le s , n eeded i n o rde r t ob e s ucce s sfu l i nb r ing ing d own g ame ( e .g . , F r ison 4 9

t h e E u ro -Ame r ican mode l o f h un t ing , b roaden ing t he t r ad i t iona l d ef in i t ion o fh un t ing t oi n c lude aw ide r r a nge o f a c t iv i t ie s , b o th t e chn ica l a nd s ymbo l ic , o f ten i nw h ich t h e i n te rdependence o f m en a nd women w a s f undamen ta l ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :55 ,5 8 ) .

i n fo rma t ion g a the r ing , t he a c tua l k i l l ing e ven t , a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e mea t . I n p rac t ice , t h e p roce ss o f k i l l ing a n ima l s f o rt h e M is ta s s in i C ree h ad t ob e p re ceded , u sua l ly b y s eve ra l d ay s a nd s ome t ime s u p t o ay ea r o r mo re , b y t h e p roces s o f g a the r ing i n f o rma t ion a bou t t he p resence a nd a c t iv i t ies o f g ame a n ima ls ( Tanne r 1 979 :133 ) . S im i la r ly , Ma rks ( 1976 :114 -126 ) d emons t ra ted t ha t h un t ing f o r t h e V a l ley B isa o fZ amb ia w a s n o t o n ly as ubs is tence a c t iv i ty , b u t a l so as oc ia l s t ra tegy b y w h ich h un te r s c ompe ted f o r l e ade rsh ip p os i t ions a nd a n a c t ive p roce ss a nd i n teg ra t ive s ys tem i nvo lv ing g a the r ing i n fo rma t ion , s t a lk ing , k i l l ing , r e t r ieva l , b u tche r ing , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd c onsump t ion o f t h e mea t . Mo reove r , a t a ny p o in t i n t h is p roce ss , v a r ious e l emen t s w e re c ons ide red n ece ssa ry e i the r t o h un t w i th s ucces s o r t o p laca te a n ima l s p i r i t s , s uch a s p e rfo rm ing e l abo ra te r i tua ls , o b ta in ing a nd u s ing p owe rfu l m ag ics , c a l l ing o n a nce s t ra l s p i r i t s f o r a s s is tance , h onou r ing d u t ie s a nd o b l iga t ion s t o k in , a nd , f o r t h e h un te r a nd h i s k i n , e spec ia l ly h i s w ife , f o l low ing amu l t i tude o fr e s t r ic t ions i n b ehav iou r( s ee Ma rk s 1 976 ) .

Mo re s pec if ica l ly , i n ah un t ing -ga the r ing e conomy , w omen w ou ld b e i n t ima te ly i nvo lved i n a nd w ou ld p lay e s sen t ia l r o les i n t h e e n t i re h un t ing p roce s s ( e .g . , B rumbach a nd J a rvenpa 1 997 ) .F i r s t , w omen w ou ld a s s is ti nt h ep repa ra t ion o f t h e e qu ipmen t r equ i red f o r h un t ing b y l o ca t ing a nd t r anspo r t ing t h e n ece s sa ry r aw ma te r ia l t o make t h e i t em s , a nd e ven b y p a r t ic ipa t ing i n c e r ta in s t ages o f t h e a c tua l m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s , e spec ia l ly i ft h e se i t ems w e re t o o ls t h a t t h ey t h em se lve s w ou ld u se . S econd ly , w omen w ou ld m ake i mpo r tan t a nd v i ta l c on t r ibu t ions w i th r e ga rd t o g a the r ing i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e l o ca t ion a nd c ond i t ion o f g ame a n ima ls , i n fo rma t ion t h a t w ou ld b e c ruc ia l t o t h e p lann ing o f t h e h un t ing e ven t . A s n o ted a bove , w omen w ou ld a l so b e i n t ima te ly i nvo lved i n r i tua l o b se rvances n ece s sa ry t oe nsu re t h es ucce s s o ft h eh un t .T hey m ay a l so a t t ime s a s s is t i nt h e s ea rch ing , s t a lk ing , a nd p u rsu i t o fg ame , a nd e ven t h e a c tua l k i l l ing e ven t . I fi n vo lved i no rp re sen t a t t h e a c tua l k i l l , w omen w ou ld c onduc t p r ima ry b u tche r ing , a nd mo s t c e r ta in ly w ou ld b e i nvo lved i nb o th t r anspo r t ing t h e m ea t b ack t oc amp a nd t h e s econda ry b u tche r ing o ft h e a n ima l . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e mea ta nd o t he rp roduc t s f r om t h ek i l l w ou ld i n vo lve t h ep a r t ic ipa t ion o fw omen , e s pec ia l ly w i th r e ga rd t of u lf i l l ing s oc ia l a nd k in o b l iga t ions .F o l low ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e m ea t a nd n on -mea t i t em s , w omen w ou ld p l ay am a jo rr o le i np roce s s ing a nd p repa r ing t h em ea t a nd n on -mea t p roduc t s f o r c onsump t ion a nd u se . L a s t ly , o f c ou rse , w omen w ou ld b e i n t ima te ly i n vo lved i nd i s t r ibu t ing t h e se p roce s sed f o od a nd n on -food p roduc t s , a sw e l l a sb e ing i nvo lved i nt h e a c tua l c onsump t ion a nd u se o ft h e se i t em s . C lea r ly , i n ah un t ing -ga the r ing e conomy , e ven o ne t h a t e mpha s ize sh un t ing , w omen w ou ld p l ay e s sen t ia lr o le si nt h e s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie so ft h e i rg roup .

A s i lus t ra ted b y e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s ( e .g . , Ma rk s 1 976 , 1 982 ; N e lson 1 973 , 1 983 ) , i ti sa ppa ren t t h a t al a rge n umbe r o f f a c to rs h ad t ob e c ons ide red b y h un te r -ga the re r s w hen h un te rs d e c ided t oh un t . H un t ing d e c is ions w e re i nf luenced b yt h et ime o fd ay ,b yc once rn s a bou tt r anspo r t ing m ea tb ack t oc amp , b yt h en eed f o r f ood a nd o t he r a n ima l p roduc t s , b y t h e d e s ire t o f u lf i l l s oc ia l o b l iga t ions a nd r e aff i rm s oc ia l r e la t ions , o re ven b y s upe rna tu ra l c once rns , s i nce f o r many h un te r -ga the re r s t h e s p i r i tua l r ea lm w a s o f ten i n sepa rab le f r om t h en a tu ra lw o r ld ( s ee e spe c ia l ly N e lson 1 983 ) . Among t h e I nup ia to ft h eA la skan N o r th S lope s , a s among N o r the rn h un te r s i n g ene ra l , h un t ing w a s a nd i ss t i l l c ons ide red a s ac red a c t w h ich i nvo lved n ume rous r i tua ls a nd c o r rec t b ehav iou r s f o r s ucce ss ( s ee F ienup -R io rdan 1 990 ; T u rne r 1 990 ) . I tw a s t h e d u ty o f t he w if e r i tua l ly t o a t t rac t t h e a n ima ls ; m o reove r , t h e a n ima ls o n ly " gave t h emse lve s " t o t h e men w hose w ive s w e re g ene rous a nd s k i l lfu l . Women w e re t h us c l a s sed a sh un te r sb yI ü t ip iaq men ( s ee B odenho rn 1 990 :58 ) , a nd t h e i n te rdependence o f men a nd w omen i n b o th h un t ing r i tua ls a nd s u rv iva l w a s a cknow ledged a nd a pp rec ia ted ( Bodenho rn 1 990 :65 ) . S im i la r ly , o nt h eN o r the rn P la ins , h i s to r ic n a t ive g roups u sed I n i sk im s o rb uf f a lo s t one s i ne l abo ra te r i tua ls a nd c e remon ie sf o rt h ep u rpose o fc a l l ing t h e b uf f a lo ( s ee d i scuss ion i nR eeve s 1 993 ) . I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t h un t ing b i son f o r mo re r e cen t P l a ins s oc ie t ie s i nvo lved mo re t h an t h e s imp le a c t o f k i l l ing , b u t a l so r equ i red t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o fb o th m en a nd w omen i nr i tua l a c t iv i t ie s f o r s ucce s s .

R e la ted t ot h e c ommon v i ew o f h un t ing i sa n u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion , n o t o n ly e v iden t i n t h e P a leo ind ian b i g g ame h un t ing m ode l b u t i n m any o the r i n te rp re ta t ions o f p reh is to r ic h un te r -ga the re r a dap ta t ions , t ha t h un t ing a nd g a the r ing a r e m u tua l ly e xc lus ive e ven t s . T he a c t iv i t ie s o f h un t ing a nd g a the r ing a r e d iv ided i n to b lack a nd w h i te c a tego r ies , a nd a re a s s igned t o men a nd w omen , r e spec t ive ly ; h oweve r , t h is d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h e t wo a c t iv i t ie s m ay n o t n ece s sa r i ly b e r ef lec t ive o f t h e a c tua l s i tua t ion .I nf a c t , t h e a c t iv i t ie s o fh un t ing a nd g a the r ing e x is t mo re o n ac on t inuum a nd a r e c omposed o f mu l t ip le a nd i n te rconnec ted t a sk s a nd s t age s t h a t a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly s o d i cho tom ized a nd s epa ra te , b u t r a the r mo re a ccu ra te ly r ep re sen t ac on t inuum o f f ood a nd r e sou rce a cqu is i t ion s ha red b ym a le a nd f ema le ,y oung a nd o l d .

A l though s ymbo l ic a nd r i tua l a spec ts a ssoc ia ted w i th h un t ing m ay b e d i f f icu l t t o i den t ify i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , t h e re i ss ome e v idence s ugge s t ing t h ep oss ib i l i ty o f r i tua l a c t iv i ty a s soc ia ted w i th h un t ing a t al a te P a leo ind ian s i te i n C o lo rado . A t t he J one s -M i l le r b i son k i l l a nd p roce ss ing s i te i nC o lo rado , am in ia tu re H e l l G ap p o in t , a b one f l u te , a nd b u tche red c an id r ema ins w e re d i scove red i n a s soc ia t ion w i th ap os t mo ld t h a tw a sl o ca ted n ea r t h ec en t re o f t h e b u tche r ing a r ea . S tanfo rd ( 1978 , 1 979 ) i n te rp re ted t h e se r em a ins a sr ep re sen t ing a " med ic ine p os t " u sed b y a h un t c h ie fa nd i t em so f f e red f o r as ucce s sfu lh un t , s im i la rt o t ha t wh ich c ha rac te r ized t he o pe ra t ion o f h i s to r ic b i son p ounds . A l though u s ing t h is a na logy w i th h i s to r ic g roups t o i n te rp re t P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins d i rec t ly c ou ld b e s omewha tq ue s t ionab le , i ti sc l ea r t h a t e t hnog raph ic a nd e t hnoh i s to r ic s t ud ie s a r e mak ing a r chaeo log is t s r e cons ide r

T h is p rob lem o fd i cho tom iz ing h un t ing a nd g a the r ing e x is t s i np a r tb e cau se , f i r s t , a r chaeo log ica lb e l ief sa r ei n f luenced b y p re sen t -day v i ews o n h un t ing , a nd , s e cond , a s E s t ioko G r iff in a nd G r if f in ( 1981 :141) men t ioned , t h e d ef in i t ion o f h un t ing i s n o t c l ea r , a nd o f ten t h e re i s a n i l -def ined s epa ra t ion o fb i g g ame h un t ing f r om s ma l l g ame h un t ing . F o re xamp le , f ema le A bo r ig ine s i nw e s te rn A us t ra l ia h un ted k anga roo s a nd l i za rd s , b u t o f ten t h is a c t iv i ty w a sr e f e r red t o a s g a the r ing o r c o l lec t ing ( E s t ioko -G r if f in a nd G r if f in 1 98 1 :141 ) . A sE s t ioko -G r iff in a nd G r iff in ( 1981 :141) n o ted , c l a s s if ica t ion s e em s o n ly t o e nfo rce a r t if ic ia l b ounda r ie s . 5 0

b e t te r f o r c on t ro l a nd man ipu la t ion . P eop le a r e s e en a tt h e m e rcy o ft h e e nv i ronmen t o r l a rge r c u l tu ra l s y s tem , a nd n o c ons ide ra t ion i sg i ven t oi nd iv idua l a c to r sm ak ing d ec is ions , e ven t hough c hange s i n h uman s oc ie ty r e co rded i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd a r e u l t ima te ly t h e r e su l t o f p eop le m ak ing d ec is ions ( M i then 1 990 :1) .

Mo reove r , many s ma l l a n ima ls a nd b ig g ame a sw e l l c an b e t r apped o rs na red ( s ee N e lson 1 973 :109 , 16 f o ra c coun t s o f t h e A la skan K u tch in s na r ing moo se a nd b ea r i np re -con ta c t t ime s ) . T he se a c t iv i t ie s a r e r e la t ive ly d i s t inc t f r om h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s . T he d iv is ion b e tween h un t ing a nd g a the r ing f u r the r b lu rs when i ti s c ons ide red t h a t s ome n o r the rn h un te r s h ave b een k nown t oe a t m oo se o rc a r ibou s t omach c on ten t s , w h ich c ons is t o fp a r t ia l ly d ige s ted o r f e rmen ted p lan t r ema ins ( Hea rne 1 971 :316 -318 ; S chwege r e t a l . 1 982 :437 ) . T hus t he d i s t inc t ion b e tween a nd t h ea s soc ia t ion o fh un t ing w i th a n ima ls a nd g a the r ing w i th p l an t s d oe s n o t n eces sa r i ly h o ld t r ue i na l l c a se s . E ven t h e w ide ly a ccep ted l abe l " hun te r -ga the re r" i s s e t u p i n d icho tomous , o ppos i t iona l t e rms a nd , t hus , o bscu re s t h e c omp lemen ta ry a nd o ve r lapp ing n a tu re o ft h e a c t iv i t ie s p e rf o rmed b y t h e se s oc ie t ie s . T h roughou t t h is s t udy , r e fe rence i s m ade t o " hun te r -ga the re rs " a nd " hun t ing -ga the r ing "s oc ie t ie s ,b u ti ti s r e a l ized t h a t t h ese t e rms h ave u nde r ly ing c onno ta t ions t h a t a r es omewha td i s to r t ing . A rchaeo log is t sa nd a n th ropo log is t s mu s t r e cogn ize t ha t t h e se t e rm s a r e l o aded a nd t h a t an ew t e rm i s n eeded , o ne t ha t mo re a ccu ra te ly r e f lec t s t h e c on t inuum o fh un t ing a nd g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s .

I n s tead , a dap ta t ion i sb e t te r v iewed a s a n a c t ive , d ynam ic p roce s s o f b ecom ing r a the r t h an a s a n u l t ima te g oa l , e nd p roduc t , o r a ch ieved s t a t ic s t a te o fb e ing ( M i then 1 990 :8 ) . A sM i then ( 1 990 :8 )n o ted : I ti so fl i t t le v a lue t os uppose t h a t p eop le a r e e ngaged i n a c t iv i t ie s wh ich m ax im ise t h e i r i n c lus ive f i tne s s s i nce t h e w o r ld s imp ly d oe s n o ts t and s t i l l l o ng e nough f o rt h em t oa ch ieve t h i s .

5 . 3 .6 C u l tura l -H i s tor ica la nd F unc t iona lP er spec t ive s F rom t he v e ry b eg inn ings o f P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , t he c u l tu ra l -h is to r ica l empha s is o n p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd t h e i r t y po logy h a s r e su l ted i nt h e i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion t h a tp o in t s c ou ld d e f ine c u l tu re s , f o r e xamp le , t h e F o lsom c u l tu re , t h e C lov is c u l ture , a nd t he Goshen c u l tu re . A s F r ison ( 1986b :136 ) s im i la r ly n o ted , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r e la t ive ly s ma l l t o ta l a moun t o fe a r ly P a leo ind ian c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l h as c on t r ibu ted t o t h is o ve remphas is o n f o rmed t oo ls , p a r t icu la r ly p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd t h e i r t y po logy . W i th t h e N ew A rchaeo logy , t h e e mpha s is w a s s t i l l p l aced o n l i th ic t oo ls , b u t w i th a mo re f unc t iona l p e r spec t ive . W i th t h is n a r row f o cus o n l i th ic t o o ls , a r chaeo log is t s t e nd t od i scoun t t h e p oss ib i l i ty o f t h e u se o f t oo ls m ade o f b one o r o t he r o rgan ic m a te r ia l . Mo reove r , i ti so f ten i mp l ic i t ly a s sumed t h a t l i th ic t oo ls w e re u sed e xc lus ive ly f o r h un t ing a nd h un t ing re la ted a c t iv i t ie s ( e .g . , B onn ich sen e ta l . 1 992 :318 ; H ofman 1 992 ; I ngba r 1 992 ) . F r ison ( 1993 :241 -242 ) s t a ted t h a tt h es ma l le rs i ze o ft h eG oshen p ro jec t i le p o in ti nr e la t ion t oC lov is m ay h ave r e la ted t ot h e d em ise o ft h e m ammo th a nd c oncen t ra t ion o n b i son , p e rpe tua t ing b o th t h is e mpha s is o n p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd t h ee a r l ie rb e l ief t h a t p o in tt y pe a nd s i ze r e la te t ot h ek i nd o fp rey .

O bv ious ly , t h en , f o r h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions , b o th h un t ing a nd g a the r ing w e re a nd a r e a c t iv i t ie s c ha rac te r ized b y am u l t ip l ic i ty o fi n te rconnec ted a nd i n te r re la ted s t age s a nd t a sk s . I ti s e v iden t t ha t t h e v i ew t h a t d i cho tom ize s h un t ing a nd g a the r ing , a nd s ee s h un t ing s t r ic t ly i nt e rms o f t h e k i l l ing o f a n ima ls b y men ( e .g . , a s e xemp l if ied b y E h renbe rg 1 989 ) t e nds t o c r ea te i nv is ib le a nd n onp a r t ic ipa t ing w omen . I n s tead , b y p e rce iv ing a c t iv i t ie s s uch a s h un t ing a nd g a the r ing a s h av ing mu l t if ace ted a nd i n te rconnec ted n a tu re s ,b yv i ew ing a r t if ac t s , e spec ia l ly t h ose t h a t h ave b een t yp ica l ly a s soc ia ted s o le ly w i th t h e r ea lm o f h un t ing , i nr e la t ion t on on -hun t ing t a sk s a nd r e a lm s a sw e l l , a s K o rnf e ld ( 1988 :214 -216 ) h a s d one f o r as ma l l F o lsom a s semb lage f r om t h e N o r thwe s te rn P la ins , a nd b y v i ew ing h un t ing mo re a s ap roce ss , a s s ugges ted b y K o rnfe ld ( 1991 :3 ) , t h a t i nvo lves many p eop le , many d ec is ions , a nd many s t age s , o ne w i l l g a in s eve ra l a dvan tage s . F i r s t , t h e v i s ib i l i ty o f w omen a nd t he i r c on t r ibu t ions t op reh is to r ic l i feway s a nd c u l tu ra l p roce sse s w i l l b e i n c rea sed ( Ko rnf e ld 1 991 :3 ) . S econd , a r chaeo log is t sw i l lb ea b le t ov i sua l ize t h e d ynam ic i n te r re la t ions o f men , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren w ho w e re i n vo lved i nt he h un t . L a s t , a nd mo re i mpo r tan t , v i ew ing h un t ing a s ap roces s s ha red b y w omen , o l de r c h i ld ren , a nd men , b eg inn ing w i th p re -hun t p repa ra t ion ( whe the r r i tua l , t e chno log ica l , o r t h e g a the r ing o fi n f o rma t ion ) a nd e nd ing w i th t h e b u tche r ing a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e m ea t , n o d oub t w i l lp rov ide amo re r e a l is t ic r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h ep a s t .

C onnec ted a sw e l l t ot h is f o cus o n p o in ts i sa n e mpha s is a nd p reoccupa t ion w i th c h rono logy o f t h e se v a r ious " c u l tu re s " a nd c omp lexes ( s ee F r ison a nd h i s c once rn w i th c h rono log ica l p lacemen t o f t h e G oshen c omp lex i nF r ison 1 990a , 1 990b ) , a nd t h eg rea tr e l iance o n r a d ioca rbon d a te s a s a ccu ra te ly r ef le c t ing t h e i r a ge s ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 993 ) . T he re i s s t i l l t h e o cca s iona l a ccep tance a nd r e jec t ion o fr a d ioca rbon d a te s b a sed o n whe the r o rn o t t h ey f i tp reconce ived m ode ls a nd e xpec ta t ions ; f o r e xamp le , H ayne s ( 1993 :223 ) r e jec ted t wo r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e Wh ipp le s i te b ecause t h ey w e re n o t i n l i ne w i th o the r e a s te rn s i te s . T h is f o cu s o n c h rono logy a nd t ypo logy , a nd t h e b e l ief t h a t p o in ts d e l inea ted c u l tu re s ( e .g . , F r ison 1 978 , 1 990a , 1 990b , 1 991b ; H ayne s 1 993 ) a dds t o t he a l ready m echan is t ic a nd d ep eop led v i ew o f P a leo ind ian l i feway s . F o r i n s tance , b o th F r i son ( 1992 ) a nd B ened ic t( 1992 )u sed p ro jec t i le p o in t sa sa m a jo rb a s i s f o ri n te rp re t ing P l a ins a nd Moun ta in P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s a sd i s t inc t a nd s epa ra te c u l tu ra l g roup s . L i t t le , i f a ny , c ons ide ra t ion w as g iven t o t he p os s ib i l i ty t ha t f unc t iona l c once rns s uch a s t h e d i f fe ren t r e sou rce f o cus c ou ld h ave b een r e spons ib le f o r t h e d i f f e rence i np ro jec t i le p o in t sr a the rt h an o n ly s t y l is t ic a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s .

5 . 3 .5 G roup Adap ta t ion t ot he E nv ironmen t T he i nf luence o f New A rchaeo logy , t h e s ys tem s a pp roach , a nd i t sa s sump t ion t h a t g roups a dap t t ot h e i r e nv i ronmen t i s s t rong ly e v iden t i n P a leo ind ian s t ud ies a nd mode ls . " Adap ta t ion " h a s c ha rac te r is t ica l ly b een s een a s ap a r t icu la r s t a te t h a t c an r ead i ly b e a ch ieved ( M i then 1 990 :8 ) , w i th h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions a nd i nd iv idua ls a dap t ing t o c hange s i n t he ir e x te rna l e nv i ronmen t t o m a in ta in a h omeo s ta t ic s t a te . B u t a s Win te rha lde r ( 1980 :141) n o ted , a dap ta t ion i sa n e a s i ly m isused c oncep t . T h is e mpha s is o n g roup a dap ta t ion r e su l t s i n an a r row , m echan is t ic , a nd f unc t iona l v i ew o fp reh is to r ic l i f eways t h a tl a ck sp eop le a nd i nd iv idua ls . A s T i l ley ( 1990a :331 ) ma in ta ined , p os i t iv is t s c ience t u rns p eop le i n to o b je c t s a nd s ub jec t s , t h u s a l l t h e 5 1

t h e f oo th i l l -moun ta ins r eg ion i s ac onsequence o f t he a b sence o f l a rge a n ima l k i l l s i tes ) . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion w a s i n i t ia l ly a pp l ied t od i scove r ie s o ff l u ted p o in ts i nt h ee a s te rn p a r t o ft h ec on t inen t d e sp i te d i f fe rence s i nt h e n a tu re o ft h e t oo l a nd f auna l a ssemb lages . Howeve r , a s Me l tze r ( 1993a :304 ) n o ted , t h ep re sence o f as i ng le a t t r ibu te s u ch a s f l u t ing i s i n suf f ic ien t g round s t o c l a im t h a t a l l g roups p os se s s ing t h a t a t t r ibu te h ad b een d o ing t h e s ame t h ing . F lu ted p o in t s w e re o n ly o ne p a r t o f t h e t o o l k i t u sed i n s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s ; t h ey d o n o t t h e re fo re n ece ssa r i ly r ep re sen t , r ef lec t , o r c o r re la te w i th a t y pe o f l i f e s ty le . A r t ifac t t ype s a r e h eu r is t ic d ev ices d ev ised b y t he a r chaeo log is t s , a nd t h us c anno tb e e qua ted w i thou tq ue s t ion t oc u l tu ra l g roup s o rp a r t icu la r l i f e s ty le s . A r t if ac t s a r e t h e p roduc t o fc omp lex f a c to r s i nvo lv ing h uman b ehav iou r , s o t h e re c an b e n o s imp l is t ic c o r re la t ion b e twe en t o o l t y pe a nd w ay o fl i f e .

A ssoc ia ted w i th t h is u nde r ly ing c once rn w i th c h rono logy a nd t ypo logy o f P a leo ind ian p o in t s a nd c u l tu re s i s t h e c r ea t ion o fn ume rou sp o in tt ype s , a sB am fo r th ( 1991) n o ted . Mo reove r , b ecause l a rge c ommuna l " k i l l " s i te s t e nd t o p roduce mo re p ro jec t i le p o in t s n ece s sa ry f o r c h rono log ica l s t ud ies , p r io r i ty i s g iven t o t he se mo re v i s ib le s i tes . H oweve r , a s B amfor th ( 1991) s ugges ted , t he f ocu s o n P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s f r om c ommuna l k i l ls m ay i n f a c t b e o bscu r ing t h e f u l l r ange o fp ro jec t i le p o in t v a r ia t ion i nf o rm a nd t e chno logy , b ecause s uppo sed ly o n ly t h e b e s t k nappe r sm ade p o in t sf o rc ommuna l k i l l s .T h is f o cu so nb o th c ommuna l k i l l sa nd p ro jec t i le p o in t sa nd t h ea s sump t ion t h a t p o in t s r ep re sen t c u l tu re s may b e a c tua l ly m a sk ing c u l tu ra l d i f fe rences a nd v a r iab i l i ty o ve r t ime a nd s pace , a nd p rov id ing a r chaeo log is t s w i th as kewed a nd i n co r re c t v i ew o fc u l tu ra ld ynam ic s . T he a s sumed u n ifo rm i ty o f e a r ly P a leo ind ian a s semb lage s a c ros s t h e c on t inen t ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 980 , 1 982 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 )m ay ,i nf a c t , b ep a r t ia l ly d ue t ot h is empha s i s o n t ypo logy a nd c u l tu ra l -h is to r ica l p e rspec t ive s . Me l tze r ( 1993a :304 -305 ) a r gued t ha t t he a ppa ren t s im i la r i ty m ay h ave r e su l ted f r om t he manne r i n w h ich t h e a s semb lage s w e re d ef ined a nd c l a s s if ied , o f ten u s ing c a tego r ies a nd t y pe s f i r s t d e sc r ibed f o r t he P a leo ind ian s i te o f D ebe r t . T he a ppa ren t " s im i la r i ty " t h a t a r chaeo log is t s ( e .g . , B amfo r th 1 988 ; F r ison 1 978 ) a r e s ee ing i nt h e P l a ins a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd b e tween P a leo ind ian a nd L a te P reh is to r ic t ime s a l so m ay b e r e la ted t ot h is p e rva s ive t ypo log ica l a nd f u nc t iona l e mpha s i si nP l a ins a r chaeo logy . P la ins a r chaeo log is t st e nd t o s t re ss t h e s im i la r i t ie s b e tween e a r ly a nd l a te a s semb lage s p r ima r i ly b ecau se o ft h e a s sump t ion t h a t ah un t ing f o cu s o n b i son w a s t h e o n ly e f f ec t ive w ay t os u rv ive s ucce s s fu l ly o n t h eP la ins .T he p rem ise t h a tt o o l t ype s a nd b a s ic s ub s is tence m e thods a ppea rt ob e t he s ame t h roughou t P la ins p reh is to ry d oes n o t n ece s sa r i ly mean t h a t a l l o t he r a spe c t s o fs oc ie ty h ave r ema ined i d en t ica l . Af o cus o n f u nc t iona l a spec t s a nd c a tego r ie s m ay b e s een a s t h e e p i tome o f a n o b jec t ive s c ience , b u t i th as l im i ted u se i n o b ta in ing t h e n ece s sa ry i n fo rma t ion f o r r e cons truc t ing t o ta l p a s t l i feway s . T oo ls , e spec ia l ly p ro jec t i le p o in t sa nd l i th ic a r t if ac t s ,c omp r i se o n ly as ma l lp a r to ft h et o ta l a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s o f ap opu la t ion ; i t i su n rea l is t ic t oe xpe c tt h a tt h e se i t em s , w h ich a r e mos to f ten t h e m a jo r i ty o fs u rv iv ing c u l tu ra l i t em si nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , w i l l p rov ide p reh is to r ians w i th ac omp le te v i ew o r t r ue r ef lec t ion o fa l l a spec t s o fp a s t l i f eway s . B u t i ti ss t i l l n o t u ncommon t os ee d i scuss ions a nd a r t ic le s b a sed a lmo s t e xc lus ive ly o n P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t d a ta ( e .g . , H ofman 1 992 ) o rc ons is t ing o fd e ta i led d esc r ip t ions o fs i te s a nd l i th ic a r t if ac t d a ta w i th o n ly g ene ra l ized a nd b r ief d i scu s s ions a t temp t ing t or e la te t h ed a ta t ot h el a rge rp i c tu re ( e .g . , B onn ich sen e ta l . 1 992 ) . Wh i le i ti sr e cogn ized t h a t t h e se d e ta i led s i te r epo r t s a r e n eeded a nd c ons t i tu te a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a taba se , t he n a r row e mpha s is o n t y po logy o fa r t ifac t s a nd f u nc t iona l a na ly s is o f s i te s i s n o d oub t p reven t ing t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e i mpo r tance o fo t he rc u l tu ra l a spec t ss uch a sg ende r .

5 .3 .8 The U se o f S e lect ive E thnograph ic Ana log ie s

a nd

Unques t ioned

5 . 3 .8 .1 I n t roduc t ion T he a ssump t ion t ha t s imp l if ied a na log ies o f b o th e t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted h un te r -ga the re rs a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t c an b e a pp l ied d i rec t ly w i thou t q ue s t ion t o P a leo ind ian d a ta h a s b een a ma jo r c on t r ibu to r t o t h e d eve lopmen t o fa nd c on t inu ing d om inance o ft h e b i g g ame h un t ing m ode l . D e sp i te t h e r e cen t a ccumu la t ion o f m o re d e ta i led p a leoenv i ronmen ta l d a ta f o r t h e l a te P le is tocene ( e .g . , R udd iman a nd Wr igh t 1 987 ) , s ome a r chaeo log is t sh ave a tt ime s b a sed t h e i r e nv i ronmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ions o n o l de r o rc oa r se r g ra ined p a leoe co log ica l d a ta w h ich d i scoun t t h e d i ve r s i ty o fr ap id ly c hang ing P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t s , a nd p rov ide as t a t ic a nd g ene ra l ized e nv i ronmen ta l p i c tu re . O ne c onsequence t e nds t o b e a n o ve r s imp l if ica t ion o f h uman r e sponse s t o t h ose e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s ( e .g . , B am fo r th 1 988 ; G re ise r 1 985 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; Ma r t in e ta l . 1 985 ) a lmos t t o t h e p o in t o f e nv ironmen ta l d e te rm in ism ( e .g . ,B onn ich sen e ta l . 1 987 ) .

5 .3 .7 T he P re sence o f F lu ted P o in t s I nd ica tes a B ig G am e Hun t ing L i f es ty le

S im i la r ly , m any P a leo ind ian i n te rp re ta t ion st e nd t or e ly u pon s e le c t ive a nd u nque s t ioned a na log ie sw i th m ode rn o rh i s to r ic h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups a nd t h ec ommon v i ew o fb i gg ame h un te r s ( e .g . , F r ison 1 978 , 1 990a , 1 990b ; G re ise r 1 985 ; J ohnson , e d . 1 977 ) t ha t f o r s o l ong h a s g u ided t h e d eve lopmen t o f P a leo ind ian mode ls . F o r e xamp le , l a te P le is tocene h un te r -ga the re rs a re f r equen t ly c ons ide red c ompa rab le t o c o ld -adap ted h un te r -ga the re rs i n t he a r c t ic / suba rc t ic s t eppe o rt u nd ra e nv i ronmen ta l z one s , s uch a s I nu i t p opu la t ions ( bu t w i thou t t h e m a r ine c omponen t ) , b ecau se o f t h e s upposed s im i la r i t ie s i n e nv ironmen t a nd f o cus o n l a rge g ame . H e s te r a nd G rady ( 1 977 ) o u t l ined t h e c ha ra c te r is t ics o f at yp ica l h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie ty b a sed o n e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s f r om L ee a nd D eVo re ( e d . 1 968 ) , a nd a r gued t h a t P a leo ind ian d a ta f r om t h e L lano E s tacado s uppo r ted t h is g ene ra l a na logy . Howeve r , g ene ra l ized d esc r ip t ions o f t h is k ind o n ly mask t h e w ide r a nge o f v a r ia t ion a mongs t c on tempo ra ry h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup s , a nd t h ep o ten t ia lv a r ia t ion t h a tw a sp re sen ti nt h ep a s t .

R e la ted t ot h ep rac t ice o fd e l inea t ing c u l tu re s o nt h eb a s is o f p ro jec t i le p o in tt y pe s i st h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e p re sence o f f l u ted p o in t s i mp l ie s ab ig g ame h un t ing l i fe s ty le ( s ee e spec ia l ly , F r ison 1 992 :329 a nd h i sa s sump t ion t h a tt h el a ck o fd i agnos t ic c l a s s ic P la ins P a leo ind ian p ro jec t i le p o in t s i n

S aunde r s ( 1990 , 1 992 ) u sed a na logue s o fb i son h un t ing b y l a te P reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic P la ins I nd ian s , a nd n on -na t ive h un t ing o f e l ephan t f am i l ies t o p rov ide u n ifo rm i ta r ian m ode ls f o rC lov is m ammo th p rocu remen ti nN o r th Ame r ica . S aunde rs ( 1980 :96 , 1 992 ) e ven a rgued t ha t g ame p a rk 5 2

McC l in tock ( 1992 :226 ) a bou t ay oung B lack foo t w oman p r ec ise ly r ef lec t e a r ly e t hnocen t r ic b i a se s a nd a s sump t ion s . I nd e sc r ib ing t h i sw oman ,w ho se " ove rbu rdened l i f e "h ew a s a b le t ov i ew , h en o ted t h a t s he w a s " young a nd v e ry p r e t ty , a l though t h e mo the r o f an ume rou s f l ock o f c h i ld ren ." G r inne l l ( 1923 :127 ) , h oweve r , b e l ieved t h a t t h e re w a s a p e r s is ten t m isunde r s tand ing w i th r e ga rd t ot h ep o r t raya l o f I nd ian w omen a ss l ave s t ot h e i r h u sband s . H e c l a imed t h a t w h i le w omen h ad p e r f o rmed m any t a sk s , m en h ad n o tb een i d le b u th ad p e r fo rmed t h e i r s ha re o fd u t ie sb y h un t ing a nd w a r r ing ( G r inne l l 1 923 :127 ) .H oweve r ,h ea r gued t h a ti nt h e c amp o ft h eC heyenne , a se ve rywhe re i nt h e w o r ld , t h em an h ad b e en t h ep rov ide rw ho p rocu red t h ef o od a nd m o s to ft h e m a te r ia l n eed s o fl i f e , w h i le w omen h ad b o rne t h ec h i ld ren a nd c a red f o r t he h ome ( G r inne l l 1 923 :127 ) . A d ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy i sq u i te a ppa ren t i nG r inne l l 's i n te rp re ta t ion .

c u l l ing o fe l ephan t s w a s t h e b e s t a na logy f o r P a leo ind ian h un t ing o fm ammo th ;h oweve r , a sG a ry H ayne s ( 1 991 :289 ) p o in ted o u t , t h e c os t s i n vo lved i n m ammo th h un t ing b y p eop le a rmed w i th s pea r s w ou ld h ave b een q u i te d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se f o rp eop le e qu ipped w i th h i gh -powe red r i f le s o r b ow s a nd a r row s . S im i la r ly , t h e re i sa l so t h eq ue s t ion o ft h e v a l id i ty o fu s ing e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s f o r r e con s t ruc t ing l a te P le i s tocene b i son p rocu remen t m e thod s , g i ven t h e f a c t t h a te a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s f a ced s ub spec ie s o fb i son d i f f e ren tf r om t h a te ncoun te red a nd h un t ed b yt h eo ccupan t s o ft h e P l a in s d u r ing p ro toh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic t ime s . F r ison ( 1 991a :164 , 2 73 -274 ) n o ted t h a t i nc ompa r ison t op r e sen t d ay b i son , l a te P le is tocene b i son m ay h ave b een mo re s o l i ta ry , l i v ing i ns ma l l g roups r a the r t h an l a rge h e rd s , a nd m uch e a s ie rt oa pp roach . D e sp i te t h e se p o s s ib le d i f f e rence s , h e a r gued t h a t s i nce a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n d ica ted t h a t t h e se e x t inc t v a r ian t s o f b i son h ad b een d r iven a nd s t ampeded b y P a leo ind ian h un te r s , i tw a s l i ke ly t h a t t h e b ehav iou r o fl a te P le is tocene b i son w a s n o t t o o d i s s im i la r f r om t h a t o f i t s mode rn c oun te rpa r t ( F r ison 1 982b :264 , 1 991a :274 -275 ) . C on sequen t ly , F r ison d oe s n o t h e s i ta te t o u se m ode rn b i son b ehav iou rt oi n te rp re tp r eh i s to r ic m e thod s o f b i son p r ocu remen t ( F r ison 1 991a :234 -237 ) , i n c lud ing b i son t r app ing d u r ing t h eP a leo ind ian t ime p e r iod a sh eh a s d one f o rA ga te B a s in s i te s( e .g . ,F r ison 1 99 1a :164 170 ) .

T u rn ing t ot h e P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re a nd t h e d i scu s s ion o fg ende rr e la t ions f o rt h ose p opu la t ion s , a ne a r ly i lu s t ra t ion i nN a t iona l G eograph ic ( Hen ry 1 955 :794 -795 ) p o r t rayed a momen t i n l a te P l e is tocene N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian l i f e . T he i mp re s s ion o f as t r ic td i v i s ion o fl a bou r b e tween P a leo ind ian m en a nd w omen w a s p rov ided b y t h e d i v is ion b e tween t h e l e f t p age o f t h e i l u s t ra t ion l a be l led " Mo the r s a nd D augh te r s S t re tch a B ison S k in , S t ake i t D own , a nd S c rape i tC lean " a nd t h e r i gh t p age o f t h e d r aw ing l a be l led " Fa the r s a nd S ons H ack S t eak s f r om t h e S k inned C a rcas s t o R oa s t o ve r a n O pen F i re " ( Hen ry 1 955 :794 -795 ) .

I n y e t a no the r c a se , F r ison ( 1993 :244 ) s t a ted t h a t a l N ew Wo r ld P a leo ind ian p ro je c t i le p o in t sh ad b een p rope l led w i th at h row ing s t ick ( i .e . , a n a t la t l ) , a n a s sump t ion w h ich h e d e r ived f r om t he d i scove ry o f p re se rved s pec imens r e cove red i nd ry c ave s a nd r o ck s he l te r s t h a t d a te o n ly t o a bou t 2 , 000 y ea r s a go . Mo reove r ,h e s t a ted t h a tP a leo ind ian c o mmuna l k i l ls o f l a rge mamma ls w ou ld l i ke ly h ave r equ i red t h e p re sence o f t h e p rope r s haman i n o rde r t o e nhance s u cce ss ( F r ison 1 993 :247 ) . T h is a s se r t ion i s u nque s t ion ing ly b a sed o n e t hnog raph ic a c coun t s o fh i s to r ic c ommuna lh un t ing o nt h eP l a ins .

As im i la ri n te rp re ta t ion o f as t r ic t d i v i s ion o fl a bou rb y s e x w a s o f f e red b y F r ison ( 1991a :298 ) , n o t s pec if ica l ly f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , b u t f o r p reh is to r ic P la ins p opu la t ions i ng ene ra l . W i th r e ga rd t og ende r r o le s , F r ison ( 1 99 1a :298 )s t a ted : H un t ing w a s ap r e s t ig iou s a c t iv i ty ;b u t che r ing a nd p r oce s s ing t h e a n ima l p roduc t s w e re n o t . H un t ing w a s m a le -cen te red a c t iv i ty b u t b u tche r ing a nd p roce ss ing w a s l a rge ly p e r fo rmed b yw omen .

5 . 3 .8 .2 U se o fE thnog raph i c A na log ie sf or I n t erpre t ing P a leo ind ian G ender Wh i le t h e se f ew e xamp le s d ea l w i th g ene ra l i n te rp re ta t ions o f P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence a nd h un t ing s t ra teg ie s , mo re s pec if ica l ly , w ha t a bou t t h e u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie s f o r r e con s t ruc t ing P a leo ind ian g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ions? E a r ly e t hnog raph ic a nd e t hnoh is to r ica l a ccoun t s o fP l a ins g roup s o f ten v i ewed w omen a s h av ing h a rd l i ve s , b e ing b a s ica l ly s l ave s t o t h e i r h usband s , a nd b e ing f o rced t o p e r fo rm aw ide r a nge o fd rudge ry a nd m anua ll a bou rs u ch a s t h ep r epa ra t ion a nd c ook ing o ff o od ,t h et a nn ing o fh i de s ,t h e m anu f a c tu r eo fc l o th ing a nd l o dge s ,t h em ov ing o ft h ec amp , a nd t h ec a r ea nd r a is ing o fc h i ld re n . Men , o n t h eo t he rh and , w e re s e en a s h un te r s , c r a f t smen , a nd p rov ide r s , g a in ing p re s t ige a nd d i s t inc t ion w i th t h e i r e xc i t ing l i ve s w h ich r evo lved a r ound w a r , r e l ig ion , a nd h un t ing ( e .g . , Ewe r s 1 988 :16 17 ; McC l in tock 1 992 :188 -189 ) . R e f e r r ing t ot h e B la ck f oo tI n d ians , McC l in tock ( 1 992 :189 ) e ven s t a ted t h a t , o u t o fn ece s s i ty , " women t o ok t h e p l a ce o fs e rvan t s i nt h e c apac i ty o f w ive s ." A lso w i th r e ga rd t o t h e B lack foo t , G r inne l l ( 1 962 :185 )u nque s t ion ing ly c ons ide red a l w omen ' s w o rk a se qu iva len t t om en ia l w o rk . Mo reove r , h ep r e sen ted t h e i mage t h a t , f o r t h e i r e n t i re l i ve s , B lack f oo t w omen h ad b een s ub jec t t o s omeone e l se 's a u tho r i ty , w he the r t h e i r f a the r 's o r h usband 's , w he rea s am an , f r om e a r l ie s t c h i ldhood , h ad b een f r ee a nd i ndependen t ( G r inne l l 1 962 :216 , 2 19 ) . I n a dd i t ion , o bse rva t ions m ade b y

A cco rd ing t oF r ison ( 1 991a :298 ) , t h e se o bse rva t ion s o ft h e p os i t ion s a nd e xpec ta t ion s o f m en a nd w omen i n P l a ins s oc ie ty c ame d i rec t ly f r om e t hnog raph ic a c coun t s , i n p a r t icu la r , N ick W i l son ' s a c coun t (W i lson a nd D r igg s 1 9 19 ) o ft h e t i me ( 1 850 -1852 ) t h a t h e s pen t w i th t h e W ind R ive r S ho shone t r ibe . F r i son ( 1 991a :298 ) a r gued t h a t s i nce t h e re w a sn o m en t ion i nW i l son ' s n a r ra t ive o f aw oman k i l l ing a n a n ima l o r am an p roce s s ing m ea t , t h e re w a s " no r e a son n o t t oa c cep t t h i s d i v is ion o fl a bo r a st y p ica l o fp r eh is to r ic l i f e o nt h eP l a ins i np r eho r se t i me s . " I nd i scu s s ing t h eI nd ian C reek s i te i nt h en o r the rn Mon tana R ock ie s , D av is a nd G re ise r ( 1 992 :266 ) s uppo r ted t h e i d ea t h a t t h eF o lsom o ccupa t ion a r t if a c t a s semb lage a ppea red t o r e p re sen tp r ima r i ly f ema le d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie st h a ts u cceeded s uch m a le -dom ina ted o f f s i te a c t iv i t ie s a sl i th ic a nd g ame p rocu remen t . T hey b a sed t h is s ugge s t ion o n t h ep r om inence o f F o lsom e ndsc rape r h ide -wo rk ing i mp lemen t s i n t h e a s semb lage . A cco rd ing t oD av i s( 1 993 :27 1) , t h ew a s te f l ake s r e cove red f r om I nd ian C reek w e re m a le t o o l p roduc t ion a nd m a in tenance r e s idue s , w h i le t h e u n if ace s r e cove red , w h ich w e re d om ina ted b y s i de sc rape r s a nd e nd sc rape r s a nd f l ake k n ive s , a nd w h ich m ade u pm o re t h an 8 5p e r cen to ft h el i t h ic 5 3

t h is s o? O ne o f t h e p r ima ry r ea sons i st h e b e l ie f t h a t t h e P la ins a r ea h a s b een c ha rac te r ized b y al ong -s tand ing b i g g ame ( i .e . , b i son ) h un t ing t r ad i t ion t h roughou t t h e l a te P le i s tocene a nd H o locene ( e .g . , B am f o r th 1 988 ;F r ison 1 978 ; M ich lov ic 1 986 ; Wede l 1 982c ; s ee d i scu s s ion i nC hap te r4 ) . B ecause b o th P a leo ind ians a nd L a te P reh is to r ic P l a ins p opu la t ions s ha red a n a ppa ren t ly c ommon s ub s is tence e conomy , a l o the r a spec t s o f l i f eway s ( s uch a s s e a sona l r ound , mob i l i ty , p roce s s ing a nd s t o rage , p o l i t ica l a nd s o c ia l s t ruc tu re ) h ave b een a nd a r e o f ten i mp l ic i t ly a s sumed t ob e s im i la r a s w e l l ( e .g . , F r ison 1 978 , 1 991a ; R eeve s 1 990 ; Whea t 1 972 ) . T he u se o f e thnog raph ic a na log ie s i st h u s j u s t if ied . Mo reove r , t h e t e ndency t owa rd af unc t iona l f o cu s i n d ea l ing w i th P la ins a r chaeo log ica l d a ta ( a s p rev ious ly d i scussed ) f u r the r c on t r ibu tes t o t h is u nc r i t ica l u se o f s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s .

a r t ifac ts , mos t l i ke ly r e f lec ted w omen 's t a sk s . Dav is ( 1993 :267 ) c onsequen t ly s t re ssed t h a t d i s t inc t ion s b e tween k i l l a nd c amps i te s w e re i mpo r tan t f o ru nde r s tand ing g ende r d i f f e ren t ia ted b ehav iou r , a nd , mo reove r , t h a t t h e r o le s o f P a leo ind ian women w e re b e t te r e l ic i ted a nd e l uc ida ted t h rough t h ei nve s t iga t ion o fc amps i te s w he re w omen 's w o rk w a s b e t te r man ife s ted a r chaeo log ica l ly t han a t k i l l o r b u t che r ing s i te s ( Dav is 1 993 :274 ) . T he se i n te rp re ta t ions a nd c onc lu s ions a ppea r t ob e b a sed o n t h e i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion t h a t as t r ic td iv is ion o fl a bou r e x is ted b e tween w omen , w i th t h e i r d ome s t ic c amp c ho re s , a nd men , w i th t h e i r f a r rang ing h un t ing a nd l i th ic p rocu remen ta c t iv i t ie s . A s im i la r p ic tu re h a s b een p rov ided b y S a l ly G re ise r ( 1985 :30 ) i n h e r d eve lopmen t o f p red ic t ive mode ls o f h un te r -ga the re r s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s o n t h e C en t ra l H igh P la ins . S he h ypo thes ized f o r l a te g lac ia l h un te r -ga the re r s t h a t d u r ing e ach s ea son , e x tended f am i ly u n i t s o fa pp rox ima te ly 2 5 p eop le h ad o ccup ied b a se c amps i nt h e v i c in i ty o fr e l iab le r e sou rce s . Women a nd c h i ld ren g a the red " ed ib le p l an t s a nd o the r n onmob i le f ood s w i th in a r ad iu s o fo ne -ha lf d ay 's t r ave l f r om t h e b a se c amp " ( He s te r a nd G rady 1 977 :78 ) , w h i le men h un ted w i th in a l a rge r c a tchmen ta r ea ( G re ise r 1 985 :30 ) .

I n a dd i t ion t ot h e r e asons o u t l ined a bove , f u r the r f a c to r s h ave a l so p e rpe tua ted t h e u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie s f o r r econs t ruc t ing P la ins p reh is tor ic a nd , i n p a r t icu la r , P a leo ind ian g ende r r e la t ions . T he a s sump t ion t h a t g ende r s t ruc tu re s a r e b io log ica l ly b a sed a nd t h u s s t ab le o ve r t ime a nd i r re levan tt oe xp la in ing c u l tu ra ld ynam ics , a nd t h eb e l ie f t h a t g ende r i s e s sen t ia l ly i nacce ss ib le i n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t sh a s l e d t oa n u nc r i t ica l r e l iance u pon a nd s e lec t ive u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na log ies r e la t ing t o P la ins a nd P a leo ind ian g ende rr e la t ion s .

I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t e xp l ic i t s t a temen t s r e f e r r ing t o g ende r s y s tems i ne a r l ie r a nd mo re r e cen tr e cons t ruc t ions o fP la ins P a leo ind ian l i f eway s a r e f ew i n n umbe r . Howeve r , f r om t h e se f ew e xamp le s , i ti sq u i te o bv ious t h a t r e cons t ruc t ions ( bo th e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted a nd i mp l ic i t ly a s sumed ) f o r t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod r e f lec t t he i mage s o f ar i g id s exua l d iv is ion o fl a bou r f r equen t ly p re sen ted i nt h e e t hnog raph ic l i te ra tu re o f h i s to r ic P la ins g roups a nd o the r h un t ing g a the r ing s oc ie t ie s . Men a r ec ha rac te r ized a st h eh un te r s a nd p rov ide r s i nc ha rge o ft h e s o -ca l led ma le -dom ina ted p ub l ic s phe re , w h i le w omen a r ec onf ined t ot h ep r iva te s phe re a nd r e spons ib le f o r g a the r ing , d ome s t ic c ho re s , a nd c h i ld c a re . T h is r i g id s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r h a s b ecome " f ac t ," u nque s t ion ing ly a ccep ted a sc ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e l i f e s ty le o f a l l P la in s g roups . T he ref o re , i ti sa s sumed t h a t t h e re i sn o n eed t or e cons ide r o re xam ine t h e p oss ib i l i ty o fa l te rna t ive s cena r ios . I ns umma ry , w he the re t hnog raph ic a na log ie sh ave b een u sed d i rec t ly o r i nd i rec t ly , i t i s e v iden t t ha t e t hnog raph ic i mage s o f h un te r -ga the re rs a nd , a s K o rnfe ld ( 1988 :212 ) t e rmed i t , t h e " ex tens ive P la ins b i son h un t ing f o lk lo re " ( e .g . , Ewe r s 1 969 , 1 988 ; G r inne l l 1 962 ; W iss le r 1 910 ) h ave c o lou red i n te rp re ta t ions d ea l ing n o t o n ly w i th s ubs is tence a nd e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s o f P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ,b u ta l so w i th g ende rr o le sa nd r e la t ion s .

N ume rous a r chaeo log is t s h ave c r i t ic ized t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy i na r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion ( e .g . , F reeman 1 968 :263 -265 ; G ou ld 1 980 ; G ou ld a nd Wa t son 1 982 ) , a r gu ing t h a t i tw a s aw eak m e thodo log ica l t o o l b e cause i tw a s b a sed o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t n o c hange h ad o ccu r red f r om t h e p as t t o t he h i s to r ic p re sen t ( Hughe s 1 991 :27 -28 ) . T he re i sn ow ar ea l iza t ion t h a tt h el i f e s ty le s o f p reh is to r ic h un te r -ga the re r s w e re n o t n ecessa r i ly e n t i re ly i d en t ica l i n e ve ry a spec t t o t hose o f r e cen t s u rv iv ing c oun te rpa r t s ( Ye l len 1 977 :4 ) . Mode rn a nd r e cen t h un te r g a the re rs a r e n o t " l iv ing f o ss i ls ." A l l s oc ie t ie s h ave h ad e qua l ly l o ng h i s to r ie s ( T i l ley 1 990b :52 ) , a nd h ave e vo lved a nd c hanged o ve r t h e s ame t ime s pan ( B le ie r 1 984 :148 ) . T hus , b ecause a l c u l tu re sc hange , mode rn h un t ing -ga the r ing p a t te rns c anno t b e p ro jec ted u nc r i t ica l ly i n to t h e p a s t ( Hughes 1 991 :28 ) . I n e ssence , u s ing mode rn h un te r g at he re r s a sc omp le te a na log ie s f o r p r eh is to r ic c u l tu re s c an b ep o ten t ia l ly m is lead ing . F u r the rmo re , t h e t r ad i t iona l v i ew o fp reh i s to r ic , e spec ia l ly P le is tocene , h un te r -ga the re r s a s h igh ly mob i le , f l ex ib le e ga l i ta r ian b ands , amode l w h ich w a s b a sed o n a na log ie s w i th g roup s s uch a s t h e ! Kung , Mbu t i , a nd H adza , i sn ow c ons ide red q ue s t ionab le b ecause i ti sh igh ly p o ss ib le t h a t t h e se s oc ia l f o rms w e re m uch l a te r d eve lopmen t s , r e su l t ing f r om l ong te rm i n te rac t ion w i th n on -hun t ing -ga the r ing g roups ( T i l ley 1 991 :156 -157 ; s ee a l so Y e l len 1 989 ) . A s S tah l ( 1993 ) n o ted , i nr e cen t y ea r s t h e re h a sb een ag r ow ing b ody o fl i t e ra tu re t h a td ocumen t s t h et r emendou s c hange si n n on -wes te rn c u l tu ra l s ys tems t ha t h ave r e su l ted f r om E u ropean c on tac t a nd e xpans ion ( s ee S tah l 1 993 f o r r e f e rence sa nd amo re d e ta i led d i scus s ion ) .T h is s i tua t ion h a s i mpo r tan t i mp l ica t ions f o r t h eu se o fc on tempo ra ry s ou rce s i n i n te rp re ta t ion , f o r i tc ha l lenge s a r chaeo log is t s t o a dop t mo re c r i t ica l a pp roache s w hen emp loy ing t r ad i t iona l n onw e s te rn s oc ie t ie s a sa na log ica l mode ls t og ene ra te i n s igh t s i n to t h ep a s t( S tah l 1 993 :245 , 2 53 ) .

5 . 3 .8 .3 T he V a l id i ty o fE thnograph ic Ana log ie s T he q ue s t ion t ha t i mmed ia te ly a r ise s i s why d o P la ins a r chaeo log is ts h ave a t e ndency t o r e ly u nc r i t ica l ly a nd u nques t ion ing ly , t o t he e x ten t t hey d o , u pon s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s? Mo re s pec if ica l ly , h ow v a l id a r e t he se e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s , w he the r b a sed o n h i s to r ic P la ins s oc ie t ies o r g ene ra l h un te r -ga the re rs , f o r r e cons t ruc t ing P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion sa nd l i f eway s? D e sp i te Wede l 's ( 1982a :105 , 1 07 ) c l a im t h a t s y s tema t ic a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch w a s r ep lac ing e t hno log ica l a na lys is a nd t h ink ing i n P la ins a r chaeo logy , Ib e l ieve t h a t many a ssump t ions d e r ived f r om e thnograph ic a ccoun ts , u nknow ing ly a nd u nque s t ion ing ly , u nde r l ie a nd s t i l l g rea t ly i n f luence m any P la ins a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions . Why i s 5 4

d e ta i led a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s ( Ewe r s 1 969 ; G o ldf rank 1 943 ; J ab low 1 951 ; L ew is 1 942 ) t h a t t h e a cqu is i t ion o ft h e h o r se a nd g un , a nd t r ade w i th E u ropean s a nd Ame r ican s d r ama t ica l ly a f f ec ted P l a ins I nd ian s oc ie ty ( s ee K le in 1 983 f o r a dd i t iona l r e f e rence s ) . Mo reove r , w hen E u ropean e xp lo re r s f i r s t h ad d i rec t c on tac t w i th N o r the rn P l a ins p eop le s i nt h e l a te 1 600 s a nd 1 700 s , m o s t o ft h e se g r oup s h ad a l ready r e ce ived h o r se s , g uns , a nd E u ropean g oods . H o r se s w e re i n t roduced f i r s t i nt h e s ou th i nt h e 1 540 s f r om t h e e a r ly S pan ish e xped i t ions o fD eSo to a nd C o ronado , a nd t h en a ppa ren t ly s p read n o r thwa rd t h rough t h ev a r iou sP l a ins g roup s ( s ee Ewe r s 1 969 f o r ad e ta i led d i scu s s ion o f t h e a cqu is i t ion a nd d i f fu s ion o ft h eh o r se i nN o r th Ame r ica a nd e spec ia l ly t h e P la ins ) . T he B lack foo t t r ibe s o f t h e N o r thwe s te rn P la ins w e re a mong t h e m any t r ibe s t h a t p o s se s sed t h eh o r se w hen f i r s tm e tb yl i t e ra te E u ropean m en ( Ewe r s 1 969 :1) . T he e a r l ie s t s t a temen t t h a t t h e B la ck f oo t t r ibe s p o s se s sed h o r se s w a s m ade i n 1 772 b y Ma t thew C ock ing , w ho h ad b een s en t t o t r ade w i th t h em b y t h e H ud son 's B ay C ompany ( Ewe r s 1 969 :18 ) . Ewe r s ( 1 969 :18 ) , b a s ing h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o n h i s to r ic a ccoun t s a nd n a t ive i n fo rman t s , p l aced t h e a cqu is i t ion o f t h e h o r se b y t h e B la ck foo t b e tween t h e 1 730 s a nd 1 754 . S im i la r ly , V icke r s ( 1 986 :103 ) s ugge s ted t h a t h o r se s h ad b een a cqu i red i nt h e s ou the rn A lbe r ta P l a in s a pp rox ima te ly A .D . 1 730 -1740 . Wh i le i n1 690 H en ry K e lsey w a s t h e f i r s t t od ocumen t t h e B lack f oo t o n t h e N o r thwe s te rn P l a in s ( s ee E pp 1 993 ) , t h e m a jo r i ty o fe xp lo re r sa nd t r ade r sw e re s e n ti n to t h eC anad ian p r a i r ie s a nd e ncoun te red B lack foo t g r oup s i nt h e m id a nd l a t e 1 700 s( e .g . , A n thony H enday i n1 754 ; Ma t thew C ock ing i n1 772 -73 ; D av id T hompson i n 1 787 ; a nd P e te r F id le r i n 1 792 -3 ) , l o ng a f te r h o r se s a nd o t he r E u ropean g ood s h ad b e en a cqu i red ( s ee t h ed i scus s ion o fe a r ly E u ropean c on tac t w i th t h e B la ck f oo t i nL ew is 1 942 :16 -22 ) . T hu s , b yt h et i me N o r th Ame r ican P l a ins c u l tu re s w e re d e s c r ibed i nd e ta i l b y e t hnog raphe r s i nt h e l a te 1 800 s a nd e a r ly 1 900 s , m o s t h ad b een t o s ome d eg ree s i gn if ican t ly a f f ec ted b y E u ropean i n f luence s .

I n a dd i t ion t ot h e d rawback o f a s sum ing n o c hange w hen u s ing e t hnog raph ic a na logy , a r chaeo log is ts a r e a l so h ampe red b y v a r iou s l im i ta t ions o fe t hnog raph ic r e po r t s , i n t h a t t h ey f r equen t ly c on ta in o n ly i d ea l d e sc r ip t ions a nd f ew d e ta i ls , a nd t h e d e sc r ip t ions a r e t h o se o fh un t ing -ga the r ing g r oup st h a th ave s u rv ived o n ly i na r ea st h a ta r ec ons ide red t o b e" ma rg ina l " a nd " i nho sp i tab le " ( Ye l len 1 977 :4 ) . H oweve r , i tm u s tb en o t ed t h a tt h i s a s sump t ion t h a tm ode rn a nd r e cen t h un te r -ga the re r s may b e i n accu ra te a na log ie s f o r e a r l ie r h un te r -ga the re rs b ecause t hey h ave s u rv ived o n ly i n m a rg ina l a r ea s i sq ue s t ionab le t o ad eg ree . F o r e xamp le , I n u i tg roup sw e re n o tp u shed i n to t h e i ra r c t ic e nv i ronmen t s , b u t r a the r , b a sed o n a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , h ave u t i l ized t h i s s o -ca l led " i nhosp i tab le " e nv i ronmen t f o r t h ou sands o f y ea r s( Raymond L eB lanc ,p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 994 ) .I t i se v iden t t h a t , i n t h is c a se , t h e w o rds " ma rg ina l " a nd " i nho sp i tab le "a r es ub jec t ive , l o aded t e rm sr ef lec t ing c u l tu ra l b i a s e s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e d esc r ip t ions p re sen ted i n e t hnog raph ic r e po r ts o f ten e xh ib i t v a r ious f o rm s o f b i a s a nd p r e jud ice , w i th a ne mpha s is o n m a le i n f o rman t sa nd a c t iv i t ie s ,a nd w i th i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e p os i t ion o f f ema le s a nd ma le s i nf luenced b y V ic to r ian a nd w e s te rn o r s t a te leve l v a lue s y s tem s o f t h e o bse rve r s a nd e a r ly r e sea rche rs . A lbe r s ( 1 983a :4 -5 ) , H ughe s ( 1 991 :30 ) , K ehoe ( 1983 ) , S pec to r ( 1 983 :80 , 9 4 ) , a nd We is t ( 1980 :256 , 1 983 ) m ade t h ese c l a im s s p e c if ica l ly f o r N o r th Ame r ican P l a in s e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re .T hey a r gued t h a tt h e re h ad b een al a ck o fi n te re s t i nd eno t ing g ende ra c t iv i t ie si nt h el i t e ra tu re , a nd at e ndency t od e sc r ibe t h ed rama t ic m a le r o le si nh un t ing , w a r f a re , a nd r e l ig ion w h i le i g no r ing t h er o le s a nd e xpe r ience s o fw omen a nd " dome s t ic " t a sk s s uch a s w a te r c o l lec t ion o r t o o l m anuf a c tu re , a l u nde r la in w i th t h e a s sump t ion o f ar i g id d omes t ic /pub l ic s epa ra t ion b e tween w omen a nd men , a nd t h eb e l ief t h a t w ha t m en h ad d one a nd t h e i rp l a ce i ns oc ie ty w a s o f g r ea te r i mpo r tance t h an w ha t w omen h ad d one i n P l a ins s o c ie t ie s . T he se v a r iou s p rob lema t ic a s pec t s o u t l ined a bove h ave , c onsequen t ly , r a ised q ue s t ions a s t o t h e u se fu lne s s a nd v a l id i ty o ft h eu se o fe t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd a na logy i na r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion .

T he i n t roduc t ion o f t h e h o rse i n to t h e l i ve s o f t h e P l a in s p eop le e f f ec ted much c hange : i t p rov ided g rea te r t r an spo r ta t ion a nd c a r ry ing c apab i l i t ie s , a nd t h e r eby m ade i t e a s ie r t om ove c amp f a r the r a nd f a s te r ( Ewe r s 1 969 :302 , 3 08 ; H anson 1 986 :96 ) ; i ti n c reased t h e e ff ic iency a nd c e r ta in ty o ft h eh un tb yp rov id ing g r ea te r m ob i l i ty t os e a rch a nd p u r sue t h eb i son ( Ewe r s 1 969 :305 ;H anson 1 986 :97 -98 ) ; i tr e su l ted i nn ew o ra d ju s ted m i l i ta ry p a t te rns a nd p o s s ib ly a n i n ten s if ica t ion o fw a r f a re ( Hanson 1 986 :99 ) b ecau se o f i n tens if ied a nd e xpanded i n te r t r iba l t r ad ing s y s tem s ; i t e xpanded h un t ing t e r r i to r ie s a nd i n c rea sed r a id ing f o r h o r se s ; a nd i tp o s s ib ly i n c rea sed r e venge k i l l ing s a nd t r i ba l e nm i ty ( Ewe r s 1 969 ; H anson 1 986 ) . L a s t ly , a s ar e su l t o f c hange s t ot h e o rgan iza t ion o ft h e c ommuna l h un t a nd t h e n eed t om a in ta in h o r se h e rd s , t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e h o r se a l te r ed ,t os ome d eg ree ,c ommuna ll a bou r , w o rk p a t te rn s , t h e d i v is ion o f l a bou r , a nd t h e s e lec t ion a nd d u ra t ion o f c amp s i te s ( Ewe r s 1 969 :30 1 ; H anson 1 986 ) . H o r se s q u ick ly b ecame ad e s i rab le c ommod i ty i n t h e i n te r t r iba l t r ad ing n e two rk , a na venue o fw ea l th a nd p rope r ty , a nd an ew f o rm o f p r e s t ige w h ich n o d oub t u l t ima te ly r e su l ted i n s ub t le c hange s i nh ou seho ld e xchange s , k i nsh ip t i e s a nd s t ruc tu re , a nd i d eo logy ( Ewe r s 1 969 ;H anson 1 986 ) . Ewe r s( 1 969 :338 39 ) e ven a r gued t h a t t h e u se o f t h e h o r se , s pec if ica l ly a mong t h e B la ckf oo t , h ad e n r iched t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re o f t h e se N o r the rn P l a ins t r ibe s , h ad a lowed t h e a c cumu la t ion o f p rope r ty a nd t h us t h e d eve lopmen t o f d i s t inc t c l a s s

Mo re s pec if ica l ly f o r t h e N o r th Ame r ican P l a ins , u s ing e t hnog raph ic a na logy t o r e cons t ruc t P a leo ind ian a nd , i n g ene ra l , p r eh is to r ic l i f eway s , i n c lud ing g ende r r e la t ions , c a r r ie sw i th i tt h e i mp l ica t ion t h a tn o c hange o ccu r red f r om t h ep a s tt ot h eh i s to r ic p r e sen t . F o re xamp le , H ughe s ( 199 1 ) u sed a ne t hnog raph ic mode l t oi n te rp re t ag ende rd i v is ion o f l a bou r a t ap reh is to r ic B esan t h un t ing c amp i n e a s te rn Mon tana . B a s ing h e r i n te rp re ta t ion o n N o r the rn P l a ins e t hnog raph ic a nd e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l d a ta , H ughe s ( 1991) c onc luded t h a tt h es e xua ld i v is ion o fl a bou rc ha rac te r ized b y m en h un t ing a nd p roduc ing " c omp lex t o o ls " a nd w omen p r oce s s ing m ea t p roduc t s a nd c a r ry ing o u t d ome s t ic t a sk s h ad b een a dap t ive t os p ec ia l ized b i son h un t ing i n as e a sona l P l a ins e nv i ronmen t ( Hughe s 1 991 :27 , 4 6 ) . T hus , s he m a in ta ined t ha t b ecause L a te P reh is to r ic B esan t a r chaeo log ica ld a ta w e re s im i la rt ot h ose o fh i s to r ic N o r the rn P l a in sg r oup s ,m a le / f ema le r o le sh ad b een s t ab le f o rt h ep a s t 2 , 000 y ea r so nt h eN o r the rn P l a ins . H oweve r , t h e re i sa bundan t e v idence t os ugge s t t h a t m a jo r c hange s d i d o ccu r w i th in P l a in s l i f e s ty le s , e spec ia l ly w i th t h ea r r iva l o fE u ropeans . A sn o ted b yK le in ( 1 983 :143 ) , i ti s w e l l d ocumen ted b y t r ade rs , e xp lo re r s , a nd m is s iona r ie s ( Den ig 1 930 ; D eSme t 1 904 ; D odge 1 959 ) a nd l a te r b y 5

l e d d i rec t ly i n to t r ad ing a nd p ub l ic , e x te rna l p o l i t ica l r e la t ions ( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :14 ) . T he g row ing d ependence o nE u ropean g ood s o b ta ined t h rough f u r s , w h ich i nt u rn w e re o b ta ined b y m en , a l te red a nd e l im ina ted many f ema le p roduc t ive a c t iv i t ie s ( Devens 1 991 :512 ) , a nd r e su l ted i n w omen b ecom ing mo re e conom ica l ly d ependen t . I n e ssence , t h e se r e su l t ing e conom ic t r ansf orma t ions , t he d eve lopmen to ft r ade a nd s pec ia l iza t ion t ot h ep o in tt h a tm en a nd w omen w e re p rocu r ing a nd p roduc ing s i gn if ican t q uan t i t ie s o fd i f f e ren tt h ing s , a nd t h ee me rgence o fr e la t ions o f d ependence o u t s ide t h e g roup e s sen t ia l ly u nde rm ined i nd iv idua l c on t ro l a nd p e r sona l a u tonomy , a nd r e su l ted i n u nequa l a cce s s t oi mpo r tan t r e sou rce s a nd l a y t h e b a s is f o r t i e s o f e conom ic d ependence , h ie ra rchy , r ank ing , g ende r i n equa l i ty , a nd t h ei n ab i l i ty o f women t oe xe rc ise a u tonomy o ve r t h e l a bou r p roce s s ( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :13 ; L eacock 1 992 :235 ; S a s saman 1 992 :72 ) .

d iv is ions w i th in t h e s oc ie ty , h ad a l te red t h e h ab i t s o fd a i ly l i f e , a nd h ad e ssen t ia l ly i n f luenced a nd mod if ied t os ome d eg ree e ve ry ma jo r a spec t o f P la ins I nd ian l i f e . S im i la r ly , G r inne l l ( 1962 :242 -243 ) s ugges ted t h a t t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h e h o rse i n to B lackfoo t c u l tu re h ad r e su l ted i n d ra s t ic c hange s ,n o to n ly i nt h e i rw ay o fl i f e , b u ta l so i nt h e i rm en ta l a t t i tude , i n c lud ing t h ea ccep tance o ft h en ew i d ea t h a ti tw a s n ow d e s i rab le t oa ccumu la te p rope r ty ( s ee Ewe r s 1 969 :299 3 17 a nd H anson 1 986 f o r mo re d e ta i led a ccoun t s o f t h e i nf luence o ft h eu se o ft h eh o rse o nP l a ins c u l tu re s ) . T he a dven t o f t he f u r t r ade a nd i n t roduc t ion o fE u ropean m a rke t sa nd e conom ie sa l so g rea t ly a f fe c ted N o r th Ame r ican n a t ive s oc ie t ies , i nc lud ing P la ins c u l tu re ( s ee e a r ly d i scuss ion i n L ew is 1 942 ) . I th a s b een a rgued t h a t t he i n t roduc t ion o ft h e h o rse a nd g un a nd t h e r e su l t ing b uf f a lo h ide t r ade , wh i le s h if t ing t he P la ins e conomy f r om a p reoccupa t ion w i th s ubs is tence t o o ne f ocus ing o n s u rp lus a nd p roduc t ion f o re xchange ( e .g . ,K le in 1 983 :156 ) ,r e su l ted a l so i n ag ende r b a lance s h if t n o t iceab ly i nf a vou r o fw ha t m any r e sea rche r s h ave g ene ra l ly a s sumed w e re e xc lu s ive ly m a le i n s t i tu t ions s uch a s r a id ing , w a r fa re , h un t ing , a nd t r ad ing ( e .g . , K le in 1 983 :158 ; S anday 1 981 :135 ; s e e a l so K o rnf e ld a nd F ranc is 1 991 :447 -448 ) . A cco rd ing t oK le in ( 1983 ) , t h is s h if t i nvo lved ac hange f r om ac o l lec t ive mode o fp roduc t ion ( i .e . , b i son p ound ing ) i nw h ich w omen h ad b een a c t ive ly i nvo lved i np r ima ry p roduc t ion s phe re s a nd r e sou rces h ad b een e qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted a mongs t f am i l ie s ( K le in 1 983 :151) , t o a more i nd iv idua l ized mode o f p roduc t ion , ar i se i n i nd iv idua l ized h un t ing , a nd t hus i n d iv idua l ized o wne r sh ip o ft h ep roduc t so ft h ek i l l .

O fc ou r se , t h e re r ema ins t h e q ues t ion a st ow he the r o rn o t t h e se i n te rp re ta t ions a r et o o g ene ra l iz ing , o re ven i n accu ra te r e cons t ruc t ions o ft h ee f f e c t st h a tc on ta c ta nd i n vo lvemen ti n w es te rn e conom ie s h ad u pon n on -we s te rn n a t ive g roups i n c lud ing P la in s s oc ie t ie s . T he re i sb o th h i s to r ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t o s ugge s t t h a t N o r the rn P la ins s oc ie t ie s p a r t ic ipa ted i n a n e x tens ive i n te r t r iba l t r ad ing n e two rk p r io r t oE u ropean c on tac t ( e .g . , s e e d i scu s s ion a nd r e f e rence s i nK ehoe 1 993 ; Wood 1 972 , 1 974 ) . Du r ing t h e l a te P reh is to r ic a nd p os s ib ly e ven e a r l ie r , t r ade c onnec ted t h e N o r the rn P la ins t ot h eM idwe s t , w i th h o r t icu l tu ra l is t s a l ong t h e M issou r i R ive r e xchang ing c o rn , b eans , a nd g a rden p roduce w i th t h e i r n omad ic n e ighbou r s f o rd i rec t o ri n d i rec t p roduc t s o f t h e h un t s uch a s d r ied m ea t , b i son a nd d ee r r obes , a nd o the r h ide p roduc ts (Wood 1 972 :159 ) . A rchaeo log ica l m a te r ia l i n t he f o rm o f e xo t ics s uch a s d en ta l ium , n a t ive c oppe r , c onch a r t if a c t s , o bs id ian , c a t l in i te , a nd K n if e R ive rF l in t (Wood 1 974 :11-12 ) f o und i ns i te s f a r d i s tan t f r om s ou rces h a s p rov ided s uppo r t f o r t h ese c onc lus ions . A s K ehoe ( 1993 ) n o ted , t h e P l a ins B lack f oo t h ad b een f am i l ia rw i th al a rge e xpans ive t e r r i to ry mos tl i ke ly f r om t r ade c on tac t s a nd e xped i t ions , a ss ugge s ted b y m aps d rawn i n 1 80 1 -1802 b y aB lackfoo t l e ade r f o r P e te r F id le r . G r inne l l ( 1962 :254 -255 ) a l so d i scus sed h ow t h e B lack foo t o f ten m ade r e f e rence t ot h el o ng j ou rney su nde r taken b y w a r p a r t ie s i n t h e e a r ly d ay s o f t he n i ne teen th c en tu ry t ot h e " Span ish l a nds ," a s w e l l a s a c ros s t h e m oun ta ins t o t h e o cean . E v idence s ugge s t s t h a t b o th p r eh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic N o r the rn P la ins I nd ians , w h i le r e ta in ing s ome o f t h e p roduc ts f o r t h e i r o wn u se , p roce ssed t h e s u rp lus o f t h e b ov ine h e rds i n to ma rke tab le p roduc t s ( s ee d i scuss ion i n K ehoe 1 993 ) .

T h is e r os ion o f ac o l lec t ive mode o fp roduc t ion r e su l ted i n u nequa l a ccess t o i mpor tan t r e sou rce s , a nd t h e refo re d i spa r i t ie si nw ea l th b e tween f am i l ie sa nd i n d iv idua ls ( K le in 1 983 :160 ) . F u r the rmo re , i tmo re s t r ic t ly d i cho tom ized m a le a nd f ema le l a bou r ( K le in 1 983 :154 ) . T he l i f e o ft h e P la ins m a le w a s i n c rea s ing ly i nvo lved i n w a rf a re a nd r a id ing t o r ep len ish h e rds . W i th h o rse s c on t ro l led a nd o wned b y i n d iv idua l ma le s( K le in 1 983 :150 , 1 52 -153 ) ,w omen b ecame mo re s eg rega ted a nd v i r tua l ly e xc luded f r om t h is m i l i ta ryb uf fa lo c omp lex ( Sanday 1 981 :148 , 1 57 ) . Mo reove r , i n tens if i ca t ion o fh ide t r ad ing a r ound 1 820 ( K le in 1 983 :154 ) , w h i le f u r the r i n c rea s ing w ea l th a nd s t a tus d i f f e rence s , a l so i n c rea sed w omen 's l a bou r t ime i np roce s s ing a nd t a nn ing h i de s , ac ommod i ty w hose a cqu is i t ion a nd t r ade w a sl a rge ly i nt h eh ands o fm en ( Med ic ine 1 983 :269 -270 ) , a nd r a ised t h e d emand f o r t a nne r s , r e su l t ing i ni n c rea sed p o lygyny ( K le in 1 983 :155 ; We is t 1 980 :259 ) . A l though f ema le l a bou r w a s b a s ica l ly i den t ica l t o t h a t o f t he e i gh teen th c en tu ry ( i .e . , d omes t ic d u t ie s , g a the r ing p lan t s , t a nn ing h ide s ) , K le in ( 1 983 :155 -156 )a r gued t h a ti tw a st h e i rr emova l f r om c r uc ia l s phe re s o f p roduc t ion ( i n t h is c a se , t h e h un t ) t h a t h ad a f fec ted t he ir a b i l i ty t o c on t ro l s t a tus -bea r ing g oods ; c onsequen t ly , t h e i r p os i t ion e roded a nd t h e i r d ependence i n c rea sed ( s ee a l so K o rnf e ld a nd F ranc is 1 991 :447 -448 ) .

T he p os s ib i l i ty t h a tL a te P reh is to r ic g roup sw e re i n vo lved i n i n tens ive t r ade a nd c omme rc ia l p roduc t ion o fb i son p r oduc t s f o r M is sou r i -M is s is s ipp i t r ade p r io r t o w e s te rn c on tac t i mp l ies t h a t K le in 's ( 1983 ) s cena r io o f as h if t i n P la ins e conomy f r om o ne e mpha s iz ing s ubs is tence t oo ne f o cu s ing u pon s u rp lu s f r om t h e e i gh te en th t on i ne teen th c en tu ry m ay b e i naccu ra te . T h is v i ew t hen c a l ls i n to q ue s t ion t he i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t c hange s i n g ende r r e la t ions i nvo lv ing i n c reased e conom ic d ependence o f w omen u pon m en o ccur red b ecause o f t h is a ppa ren t s h if t i n e conomy . Mo reove r , t h e re a r e n ume rous a ccoun t s t h a t s ugge s t t h a t w omen i nv a r ious P la ins s oc ie t ie s w e re a b le t oa nd d i d o wn h o r se s , a nd t h a t s ome w omen we re a sw ea l thy a sa ny m en ( e .g . , G r inne l l 1 923 :155 ) . Ewe rs ( 1969 :28 -29 ) n o ted f o r t h e B lack foo t t h a th o r se s w e re p rope r ty , i n d iv idua l ly o wned b y

S im i la rs cena r ios o ft h ec onsequence so fw e s te rn c on ta c ta nd c o lon ia l ism h ave b een o u t l ined n o t o n ly f o rP la in s s oc ie t ie s b u ta l so f o rn on -we s te rn s oc ie t ie si ng ene ra l .F o re xamp le , i t h a s b een a r gued t h a t e a r ly t r ade w i th E u ropeans u l t ima te ly r e su l ted i nt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f ap ub l ic s e c to rc once rned w i th p roduc t ion f o ra ccumu la t ion a nd t r ade f r om ap r iva te h ou seho ld s ec to r c once rned w i th p roduc t ion f o r s ubs is tence a nd s ha r ing ( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :14 ) . Mo reove r , i tw a s m en 's s phe re s o fr e spons ib i l i ty t h a t o f ten 5 6

g ende r r e la t ions a nd i d eo logy . Wh i le i ti sb eyond t h e s cope o f t h is r e sea rch t oe xam ine f u r the r t h e e xac t n a tu re o f t h e e f f ec t s o f E u ropean c on tac t u pon P la ins l i f eways , t he re i s l i t t le d oub t t h a t t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h e h o rse , f u r t r ade e conom ie s , d i sea se , i nf luence f r om m iss iona r ie s , a nd t he e ven tua l l o s s o fb i son h un t ing o n t h e P la ins h ad ap rof ound e f f ec to na l l membe r so ft h ec u l tu re , n o t o n ly n a t ive w omen , b u t m en a nd c h i ld ren a s w e l l . H ence , i ti sm is lead ing t o a s sume t ha t No r th Ame r ican n a t ive s oc ie t ie s w e re n o t s i gn if ican t ly a f fec ted b y E u ropean c on tac t , a nd t h a t t h e se s oc ie t ie s c an b e u sed a s s imp le a na logue s f o r e a r l ie r p rec on tac t h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s . T ak ing a s t a t ic a nd a h is to r ica l v i ew o f s oc ie t ie s i g no re s b o th t h e d ynam ics o f p reco lon ia l c hange a nd t he r ea l i t ies o f t h e e f fec t s o f c o lon iza t ion ( E t ienne a nd L eacock 1 980 :2 ; s ee L eacock 1 982 f o r s pec if ic e xamp le s o fp os t -co lon ia l c hange s w i th in b and s oc ie t ie st h a tr e su l ted f r om E u ropean c on tac t ) .

b o th men a nd women . A s we l l , n ume rou s r e fe rence s b y N o r th Ame r ican t r ade r s t on a t ive w omen t r ad ing s ugge s ted t h a t w omen w e re n o t c omp le te ly e xc luded f r om p roduc t ion s phe re s , t h ec on t ro l o fg oods , a nd w e s te rn e conom ie s ( e .g . , C oue s 1 965 :328 ;J ohnson 1 967 :108 ; s e ea l so d i scu s s ions a nd a dd i t iona l r e f e rences i n G rume t 1 980 :56 -57 a nd We is t 1 980 :265 ) . I ti so bv iou s t h a t t he s i tua t ion w a s u ndoub ted ly much mo re c omp lex t h an w ha t many r e sea rche r s s e em t op o r t ray ;t h a ti s , l i f e f o r n on s ta te s oc ie t ie s , e spec ia l ly h un te r -ga the re r s , p r io r t oE u ropean c on tac t w a s s o me s o r t o f e ga l i ta r ian " go lden a ge " ( Abe l 1 993 :23 ) i nw h ich men a nd w omen w e re e qua l ly v a lued , a nd t h a t i tw a s n o t u n t i l E u ropean c on tac t a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o fm a rke t s y s tems t h a tr o les o f women a nd m en b ecame i n c rea s ing ly d i f f e ren t ia ted w i th u nequa l a cce s s t o r e sou rce s ,i n c rea s ing i n equa l i ty a nd e conom ic d ependence o f w omen ,a nd a ne ros ion o ft h e i rp o s i t ion a nd a u tonomy w h i le m a le r o le s r ema ined mo re v a lued a nd p r iv i leged ( e .g . , L eacock 1 978 ) . T he se t y pe s o fa s sump t ions o f ap re -con ta c t g o lden a ge f o r women , a nd o f c o lon iza t ion 's h av ing a n ega t ive i mpac t o n t h e s oc ia l p os i t ion o f w omen i n a l l c u l tu re s a nd i ne ve ry a spec t o fl i f e a r e h igh ly q ue s t ionab le a nd v e ry s weep ing g ene ra l iza t ion s ( s ee L epowsky 1 990 :209 f o r as im i la r c l a im ) . Wh i le t h e re i ss ome e v idence t ha t w omen 's r o le s , s t a tu s ,p owe r , a u tonomy , a nd r i gh t s i nm any n on -we s te rn s oc ie t ies h ave d ec l ined b ecause o f c o lon ia l p o l ic ie s a nd e conom ic c hange s ( s ee E t ienne a nd L eacock , e d . 1 980 ; L eacock 1 978 , 1 980 ; T if f any 1 979 :11 ; T roco l l i 1 992 ) , t h e re h ave b een i n s tance si nw h ich c o lon ia l , w e s te rn i nf luence s h ave a l lowed w omen t om a in ta in t h e i r s t a tus o r h ave h ad a dvan tageou s e f f ec t s o n w omen 's r o le s a nd s t a tus ( e .g . , K le in 1 980 ; We ine r 1 980 ) . Mo reove r , r e sponse s t o E u ropean c on tac t mos t l i ke ly w e re n o t u n ifo rm a c ros s c u l tu re s o r g ende rs . F o r e xamp le , i n S pec to r 's ( 1983 :96 ) s t udy o ft h e n ine teen th -cen tu ry H ida t sa , s he s ugges ted t h a t m en a nd w omen h ad r e sponded d i f f e ren t ly t oc ond i t ions o f c hange b rough t a bou t b y c on tac t w i th E u ro -Ame r icans d u r ing t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t he n i ne teen th c en tu ry . No r w e re n on -we s te rn p eop le sp a s s ive r e c ip ien t s o ft h e se c o lon iza t ion e f fo r ts ; r a the r , t hey a c t ive ly d eve loped v a r ious s t ra teg ie s t o r e s is t a t temp t s a tc o lon iza t ion a nd d e f end t h e i ri n te res t s ( s ee E t ienne a nd L eacock , e d . 1 980 ; R o thenbe rg 1 980 ) . Mo reove r , n ume rou s a u tho r s ( e .g . , D empsey 1 993 ; T h is t le 1 993 ) h ave s ugges ted t ha t t h e i n t roduc t ion o f E u ropean g oods a nd t he e a r ly f u r t r ade d id n o t c rea te n a t ive d ependency o n t h e E u ropean f u r t r ade s ys tem , a nd d i d n o t r ad ica l ly a l te r t he l i f es ty le s a nd c u l tu re o f t he n a t ive p opu la t ions i nhab i t ing t he i n te r io r w e s t o f H udson B ay . I n s tead ,i th a sb een a r gued t h a tt h e se e l emen t sw e re b a s ica l ly i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h ee x is t ing l i f e s ty le s a nd t r ade s ys tem s o f t h e se g r oup s . Demp sey ( 1993 ) a nd T h is t le ( 1993 ) s ugge s t t h a t m a jo r c hange s i nc u l tu re a nd t r ad i t ions , a nd e conom ic d ependency d id n o t a c tua l ly c ome u n t i l much l a te r w i th r e sou rce d ep le t ion , t h e v i r tua l e x t inc t ion o f t h e b i son , t h e s p read o f e p idem ic d i sease s , a nd m iss iona ry a c t iv i t ie s . D e sp i te t h e se c l a im s , b o th t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h eh o r se a nd n a t ive p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t he E u ropean ma rke t e conomy t h rough t h e f u r t r ade mus t h ave i nf luenced s ome a spec t s o f t h et r ad i t iona l e conomy o fn a t ive p opu la t ions .

T he refo re , i n a nswe r t o t he q ues t ion o f h ow v a l id e thnog raph ic a na log ie s a re f o r r econs t ruc t ing P la ins P a leo ind ian l i f eway s , o ne c an c onc lude t h a t a ccoun ts o f g roups i nr e cen t e nv i ronmen t s a nd s oc ia l c on tex t s , w h ich h ave b een i nf luenced b y E u ropean t r ade g oods , e conom ie s , a nd c o lon iza t ion , m ay n o t b e e n t ire ly a pp l icab le f o r p reh is to r ic g roup s o nt h eP la ins . T h is c onc lus ion may b et r ue e ven mo re f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w ho l i ved u nde r s ea sona l p a t te rns o f t h e l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv i ronmen ts t ha t w e re much d if fe ren t f r om t hose c ha rac te r is t ic o f P ro toh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic t ime s , when e t hnog raph ie s o ft h e P la ins b i son h un te r s w e re w r i t ten ( s ee f o l low ing c hap te r f o r mo re d e ta i led d i scuss ion ) . I n s tead , P a leo ind ians m ay h ave p rac t ised d i f f e ren ts t ra teg ie s f r om t h e c l a ss ica l e t hnog raph ic s ea sona l r ound t h a tf o rm s t h eb a s is o f many P a leo ind ian mode ls s uch a s G re ise r 's ( 1985) r e con s t ruc t ion . 5 . 3 .8 .4 D i scus s ion : T he U se o fE thnograph i c Ana logy Wh i le a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ies o f c u l tu re s t h roughou t t h e w o r ld s how ag r ea tv a r ie ty o fl i f eway s , s ubs is tence p a t te rns , a nd i n te rac t ion b e tween w omen a nd men a nd t h e t a sk s a nd r o le s t h ey p e rf o rm , a r chaeo log is t s c anno t a s sume t ha t t h e l i ve s o f men a nd w omen i np reh is to ry , e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene , w e re i d en t ica l t ot h ose o f c u l tu re s l i v ing t o day o r i n t h e e t hnog raph ic p a s t . B u t a s Y e l len ( 1977 :3 ) p o in ted o u t a nd a s i lus t ra ted h e re , a l though t he re a r e n ume rous p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th t h eu se o fa na logy , a nd , c onsequen t ly , much c r i t ic ism o ve r i t s u se , i ti se x t reme ly d i ff icu l t t om ake a ny s t a temen t s a bou t p reh is to r ic l i f eway s w i thou t r efe rence t o s uch a na logy . A l l p reh is tor ic a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion i s a na log ica l i n n a tu re , a s h ypo the se sa r ep redom inan t ly d r awn f r om e t hnog raph ic d a ta ( La rson 1 991 :165 ) . I n e ssence , t he r ea l i ty i s t ha t p reh is to r ians mu s t r e ly h eav i ly u pon k now ledge o f h ow t h ings w o rk n ow , b a sed o n t h e i r e xpe r ience s o r t hose r epo r ted b y o t he r s , t oh ave a ny c oncep t ion a ta l l a bou t t h e p a s t ( La rson 1 991 :165 ; Z ih lman 1 991a :5 ) . A na logy i s e s sen t ia l t o a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion a nd b a s ic t o a l l s c ien t if ic t h ink ing ( Kehoe 1 991 :430 ; K e l ley a nd H anen 1 988 :26 1-262 ) . O fi t se lf t h e u se o fa na logy i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly b ad ; i ti st h e u nc r i t ica l , u nque s t ion ing , a nd i mp l ic i t u se o f a na logy t h a t a r chaeo log is t s m us t g ua rd a ga ins t ( La r son 1 991 :166 ) . I n e s sence , t h eu nc r i t ica l s e lec t ive u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na logy h a s c on t r ibu ted s i gn if ican t ly t o t he d eve lopmen t a nd

I n s umma ry , i ti s r e la t ive ly a ppa ren t t ha t c on tac t w i th E u ropeans ,t h e i rt r ade g oods a nd e conom ie s , i n t roduced n ew p roduc t ion f a c to r sa nd an ew b a s i so fw ea l th wh ich r e su l ted i nc omp lex , a nd n o ty e t w e l l u nde r s tood , c hange s i na lmo s t e ve ry a spe c t o fP la ins l i f e , i n c lud ing a nd e spec ia l ly t h a t o f 5 7

u pon u nque s t ioned n o t ions d e r ived f r om o r " pe rce ived " i n t h e e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re , a nd t o ta l a na logue s c an e a s i ly r e su l t i n g ene ra l ized , i naccu ra te , a nd s imp ly b ad i n te rp re ta t ion s . N o e t hnog raph ic a na logue c an e ve r p rov ide t h e c omp le te b luep r in t f o r a rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion ; i n s tead , e t hnog raph ic c ases h e lp t o s e t ar ange o f i n te rp re ta t ive o p t ions f o r t he a r chaeo log is t ( Cannon 1 991 :146 ) . Wh i le t o ta l s oc ie t ie s m ay b e i napp rop r ia te a na logue s f o r p reh is tor ic s oc ie t ie s , e l emen t s w i th in t h e e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re c an f r equen t ly p rov ide u se fu l p a r t ia l a na logue s i na r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s . F o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions t hen , g iven t he d if fe ren t e nv ironmen ta l , d emograph ic , a nd s oc ia l s e t t ings , t he re i s n o s t r ic t c o r re spondence o r c ompa r ison t o m ode rn o r m o re r e cen t h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups . T h is f a c t , h oweve r , d oes n o t p rec lude t h e u se o f p a r t ia l a na logue s o b ta ined f r om t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd t o s ugge s t p oss ib le s cena r io s a nd p a t te rns f o ra s pec t so fP a leo ind ian l i f eway s , i n c lud ing t h a to f g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ions , i f t h e u se o f t ho se p a r t ia l a na logues i su nde r taken i n ar i go rou sm anne r .

d om inance o f t h e u nque s t ioned n o t ion o f P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing , a nd t he a ccep tance o f as t a t ic a nd l i ke ly d i s to r t ing v i ew o fg ende rr o le s a nd r e la t ions f o rP a leo ind ian a nd P la ins p opu la t ions . Many a r chaeo log is t sb e l ieve t ha t a na logy c an b e ap owe r fu l i n te rp re t ive t o o l i fu sed c a refu l ly , w i th s ome c r i te r ion f o r c ompa r ison , a nd i nt h e c o r rec t manne r ( e .g . , A sche r 1 961 ; B info rd 1 967 ; Hughe s 1 991 :28 ; Wy l ie 1 985 ) .B info rd ( 1 967 , 1 968 ) a r gued t ha t a na logue s w e re n o t t ob e u sed a s ab a s is f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , b u t r a the r a sa b a s is f o rd eve lop ing p os tu la te s f r om w h ich h ypo the se sw e re d e r ived , w h ich , i n t u rn , c ou ld b e t e s ted b y a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta . A sche r ( 1961 :319 -323 ) a r gued t h a ti t w a s b e s t t o s eek a na log ie s i n c u l tu re s t h a t m an ipu la ted s im i la r e nv iron men ts i n s im i la r w ays , h ad s im i la r e conom ie s , a nd h ad s im i la r t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t . I t w a sn e ce s sa ry , mo reove r , t oc ons ide rt h e i rd i s tance si nt e rm s o fs pa ce a nd t ime , a nd t oe xam ine t h ec l o sene s s o ft h e f i to f t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween f o rms i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i tua t ion a nd t h ose i nt h es upposed ly a na logou ss i tua t ions . I n o the r w o rd s , t h e g rea te r t h e s im i la r i ty i nt h e e n t i re c on tex t b e tween t h et wo e xamp le s b e ing c ompa red , t h e g rea te r w a s t h e p l au s ib i l i ty o ft h e a na logy . Howeve r , i ti su n rea l is t ic t o e xpec t s i tua t ions w i th i den t ica l o r n ea r i den t ica l e nv i ronmen t s o rc on tex t s ; mo reove r , i d en t ica le nv i ronmen t s a nd c on tex t s w ou ld n o t n ecessa r i ly i n d ica te t h a t i d en t ica l c ho ice s w ou ld h ave b een m ade . A s w e l l , l o ca l e nv i ronmen t s a nd c on tex t s c an o f ten e xpe r ience s ub t le b u t i mpo r tan t c hange so ve rt ime t h a tm ay n o tb ec omp le te ly v i s ib le .

T he i mpo r tan tp o in t t os t re s s i st he n eed t ob e m o re c r i t ica l w hen i n te rp re t ing t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , e spec ia l ly w hen t h ose i n te rp re ta t ions a re b ased t o al a rge d eg ree u pon u nde r ly ing a s sump t ions a nd s t e reo types d e r ived f r om e t hnog raph ic a nd e t hnoh is to r ica l d a ta . Mo reove r , t h e re i s a l so c l ea r ly an eed , i na dd i t ion t ob e ing m o re r i go rou s w i th t h e u se o f a na logy , t o r eeva lua te p rev ious a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s t h a t h ave b een b ased o n t h e u nc r i t ica l a nd s e lec t ive u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie s , an e ed f o r m o re i n d ep th a na lys is a nd c r i t ique o f t he a c tua l e t hnog raph ic d ocumen t s t ou nde r s tand mo re p rec ise ly t h e s cope o f t h e i mpa c t o fE u ropean c on tac t o n P la ins a nd o t he rn on -we s te rn s oc ie t ie s a nd g ende r r o le s , a nd t he n e ed t ob e a wa re o ft h e p os s ib i l i ty o fe t hnocen t r ic a nd w e s te rn o rs t a te leve lb i a sa nd a s sump t ions c o lou r ing e t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re .

D e sp i te t h e many p rob lems a ssoc ia ted w i th t h e u se o f a na logy , i ti s o f ten a v e ry n ece ssa ry a nd v i ta l p a r t o f a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion . H ence , w hen d ea l ing w i th t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na log ies t o a s s is t i n i n te rp re t ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , o ne mus t b e r i go rou s a nd c r i t ica l ( s ee L a r son 1 991 f o r a n i lus t ra t ion o f s uch a n a pp roach i nt h e u se o f e thnograph ic a na logy i n a rchaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions ) . I nt h ec a se o ft he d i rec th i s to r ica l a pp roach , i nw h ich o ne i sa b le t ot r ace w e l l -documen ted e t hnog raph ic g roups t o t h e i r p reh is to r ic a n teceden ts i n t h e s ame a r ea , e t hnog raph ic a na logy may b e mo re a pp rop r ia te b u ts t i l l mus t b e u sed c au t ious ly , w i th t h e c ons ide ra t ion o ft h e p os s ib i l i ty o fc hange o ve r t ime , a si lus t ra ted a bove f o r P l a ins g roups . U nde r ly ing a s sump t ions d e r ived f r om e t hnog raph ic d a ta mus tb ee xposed , i d en t if ied , m ade e xp l ic i t , a nd e xam ined t o d e te rm ine w he the r t hey a re v a l id o r n o t . A s L a r son ( 1991 :166 -167 ) i lus t ra ted v e ry e f f ec t ive ly , f o r t he p rope r u se o fa na logy t h e re mus tb ea n empha s i so n t h ec ompa r ison o f b o th t h e s im i la r i t ies a nd d i f fe rences b e tween t h e p reh is to r ic a nd e thnog raph ic f o rm s , a sw e l l a sa n a na ly s i s o f t h e u nde r ly ing p r inc ip le s o n wh ich t ho se s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i f f e rence s a r e b a sed . Mo reove r , S tah l ( 1993 :252 ) s t re s sed t h e i mpo r tance o f a dop t ing ac ompa ra t ive a pp roach r a the r t h an a n i lus t ra t ive a pp roach w hen a pp ly ing a na logue s , a n a pp roach t ha t , i n p a r t , w ou ld e nab le a r chaeo log is t s t o e xam ine d i s s im i la r i t ie s a nd d ive rgence s a nd t h us p oss ib ly l e ad t oa l te rna te i n te rp re ta t ions .

5 . 4 SU M MARY T he p rev ious d i scu s s ion h a s r evea led t h en ume rou su n te s ted a s sump t ions a nd i n cons is tenc ie s t ha th ave k ep tt h eb i g g ame h un t ing mode l a l ive f o r P a leo ind ian l i f eway i n te rp re ta t ion s , a s w e l l a s i lu s t ra ted t h e s oc ia l a nd h i s to r ica l f a c to r s t h a t h ave r e su l ted i ni t sd om inance . C lea r ly , a r chaeo log is t sn eed t ob e a wa re o ft h e s oc iopo l i t ica l , h i s to r ica l , a nd i d eo log ica l b i a se s t h a t a f f ec t t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o fd a ta ( Hanen a nd K e l ley 1 983 ; Wy l ie 1 983 ) , t h a ti s ,h ow p r e sen t d ay v a lue s , p re jud ice s , n o rms , a nd p o l i t ics c ome t o b e e mbedded i no ne 's w o rk , a nd h ow a r chaeo log is t sp a r t ic ipa te i n t h e p roce s s o f i mpos ing t h e p re sen t o n t h e p a s t ( Ge ra 1 985 :343 ) . H ence , i ti s i mpo r tan t f o r a r chaeo log is t s t o e ngage i ns e lf re f lec t ive c r i t ic ism ( Ge ro 1 985 :342 ; K e l le r 1 982 :594 ) t oh e lp i n mak ing a l l p reconce ived a s sump t ion s a nd b e l ie f s e xp l ic i t ( Mand ryk 1 992 :61) . H oweve r , w h i le p a rad igma t ic b i a se s , t h e s oc ia l c on tex t , a nd p reconce ived a s sump t ions a nd i d ea si nf luence h ow a r chaeo log is t si n te rp re t t h eP a leo ind ian d a ta , t h e re i sa l so t he i nf luence o fi n c rea s ing d a ta t h a ts imp ly c an n o l onge r s uppo r tt h eb i g g ame h un t ing m ode la nd i t sa s soc ia ted a s sump t ions .

I ns umma ry ,t h ee t hnog raph ic r e co rd i sn o te n t i re ly u nusab le a nd i n accu ra te b ecause i tw a s c o l lec ted p r ima r i ly b y w h i te , w e s te rn ma le s .I n s tead , t h ee t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re a nd u se o f a na log ie s d e r ived f r om t h a t r eco rd c an b e b o th i nva luab le a nd p os i t ive t o o ls f o r a r chaeo log is t s , d epend ing u pon t h e i n d iv idua l r e sea rche r 's p e r spe c t ive a nd a pp roa ch . S e lec t ive a nd u nc r i t ica l u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s , d ependence

A l though P la in s a r chaeo logy h as b een d om ina ted u n t i l o n ly r ecen t ly b y m a le r e sea rche rs , t he e mphas is o n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion a nd i mage o fb ig g ame h un te rs i sn o t d ue t o s ome s o r to f" ma le b i a s " o n t h ep a r t o fm a le a r chaeo log is t s , o r ad e l ibe ra te a t temp t t o i g no re f ema le c on t r ibu t ion s i n p reh is to ry . I n s tead , a s o u t l ined i n t h is c hap te r , t h is 5 8

make s ense o fi tf r om d i f f e ren tp o s i t ions ." I nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r s , Iw i l l d oj u s tt h a t : d eve lop a n a l te rna t ive r e ad ing o f t he P a leo ind ian d a ta f r om a p e r spec t ive w h ich i s mo re c r i t ica l o ft h e f unc t iona l is t , t y po log ica l ly o r ien ted p o s i t iv is t a r chaeo logy t h a t l e d t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e b ig g ame h un t ing i n te rp re ta t ion a nd i t sa s soc ia ted a s sump t ions .

o ve rempha s is o n h un t ing i st h e r e su l t o fa nd k ep t a l ive b y f a c to rs o f p rese rva t ion a nd s amp l ing o f s i tes , b y t h e e t hnog raph ic f o lk lo re o fP la ins h un te r -ga the re r sa sb i g g ame h un te rs ,b yP l a ins a r chaeo log is t s ' i n te re s ti nt h e mo re v i s ib le a nd d rama t ic a c t iv i t ies a ppa ren t ly r ep resen ted i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a nd b y t h e a s sump t ion d e r ived f r om e t hnog raph ic mode ls t h a t g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s p r ima r i ly p e rfo rmed b yf ema le sw e re i n s ign if ican t , a nd a r ee s sen t ia l ly i nv is ib le i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd i mposs ib le t o e xam ine s c ien t if ica l ly . E ven t hough t h e ma jo r i ty o f P a leo ind ian l i feways r econs t ruc t ions a re e ssen t ia l ly g ende r le s s , t h is empha s is o n h un t ing , a n a c t iv i ty wh ich i s c ons ide red t ob ec onduc ted p redom inan t ly b y men , a ppea r s t o f avou r t h e v i s ib i l i ty o f p reh is to r ic m a le a c to rs wh i le i g no r ing t h e p oss ib le c on t r ibu t ions made b y w omen a nd c h i ld ren . A s K o rnfe ld ( 1991 :2 ) r ema rked , t h e p reh is to r ic P la ins w o r ld s eems t ob e f u l l o fh un te r s , g ene ra l ly s een a s m a le , w i th o n ly " a s ma l l s p r ink l ing o f w omen g a the re r s ." W i thou t d oub t , s cena r ios o f P la ins p reh is to ry ( and t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod i sn o e xcep t ion ) w e re a nd a r e i nva r iab ly c r ea ted i n aw e s te rn , s t a te leve l s oc ia l e nv i ronmen t s t i l l h eav i ly i nf luenced b yn i ne teen th -cen tu ry V ic to r ian v a lue s o f ar i g id d i v is ion b e tween ama le p ub l ic s phe re a nd f ema le d omes t ic s phe re ( Kehoe 1 983 ; K o rnfe ld 1 991 :2 ; We is t 1 983 ) , ac l a s s ic e xamp le s een i n t h e a r gumen t s made b y D av is ( 1993 ) . A s n o ted b y K o rnf e ld ( 1991 :4 ) , V ic to r ian n o t ions o f f ema le s ubm iss ivene s s , p u r i ty , p ie ty , a nd d omes t ic i ty a r e p a r t o f t h e E u ro -Ame r ican h e r i tage wh ich e ncu l tu ra te s mode rn s c ien t is ts , a nd t h e se b ia se s may b e h i nde r ing a r chaeo log i s t s f r om e xp lo r ing a l te rna t ive v i ew s o f t h ep a s t . A rchaeo log is t s mus t r e a l ize t h a t t h e i mage s o f " c la ss ic " e t hnog raph ic h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup s , a nd e spe c ia l ly P l a ins h i s to r ic b i son h un te r s , a r en o tn ece s sa r i ly at o ta l c ompa rab le a na logy f o r t h e r e cons t ruc t ion o fn o t o n ly g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ion so fP a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ,b u ta l so s ubs is tence a nd g ene ra l l i f eway s . C lea r ly , a r chaeo log is t s n eed t oq ue s t ion i mage s o f g ende r d e r ived f r om s e lec t ive e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s t h a t a ppea r t os uppo r t p reconce ived a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r r e la t ions . B y u nc r i t ica l ly u s ing h i s to r ic a nd e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s a s ab a s is f o ri n te rp re ta t ion o fP la ins a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , a nd c onsequen t ly a s sum ing t h e a l l i mpor tance o f b ison a nd b ig g ame h un t ing , P la ins a r chaeo log is t s t e nd t od i scoun t t h ec hange s t h a t o ccu r red a s ar esu l t o f E u ropean c on tac t . Mo reove r , t h ey i gno re t h e p os s ib i l i ty o f p reco lon ia l c hange a nd t h e l i ke l ihood o f v a r iab i l i ty a nd f l ex ib i l i ty i nl i f eway s a nd g ende rr e la t ions i n p reh is to r ic P l a ins g roups o ve rt ime . I ns umma ry , i ti se v iden tt h a tt h eb i gg ame h un t ing mode l i s s od om ina t ing t h a ta spec t s o fc u l tu re o t he rt h an h un t ing t e nd t ob e e i the rd i s to r ted o rf o rgo t ten . T he re i sc l ea r ly ac ruc ia l n eed t o r e s to re s o me s or t o f b a lance t o t he p as t . A rchaeo log is ts a re n o l onge r j u s t if ied i n p resen t ing P a leo ind ian l i fe a sr evo lv ing e n t i re ly a round t h e h un t ing o f l a rge P l e is tocene mamma ls s uch a s b i son a nd mammo th . Mo re l i ke ly , h un t ing w as o n ly o ne c omponen t w i th in a c omp lex , d ynam ic l i fe f o r P a leo ind ian p eop le . A s G e ro ( 1993 ) s t a ted , i ti sn ow t ime t o r e c la im a s oc ia l l i fe f o r P a leo ind ian s , al i f ew h ich i n c lude s af u l le ra nd b roade rr ange o f c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l a nd d ynam ic s oc ia l e xpe r ience b eyond t h a t o ft h e f l u ted p o in t , h un t ing l i f e s ty le , a nd t h eb i son a nd mammo th . A s T i l ley ( 1991 :116 ) n o ted i n d i scuss ing G adame r ( 1 975 ) , " Unde r s tand ing i s ap roce s s i n wh ich w e n eed t ot r y o u t a l te rna t ive r e ad ing s o ft h et e x tt os ee h ow t o 5 9

CHAPTER 6 A CONSTRUCT ION OF PALEOIND IAN SUBSISTENCE AND S ETTLEMENT PATTERNS s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs is tence s ys tems c r ea te d i f f e ren t l a bou r r e la t ions a nd v a ry ing s t ruc tu re s o fg ende r r o le s . Wh i le i ti s a ppa ren t t ha t t h e re i s av i ta l a nd i mpo r tan t a s soc ia t ion b e tween g ende r r e la t ions a nd s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s , Id on o tb e l ieve t h a tt h is c onnec t ion c an b ed ef ined i n s uch a s imp le a nd u n i l inea r c au se a nd e f f ec t m anne r . G ende r a nd s ex r o le s a nd r e la t ions a r e n o t a u toma t ic r e sponse st o , n o rd i rec td e te rm ina t ions b y , t h eg ene ra ln a tu re o fs ubs is tence a nd e conom ic l i f e . I n s tead , t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween g ende r r e la t ions a nd s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s y s tem s u l t ima te ly i nvo lve s mu l t ip le f a c to r s t h a t i nf luence e ach o t he r , a nd i n te rac t , n o t f o l low ing au n i l inea r p a th t o p roduce s ome s o r t o fs t a t ic f i na l r e su l t , b u t r a the r i n amo re c omp lex , d ynam ic , mu l t i l inea r , i n te ra c t ive , a nd c on tex tua l f a sh ion ( F igu re 1 ) . Mo reove r , i ti sb ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly a ppa ren t t h a t m en a nd w omen p lay a c t ive r o le s i nd ef in ing a nd r e def in ing t h e i r s phe re s o fa c t iv i t ie s a nd r e spons ib i l i t ie s a nd t h e i rr e la t ion sw i th e a ch o the r .

6 . 1 I NTRODUCTION A s d emons t ra ted i n t he p rev ious c hap te r s , t he f ocus o n t y po logy , s y s tem s a na ly s is , a dap ta t ion , a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t h a sr e su l ted i n av e ry mechan is t ic ,f unc t iona l , a nd e s sen t ia l ly d e -human ized v i ew o f P la ins l i fe , i n c lud ing t h a t o f t h e e a r l ie s t P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions o ft h is r eg ion . C on t ra ry t o c r i t ic isms t h a t s ugge s t t h a t i na r chaeo log ica lr e cons t ruc t ion s w omen f r equen t ly d i sappea ri ng ene r ic c a tego r ie s ,b ecom ing i n v is ib le b y b e ing s ubsumed i n u n i t s o f a na ly s is t h a t a r e c ha rac te r ized a cco rd ing t o ma le o ccupa t ions a nd p owe r r e la t ion s ( s ee S pence r - Wood 1 991 :234 , 2 36 ) , Ic on tend t h a t b o th P a leo ind ian w omen a nd m en , a s w e l l a sc h i ld ren , t h e i n d iv idua l a c to r s w ho made d ec is ions a nd a c ted u pon t h em , t e nd t ob e p o r t rayed a sp awns a nd a r e g iven i r re levan t a nd u nchang ing r o le s b ecause t h ey a r e b e l ieved t o h ave b een c on t ro l led b y al a rge r c u l tu ra l s y s tem . T he p i c tu re t h a t h a s r e su l ted i s o ne o f aP la ins p eop le , t h roughou t a l l o f p reh is tory , p rac t is ing a l ong -s tand ing a dap ta t ion e mpha s iz ing b i g g ame h un t ing ( p r ima r i ly b i son ) , w i th m en h un t ing a nd mak ing f o rma l s t one t oo ls , a nd women g a the r ing ,p roce ss ing m ea t , a nd u nde r tak ing d ome s t ic t a sk s . T h is i mage p o ten t ia l ly m in im ize s a nd d i s to r t st h ei mpo r tance o fb o th m a le a nd f ema le r o le s , l a bou r , a nd c on t r ibu t ions t o s ub s is tence , a nd i td i scoun t s t h ep os s ib i l i ty o ff l ex ib i l i ty a nd d ynam ic i n te rp lay i ng ende rr o le sa nd r e la t ions .

T he p u rpose o ft h is c hap te r a nd t h e f o l low ing c hap te r i st o b eg in t o e xp lo re t h is i mpo r tan t i n te rconnec t ion b e tween g ende r d ynam ic s a nd s ubs is tence s y s tem s f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion sw ho l i ved o n t h e No r the rn P l a ins d u r ing t h el a te r s t age s o ft h eP l e is tocene ( c a . 1 ,000 10 ,500 y ea r sB .P . ) , a nd , i n t h e p roces s , c ons t ruc t as ubs is tence / se t t lemen t m ode l e mpha s iz ing g ende r . T h i s c hap te r w i l l b r ie f ly i n t roduce l a te P l e i s tocene e nv i ronmen ta l i n fo rma t ion , a sw e l l a st h eo re t ica l d i scuss ions o f h unte r -ga there rs a nd P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , a s ab a s is f o r d eve lop ing t h e d ec is ionmak ing a nd g ender mode l o f P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence / se t t lemen t s t ra teg ies , w h ich w i l l b e a dd re s sed i n d e ta i l i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r . A s d i scu ssed i nC hap te r 3 ,I f i nd t h e t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a pp roach t ob e i n adequa te a nd t o o c ons t ra in ing i nm any w ays , e spec ia l ly a s am e thod f o r e xam in ing t h e d ynam ics o fp reh is to r ic l i f eway s a nd g ende r r e la t ion s ( s ee s im i la r c l a im i nS pec to r 1 993 :17 ) . A s S pec to r ( 1 993 :17 ) ma in ta ined ,b y a t temp t ing t oc l a s s if yt o o l s a sm a le t oo ls o r f ema le t oo ls , w i th u nde r ly ing i mp l ica t ions o f d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic d oma ins , s t a t ic a nd r i g id i mage s a r e c r ea ted , g ene ra t ing " d is tanced a nd l i f e le s sr e p re sen ta t ions o f t h e p a s t ." I n e s sence , a r t if ac t t a xonom ie s w i th i mp l ied s ubd iv is ions b y g ende r t e nd t ol e ad u s a way f r om i n s igh t s a bou t t h e o r ig ina l m ean ing o r u se o f t h e se a r t ifac t s , a nd r e su l t i n t he n eg lec t o f t h e d ynam ics s u r round ing t h ose a r t if ac t s( Spe c to r 1 99333 ) .

I ti sc l ea r , h oweve r , f r om t h ei n c rea s ing empha s i s o n g ende r i n r e cen t a n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch a nd t h e d i scuss ion p re sen ted i nt h e p rev ious c hap te rs t h a t g ende r r e la t ions a r e a n i n teg ra l , d ynam ic , a nd i n f luen t ia l a spec t o f t h e g ene ra l l i feways o f h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions , i n c lud ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t r ea lms . T hus , many t op ics a dd re ssed i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , t op ics s uch a s s i te f u nc t ion s , s ubs i s tence p a t te rns , s e t t lemen ts y s tems , t r ade a nd e xchange s y s tem s , t h e r o le o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re , a nd c u l tu re c hange , h ave a g ende r c omponen t ( Conkey a nd S pec to r 1 984 :21 ) . Ib e l ieve , a sC onkey a nd S pec to r ( 1984 :28 ) s ugge s ted , t h a t g ende r d ynam ic s n eed t ob e u nde rs tood a nd c ons ide red a t s ome l e ve l i n o rde r t o o b ta in a mo re c omp le te a nd c omp rehens ive p i c tu re o f p reh is to r ic l i f eways , e spec ia l ly i n c lud ing a spec t s o f s i te f unc t ion a nd u se , a nd s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s y s tems . A s B o len ( 1991 :402 ) i n d ica ted , " by o pe ra t ing a s as oc ia l c ons t ruc t t h rough w h ich g roup a nd c ommun i ty d ec i s ions a r ee nac ted ,g ende rb ecome si n teg ra lt o t h e s pa t ia l s t ruc tur ing a nd o rgan iza t ion o f s oc ie ty ." S ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen tp a t te rns a nd s t ra teg ie st h a tc an b e s e en i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd r e cons t ruc ted f o r a p a r t icu la rp reh is to r ic s oc ie ty w e re , i ne s sence , c r ea ted b yt h e s o c ia l d ynam ics a nd i n te rp lay o fp roce s se s s uch a sd ec is ion m ak ing ,t h eo rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion , a nd g ende rr e la t ions . T hu s , p a t te rns o fl a nd u se , s e t t lemen t , a nd mob i l i ty , a sw e l l a s a r t ifac t s , may b e a b le , i n s ome c a se s , t o p rov ide c l ue s a bou tt h ec ons t ruc t ion o fg ende ri n ap a r t icu la rc u l tu re ( S t ine 1 99 1 :499 ) .

T he re fo re , r a the r t h an d epend u pon t h e t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a pp roach f o r c on s t ruc t ing a mode l o f P a leo ind ian g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ions , Iw i l l e mpha s ize a s pec t s o f d ec is ion m ak ing i ns ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s a s aw ay o f a pp roach ing t h e s ub jec t f r om a d ynam ic p e r spec t ive . T he i mpo r tance o fv i ew ing s ubs is tence t h rough d e c is ion -mak ing b ecome s a ppa ren t b ecau se i ti n co rpo ra te s p eop le b ack i n to mode ls o f t h e p a s t , c ons ide r s g ende r r e la t ions i n am o re r e a l is t ic a nd d ynam ic manne r , a nd , i nt h e p roce s s , v i ew s p eop le n o t a s o b jec ts r e spond ing t o a nd c on t ro l led b y e x te rna l f o rce s , b u tr a the r a sa c to r s w i th t h e a b i l i ty t om ake d ec i s ions a nd c on t ro l t h e i ro wn a c t ions . N ume rou s d e c i s ion s a r eo f ten s t ruc tu red a nd m ade o n t h eb a s i so fg ende r ,a nd t h i s a s sump t ion w ou ld b e e qua l ly t r ue f o rm any o ft h ose d ea l ing w i th s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s . B u t w h i le t h e v i s ib le r e su l ts o fd ec i s ion -mak ing p roce s se sc an b es e en a nd

B a s ing t h e i ri n te rp re ta t ion o n t h ec l a im made b yE t ienne a nd L eacock ( 1980 ) , t h a t u nde rs tand ing t he s t ruc tu re o f g ende r r o le s l i e s i n u nde r s tand ing t h e r e la t ions o f p roduc t ion , K o rnf e ld a nd F ranc is ( 1991 :445 ) s ugge s ted t ha t d i f f e ren t 6 0

O rgan iza t ion o f L abou r

T e chno logy , S k i l l s , K now ledge ,a nd t h e i r Ava i lab i l i ty t oG roup Membe r s

S oc ie ta lN o rm s , R u le sa nd I deo log ie s

S ub s i s ten ce N eed s , P re f e rence so ft h eG roup a nd I nd iv idua l

G ende r R e la t ion sa nd E xpec ted R o le s

E nv i ronmen ta l C ond i t ion sa nd A va i lab le R e sou rce s

DEC IS ION -MAK ING

SUBS ISTENCE S TRATEGIES AND S ETTLEMENT PAT TERNS

P reh i s tor ic Dynam ic s

Archaeo log ica l R ecord

1 1

S PAT IAL ARRANGEMENT OF S URV IV ING ART IFACTS , FAUNAL REMA INS ,F EATURES , L IV ING S TRUCTURES , AND S ITES

F igu re 1 .R e la t ion sh ip b e tween G ende rR o le s ,D e c i s ion -Mak ing , a nd S ub s i s tence a nd S e t t lemen tS t ra teg ie s . P a leo ind ian s i te s d o n o t s imp ly r evo lve a r ound t h eh un t ing , k i l l ing , a nd p roce s s ing o f g ame , b u t i n c lude n on -hun t ing d ec is ions a nd c ons ide ra t ions a s w e l l . T hu s , a l though t h is mode l w i l l d ea l w i th o n ly a f r ac t ion o f a l P a leo ind ian d ec is ion -mak ing , i tw i l l c ons ide r n o t o n ly h un t ing e conomy d ec is ions b u t a l so n on -hun t ing e conomy d ec is ions , a nd i t w i l le mpha s ize a spec t st h a te ncompa s s aw ide rr a nge o ff ood a nd r aw ma te r ia l a cqu is i t ion a nd s i te p l acemen t , w i th t h e r ea l iza t ion t ha t t h e se d ec is ions a r e o f ten embedded a nd i n te r tw ined a nd a f f ec ted b y o t he r s . O bv iou s ly , amode l c an e ve r b e o n ly a s imp l if ica t ion o f r e a l i ty . Mode ls a r e n o t i n tended t o d e sc r ibe r ea l i ty f u l ly ; mo reove r , a s d i scussed p rev ious ly , t h e re a r e an umbe ro fp e r spec t ive s f r om w h ich t o v i ew t he w o r ld . A s E r ic A lden Sm i th ( 1 991 :45 ) r ema rked , mode ls i s o la te s ome o f t he v a r iab le s p resumed t o b e i mpo r tan t , s o t hey c an b e mo re e as i ly e xam ined a nd e va lua ted . I nt h is c a se , t h ev a r iab le s t h a tw i l l b ee mpha s ized a nd c ons ide red i mpo r tan t a r e g ende r r e la t ions a nd d ec is ion m ak ing r e la ted t os ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lemen t .

i nves t iga ted u s ing s uch a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a s s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d a ta , i ti sc l ea r ly i mposs ib le t o r e cons t ruc t t h e e xac t t hough t p roce sse s o f t h e i nd iv idua ls mak ing t h ose d ec is ions ( Shennan 1 993 :56 ) . O bv ious ly , i t mu s tb ea cknow ledged t h a t a r chaeo log is t s w i l l n eve rb ea b le t og e t t ot h e i nd iv idua l a nd h i s o rh e r m ind i na ny d e ta i led a nd c e r ta in manne r ; h oweve r , c l a ims t h a t t h e n a tu re o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd i sn o t a menab le f o r d i scu ss ion a bou t i n d iv idua l s b ecause a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s r e su l t f r om c o rpo ra te a c t ions o f many p eop le r ep resen t ing a ve rage b ehav iou r s( s ee d i scuss ion i nM i then 1 990 :3 ) f a i l t or e a l ize t h a t , n eve r the le ss , t h ea c tua lc ons ide ra t ion a nd r e cogn i t ion o f t h e i nd iv idua l c an b e i mpo r tan t f o r u l t ima te ly g a in ing a b e t te ru nde r s tand ing a nd c ons t ruc t ing amo re r e a l is t ic p i c tu re o ft h ep a s t . A s S hennan ( 1986 :334 , c i ted i nM i then 1 990 :3 ) n o ted , t h e r ecogn i t ion t ha t a c t ions a nd t hough ts o f i n d iv idua l sa r el a rge ly i n acce s s ib le t oa r chaeo log i s t sd oe sn o t i n va l ida te an eed f o r af o cus o nt h ei n d iv idua l . C lea r ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd f o r t h e N o r the rn P la ins r ep re sen t s o n ly a p o r t ion o f t h e e n t i re r a nge o f d ec is ion mak ing e ven t s a nd p roce sse s i nw h ich P a leo ind ian p eop le s w e re i n vo lved . Howeve r , c on t ra ry t o c ommon ly h e ld a s sump t ion s , t hese d ec is ions r ef lec ted i n t h e s amp le o f

I n a dd i t ion , my m ode l r e cons t ruc t ion a nd e xam ina t ion o f g ende r r e la t ions i nP a leo ind ian g roups w i l l b e a pp roa ched f r om a h o l is t ic p e rspec t ive , r a the r t h an a r e s t r ic t ive d i cho tom iza t ion o fl i f e i n to d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic s phe re s( s ee 6 1

a nd Mead 1 987 :396 ) . I f l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv i ronmen t s w e re v e ry d i f fe ren t f r om t h ose o f t o day , a s p a leoenv i ronmen ta l d a ta w ou ld a ppea r t oi nd ica te , t h en i t f o l lows n a tu ra l ly t h a t P a leo ind ian a dap t ive s t ra teg ie s w e re a l so l i ke ly d i f f e ren t f r om a nd much m o re v a r iab le t h an p resen t -day p o r t raya ls o f h un te r -ga the re r s . H ence , t h is d i f f e rence c a l ls i n to q ue s t ion t h ev a l id i ty o ft h eu nc r i t ica lu se o fs e le c t ive a nd g ene ra l ized e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s , o ne to o ne c ompa r i sons t h a t , w i thou t much c on s ide ra t ion , e qua te mode rn a nd h i s to r ic h un t ing -ga the r ing a dap ta t ions w i th P a leo ind ian l i feways . B u t wh i le t h e l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t w a s c l ea r ly d i f fe ren t f r om a ny t oday , a s i lus t ra ted i nm o re d e ta i l b e low , a nd c onsequen t ly t h e re i sn o o ne to -one r e la t ionsh ip o r c o r re la t ion b e tween e i the r l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t s o r h uman g roups a nd mode rn c oun te rpa r t s , i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand s ome a spec t s o f p a s t c l ima te a nd c u l tu re s , t h e c r i t ica l u se o fp a r t ia l a na logue s i s n ece s sa ry a nd w i l l b e e mp loyed i nt h is s t udy t oa s s i s t w i th c ons t ruc t ing aP a leo ind ian m ode l .

A lbe r s 1 983b :177 -179 f o r ad i scus s ion o ft h e a dvan tage s o f u s ing s uch ap e r spec t ive ) . S imp le d i cho tom ie s s uch a s t h e p r iva te /pub l ic d i cho tomy , a si lus t ra ted i np rev iou s c hap te r s , a r e c l ea r ly i n app rop r ia te f o r h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups ( a nd p robab ly f o r m any o the rs oc ie t ie sa sw e l l ) . T he d ynam ics o f e ach " s phe re " a r e mu tua l ly d e te rm ined ; t hu s i ti sd i ff icu l t , i f n o t i mpos s ib le , t os epa ra te l i f e c l ea r ly i n to d i s t inc t r ea lm s , e spec ia l ly f o r s ma l l -sca le s oc ie t ie s . B y s imp l ify ing l i f e i n to t h e se s epa ra te d oma ins , t h a t i s , a s sum ing ad ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy , t h e p o ten t ia l f o r c onfus ion a nd d i s to r t ion i s c r ea ted . T h is s imp le d i cho tomy b a sed o n w e s te rn a nd s t a te l e ve l c oncep t s i su l t ima te ly u nhe lpfu l f o r a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions , i nt h a t i tt e nds t or e su l t i n d ef in i t ions a nd r i g idne ss , r a the r t han d i scuss ion a nd c ons ide ra t ion o f v a r ia t ion , f l ex ib i l i ty , c on tex t -dependen t s i tua t ions a nd e ven t s ,a nd d ynam ic s , w h ich c an b ea ch ieved t h rough u s ing a m o re p owe r fu lh o l i s t ic p e r spec t ive . 6 . 2 LATE PLEISTOCENE -EARLY HOLOCENE ENV IRON MENTS : S ETTING THE ENVIRON MENTAL CONTEXT FOR PALEO IND IAN POPULATIONS

T he f o l low ing r econs t ruc t ion o f t h e l a te g lac ia l -ea r ly H o locene e nv i ronmen t f o r t h e No r the rn P l a ins , a l though n o t e x t reme ly d e ta i led a nd i n -dep th b ecau se t h a t i sb eyond t h e s cope o f t h is r e sea rch , w i l l empha s ize w e l l in teg ra ted p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e co rds , i n c lud ing t h e mos t r e cen t d a ta r e la t ing t op o l len a nd f o s s i l r e co rds , a sw e l l a sc ons ide ra t ion o f p a leoc l ima t ic mode ls b a sed o n a tmosphe r ic c i rcu la t ion p a t te rns . I n r e cen t y ea rs , a tmosphe r ic g ene ra l c i rcu la t ion m ode ls h ave b een d ev ised t od e te rm ine t h es pa t ia lp a t te rn ing o ft h ep os s ib le a tmosphe r ic r e sponse t oc hange s i nl a t i tud ina l a nd s ea sona l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs o la r r ad ia t ion b rough t a bou tb y o rb i ta l p a rame te r c hange s , f i rs t p roposed b y M i lankov i tch ( 1 941) a s ap r ima ry c ause o fg l ac ia l in te rg lac ia l f l uc tua t ions d u r ing t h e P l e is tocene . A l though t h e se t h eo re t ica l c l ima t ic m ode ls , w h ich e s sen t ia l ly b ecome h ypo theses t ob e t e s ted ( e .g . , S chwege r a nd H ickman 1 989 ) , e n ta i l t oo m any s imp l if ica t ions , a nd h ave ag r id r e so lu t ion t h a t i s much t o o c oa r se t o a l low d e ta i led c ompa r ison w i th l o ca l g eo log ic r e co rds ( Ku tzbach 1 987 :444 ) , s uch at h eo re t ica l e mpha s is c an p rov ide a n a dd i t iona l p e rspec t ive f o r l e a rn ing m o re a bou t a nc ien t c l ima te a nd e nv ironmen t s , e spec ia l ly f o r u nde r s tand ing h ow a nd w hy c l ima tes c hange ( s ee B amf o r th 1 990 :360 ; H a l l 1 988 ; K u tzbach 1 987 ; K u tzbach a nd G ue t te r 1 986 ) . N o rma t ive d esc r ip t ions o f t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd m e re ly t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t he p lan t a nd a n ima l s pec ie s a va i lab le f o rh uman e xp lo i ta t ion c rea te t h ei mage o f as t a t ic a nd n on -dynam ic e nv i ronmen t , a nd p rov ide o n ly p a r t o ft h e i n fo rma t ion n eeded t o a s se s s t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd h uman r e sponses ( Bamfo r th 1 988 :16 ; W in te rha lde r 1 980 :136 ) . I n s tead , f o r av a l id i n ve s t iga t ion o f h uman -env i ronmen t i n te rac t ion a nd s ub s is tence d ec is ion m ak ing , t h e e nv i ronmen t mu s t b e c on s ide red i nt e rm s o fi t s g ene ra l p hy s ica l n a tu re , w h ich o f f e r s c ons t ra in ts a nd o ppo r tun i t ie s i nl o ca t ing p o ten t ia l r e sou rce s , t he t y pe s a nd n umbe r s o f s pec ies p re sen t , a nd t h e o ve ra l l s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r iab i l i ty o fr e sou rce s , a sw e l l a sa ny v a r ia t ion i n t h ose p a t te rns o ve r t ime ( M i then 1 990 :84 ; W in te rha lde r 1 980 ) . T hu s , ab r ie fc ons ide ra t ion o fb o th e mp i r ica ld a ta a nd t h eo re t ica l d a ta f o cus ing o n t he se a spec t s w i l l b e u sed i n o rde r t og a in ac omp rehens ive r econs t ruc t ion o fl a te g l ac ia l p a leoenv i ronmen t s o n t h e N o r the rn P la ins t h a t w i l l s e rve a s t h e b a s is f r om w h ich aP a leo ind ian s ub s is tence / se t t lemen t mode l e mpha s iz ing g ende r a nd d ec i s ion -mak ing c an b e d eve loped .

6 . 2 .1 I n troduc t ion A t temp t ing t oc ons t ruc t my P a leo ind ian mode l r equ i re s a n i n i t ia lp i c tu re o fw ha ti sk nown o ft h ee nv i ronmen ta l c on tex t i nw h ich P a leo ind ian p eop le made d ec is ions w i th r ega rd t o s ubs is tence , a cqu is i t ion o f r e sou rce s , a nd movemen t s a nd p l acemen t o f s i te s ; t ha t i s , o ne mus t r e cons t ruc t t h e l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv i ronmen t i n a n a t temp t t o d e te rm ine t h e p o ten t ia l r e sou rce s a va i lab le t o t h em f o r e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd t h et y pe so fc l ima t ic r eg ime si nw h ich t h ey h ad t o s chedu le t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s . B ecause t he r e su l t s f r om v a r ious h un te r -ga the re r s e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty s t ud ie s ( B info rd 1 980 , 1 982 ; K e l ly 1 983) c l ea r ly i nd ica te t ha t s e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty s t ra teg ies o f ah un t ing -ga the r ing g roup a r ec l o se ly r e la ted t ot h es t ruc tu re o fr e sou rce si nt h e i r e nv i ronmen t , s t udy a nd k now ledge o fl a te P le i s tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv i ronmen t s i si mpo r tan t f o r d eve lop ing mode ls o fP a leo ind ian s ubs is tence , s e t t lemen t , a nd mob i l i ty p a t te rns . T he re a ppea r s t ob e at e ndency a mong many a r chaeo log is t s t oo ve rs imp l ify p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r econs t ruc t ion a nd t h e n a tu re o ft h ee nv i ronmen ta l c hange s d u r ing t h e P le is tocene H o locene t r ans i t ion , a nd r e so r t t o t he u se o f mode rn a na logue s .I nt h er e cen tp a s t , i tw a sa s sumed t h a tb y s t udy ing r e g iona l P le is tocene f a una a nd f l o ra , t h e c l ima te c ou ld b e e a s i ly r e cons t ruc ted b y r e f e rence t oa n e x is t ing e nv i ronmen t w i th s im i la r c omb ina t ions o f p lan ts a nd a n ima ls ; f o r e xamp le , t h e P le is tocene c l ima te o f t h e P la ins w a s o f ten c ompa red t o t ha t c ha rac te r is t ic o f mode rn t und ra a nd s uba rc t ic e nv i ronmen t s . H oweve r , p e rf ec t a na logue s c anno t b e f ound f o r a ny l a te P le is tocene c l ima te b ecause o rb i ta l p a rame te r s a nd t he r e su l t ing l a t i tud ina l a nd s ea sona l d i s t r ibu t ions o fs o la rr ad ia t ion w e re v e ry d i f f e ren td u r ing t h e P l e i s tocene ( Ku tzbach a nd G ue t te r 1 986 ) , a nd b ecau se mos t P le is tocene f auna s a nd f l o ras c on ta in c omb ina t ions o f s pec ie s t h a t d o n o t o ccu r t oge the r t oday ( s ee d i scuss ion b e low ) . I nc rea s ing ly mo re Qua te rna ry r e sea rche r s ( s ee r e fe rences i n G raham a nd L unde l ius 1 984 :224 ) a r e c onc lud ing t ha t t he re a re n o mode rn c oun te rpa r ts o r e qu iva len ts t o l a te P le is tocene c l ima tes , b io ta s , a nd e nv i ronmen t s ( Gu th r ie 1 984 :263 ) ; t hus t h e a pp l ica t ion o f d i rec t mode rn a na logues i n l a te P le is tocene p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ion i sv e ry l im i ted ( G raham 6 2

6 . 2 .2 P a leo env ironmen ta lR econ s truc t ion s

m ode ls , a l ong w i th l a te P l e is tocene -ea r ly H o locene f o s s i l e v idence , s uppo r to ne m a jo rh ypo the s is : l a te g l ac ia lc l ima te s a nd e nv i ronmen t sw e re v e ry much d i f f e ren tf r om a ny t o day . P l e is tocene f o s s i l e v idence ( bo th p l an t a nd a n ima l ) p o in t s t owa rd a r ema rkab le d i ve r s i ty o f b i o ta s a nd s p ec ie s r ich b i o t ic c ommun i t ie s ( s ee G u th r ie 1 984 :263 -266 , 1 990 ) . I n f a c t , m any l a te P l e is tocene c ommun i t ie sc on s is t ed o fs p e c ie s t h a t t o day a r e g eog raph ica l ly a l lopa t r ic a nd a ppa ren t ly e co log ica l ly i n compa t ib le ( G raham a nd L unde l iu s 1 984 :224 ; G raham a nd Mead 1 987 :371-372 ; G u th r ie 1 984 ) . T he se P l e is tocene d i sha rmon iou sa s soc ia t ions ( i . e . ,t h eo ve r lapp ing o f t a xa w i th d i f f e ren t p r esen t -day t o le rance r a nge s ) a r e b e l ieved t oh ave b een m a in ta ined b ya n e quab le c l ima te , t h a t i s ,o ne w i th r e duced c l ima t ic e x t reme s , r e duced s e a sona l i ty , a nd c onsequen t ly c oo le r s umme r s a nd w a rme r w in te r s ( G raham a nd L unde l ius 1 984 :224 ; G raham a nd Mead 1 987 :396 ; G u th r ie 1 984 ; Ma r t in e t a l . 1 985 :25 ; W r igh t 1 987 :486 ) . O bv iou s ly , t h e re a r e n o mode rn c oun te rpa r t s o r t o ta l a na logue s t o t h e se l a te P l e is tocene c l ima te s a nd e nv i ronmen t s .

6 . 2 .2 .1 L a t eP le i s tocene E nv i ronmen t s T he l a te g l ac ia l -ea r ly H o locene w a s at ime o f d r ama t ic , r a p id , a nd u n ique c l ima t ic a nd e co log ica l c hange ( G raham a nd L unde l iu s 1 984 :223 ; G raham a nd Mead 1 987 ; S aunde r s 1 990 ) . C l ima te s w a rmed r ap id ly , a nd t h e r e ce s s ion o f t h e W iscon s inan i c e w a s w e l l u nde r w ay b y 1 3 ,500 y ea r s a go ( Saunde r s 1 990 :136 ) . E s t ima t ions o f i c e v o lume d e r ived f r om i s o top ic r e co rds i n ma r ine s e d imen t s s ugge s t t h a t b y 1 2 ,000 y e a r s B .P . , i c e s hee t h e igh t w a s r e duced t oh a lf o f w ha t i tw a s a t m ax imum g l ac ia t ion , 1 8 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Ku tzba ch 1 987 :427 ) . I na dd i t ion , t h et r end b egan t owa rd a n i n ten s if i ca t ion o f s ea sona l i ty , a nd h ence m o re c ons t r ic ted g row ing s e a sons , a ccompan ied b y t h e e x t inc t ion o f a p rev iou s ly d i ve r se mega f auna ( F igu re 2 ; G raham a nd L unde l iu s1 984 ; G raham a nd Mead 1 987 ;G u th r ie 1 984 ) . K u tzba ch a nd G ue t te r ( 1 986 ) h ave c onduc ted a tmosphe r ic g ene ra lc i r cu la t ion m ode le xpe r imen t sa t3 , 000 y ea ri n te rva l s f o rt h ep a s t 1 8 ,000 y ea r si no r de rt oe s t ima te t h em agn i tude , t im ing , a nd p a t te rn o f c l ima t ic c hange d u r ing t h e l a te Q ua te rna ry . T he c onc lu s ions t h a t c an b ed e r ived f r om t h e se

W i th s pe c if ic r e spe c tt ot h eP l e is tocene -Ho locene t r an s i t ion , c l ima t ic m ode l si n d ica te t h a tm uch o ft h ec l ima t ic c hange f o r t h e p e r iod 1 2 ,000 -6 ,000 y ea r s B .P . c an b e s imp ly d e sc r ibed

F igu re 2 .S chema t ic I lu s t ra t ion o fL a te G la c ia lE nv i ronmen t si nN o r th Ame r ica ( a dap ted f r om K u tzba ch 1 987 :F igu re 1a nd b a sa lo nd a ta f r om K u tzba ch 1 987 a nd Ma r t in 1 982 ) . 6 3

c ond i t ions a r ound 1 ,000 y ea rs B .P . ( C . V . H ayne s 1 991 , 1 993 ) .

a sa n a mp l if ied o rs t ronge r a nd mo re d ef ined s e a sona l c yc le i nr e sponse t ot h e l a rge r s ea sona l r ad ia t ion e x t reme s o ft h e No r the rn H em isphe re ( Ku tzbach 1 987 ; Ku tzbach a nd G ue t te r 1 986 ) . C l ima t ic mode l l ing s ugge s t s t h a t m ax imum s umme r i n so la t ion a nd m in imum w in te ri n so la t ion o ccu r red a bou t 1 0 ,000 -9 ,000 y ea rs a go ( Ku tzbach a nd G ue t te r 1 986 ) . T he se i n te rp re ta t ions a re a l so s uppo r ted b y f o ss i ld a ta , w h ich c l ea r ly i nd ica te a s h if t f r om a c o ld e quab le P le is tocene c l ima te t o aw a rme r mo re c on t inen ta l o ne ,w i th a na s soc ia ted c hange f r om c omp lex mosa ic p a t te rns o f h igh s pec ie s d ive rs i ty a nd d i sha rmon ious a s soc ia t ions t o much mo re s imp l if ied a nd h omogeneous b io t ic c ommun i t ies ( s ee G u th r ie 1 984 ) . I n e ssence , w i th d eg lac ia t ion , c l ima t ic p a t te rns b ecame i n c rea s ing ly s ea sona l i nn a tu re , a nd t h ose d i sha rmon iou s b i o t ic c ommun i t ie s o ft h e P l e is tocene , w h ich h ad d eve loped u nde r r educed s ea sona l c l ima t ic c ond i t ions , b egan t o b reak u p a s p lan t a nd a n ima l s pec ie s c o lon ized d eg lac ia ted a r ea sa nd w e re r ed is t r ibu ted a c ros st h el a nd scape a cco rd ing t o t h e i r s pec if ic e nv i ronmen ta l t o le rance s ( s ee d i scuss ion a nd r e f e rence s i n D incauze 1 993 :280 -281 a nd G raham a nd L unde l ius 1 984 ) . T h is r e s t ruc tu r ing o f b io t ic s y s tem s , w h ich c l ea r ly w ou ld h ave s t re ssed b o th f a una a nd h uman o ccupan t s a nd u l t ima te ly w ou ld h ave r e su l ted i nt h e r educ t ion o f b o th t he d ive rs i ty a nd r i chne s s o f f auna i n c ompa r ison t o t he i r l a te g lac ia l c ond i t ions ( s ee d i scu ss ion a nd r e fe rence s i n D incauze 1 993 :280 -281) , w a s a l so a ccompan ied b yt h ee x t inc t ion o fs eve ra l g ene ra o fp r ima r i ly megafauna ( G raham a nd L unde l ius 1 984 ; Gu th r ie 1 984 ; Ma r t in a nd K le in 1 984 ) . T he se e nv i ronmen ta l f l uc tua t ions a nd s h if t s w e re g eo log ica l ly r ap id b u t t ime t ransg re s s ive ( G raham a nd Mead 1 987 :397 ) ; t ha t i s , t h ey o ccu r red a t d i f fe ren t r a tes i n d if fe ren t l oca t ions b ecause o f t h e i nd iv idua l is t ic r e sponse o f e ach s pec ie s t o t he d rama t ic c l ima t ic c hange sa tt h ee nd o ft h eP l e i s tocene .

6 . 2 .2 .2 N or the rn P la ins Many e a r l ie r p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e sea rche r s b e l ieved t h a t b o rea ls p ruce f o re s to ccup ied am a jo rp o r t ion o ft h eN o r the rn P la ins d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene a nd e a r ly p os t -g lac ia l t ime s , b e ing r ep laced b y s t eppe e nv i ronmen t s o n ly a r ound 1 0 ,500 y ea r s B .P . ( s ee Hof fmann a nd J ones 1 970 ) . B a s ing h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o n p o l len s i te s i nt h eN o r the rn P la ins a nd a l ong t h e e a s te rn e dge o f t h e C en t ra l P la ins , Wr igh t ( 1970 :162 ) s im i la r ly c onc luded t h a t b o rea l f o re s td om ina ted t h e l a nd scape u n t i l 1 2 ,000 y ea r s B .P . i nt h es ou th a nd 9 , 500 y ea r sB .P . i nt h en o r the rn r eg ions . D e sp i te g aps i nd a ta f r om t h e w e s te rn h a lf o ft h e P la ins , Wr igh t ( 1 970 :169 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e e n t i re a r ea f r om s ou the rn C anada t o K ansa s a nd M is sou r i d u r ing t h e L a te W iscons in w a s m a rked b y b o rea l s p ruce f o re s t e x tend ing e as twa rd t o t he Appa lach ian moun ta in s . S im i la r c onc lu s ions w e re a l so d rawn b y e a r l ie r r e sea rche r s w hen e xam in ing l a te g l ac ia l f auna s . A cco rd ing t oH of fmann a nd J one s ( 1970 :363 ) , l a te g lac ia l f a unas f r om e a s te rn Wyom ing ( 1 3 ,000 -10 ,500 y ea r s B .P . ) r e vea led ac omp lex o f s t eppe , t a iga , a nd t u nd ra s pec ie s , p robab ly o ve r lapp ing i n t ime . B as ing t h e ir i n te rpre ta t ion o n i n f e rences f r om m amma l ian d i s t r ibu t ions , H of fmann a nd J one s ( 1970 :390 ) a r gued t h a t t h e g ene ra l e nv i ronmen t o f t h e n o r the rn G rea t P la ins i n L a te W iscons in t ime mus t h ave b een o ne o f c on if e rous f o re s t , c onnec t ing b o rea l c on if e rou s f o re s t s ou th o ft h e g l ac ia l i c e a nd m on tane c on if e rous f o re s t s e x tend ing f r om t h e R ocky Moun ta ins e a s twa rd . I tw a s b e l ieved t h a t t h e se f o re s t sw e re w ide sp read o n t h eP la in sa tt h is t ime , w i th s t eppe o rs avanna type e nv i ronmen t s r e s t r ic ted t o al im i ted a r ea e a s t o ft h e R ocky Moun ta ins , s ou thwa rd f r om e a s te rn C o lo rado , w e s te rn K ansa s , a nd p e rhap s i n t h e Wyom ing B a s in ( Hof fmann a nd J one s 1 970 :390 ) .

A long w i th t hese g rea t c hanges i n c l ima te a nd b io t ic c ommun i t ie s d u r ing t he l a te P le is tocene , t r emendous s h if t s o ccu r red i nt h el o ca t ion o fe ro s ion a nd d epos i t ion , a sw e l l a s i nt h e i n tens i ty o ft r anspo r ta t ion e ven t s (Wh i t ley a nd D o rn 1 993 :634 ) . I n many p laces , r ap id i n c is ion o ccu r red a s t h e g eomo rph ic r e sponse t o c l ima t ic a nd e us ta t ic s ea leve l c hange s , a ccompan ied b y d ra s t ic r e sponse s i nh i l ls lope a nd r i ve r s ys tem s ( Bake r 1 983 ; B u l l 1 991 ; Wh i t ley a nd D o rn 1 993 :634 ) . T he r e su l t w ou ld h ave b een f ew p lace s a tt h e c lose o f t he P le is tocene i n Nor th Ame r ica w he re n onde s t ruc t ive s ed imen ta ry p roce sse s , c onduc ive t o t h e p re se rva t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d epos i t s , c ou ld h ave o pe ra ted (Wh i t ley a nd D o rn 1 993 :634 ) .

R obe r t s ( 1970 ) , i na n a na ly s is o f mamma l ian r ema ins f r om t h e H e l l G ap a r chaeo log ica l s i te i ns ou thea s te rn Wyom ing , d i scove red t h ree s pec ie s f r om l a te g l a c ia l l e ve ls t h a t n o l o nge r o ccu r red n ea r H e l l G ap , b u t r a the r w e re r e s t r ic ted p r ima r i ly t o m on tane h ab i ta t s . T he re fo re , b a sed o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se t h ree mon tane mamma l ian s pec ie s , h e c onc luded t h a t p r io r t o 8 , 900 B .C . , t h e c l ima te a nd v ege ta t ion o f t h e H e l l G ap s i te ( s i tua ted a t 1 , 525 m e t re s e l eva t ion ) a nd s u r round ing r eg ion w as s im i la r t o t h a t o f p re sen t -day m on tane f o re s t s a ta bou t 2 , 100 t o2 , 400 m e t re s ( Robe r t s 1 970 :13 ) . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s ted t oh im t h a t v ege ta t ion z one s h ad b een v e r t ica l ly d i sp laced b y 6 00 t o 1 , 000 m e t re s . H e a l so p os tu la ted t h a t o pen w ood land f o re s t s w i th p a tche s o f o pen m eadow w e re p re sen t i n t he v a l ley s d u r ing t h e l a te g l ac ia l , wh i le a i r t empe ra tu re w a s a tl e a s t 3 . 5 °C c oo le r t h an a t p re sen t , w i th a d ec rea sed r a te o f e vapo t ran sp i ra t ion ( Robe r t s 1 970 :13 ) .

D u r ing t h e g l ac ia l max imum , h igh l a ke l e ve ls i nd ica te t h a t w in te r p rec ip i ta t ion i n t h e S ou thwe s t a nd S ou the rn P la in s w a s l i ke ly h ighe r ( o r e vapo ra t ion a nd t empe ra tu re w e re d ec rea sed ) . T h is p a t te rn o fp rec ip i ta t ion , t hough , c hanged w i th d eg lac ia t ion a s t he j e t s t ream s h if ted n o r thwa rd ( Me l tze r 1 993a :302 ; Wr igh t 1 987 :485 -486 ) . Wh i le n ew l a nds w e re a va i lab le w i th t he r e ce ss ion o f g lac ia l i c e , c on t inen ta l s he lve s b ecame i nunda ted a nd g lac ia l l a ke s f o rmed i nt h eb ed rock a st h e l a rge p luv ia l l a ke s i nt h e G rea t B a s in , S ou thwes t , a nd S ou the rn P la ins w e re s h r ink ing ( Benson a nd T hompson 1 987 ; Me l tze r 1 993a :302 ) . G eo log ic e v idence a tt h e Mu r ray S p r ings s i te a nd o t he r s i tes i nS an P ed ro V a l ley o fs ou the rn A r izona a ppea r st os ugge s t t h a tt h e w a te r t a b le f e l l a nd t ha t d rough t c ond i t ions w e re p re sen t d u r ing C lov is o ccupa t ions ( Hayne s 1 993 :228 ) . T hus , i ti s h i gh ly p robab le t h a t many p a r t s o fN o r th Ame r ica ,e spe c ia l ly t he n o r the rn G rea t P la ins , w e re s ub jec ted t o d rough t

I n mo re r e cen ty ea r s , a dd i t iona l p a leoenv i ronmen ta l s t ud ie s f o r t h e N o r the rn P la ins p rov ide a s l igh t ly mo re d e ta i led p ic tu re o f l a te P le is tocene e nv ironmen t s t h an t h e o ne o u t l ined b y e a r l ie r r e sea rche rs . Howeve r , t he f a c t s t i l l r ema in s t h a t t h e re i sv e ry l i t t le p a leoenv i ronmen ta l d a ta f o r t h e P l e is tocene -Ho locene t r ans i t ion f o r t h e No r the rn P l a ins b ecau se o f s o f ew l akes a nd w e t lands s u i tab le f o r p a leoeco log ica l s t udy ( Ba rnosky , G r imm a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :268 ) . D e sp i te t he l a ck o f d a ta f o r t h is r eg ion , 6 4

t o day ( Ma rkg raf a nd L ennon 1 986 :8 ) . T he w e s te rn p a r t o f t he N o r the rn P la ins h a s b een a nd w i l l c on t inue t o b e i nf luenced b y t h e r a inshadow e f fec t , a s l ong a s t he moun ta ins a r e p re sen t . T he refo re , t h e l a te g l a c ia l h i s to ry o f t h e w e s te rn p o r t ion o f t h e No r the rn P la ins w i l l b e much d i f f e ren tn o t o n ly f r om t h a to ft h ea d jacen tm oun ta in r eg ions ( whe re p o l len d a ta f r om mon tane s i te s i nw e s te rn Mon tana s how s ubs tan t ia l f o re s ta t ion b y c a . 1 2 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ) , b u t a l so d i f f e ren t f r om t h e e a s te rn P la ins a nd f r om t h e b o rea l t r ans i t ion t ot h en o r th ( Ba rnosky 1 989 :69 ) .

p re l im ina ry a na lyses h ave l e d t o s e ve ra l c onc lu s ions ( s ee B a rnosky , A nde rson , a nd B a r t le in 1 987 ; B a rnosky , G r imm , a nd Wr igh t 1 987 ) . F i rs t , t he e f f ec t o f t he i c e s hee t o n s ynop t ic G rea t P la ins c l ima te w a s e s pec ia l ly g rea t . S econd , t h e p hy s ica l e v idence f o r p e r ig la c ia l c ond i t ions i n t h e n or the rn G rea t P la ins s ugge s t s ac o ld a nd w indy c l ima te ( Ba rnosky , G r imm , a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :268 ) . A cco rd ing t o p a leoc l ima t ic mode l s imu la t ions ( Ku tzbach a nd G ue t te r 1 986 ; K u tzbach a nd Wr igh t 1 985 ) , t h e se w inds w e re e a s te r ly o rn o r thea s te r ly b ecause o ft he a n t icyc lon ic c i rcu la t ion o ve r t h e i c e s hee t ( Ba rnosky , G r imm , a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :268 ) . F u r the r n o r th , d une f i e lds i n n o r the rn S a ska tchewan a l so i n d ica te as im i la rw ind d i rec t ion ( i n t h is c a se , s ou thea s te r ly ) d ue t ot h ea n t icyc lon ic a d iaba t ic a i rm a s se st ha tc ame o f ft h e r e t rea t ing L au ren t ide i c es hee t a nd t h en r o ta ted s l igh t ly t ot h e r i gh t( s ee D av id 1 981) .

F a r the rn o r th o f Wyom ing a nd Mon tana , i nt h en e ighbou r ing g ra ss land s o fs ou the rn A lbe r ta a nd S a ska tchewan , t h e re a r e a l so v e ry f ew p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e co rds d ue t ot h e l a ck o f s u i tab le l o ca le s f o rp o l len p re se rva t ion ( s ee B eaudo in 1 993 ) . B eaudo in ( 1993 :93 ) n o ted t h a t t h er e co rds t h a t a r e a va i lab le a r e u sua l ly r e la t ive ly s ho r t , a nd o n ly a f ew e x tend t ot he e a r ly H o locene . S tud ies o f t h e p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e co rd s t h a t d o e x tend t ot h e e a r ly H o locene , h oweve r , i n d ica te t h a t t h e e a r ly t om idd le H o locene w a s c ha rac te r ized b y amuch w a rme r a nd d r ie r c l ima te t han t h a t o f t oday . F o r e xamp le , p a leoenv i ronmen ta ld a ta f r om C happ ice L ake i ns ou thea s te rn A lbe r ta i n d ica te t h a t e x t reme w a te r l e ve l c hanges a nd f r equen t a nd s eve re d rough ts o ccu r red f r om 7 , 300 t o6 , 000 y ea r s B .P . ( Vance e ta l . 1 992 ; V ance e t a l . 1 993 ) . T he se c ond i t ions l i ke ly r e su l ted f r om aw a rme r , d r ie r , a nd mo re v a r iab le c l ima te t h an t h a t o ft h e p r e sen t , a nd p oss ib ly r ef le c t a tmo sphe r ic c i rcu la t ion p a t te rns d r iven b ye nhanced s ea sona l i n so la t ion v a r ia t ion ( Vance e t a l . 1 993 :115 ) . A t t he Horseman s i te i n s ou thwes te rn S aska tchewan , p a leoenv i ronmen ta l r e co rds i n d ica te t h a t b y 1 3 ,000 y ea r s B .P . t h es u r round ing a r ea w as i c e -f ree , a nd t h a ta l though t h e c l ima te w a s c oo le r t h an p re sen t , i tw a s w a rm e nough t o s uppo r t b io ta s im i la r t o t ha t f ound t oday i n t he r eg ion ( K las sen 1 994 :1833 ) . S age a nd g rasse s d om ina ted t he v ege ta t ion , w i th w i l low p resen t a r ound d ep re ss ions , a nd o t he r d e c iduous a nd c on if e rou s t r ee s a l so p r e sen t . K la s sen 's ( 1994 :1833 ) n o te t h a t t h is e v idence s ugge s ted a s em ia r id g rass land s e t t ing , a ccorded w i th B a rnosky 's ( 1989 ) i n te rp re ta t ion f o r t h e G ua rd ipee L ake s i te i n Mon tana . D a ta f r om t h e H o r seman s i te f u r the r s ugge s t t h a t b y a bou t 9 , 000 y ea r s B .P . i ns ou thwe s te rn S a ska tchewan , t h e c l ima te h ad b ecome w a rme r a nd d r ie r t han a t p resen t ( K la ssen 1 994 :1835 ) . T he p re l im ina ry r e su l t s o f as t udy o f p lan t m ac rof os s i ls r e cove red f r om t h e A nd rews s i te i n s ou the rn S a ska tchewan i n d ica te a t r ans i t ion f r om a l a te g l ac ia l w ood land , i nd ica t ive o f ac oo le r a nd w e t te r c l ima te i n f luenced b y t h e r e t rea t ing L au ren t ide g l ac ie r , t oa n e a r ly H o locene g ra ss land o n t h e C anad ian p ra i r ie s ( Yansa 1 995 ) . L a s t , a t a no the r s ou thwes te rn S aska tchewan s i te , H a r r is L ake , t h e p o l len s t ra t ig raphy i nd ica tes t h a t af o res t g ra ss land -shrub m osa ic h ad d eve loped i nr e sponse t o t h e b eg inn ing o f mo re a r id a nd w a rme r c ond i t ions , w h ich w e re w e l l u nde rway b y 9 , 000 y ea r s B .P . ( Sauchyn a nd S auchyn 1 991 ;L a s ta nd S auchyn 1 993 ) .

O ve ra l l , f o r t h e e as te rn a rea o f t h e P la ins ( t he D ako ta s ) , p o l len r e co rd sd e r ived p r ima r i ly f r om s i tes p e r iphe ra l t ot h e n o r the rn G rea tP la ins ,t h a ti s , e a s t o ft h eD ako ta s( Ba rno sky , G r imm a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :260 -261 ) , i nd ica te t h a t a n o pen s pruce f o re s t w i th s ome d ec iduous t r ee s w a s p re sen t d u r ing l a te g l ac ia l t imes . F o r t h e w es te rn a r ea o f t h e N o r the rn P la ins , s i te s f r om Mon tana a nd Wyom ing s ugge s t t r ee le s s v ege ta t ion f o r t he p a s t 1 2 ,000 y ea rs , whe rea s i n t h e moun ta in s , a l ong t h ew e s te rn b ounda ry o ft h eP la ins , p o l len d a ta i mp ly p a rk land o fP icea a nd A b ie s ( Ba rnosky , G r imm a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :263 ) . More s pec if ica l ly , a t Gua rd ipee L ake , n ea r B rown ing , Mon tana , e a s t o f t he R ocky Moun ta ins , t h e e a r l ie s t p o l len a s semb lage s ( c a . 1 2 ,200 y ea rs B .P . ) a r e d om ina ted b y h e rb s a nd s h rub si n d ica t ing t h a te x tens ive w ood land /f o re s tw a sn o t p resen t o n t h is p a r t o f t he P la ins a t t h e e nd o f t h e L a te Wiscons in g lac ia t ion ( Ba rnosky 1 989 :71) . I n s ed imen t s d epos i ted b e tween c a . 1 2 ,200 y ea r sB .P . a nd c a . 9 , 300 y ea r s B .P . , h i gh n on -a rbo rea l p e rcen tage s a nd s ma l l a moun t s o f J un iperus , A lnus , S a l ix , a nd P opu lu s p o l len s ugges t a t empe ra te g r a ss land w i th s h rub s g row ing l o ca l ly i nm e s ic s e t t ing s ( Ba rnosky 1 989 ) . A s w e l l , a n i n c rea se i ns ageb rush r e la t ive t og r a s sp o l len ( be tween c a . 1 ,500 -9 ,500 y ea r sB .P . ) a nd a n i n c rea se i n t h e x e rophy te S acroba tus a nd b rack ish w a te rR upp ia ( c a . 1 ,500 y ea r s B .P . ) a l l s ugge s t e nhanced a r id i ty a nd at r end t owa rd d r ie rc ond i t ions a f te r 1 ,500 y ea r s B .P . ( Ba r nosky 1 989 :65 ,6 9 ) . T he p o l len r e co rd f r om A n te lope P l aya i nt h ee a s te rn P owde r R ive rB a s in o f Wyom ing ( s ee Ma rkg ra fa nd L ennon 1 986 ) i s v e ry s im i la r t ot h a t o fG ua rd ipee L ake . A t A n te lope P l aya , t h e e v idence i nd ica te s t h e p re sence o fg ra s s land v ege ta t ion d u r ing t h el a s t 1 3 ,000 y ea r s i ne a s te rn Wyom ing ( Ba rno sky 1 989 :69 -70 ) . A ccord ing t o s ed i men to log ica l , p a leo l imno log ica l , a nd p a leoenv ironmen ta l d a ta f r om t h is l oca t ion , n o ma jo r c hanges o ccu r red d u r ing t h is t ime i n te rva l ; t h us , i t may b e i n fe r red t h a t l a te g lac ia l t y pe c l ima te s i nt h e e a s te rn P owde r R ive r B a s in w e re s im i la r t o mode rn c ond i t ions ( Ma rkg raf a nd L ennon 1 986 :1) . D u r ing l a te P le is tocene a nd Ho locene t imes , t h roughou t t h e l ow land s o fe a s te rn Wyom ing , s ageb ru sh -g ra s s land w a s t h e d om inan t v ege ta t ion , wh i le p ine a nd j un ipe r s howed n o n o t iceab le e xpans ion o ft h e i rh ab i t a t si nt h el a s t 1 3 ,000 y ea r s ( Ma rkg ra f a nd L ennon 1 986 :1) . A ppa ren t ly , t h e re w a s n o w ood land i nt h el ow lands , a tl e a s tn o t a sl a te a s1 3 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Ma rkg raf a nd L ennon 1 986 :8 ) . T he o n ly e nv i ronmen ta l c hange t h a tc an b ed e tec ted o ccu r sa t5 ,000 y ea r s B .P . , p r io r t o wh ich t h e e nv i ronmen t mu s th ave b een mo re m e s ic t h an

T u rn ing t of a una l d a ta , o ne f i nds f ew v e r teb ra te r e co rd s o f g l ac ia l a ge o n t h e n o r the rn G rea t P la ins , b u t t h ose s t ud ied e s sen t ia l ly s uppo r t e nv i ronmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ions b a sed o n p o l len d a ta ( Ba rnosky , G r imm , a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :263 ) . O ve ra l l , l a te P le is tocene f auna s f r om N o r the rn P la ins s i te s i n d ica te i n c rea s ing g ra s s lands a nd a r id i ty t owa rd t h e w e s t ( G raham a nd Mead 1 987 ) ; t h is f i nd ing c o r re la te sw i th p o l len d a ta ( Ba rnosky , G r imm a nd Wr igh t 1 987 :264 ) . H oweve r , f u r the r s ou th , f a una f r om t h e H e l l G ap s i te ( Robe r t s 1 970 , s ee a bove ) a nd t h e A ga te B a s in s i te (Wa lke r 1 982a , s ee 6 5

a r ea s o f o ve r lapp ing mode rn r ange s o f m amma ls f r om a f a una l a s semb lage ) , Wa lke r ( 1982a :306 ) a r gued t h a t y ea r ly t empe ra tu re s w e re l i ke ly w a rme r d u r ing t he H e l l G ap o ccupa t ion t h an d u r ing F o lsom t ime s , w i th al o nge r f r o s tf ree p e r iod i n a dd i t ion t o d ecreased p rec ip i ta t ion . A n e nv i ronmen ta l s h if t f r om a s t eppe / tund ra l ike b iome t o a mo re g rass land b iome h as b een p os tu la ted f o r t he N o r thwe s te rn P la ins r eg ion , o ccu r r ing b e tween 1 4 ,000 a nd 1 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( s ee Wa lke r 1 982a :308 f o r r e f e rence s ) . Wa lke r ( 1982a :308 ) c onc luded t ha tt h eF o l som a nd H e l lG ap f a una l a s semb lage s r e cove red f r om t h e A ga te B a s in s i te i n e as te rn Wyom ing r ef lec t t he c on t inua t ion o f t h is l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen ta l s h if t , w i th p r og ress ive ly f ewe r a moun t s o f t a l l g ra s se s , mo re s ho r tg ra s s t y pes , a nd am o re e x tens ive s ageb rush c ommun i ty . T h i s e nv i ronmen ta l s h if t h a s a l so b een s uppor ted b y r eco rded s h if t s i n f a una l c ompos i t ions a tN a tu ra l T rap C ave i nn o r th c en t ra l Wyom ing (Wa lke r 1 982a :275) . B as ing h i s i n te rpre ta t ion o n m ic rove r teb ra te d a ta , Wa lke r( 1982a :307 -308 )s ugge s ted t h a t t h e se e nv i ronmen ta l a nd c l ima t ic c hange s a tt h e e nd o ft h e P le is tocene i nt h e Wyom ing r eg ion w e re a ppa ren t ly n o t a s a b rup t a s p rev ious ly a ssumed b u t r a the r mo re g radua l , o ccu r r ing o ve rs eve ra l t housand y ea r s .

b e low ) i nd ica te t he p oss ib i l i ty o f l a te g lac ia l f o re s t o r p a rk land c on ta in ing f o re s ta nd g ra s s land i ns ome a r ea so nt h e P la in s o fe a s te rn Wyom ing . I n ad e ta i led a na lys is o f l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene v e r teb ra te f a una , Wa lke r ( 1982a :274 -276 ) a rgued t h a t t h e f auna r e cove red f r om t h e A ga te B a s in s i te i n e a s te rn Wyom ing a s w e l l a s o the r r e cen t f a una l s t ud ie s f o r t h e Wyom ing a r ea s uppo r t H of fmann a nd J one s ' ( 1970 ) a nd o the r r e sea rche rs ' ( s ee Wa lke r 1 982a :274 f o r r e f e rence s ) a rgumen ts f o r t he p re sence o f w ha t h a s b een d ef ined a s " s teppe -savanna " o r " s teppe tund ra " c ond i t ions i n t h e No r thwes te rn P la ins / Wyom ing B a s in r eg ion d u r ing f u l l g l ac ia l a nd l a te P le is tocene t ime s . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e F o lsom f auna l a s semb lage ( da ted a t 1 0 ,789±120 a nd 1 0 ,665±85 y ea r s B .P . ) r e cove red f r om t h e A ga te B a s in s i te c on ta ined s pec ie s t ha t t oday o ccupy s t eppe /g ras s land h ab i ta t s , a sw e l l a s f ou r mon tane o rm e s ic r oden ts a nd o ne s t eppe f o rm ; t h is e v idence s ugges ted t ha t t he l o ca l e nv i ronmen td u r ing t h ed epos i t ion o ft h ef auna w a sp os s ib ly much d i f fe ren t f r om t he mode rn s i tua t ion (Wa lke r 1 982a ;302 ) .T he c omb ina t ion o ft h el o ng ta i led ,h ea the r ,r e d b acked , a nd m eadow v o le si nt h eF o lsom f auna l a s semb lage h a s s ugge s ted t o Wa lke r ( 1982a :303 ) t h a tt h ea r royo b o t tom i nw h ich t h e A ga te B a s in s i te w a s l o ca ted w a s much m o re m e s ic b u t n o ts a tu ra ted d u r ing l a te g l ac ia l t ime s . O fc ou r se , t h is c onc lu s ion i sa ccu ra te o n ly i ft h e se s ma l l mamma l ian s pec ies w e re c ha rac te r ized b y s im i la r e nv ironmen ta l r e qu i remen t sd u r ing t h el a te P l e is tocene a st h ey a r et o day .

I n s umma ry , t he n o r the rn G rea t P l a ins a ppa ren t ly e xpe r ienced i n c rea sed d rough ti nt h ee a r ly p os t -g la c ia l ,s ome t ime a f te r 1 ,200 y ea rs B .P . ( Ba rno sky , A nde r son , a nd B a r t le in 1 987 :314 ) . Ove ra l l , wa rme r a nd e f fec t ive ly d r ie r s umme r c ond i t ions a f te r c a . 1 0 ,500 y ea r s B .P . w e re p r e sen t t h roughou t mos t o f n o r thwe s te rn N o r th Ame r ica . T h is c onc lus ion h as b een b ased o n t h e p re sence o f m o re x e ro the rm ic v ege ta t ion t h an t ha t o f t o day , a nd b y t h e n o r thwa rd s h if t o ft h e a r c t ic t r ee l i ne i nt h e e a r ly H o locene ( Ba rnosky 1 989 :70 ; B a rnosky , A nde r son a nd B a r t le in 1 987 ) . T hese v ege ta t ion c hange s , a ppa ren t ly c au sed b y b o th d i rec t a nd i nd i re c t e f f ec t s o ft h e a mp l if ied s e a sona l c yc le o fs o la r r ad ia t ion b e tween 1 2 ,000 a nd 6 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Ku tzbach 1 987 ; Ku tzbach a nd Gue t te r 1 986 ) , r e su l ted i n g r ea te r r a d ia t ion i ns umme r , i n c rea sed t empe ra tu re s , a nd d ec rea sed e f fec t ive mo is tu re i n t he n o r thwe s te rn Un i ted S ta te s ( Ba rnosky 1 989 :70 ) .

T he mo re d ive r se l a te g l ac ia l f a una p re sen t i n t h e F o lsom c omponen t s o ft h e A ga te B a s in s i te a l so h a s s ugge s ted a n e x tens ive g ra s s a nd f o rb c ommun i ty i n t h e b o t tom o f t h e a r royo a r ound 1 0 ,780 y ea r s B .P . (Wa lke r 1 982a :303 ) . I n a dd i t ion , s t ud ie s h ave i nd ica ted t h a t am e s ic m eadow s o i l a s soc ia t ion h ad b een p re sen t o ve r t h e e n t i re a r royo f l oo r i n t h e v i c in i ty o ft h e F o lsom o ccupa t ion ( Wa lke r 1 982a :303 ) . T he p re sence o fr an id f r ogs i n t he F o lsom l e ve l h a s b een i n te rpre ted a s f u r the r e v idence t ha t r e la t ive ly m es ic c ond i t ions h ad b een p re sen ta tt h a tt ime (Wa lke r 1 982a :303 ) , a l though t h e i rp re sence c ou ld h ave b een d ue t ol o ca l s p r ing a c t iv i ty ( Cha r le s S chwege r , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion 1 995 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e g ra sse s a nd t h e f o rb u nde r s to ry i n t h e F o lsom a r royo , t h e h ab i ta t r equ i remen t s o f t h e r ed -ba cked a nd h ea the r v o les , a nd p oss ib ly t h e l o ng ta i led v o le , h ave i n d ica ted t h a tt r ee s m ay h ave a l so b een p re sen ti nt h e a r royo b o t tom (Wa lke r 1 982a :303 ) . T he p re sence o ft h e s ageb ru sh v o le , s age g rouse , a nd p rongho rn , a l l w h ich a r e a s soc ia ted c l ose ly w i th s agebrush , h ave s ugge s ted t h e p oss ib i l i ty o f s age -cove red u p lands (Wa lke r 1 982a :303 ) . A p robab le v ege ta t iona l r e cons truc t ion o f t h e a r royo b o t tom f o r t h e F o lsom t ime p e r iod ,b a sed o n t h e se m ic rof auna l a s soc ia t ions a nd s ugge s t ive o f mo re me s ic h ab i ta t s , i n c lude s K en tucky b luegra ss , b ig b lueg rass , t u f ted h a ir g rass , s l ende r w hea tg rass , s edge s , w i ld r ose , q uak ing a spen , w e s te rn s nowbe r ry , w i ld g e ran ium , a nd moun ta in b ig s ageb ru sh a s d om inan ts , w i th p robab ly o the r f o rms o f v ege ta t ion a s s ubdom inan t s (Wa lke r 1 982a :303 ) .

6 .3 NORTHERN PLAINS PALEOINDIAN SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLE MENT S TRATEGIES 6 . 3 .1 I n troduc t ion O ve r t he l o ng t e rm , c l ima t ic f a c to r s a re t h e m a jor d e te rm inan t s o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion , a bundance , a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f p rey s pec ies , a nd h ence g rea t ly i n f luence h uman s e t t lemen t , r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd p a t te rns o f s oc ia l i n te rac t ion ( E . A . Sm i th 1 991 :71) . A s d emons t ra ted a bove , d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene , e spec ia l ly C lov is t ime s , N o r th Ame r ica w as e xpe r ienc ing u n ique a nd d r ama t ic c l ima t ic , g eo log ic , a nd e co log ica l c hange w i th c on t inen ta l d eg lac ia t ion ( F igu re 2 ) , a nd w a sh igh ly v a r iab le a c ros s t i me a nd s pace ( Me l tze r 1 993a :30 1 ) . T o c ope w i th t h e se c hang ing c ond i t ions d u r ing t he l a te P le is tocene a nd t h e i r s ubsequen t e f f ec t s , t h eP a leo ind ian c u l tu re si n No r th Ame r ica m u s th ave b een f o rced t o d eve lop n ew a nd v a r iab le s t ra teg ies ( Bamfo r th 1 988 ; B onn ich sen e ta l . 1 987 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ; Ma r t in e ta l . 1 985 ) . T he f o l low ing d i scu ss ion w i l l f o cus u pon t h i s l a rge r p i c tu re o fs ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies p rac t ised b y No r the rn P l a in s P a leo ind ians , e spec ia l ly a s s ugge s ted b y t h e P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd g ene ra l h un te r -ga the re r d a t a , w i th c ons ide ra t ion

F ou rt of i ve h und red y ea r sl a te r ,d u r ing t h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e A ga te B a s in s i te a r ea b y H e l l G ap p eop le , t h e w e t meadow c ove r ing t h e b o t tom o f t he a r royo w a s s t a r t ing t o d ry o u t , w i th t h ep robab le l o s so ft h es h rub a nd s ma l l t r ee u nde r s to ry , a nd w i th t h el i ke ly r educ t ion i nt h eo ve ra l l a moun to fb o rea l t y pe c ove r i nt h e a r ea o ft he s i te (Wa lke r 1 982a :304 -305 ) . B a s ing h i s v i ew o n f auna l d a ta a nd a r ea s o fs ympa t ry ( i . e . , 6 6

r oo t s a nd b e r r ie s , a nd a n ima l a nd b i rd s pec ie s e xp lo i ted a s f ood r e sou rce s b y p ra i r ie h un t ing t r ibe s o f t h e U ppe r M i s sou r i ;h ea l so n o ted t h ei mpo r tance o fw i ld b e r r ie s ,r o o t s , a nd f r u i t s i nf e a s t s a nd c e remon ie s a nd i nt h e g ene ra l d i e t , e s pe c ia l ly d u r ing t i me sw hen m ea tw a ss c a r ce .

o f t h e r e cons t ruc t ion p re sen ted a bove f o r l a te P l e is tocene N o r the rn P l a ins e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion s . 6 . 3 .2 P a leo ind ian S ubs i s tence P a t tern s : Were T hey B ig G ame H un t er so rN o t ?

B a sed o n e t hnog raph ic , a n th ropo log ica l , a nd a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f h un te r -ga the re r s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s i n a r id e co sy s tem s t h a ti n d ica te t h ei mpo r tance o fe d ib le p l an t s a nd s ma l l a n ima l s o ve r m ed ium t o l a rge g ame a n ima ls ( s ee r e f e rence s c i ted i n G uen the r 1 991 ) , G uen the r ' s ( 1 991 :18 ) a r gumen te ven w en ta sf a ra st os ugge s tt h a tN o r th Ame r ican P la ins h un te r -ga the re r s w e re a c tua l ly d ependen t u pon g a the r ing w i ld p l an tf o od s .T h i sa r gumen ti sm ade i ns p i te o f t h e f a c t t h a t m any a r chaeo log is t s , i n c lud ing F r ison ( 1978 :364 ) , b e l ieve t h a t h un t ing w a s m o re i mpo r tan t t h an g a the r ing f o rp opu la t ions l i v ing o n t h eN o r thwe s te rn P l a in s . Wh i le t h is c l a im o fd ependence o n p l an t f o od s i sc e r ta in ly d eba tab le , t h e re a r e e t hnog raph ic r e f e rence s t os uppo r t t h e v i ew t h a t p opu la t ions a c ross t he P la ins u t i l ized a c ons ide rab le r a nge o f p l an t s pec ie s a nd , mo reove r , c ons ide red t h e se r e sou r ce s v e ry i mpo r tan t . F o r e xamp le , i t h a sb een r e co rded t h a t t h eB lack f oo t o ft h eN o r the rn P l a in s u sed a nd h ad k now ledge o fa tl e a s t 1 85 s p e c ie so fp l an t s( s ee J ohn s ton 1 982 ) . Wede l ( 1 961 , 1 986 ) p rov ided a n o ve rv iew o ft h en ume rou su se f u la nd e d ib le p l an t se xp lo i ted b yh un t e r g a the re r st h roughou tt h eP l a in s . S ome o ft h em o re i mpo r tan t s pec ie si n c luded t h ep r a i r ie t u rn ip ( P sora l ea e s cu len ta) ; t h e g r oundnu t ( Ap ios a mer icana ) ; t h e s t a r chy t u be r s o f t h e a r rowhead ( Sag i t tar ia ) ; t h er o o t s o ft h e b u sh -mo rn ing g l o ry ( l po t rwea l e p tophy l la) ; t h er oo t s o ft h e J e ru sa lem a r t ichoke ( H e l ian thus t u berosus ) ; t h e s eeds f r om t h e s unf lowe r ( H e l ian thus a nnu s ) ; v a r iou s t y pe s o f n u t s s u ch a sh i cko ry , b l a ck w a lnu t ,p ecan , a nd h aze lnu ti nt h es ou thea s te rn r e g ions o ft h e P l a in s ; a nd n ume rou s w i ld f r u i t s a nd b e r r ie s s u ch a s t h e c hokeche r ry , w i ld p l um , b uf f a lo b e r ry , w i ld c u r ran t , g oo sebe r ry , s a ska toon , a nd s e rv icebe r ry .

A si se v iden tf r om t h ed i scu s s ion o fp a leoenv i ronmen ta ld a t a a nd r e cons t ruc t ions p rov ided a bove , a nd a s Me l tze r ( 1993a :302 ) n o ted , N o r th Ame r ican l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronm en t sw e re much r i che r a nd q u i te u n l ike a ny o ft h o se f a ced b y e t hnog raph ic o r p re sen t -day h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups . E nv i ronmen t s i n w h ich e a r ly P a leo ind ian p eop le l i ved w e re s pec ies r i ch , a nd , c onsequen t ly , l i ke ly h ad r e la t ive ly f ewe rn umbe r s o fi n d iv idua ls p e r s p ec ie s ( Me l tze r 1 993a :302 ) . I fl a rge h e rd s o fb i son , m ammo th , a nd c a r ibou w e re n o t p r e sen t d u r ing l a te P l e i s tocene t ime s a nd t h u s u nava i lab le f o r s pec ia l ized p reda t ion b y h uman h un te r s , p e rhap s ,a s Me l tze r( 1 993a :302 )s ugge s ted , s p ec ia l iza t ion b y e a r ly P a leo ind ian p eop le m ay n o th ave b e en p os s ib le a c ro s s m uch o fN o r th Ame r ica . I n f a c t , s u b s i s tence s pec ia l iza t ion a mong N o r th Ame r ican n a t ive g r oup s w a s r e la t ive ly r a re ; i n s tead , i ta ppea rs t h a t m any g r oups a c tua l ly s pec ia l ized i n b e ing g ene ra l is t s ( Me l tze r 1 9 93a :300 ) . I n ar e v iew o fe t hnog raph ic r e co rds , Me l tze r( 1 993a :300 )d i scove red t h a to n ly e i gh tp e rcen to fa l N o r th Ame r ican g roups f o r w h ich d a ta w e re a va i lab le p r ac t ised s ome f o rm o fs pec ia l ized h un t ing . H e f ound t h a t s pec ia l ized h un t ing a nd f i sh ing o ccu r red i n r e s t r ic ted e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing s , t h a t i s , i nr e g ions l i ke t h e w e s te rn P l a ins o rA r c t ic t h a tw e re r e la t ive ly t r ee le s s , m ono typ ic , l ow d ive r s i ty e nv i ronmen t s w i th l a rge n umbe r s o f as i ng le s pe c ie ss u ch a sc a r ibou a nd b i son ( Me l tze r 1 993a :300 ) . A s n o ted b y Me l tze r ( 1993a :300 ) , h oweve r , e t hnog raph ic a c coun t sc l ea r ly i nd ica te u nde rc l o s e re xam ina t ion t h a tt h e se s o -ca l led s p e c ia l ized g r oup sd i dn o th ave e n t i re ly s pe c ia l ized d i e t s . A l though I nu i t o n t h e s e a ice r e l ied o n m ea t f o r a m a jo r p o r t ion o f t h e i r s ub s is tence b ecause t h e re w a s n o t m uch e l se a va i lab le o nt h ei c e ,t h e re a r er e f e rence si n d ica t ing t h a t m any a r c t ic p opu la t ions d i d n o t p rac t ise a n a r row s pec ia l iza t ion i n w ha le a nd c a r ibou h un t ing . F o r e xamp le , N agy ( 1 994 :69 -85 )d e sc r ibed am u ch w ide rs ub s is tence b a se f o rt h eI n uv ia lu i tt h a ta l so i n c luded t h eh un t ing o fs e a l , p o la r b ea r , b i rd s , a nd g round s qu i r re l , a sw e l l a s f i sh ing a nd t h e g a the r ing o fv a r iou sk i nd s o fb e r r ie s , r o o t s , a nd o t he rp l an t s . L ikew i se f o r m any s uba rc t ic p opu la t ions c ha rac te r ized a s s pec ia l ized c a r ibou h un te r s , s eve r a l a c coun t s s ugge s t t h a t s ome o f t h e se n o r the rn n a t ive g roups p rac t ised mo re d i ve r s if ied s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s . F o r i n s tance , H ea rne 's ( 1971) a c coun t i nd ica te s t h e w ide v a r ie ty o f r e sou rce s e xp lo i t ed b yN o r the rn C h ipewyan I n d ian s f o r f o od a nd r aw m a te r ia l . T hese r e sou rce s i n c luded l a rge g ame s uch a s c a r ibou , m oo se , a nd mu skox , s ma l l g ame s uch a sh a re a nd b eave r , n ume rous s pec ie s o f f i sh , b i rds s u ch a s p a r t r idge , d uck s , a nd g ee se , a nd v a r ious t y pe s o f b e r r ie s . A s im i la r s i tua t ion i se v iden t f o rP l a ins p opu la t ions .F o re xamp le ,b o th McC l in tock ( 1992 :238 ) a nd G r inne l l ( 1962 :203 -207 ) i lus t ra ted t h a t t h e d i e t o f P la ins g r oup s w a s much mo re v a r ied t h an as imp le f o cu so nb i son ,w i th t h ee xp lo i ta t ion o f s a rv is b e r r ie s a nd o t he r t y pe s o fb e r r ie s , t h e g a the r ing o f v a r iou s r o o t s ( e spec ia l ly c ama s ) , t h e c o l lec t ing o fe ggs a nd v ege tab le f o ods s uch a sw i ld t u rn ip , o n ion , a nd r huba rb , a nd t h e h un t ing a nd /o r s na r ing o fd uck , g ee se , r a bb i t , e l k , d ee r , a n te lope , m oun ta in s heep a nd g oa t s , a nd o t he r g ame . A s w e l l , D en ig ( 1930 :582 -583 ) o u t l ined t h e g rea t v a r ie ty o f

J ohn s ton ( 1 969 , 1 982 ) a nd H e l l son a nd G add ( 1 974 ) c l ea r ly d emon s t ra ted , f o rt h ee t hnog raph ic B lack f oo tp opu la t ion s o n t h e N o r the rn P l a in s , t h e i r e x ten s ive u se o ff l o ra l r e sou rce s , n o to n ly a sf o od i t em s ,b u ta l so f o r med ic ina l a nd c e remon ia l p u rpose s , a s d ye s a nd p e rfume s , a nd f o r c ons t ruc t ion m a te r ia ls a nd t h e m anuf ac tu re o ft o o l s a nd c r a f t s . A s w e l l , McC l in tock ( 1 992 ) i l u s t ra ted t h e i mpo r ta nce o fb e r r ie s n o t o n ly i nt h ed i e to fB la ck f oo tp eop le sa s ah i gh ly d e s i red f o od r e sou r ce ( McC l in tock 1 992 :466 ) , b u t a l so i nc e remon ia l a nd s p i r i tua l a s pec t so fl i f ea ss a c red f o ods i nc e remon ia ls ,a nd a s v a lued g i f t s g i ven t ov i s i to r s a nd o t he r p eop le s w i th w hom s oc ia l c on ta c t a nd o b l iga t ion s w e re d e s i red ( McC l in tock 1 992 :367 , 4 08 , 4 67 ) . T he i mpo r tance a nd v a lue g i ven t o p l an t r e sou rce s b y e t hnog raph ic P la ins p opu la t ions i s o bv iou s i n McC l in tock 's ( 1 992 :363 -364 ) a ccoun t o f t wo B lack foo t w omen w ho w e re i ndus t r ious c o l lec to rs o f m ed ic ina l h e rbs a nd e d ib le p lan ts , w he the r t h ey w e re r e s id ing i nc amp , o n t h et r a i l ,i nt h ef o re s t , a l ong s t ream s , o r e ven o n t h e p r a i r ie . H e n o ted t h a t t h e w omen n eve r l o s t a n o ppo r tun i ty f o r c o l le c t ing , a nd w ou ld e ven s t op t h e o u t f i t w hen m ov ing o n t h e t r a i l i n o r de r t os e cu re v a r ious p l an t s p ec imen s . I n v i ew o f t h e e t hnog raph ic d a ta , a s o u t l ined a bove , t h a t i n d ica t e se ven s o -ca l led b i son h un t ing " s pec ia l is t s "u t i l ized a w ide r a nge o fr e sou rce si n c lud ing p l an ts pec ie s , Ia g r ee w i th Me l tze r ( 1 993a :303 ) t h a t i ti sh i gh ly i mp robab le t h a t e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w e re a l l s pec ia l ized b i g g ame 6 7

h un te rs u s ing s im i la r s t ra teg ie s o ve r t h e e n t i re c on t inen t . Mo reove r , t h e a s sumed c on t inen t -w ide P a leo ind ian f e a tu re s s uch a sr e l iance o n h igh q ua l i ty e xo t ic l i t h ics , s im i la r i ty i n p o in t s a nd a s semb lage s , a nd h igh mob i l i ty ( e .g . , H ayne s 1 980 , 1 982 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) , may b e mo re a ppa ren t t h an r ea l ( Me l tze r 1 993a :295 ) . A s w e l l , n ew r ad ioca rbon d a te s i nd ica te t ha t e a r ly P a leo ind ian c u l tu re s , e spec ia l ly C lov is , w e re n o t n ece s sa r i ly a s ynch ronous p henomena a c ros s N o r th Ame r ica (Me l tze r 1 993a :304 ) . I ns tead , a s Me l tze r( 1993a :303 ) e mpha s ized , n ume rou sd i s t inc tc l ima t ic a nd b io t ic z one s o f N o r th Ame r ica w ou ld h ave p re sen ted v e ry d i f fe ren t a dap t ive c ha l lenges t o e a r ly P a leo ind ian g roups . E v idence f r om t h e w e s te rn a r ea o fN o r th Ame r ica (W i l l ig 1 991) , f r om t h e mon tane r eg ion o f Mon tana ( Dav i s 1 993 ) , f r om t h e n o r thea s t b orea l r eg ions ( D incauze 1 993 ; L eppe r a nd Me l tze r 1 991) , f r om t h e s ou thea s t r eg ion o f N o r th Ame r ica ( Dunba r 1 991) , a nd e ven f r om t h e S ou the rn P la in s ( J ohnson 1 991) a l l s ugge s t t h a t e a r ly P a leo ind ians e xp lo i ted a w ide v a r ie ty o fp lan t a nd a n ima l s pec ie s ( s ee Me l tze r 1 993a :303 , 1 993b :160 ) w h i le p ra c t is ing d ive r s if ied , g ene ra l ized , a nd r eg iona l ly d i s t inc t e conom ie s w i th r educed m ob i l i ty i nm any c a se s . F o r e xamp le , a tt h e L ehne r s i te i n s ou thea s te rn A r izona , e xcava t ions r e cove red n o t o n ly mammo th b one , b u t a l so b u rned b ea r , h o r se , b i son , t a p i r , r abb i t , a nd mu sk ra tr ema ins ( Hau ry e ta l . 1 959 ; H ayne s 1 982 :390 ; J ohnson 1 977 :71-72 ; Me l tze r 1 993a :303) . A s w e l l , a t t he L ubbock L ake P a leo ind ian s i te i nT exa s , e v idence w a s f ound f o r aw ide r a nge o fs pec ie s t h a t w e re p oss ib ly e xp lo i ted b y t h e C lov i s i n hab i tan t s , i n c lud ing m ammo th ,h o r se ,c ame l ,b i son , c oyo te , w o lve s , s ho r t -f aced b ea r , j a ck r abb i t , w i ld t u rkey , mu sk ra t , s u rf ace -f eed ing d uck s , g ee se , a nd t u r t le ( J ohnson 1 977 :72 7 4 , 1 987 :158 ;J ohnson a nd H o l l iday 1 989 :149 ) .E v idence f o r b u tche r ing , m a r row e x t rac t ion , a nd p roce ss ing i n c luded c u t l i ne s a nd ma rk s , c on t ro l led b reakage , a nd c rush ing , w h ich w e re e v iden t o n c ame l b one , s ho r t -faced b ea r b one , w i ld t u rkey b one , a nd m ammo th b one ( J ohnson 1 987 :121-123 ) . F o rp o s t -C lov i sP a leo ind ian c u l tu re sa tL ubbock L ake ,b i son , p rongho rn a n te lope , d ee r , j a ck r abb i t , c o t ton ta i l , g rou se , s u rface -f eed ing d ucks , g ee se , a nd mu sk ra t w e re e xp lo i ted ( J ohnson 1 987 :158 ; J ohnson a nd H o l l iday 1 989 :151) . E v idence f o rb u tche r ing , ma r row e x t rac t ion , a nd p roce s s ing w a si d en t if ied f o rb i son b one ,w h i le c u tl i ne sa nd ma rk sw e re i d en t if ied o n musk ra t a nd g eese b one , a nd c ons is ten t b reakage p a t te rn ing s ugge s t ing d i s jo in t ing w a s n o ted f o r b o th musk ra t a nd d uck ( Johnson 1 987 :124 -126 ) . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e A ub rey C lov is s i te i n T exa s a l so c on t r ibu te s t o t h is r e eva lua t ion o f t h e r o le o f m ammo th i nC lov is e conomy a nd t h e s ugge s t ion o f amo re b road -ba sed e conomy f o r e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions . Wh i le s ome o ft h eC lov is -age f a una a ppea r st oh ave b een t h e r e su l t o f n a tu ra l a ccumu la t ion , t h e re i sc l ea r e v idence f o r p rocu remen t a nd p roce ss ing o fb o th l a rge mamma l s pec ie s a nd t u r t le , a nd t a phonom ic s t ud ie s may i n d ica te t h ep os s ib le e xp lo i ta t ion o fd ee r , r abb i t , s qu i r re l , a nd f i sh ( s ee F e r r ing 1 995 :277 -280 ) . A t t h ee a s te rn P a leo ind ian s i te o fS hawnee M in is ink i n P ennsy lvan ia , D en t a nd K aufman ( 1985 :72 ) h ave r e corded t h e p resence o f f i sh r ema ins a nd a g rea t v a r ie ty o fs e ed t y pe s( Me l tze r 1 993a :303 ) . T he re i sa l so s im i la r e v idence , i n s ome c a se s , f o r a mo re b road -spec t rum u se o f f auna a nd o the r r e sou rces b y P a leo ind ian p eop les l i v ing o n t he N o r the rn P la ins a nd a d jacen t moun ta in r eg ion , s pec if ica l ly a ts i tes s uch a s t h e s t ra t if ied o ccupa t ion s i te o f MacHaf f ie i n w e s t -cen t ra l 6 8

Mon tana a nd t h e I nd ian C reek s i te i nt h en o r the rn Mon tana R ock ie s ( F igu re 3 ; T ab le 1 ) . A t t h e Ma cHaf f ie s i te , t h e p resence o fb i son , d ee r , r abb i t , a nd w o lf s t rong ly i n d ica te s t h ep rac t ice o f am ixed spec ie sh un t ing a dap ta t ion b yF o lsom c omp lex p eop le s a r ound 1 ,000 t o 1 0 ,500 y ea r s B .P . ( s ee D av is 1 993 :267 ) . A s w e l l , p rey s pec ie s d ive r s i ty i sa l so r ef lec ted i nt h eF o lsom d i e ta tt h e I nd ian C reek s i te , w i th t h e d i scove ry o f b i son , ma rmo t , h a re , p r a i r ie d og , a nd v o le r ema ins ( s ee r e f e rence s i nD av is 1 993 :270 -271) . A s D av is ( 1993 :265 ,2 74 ) s t a ted , i ti si n c rea s ing ly a ppa ren tt h a tn o t a l P a leo ind ians l i v ing i n t h e e co log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e Mon tana a r ea w e re s pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un te r s ; i n s tead , a s i ss ugge s ted b y t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n f a una l , l i th ic , a nd o t he r P a leo ind ian a s semb lage s , t hey w e re v e r sa t i le h un te r g a the re r s c apab le o f s us ta in ing t h em se lves u s ing a w ide v a r ie ty o f s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies d ependen t u pon l o ca l r e sou rces , p refe rences , a nd a va i lab le t e chno logy a nd k now ledge . R obe r t s ( 1935 :32 , c i ted i nW i lmsen 1 974 :24 ) i n d ica ted t h a t c u t , b roken , a nd s p l i t a n ima l b one s r e cove red f r om t h ed epo s i t sa tt h eL indenme ie rs i te , aF o lsom c amp s i te i n C o lo rado ( F igu re 3 ; T ab le 1 ) , w e re i d en t if ied a s b e ing f r om b i son , f ox , w o lf , a nd r abb i t . S im i la r ly , a tt h e A ga te B as in s i te ( F igu re 3 ; T ab le 1 ) , e x tens ive c u l tura l mod if ica t ion i n t h e f o rm o f b reakage a nd c u t m a rk s w a s i d en t if ied o n p rongho rn m a te r ia l r e cove red f r om F o lsom l eve ls (Wa lker 1 982b :270 -271) . B u tche r ing a nd /o r p roce s s ing m a rk s w e re a l so i d en t if ied o n b one s f r om o t he r s ma l l mamma l sr e p re sen ted i nt h eF o l som f a una l a s semb lage (Wa lke r 1 982b :273 -274 ) . S e r ie s o f c u t m a rk s s ugge s t ing d e f le sh ing o rd i s jo in t ing w e re i den t if ied o n wo lf , m ed iums i zed c an id , a nd f ox b one ( Wa lke r 1 982b :273 ) . B reakage p a t te rn s a nd b u rn ing o fj a ck r a bb i tb one l i ke ly a l so r e la ted t o c u l tu ra la c t iv i ty (Wa lke r 1 982a :285 , 1 982b :273 -274 ) . C au t ion mu s tb e n o ted , h oweve r , t ha t , a l though t h er ema ins o fs ma l le r a n ima ls a r ep re sen t i n many o ft h e se P a leo ind ian s i te s , t h e re c an b e p rob lem s u nques t ion ing ly a s sum ing t h a t a l l t h ese a n ima ls w e re u sed a s f ood s ou rce s , w i thou t c ons ide r ing t a phonom ic a spec ts . Sma l l a n ima l r ema ins c an b e i n co rpo ra ted i n to a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s t h rough m any n a tu ra l p roce s se s ( S chm i t t a nd L upo 1 995 :497 ) . A s S chm i t t a nd L upo ( 1995 ) d emons t ra ted w i th t h e i r a na lys is o f t h e f a una l a s semb lage f r om R ock S he l te r , aF remon t s i te i n U tah , b y c ons ide r ing t a phonom ic h i s to r ie s , amuch d i f f e ren t a nd l i ke ly mo re r e l iab le p i c tu re o fs ub s i s tence b ehav iou rc an b e p roduced a s o pposed t o o ne t h a t i s b ased o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a l l f a una f r om a n a s semb lage r e p re sen t c u l tu ra l r e fuse . I n s ome P a leo ind ian c a ses , t a phonom ic a spec t s a r e c ons ide red t o ac e r ta in d eg ree , a s i lu s t ra ted b y J ohnson 's ( 1987 :120 -121) e xam ina t ion o f t h e p oss ib le mod if ica t ion o f t h e L ubbock L ake f a una l a s semb lages t h rough f l uv ia l a nd c a rn ivo re p roce s se s , a nd h e r a temp t s t o i d en t ify h uman m od if ica t ion t h rough a na ly s is o fc u t m a rk s , b reakage , a nd c r ush ing .F o ro t he rP a leo ind ian s i te s ,h oweve r , e spec ia l ly t h o se e xcava ted i nt he e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e 1 900 s , t a phonom ic a spec t s c once rn ing f auna l a s semb lage s w e re r a re ly , i fa ta l l , c ons ide red . I ti se v iden t t h a t b ef o re m ak ing i n f e rence s a bou ts ubs is tence s t ra teg ie so fp r eh is to r ic g r oups , a r chaeo log is t s mu s t a t temp t t o i den t ify t h e m echan ism s r e spons ib le f o r t h e i n c lus ion o f a r chaeo log ica l f a unas ( Schm i t t a nd L upo 1 995 :510 ) . T h is p rac t ice ( f o r ar e cen t e xamp le , s ee J ohnson a nd H o l l iday 1 997 ) i s e spec ia l ly n eeded i nP a leo ind ian s t ud ie s , n o t o n ly w i th r ega rd t ot h e s ma l l a n ima ls p re sen t i n t h e f auna l a s semb lage s , b u t a l so w i th r ega rd t o t he l a rge mamma ls r ecove red f r om a r chaeo log ica ld epos i t s .

F igu re 3 .L oca t ion o fR epo r ted E a r ly P a leo ind ian S i te s o n t h eN o r the rn P l a in s ( mod if ied f r om F r ison 1 991a :40 ) .

6 9

S ITE TYPE

DAT ING

REFERENCES

Mammo th k i l l C lov i s mammo th k i l l

1 ,280±350 B .P . 1 ,200±500 B .P . 1 0 ,800± 110 B .F . 1 0 ,7 10±90 B .P . 1 0 ,670± 120 B .P . 1 0 ,660± 170 B .P . 1 0 ,600±90 B .P .

I rw in e ta l . 1 962 ;F r i son 1 991a F igg in s 1 933 ; S ela rds 1 952 ; H ayne s 1 966 ; F r i son 1 991a

Wyom ing

C lov i s mammo th k i l l / p roce s s ing s i t e

1 ,200±220 B .P . 1 ,200±200 B .P . 1 0 ,864± 14 1 B .P .

F r i son a nd T odd 1 986 ; F r i son 1 978 :86 110 ; F r i son 1 991a :150 155

L ange -Fe rgu son

S ou th D ako ta

C lov i s mammo th k i l l / b u tche ry s i t e

1 , 140 1 140 B .P . 1 0 ,730± 530 B .P . 1 0 ,670 -1 300 B .P .

H annus 1 990a , 1 990b ; F r i son 1 991a

5

A nz ick

Mon tana

C lov i sc a che /bu r ia l

1 0 ,940±90 B .P . 1 0 ,820± 100 B .P . 1 0 ,7 10± 100 B .P .

L ah ren a nd B onn ich sen 1 974 ; F r i son 1 991a :39 -4 1 ; J one sa nd B onn i ch s en 1 994

6

S heaman S i t e , A ga te B a s in L oca l i ty

Wyom ing

C lov i sc amp s i t e

1 0 ,690± 105 B .P . 1 0 ,030±280 B .P .

F r i son a nd S tan f o rd 1 982 ; F r i son 1 991a

-

F enn C lov i sC ache

Unknown ( U tah , Wyom ing ,I daho a r ea )

C lov i sc a ch e

7

M i l lI r on

Mon t ana

G o shen c amp /ki l ls i te

8

H el G ap

Wyom ing

S t ra t i f ied mu l t ic omponen tP a leo ind ian c amp

9

C a r t e r /K e r r -McGee

Wyom ing

S t ra t if ied mu l t ic omponen tP a leo ind ian k i l l /p roce s s ing _s i t e

F o l som l e ve l : 1 0 ,400±600 B .P .

F r i son 1 984 , 1 99 1a

1 0

L ind enme ie r

C o lo rado

F o l som c amp

1

I nd ian C reek

Mon t ana

S t ra t if ied mu l t ic omponen tP a leo ind ian c amp

1 ,200±400 B .P . 1 0 ,780±375 B .P . 1 0 ,780± 135 B .P . F o l som c omponen t s : 1 0 ,980± 110B .P . 1 0 ,630±280 B .P .

R obe r t s 1 935 , 1 936 ; W i lm sen 1 974 ; W i lm sen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 D av i s a nd G re i se r 1 992

6

A ga te B a s in

Wyom ing

Mu l t i -componen t P a leo ind ian k i l l /camp

F r i son a nd S tan fo rd 1 982 ; F r i son 1 991a

1 2

H an son

Wyom ing

F o l som c amp /wo rk shop

F o l som c omponen t s : 1 0 ,780± 120 B .P . 1 0 ,665±85 B .P . 1 0 ,375±700 B .P . 1 0 ,700±670 B .P . 1 0 ,300± 150 B .P . 1 0 ,080± 330 B .P .

1 3

A dobe

Wyom ing

F o l som h un t ing s t and

-

H ofman a nd I ngba r1 988

1 4

R ocky F oo l sm

Wyom ing

R edepo s i t ed F o l som a s semb lage

-

K o rn f e ld 1 988

1 5

MacHa f f ie

Mon tana

Mu l t i -componen tc amp F o l som a nd S co t t sb lu f f o ccupa t ion s

-

F o rb i sa nd S pe r ry 1 9 52

KEY

NAME Un ion P ac i f ic

LOCAT ION 'Wyom ing

1 2

D en t

C o lo rado

3

C o lby

4

-

1 ,570± 170 B .P . 1 ,5601 920 B .P . 1 ,360± 130 B .P . 1 ,340± 120 B .P . 1 ,320± 130 B .P . 1 ,0 10± 140 B .P . 1 0 ,990± 170 B .P . 1 0 ,770± 8 5 B .P . 1 0 ,760± 130 B .P . A ga te B a s in l e ve l : 1 0 ,850±500 B .P . M id l and o ccupa t ion : 1 0 ,290± 500 B .P . 1 0 ,090±200 B .P .

F r i son 1 991a :4 1-49

F r i son 1 988 , 1 99 1a

I rw in -W i ll iam se ta l .1 973 ; F r i son 1 991a

F r i son a nd B rad ley 1 980 ; F r i son 1 991a

T ab le 1 .R epo r ted E a r ly P a leo ind ian S i te so n t h eN o r the rn P l a ins , c a . 1 ,000 -10 ,500 y ea r sB .P . T h is t a b le d oe sn o tr e p re sen t a ne xhau s t ive l i s to fN o r the rn P l a ins e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s ,b u ti n c lude st h o se s i te st h a ta r e f r om p ub l ished s ou rce s .

7 0

n o t u n t i l t h e e a r ly H o locene t h a t t h e n umbe r s o f b i son i n c rea sed o n t h e P la ins , r each ing d ens i t ie s t h a t w e re n ece s sa ry f o rs u cce s s f u lc ommuna lk i l l so fl a rge rn umbe r so f a n ima ls ( s ee r e la t ed d i s cu s s ion i nG u th r ie 1 980 :70 -71 ) .

Wh i le d i re c t e v idence f o rp lan t e xp lo i ta t ion b y P a leo ind ian p eop le si sr e la t ive ly s p a r se i nc ompa r i son t ot h ef o cu so n t h e m o re v i s ib le e v idence f o r f a una l e xp lo i ta t ion , t h e re i ss ome i nd ica t ion t h a t No r thwe s te rn P la ins /Foo th i l l - Moun ta in P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w e re n o t a dve r se t ou s ing p l an t r e sou rce s . F o r e xamp le , a tt h e B a r ton G u lch s i te , a9 , 000 y ea r o l d s i te i n s ou thwe s te rn Mon tana , i n a dd i t ion t o a bundan t b one f r om d ee r , r abb i t , c an id , p o r cup ine , a nd r oden t s , t h e re w a s a l so al a rge q uan t i ty o fc ha r red s eed s o f g oose f oo t a nd p r ick ly p ea r r e cove red ( s ee A abe rg 1 993 ) . A abe rg ( 1 993 :154 ) n o ted t h a t b ecause n ume rous f e a tu re s w e re l o aded w i th c ha rcoa l a nd p l an t m a te r ia ls , p l an t g a the r ing a nd p roce s s ing a ppea red n o tt oh ave b een ac a sua l a c t iv i ty a tB a r ton G u lch ; f u r the rmo re , A abe rg w a s i n c l ined t oi n f e rt h a ti tw a sh i gh ly p o ss ib le t h a tp a t te rned e xp lo i ta t ion o f p lan t r e sou rces m ay h ave b een i n p l ace b y m idP a leo ind ian t ime s .

F u r the rmo re , i tm u s t b e r emembe red t h a t a n ima l r e sou rce s c an b e a cqu i red t h rough m e thod s o t he r t h an a c t ive h un t ing , o ne o ft h e se b e ing t h e a c t iv i ty o fs c aveng ing . I nu i t g roup s h ave b een k nown t os c avenge d ead b owhead a nd b l ue w ha le c a rca s se st h a th ave w a shed a sho re ,b e ing a b le t oe a tt h em ea t e ven i ft h e c a rca s s w a s s e ve ra l y ea r s o l d , a st h e i n ne r m ea t w ou ld n o t h ave s po i led i nt h a t t ime ( Nagy 1 994 :34 , 7 0 ) . Among t h e mode rn H adza a nd o the r A f r ican g roups , s c aveng ing i sn o t ad i s t inc t s t ra tegy t h a tc onf l ic t sw i th o t he r s ub s is t ence a c t iv i t ie s ,b u ti ne s sence i s ar e gu la rp a r to ft h e i r r ou t ine c o l lec t ing p r a c t ice s ( s ee B unn e ta l . 1 988 :423 -426 ; O 'Conne l l e ta l . 1 988 ) . A l lH adza ,m en a nd w omen i n c luded , c on t inua l ly a nd e age r ly m on i to rt h ef l igh to fv u l tu re sa nd t h e n i gh t t ime c a l l so fl i on s a nd h yena sa sm a rke r s o fs c aveng ing o ppo r tun i t ie s , a nd q u ick ly a c t u pon t h em ( O 'Conne l l e ta l . 1 988 :357 ) . O 'Conne l l e ta l .( 1 988 :357 )r e co rded a n i n s tance i n w h ich a du l t w omen , a rmed o n ly w i th d i gg ing s t ick s , a pp rop r ia ted ak i l l f r om al e opa rd . F o r t h e H adza , t h en , t h e a c t iv i t ie s o fh un t ing a nd s c aveng ing a r ec l o se ly l i nked , w i th s c aveng ing y i e ld ing a pp rox ima te ly 2 0p e r cen to fa l m ed ium a nd l a rge m amma l c a rca s ses p rocu red ( O 'Conne l l e t a l . 1 988 :356 , 3 6 1 ) .

T he e a r l ie s t a ppea rance o f g r ind ing t o o l s ( i . e . , m ano s a nd g r ind ing s l abs ) s ugge s t ing t h e s y s tema t ic u se o f p l an t r e sou rce s o n t h e N o r the rn P la ins h a s b een d ocumen ted a t s eve ra l l a te P a leo ind ian s i te s a l so i nt h e f o o th i l l -moun ta in r e g ion s ( s ee P r ison 1 991a :332 -333 ) . D u r ing t h e s ubsequen t E a r ly P l a ins A rcha ic p e r iod ( a pp rox ima te ly 8 , 000 -5 ,000 y ea r s B .P . , a sd ef ined b y P r ison 1 991a ) , m a te r ia l e v idence f o r s y s tema t ic p l an t u se , i n c lud ing p i t h ou se s w i th f i re p i t s a nd g r ind ing s t one s , i n c rea se si nf r equency i nt h e se f o o th i l l moun ta in s i tes ( P r ison 1 991a :79 -88 ) . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence i n d ica te s t h a t n o t u n t i l t h e M idd le P l a in s A r cha ic p e r iod ( a pp rox ima te ly 5 ,000 -3 ,000 y ea rs B .P . ) d id p opu la t ions move i n to t h e o pen p l a ins a nd i n te rmon tane b a s in a r ea s , a tw h ich t ime t h ep r e sence o fg r ind ing t o o ls a nd t h eu se o fs t y l ized f o rm so ff o od p r epa r a t ion p i t s f o rr oa s t ing b ot hp l an ta nd a n ima ls f o od s p ro l i f e ra ted ( P r ison 1 99 1a :88 1 0 1 ) . C l ea r ly , P la in sa r chaeo log is t s ,i n c lud ing t h o se f o cu s ing o n t h e P a leo ind ian t ime f r ame , n eed t o c ons ide r t h e p robab i l i ty t h a t s y s tema t ic p l an t u se w a s ac en t ra l a nd i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e s ubs is tence o fp opu la t ions o ccupy ing t h e N o r th Ame r ican P l a ins a nd a d jacen t f o o th i l l -moun ta in r e g ion ( s ee f u r the rd e ta i led d i scu ss ion i nA abe rg 1 993 ) .

I n a dd i t ion t o a l te rna t ive m e thods t o a cqu i r ing a n ima l r e sou rce s , i tm u s tb en o ted t h a th un t ing , e s pe c ia l ly o fl a rge r g ame , i sn o t n e ce s sa r i ly a lway s h i gh ly p r ed ic tab le a nd a s r e l iab le a ss ome r e sea rche r st e nd t op o r t ray i t .I ns ome c a se s , h un t ing e xcu r s ions p robab ly f a i led a s o f ten a s t h ey s u cceeded . F o r t h e ! Kung , v ege ta l a nd a n ima l r e sou rce s a r e t h in ly a nd u neven ly d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e b u sh , a nd h un t ing s u cce s s d epends a sm uch o n l u ck a ss k i l l . A s ar e su l t , a ny i n d iv idua l m an c anno t c oun t o n s ucce s s ; i n t h is c on tex t , s ha r ing o f m ea t b ecome s a n e s sen t ia l f o rm o f s oc ia l i n su rance a nd aw ay o fd i s t r ibu t ing f o od t ot h o se w ho d o n o t h ave a ny ( D rape r 1 975 :105 ) .W i th r e ga rd t oN o r th Ame r ican P l a ins g r oup s , d e sp i te t h e a s sumed e ff ic iency a nd r e l iab i l i ty t h a t m any a r chaeo log is t s h ave a s soc ia ted w i th P l a ins c ommuna lh un t ing m e thod ss u ch a st h ep ound a nd c l if fd r ive f o r t h e b i son , t h e re a r e n ume rous a ccoun t s , a s K le in ( 1 983 :149 ) p o in ted o u t , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e se m e thod s o f ten f a i led ( s ee r e f e rence s c i ted i n K le in 1 983 :149 ; s e e a l so F id le r 's a c coun t s i nH a ig 1 99 1 :36 , 3 7 , 4 0 ) . T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h us e x is t s t h a t , i ng ene ra l , l a rge c ommuna l h un t s w e re n o t n e ce s sa r i ly t h e n o rm , b u tr a the r w e re r e la t ive ly r a re e ven t s b ecause a tt ime s t h ey c ou ld b eu n succe s sf u l , t h e i r o u t come s n o t e n t i re ly c e r ta in . T h is i sn o t t os a y t h a t t h e se c ommuna l s t ra teg ie s w e re n o t i mpo r tan t . S uch a n e ven t r e qu i r ing i n tense p r epa ra t ion ,p l ann ing , a nd l a rge i n pu t s o fl a bou rw a s p robab ly s u r rounded w i th much s i gn if icance , i mpo r tan t n o t o n ly f o r p rov id ing s ubs is tence a nd r e la ted n eed s , b u t a l so r e su l t ing i n g r oup a gg rega t ion a nd c ommuna l e f f o r t s , a nd a low ing t h e p e r fo rmance o fc e remon ia l a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h e r e a f f i rma t ion o ft i e s , a l iance s , a nd f r iend sh ips t h rough t r ade a nd m a te s e le c t ion . H oweve r , g i ven t h es ma l l s c a le a nd s i ze o fs i te s , a nd t h ee v idence i n d ica t ing r e la t ive ly l ow p opu la t ion d ens i t ie s f o r e a r ly P a leo ind ian g roups , t h ese t y pe s o f c ommuna l h un t ing m e thod s w e re d ef in i te ly n o t p r a c t i sed t o t h e e x ten t o ro n s u ch am a s s ive s c a le , o re ven i nt h e s ame m anne r if a ta l -a st h ey w e re i nl a te rp r eh is to r ic p e r iod s o n t h eP l a ins .

O the r e v idence t o s ugge s t mo re b r oad -ba sed e conom ie s o f m any e a r ly P a leo ind ian g roups i sl e s sd i re c ta nd o bv iou s . A s Me l tze r( 1 993a : 3 03 )n o ted , mo s tC lov i sp o in t sd i scove red i n t h e s ou the rn H igh P l a ins r e g ion h ave b een l o ca ted o n t h e e dge so fo l dl a ke sa nd m a r she s ,s oi ti sa ppa ren tt h a tm any o f t h e a c t iv i t ies o f t h e se e a r ly P a leo ind ians w e re b e ing c ondu c ted n ea r s ha l low w a te r . F u r the rmo re , s i nce i mpac t f r ac tu re s t h a t r e su l t f r om c omp re s s ive s t re s s a pp l ied t ot h e d i s ta l e nd o f ap o in t a r e c ommon i nl a te r P a leo ind ian a nd A rcha ic b i son k i l ls b u te x t reme ly r a re a mong C lov is p o in t s , Me l tz e r( 1 993a :303 )s ugge s ted t h a tC lov i sp o in t sw e re b e ing h af ted a nd u sed a s k n ive s r a the r t h an s o le ly a s p ro jec t i le p o in t s .I na dd i t ion , s ma l le rn umbe r s o fa n ima l sa r eg ene ra l ly c ha ra c te r i s t ic o fe a r l ie rP a leo ind ian b i son k i l l so fC lov is a nd F o lsom a g e ( Hofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 :343 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 :238 ) , w he rea s m uch l a rge r b i son k i l l s c ons is t ing o f 1 00 -200 a n ima l s a r en o tp r e sen ti nt h eP l a ins a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd u n t i l l a te r P l a inv iew a nd H e l l G ap t imes ( Me l tze r 1 993a :302 ) .I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h is p a t te rn o ff ewe r a n ima l si n e a r l ie r k i l ls d oe s n o t n ece ssa r i ly i nd ica te t h a t e a r ly P a leo ind ians w e re i n capab le o f k i l l ing l a rge n umbe r s o f a n ima l s i nm a ss k i l ls , b u tr a the r m ay b er ef lec t ing ac hange i n b i son b ehav iou r f r om s o l i ta ry , s ma l l g roup b ehav iou r d u r ing t h el a te P le i s tocene t ol a rge h e rd b ehav iou rd u r ing t h e e a r ly H o locene ( F r ison 1 991a :163 -164 ) . A ppa ren t ly i tw a s 7 1

w a sc ommon a nd r ou t ine f o re a r ly P a leo ind ians , m ay i n s tead i nd ica te f ood r e sou rce ma rg ina l i ty ( Dav is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :280 ) . T h is a rgumen t , h oweve r , c a r r ie s w i th i t u nde r ly ing i mp l ica t ions t h a t s ugge s tt h a ti ft h ed i e t o fP la ins p opu la t ions w a s n o tc omposed p r ima r i ly o fl a rge g ame s u ch a sb i son , t h e g roup w a s u nde r r e sou r ce s t re s s a nd f o rced t o e xp lo i t s econda ry a nd l e ss d e s irab le r e sou rce s . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e re i st h e i mp l ic i t a ssump t ion t h a t b i son w a s t h e p re f e r red , d e s i red , a nd p r ima ry f ood r e sou rce o f a l P l a ins p opu la t ions , w h i le a l l o the r r esou rce s w e re c ons ide red m a rg ina l a nd o n ly e xp lo i ted i nt ime s o fr e sou rce s t re s s a nd s t a rva t ion . I nf a c t , m any a c t iv i t ie s a s sumed t ob e i n f requen t , s e conda ry , a nd n o t c en t ra l , s uch a s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fp l an t r e sou rce s a nd a n ima l r e sou rce s o the r t h an b i son , m ay a c tua l ly h ave b een mo re c ommon t h an t r ad i t iona l ly a s sumed , n o tn ece s sa r i ly i n d ica t ive o fr e sou rce s t re s s a nd m a rg ina l i ty b u t p e rhaps i ns ome c a se s b e ing t h e n o rm r a the r t h an t h e e xcep t ion .

G iven t h e f a c t t ha t s caveng ing i s af e a s ib le s ub s is tence s t ra tegy , a nd t h a th un t ing , e i the r c ommuna l o ri nd iv idua l , i s n o ta lway sc omp le te ly r e l iab le ,i ti sh igh ly p l au s ib le ,a sG a ry H ayne s( 1991) p o s tu la ted , t h a tP a leo ind ian p eop le sp ra c t ised s c aveng ing o fa l ready d ead m ammo th a nd o t he r l a rge g ame a s af r equen t p a r t o f t he i r s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s . Wh i le s caveng ing w ou ld n eve r h ave b een a p r ima ry s ubs is tence a c t iv i ty d ue t o i t s h igh ly v a r iab le r e tu rns a nd g ene ra l u np red ic tab i l i ty ( O 'Conne l l e ta l . 1 988 ) , i ti sp oss ib le t h a t i t c ou ld h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t s t ra tegy t h a t w a s i n teg ra ted i n to t h e s t anda rd s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s o f P a leo ind ian p eop le s . Mo reove r , t h e re i si n c rea s ing d a ta t oi nd ica te t h a t s caveng ing d id o ccu r i n P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence ( e .g . , J ohnson a nd H o l l iday 1 997 ; s ee a l so S aunde r s 1 980 ; S aunde r sa nd D ae sch le r 1 994 , c i ted i nJ ohnson a nd H o l l iday 1 997 :346 -347 ) . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion o fs caveng ing b e ing p a r t o fP a leo ind ian s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s d oe s n o t n eces sa r i ly m ean , h oweve r , t h a t P a leo ind ians d i d n o t a c t ive ly h un t . A l though t h e a c t ive h un t ing o f mammo th a nd o t he r l a rge P le i s tocene f a una m ay n o th ave b een ar ou t ine a nd r e gu la re ven tf o rP a leo ind ians , i t i sc once ivab le a nd l i ke ly t h a t i tw a s d one o n o cca s ion ; s uppo r t ing t h is v i ew a r e e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s i nd ica t ing t h a t h umans a r e c apab le o f s ucce ssfu l ly h un t ing e l ephan t ( e .g . , Ma rk s 1 976 ; s ee a l so J ohnson e ta l . 1 980 f o r ar ev iew o f e t hnog raph ic a nd e thnoh is to r ic a ccoun ts o f e l ephan t h un t ing me thods ) , a s w e l l a s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t ing t h a t i tw a s d one . Me l tze r ( 1993a , 1 993b ) m ade s im i la r c l a ims t ha t , b y a rgu ing f o r a mo re g ene ra l ized s ubs i s tence b a se ,h ew a sn o ti mp ly ing t h a tC lov is g roups h ad b een i n capab le o f h un t ing P le is tocene m ega f auna . O n t h e c on t ra ry , p ro jec t i le p o in t s h ave b een d emons t ra ted t o b e h i gh ly e ff ic ien t w eapons ( Me l tze r 1 993a :306 ) . T he c en t ra l q ue s t ion , a s Me l tze r ( 1993a :306 ) n o ted , i sw he the r h un t ing m ega f auna w a s a n i mpo r tan t o r e ven c ommon p a r t o f t h e P a leo ind ian d ie t , o r r a the r , i f P a leo ind ians k i l led t he o cca s iona l m ammo th a nd t hen s pen t t h e r e s t o f t h e i r l i f e t a lk ing a bou t i t( Me l tze r 1 993a :306 , 1 993b :160 ; s ee s im i la r c ommen t i n MacNe ish 1 964 :532 w ho c i te s ac o l league a s r ema rk ing t h a tP a leo ind ians i n Me soame r ica p robab ly f ound o ne mammo th i n al i f e t ime a nd n eve r g o to ve r t a lk ing a bou t i t ) . C lea r ly , i ti su n rea l is t ic t oa s sume t h a t t h e se p opu la t ions d epended s o le ly u pon t h e a c t ive h un t ing o fl a rge g ame f o r a l i v ing , g i ven t h a tt h i sa c t iv i ty c an b er e la t ive ly u n re l iab le a nd h i gh ly v a r iab le b y n a tu re a tt ime s , a nd w hen i nf a c t , s ma l le r g ame a nd g a the red a nd c o l lec ted f ood r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave m ade i mpo r tan t a nd p e rhaps s l igh t ly mo re d ependab le c on t r ibu t ions t ot h eP a leo ind ian d i e t .

I n s umma ry , g row ing a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a nd w ha t i s k nown a bou t h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s b o th s uppo r t t h e n o t ion t ha t N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian p eop les w e re c ha rac te r ized b y r eg iona l ly d i s t inc t g roups , e xp lo i t ing d i f f e ren t e nv i ronmen t s , u s ing d ive r s if ied s t ra teg ie s a nd p ra c t is ing b road -ba sed e conom ie s w i th t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fa w ide v a r ie ty o fp l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rce s ( s ee e spec ia l ly d i scu s s ions i n Me l tze r 1 993a , 1 993b ) . T he n eed f o r t h e se v a r iab le , g ene ra l ized , a nd f l ex ib le s t ra teg ie s f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions b e come se spec ia l ly a ppa ren tw i th t h er e a l iza t ion t h a t t h e se g roups w e re f a c ing d rama t ica l ly c hang ing a nd v a r iab le e nv i ronmen t s w i th t he r e t rea t o f t h e g l ac ia l i c e . S pec if ica l ly f o r N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , a l though t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s ugge s t st h a t t h ey h un ted b ig g ame , i td oe s n o t n ecessa r i ly i mp ly t ha t t h ey w e re s pe c ia l ized b ig g ame h un te r s . I n s tead , t h ey w e re mo re l i ke ly h un te r -ga the re rs w ho u t i l ized a r ange o f s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies , i n c lud ing t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f av a r ie ty o f p l an t r e sou rce s a nd t h e h un t ing , s caveng ing , a nd s na r ing o fb o th l a rge rg ame a nd s ma l le ra n ima lr e sou rce s . 6 . 3 .3 P a leo ind ian S e t t lemen ta nd Mob i l i ty S tra teg ie s I n r e la t ing t h e o rgan iza t ion o f h un t ing -ga the r ing r e sou rce p rocu remen t t o s pa t ia l a nd s easona l p a t te rn s o f r e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty , B inford ( 1980 ) d ef ined a c on t inuum o f o rgan iza t ion , r a ng ing f r om f o rage rs t oc o l lec to rs ( Bam fo r th 1 988 :15 ) . A f o rag ing s t ra tegy i s c ha rac te r ized b y h i gh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , l ow -bu lk i npu ts , m in ima l s t o rage , a nd s ma l l d i spe r sed p opu la t ions w ho e xp lo i tt h ee nv i ronmen t , a s B info rd ( 1980 :10 ) t e rmed i t , w i th a " mapp ing -on " o r e ncoun te r s t ra tegy . I n al og is t ica l ly o r gan ized c o l lec t ing s t ra tegy , t he re a r e f ewe r r e s iden t ia l m ove s , a n i n c rea sed r e l iance o n s t o red f o ods , a nd u se o f t h e e nv i ronmen t i na c oa r se -g ra ined m anne ri nvo lv ing t he s e lec t ive u se o fp a t che s ( S ta f f o rd 1 994 :220 ) , a l l i nr e sponse t os pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l f l uc tua t ions i n r e sou rces ( s ee d i scuss ions o f B info rd 's s cheme i nB am f o r th 1 988 :15 -16 ; B e t t inge r 1 991 :64 -73 ; a nd S t a f f o rd 1 994 :220 -221 ) .

I ti so bv ious t h a t t h e f a sc ina t ion w i th b ig g ame h un t ing h a s h ad a t e ndency b o th t o mask t he a c tua l d ive rs i ty i n P a leo ind ian e conom ic s t ra teg ies , a nd t o r e su l t i n t he i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica le v idence t h a td oe sn o t f i tt h e t y p ica l P la ins mode l o f mob i le h un te r s h igh ly d ependen t u pon l a rge g ame a s a noma l ie s a nd e xcep t ions , o r a s r e sponse s t o e x t reme a nd r a re c ond i t ions . F o r e xamp le , d e sp i te t h e d ive r s i ty o f f auna l r ema ins r e cove red f r om t h e e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te o f I nd ian C reek , t he i dea o f P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions d ependen t o nb ig g ame h un t ing s t i l l p e rvade s D av is a nd G re ise r 's ( 1992 ) i n te rp re ta t ions , mos t a ppa ren t i n t h e i r s t a temen t t h a t " b ig -game re l ian t h un te rg at he re r s a l so c o l lec ted a nd u t i l ized d ive r se l e sse r s pec ie s " ( Dav is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :276 ) , a nd i nt h e i r s ugge s t ion t h a t t h is b road -spec t rum u se o f f auna , r a the r t han p e rhaps i n d ica t ing t h a t amo re b road -spec t rum s ub s is tence e conomy

I n B info rd 's s cheme , t hen , f o rage r s m ove c onsume r s t o g ood s , w i th f r equen t r e s iden t ia l move s , w he rea s c o l lec to r s m ove g oods t oc on sume rs , w i th g ene ra l ly f ewe r r e s iden t ia l m ove s ( B info rd 1 980 :15 ) . When a l l e s sen t ia l r e sou rce s a r e l o ca ted w i th in t h e f o rag ing r ange o f ar e s iden t ia l b a se , a f o rag ing " mapp ing -on" s t ra tegy w ou ld b e s ucces sfu l ( B info rd 1 980 :15 ) . I n o the r words , f o rage r s t e nd t o b e 7 2

s e a sona lc yc le o fs o la rr a d ia t ion i nt h eN o r the r nH em i sphe re , w i th t h em ax imum s e a sona l c on t ra s t o ccu r r ing a r ound 9 , 000 y ea rs B .P . ( Ku tzbach a nd G ue t te r 1 986 :1728 ) . E a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion sp re sen to nt h eN o r the rn P l a in s f r om a pp rox ima te ly 1 ,000 -10 ,500 y ea r s B .P . w ou ld h ave e xpe r ienced p a r t o ft h is t r end t owa rd w a rme r s umme r s a nd c o lde r w in te r s . E ven t hough t h e t r end w ou ld b e t owa rd i n c rea s ing s e a sona l i ty , P a leo ind ian a c t iv i t ie sw e re l i ke ly n o t r i g id ly s t ruc tu red a cco rd ing t o s ea son , g i ven t h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t a r ound t h em w a s s t i l l i n as t a te o f f l ux a nd u nde rgo ing av e ry d r ama t ic t r an s i t ion . P a leo ind ia n a c t iv i t ie s , h oweve r , w e re p r obab ly n o ta sl o o se ly s t ruc tu red a st h o se o f h un t ing -ga the r ing g r oups s uch a st h e ! Kung , w ho r e ly o n f o od s t h a t a r e mo re o rl e ss a va i lab le o n ay ea r round b a s i s . T he re w ou ld h ave b een s ome s t ruc tu r ing o f P a leo ind ian a c t iv i t ie sb a sed o n s e a sona l o rt empo ra l v a r ia t ion i nc r uc ia l r e sou rce s , b u t o ve ra l l t h e e mpha s is w ou ld h ave b een o n f l ex ib i l i ty t od ea l w i th t h e o n -go ing a nd s i gn if i can t c hange s o ccu r r ing i nl a te P l e i s tocene e nv i ronmen t s . Mo reove r , t h is s e a sona l s t ruc tu r ing o f a c t iv i t ie s w ou ld n o t h ave r ema ined c on s tan t ,b u tw ou ld h ave l i ke ly v a r ied f r om y ea rt oy ea r .

a s soc ia ted w i th h omogeneou s f i ne -g ra ined e nv i ronmen t s w he re t h e re i sw eak s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l p a tch ine s s i n r e sou rce s ( S ta f fo rd 1 994 :221) . B u t u nde r c ond i t ions o f s pa t ia l i n cong ru i ty , ar e s iden t ia l m ove w ou ld n o t s o lve t h e p r ob lem ,b ecau se amove t owa rd o n el o ca t ion w ou ld r e duce a c ce s st oa no the r( B info rd 1 980 :15 ) .I nt h i ss i tua t ion , am o re l o g i s t ica l s t ra tegy w ou ld b e f a vou r e d , i nw h ich s pec ia l t a sk g r oup s a r e s e n t o u t t ob r ing b ack g ood s t ot h e b a se g r oup ( B inf o rd 1 980 :15 ) . Mo reove r , i n t h e c ase o f t empo ra l i n cong ru i ty , t h a ti s , s ea sona l a nd i n t e r -annua l f l uc tua t ion si n r e sou rce a bundance , h un te r -ga the re r s b ecome d ependen t u pon t h e a b i l i ty t op red ic t t h e l o ca t ion a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f p a r t icu la r r e sou rce s , p r ima r i ly b ecause w i th i n c rea sed s e a sona l i ty , m any r e sou rce s a r e a va i lab le f o r d e l im i ted p e r iod s o ft ime ( Ke l ly 1 983 :289 ) . T he se g r oup s , t h en , m us t n ece s sa r i ly e mpha s ize a nd s pend m o re t ime a nd e f f o r t i n c o l lec t ing i n forma t ion o n t h e l o ca t ion a nd t empo ra l a va i lab i l i ty o fp a r t icu la r r e sou rce s ( Ke l ly 1 983 :289 ) . T he m o s t l i ke ly m eans t o s o lve t h e p rob lem o f r e sou rce f l u c tua t ion i n t h ese h igh ly s e a sona l e nv i ronmen t s i st h e d eve lopmen to f as t o rage s t ra tegy w i th a pp rop r ia te m e thod s f o rp r e se rva t ion , wh ich i nt u rn f a vou r s i n c rea s ing l o g i s t ica l o r gan iza t ion a nd r educ t ion s i nr e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty , a tl e a s t s e a sona l ly ( B in fo rd 1 980 :18 ) .

I na dd i t ion t ot empo ra l o r s e a sona l v a r ia t ion i nr e sou rce s , t h e re i sa l so f r equen t ly s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i nr e sou rce s . T h is c oncep t i so f ten d i scu s sed i n t e rms o f p a t ch ine s s , w h ich d e sc r ibe s t h e d eg re e t ow h ich r e sou rce s a r e c l umped r a the r t h an d i spe r sed i n s pace , t h a t i s , s pa t ia l h e te rogene i ty ( W in te rha lde r 1 980 :151) . Ap a tchy e nv i ronmen t i so ne i n w h ich r e sou rce s a r e d i s t r ibu ted d i scon t inuou s ly a c ro s s t h e l a ndscape . I fr e sou rce d i s t r ibu t ion i sp a tchy d u r ing a ny p a r t icu la r s e a son , o ne c an a s sume t h a t t h is d i s t r ibu t ion i s a ccompan ied b y i n c rea sed a gg rega t ions o f h uman p opu la t ion s . J och im ( 1976 :66 ) a r gued t h a t ag r ea te r d eg ree o f s pa t ia l c oncen t ra t ion o f r e sou rce s , t h a t i s , i n c rea sed p a tch ine ss , m eans t h a t l a rge r g r oup ings o f p eop le a r e p o ss ib le b ecause o f t he g r ea te r y i e ld o f as i ng le s i te c a t chmen ta r ea . I f ,o nt h eo t he rh a nd ,r e sou r ce sa r ed i spe r sed e ven ly a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape , o ne c an a s sume af i ne -g ra ined o rd i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion o fh uma n p opu la t ions ; t h a ti s ,o n ly s ma l le r g roups a r e s uppo r tab le b ecau se o f t h e s ma l le r c a tchmen ty i e ld .

H ence ,a mong l o g is t ica l ly o r gan ize dc o l le c to r s , t h e re a r et wo d i s t inc t r e sponse s t oi n cong ru i t ie s i nr e sou rce d i s t r ibu t ions ( Bamf o r th 1 988 :16 ;B in f o rd 1 980 ) .F i r s t , s p ec ia l t a sk g r oup s a r eu s ed t oo b ta in f ood f o rl a rge rs o c ia l g r oup s a s ar e spon se t ot h e h e te rogeneous d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou rce s a c ros s t h e l a nd scape ( t ha t i s , s pa t ia l i n cong ru i t ie s i n r e sou rce d i s t r ibu t ion ) . S e cond , ar e l iance o n f o od s t o rage d eve lop sa s ar e sponse t ot h e h e te rogeneou s d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou r ce s o ve r t h e y ea r ( t ha t i s , s e a sona l i n cong ru i t ie s i n r e sou rce d i s t r ibu t ion ) . D oe s t h is t h eo re t ica l m ode l h ave a ny a pp l icab i l i ty o rv a lue f o r d e te rm in ing a nd e xp la in ing N o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian h u n t ing -ga the r ing b ehav iou r? Mo r es pec if i ca l ly , w ha ta r et h e a ppa ren t r e la t ionsh ips b e tween l a te P l e is tocene r e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty a nd P a leo ind ian m ob i l i ty a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s ? B ecau se o ft h e i n c re a s i ng s e a sona l n a tu re o fl a te P l e is tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv i ronmen t s , t h e s ea sona l v a r ia t ion i n P a leo ind ian a c t iv i ty w ou ld h ave b een v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om t h e P la ins e t hnog raph ic s e a sona l r ound . F o r e t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted p opu la t ion sw ho w e re r e s iden t o n t h eN o r the rn P la ins a l y ea rr o und , d u r ing w in te r , c amp s w e re l o ca ted i n s he l te red a r ea s a l ong t h e r i ve r b o t tom s b e cau se o ft h ea cce s s ib i l i ty t ow a t e r , f u e l , a nd w in te rr a nge s f o r u ngu la te s , e spec ia l ly b i son . W i th s p r ing , h uman p opu la t ions l e f t t h e v a l leys t o g e t a way f r om p o ten t ia l f l ood ing , a nd moved o u t o n to t h e p ra i r ie , f o l low ing b i son h e rd s . D u r ing t h e s umme r , c amp sw e re l o ca ted o n t h e o pen p r a i r ie a nd h i gh t e r race s ; l a te ri nt h es e a son , b and sg a the red t o ge the r f o r t h e S un D ance e ncampmen t . T he a u tumn w a s c on s ide red t o b e t h e g rea t b i son h un t ing s ea son , w i th e x t ens ive u se o f p ound s a nd j umps , a nd t h e c o l lec t ion o f b e r r ie sa nd p r oduc t ion a nd a ccumu la t ion o fw in te rp rov i s ion s b e f o re t h em ove b ack i n to t h ev a l ley s f o rw in te r( s ee A r thu r 1 9 75 ; Ewe r s 1 988 :88 -91 ; Mo rgan 1 979 ;V icke r s 1 986 :7 -8 ) .

A s p r ev ious ly n o ted , e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t P l e is tocene e nv i ronmen t st h roughou tt h eH o la rc t ic w e re c ha rac te r ized b y ar ema rkab le d i ve r s i ty o f b o th l a rge m amma l a nd s ma l l m amma l s pec ie s , ad ive r s i ty t h a t l i ke ly c ou ld h ave b een s uppo r ted o n ly b y af i ne -g ra ined e nv i ronmen ta l m osa ic c ha rac te r ized b y ad i ve r s i ty o fp l an t c ommun i t ie s ( G raham a nd L unde l ius 1 984 :228 ; G raham a nd Mead 1 987 :372 ; G u th r ie 1 982 ; s e e a l so d i scu s s ions i n B l is s a nd R icha rd s 1 982 a nd R edmann 1 982 ) . I no t he r w o rd s , t h ep r e sence o fa g r ea te r d i ve r s i ty o f a n ima l s pec ie s d u r ing t h e P l e i s tocene e s sen t ia l ly i mp l ie s t h e p re sence o f mo re h ab i ta t s , h ab i ta t s t h a tw e re c ha rac te r ized b yc omp lex v ege ta t iona lm o sa ic sa nd s uppo r ted b y al o ng a nd s e a sona l ly d i ve r se g r ow ing s e a son . G u th r ie ( 1 982 , 1 984 ) t e rmed t h i s p a t te rn o f af i ne -g ra ined m o sa ic o fd i f f e ren th ab i ta t s a s" P la id s . " As h if tt o as ho r te r a nd l e s sv a r ied g r ow ing s ea son a tt h ee nd o ft h eP l e is tocene r e su l ted i n ac o r re spond ing s h if tb yt h et i me o ft h eH o locene t o a " S t r ipe s " e nv i ronmen t . T h is e nv i ronmen t w a s c ha rac te r ized b y g r ea te r b i o t ic z ona t ion a nd t h u s f ewe r h ab i ta t s , f a vou r ing s imp l if ied f a una l a s semb lage s ( s ee G u th r ie 1 982 , 1 984 ) . T he d i f f e rence , t h e re f o re , w ou ld h ave b een t h a td u r ing t h eP l e is tocene ,m o re s pec ie sa nd t h u sm o re h ab i ta t s w e re p r e sen t w i th l e s s d i f f e rence f r om h ab i ta t t o h ab i t a t ,w he rea s ,w i th t h es h if tt ot h e" S t r ipe s "p a t t e rn i nt h e

P a leo ind ian a c t iv i t ie s u ndoub t ed ly w ou ld h ave b een s t ruc tu red much d i f f e ren t ly f r om t h is s ea sona l r ound p r a c t i sed b yl a te rP l a ins g r oup s .A sp rev iou s ly n o ted ,c l ima te m ode ls i n d ica te t h a t t h e p e r iod b e tween 1 2 ,000 a nd 6 , 000 y ea rs B .P . w a s c ha rac te r ized b y a n a mp l if ica t ion o f t h e 7 3

H o locene , t h e re w e re n ow al im i ted v a r ie ty o fs pec ie s a nd t hu s g rea te r h omogene i ty w i th in e ach h ab i ta t , w i th ma rked d i f f e rence sb e tween h ab i ta t s .

H o locene e nv i ronmen t s a nd c hange s i n f o rage p roduc t ion w ou ld i n d ica t et h e s t rong p o ss ib i l i ty o fi n c rea s ing m ig ra to ry m ovemen ti nc e r ta in a n ima l s pec ie s( s ee r e la ted d i scu s s ion i n B amfo r th 1 988 :149 ) . A ga in , t h is t r ans i t ion t o m ig ra to ry b ehav iou r w ou ld h ave a dded t ot h e a l ready h i gh v a r iab i l i ty a nd u nce r ta in ty o f t h e l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t s i n w h ich P a leo ind ian p eop le s l i ved . C lea r ly , t h e i r e n t i re w o r ld w a s c hang ing , d i sp lay ing ad eg ree o fv a r iab i l i ty t h a t N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian g roups h ad p robab ly n eve r b e fo re e xpe r ienced .

I ti s c l ea r t h a t f o r e ach o f t h e se p a t te rns , " P la ids " a nd " S t r ipe s , " t h es pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i nr e sou rce sw a ss i gn if ican t ly a nd q ua l i ta t ive ly d i f fe ren t a nd w ou ld h ave h ad ma jo r i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e s e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty s t ra teg ie s o f h uman g roups . F o rl a te P le is tocene P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s , w ho w ou ld h ave e xpe r ienced f i r s t -hand t h e s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion o fr e sou rce sc ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e" P la ids " e nv i ronmen t , m o re h ab i ta t s w ou ld h ave b een e ncoun te red d u r ing t he ir movemen t s a c ross t h e l a nd . A s ac onsequence , a cqu i r ing r e sou rce s m ay h ave p roved e as ie r i n t he s ense t ha t i n d iv idua ls w ou ld h ave b een e ncoun te r ing ag rea te rd i ve r s i ty o fs pe c ie st h a tw e re d i spe r sed i n af i ne -g ra ined m osa ic a c ro s s t h el a nd scape . I na dd i t ion , w i th mo re s pec ie s a nd t h us mo re h ab i ta t s , h uman g roups c ou ld h ave b een l e ss r e l ian t o n a s i ng le s pec ie s a s ap r ima ry r e sou rce . Mo s t l i ke ly , t h e t a rge t r e sou rce s o f l a te P le is tocene p opu la t ions p rac t is ing a g ene ra l ized a nd d ive rs if ied e conomy w ou ld h ave b een g ene ra l ly d i spe r sed r e la t ive ly e ven ly a c ross t h e mosa ic o f h ab i ta t s . T he re may , h oweve r , h ave b een a r eas i n t h e l andscape i n wh ich e ssen t ia l r esou rces w e re a l so c oncen t ra ted e i the r a l y ea r o ra t ap a r t icu la r t ime d u r ing t h e y e ar , e spec ia l ly a s ar e su l t o ft h eb eg inn ing o ft h e t r ans i t ion f r om t h e " P la ids" e nv ironmen t o f t h e P le is tocene t o t h e " S t r ipe s "e nv i ronmen to ft h eH o locene .

T h is c ons ide r a t ion o f t h e r e l iab i l i ty a nd p red ic tab i l i ty o f r e sou rce s i sc l ose ly i n te r re la ted w i th f a c to r s o f r i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty . E a r ly w o rk i n o p t ima l f o rag ing a nd d ec is ionmak ing mode l l ing a s sumed a c to rs p ossessed p e rfec t i n fo rma t ion a nd w e re i nd if f e ren t t or i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty , b u t m o re r e cen t w o rk s a r e n ow c ons ide r ing t h e se v a r iab le s ( s ee H a ls tead a nd O 'Shea 1 989 ; R au tman 1 993 ; E . A . Sm i th 1 988 , 1 991 ) . S pe c if ica l ly ,r i sk r e fe r st ov a r ia t ions i no u tcome t h a t c anno t b e c on t ro l led b y t he d ec is ion -make r ( Sm i th 1 988 :230 ) . G ene ra l ly , u nde r s ca rce c ond i t ions , a c to r sw i l l b e r i sk seek ing , w h i le u nde r mode ra te c ond i t ion s , r i sk -ave rse , a nd u nde r e x t r eme a bundance , r i sk ind if fe ren t ( E . A . Sm i th 1 991 :54 ) . L ik e o t he r h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup s , P a leo ind ian i nd iv idua ls a nd p opu la t ions mos t l i ke ly e mp loyed v a r iou s m echan isms a nd c op ing s t ra teg ies t oa l te rt h e s i gn if icance o f r i sk a nd t o d ea l w i th t h e i nc rea sed v a r iab i l i ty i n l a te P l e i s tocene e nv i ronmen t s .F o re xamp le , s ha r ing b e tween a nd a mong b ands , s t o rage , t r ade , i n fo rma t ion e xchange , a nd c u l tu ra l t r ansm is s ion a r e a l l b uf fe r ing m echan ism s t h a t c an b e u sed a s ar e sponse t ov a r ia t ion i n a n a t temp t t or educe u nce r ta in ty ( E . A . Sm i th 1 991 :57 ) . F o r i n s tance , ! Kung S an s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s t h a t a r e b a sed o n e xchange o pen u p a w ide r ange o f o p t ions t o d ea l w i th r i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty , p rov id ing a s y s tema t ic w ay o f e nsu r ing t h a t n eeds a r e r egu la r ly me t (W ies sne r 1 982 :61) . A s W ie s sne r ( 1982 ) a r gued , o ne o ft h e mo s t e ff ic ien t me thods o fr i sk r educ t ion o pen t oh un te r sa nd g a the re r si ne nv i ronmen t s l i ke t h a to ft h e ! Kung S an i s as oc ia l me thod o f p oo l ing r i sk t h rough t h e s t o rage o f s oc ia l o b l iga t ions ; t ha t i s , ap e rson c rea te s r e la t ionsh ips o f mu tua l r e c ip roc i ty w i th o t he r s i n t h e p opu la t ion , a nd t h e reby s p reads l o s se s o ve r au n i t t h a t i s much l a rge r a nd m o re v a r ied t han t h e l o ca l b and ( W ie s sne r 1 982 :65 ) . Mo r eove r , e ven b e l ief s a nd r i tua ls c a n b e u sed t o b r ing u nce r ta in a nd r i sky e ven t s a nd a c t iv i t ie su nde r c on t ro l s o t h a t t h ey a r e n o l o nge r c ons ide red u np red ic tab le i nt h e m ind s o ft h em embe r s o ft h eg roup ( s ee p rev iou sc hap te r f o r s pec if ic e xamp le s r e la t ing t o t he i mpo r tance o f r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s a mong v a r ious h un te r -ga the re r s f o r t h e s ucce s s o f h un t ing ) .

P red ic tab i l i ty , t he a b i l i ty o f ah un te r -ga the re r t o f i nd a p a r t icu la r r e sou rce b a sed o n e nv i ronmen ta l k now ledge , h a s b een i d en t if ied a s as i gn if ican t f a c to r f o r h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups ( s ee B amfo r th 1 988 ; J och im 1 976 ) , a nd w a s s u re ly i mpo r tan tt oP a leo ind ian g roup sa sw e l l . T he p red ic tab i l i ty o f r e sou rce s , e spec ia l ly mob i le o ne s , w i l l g r ea t ly a f f ec t s ea rch a nd p u r su i t t ime s ( J och im 1 976 :27 -28 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o a f f ec t ing m ovemen t a c ross t h e l a ndscape , a nd t h e s e lec t ion a nd p a t te rns o f r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , p red ic tab i l i ty o f r e sou rce s m ay a l so a f f ec t g roup s i ze . I fr e sou rce l o ca t ion , a nd s ea sona lp a t te rns a nd f l uc tua t ions a r eh i gh ly p red ic tab le , h uman p opu la t ion sc ou ld c once ivab ly l i ve i n mo re a nd l a rge r a gg rega t ion s ,d epend ing u pon w he the ro rn o tt h ose r e sou rce s w e re c l u s te red r a the r t h an g rea t ly d i spe r sed . I f , h oweve r , u np red ic tab i l i ty c ha rac te r ized t h e e nv i ronmen t , s ma l le r a gg rega t ions a r eg ene ra l ly a s sumed ( s ee B amfo r th 1 988 :20 2 1 , 2 5 -26 ) . I n c rea s ing e v idence i n d ica te st h a tP a leo ind ian sw e re n o t , a sa r u le , c o lon ize rs a nd e xp lo re r s i n e n t i re ly u nknown a nd u nfam i l ia rt e r r i to ry a nd e nv ironmen t s , s ou np red ic tab i l i ty i n t e rm so fn o tb e ing a b le t oe s t ima te t h el o ca t ion a nd c ond i t ion o fp a r t icu la r r e sou rce s i n t h e e nv i ronmen t w ou ld p robab ly n o th ave b een ama jo rf a c to r .T he r e sou rce s a va i lab le d u r ing l a te P le is tocene t imes , t he refo re , w e re n o t n ecessa r i ly u np red ic tab le i n t e rm s o f y ie ld , l o ca t ion , c ond i t ion , a nd mob i l i ty t o P a leo ind ian h un te r -ga the re r s ; r a the r , t h ey a r e m o re a ccu ra te ly s een a se xh ib i t ing g rea te rv a r iab i l i ty i nt h e se c ha rac te r is t ic s . T h is g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty i nr e sou rce s d u r ing t h e l a te P l e is tocene w ou ld h ave b een e spec ia l ly i n tens if ied b y t h e b eg inn ings o ft h e s h if t f r om a" P la id s " e nv i ronmen t w i th n ume rous h ab i ta t s a nd ad ive r s i ty o fp l an t a nd a n ima l s pec ie st o a" S t r ipe s " e nv i ronmen te xh ib i t ing r e duced s pe c ie s d ive r s i ty a nd f ewe r h ab i ta t s . T he e x t inc t ion o f P le is tocene m ega f auna a l one w ou ld h ave h ad at r emendou s i mpac t o n P a leo ind ians , w he the r t h ey w e re b ig g ame h un te r s o r n o t . Mo reove r ,t h ei n c rea s ing s ea sona l i ty i nl a te P l e is tocene -ea r ly

B yc ons ide r ing a s pec t s o fr i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty i ns ub s is tence r e cons t ruc t ion s , a mo re h uman ized a nd r e a l is t ic p i c tu re e me rge s , w i th g r ea te r e mpha s is o n i n d iv idua l c ho ice , s oc ia l i n te rac t ion , a nd a c to rs w ho a re s een a s n o t n ece ssa r i ly p ossess ing c omp le te k now ledge , a nd w ho a r e mo re c ons t ra ined b y s oc ie ty , r a the r t han v i ewed a s o p t im iz ing , r a t iona l ,p u re ly e conom ic i n d iv idua ls ( Sm i th 1 988 :224 ) . R i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty a r e c l ea r ly i nhe ren t i n ah un t ing a nd g a the r ing w ay o fl i f e , a nd w ou ld h ave b een e spec ia l ly s of o r P a leo ind ians s i nce e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions w ou ld h ave b een c hang ing r e la t ive ly r a p id ly d u r ing t h el a te P l e i s tocene . C onc lus ions w i th r e fe rence t ot he m ob i l i ty o f P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions h av et y p ica l ly b een b a sed o nt h ep r e sence a nd /o r a bsence o f e xo t ic l i th ic ma te r ia ls i n P a leo ind ian 7 4

a s semb lage s . Wh i le H ayden ( 1982 )a r gued t h a tt h ep re sence o f e xo t ic l i t h ics i nd ica ted e x tens ive t r ade n e two rks f o r P a leo ind ian t imes ( t ha t i s , t ha t l i th ics w e re a cqu ired i nd irec t ly t h rough t r ade ) , o the r s h ave i n te rp re ted t he P a leo ind ian u se o fe xo t ic l i th ics a sr e f lec t ing h igh mob i l i ty ; t h a t i s , l i th ics we re a cqu ired f r om t he s ou rce d i rec t ly b y P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ( e .g . , G oodyea r 1 989 ; H ayne s 1 980 :118 -119 ; s ee d e ta i led d i scu s s ion i n Me l tze r 1 989 ) . H oweve r , i nh is a t temp t t o d e te rm ine t he a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu re s ,i fa ny , f o rd i rec ta nd i nd i rec t a cqu is i t ion , Me l tze r ( 1989 :12 )i n d ica ted t h a tb o th f o rm so fa cqu is i t ion e s sen t ia l ly w ou ld r e su l t i n t he s ame a r chaeo log ica l p ic tu re o f e xo t ic l i t h ics p r e sen t i n t h e a s semb lage . H ence , h e c onc luded t h a t t h e re s e emed t ob e n o d ef in i t ive m e thod f o r d i s t ingu ish ing b e tween i n d i rec t a nd d i rec t f o rms o f a cqu is i t ion (Me l tze r 1 989 :30 ) .I f al i th ic a s semb lage w a sc ompo sed e xc lus ive ly o f e xo t ic m a te r ia ls , t hough , i tw ou ld b e l og ica l t oa s sume t h a t t h e l i th ic sw e re d i rec t ly a cqu i red ; i ti sl og ica l s imp ly f o r t h e r e a son t h a t i t wou ld n o t b e v e ry a dvan tageous t o d epend c omp le te ly u pon o the rg roups f o r o ne 's e n t i re s upp ly o fs uch a ne s sen t ia lr e sou rce a sl i th ic ma te r ia l ( Me l tze r 1 989 :24 ) . A s C u r ran a nd G r ime s ( 1989 :45 ) o bse rved , i ne t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted h un te r -ga the re rs , i ti sr a re ( i f n o t n onex is ten t ) t h a t e xchange i s u sed a s a mechan ism f o r o b ta in ing s ubs tan t ia l a moun t s o fl i th ic r aw m a te r ia ls . I ns p i te o ft h e se d i f f icu l t ie s i n d is t ingu ish ing b e tween d i rec t a nd i nd i rec t a cqu is i t ion , Me l tze r ( 1993a :305 ) m a in ta ined t h a t t h e re w a s n o c onv inc ing t heo re t ica l r ea son t oe xpec t e xchange i nt h e c on tex t o fN or th Ame r ican C lov i s g roups ; t hu s , h e a r gued t h a t a t t h is p o in t l i th ic s ou rce s c ou ld b e r ega rded a s i n d ica to r s o ft he d eg ree o f mob i l i ty o f t h e g roup ( s ee a l so Me l tze r1 989 :37 ) .

a c t iv i t ie s . As im i la r s i tua t ion o ff l ex ib i l i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty w ou ld h ave c ha rac te r ized P a leo ind ian s e t t lemen t a nd t h e a c tua l l o ca t ion o f s i tes . Wh i le t he n a tu re o f r e sou rce s a nd s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s i s ama jo r f a c to r i nc ond i t ion ing s i te l o ca t ion a nd d emog raphy , i ti sc e r ta in ly n o t t h e o n ly o ne . I n f a c t , w hen l o ca t ing t h e ir s e t t lemen t s , P a leo ind ian p eop le s l i ke ly a nd n ece ssa r i ly c ons ide red a c omb ina t ion o f many f a c to rs i n c lud ing t he f o l low ing : t h e l o ca t ion a nd a cce ss ib i l i ty o f f ood r e sou rce s ; t h e p re sence o f a dequa te a nd g ood s he l te r , w a te r , b o th o rgan ic a nd i no rgan ic r aw ma te r ia ls f o r t o o l p roduc t ion , a nd f u e l ; a s w e l l a s s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l f a c to r s s uch a s t r ad i t ions , i deo log ica l a nd s p i r i tua l v i ews o f t h e l a ndscape , a nd t h e d es i re f o r ma in ta in ing t r ad ing n e two rk s a nd s oc ia l c on tac t w i th n e ighbou r ing g roups . R ive r v a l ley s m ay h ave b een i mpo r tan t l o ca t ions f o r P a leo ind ian g roup s e spec ia l ly o n t h e N o r the rn P la ins ; i nt h e se a r ea s , t h ey w e re a b le t oe xp lo i tt h el i ke ly g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty i nr e sou r ce s f r om n ume rous o ve r lapp ing h ab i ta t s a nd l a ndfo rms ( c f . , A dam s 1 976 :107 -110 , 1 978 :91-92 ) . Wh i le B info rd 's s cheme o f f o rage rs a nd c o l lec to r s i s c ons ide red b y s o me t o b e a n i mpo r tan t t heo re t ica l c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e u nde rs tand ing o f h un t ing -ga the r ing b ehav iou r ( e .g . , B e t t inge r 1 991 :73 ) , Ia m c r i t ica l o f i t s t e ndency t o d i cho tom ize a nd c a tego r ize i n as t a t ic a nd g ene ra l iz ing manne r . P a leo ind ians c anno tb ec ha rac te r ized a s e i the rf o rage r s o rc o l lec to r s . A s d emon s t ra ted a bove , t h el a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t w a s n o t h omogeneou s , w i th l i t t le s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r iab i l i ty i n r e sou rce s ; t h e ref o re , i t s eem s d oub tfu l t ha t P a leo ind ians ( a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o f mode rn h uman h un te r -ga the re rs ) w ou ld h ave e xp lo i ted t h e e nv i ronmen t s o le ly u s ing B info rd 's ( 1980 ) " mapp ing -on " s t ra tegy . C onve rse ly , t he re i s n o s t rong P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o fl a rge sca le s t o rage , r educed r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a nd t h e e mpha s is o n c en t ra lp l a ce s , a st h e re s hou ld b ef o rt h ose p rac t is ing ah i gh ly l o g is t ica l ly o rgan ized c o l lec t ing s t ra tegy , a s d ef ined b y B info rd ( 1980 ) .

I t i s a ppa ren t t ha t i n s o me a r eas e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion su sed l i th ic ma te r ia ls w i th s ou rce s u p t os eve ra l h und reds o fk i lome t res f r om t he i r s i te s , a nd t h us p os s ib ly w e re c ha rac te r ized b y ah igh ly mob i le l i f es ty le . I n o the r c a se s ,e v idence s ugge s t st h a tt h ed eg ree o f mob i l i ty f o re a r ly P a leo ind ians may h ave b een s i gn if ican t ly r educed ( s ee d i scus s ion i n Me l tze r 1 993a :305) . C onsequen t ly , i t i s e x t reme ly d ange rous t o g ene ra l ize f o r a l l P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s w i th r ega rd t o mob i l i ty . F o r N o r the rn P la ins e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , t h e p re sen t a r chaeo log ica l d a taba se ( F igu re 3 ;T ab le 1 )i n d ica te s t h a t e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s i nt h is r eg ion a r e f ew i nn umbe r a nd r e la t ive ly s ma l l , w i th n o e v idence f o r l a rge -sca le a nd s t a t iona ry p hy s ica l s t o rage o fa ny k ind . C omb ined w i th t h e f a c t t h a t t he l a te P le is tocene e nv ironmen t , a s d iscussed a bove , w as c ha rac te r ized b y e x t reme a nd c hang ing t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l v a r iab i l i ty i nr e sou r ce s , an omad ic ,r e la t ive ly mob i le l i f e s ty le w ou ld h ave b een mos t p rac t ica l f o r t h ese e a r ly P a leo ind ian p eop le s . T he se i n te rp re ta t ions , a l ong w i th t h e f a c t t h a t p re P a leo ind ian s i tes a r e r e la t ive ly s pa r se i n t h is r eg ion a nd many o t he r a reas a s w e l l , s ugge s t t ha t many P a leo ind ian p eop le sh ad e xpanded t h e i r r a nge i n to o rw e re l i v ing i nv e ry s pa rse ly a nd p a tch i ly o ccup ied a r eas . Whe the re xo t ic l i th ic s i n aP a leo ind ian a s semb lage w e re a cqu i red t h rough v a r iou s k i nds o ft r ade o r e xchange w i th o the r g roups , o r a cqu i red d i rec t ly f r om t he s ou rce , a nd t hus a r e i n d ica t ive o ft h ee x ten t a nd r a nge o f mob i l i ty o ft h e g roup ,i sc u r ren t ly i mpos s ib le t o d e te rm ine i na ny d ef in i t ive manne r . T he p robab i l i ty s eem s g rea t , t h ough , t ha t s i nce t hey w e re c onf ron ted w i th t h e p a r t icu la rc i rcum s tance s a nd n a tu r eo ft h ep hy s ica l a nd s oc ia l e nv ironmen t o f t h e l a te P le is tocene , P a leo ind ian g roups w ou ld h ave b een c ha rac te r ized b y f l ex ib i l i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e i rd eg ree o fm ob i l i ty a nd e x t en t o fe xchange a nd t r ade

I n s tead , a s i sh igh ly p robab le f o r n ume rous o t he r h un te rg a the re rs , t he n a tu re o f P a leo ind ian l i fe w ou ld h ave n ece s s i ta ted f l ex ib i l i ty a nd t h e u se o f mu l t ip le s t ra teg ie s . S ince t h e r e sou rce c ompos i t ion o fa l e nv i ronmen t sc hange s f r om y ea rt oy ea ra s ar e su l to fc l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions ,o ne m ay e xpec t t o f i nd d i f f e ren t s t ra teg ie s b e ing u sed b y h un te r g a the re r sf r om y ea rt oy ea r . H ence ,h un t ing -ga the r ing g r oup s d o n o t u t i l ize a s i ng le s ubs is tence se t t lemen t s y s tem , b u t r a the r mus t u se av a r ie ty o f s t ra teg ie s t os u rv ive a nd c ope w i th b o th s ea sona l a nd y ea r ly r e sou rce f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e i r e nv i ronmen t ( Ke l ly 1 983 :301) . P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions u ndoub ted ly h ad t o c ope w i th a n e ven g rea te r r a nge o f v a r ia t ion t han a ny p re sen t t oday . A s ac onsequence o f t h e c on t inua l a nd r ap id e nv i ronmen ta l a nd c l ima t ic c hange s c ha rac te r iz ing t h el a te P le is tocene , a nd t h er e su l t ing c hange s a nd v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o f e s sen t ia lr e sou rce s , N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian p eop le sm ay h ave b een u nab le t od eve lop a nd e mp loy s t ab le a nd r i g id ly p a t te rned s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies . I n s tead , f l ex ib i l i ty w ou ld h ave b een v i ta l f o r t h e i r s u rv iva l , w i th a w ide v a r ie ty a nd r ange o f s ubs is tence a nd mob i l i ty p l ans p rac t ised a nd a va i lab le i fn eeded . A n i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h is f l ex ib i l i ty i n N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies mus t h ave b een t he p o ten t ia l a nd c apab i l i ty f o re xp lo i t ing av a r ie ty o fe co tone sw hen p o s s ib le . 7 5

F o r e xamp le , e v idence i nd ica te s t ha t No r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ians l o ca ted e spec ia l ly i n t h e Mon tana - Wyom ing a r ea w e re a b le t o s h if t t he ir e conom ic empha s is a nd p rocu remen t l o ca t ions w i thou t much h ind rance f r om t h e f oo th i l l -moun ta in s e t t ings t o t h e o pen -p la ins r eg ions , a nd p robab ly d id s o c on t inua l ly t h roughou t a nd o ve r t h e y ea r s ( Dav is 1 993 :265 ;F r ison 1 992 :337 ) . As im i la r s i tua t ion m ay a l so h ave o ccu r red f a r the r n o r th , a s s ugge s ted b y e v idence f r om t h e F ron t R ange s o f t h e C anad ian R ocky Moun ta ins i n d ica t ing t h a tP a leo ind ian p opu la t ion se xp lo i ted t h ef o o th i l l m oun ta in r eg ion sd u r ing t h el a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene ( e .g . ,F ed je e ta l . 1 995 ) .

t h er e s iden t ia lm ove s , a nd t h ed i s tance o ft h ose m ove s , mu s t b e c ons ide red . A f a c to r t h a t i s f r equen t ly n eg lec ted o r i g no red i nt h i s r ega rd i st h a t o f t he p os s ib le p o sse s s ion o f w a te rcraf t b y P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ( s ee d e ta i led d i scuss ion i n E nge lb rech t a nd S eyf e r t 1 994 ) . T he u se o f w a te rc raf t w ou ld h ave g rea t ly e xpanded t he a r ea t ha t P a leo ind ian g roups w e re a b le t o e xp lo i t e f f ec t ive ly ( Enge lb rech t a nd S eyf e r t 1 994 :226 ) , w ou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted t h e p rocu reme n t o fe xo t ic l i th ic ma te r ia l ( Enge lb rech t a nd S eyf e r t 1 994 :227 -228 ) , a nd w ou ld h ave a f f ec ted r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , e spe c ia l ly w i th r e ga rd t oc a r ry ing a nd t r an spo r t ing p ossess ions a nd r e sou rce s ( Enge lb rech t a nd S eyfe r t 1 994 :222 ) .

6 . 3 .4 S u mmary W i th t he l im i ted P a leo ind ian a rchaeo log ica l r e co rd , i ti s d i ff icu l t t os t a t e w i th a ny c e r ta in ty t h e e xa c t n a tu re o ft h e i r r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty . N eve r the le ss , b a sed o n l a te P l e is tocene e nv i ronmen ta l r e cons truc t ions a s o u t l ined a bove , a nd t h e c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l d a taba se f o rt h i st ime f r ame , i tc an b e s ugge s ted t h a tP a leo ind ian g roups d id n o tp r ac t ise e x t reme ly h igh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty b u t w e re m ore l og is t ica l ly o rgan ized , w i th f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty t h a t a tt ime s i nvo lved f r equen t move s a nd p e rhap s , o cca s iona l ly , m ove s o f s ubs tan t ia l d i s tance s , a nd , a to the r t ime s , i nvo lved f ew m ove s a nd i n s t ead f o cu sed o n b a se c amp l o ca t ion s a nd t a sk g roup s . Mo re s p ec if ica l ly , d ec is ions r e la t ing t ot h e m ob i l i ty o fs e t t lemen t s w ou ld h ave b een i nf luenced b y f a c to r ss u ch a s e xhau s t ion o f l o ca l r e sou rce s , t h e n eed f o r r aw m a te r ia ls o r s pec if ic r e sou rce s , s ea sona l c hange s , a nd t h e d e s i re f o r c on tac ta nd e xchange w i th o t he rs oc ia lg r oup s .

I n t h e s uba rc t ic b o rea l f o re s t e nv i ronmen t , r e sou rce s a r e o f ten l o ca l ized i ns pec if ic p l ace s , h igh ly s ca t te red a nd t h in ly d i spe rsed , a nd s ub jec t t o ma rked a nd o f ten d ras t ic f l uc tua t ions i n a bundance a nd a va i lab i l i ty o ve r t ime a nd s pace ( Ne lson 1 973 , 1 983 :202 -209 ) . T o d ea l w i th t h is v a r iab i l i ty , h un te r -ga the re r s o fi n te r io r A la ska , s uch a st h e K oyukon p eop le s , p rac t ised as h if t ing s ubs is tence e conomy i nw h ich o ne y ea rt h ey m ay h ave e mpha s ized t h eh un t ing o f b i g g ame , wh i le t h e f o l low ing y ea r t h ey wou ld f o cus o n s ma l l g ame a nd f i sh ( Ne lson 1 983 :216 ) . I ti sh igh ly p o ss ib le t h a t l a te P le is tocene p opu la t ions d eve loped a s im i la r r e sponse o fc on t inuous ly s h if t ing t h e i r s ubs is tence b a se t o c ope w i th t h e t r ans i t ion f r om t h e " P la ids " e nv ironmen t c ha rac te r ized b y ag rea t n umbe r o f s pec ie s d i spe r sed o ve r m any h ab i ta t s t ot h e " S t r ipe s " e nv i ronmen t c ha rac te r ized b y f ewe r n umbe r o f s pec ie s d i spe rsed o ve r f ewe r h ab i ta t s . N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian p eop les l i ke ly r e l ied u pon v a ry ing s t ra teg ie s t o c ope w i th t h e g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty a s soc ia ted w i th t h is c hang ing l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t . S ome o ft h e se s t ra teg ie s w ou ld h ave i n c luded p rac t is ing t h is m o re b road -based a nd s h if t ing e conomy , a nd p os s ib ly e mpha s iz ing s oc ia lc on tac t ,r e la t ions , a nd o b l iga t ion s .

I tc an b ea s sumed t h a tt h eN o r the rn P la ins a r ea , e spe c ia l ly a s i n d ica ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , w ou ld h ave b een s pa rse ly p opu la ted d u r ing t he l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene . B e cause o f t h is a s sumed s pa rse p opu la t ion , P a leo ind ian g roup sf r equen t ly w ou ld h ave b een m ov ing i n to u noccup ied r eg ion s a nd t hus w ou ld h ave n eeded t of o cu s o n s o c ia lc on ta c t , i n f o rma t ion e xchange , a nd f l ex ib i l i ty . C le a r ly , b o th r e s iden t ia l a nd i nd iv idua l mob i l i ty w ou ld h ave b een n eces sa ry f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions a s r i sk -buf f e r ing m echan isms , t o o b ta in k now ledge a bou t aw ide r a nge o f r e sou rce s i nc a se a l te rna t ive s t ra teg ie s a nd r e sou rce s h ad t o b ee mp loyed i fo t he r sf a i led ( s ee M i then 1 990 :35 -36 ) .U n l ike r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , h oweve r , i nd iv idua l mob i l i ty f o r N o r the rn P la in s P a leo ind ians w ou ld h ave b een r e la t ive ly h i gh o n ac on t inua l b a s i s i no rde r f o r ap e r son t og a the r , n o t o n ly r equ i red r e sou rces a nd r aw m a te r ia ls , b u t a l so i n fo rma t ion a bou t a n e nv iron men t c ha rac te r ized b y i n c rea s ing ly v a r iab i l i ty ( s ee d e ta i led d i scu s s ion i nf o l low ing c hap te r ) . I n e s sence , b a sed o n a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t o d a te a nd w ha t i sp resen t ly k nown a bou t h un te r -ga the re r s t ra teg ie s a nd t h e g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty o f l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t s , t h e e mpha s is f o r e a r ly P a leo ind ian N o r the rn P la ins g roup s m us th ave b een o n l e ss s t ruc tu re a nd r i g id i ty , a nd u pon m o re f l ex ib i l i ty a nd a l te rna t ive s i nt h e i r r e sou rce u se a nd s e t t lem en ta nd mob i l i ty s t ra teg ie s .

W i th r efe rence t o l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv ironmen ts , t he i n creas ing ly c lus te red o r p a tchy d i s t r ibu t ion o f m any o f t h e r e sou rce s w i th t h e s h if t f r om " P la ids " t o " S t r ipes " w ou ld h ave e xe r ted a " pu l l" o n s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion , a s J och im ( 1976 :52 ) t e rmed i t , a s o pposed t ot h o se r e sou rce s t h a t a r eu n if o rm ly d i s t r ibu ted i n s pace a nd t ime . T he se c ond i t ions w ou ld h ave p romo ted a r e la t ive ly mob i le l i f e s ty le f o r P la ins P a leo ind ian g roups . A mob i le l i f es ty le , h oweve r , d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly t h e h igh r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty a nd " mapp ing o n" o f B info rd 's f o rage r s t ra tegy . I n s tead , P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w ou ld h ave b een c ha rac te r ized b y s ome d eg ree o f l og is t ica l o rgan iza t ion , i n t h a t g roups w ou ld h ave e s tab l ished b a se c amps t ha t , a tt ime s , m ay h ave b een o ccup ied f o r r e la t ive ly l o ng p e r iods , a nd f r om w h ich t a sk g roup s c ou ld b e s en t t o o b ta in a w ide r ange o f r e sou rce s a nd r aw ma te r ia ls . I n a dd i t ion , c ons ide r ing t he l i ke l ihood o f i nc rea s ing t empo ra l / sea sona l v a r iab i l i ty i n r e sou rces , s ome f o rm o f s t o rage , whe the r d ry ing s t ra teg ies o r i n t he f o rm o f o b l iga t ions ,w ou ld h ave b een p rac t ised . T he refo re , r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty f o r Nor the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian g roups w ou ld h ave b een f l ex ib le , w i th t h e d eg ree o f mob i l i ty f l uc tua t ing t h roughou t t h e y ea r a nd f r om y ea r t o y ea r , w i th s ome s ea sona l movemen t , a l though n o t s t ruc tu red i n t h e s ame manne r a s t h a t w h ich c ha rac te r ized l a te r p reh is to r ic P l a ins g roups . Mo reove r , f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , t h e q ue s t ion o f s ca le , t h a t i s , t he f r equency o f 7 6

CHAPTER 7 ENGENDERING NORT HERN PLA INS PALEOIND IAN SUBSISTENCE AND S ETTLE MENT ACTIVITEES 7 .1 PALE OINDIAN ORGANIZATION

SOCIAL

L IFE

a nd i na low ing f o r s oc ia l i n te rac t ion a nd t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f ma t ing n e two rk s . A s Wobs t ( 1974 ) m a in ta ined , s ma l le r b and s mu s tf u nc t ion a sp a r to f al a rge rg roup s ot h a ta dequa te a nd e l ig ib le m a t ing p a r tne r s a r e a va i lab le ( s ee d i scus s ion i n Mand ryk 1 993 :45 -46 ) . F lex ib i l i ty i n o rgan iza t ion a nd c ompos i t ion o fP a leo ind ian g roups , c oup led w i th r e la t ive ly h igh mob i l i ty a sn o ted b y B am fo r th ( 1988 :160 -161 ) , w ou ld h ave b een n ece s sa ry t oe s tab l ish a nd ma in ta in s o c ia lc on ta c t s a nd ma t ing n e two rks w i th w ide ly d i spe rsed g roups . Mo reove r , i ti sl i ke ly t h a th ou seho lds w i th in t h eP a leo ind ian g roup w e re c omposed o f r e la ted p eop les a nd c ha rac te r ized b ye x t reme ly f l u id m embe r sh ip a sw i th t h el a rge rg r oup .

AND

7 . 1 .1 D emograph ic A spec ts a nd Co mpos i t ion o f P a leo ind ian G roup s B ased o n t h e c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l d a tabase ( F igu re 3 ; T ab le 1 )a nd t h ec u r ren tp a leoc l ima to log ica l d a taba se f o rt h e Nor the rn P la ins e a r ly P a leo ind ian t ime p e r iod , a nd k now ledge o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h un t ing -ga the r ing s t ra teg ie s , s e t t lemen t , a nd r e sou rce s t ruc tu re , t h ea s sump t ion c an b e m ade t h a t t h e P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion w a s r e la t ive ly l ow a nd s pa r se ly d i spe r sed o ve r t h el a nd scape . F u r the rmo re , g roups w e re l i ke ly c ha rac te r ized b ys ma l ln umbe r s o fp eop le r e la ted b y k i n a nd a f f ina l t i e s . A f ew a r chaeo log is t s h ave a t temp ted t o p rov ide a c tua l e s t ima te s o f b and s i ze a nd p opu la t ion d ens i ty f o r v a r ious P a leo ind ian g roups . H e s te r a nd G rady ( 1977 ) p rov ided e s t ima tes o f b and s i ze a nd t e r r i to ry f o rP a leo ind ian p opu la t ions o n t h eL lano E s tacado . B a s ing t h e i r c onc lus ions o n e t hnog raph ic a ccoun ts o f h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s , a nd u s ing s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta s uch a st h e n umbe r o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s , h ea r th s , f l i n tknapp ing a r ea s , a nd b u tche r ing a r ea s i d en t if ied a tP a leo ind ian s i te s , t h ey e s t ima ted t h a t t he t e r r i to ry o f a P a leo ind ian b and o n t h eL lano E s t acado h ad ar ad ius o f9 0 1 20 m i le s( a pp rox ima te ly 1 45 -193 k i lome t re s ) , w i th t h eb and c ons is t ing o fs i x f am i l ie s , o r2 5 membe r s ,o fw h ich f i ve t o1 0 w e re h un te r s( s ee H e s te r a nd G rady 1 977 ) . G re ise r ( 1 985 :30 ) a l so e s t ima ted t h a t t h e t y p ica l l a te g l ac ia l h un t ing -ga the r ing b and h ad c ons is ted o f a pp rox ima te ly 2 5 p eop le , an umbe r t h a t many a n th ropo log is t s h ave g ene ra l ly c ons ide red a st h e a ve rage n umbe r o f i nd iv idua ls i n mos t h un t ing -ga the r ing b ands ( e .g . , B i rdse l l 1 968 ; s ee a l so d i scus s ions i n Mand ryk 1 993 :43 -45 a nd Wobs t 1 974 :170 ) . I n t he i r c ompu te r s imu la t ion m ode l o f P le is tocene o ve rk i l l , Mos imann a nd Ma r t in ( 1 975 ) s ugge s ted t ha t b y t h e t ime t he i r p os tu la ted w ave o r" f ron t " o fP a leo ind ian h un te r s , s weep ing s ou thwa rd f r om B e r ing ia , h ad r e a ched D en t , C o lo rado , a pp rox ima te ly 1 ,300 y ea r sa go , t h eh uman p opu la t ion h ad r ea ched 4 0 ,000 a nd t h e p opu la t ion d ens i ty w i th in t h e f r on t w a s 0 . 383 p e r sons p e r s qua re m i le ( app rox ima te ly 0 .238 p e r sons p e r s qua re k i lome t re ) . T h i s d ens i ty i si nk eep ing w i th t h a t n o ted b y L ee ( 1 968 :35) f o r t he ! Kung h un te r -ga the re r s o f t h e K a lah a r i d e se r t i nt h e 1 960 s ( i . e . , 4 1 p e r sons p e r 1 00 s qua re m i les o ra pp rox ima te ly 0 .255 p e r sons p e rs qua re k i lome t re ) . A s n o ted b y Mand ryk ( 1993 :46 -47 ) , mos t h un te r -ga the re r s h ave d ens i t ie s o fl e s s t h an o ne p e r son p e r s qua re k i lome t re . B amfo r th ( 1 988 :160 -161) , a l though h e d id n o t p rov ide a ny a c tua le s t ima t e s , a r gued t h a tP a leo ind ian p opu la t ion d en s i t ie s o n t h e P l a ins mus t h ave b een mu ch l owe r t han d ens i t ie s o f m o re r e cen th un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie si nt h ea r ea ,p r ima r i ly b ecau se o ft h e r e la t ive s ca rc i ty o fp lan t f ood s o n t h e P la ins a nd t h e a bsence o f a g r icu l tu ra l s o c ie t ie s o n t h e ma rg ins o f t h eP la in s .

7 . 1 .2 Ma le a nd F ema le D oma in sa nd Ro le F lex ib i l i ty Wh i le n ume rou sr e sea rche r s a s sume t h a tc h i ldb i r th a nd c h i ld c a re a lmos t e n t i re ly i mmob i l ized a nd r e s t r ic ted w omen i n t h e i r e ve ryday a c t iv i t ie s , t h is a s sump t ion s imp ly d oe s n o t h o ld f o r m any h un te r -ga the re r s ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) , a nd w a s l i ke ly n o t v a l id f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions e i the r . F i rs t o f a l l , w omen w ho a r e p regnan t o r i n vo lved i ns ome w ay i n c h i ld c a re w ou ld c omp r ise o n ly a p o r t ion o f a l l f ema le m embe r s o ft h e g roup . W i l low s ( 1991 :60 ) a r gued t h a t i ti s u n l ike ly t h a tp r eh is to r ic b i r th s pac ing i n te rva ls w e re s ho r te r t h an t h a to b se rved a mong c on tempo ra ry h un te r -ga the re r s ( o n t he a ve rage o f f ou r y ea r s ) , g iven t he r e s t r ic t ions o f t h e e nv ironmen t a nd l i fes ty le . F aced w i th a n e ven g rea te r a moun t o fv a r iab i l i ty i nl a te P l e is tocene e nv i ronmen t s a nd a l i f e s ty le i n vo lv ing r e la t ive ly h igh i nd iv idua l m ob i l i ty a nd f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , P a leo ind ian h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions w e re p robab ly c ha rac te r ized b y r e la t ive ly w ide b i r th s pac ing i n te rva ls , a nd m ay h ave e ven b een c apab le o f d e l ibe ra te ly s pac ing b i r ths . T he refo re , n o t a l P a leo ind ian w omen w ou ld h ave b een c ons tan t ly p regnan t o r n u rs ing i n f an t s . S econd , b ecause o f t h e a s sumed s ma l l n umbe r s o f p eop le , t h e o penne s s a nd f l ex ib i l i ty o f t h e s o c ie ty , a nd t h e r e la t ive h igh m ob i l i ty o f t h e i nd iv idua l , t h e e n t i re r e a lm o f r ep roduc t ion i n c lud ing c h i ld c a re w as l i ke ly a n a r ena o f a c t ive s oc ia l r e la t ions i nvo lv ing b o th men a nd w omen ; t h us , c h i ld c a re w a s u ndoub ted ly t os ome d eg ree ac o l lec t ive a nd s ha red e f fo r t a mong t h e a du l t a nd o l de rj uven i le m embe r s o f t h eg roup . A l though t h ed ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy a nd t h ea s sump t ion t h a tw omen w e re c onf ined b yr e p roduc t ive r e spon s ib i l i t ie st o " dome s t ic " c ho re sw h i le m en c on t ro l led t h ep ub l ic d oma in i s e n t i re ly i n app rop r ia te a nd d i s to r t ing f o r m any s oc ie t ie s , e thnograph ic e v idence t e nds t o s ugges t t h a t i n many s oc ie t ie s , m en a nd w omen h ad a nd d o h ave d i f fe ren t d oma ins o f s oc ia l l i fe , s phe res o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd r e spons ib i l i t ie s , a nd p a t te rns o f mob i l i ty , t hough n o t n ece s sa r i ly c o r re spond ing t ot h is a r t if ic ia l d ome s t ic /pub l ic d i v is ion . Wh i le c r os s -cu l tu ra l ly t h ea s s ignmen to fp roduc t ive t a sk s a nd r e spons ib i l i t ie s t os pe c if ic g ende r s i sn o t u n ive r sa l ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) , n o rma l ly w i th in a s i ng le s oc ie ty c e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s " o rd ina r i ly " f a l l w i th in t h e s phe re o fo ne g ende r o r t he o the r , a s G uen the r ( 1991 :18 -20 ) n o ted f o r P la ins p opu la t ions a nd A be l ( 1993 :22 ) n o ted f o re i gh teen th -cen tu ry D ene g roups . T he se t yp ica l t a sks a s s igned t o men a nd w omen w i th in as oc ie ty , h oweve r , a r e o f ten c omp lemen ta ry

T he n a ture o f t he o rgan iza t ion a nd c ompos i t ion o f P a leo ind ian g roups w ou ld h ave b een f l u id a nd f l ex ib le , n o t o n ly f o r e conom ic r e a sons i nd ea l ing w i th l a te P le is tocene r e sou rce v a r iab i l i ty , b u t a l so f o r s oc ia l r ea sons i na s s is t ing w i th t h er e so lu t ion o ft e ns ions a nd c onf l ic t sw i th in t h eg roup , 7 7

h un t a nd g a the r c e r ta in s pec ies o fa n ima ls a nd p l an t s . I na l l l i ke l ihood , t h e i nd iv idua ls mos t q ua l if ied t o p e rfo rm t h e s pec if ic a c t iv i t ie s p l anned f o r t he t a sk o u t ing w ou ld h ave b een c ho sen t oa ccompany t h e g roup . A ga in t h e i mpo r tance o f f l ex ib i l i ty a nd i n te rchangeab i l i ty i n t a sks b ecome s a ppa ren t . W i th t a sk g roup s l e av ing o t he r s i n t h e p r ima ry c amp , b o th g roup s w ou ld n eed k now ledge o fb a s ic s u rv iva l a c t iv i t ie s t oc ope a dequa te ly u n t i l , o ri f , t h ey r eun i ted a ta l a te rt ime . T he e mpha s is f o r P a leo ind ian sc l ea r ly w ou ld h ave b een o n n ego t iab le r o le s , al e ss r i g id d ef in i t ion o fm a scu l ine a nd f em in ine , a nd m o re c oope ra t ive p a t te rns t os u rv ive .

i n n a tu re a nd t hus empha s ize a spec t s o f i n te rdependency b e tween men a nd w omen ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) . Mo reove r , t h e d oma ins a nd s phe re s o f t h e se ma le a nd f ema le a c t iv i t ie s f r equen t ly o ve r lap a t s ome p o in t i n m any s oc ie t ie s ( e .g . , S o lway 1 992 :51 ) . P a r t icu la r ly f o r P a leo ind ian g roups , t h eo re t ica l ly t h ese f ema le a nd m a le d oma ins w ou ld h ave o ve r lapped a nd b l u r red c ons ide rab ly a s ar e su l t o f s eve ra l f a c to rs . O ne i mpo r tan tv a r iab le i st h ed eg ree o f mob i l i ty o ft h eg r oup a nd i n d iv idua l . T he re i ss ome e v idence t os ugge s t t h a t r e la t ive ly h i ghe r mob i l i ty i n ag roup may e ncou rage a nd s t reng then i n te rdependence a nd s ha r ing o f w o rk a mong t h e g roup 's m embe r s ( s ee d i scuss ion a nd r e fe rences i n Dah lbe rg 1 981 :18 ) . F o re xamp le , D rape r ( 1975 :78 , 8 5 -86 ) d i scove red t h a t f o rm ob i le ! Kung g roups , o b ta in ing f ood i nt h eK a laha r i e n ta i led as im i la r d eg ree o f mob i l i ty f o r b o th s exe s , w omen a nd m en w e re e qua l ly a bsen tf r om t h ec amp , a nd t h e re w a sa l a ck o f r i g id i ty i n s ex typ ing o f many a du l t a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing d ome s t ic c ho re s a nd a spec t s o fc h i ld s oc ia l iza t ion . S im i la r ly , a mong t h e H adza , t h e e x ten t o fd a i ly h un t ing a nd g a the r ing t r ips f o r men a nd w omen w a s a l so t h e s ame , r a ng ing f r om o ne h ou r 's w a lk f r om t h e r e s iden t ia l c amp d u r ing t h ed ry s e a son t oa n a ve rage o ft wo h ou r s ' w a lk f r om c amp d u r ing t h e w e t s ea son ( O 'Conne l l e ta l . 1 988 :357 ) . I n m o re s eden ta ry ! Kung g roup s , h oweve r , c e r ta in f e a tu re s o f s e den ta ry l i f e , s uch a st h ed ec rease i nm ob i l i ty o fw omen a s c on t ra s ted w i th men , a nd t h e i n c rea s ing s pec ia l iza t ion o f f ema le w o rk a nd i t s c onf inemen t t ot h e h ome a nd v i l lage , a ppea r r e la ted t o ad ec rease i n f ema le a u tonomy a nd i nf luence ( D rape r 1 975 :78 ) . F o r P a leo ind ian g roups , i ti s l i ke ly t h a t P a leo ind ian w omen w e re a s f r equen t ly a bsen t f r om t h ec amp a sm en i nt h e i rd a i ly a c t iv i t ie s , a l though t h e i r p a t te rns a nd e x ten t o f m ob i l i ty m ay h ave d i f f e red t os ome d eg ree .

I n f a c t , n o t o n ly f o r P a leo ind ian s oc ie ty , b u t a l so f o r m any o t he r s , t h ee xpe c ta t ion o fr i g id t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a l ong s ex l i ne s s eems t o b e u n rea l is t ic . F o r e xamp le , a s G uen the r ( 1991 :20 ) s ugges ted f o r P l a ins p opu la t ions , i f aw oman w a s b u tche r ing , o rs c rap ing h ide s , a nd n o m a le w a s p re sen t , s he w ou ld n o t w a i t u n t i l am a le wa s p re sen t t o r e touch a n i n s t rumen t 's e dge o r make at o o l ( s ee s im i la r c l a im i nG e ro 1 991b :170 ) . S im i la r ly , i fam a le w a s a l one , f o re xamp le , o n a h un t ing e xped i t ion , h e w ou ld h ave t o c ook f o r h imse lf . O bv ious ly t h e re i sa mp le e v idence t o s ugges t t h a t s ome d eg ree o f f l ex ib i l i ty i nr o le s , a nd c onsequen t ly o ve r lap i n m a le a nd f ema le d oma ins , f r equen t ly o ccu r red i nn ume rous n on s ta te s o c ie t ie s .F o rN o r th Ame r ican P l a ins g roup s , We is t ( 1980 :262 ) s ugge s ted t h a t r o le f l ex ib i l i ty w a s a n i mpo r tan t c ha rac te r is t ic o ft h e i rs oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , w i th w omen b e ing a b le t op a r t ic ipa te i n ma le a c t iv i t ie s , a nd , l i kew ise , m en a b le t ot a ke o n t h e a c t iv i t ie s a nd e ven r o le s o fw omen . S im i la r ly , f o r t h e ! Kung , D rape r ( 1975 :93) n o ted t h a t t h e l a ck o f s pec ia l iza t ion a nd o ppos i t ion o f s exe s w a s h igh ly p ra c t ica l , g iven t h e s ma l l n umbe r o fa b le -bod ied a du l ts , e spe c ia l ly i n t h e r a iny s ea son , w hen t h e l o ca l g roup s i ze f e l l t oa bou t 1 5 p eop le . T hus , i tw a s e x t reme ly u sefu l f o r a du l t s t o b e r e la t ive ly i n te rchangeab le i n f unc t ion . L as t , S ha rp ( 1981 :235 ) a r gued t h a t t h er o le s o fC h ipewyan f ema le s a nd m a le s w e re m o re f l ex ib le t o mee t t h e e r ra t ic n a tu re o f s uba rc t ic l i f e , a nd t h a t m embe rs o f b o th s exes h ad s k i l ls n ece s sa ry t os u rv ive i ni s o la t ion .

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e p os tu la ted h igh i n d iv idua l m ob i l i ty a nd f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , p e rhap so ne o ft h em a jo r f a c to r s t h a t w ou ld h ave r e su l ted i n ac ons ide rab le o ve r lapp ing o f P a leo ind ian f ema le a nd ma le d oma ins i s t he n eed f o r f l ex ib i l i ty i n r o les a nd t a sk a s s ignmen t t o c ope w i th t h e g r ea te rv a r iab i l i ty o ft h el a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t . G iven t h e r e la t ive ly s ma l l g roup s i ze a nd c onsequen t ly t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f a du l ts w ho w ou ld b e s hou lde r ing t h e p r ima ry r e spons ib i l i ty f o rp rov id ing s ubs is tence a nd o t he rn eed s , a nd g i ven , a s w e l l , t he c hang ing e nv i ronmen t , i tw ou ld s eem h i gh ly a dvan tageous h ad b o th P a leo ind ian w omen a nd m en p o s se s sed t h e n e ce s sa ry s k i l ls t os u rv ive , i n te rchange t a sk s , a nd r e p la ce o ne a no the r w hen t h e s i tua t ion d emanded . F o r e xamp le , s ome o f t he l a te P le is tocene r e sou rces t h a t P a leo ind ian g roups e xp lo i ted w ou ld h ave b een r e la t ive ly u n re l iab le , a nd e n ta i led mo re s ea rch a nd p u r su i t t ime ; c e r ta in ly n o t a l w ou ld b e l o ca ted i nc l o se p rox im i ty t ot h e c amp . H ence , t h e re may h ave b een an eed f o r l o g i s t ica l t a sk g roups t o b e s en t o u t t o a cqu i re s pec if ic r e sou rce s . T he c ompo s i t ion o f t he se g roups w ou ld h ave b een f l ex ib le i n o rde r t o c ope w i th t he g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty c ha rac te r iz ing r e sou rce s a nd t h e e nv ironmen t , a nd t o m ee t t h e c u r ren t n eeds , p r io r i t ie s , a nd d es i re s o f t h e p eop le ; t h a t i s , t h e o rgan iza t ion o f t h ese t a sk g roup s a nd t h e d ec is ions a s t o w h ich i nd iv idua ls w ou ld a ccompany t h em w ou ld d epend u pon w ha t r e sou rces w e re b e ing s ough t , t h e i nd iv idua l 's p a r t icu la r s k i l ls , a nd wha t o the r e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s w e re c u r ren t ly b e ing u nde r taken b y t h e v a r iou s membe r s o f t h e g roup . No d oub t , g roups w ou ld h ave b een o rgan ized f o r s pe c ia l p u rpo se s , f o re xamp le , t oa cqu i re r aw ma te r ia l s , o rt o

I nt h e P a leo ind ian c a se , t h e c o mb ina t ion o fh igh i n d iv idua l mob i l i ty a nd v a ry ing r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a nd t h e p robab le l a ck o fp r iva cy ,t h e o penne s s o fh ouseho lds , a nd t h ef a c t t h a t a l m embe r s o ft h es oc ie ty w ou ld b em ov ing w i th t h e g r oup , m ean t t h a t w omen a nd c h i ld ren a l ong w i th m en w ou ld e qua l ly b e a b le t o s ee a nd a cqu ire k now ledge a bou t t h e p hys ica l a nd s oc ia l w o r ld a r ound t h em . T h is p os tu la ted e mpha s is o n f l ex ib i l i ty a nd i n te rchangeab i l i ty i np e r fo rm ing t a sk s f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , h oweve r , d oe s n o t n ece ssa r i ly i mp ly t h a t t h e re w e re n o P a leo ind ian i n d iv idua ls w ho h ad s pec ia l ized a nd mo re h igh ly d eve loped k now ledge a nd s k i l ls i nm a nuf ac tu r ing s pec if ic t o o l o rm a te r ia l i t em s , i n p e rfo rm ing c e r t a in s ub s is tence t a sk s , i nt h e med ic ina l u se o f r e sou rce s , o r f o r d i rec t ing s p i r i tua l r i tua ls a nd p rac t ice s . T he re u ndoub ted ly w e re s pec ia l is t s a mong P a leo ind ian g roups . S ome t a sk s , a c t iv i t ie s , a nd k now ledge w ou ld h ave b een t h er e spon s ib i l i ty o fs pec if ic i nd iv idua ls , a nd , a l though t h is s pec ia l iza t ion m ay h ave g ene ra l ly f a l len a l ong s e x a nd a ge l i ne s , i tw ou ld n o t n e ce s sa r i ly h ave b een u n ive r sa l a nd r i g id . G roup m embe r s w ho d i d n o tp o s se s s t h e se s pe c ia l ized s k i l ls a nd k now ledge w ou ld h ave h ad t or e ly u pon t h e se s pec ia l is t s i na ni n te rdependen t manne r , m o s t l i ke ly t h rough b road n e two rk s o f k i n r e la t ions . T hus , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , m a le a nd f ema le t a sk s a nd r e spons ib i l i t ies w ou ld n o t h ave c omp le te ly o ve r lapped a nd b een e n t i re ly i n te rchangeab le ; r a the r , t h e re w ou ld h ave b een 7 8

a r e v a r iab le f r om s oc ie ty t o s oc ie ty a nd o ve r t ime . T hu s , u s ing d ec is ion -mak ing p roce sse s o f e t hnog raph ic h un te r g a the re r s a s ab a s is e nab le s a n e xam ina t ion o f h ow P a leo ind ian p eop le may h ave i n te rac ted w i th t h e i r c u l tu ra l c on tex ta nd e co log ica l s u r round ing s w hen mak ing d ec is ions r e la t ing t os ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen ta c t iv i t ie s .

s ome s pec if ic a c t iv i t ie s a nd k now ledge t h a t w ou ld t y p ica l ly h ave b een t h e s pec ia l ized r e spons ib i l i ty o f e i the r m en , w omen , c h i ld ren , c e r ta in a ge g roups , o r , s imp ly , t hose i nd iv idua ls who we re mos t q ua l if ied o r c ons ide red a pp rop r ia te f o rt h er o le ( F igu re 4 ) . 7 . 2 PALEOINDIAN DECISION - MAK ING

T he d ec is ion -mak ing p roce sse s e mpha s ized i n t h is mode l i n c lude t hose r evo lv ing a round t he i n te rac t ion o f P a leo ind ians w i th t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd l a ndscape i n t h e p roce ss o f p rocu r ing t h e i r s ubs is tence ; t h e se i n c lude t h e p l ann ing , s chedu l ing , a nd o rgan iza t ion i nvo lved i n mov ing a c ros s t h e l a ndscape i n o rde r t o o b ta in r e sou rce s a nd r aw ma te r ia ls . G re ise r ( 1985 :9 ) a s sumed t h a t h uman d ec is ionm ak ing p roce sse s a r e p a t te rned a nd p red ic tab le i nt e rms o f c e r ta in e nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s t h a t i mpose c ons t ra in t s o n t h e b ehav iou r o fl i v ing c omponen t s o fe cosy s tem s . H oweve r , i t m us t b e r emembe red t h a t a l l d ec is ions a r e made b y p eop le i n te rac t ing n o t o n ly w i th r e sou rce s i na n e co log ica l c on tex t , b u t a l so w i th o t he r p eop le i n as oc ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t ( M i then 1 990 :134 ) . T hus i ti s n o t o n ly e nv ironmen ta l c ons t ra in t s t ha t w i l l a f fec t d ec is ion -mak ing , b u t a l so a p eop le 's c u l tu ra l n o rms , t r ad i t iona l b e l ief s , i d eo log ie s , a nd v a lue s a nd e xpec ta t ions t h a t w i l l f r equen t ly e n te r i n to t h e c ons ide ra t ion o fd ec is ions ( F igu re 1 ) . Mak ing c ho ice s a bou t a cqu i r ing r e sou rce s , a nd t h e s e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty o ft h e g roup n o t o n ly a r e c once rned w i th o b ta in ing t h e n ece s s i t ie s o f l i f e , s uch a s f ood , w a te r , a nd s he l te r , b u t a l so a r e

7 . 2 .1 I n troduc t ion T he p rev iou sc hap te rh a sp rov ided at h eo re t ica l mode l o ft h e s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s p rac t ised b y N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian g roups , a s s ugges ted b y t he a r chaeo log ica la nd p a leoenv i ronmen ta l e v idence a nd g ene ra l mode ls o fh un te r -ga the re rs . T he f o l low ing d i scus s ion w i l l n ow s h if t a t ten t ion t ot h e a c tua l a c to r s who p rac t ised t h e se s t ra teg ie s , t h rough t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f d ec is ion -mak ing p roces se s . Wh i le t he d e ta i led d i scuss ion o f P a leo ind ian d ec is ion -mak ing p re sen ted h e re i sb a sed t o al a rge e x ten t u pon h ow mode rn e thnog raph ic h un te r -ga the re rs make d ec is ions ( s ome wou ld , t he refo re , a rgue t ha t i ti s a n i n app rop r ia te u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy f o r p reh is to r ic P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ) , i nf a c t , d ec is ion -mak ing p roce s se s o f a ny h uman g roup o ri nd iv idua l , a sM i then ( 1990 :52 -53 ) a rgued , a r e s im i la r ; t h a t i s , t h e b io log ica l c apac i t ie s f o r d ec is ion -mak ing h ave l i ke ly b een c ons tan t s i nce t he e vo lu t ion o fm ode rn h umans . I ti st h ec u l tu ra la nd e co log ica l c on tex t si nw h ich t h ed ec is ion -mak ing p roce s se s o pe ra te t h a t

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m ake r ( s ) mu s tt h en c ons ide ra va i lab le a l te rna t ive s ,d e te rm ine w ha t n eeds t ob e k nown t o make t h e d ec is ion , a nd , m o s t i mpo r tan t ly , d e te rm ine w ha t s ou rce s o f i n f o rma t ion a r e a va i lab le , a nd h ow t o a cqu i re t h is i n fo rma t ion ( M i then 1 990 :30 -31) . O nce t he a pp rop r ia te i n fo rma t ion h a s b een a cqu i red f r om t h ev a r iou s s ou rce s , i tm u s tb ep roce s sed ( i . e . , c ompa red a nd e va lua ted w i th r e f e rence t oi t s r e levance t o m ak ing t h e c u r ren t d ec is ion ) a nd i n teg ra ted ( s ee M i then 1 990 :41-50 , 7 9 -83 ) . T hen t h e d ec is ion c an b e m ade ( F igu re 5 ) .

p e rmea ted a nd i n te rconnec ted w i th c once rns s uch a s e xchange a nd t r ade , ma in ta in ing a nd c r ea t ing s oc ia lr e la t ion s a nd m a t ing n e two rk s , f u lf i l l ing o b l iga t ions , a nd u pho ld ing s p i r i tua lt r ad i t ions . T he d ec is ion -mak ing p roce sse s r e la t ing t or e sou rce u se a nd c ho ice o f s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion t h a t a r e o u t l ined b e low a r e a s sumed t o b e t h e r e su l t o f d e l ibe ra te p lann ing a nd c ons ide ra t ion o f p refe rences , n eeds , a va i lab i l i ty , a nd k now ledge o n t h ep a r to fP a leo ind ian i nd iv idua ls a nd g roup s ( s ee J och im 1 976 :10 ) , r a the r t h an ar e f lec t ion , a si mp l ied b y t h et e rm " f o rage r , " o fo ppo r tun is t ic a nd u np lanned p roce sse s . A s M i then ( 1990 :22 ) n o ted , mak ing ad ec is ion e s sen t ia l ly i n vo lve s s o lv ing a p rob lem , w i th t h e f e edback f r om t h e c ho ice c ons t i tu t ing l ea rn ing . I n o rde r t o make a s ub s is tence / se t t lemen t d ec is ion , o ne mus t f i r s t d e te rm ine a g oa l a nd d ec ide w ho s hou ld make t h ed ec is ion .T he d e c is ion -

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o rs i ng le s ex .I n s tead , s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie sw i l lb ev i ewed a s i n te r re la ted mu l t i ta sk a c t iv i t ie s o rgan ized i nv a r ious w ay s ( s ee S pec to r 1 993 :9 ) . Wh i le i ti sl i ke ly t h a t P a leo ind ian g roups d ef ined t yp ica l m a le a nd f ema le t a sk s , m any o ft h e se t a sks we re p robab ly c omp lemen tary , c oope ra t ive , o ve r lapp ing , a nd , p e rhap s mo re i mpo r tan t ly , c omposed o f mu l t ip le i n te rconnec ted e ven ts , b ehav iou rs , a nd s t age s . A c t iv i t ie s s uch a s r e sou rce a nd r aw ma te r ia l p rocu remen t , t o o l p roduc t ion , a nd f ood p roce s s ing w ou ld h ave b een , a si n many e thnog raph ic a nd p resen t -day h un te r -ga the re rs , s egmen ted i n to s ma l le r a c t iv i t ie s a nd t a sk s t h a t c ou ld h ave b een s ha red b y P a leo ind ian w omen , men , a nd o l de r c h i ld ren i n a n i n te rdependen t c oope ra t ive n a tu re . C onsequen t ly , w i th in t h e se i n te r re la ted r e a lm s o ft o o l p roduc t ion , p l an t a nd a n ima lr e sou rce a cqu is i t ion , a nd s e t t lemen t , t h e re w ou ld a l so h ave b een mu l t ip le i n te rconnec ted l e ve ls o fd e c is ion -mak ing .

d ec is ions t h a t a r e made a r e a pp rop r ia te o rn e ce s sa r i ly g ood d ec is ions p roduc ing t he d es i red r esu l ts . O f c ourse , i nd iv idua ls d o n o t o n ly l e a rn f r om g ood c ho ices a nd d ec is ions , b u t c an a l so l e a rn b y o bse rv ing t h e r e su l t s a nd c onsequence s o fb ad d ec is ions . B ad c ho ice s o ru nexpec ted r e su l t s o f ten a r e d ue t ot h e f a c t t h a t , a s M i then ( 1990 :13 ) s t a ted , t h e re a r e l im i t s t oh uman k now ledge , a nd p eop le a r e o ccas iona l ly p rone t oe r ro r a nd c onf u s ion i nt h e i r d ec is ion m ak ing . Wh i le i ta ppea r s t h a th un te r -ga the re r sr e pea ta c t ions t h a t h ave i nt h ep a s t h e lped t h em a t ta in t he i r g oa ls , o f ten a h i gh d eg re e o f e xpe r imen ta t ion i ni n fo rma t ion a cqu is i t ion a nd p roce s s ing i sn ece s sa ry , s i nce c ond i t ions a nd p rob lem s a re a lways c hang ing ( M i then 1 990 :88 ) . T he e xac t c onsequence s o fp a r t icu la r c ho ice s c anno t a lways b e k nown f o rc e r ta in ; a tb e s tt hey c an o n ly b e e s t ima ted f r om p rev ious e xpe r ience s a nd n ew ly a cqu ired i n forma t ion , wh ich c ons t i tu te as t a te o f p a r t ia l u nce r ta in ty , a s r e fe r red t o b y J och im ( 1 976 :5 ) . Mo reove r , i t mu s t b e r emembe red t ha t e ve ry i n d iv idua l w ou ld n o t make t h es ame c ho ice s o r make h i s o r h e r d ec is ions i n t h e s ame m anne r a s o the rs . E ve ry i nd iv idua l h as d if fe ren t a b i l i t ies a nd s k i l ls , d if fe ren t k now ledge , d i f fe ren t a cce ss t o k now ledge a nd a s s is tance , a nd d i f f e ren t l uck a s w e l l . B ecause o f t h e r ea l i t ie s o f i mpe rf ec t k now ledge , l u ck , a nd d i f f e r ing a b i l i t ie s b e tween i nd iv idua l s , c oope ra t ion b e tween i n d iv idua ls f r equen t ly c an p l ay ac e n t ra l r o le i ns o lv ing p rob lem s ( M i then 1 990 :13 ) . A s M i then ( 1 990 :262 ) s ugge s ted , i n d iv idua ls c r ea t ive ly u se t h e k now ledge a va i lab le t ot h em a nd e ngage i nc oope ra t ion t o c ompensa te f o r i mpe rf ec t k now ledge a nd b ad c ho ice s . T h is p rac t ice m ay h ave b een e spec ia l ly i mpo r tan t f o r N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions d ea l ing w i th t h ec hang ing l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t .

F o r e xamp le , w h i le i ti se n t i re ly p os s ib le t h a t P a leo ind ian w omen m a in ta ined a nd c u ra ted t h e i ro wn t o o ls e spec ia l ly f o r s pec if ic t a sk s , t h e re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t t h e e n t i re r e a lm o f p roduc ing s t one i mp lemen t s w ou ld h ave e n ta i led n ume rous s t age s , s ma l le r r e la ted t a sk s , a nd a s soc ia ted d ec is ions i n w h ich P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o l de r c h i ld ren c ou ld h ave b een i nvo lved . F o ri n s tance , r aw ma te r ia l f i r s tw ou ld n eed t o b e l o ca ted a nd t h en e x t rac ted a nd s amp led t od e te rm ine t h e q ua l i ty a nd s u i tab i l i ty o ft h em a te r ia l . T h is p roce s sw ou ld b e f o l lowed b yp r ima ry r educ t ion a nd l c napp ing , t h ep roduc t ion o fb l ank s , a nd t r anspo r t o ft h ose b l ank s , c o res , a nd a dd i t iona l r aw m a te r ia l . S econda ry ' mapp ing w ou ld b e c onduc ted a s n eeded t op roduce t h ed e s i red t o o l a nd , o fc ou r se , n ume rous e p isode s o f r e sha rpen ing , r e use , a nd r emod if ica t ion w ou ld n a tu ra l ly f o l low . A t a ny p o in t d ur ing t h is p rocess , P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o l de rc h i ld ren , a sw e l l a sm en , l i ke ly p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e se a c t iv i t ie s a nd a l so c on t r ibu ted t h rough t h e i r a cqu is i t ion o f i n fo rma t ion n eeded t o make d ec is ions r e la t ing t o t h e se a c t iv i t ie s . C lea r ly , a r chaeo log is t s c anno t a s sume t h a t t h e t o ta l r e a lm o fl i t h ic t o o l p roduc t ion w a s t h e e xc lus ive d oma in o fP a leo ind ian m a le s .

Wh i le s ome o ft h e d ec is ion -mak ing b y P a leo ind ians w ou ld h ave r e la t ed t oi mmed ia te p rob lem s a nd s ubs is tence n eeds , o ne o ft h ed i s t ingu ish ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s o fh uman d e c is ion mak ing , a sM i then ( 1990 :36 ) d i scu ssed , i st h a t i tv e ry o f ten r e la tes t o a much l onge r t ime f r ame a nd n o t j us t t he i mmed ia te f u tu re . Wh i le c on t inuou s ly d ea l ing w i th p resen t n eeds a nd p rob lems , a nd t h u sd e l ibe ra te ly g a the r ing s pec if ic i n fo rma t ion f o r i mmed ia te d ec is ions , h umans a l so t e nd t o g a the r i n f o rma t ion i nr e la t ion t oe ven t s t h a t m ay h appen i n t he f u tu re ; t hey d o s o t o h e lp s o lve p rob lems a nd make d ec is ion sr e la t ing t oa n t ic ipa ted n e eds a nd f u tu re s i tua t ions . Mo reove r , i n many s i tua t ions , t h e d ec is ion -make r s w ou ld n eed t ob e c ons tan t ly i n teg ra t ing n ew i n fo rma t ion i n to t h e c ur ren t p i c tu re . A s M i then ( 1990 :27 ) c l a imed , g ood d ec is ions a r e made when t h e d e c is ion -make r i s a b le t o i n teg ra te n ew a nd c u r ren t i n fo rma t ion f r om t h ee nv i ronmen t w i th s t o red memo ry a nd p a s te xpe r ience s . T he r ema inde r o f t h ec hap te rw i l l a dd re s st h ev a r iou sw ay s t h a tm ay h ave b een emp loyed b y P a leo ind ians t o a cqu i re t h e i n fo rma t ion t h a t w a s n eeded t o make t he ir d ec is ions ; mo re s pec if ica l ly , a t ten t ion w i l lb ep a id t ot h es ou rce s o fi n fo rma t ion a va i lab le f o r m ak ing a s ubs is tence / se t t lemen t d ec is ion , i n c lud ing s amp l ing a nd s ea rch ing , c ue s , o t he r i nd iv idua ls , a s w e l l a s p a s t e xpe r iences a nd s t o red i n fo rma t ion ( M i then 1 990 :32 4 1 ) .

G iven t he i n i t ia l u nce r ta in ty a s soc ia ted w i th i n c rea s ing s ea sona l i ty , mo re s pec if ica l ly t h e i n c rea s ing u nce r ta in ty i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f e s sen t ia l r e sou rces d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene , a cqu i r ing i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e l o ca t ion , c ha rac te r is t ics , a nd q ua l i ty o f aw ide r ange o f p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b een e x t reme ly i mpo r tan t a nd a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence /se t t lemen t d ec is ion -mak ing . N ecessa ry t o t he s uccess o f a c t iv i t ie s f o cus ing o n t h e a cqu is i t ion o f p lan t s wou ld h ave b een a c ons ide rab le g eog raph ic , b io log ica l , a nd s ea sona l k now ledge o f t he e nv ironmen t ( Roh r l ich -Leav i t t e t a l . 1 975 :114 ; S locum 1 975 :47 ) . T h is n eed i se v iden t i n McC l in tock 's ( 1992 :364 ) r e f e rence t os eve ra l B lackfoo t w omen w ho h ad a s s is ted h im w i th h i s b o tan ica l c o l lec t ion , a nd h e lped h im i d en t ify t h en ume rou sv a r ie t ie s , n ame s , u se s , a nd p repa ra t ion me thod s o f d i f f e ren t p lan t s pec ie s . L ikew ise , i n f o rma t ion d e r ived f r om s t udy ing t h e ! Kung i n d ica te s t h a t s ucce s sfu l g a the r ing o ve r t h e y ea r s r equ i re s t h e a b i l i ty t od i sc r im ina te a mong h und red s o fe d ib le a nd i n ed ib le s pec ie s o fp l an t s a t v a r iou ss t ages i nt h e i rl i f ec yc le s ( D rape r 1 975 :83 ) .

7 .2 .2 S ubs istence /Set t le men t D ec is ion - Mak ing a nd G ender R o le s

F o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , t h en , t he c o l lec t ing o f p l an t r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave r equ i red , f i r s t o f a l l , t h e a b i l i ty t o i den t ify t h e n ume rous v a r ie t ie s o f p lan ts , a n e no rmou s k now ledge o f t h e p l an t s t h emse lve s a nd o f t h e a bundance a nd p ref e r red l o ca t ion o fe ach s pe c ie s i np a r t icu la r a r ea s a nd r eg ions w i th in t h e l a ndscape , k now ledge c once rn ing t h e l i f e

Un l ike m os t t r ad i t iona l a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , t h ee nsu ing d i scus s ion o f s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ion -mak ing w i l l n o t f o cus o n s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s a s s i ng le e ven ts o r i s o la ted a nd s epa ra te a c t iv i t ie sp e r fo rmed b y as i ng le p e r son 8 1

c yc le s o ft h e v a r ious s pec ie s i nr e la t ion t os ea sona l i ty a nd w hen w a s t h eb e s tt ime t og a the ra nd u se t h em , a nd l a s t , b u t n o t l e a s t , t h e t oo ls f o r e x t rac t ing o r c o l lec t ing t h e p lan t s , s ome t y pe o fc on ta ine r o rh o lde r f o r c a r ry ing t h em , a nd t h e k now ledge o f t he v a r ious me thods a nd p rocedu res f o r p roce s s ing a nd u t i l iz ing t h em . I na dd i t ion t ot h e i ri mpo r tance a sf ood i t ems , p l an tr e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b een i mpo r tan ti n e xchange a nd e s tab l ish ing r ec ip roca l r e la t ionsh ips a mong P a leo ind ians , a nd f o r o b ta in ing v a lued p roduc ts f o r med ic ina l a nd c e remon ia l u se , f o r c o l lec t ing r aw m a te r ia ls n eeded i nt h e c ons t ruc t ion o f t o o ls a nd s t ruc tu re s , a nd f o r o b ta in ing i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o t h e l o ca t ion o f o the r r e sou rces . A cqu ir ing p lan t r e sou rces f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w ou ld n o t s imp ly h ave e n ta i led g a the r ing s ome th ing t oe a t ( s ee s im i la r c l a im m ade b y R eed 1 991 :292 f o r N o r th Ame r ican s uba rc t ic g roup s ) . Mo reove r , i ti sl i ke ly t h a tP a leo ind ian w omen , o l de rc h i ld ren ,a nd e ven m en w ou ld h ave b een i n vo lved n o t o n ly i nt h e a c tua l c o l lec t ion o f t h e p lan t s , b u t a l so i n a cqu i r ing t h e c ons ide rab le i n f o rma t ion n ece s sa ry t om ake d ec is ions c once rn ing p l an te xp lo i ta t ion .

r e la t ing t ot h e l o ca t ion o fa n ima l t r a ck s a nd e xc re t ions , t h e d ens i ty o fg ame , t h e d i rec t ion o fg ame m ovemen t s , a nd t h e l o ca t ion o f w a te r a nd f e ed ing a rea s , a s o ccu r s a mong t h e ! Kung ( D rape r 1 975 :82 ; s ee Ko rnfe ld 1 988 :216 f o r f u r the r r e f e rence s ) . T h is i n fo rma t ion c an l a te rb ep a s sed o n t oo t he r m embe r s o f t h e g roup t oa s s is t t h em i nm ak ing d ec is ions a bou t w he re a nd w hen t oh un t g ame . S ha r ing i n f o rma t ion w ou ld p l ay av i ta l r o le i ni n c rea s ing t h e c hance s o fs u cce s s f o rt h eh un te r s . S im i la r ly , i n d iv idua ls o n h un t ing e xped i t ion s d o n o t i g no re p l an t r e sou rce s . I n s tead , t h ey f r equen t ly c onsume b e r r ie s , n u t s , a nd f r u i t s . Mo reove r , t h ey may e ven r e tu rn w i th f l o ra l p roduc ts a nd a r e i n t h e p os i t ion t o a cqu ire i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t oc u r ren t l o ca t ions a nd c ond i t ion s o fd e s i red p l an t s pec ie s ; s uch i n f o rma t ion c an u l t ima te ly i nf luence f u tu re d ec is ions c once rn ing s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies a nd c amp movemen ts ( Ko rnfe ld 1 988 :215 -216 ) . When A la skan K oyukon h un te r s o r t r appe r s r e tu rn t ot h e i r v i l lage , t h ey o f ten r e coun ti nd e ta i l w ha t t h ey h ave s e en a nd e xpe r ienced , c r ea t ing a s t eady d ia logue a nd a c ons tan t s ha r ing o f k now ledge o f t h e e nv i ronmen t ( Ne lson 1 983 :46 ) . F o r P a leo ind ians , g iven t he n a tu re o f t h e l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t , t h e c ons tan t e xchang ing a nd s ha r ing o f i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t ot h e l o ca t ion a nd q ua l i ty o fp l a n t a nd a n ima l r e sou r ce s w ou ld h ave b een e s sen t ia l t o mak ing g ood s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ions ( s ee d i scus s ion i n K o rnfe ld 1 988 :216 ) . Mo reove r , b ecau se o f t h e a ppa ren t ly o pen a nd mob i le w ay o fl i f e f o r No r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian g roups ( i .e . , e spec ia l ly h igh i nd iv idua l mob i l i ty ) , m en , w omen , a nd o l de r c h i ld ren a l l we re p robab ly i n vo lved t o s ome d eg ree i n a cqu i r ing i n fo rma t ion n eeded t o m ake d ec is ions a bou t p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rce e xp lo i ta t ion , i n f o rma t ion r a ng ing f r om d i rec t ly s amp l ing ar e sou rce p a tch a nd r ead ing c ue s i nd ica t ing t he q ua l i ty a nd l o ca t ion o f r e sou rce s , t oc ommun ica t ing w i th o the ri n d iv idua ls w ho m ay h ave a cqu i red c e r ta in k now ledge a bou td e s i r ed r e sou rce s .

S im i la r ly , w i th t h e s ma l l p opu la t ion s i ze o f No r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ians , t h e o penne s s o f t h e g roups , a nd t h e n eed f o r f l ex ib le r o le s t o d ea l w i th t he r ap id ly c hang ing l a te P le is tocene e nv ironmen t , P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o lde r c h i ld ren , a l ong w i th P a leo ind ian men , p robab ly p l ayed i mpo r tan tp a r t s a nd r o le s i nt h e w ho le " hun t ing c omp lex " o r p roce s s ( s e e C hap te r 5 ) . I t mus t a l so b e a cknow ledged t h a t , i n a dd i t ion t o b e ing h un ted w i th w eapons , a n ima ls c ou ld h ave b een a nd w e re l i ke ly a cqu i red t h rough t h eu se o fs na re s a nd t r ap s . P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o l de r c h i ld ren , a sw e l l a s men , w e re p robab ly a c t ive ly i nvo lved i n t he se a c t iv i t ie s . A l though t h e t oo ls a nd a s soc ia ted t e chno log ie s n eeded t o p e rfo rm t h e se a c t iv i t ie s w ou ld h ave b een d i f f e ren t , b o th h un t ing a nd s na r ing / t rapp ing w ou ld h ave r equ i red t h e s ame d eg ree o f i n -dep th k now ledge o f a n ima l b ehav iou r , t r a i ls , a nd movemen t , a s w e l l a s d e ta i led k now ledge o f t h e l o ca l t e r ra in f o rs ucce s sfu ld ec is ion -mak ing .

D e sp i te t h e g row ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leoenv i ronmen ta l e v idence t ha t a ppea rs t o i nd ica te t h a t P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions e xp lo i ted am o re d i ve r s if ied r e sou rce b a se , m any m ode ls r e cons t ruc t ing P a leo ind ian s e t t lemen t a nd m ob i l i ty s t ra teg ie s s t i l l i mp l ic i t ly a s sume t ha t t h eh un t ing o fb i son o r o t he r l a rge g ame w a s e i the r t he o n ly f a c to r o r t h e m os t i mpo r tan t f a c to r i nf luenc ing s e t t lemen t a nd m ob i l i ty d e c is ions m ade b y P la ins P a leo ind ian p eop le s ( e .g . , H o fman a nd I ngba r 1 988 ; K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 ) . I ts eem s m o re r easonab le , h oweve r , t o s ugges t t h a t n ume rous c ons ide ra t ions h ad t o b e f a c to red i n to t h e e qua t ion w hen p eop le m ade d e c is ions t om ove , l o ca te , a nd s e tu pr e s iden t ia l c amp ( F igu re 6 ) .

P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o lde r c h i ld ren l i ke ly made v i ta l c on t r ibu t ions t o t he a cqu is i t ion o f i n fo rma t ion t h a t w a s n ece ssa ry f o r mak ing d ec is ions r e la t ing t ot h e p rocu remen t o fa n ima lr e sou rces . A st h e l o ca t ion a nd c ond i t ion o fd e s i red a n ima l s pec ie s w e re c on t inua l ly c hang ing d ue t o s ea sona l a nd w ea the r v a r ia t ions a s w e l l a s t h e l a te P le is tocene s h if t f r om a" P la ids " t o" S t r ipe s " e nv i ronmen t , P a leo ind ian p eop le w ou ld h ave n eeded t o u nde r take s amp l ing a nd s ea rch ing s t ra teg ies ( s ee M i then 1 990 :55 -59 ) t o o b ta in n ece s sa ry i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing t h el o ca t ion a nd movemen to fg ame . I na dd i t ion , t h ey w ou ld h ave b een c on t inuou s ly w a t ch ing f o r c ue s , s uch a st h ec ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e l a ndscape a nd t e r ra in , t h e p re sence a nd c ond i t ion o fs pec if ic p l an t r e sou rce s , a nd w ea the r a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ions i n c lud ing t empe ra tu re a nd r a inf a l l ( s ee M i then 1 990 :59 -66 ) t h a tw ou ld p rov ide e s sen t ia l i n fo rma t ion a bou ta n ima lr e sou rce st h a tc ou ld n o tb ed i re c t ly m ea su red o rd e te rm ined .

F i r s t o f a l l , p r io r t o mak ing s e t t lemen t a nd m ob i l i ty d ec is ions , P a leo ind ian g roups wou ld h ave t o c ons ide r t h e a va i lab i l i ty , l o ca t ion , a nd c ond i t ion o f aw ide v a r ie ty o f r e sou rce s , i n c lud ing p lan tr e sou rce s , a n ima lr e sou rce s , l i t h ic r aw m a te r ia l , w a te r , a nd f u e l . Mo reove r , t h en a tu re o ft h e se r e sou rce s— the i r m ob i l i ty , r e l iab i l i ty , a nd p a t ch ine s s—wou ld h ave t ob ec ons ide red , a nd t h e se f a c to r s w ou ld c onsequen t ly a f f e c tP a leo ind ia n s e t t lemen tl o ca t ion a nd m ob i l i ty d ec i s ion s . A s J och im ( 1976 :54 -55 ) a r gued f o r h un te r -ga the re r s i n g ene ra l , P a leo ind ians l i ke ly c hose t h e i r i mmed ia te c amp l o ca t ions w i th p r ima ry c ons ide ra t ion g i ven t os he l te r , v i ew , a nd i mmob i le a nd mo re r e l iab le b as ic r e sou rce s s u ch a s w a te r a nd f u e l . H igh ly mob i le r e sou rce s , o n t h e o the r h and , e spec ia l ly t h o se l e s sc l u s te red , w ou ld b el e s si mpo r tan ti nt h e

T he se s t ra teg ie s o fs amp l ing a nd o bse rv ing c ue s w ou ld n o t n ece s sa r i ly h ave b een s epa ra te a c t iv i t ie s , n o rh ave i nvo lved o n ly t hose p eop le a c tua l ly w ish ing t o a cqu i re t h e a n ima l r e source s . I ns tead , t hey f r equen t ly c ou ld h ave b een embedded i n o the r t a sks ( M i then 1 990 :58 ) . G roups o r i nd iv idua ls who a r e p e rfo rm ing s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s i n vo lv ing t h ec o l lec t ion o fp lan t s a nd v a r iou s o t he rr e sou r ce s a nd r aw m a te r ia ls d o n o ti g no re a n ima lr e sou rce s . O f ten t h ey w i l l p rocu re a n ima ls , i n a dd i t ion t o o b ta in ing i n fo rma t ion 8 2

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I n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t ot h e c u r ren ta va i lab i l i ty o fp l an ta nd a n ima l f ood r e sou rce s

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S ETTLE MENT AND MOB IL ITY DEC IS IONS

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T he G roup 's s p i r i tua la nd i deo log ica l b e l ie f s

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F igu re 6 .F a c to r sC on t r ibu t ing t oS e t t lemen t a nd Mob i l i ty D e c i s ion s . p red ic tab le , a nd l e s s m ob i le o r s t a t iona ry r e sou rce s ( e .g . , J och im 1 976 :55 , 1 988 ) , t h e r e sou rce s t h a t a r e c ons ide red o f p r ima ry i mpo r tance i nd e te rm in ing i mmed ia te s i te l o ca t ion , i t wou ld a ppea r t ha t women w ou ld b e t h e mos t k now ledgeab le a nd i nt h eb e s t p o s i t ion t os e lec t a c tua l c amp l o ca t ions , a nd t o m ake t h ese d ec is ions r e la t ing t o g roup s e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty . H oweve r , t h e a s soc ia t ion o fw omen w i th t h e a cqu is i t ion o fn onmob i le , h i gh s e cu r i ty r e sou rce s a nd m en w i th t h e a cqu is i t ion o fh igh ly mob i le , r i sky , a nd l ow s ecu r i ty r e sou rce s m i r ro r s t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing /ma le f ema le d i cho tomy . T h is d i cho tomy h a sb een d emons t ra ted t o b e t oo r i g id a nd i n accu ra te f o r h un te r -ga the re rs . I n s tead , d ec i s ions r e la t ing t os e t t lemen t l o ca t ion a nd mob i l i ty w e re l i ke ly m ade i n am o re c omp lemen ta ry a nd c oope ra t ive f a sh ion .

s pec if i c l o ca t ion o f as e t t lemen t ( J och im 1 976 :54 ) , a s t h e c a tchmen t a r ea s u r round ing t h e b a se c amp c ou ld b e e a s i ly w idened b ye s tab l ish ing s a te l l i te e x t rac t ion c amps n ea r mo re mob i le r e sou rce s ( J och im 1 976 :63 ) .H igh ly m ob i le r e sou rce s s uch a sc a r ibou , b i son , a nd f i sh t h a tw e re c l u s te red ,h oweve r , c ou ld i nf luence a nd e ven d e te rm ine s pec if ic l o ca t ions o f s e t t lemen t , f o re xamp le , a tr i ve rc r o s s ings w he re t h e a n ima ls c ou ld b e i n te rcep ted ( Raymond L e B lanc , p e rsona l c o mmun ica t ion 1 995 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot he n a tu re , mob i l i ty , a nd g ene ra l r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e r e sou rce s , t he s i tua t iona l d emand f o r r aw ma te r ia ls t o m ake r e qu i red t oo ls , s he l te rs , a nd c l o th ing w ou ld h ave b een p r ima ry c once rns f o rp l acemen t a nd mob i l i ty o fP a leo ind ian s e t t lemen t s . A s we l l , t h e d es i re f o r s he l te r f r om a dve r se w ea the r c ond i t ions o r o the r g roups , a nd t h e n eed f o r a l o ca t ion s u i tab le f o r v i ew ing g ame movemen t s a nd g ene ra l e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions may h ave b een i mpo r tan t c ons ide ra t ions f o r P a leo ind ian g roups w hen mak ing d ec is ion s r e la t ing t ot h e l o ca t ion o ft he i r s e t t lemen t s . L a s t , l o ca t ion a nd mob i l i ty d ec is ions w ou ld h ave a l so b een m ade i nc on junc t ion w i th s p i r i tua l n eed s o r t r ad i t ions , a s w e l l a s t h e n e ed o rd e s i re f o rf i nd ing m a te s , f o r ma in ta in ing c on ta c t a nd e xchange r e la t ions w i th o t he r n e ighbou r ing g roups , a nd f o rr e so lv ing c onf l ic t s .

A n e s sen t ia l p a r t o ft h is s e t t lemen t d ec is ion -mak ing w ou ld h ave b een t h e a cqu is i t ion o fi n fo rma t ion . P a leo ind ian men , w omen , a nd o lde r c h i ld ren , a l l c ou ld h ave p rov ided v i ta l s e t t lemen t i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o t he a va i lab i l i ty a nd c ond i t ion o fr e sou rce s , w a te r , s he l te r , a nd f u e l , a nd t h en eed f o rr aw m a te r ia l s f o rt o o l s , s he l te r s , a nd c l o th ing . K now ledge o ft he s ea sona l i ty a nd l i f e c yc le o f v a r ious p l an t r e sou rce s e xp lo i ted b y No r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian p eop le w ou ld h ave p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nd ec is ions r e la t ing t os e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty o ft h eg r oup . McC l in tock ( 1992 :385 -386 ) m ade r e f e rence t ot ime s w hen B lack foo t c amp s w e re s pec if ica l ly s i tua ted i n c e r ta in l o ca t ions p r ima r i ly f o r t h e p u rpose o f g a the r ing s ea sona l p l an t f oods s uch a s b e r r ie s f o r w in te r s upp l ie s . S im i la r ly , i n as t udy o fs ea sona l u se o fp l an t f oods , G a lvan ( 1976 , c i ted i nG uen the r 1 991 :18 )c onc luded t h a tt h e s ea sona lr ound w a sd e s igned t oc o r re spond t ot h es chedu le o f r i pen ing p lan t f ood s o fv a r ious t y pe s a td i f f e ren t e l eva t ions

T hus , a s J och im ( 1976 :47 ) i nd ica ted , t h e l o ca t ion o f s e t t lemen t si st he r e su l t o f as e t o fd ec is ions c once rn ing t h e s pa t ia l a r rangemen t o f t he p opu la t ion i n o rde r t o mee t a n umbe r o f g oa ls a nd n eeds , i n c lud ing f ood a nd n on -food r e sou rce u s e ,p ro tec t ion a nd s he l te r , a va i lab i l i ty o fw a te r a nd f u e l , a nd av i ew . I n v i ew o f t h e c o mmon a s sump t ion t h a t w omen t e nd t o e xp lo i t mo re h igh s ecu r i ty , c oncen t ra ted , 8 3

w ay t oi nf luence i n d i rec t ly c e r ta in d ec is ions t h a t w e re n o t b e ing m ade e n t i re ly i n t h e i r d oma in o f a c t iv i t ies b u t t h a t m igh t h ave s omehow i nd i rec t ly a f f ec ted t h em , i ft h ey s o d e s i red ( F igu re 4 ) .

a nd l o ca t ions t h roughou t much o f t he y ea r . A l though t h e n a tu re o f s e a sona l i ty o f l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene e nv ironmen ts w a s much d i f f e ren t f r om t h e s ea sona l i ty e xpe r ienced b y mo re r e cen t P la ins p opu la t ions , N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian g roup s w ou ld s t i l l h ave n eeded t ob e i n s pec if ic a r ea sa ts pec if ic t ime sw hen p lan t sw e re a va i lab le .

C e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s , p robab ly t h ose t h a t a f f ec ted m any o ft h e m embe r s o ft h eP a leo ind ian g roup , i n c lud ing t h em ovemen t s o ft h eg roup ,p l a cemen to fc amp a nd w in te r ing l o ca t ion s , a nd c ommuna l s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s , w ou ld h ave n ece s s i ta ted s ome f o rm o f g roup d ec is ion -mak ing . A s o pposed t o i nd iv idua l d e c is ion -mak ing , g roup d ec is ion -mak ing w ou ld l o g ica l ly h ave b een mo re c omp lex s i nce i tw ou ld i n vo lve t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f n ume rous r e sou rce s a nd t hus more i n fo rma t ion , a sw e l l a si n c lud ing mo re p eop le a nd t h u s m o re i d ea s a nd o p in ions ( M i then 1 990 :48 ) . F o r e xamp le , a mong t h eG /w i s peak ing B u shmen , d ec is ion st h a t a f f ec ted t h eb and a s aw ho le , s u ch a s movemen t o fc amp s i te s a nd l o ca t ion o f s ea sona l r a nge s , w e re made t h rough d i scu ss ion i nw h ich a l l a du l t a nd n ea r -adu l t membe r s c ou ld p a r t ic ipa te ( S i lbe rbaue r 1 982 :26 ) . Wh i le t h ese b and d ec is ions w e re a r r ived a tb y c on sensu s , t h is p rac t ice d oe sn o t n e ce s sa r i ly i n d ica te t h a t a l g roup m embe rs h e ld t he s ame o p in ion a nd s uppo r ted t h e s ame d e c is ion ; i n s tead , c on sensus w a s r e ached a f te r as e r ie s o fj udgmen t s w e re m ade b y p eop le w ho a l h ad a cce s s t oa c ommon p oo l o f i n fo rma t ion , a l though c e r ta in i n d iv idua ls m ay n o t h ave p osse ssed t h is i n fo rma t ion , o r m ay h ave d ec ided n o t t o m ake aj udgmen t t h em se lve s ( S i lbe rbaue r 1 982 :31) .

S i te l o ca t ion a nd mob i l i ty , t he refore , w ou ld n o t b e d e te rm ined s o le ly b y e i the r m en a nd t h e i r o p in ions , n o r s t ruc tu red e n t i re ly b y t h e d emands a nd r equ i remen ts o f h un t ing . S chedu l ing s e t t lemen t i n a cco rdance w i th p l an t a va i lab i l i ty w ou ld h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t c ons ide ra t ion , e spec ia l ly i ft h ep lan t r e sou rce s t ob e e xp lo i ted w e re h i gh ly d e s i red , a nd c l us te red i nc e r ta in a r ea s o ft h e l a nd scape a nd o n ly a va i lab le d u r ing r e s t r ic ted t ime p e r iods .N o d oub ts ome P a leo ind ian r e s iden t ia l c amp l oca t ions w e re s i tua ted p r ima r i ly f o r o p t imum e xp lo i ta t ion o f c e r ta in p l an t s w hen t h ey w e re a t t h e d es i red p o in t i n t h e ir l i fe c yc le t o b e c o l lec ted . T ho se i nd iv idua ls ( whe the r men , w omen , o r c h i ld ren ) w ho h ad d e ta i led k now ledge o fp l an t l o ca t ion s a nd c yc le s w ou ld h ave i n f luenced d ec is ions a bou t t h e s e lec t ion o fc amp l o ca t ion a nd t im ing o fg roup movemen t s ; i ns ome c a se s , t h ey m ay h ave b een e n t i re ly r e spons ib le f o rs e t t lemen t a nd m ob i l i ty d ec is ion -mak ing . C lea r ly , i f , a s s e em s h i gh ly l i ke ly , P a leo ind ian w omen w e re a s mob i le a s m en i nt h e i r s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s , w omen w ou ld h ave h ad a s d e ta i led k now ledge a bou t t h e l a ndscape a sm en , a nd c ou ld t h u s h ave s i gn if ican t ly c on t r ibu ted t o mak ing d ec is ions a bou t s e t t lemen ta nd movemen t so ft h eg roup .

Among P a leo ind ians , p r ima ry i npu t i n g roup d ec is ion m ak ing w ou ld h ave l i ke ly b een f r om t h o se m os te xpe r ienced i n d iv idua ls w i th t h e g rea te s t k now ledge a nd i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e p a r t icu la r c once rn s a th and . Wh i le a l l m embe r s o f t h eg roup w ou ld h ave b een a f f ec ted b y a ny m ovemen t o ft h e c amp , t h ose P a leo ind ian m en a nd w omen who w e re m os t a c t ive ly a nd d i rec t ly i nvo lved i n p rov id ing s ub s is tence f o r t h e g roup , a nd w ho p robab ly w ou ld h ave r a nged o u t f r om c amp o n s ome o cca s ions w h i le p e rf o rm ing t h e i r d a i ly t a sk s , w ou ld h ave b een m o re a f f ec ted b y m ovemen t s o ft h e c amp , e spe c ia l ly i nt h e i r f u tu re s e a rche s o fg ame , p l an t f o od s , r aw m a te r ia ls , a nd w a te r . C onsequen t ly , i n a dd i t ion t o t h e ir v a luab le k now ledge r e la t ing t ot h e s u r round ing r e sou rce sa nd l a nd scape , t h e se m en a nd w omen w ou ld a l so h ave h ad s ome v e s ted i n te re s t i n c on t r ibu t ing t o t h e d ec is ions r e ga rd ing g roup movemen t s a nd s e t t lemen t , s i nce i tw ou ld g rea t ly a f f e c tt h e i rs ub s is tence w o rk .

7 . 2 .3 L eve l sa nd C on tro lo fD ec i s ion - Mak ing I tmus tb er emembe red t h a tt h ep roce s s ing a nd i n teg ra t ing o f i n fo rma t ion ,a nd t h e f i na l d e c is ion -mak ing i t se lf c an o ccu r a t s eve ra l d i f f e ren tl e ve ls , i n vo lv ing o n ly as i ng le i n d iv idua l , a s ma l le rg roup o fp eop le , o rp e rhaps e ven t h ee n t i re g roup . A s ar e su l t ,t h e re a r eo f ten d i f f e ren ts phe re s o fd e c is ion -mak ing . Among m any e t hnog raph ic s oc ie t ies , a s soc ia ted w i th t h e t yp ica l ma le a nd f ema le s phe res o f a c t iv i t ies a re c o r re spond ing s phe res o f d ec is ion -mak ing . F o r e xamp le , S pe c to r ( 1983 :95 ) d i scove red i nh e r s t udy o f e t hnog raph ic r e co rds o f n i ne teen th -cen tu ry P la ins H ida t sa p eop le t h a t m a le s a nd f ema le s h ad a cce s s t o i n fo rma t ion , k now ledge , a nd ma te r ia ls u nava i lab le t ot h eo ppos i te s ex ; t h us , d ec is ion mak ing w as s exua l ly s egrega ted . S im i la r ly , B r iggs ( 1974 :275 ) o bse rved f o r t he E sk imo t ha t t h e s epa ra t ion b e tween m a le a nd f ema le s phe re s a pp l ied n o t o n ly t ot a sk s b u t a l so t od ec is ion -mak ing . F o r P a leo ind ians , w ho l i ke ly d ef ined " t yp ica l" a c t iv i t ie s f o r men a nd w omen , e ach s ex w ou ld h ave h ad a ccess t o d e ta i led i nfo rma t ion a nd k now ledge c once rn ing t he ir p a r t icu la r r ea lm o f r e spons ib i l i t ie s a nd t a sk s ; t h e refo re , mos t l o g ica l ly , w omen w ou ld h ave b een i nc on t ro l o ft h e d ec is ion -mak ing i nt h e i r s phe re a nd m en i nt h e i rs phe re .

T he q ues t ion a r ise s a s t o e xac t ly h ow m uch i n pu t a nd i nf luence P a leo ind ian c h i ld ren a c tua l ly h ad w i th r e ga rd t o m ak ing m a jo r s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ions . I n a l l l i ke l ihood , t h ei nf luence o fo l de rc h i ld ren i nd ec is ion -mak ing d i d n o t g o b eyond t h a t o f o cca s iona l ly p rov id ing v a luab le i n fo rma t ion a bou tr e sou rce s . A s C ru ik shank ( 1979 , 1 990 :10 ) o bse rved f o r A thapaskan c h i ld ren , P a leo ind ian a du l ts p robab ly t a ugh t c h i ld ren t h e i mpo r tance o fs e lf re l iance a nd r e spons ib i l i ty , e ncou rag ing t h em a t ay oung a ge t o l e a rn a bou t a nd a s s is t i n s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t o g a the r i n fo rma t ion f o r t h ose a c t iv i t ies . O ve ra l l , t h ough , o l de r P a leo ind ian c h i ld ren l i ke ly d id n o t h ave much a c tua l d ec is ion -mak ing p owe r c once rn ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen ta c t iv i t ie s .

H oweve r , j u s t a st h e re w ou ld h ave b een o ve r lap i nt a sk s t o m ee t t h e d emands o f t he g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty i n t he e nv i ronmen t , a nd t o c ope w i th t he a bsence o f s pec if ic P a leo ind ian a du l t s who m igh t b e a way o n l og is t ica l t a sk t r ips , a t t ime s t he re w ou ld h ave b een o ve r lap i n t h e se d e c is ion -mak ing s phe re s . Mo reove r , t h is o ve r lap w ou ld a l so h ave o ccu r red i nt h ef o rm o fi n d iv idua ls s e ek ing a dv ice f r om t h ose n o t d i rec t ly i nvo lved i nt h e a c tua l a c t iv i t ie s , b u t w ho m igh t h ave h ad s ome i mpo r tan t o rv i ta l k now ledge r e la t ing t ot h e s i tua t ion . A s w e l l , b ecau se o ft h e g ene ra l o penne s s o f t h e s oc ie ty , i nd iv idua ls w ou ld a l so h ave b een a b le i ns ome

B ecause o f t h e a s sumed p ub l ic n a tu re a nd o pennes s o f P a leo ind ian s o c ia l l i f e a nd e xpe r ience , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t e xc lud ing c e r ta in a du l t i nd iv idua ls f r om g roup d ec is ion mak ing p roce s se s a nd f r om o b ta in ing p a r t icu la r k now ledge 8 4

a nd s k i l ls w ou ld h ave b een v e ry d i f f icu l t i fn o t e x t reme ly d e t r imen ta l t o t he s u rv iva l o f t h e g roup a s aw ho le . L ee ( 1982 :56 )n o ted t he l a ck o fp r ivacy f o rt h e ! Kung , w i th t h e i r d a i ly l i f e g o ing o n i n f u l l v i ew o ft h e e n t i re c amp . F o r t h e G /w i s peak ing Bushmen , S i lbe rbaue r ( 1982 :30 ) n o ted a s im i la r s i tua t ion i n wh ich v e ry l i t t le o f a ny i nd iv idua l 's a c t ions e s caped t he a t ten t ion o f f e l low b and m embe r s , a nd c ase s i nw h ich d i spu te si nvo lv ing o n ly af ew p eop le w i th in a h ouseho ld o f ten e ven tua l ly i nvo lved t he w ho le G /w i s peak ing B ushmen b and . A s S i lbe rbaue r ( 1982 :30 ) r ema rked , i n ac ommun i ty a s s ma l l a nd i n t ima te a s ab and , t h ep a rame te ro fa f f a i r s o f" pub l ic " p o l icy e x tends i n to w ha t many l a rge r s oc ie t ie s w ou ld c ons ide r t h e d oma in o fp r iva te o r p e r sona l d ec is ion . I t i s p lau s ib le t o a s sume t ha t a s omewha t s im i la r s i tua t ion o fo penne s s a nd o ve r lapp ing o f h ouseho ld a nd b and l i f ea nd d ec is ion -mak ing s phe re se x is ted f o r s ma l lP a leo ind ian g roups . I nf a c t ,w h i le t h ew e s te rn v i ew , w h ich e s sen t ia l ly d e r ived f r om V ic to r ian b e l ief s o f a d ome s t ic /pub l ic d icho tomy , a s sume s t h a t t h e " dome s t ic " o r c amp s phe re w a sp r iva te a nd t h e d oma in o fw omen , am o re r ea l is t ic p e rspec t ive f o r h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ies c ha rac te r ized b y s ma l l p opu la t ion s i ze a nd r e la t ive ly h igh i nd iv idua l mob i l i ty i so ne t ha t c on s ide r s t h e h ouseho ld a nd c amp l i f ea st h e" pub l ic " a nd e conom ic d oma in i n vo lv ing a l membe r s o f t he g roup . I t w ou ld b e t he s pec ia l ized s ub s is tence a nd t a sk o u t ings a nd t r ip sm ade b yi n d iv idua ls o r s ma l l g r oups o fp eop le t h a t w ou ld b e m o re p r iva te a nd l e s s v i s ib le t ot h e e n t i re g roup . H ew le t t ( 1997 :44 ) h a s a c tua l ly n o ted t h is r eve rsed p r iva te /pub l ic d i cho tomy f o r t h e Aka h un te r -ga the re rs o f A f r ica , w i th t h e A ka h ome b e ing t h e p ub l ic p a r to fl i f e a nd t ime o u ts ide t h ec amp b e ing r e la t ive ly p r iva te .

t ha t p re sen t ly a mong t he C h ipewyan o f n o r thwe s te rn S a ska tchewan , w omen t e nd t oh un tc l ose rt os e t t lemen ta r ea s a nd o f ten b r ing w ho le c a rca s se so fs ma l l g ame a n ima l s t ot h e s e t t lemen t s i te f o r f u r the r p roce ss ing . S ince t h e m a te r ia ls p roduced a t t h ese s e t t lemen t s i tes a r e f r equen t ly mo re s pa t ia l ly c oncen t ra ted , t h e se r ema ins w ou ld b e mo re v i s ib le a r chaeo log ica l ly t h an k i l l s i te st h a ti nvo lve o n ly o ne o r af ew a n ima ls l o ca ted a ts ome d i s tance f r om t h eb a se s e t t lemen t . I n c e r ta in s i tua t ions , t h en , w omen 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h e e n t i re h un t ing p roce s s m igh t b e mo re e as i ly d e tec ted i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( Brumbach a nd J a rvenpa 1 997 :30 ) . H oweve r , t h e f a c t t h a t C h ipewyan w omen t e nd t oh un t a nd p e rfo rm o the r a c t iv i t ie s c l ose r t o s e t t lemen t a r ea s m ay b e c l ose ly r e la ted t ot h e d rama t ic i n c rea se i nb o th c h i ldbea r ing a nd c h i ld rea r ing r e spons ib i l i t ie s o f C h ipewyan w omen i n mo re r e cen ty ea r s( Brumbach a nd J a rvenpa 1 997 :31-32 ) . T he s i tua t ion w ou ld h ave b een d i f fe ren t f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions w ho w e re p re sumab ly c ha rac te r ized b y s ma l l p opu la t ion s i ze , f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a nd i n d iv idua l mob i l i ty t h a t w a s e s sen t ia l ly h igh o n ac on t inua l b a s is . I ti s h igh ly l i ke ly t h a t f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , w omen a nd c h i ld ren w e re p resen t a nd , t he refo re , w ou ld b e a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le n o t o n ly a tc amp a nd s e t t lemen t s i te s , b u t a l so a ts ome s ma l le r s pec ia l ized t a sk a c t iv i ty a nd p rocu remen t s i te s t h a t w e re s i tua ted a ts ome d i s tance f r om t h e b a se c amp . A s B rumbach a nd J a rvenpa ( 1997 :30 ) n o ted f o r t h e C h ipewyan , e a r l ie r i nt h e i r h i s to ry , w hen l a rge g ame a n ima ls w e re k i l led a t s ome d i s tance f r om t h e c amp , t h e e n t i re c ommun i ty w ou ld o f ten move t ot h e k i l l l o ca t ion t o u nde r take p roce ss ing a c t iv i t ie s ; t h us , t h e f a una l r ema ins , h ea r th s , a nd o t he r a s soc ia ted f e a tu re s a tt h e se p roces s ing l o ca le sw ou ld r ef lec tw omen 's a sw e l l a sm en 's a c t iv i t ie s .

P roces s ing i n forma t ion a nd a c tua l d ec is ion -mak ing c once rn ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie sa tt h eg roup l e ve l w ou ld t h us h ave b een a pp roa ched b y P a leo ind ians i na m o re p a ra l le l o rc omp lemen ta ry m anne r ,r a the rt h an as t r ic t ly h i e ra rch ica l f a sh ion , g iven t h a t t h e m embe r s o f t h e g roup w ou ld h ave b een p e rfo rm ing a w ide r ange o f b o th i n dependen t a nd i n te r re la t ing t a sk s a nd a c t iv i t ie s a t a ny g i ven p o in td u r ing t h e i rd ay .O no cca s ion ,n od oub t , ac e r ta in a c t iv i ty , t a sk , o r n eed w ou ld t a ke p recedence o ve r o t he rs w hen P a leo ind ians w e re mak ing s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ion s ( f o re xamp le , t h e n e ed f o r w in te rh i de s , t h ed e s i re t o c o l lec t r i pened v ege tab le i t ems , t h e n eed f o r l i th ic r e sou rce s ) ; h oweve r , e ven t hough i tw ou ld b e ap r io r i ty , o t he r c once rns a nd b as ic n eeds w ou ld s t i l l h ave t o b e f a c to red i n to d ec is ions a s w e l l . Mo reove r , t h e se p r io r i t ie s w ou ld h ave c ons tan t ly b een c hang ing f o r P a leo ind ians a nd w ou ld h ave v a r ied d epend ing u pon t h e c u r ren t n eeds o ft h e g roup ( e spec ia l ly i ft hey w e re u nde r s ome s o r t o f f ood s t re s s ) , t h e a cce ss ib i l i ty a nd a va i lab i l i ty o fo t he rr e sou rce s , a nd t h ed e s i rab i l i ty a nd p ref e rence o fc e r ta in r e sou rce s a nd t h en a tu re a nd c ond i t ion o ft h e se r e sou rce s . G roup d ec is ion m ak ing w ou ld t h e refo re o u to fn ece ss i ty h ave b een i mpo r tan t a nd h i gh ly d eve loped f o rP a leo ind ian p opu la t ions .

T he f o l low ing s e c t ion w i l l c ons ide r g ende r r o le s i n mo re d e ta i l . T he p r ima ry g oa l i st o make P a leo ind ian w omen , c h i ld ren , a nd men a nd t h e i r p o ss ib le c on t r ibu t ions mo re v i s ib le . T h is g oa l w i l l b e a ccomp l ished b y e xam in ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen td a ta f r om s eve ra l N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian s i tes , w i th a n emphas is o n i n fo rma t ion a cqu is i t ion , d ec is ion -mak ing , a nd t h e mu l t if ace ted n a tu re o f s ubs is tence t a sk s . T he se s i te s i n c lude t h e A ga te B a s in s i te i n e as t -cen t ra l Wyom ing ( F r ison a nd S tanfo rd 1 982 ) , t he C a r te r /Ke r r - McGee s i te i n n o r theas te rn Wyom ing ( F r ison 1 984 ) , t h e L ange -Fe rguson s i te i n S ou th D ako ta ( Hannus 1 990a , 1 990b ) , t h e A nz ick s i te i n s ou th -cen t ra l Mon tana ( Lah ren a nd B onn ich sen 1 974 ) , a nd t h e I nd ian C reek s i te i n w e s t -cen t ra l Mon tana ( Dav is 1 993 ; D av is a nd G re ise r 1 992 ) . T he s i te s c hosen h e re d o n o t r e p re sen t a n e xhaus t ive l i s t o f N o r the rn P la ins E a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s d a t ing t o t h e l a te P le is tocene /ea r ly H o locene , b u t w e re s e lec ted b ecause t h ey w e re f r om w e l l repo r ted a nd d e ta i led p ub l ished s ou rce s a nd b ecau se t h ey r ep re sen ted aw ide r a nge o fd i f f e ren ts i te t y pe s . 7 . 2 .4 .1 A ga t eB a s in S i te T he i ns i tu F o lsom o ccupa t ion l e ve l i nA rea 2o ft h e A ga te B as in s i te ( F igu re 3 ; T ab le 1 ) , r ad ioca rbon d a ted a t 1 0 ,780±120 y ea rs B .P . ( F r ison 1 982c :179 ) , r e s t s o n t h e f l oodp la in o f a n o ld a r royo , a nd i s c ha rac te r ized b y a s ca t te red b one b ed c on ta in ing t h e r ema in s o fs eve ra l b i son , p rongho rn a n te lope , c an ids , a nd r abb i ts ( s ee F r ison 1 982d :39 -70 ) . E x ten s ive c u l tu ra l mod if ica t ion , i nt h ef o rm o f c u t ma rk s a nd p a t te rned b reakage i nd ica t ive o f b u tche r ing a nd p roce ss ing , w a s e v iden t o n b i son r ema ins ( Ze imens 1 982 :217 -226 ) a nd p rongho rn b one (Wa lke r 1 982b :270 2 71 ) . C u t ma rk s a nd b reakage r e su l t ing f r om b u tche r ing a nd

7 . 2 .4 N or thern P la in s P a leo ind ian C ase S tud ie s O ne m a jo r i s sue t ha t n eed s t o b e a dd re ssed b efo re t he a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd i s e xam ined i s t he i s sue o f t he a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty o fw omen a nd c h i ld ren . I ti sl o g ica l t oc onc lude t h a t P a leo ind ian w omen a nd c h i ld ren mus t , i n s ome w ay , b e a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le a tc amps i te s , g iven t h a t t h ey h ad t ob e p re sen t a tt h e se l o ca t ions . Wha t a bou t o t he rs i te t y pe s? B rumbach a nd J a rvenpa ( 1997 :29 -30 ) n o ted 8 5

p roce s s ing w e re a l so i d en t if ied o n w o lf , f ox , med ium -s ized c an id , a nd j a ck r abb i tb one s (Wa lke r 1 982b ) . I nv i ew o ft h e c hange i n c o lou r a nd t e x tu re o f c u l tu ra l d epos i t s , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r t ifac t s , a nd t h ep re sence o fw ha th ave b een i n te rp re ted a s b one a ncho r ing p egs , F r ison ( 1982d :39 -43 ) p os tu la ted t h e p resence o f o ne o r t wo l i v ing s t ruc tu re s . A l though F r ison ( 1991a :158 -159 ) e mphas ized t h e A ga te B a s in l o ca l i ty a s b e ing a f avou r i te b i son p rocu remen t l o ca t ion f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s , t h e d i scove ry o ft h e se p os s ib le l i v ing s t ruc tu res , o ne o f w h ich c on ta ins a w e l l d ef ined h ea r th , i nd ica te s t ha t t h is F o lsom c omponen t a l so r ep re sen t s ac amp a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea r a the r t h an s t r ic t ly ak i l l a nd p roce s s ing a r ea .

b een u sed b y m en , w omen , a nd o lde r c h i ld ren , n o t o n ly f o r h un t ing re la ted a c t iv i t ie s s uch a sb u t che r ing g ame , b u t a l so f o r n on -hun t ing a c t iv i t ies s uch a s p lan t g a the r ing , m anuf ac tu r ing i t ems s uch a s c l o th ing , c a r ry ing e qu ipmen t , a nd s he l te r s , a nd p roduc ing o t he rt o o ls a nd c u l tu ra li t em so u t o f o rgan ic m a te r ia ls s uch a s w ood , b one , a nd l e a the r . F o r e xamp le , a t t h e L indenme ie r s i te , aF o lsom c amps i te i n C o lo rado , t h e r e cove ry o f 1 007 u nmod if ied f l ake s a nd 6 39 f l ake ss how ing e v idence o fu t i l iza t ion (W i lm sen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 :Tab le 2 7 )i nd ica te st h a tt h ese P a leo ind ian su sed ag r ea t n umbe ro ff l ake si nt h ec ou r se o ft h e i ra c t iv i t ie s . A sn o ted p rev iou s ly ( s ee d i scu s s ion i nC hap te r5 ) , w omen i n h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s a r e i n t ima te ly i nvo lved i na nd p l ay e s sen t ia l r o le s i n t h e e n t i re h un t ing p roce s s . A t t h e A ga te B a s in s i te , w omen a nd o lde r c h i ld ren n ece s sa r i ly w ou ld h ave p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e a c t iv i t ies s u r round ing t h e p rocu remen t a nd p roce s s ing o f b o th b i son a nd p rongho rn . Mo reove r , w omen a nd o l de r c h i ld ren , o n t h e i r o wn o rw i th o t he r s , p robab ly h un ted o rs na red a nd , o fc ou rse , b u tche red a nd p roce s sed s ma l le r a n ima ls s uch a s t h e c an ids a nd j a ck r abb i t t ha t a r e r ep resen ted i n t he f a una l a s semb lage r e cove red f r om t h eF o lsom l e ve l .

S eve ra l f l ake c oncen t ra t ions o ccu r red b o th i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e p os tu la ted s t ruc tu re s i nt h e A rea 2F o lsom c omponen t a t t h e A ga te B a s in s i te . R ecove red l i th ic a r t ifac ts i n c luded p ro jec t i le p o in ts , p refo rms , e ndsc rape rs , s i descrape rs , s e r ra ted c u t t ing t oo ls , g rave r s , c hanne l f lake t oo ls , af ew b i f ace s , c hoppe r s , ap os s ib le a nv i l s t one , ah amme r s tone , a f ew a b rad ing /g r ind ing s t one s ( s ome w h ich w e re c oa ted i n r ed o ch re ) , s eve ra l c o re s , a nd a lmos t 2 0 ,000 f l ake s ( F r ison 1 982d :45 -70 ) . I n a dd i t ion , n ume rou s b one a nd a n t le r t o o ls w e re r e cove red ( s ee F r ison a nd C ra ig 1 982 :162 -171) , i n c lud ing a n e l k a n t le r t oo l a nd b one t o o l b e l ieved t o b e f l u t ing p unch t o o ls ( s ee F r ison 1 991a :51-55 , 5 8 , 5 9 ) , b one a nd a n t le rp ro jec t i le p o in t s , b one n eed le s , c u t a nd i n c i sed r i b s e c t ions , a nd o t he r w o rked b one i t em s i nv a r ious s t age s o f manuf ac tu re .

E ven t hough t h e A ga te B a s in s i te i si n te rp re ted a s ab i son p rocu remen t s i te , t h e o ccupan t s o f t h e s i te c e r ta in ly w ou ld h ave p e rf o rmed , a l ong w i th h un t ing re la ted a c t iv i t ie s , o t he r s ubs i s tence a c t iv i t ie s s uch a st h eg a the r ing a nd p roce s s ing o f p l an t sa nd o t he rr e sou rce s . Wh i le i ti sg ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a t p l an t f oods w e re o b ta ined p r ima r i ly b y w omen i nh un t ingg a the r ing s oc ie t ies , t h e e n t i re r ea lm o f p lan t a cqu is i t ion p robab ly i nvo lved n o t o n ly w omen , b u t men a nd o l de r c h i ld ren a sw e l l . A tt h eA ga te B a s in s i te , a l though t h e re i sn o d i rec t e v idence f o r p l an t g a the r ing b u t o n ly t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ew ide v a r ie ty o fs t one a nd b one t o o l sw e re u t i l ized f o r s ome a spec t s o fp l an t g a the r ing a nd p roce s s ing , P a leo ind ian m en , w omen , a nd o l de r c h i ld ren a l c once ivab ly c ou ld h ave b een i nvo lved i ng a the r ing i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e l o ca t ion , t h e c ond i t ion , a nd q ua l i ty o f aw ide v a r ie ty o f f ood , s t ruc tu ra l , a nd m ed ic ina l p lan t r e sou rce s . T hey t h e refo re c ou ld h ave a s s is ted i n t h e d ec is ion -mak ing a bou t p l an t e xp lo i ta t ion , i na dd i t ion t op roduc ing i mp lemen t sn eeded f o r p l an t g a the r ing a nd p roce ss ing , a nd a c tua l ly c o l lec t ing , p r oce s s ing a nd d i s t r ibu t ing t h ep roduc t s .

T h is w ide v a r ie ty o ft o o l t ype s r e cove red f r om t h e F o lsom c omponen t , c omb ined w i th t h e f a c t t h a t m any o ft h e t o o ls e xh ib i ted mu l t ip le u se e dges f o r p e rfo rm ing d i f fe ren t f unc t ions a nd t a sk s ( F r ison 1 982d :45 ) , s ugge s ts t h a t t h e a c t iv i t ie su nde r taken b y F o lsom p opu la t ions a tA ga te B a s in e ncompa ssed a w ide v a r ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s i n wh ich men , w omen , a nd o l de rc h i ld ren w e re l i ke ly i n vo lved . S c rape r s a r e g ene ra l ly a s sumed t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t he d oma in o f h un t ing ; t h a t i s , t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly i n te rp re ted a s t o o ls f o r p rocess ing a n ima l s k ins , a p os t -k i l l t e chno logy , o r i n te rp re ted a st o o ls f o rf i n i sh ing b one t o o ls s uch a ss ha f t s f o r h un t ing s pea r s . A s K o rnfe ld ( 1988 :214 ) a r gued , h oweve r , s c rape r s c ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed t o mod ify o the r ma te r ia l s uch a sw ood . Mo reove r , t h e p os t -k i l l p roce s s ing o fa n ima l s k ins a nd t h e s c rape r s t h a t w e re u sed f o r t h is p u rpose a r e c l ose ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e manuf ac tu re o fc l o th ing , c a r ry ing b ags , t e n t s k ins , a nd o t he r s im i la r i t em s , r a the r t h an w i th h un t ing p e r s e ( Ko rnf e ld 1 988 :215 ) . S im i la r ly , k n ive s a nd b i face s a r e f r equen t ly i n te rp re ted a s b u tche r ing t oo ls , a nd t hu s c l ose ly r e la ted t o p os t -k i l l t e chno logy a s w e l l . T he b u tche r ing o f a n ima l r e sou rce s , h oweve r , i sr e la ted t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd s ha r ing o f t he m ea t a nd o the r u sab le p roduc t s , t h ep roce s s ing o ft h ose i t em s , a nd t he e xchange o f t h e f i na l p roduc t s , w h ich i sc l ose ly i n te rconnec ted w i th t h e d ynam ics o f i nd iv idua l a nd g roup r e la t ions a nd s oc ia l o b l iga t ion s .T he se a r ea l a c t iv i t ie si nw h ich b o th w omen a nd m en w ou ld h ave b een i n t ima te ly i n vo lved .

Mo reove r , a n e xam ina t ion o f t he f a una r e cove red f r om F o lsom l e ve ls a tt h e A ga te B a s in s i te ( s e e Wa lke r 1 982a ) a s w e l l a s s o i ls a na ly s is i n d ica te t h a t t h e a r royo b o t tom w a s m uch m o re m e s ic d u r ing l a te g l ac ia l t ime s , s uppo r t ing b o th a m o re d ive r se f a una t h an t o day , a nd a n e x tens ive g r a s s a nd f o rb c ommun i ty a so pposed t ot h e mo re x e r ic -adap ted p l an t s p r e sen ti nt h ea r ea t o day a nd i nt h er e cen tp a s t . Wha tw ou ld a m o re d i ve rse a nd m e s ic e nv i ronmen t m ean f o r P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s? I fl a te p reh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic g roups o n t h eP la ins e xp lo i ted s u ch aw ide v a r ie ty o f r e sou rce s ( s ee C hap te r 6 )i n ar eg ion t h a t w a s c ha ra c te r ized b yg r ea te ra r id i ty a nd d ec rea sed f a una l a nd f l o ra l d i ve r s i ty i n c ompa r ison t ol a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene t ime s , t h en i t s e em s l og ica l t oc onc lude t h a t w i th ag rea te r d i ve r s i ty o f r e sou rce s a va i lab le i nt h e e nv i ronmen t , t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fa w ide v a r ie ty o f f auna l a nd f l o ra l r e sou rces w ou ld h ave p l ayed as i gn if ican tr o le i nP a leo ind ian s ub s is tence . Ma r t in e t a l .( 1985 :27 ) e ven s ugge s ted t h a tw i th t h el a ck o f as e ve re ly c o ld s e a son a nd g ene ra l ly w e t te rc ond i t ions i nm o s to fN o r th Ame r ica s ou th o ft h e i c e s hee t d u r ing t h e l a te P l e i s tocene , t h e re w ou ld h ave b een ag rea te r a bundance o f w i ld p l an t s

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence c l ea r ly i nd ica te s t ha t t he manufac tu re a nd f l u t ing o f p ro jec t i le p o in ts , a nd t he manuf ac tu re o f o the r t y pe s o f s t one a nd b one t oo ls w e re m a jo r a c t iv i t ie s o ccu r r ing a tt h e A ga te B a s in s i te d u r ing t h e t ime o ft h e F o lsom o ccupa t ion . A s K o rnf e ld ( 1988 ) n o ted , t h e p roduc t ion p roce sse s o f l i th ic t o o ls s uch a s p ro jec t i le p o in t s , s c rape r s , a nd k n ive s o f ten r e su l t i na n a bundance o f u sab le f l ake s a nd t oo ls . T he se f l ake s a nd t oo ls c ou ld h ave 8 6

p re sen t ,w h ich ,i nt u rn , w ou ld h ave f a vou red t h eg a the r ing o f p lan t f oods b y l a te P le is tocene h uman o ccupan ts o f t h e r eg ion . I t mus t b e n o ted , t hough , t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re a r e mo re p lan ts p resen t i n t he e nv i ronmen t d oes n o t a u toma t ica l ly mean t h a t h uman p opu la t ions w i l l i n c rea se t h e i r e xp lo i ta t ion o f p lan ts . I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t d u r ing t h e P le is tocene t h e re w a s ag rea te rv a r ie ty a nd d ive r s i ty o fp l an t s pec ie s ,w he rea sw i th t h et r ans i t ion t ot h eH o locene " S t r ipe s " ( a sd i scu ssed i nC hap te r6 ) , s pec ie sd ive r s i ty w a sr educed a s s pe c ie s b ecame g rouped i n to b iome s . T he d eg ree t ow h ich p l an t s w e re u t i l ized b y P a leo ind ian p eop le s w ou ld h ave g r ea t ly d epended u pon t h e v a r ie ty a nd a c tua l t y pe s o fp l an t s pe c ie s p re sen t i nt h e e nv i ronmen t a nd i ft hose t ype s w e re u se fu l ,e xp lo i tab le , a nd p ref e r red . N eve r the le s s ,i ti sp os s ib le t h a t w i th ag rea te r d ive rs i ty o fs pec ie s a va i lab le d u r ing t h e P le is tocene p r io r t o t h e s h if t t ot h e " S t r ipe s " e nv i ronmen t , t h e re m ay h ave b een a s o mewha t i n c reased p o ten t ia l f o r g a the r ing u sab le p lan tr e sou rce s .

A t t h eC a r te r /Ke r r - McGee s i te , t h e a c t iv i t ie s o fP a leo ind ian w omen a nd o lde r c h i ld ren c ou ld b e r ef lec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , g iven t h a t t h ey w e re l i ke ly i n vo lved w i th a nd a s s is ted i n t he e n t ire p roce s s o f h un t ing a nd t r app ing t h eb i son . F i r s t o fa l , w omen a nd o l de r c h i ld ren , i n a dd i t ion t om en , c ou ld h ave p rov ided n ece s sa ry i n f o rma t ion , w h ich t h ey h ad g a the red d u r ing e a r l ie r s ub s is tence o u t ings , a bou t t h e l o ca t ion a nd c ond i t ion o f t h e b i son , a nd t h u s a s s is ted w i th t h e p lann ing a nd d ec is ion -mak ing c once rn ing t h e p rocu remen t e ven t . Mo reove r , t hey c ou ld h ave b een i n t ima te ly i n vo lved i na ny r i tua ls o rs p i r i tua l p ra c t ice s t h a t m ay h ave b een c ons ide red n ece ssa ry f o rh un t ing s u cce s s ,a nd b een d i rec t ly i nvo lved i nt h e a c tua l p rocu remen t a nd k i l l ing o ft h e b i son . I n a dd i t ion , s ome o ft h e t o o ls r e cove red f r om t h e s i te , s uch a s t he r e touched q ua r tz i te f l akes a nd t wo p o s s ib le b one t o o ls ( F r ison 1 984 :303 ) t h a t a r e s ugge s t ive o f b u tche r ing a c t iv i ty , a re j us t a s l i ke ly t o r e p re sen t f ema le p a r t ic ipa t ion i n b u tche r ing a s ma le i nvo lvemen t . F u r the rmo re , t h e o ccu r rence o fs i de sc rape r s a nd e nd sc rape r s a nd g rave r s a r e i nd ica t ive o f t he p roce ss ing o f t h e b i son p roduc t s o ro the r r aw ma te r ia ls s uch a sb one o rw ood ; i ti s h igh ly p robab le t ha t women w e re i nvo lved i n t h ese p roce s s ing a c t iv i t ie s , a sw e l l a si nt h ef i na ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e p roduc t s . L a s t , e v idence i n d ica te s t h a t t o o l p roduc t ion a nd r e sha rpen ing , a nd t he f l u t ing o f p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re a c t iv i t ie s p e rfo rmed a tt h e s i te . S ince P a leo ind ian w omen w ou ld h ave m ade a nd u sed s t one t o o ls t os ome e x ten t , s ome o f t he se r ema ins c ou ld p oss ib ly b e t h e r e su l t o f t h e ir r e touch ing o rp roduc ing t oo ls f o rb u tche r ing a nd p roce ss ing t a sk s . I n a dd i t ion , a s w omen w ou ld h ave b een a b le t o a n t ic ipa te c u r ren t a nd f u tu re t o o l n eeds , a nd m ay h ave h ad k now ledge o f t he l o ca t ions a nd q ua r r ie s o f v a r ious r aw m a te r ia ls , t h ey c ou ld h ave b een i nvo lved i nd ec is ion -mak ing r e la t ing t o t oo l p roduc t ion , a nd t h e refo re i nf luenced t h e s chedu l ing o ft h e g roup 's movemen t i nr e la t ion t ot h e n eed f o r r e sha rpen ing , r e too l ing , a nd o b ta in ing a dd i t iona l r aw m a te r ia l .

F r ison ( 1 991a :158 -159 ) s ugge s ted t h a tt h eo ccupa t ion o ft h e A ga te B a s in s i te b y P a leo ind ian g roup s w a s r e la ted t o t h e p re sence o fa n a r royo f e a tu re t h a tw a si d ea l f o rt r app ing a nd p rocu r ing b i son . O the r f a c to rs , h oweve r , mus t h ave a l so made i t ad e s i rab le s e t t lemen t . A l though p e rhaps n o t t h e d om inan t r e a sons , f a c to r s s uch a s t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f o t he r a n ima l s pec ie s i nt h e a r ea , a s i nd ica ted b y t h e p re sence o f b u tche red r ema ins o f p rongho rn a n te lope , a nd t he a va i lab i l i ty o f o the r e s sen t ia l r e sou rce s s uch a s w a te r a nd f u e l , mu s th ave p a r t ia l ly c on t r ibu ted t ot h e d e te rm ina t ion o f t h is p a r t icu la r s i te a r ea a s af a vou rab le s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion . E ven t h ough d en t i t ion s t ud ie ss ugge s t t h a t t h e F o lsom b i son f a una l r ema ins r ep resen t al a te w in te r /ea r ly s p r ing k i l l ( F r ison 1 982e :258 ) , a nd t hus t he a va i lab i l i ty o f f l o ra l r e sou rce s m ay h ave b een r educed , s ome r e sou rce s s uch a s s e ed s , b a rk , a nd f i rewood s t i l l w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le ( s ee K o rnf e ld 1 988 :215 ) . Mo reove r , t h e g rea te r v a r ie ty o f f l o ra l r e sou rces t ha t e v iden t ly c ha rac te r ized many l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen ts may h ave r e su l ted i n ag rea te r v a r ia t ion i nt im ing , a bundance , a nd l o ca t ion o fd e s i red p l an t s pec ie s . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f b o th t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f a n ima l a nd p l an t r e sou rce s p layed i n teg ra l r o le s i nt h e s e t t lemen t d ec is ions m ade b y t h e P a leo ind ian o ccupan t s o ft h e Aga te B a s in s i te . Mo reove r , i tw ou ld h ave b een P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o l de rc h i ld ren , a sw e l l a sm en , w ho d i re c t ly c on t r ibu ted t ot h is s e t t lemen td ec is ion -mak ing .

7 . 2 .4 .3 L ange -Ferguson S i t e T he L ange -Fe rguson s i te ( F igu re 3 ;T ab le 1 ) , l o ca ted o n t h e e dge o f al a te P le is tocene p ond /ma rsh i n t h e Wh i te R ive r B ad lands o fw e s te rn S ou th D ako ta , h a s b een i n te rp re ted a sa m ammo th k i l l /bu tche r ing l o ca l i ty a s soc ia ted w i th t h eC lov i s c u l tu ra l c omp lex ( s ee F r ison 1 991a ; H annus 1 990a , 1 990b ) . R ad ioca rbon d a tes o b ta ined f o r s i te d epos i ts i n c lude 1 0 ,730±530 y ea r s B .P . , 1 0 ,670±300 y ea r s B .P . ( Hannus 1 990b ) , a nd 1 ,140± 140 y ea r sB .P . ( F r ison 1 991a :Tab le 2 . 1) . Two a c t iv i ty a r ea s w e re d i scove red , t h e f i rs t c on ta in ing a s soc ia ted r ema ins o fa n a du l t a nd aj uven i le m ammo th t h a t h ad b een s y s tema t ica l ly b u tche red u s ing c u l tu ra l ly m od if ied m ammo th b one e l emen ts a st o o ls . T he s e cond a c t iv i ty a r ea , s t ra t ig raph ica l ly r e la ted t o t he f i r s t a r ea , r evea led t h ree b a sa l ly f l u ted C lov is p o in ts , a nd p os s ib ly r ep re sen t s a s econda ry b u tche r ing a nd t oo l m anufac tu re a r ea . F r ison ( 1991a :39 ) a rgued t ha t t h is s i te may r ep re sen t m o re o ppo r tun is t ic ( a s o pposed t op lanned ) h un t ing o fm ammo th b y C lov is p opu la t ions . S ome a r chaeo log is t s , s uch a sF r i son , m ay i n te rp re t t h eL ange -Fe rguson s i te , l i ke t h e C a r te r /Ke r r McGee s i te , a sb e ing p r ima r i ly t h er e su l to fP a leo ind ian m a le h un te rs ; h oweve r , b y a dd ress ing s eve ra l u nsuppo r ted a s sump t ions , a r chaeo log is ts c an i den t ify t he p os s ib le c on t r ibu t ions o fP a leo ind ian w omen a nd c h i ld ren i nc r ea t ing t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a tt h eL ange -Fe rguson s i te .

7 . 2 .4 .2 C ar t er /Ker r -M cGee S i t e T he C a r te r /Ke r r - McGee s i te ( F igu re 3 ;T ab le 1 )i s as ma l l , s t ra t if ied mu l t i -componen t P a leo ind ian s i te l o ca ted i n t h e e a s te rn P owde r R ive rB a s in o f Wyom ing ( s ee F r ison 1 984 ) . A l though t h e re i s al a ck o f e v idence f o r b one b eds i nt h e l owe r c u l tu ra l l e ve ls , F r ison ( 1984 :296 -298 ) a r gued t h a t , f o r a tl e as t 2 , 000 y ea rs , P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions f avou red t h is s po t f o r t r app ing b i son . T he F o lsom l e ve l r evea led b roken b i son b one , a l ong w i th af ew b one e l emen t sp os s ib ly o f mu le d ee r . A n i ns i tu f i re h ea r th w a s p re sen t , w i th s eve ra l f l ake s , a r t if a c t s , a nd c a lc ined b ones l o ca ted i na nd a round i t se dge s . A r ad ioca rbon d a te o f 1 0 ,400±600 y ea r s B .P . ( F r ison 1 984 :300 ) w a s o b ta ined f r om ac ha rcoa l s amp le f r om t h e h ea r th . A r t ifac ts w i th in t he F o lsom l eve l i nc luded s i de sc rape rs , e ndsc rape rs , g rave r s , a nd s eve ra l r e touched f l ake s , a l ong w i th n ume rous f l ake s , mos t o f wh ich w e re s ma l lp re ssu re f l ake s . I na dd i t ion , t h e re w e re s eve ra l c hanne l f l ake s , i n d ica t ing t ha t t h e f l u t ing o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s w a s a s i te a c t iv i ty d u r ing t h eF o lsom o ccupa t ion ( F r ison 1 984 :303 ) .

Wi th r e fe rence t o t he L ange -Fe rguson s i te , H annus 8 7

i nd iv idua l , e spec ia l ly a s i t w as a j uven i le / sub -adu l t i n d iv idua l .T he e v idence ,s uch a st h eu se o fr e do ch re a nd t h e f a c tt h a tn ume rou sh i gh inve s tmen ts t one a nd b one t o o ls a nd g ood q ua l i ty r aw ma te r ia ls w e re i n c luded i n t h e d epos i t , p o in t s t oc ons ide rab le p lann ing a nd t h ough t w i th r e spec t t o t h e b u r ia l . I ti s u n l ike ly , t h e refo re , t h a t t h e d ea th h ad o ccu r red d u r ing as pec ia l ized t a sk o u t ing a nd t h a to n ly af ew i nd iv idua ls w e re r e spons ib le f o r t he b u r ia l , c omp le ted w i thou tt h ek now ledge a nd p a r t ic ipa t ion o ft h el a rge rg roup . I n s tead , i ta ppe a r st h a tt h el a rge r g roup o r am a jo rp o r t ion o f t h a t g roup w a s i n vo lved . T he ref o re , t h e a c t iv i t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th t h eb u r ia l w ou ld h ave h ad s ome e f f ec t o n t h e e ve ryday s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ies a nd d ec is ions o f t h e e n t i re g roup .

( 1990a :87 ) i su nce r ta in a s t o w he the r t h e mammo th w e re a c t ive ly h un ted a nd k i l led b yC lov i sg roups . H eh a st h e ref o re s ugge s ted t h a t i ti sp oss ib le t ha t t h e m ammo th m ay h ave b een s cavenged b yC lov is p eop le s . I ft h is i st h ec a se a nd t h e a du l t a nd j uven i le mammo th r ema in s w e re s cavenged b y P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , t hen w omen a nd c h i ld ren c ou ld h ave made s i gn if ican t c on t r ibu t ions t o t h is a c t iv i ty . F i r s t , w omen a nd o l de r c h i ld ren may h ave b een t h e o ne s w ho l o ca ted t h ec a rca s se sd u r ing t he i rd a i ly a c t iv i t ie sp os s ib ly b y w a tch ing f o r s caveng ing b i rds o r t h rough s me l l , a nd n o ted t h e c ond i t ion o ft h e c a rca s se s t od e te rm ine w he the r o r n o t u sab le p roduc t s c ou ld b e o b ta ined . T hey may h ave t hus a s s is ted i n mak ing d ec i s ions a st ow he the rt h ec a rca s sw ou ld b e e xp lo i ted o rn o t , a nd whe the r t h e e n t i re g roup o rp a r t o f t h e g roup w ou ld u nde r take t he t a sk o r n o t . I n a dd i t ion , w omen a nd o lde r c h i ld ren c ou ld h ave a s s is ted i n t h e b u tche r ing o f t h e c a rca sses , a nd w omen w e re c e r ta in ly i n vo lved t os ome d eg ree i nt h e d ec is ion -mak ing r e la t ing t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h er aw ma te r ia ls a nd t h e p roce ss ing a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e f i na l p roduc ts . E ven i ft h er ema ins a tt h e L ange -Fe rgu son s i te r ep resen t t h e f i na l r e su l t s o f a c t ive P a leo ind ian h un t ing a s o pposed t os c aveng ing , w omen a nd o l de r c h i ld ren c ou ld s t i l l h ave b een i n vo lved i nl o ca t ing a nd t r ack ing t he a n ima ls , i n t he a c tua l k i l l e ven t , a nd m os t d ef in i te ly i n t h e s ubsequen t b u tche r ing , p rocess ing , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion a c t iv i t ie s .

I na dd i t ion , i ti sh i gh ly l i ke ly t h a ts ome k i nd o fr i tua la c t iv i ty w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h eb u r ia l e ven t a tA nz ick , e spec ia l ly a s s ugge s ted b y t h e n a tu re o f t h e i t ems r e cove red . F r ison ( 1991a :41) i n te rp re ted A nz ick a nd o the r C lov is " bu r ia l " c aches o n t h e N o r thwe s te rn P la ins a s r e p re sen t ing a n i n s t i tu t iona l ized p a r t o fC lov is l i f ei nw h ich h i gh q ua l i ty r aw m a te r ia ls a nd t o o ls w e re d e l ibe ra te ly b u r ied w i th n oi n ten t ion o f f u tu re r e cove ry . S im i la r ly , S to rck ( 1991 :157 -158 ) p os tu la ted t h a tt h el a rge f l u ted p o in t sr e cov e red f r om c a che s s uch a s A nz ick , t he R ichey R obe r ts C lov is C ache i n Wa sh ing ton s t a te ( Meh r inge r 1 988 , 1 989 ) , a nd af ew e a s te rn P a leo ind ian s i te s , a s w e l l a s t h e m in ia tu re p seudo -f lu ted p o in t s t h a t h ave b een r e cove red f r om t h e C lov is c omponen t a tB lackwa te r D raw L oca l i ty N o . 1i n N ew Mex ico , t h e L indenme ie r F o lsom s i te i n C o lo rado , a nd s eve ra l P a leo ind ian s i te s i n t h e e as te rn p a r t o f N o r th Ame r ica p rov ided s t rong e v idence t h a tt h e f l u ted p o in th ad i d ea t iona l s i gn if icance t h a t w a s e xp re s sed b y w ide ly s epa ra ted g roup s o f p eop le . E ven t hough e v idence f o r r i tua l o r s ymbo l ic a c t iv i ty may b er e la t ive ly r a re i ne a r ly P a leo ind ian s i te s , i ti s l i ke ly t h a t r i tua l b e l ief s a nd a c t iv i t ie s , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se s u r round ing d ea th , w e re s ha red b ya nd i n vo lved i ns ome w ay a l m embe r s o ft h e g roup , e spec ia l ly g iven t h e s ma l l s i ze o f P a leo ind ian b and s .

7 . 2 .4 .4 Anz i ck S i t e T he A nz ick s i te ( F igu re 3 ;T ab le 1 ) , l o ca ted i n ac o l lapsed r o ck s he l te ro n ad r a inage o f aY e l low s tone R ive rt r ibu ta ry i n t h e s ou thwe s te rn r e g ion o f Mon tana ,h a sb een i n te rp re ted a s aC lov is c ache /bu r ia l l oca t ion ( s ee F r ison 1 991a :39 -41 ; L ah ren a nd B onn ichsen 1 974 ) . A l though t h e s i te i t se lf h ad b een s omewha t d i s tu rbed b efo re s y s tema t ic s t udy c ou ld b e u nde r taken , f r agmen t s o ft h e s ku l ls o ft wo s ub -adu l th uman s a nd o ve r 1 00 s t one a nd b one a r t ifa c ts , i n c lud ing f l u ted p ro jec t i le p o in t s , o vo id a nd l a nceo la te b i face s i n s eve ra l s t age s o f r educ t ion , ab lade , a n e nd sc rape r , a nd u t i l ized f l ake s w e re c o l lec ted . C y l ind r ica l shaped b one i t em s w e re a l so r e cove red ,a nd L a teen a nd B onn ich sen ( 1974 )s ugge s ted t h a t t h e se b one f o re shaf t s w e re u sed f o rh a f t ing f l u ted s t one p o in t s t o l a nce s haf t s . R ad ioca rbon d a te s o f 1 0 ,820±100 y ea r sB .P . , 1 0 ,710± 100 y ea r sB .P . ,a nd 1 0 ,940±90 y ea r sB .P . h ave b een o b ta ined f o r t h e s i te ( F r ison 1 991a :Tab le 2 . 1) . I n a dd i t ion , AMS d a t ing o fh uman c r an ia l f r agmen t s f r om t h e s i te p roduced a na ve rage d a te o f1 0 ,680±50 y ea r sB .P . f o ra n o ch re -s ta ined c a lva r ium , a nd a n a ve rage d a te o f 8 , 600±90 y ea r s B .P . o n ab l eached s pec imen ( S taf fo rd 1 990 :121) . S ta f fo rd ( 1990 :121) c onc luded t h a t t h e y ounge r s ke le ton a ppa ren t ly o r ig ina ted f r om a n o ve r ly ing A rcha ic s i te , a nd h ad b ecome a s soc ia ted s e conda r i ly w i th t h eC lov is a r t if ac t s . I tt h e refo re a ppea r s t h a t o n ly o ne o ft h eh uman s ke le tons i s o fC lov i s a ge .

C once ivab ly , t h en , a tt h e A nz ick s i te , w omen ( e spec ia l ly t h ose c l ose ly r e la ted b yb lood o ra f f ina l t i e st ot h ed e cea sed ) may h ave a s s is ted w i th t h e p l ann ing a nd d ec is ion -mak ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h e b u r ia l , i n c lud ing t h e d ec i s ions a st ot h e b u r ia l l o ca t ion a nd t h em a te r ia ls t ob e i n c luded ; a sw e l l , t h ey m ay h ave b een i n vo lved d i rec t ly w i th p roduc ing o ra cqu i r ing t h e b u r ia l i t ems a nd r aw m a te r ia ls , a nd d i rec t ly w i th t h e v a r ious p hys ica l a nd r i tua l a c t iv i t ies a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a c tua lb u r ia l . 7 . 2 .4 .5 I nd ian C r eek S i te F r ison ( 1991a :67 ) a r gued t h a t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s eemed t oi n d ica te t h a t b y 1 0 ,000 y ea r s a go t h e re w e re t wo s epa ra te a nd d i s t inc tP a leo ind ian g roups o n t h eN o r thwe s te rn P l a in s a nd a d jacen t a r ea s , o ne l o ca ted o n t h e o pen p l a ins a nd emphas iz ing a b i son h un t ing w ay o f l i f e , a nd t h e o the r f o cus ing o n ah un t ing a nd g a the r ing e conomy i nt h e f oo th i l l a nd moun ta in s l ope r e g ion s . A cco rd ing t oF r ison ( 1 991a :67 ) , t h es epa ra t ion o ft h e se g roups w a sp robab ly w e l l i np rog re s s b yt h ee nd o fF o lsom t ime s o rs oon a f te r . A s ac ompa r ison t o t h eP a leo ind ian s i te st h a th ave b een e xam ined a bove , mos to f w h ich a r e s i tua ted i n w ha t w ou ld b e c on s ide red t h e o pen p la ins r eg ion , t h e s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d a ta f r om a P a leo ind ian s i te l o ca ted i nt h e f o o th i l l -moun ta in r eg ion w i l l b ec on s ide red i nt e rm s o fg ende rr o le s a nd d e c is ion -mak ing .

B a sed o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t ma le s w e re s o le ly r e spons ib le f o r t o o l p roduc t ion , e spec ia l ly " s o -ca l led " h un t ing t o o ls a nd l i th ic b i face p roduc t ion , as ugge s t ion c ou ld b e o f f e red t h a t t h e A nz ick b u r ia l /cache w a s p r ima r i ly t he r e su l t o f ma le a c t iv i ty . H oweve r ,w omen a nd c h i ld ren w e re l i ke ly i n vo lved a sw e l l i nv a r ious a c t iv i t ie s s u r round ing t h eb u r ia l a nd c ache a c t iv i t ie s . I fF r ison 's ( 1991a :41) i n te rp re ta t ion i sa ccep ted , t h a t a tA nz ick t h e i t ems w e re n o t i n tended a s ac ache f o r f u tu re u se b u t i n t ima te ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t h e b u r ia l o f t h e i nd iv idua l (s ) , t h en w omen a nd c h i ld ren a tt h e v e ry l e a s t w ou ld h ave h ad s o me k now ledge o f t he d ea th o f t he 8 8

c ons ide red m a le t o o l p roduc t ion a nd ma in tenance r e s idue s , wh i le t h e r e cove red u n iface s , wh ich a r e d om ina ted b y s i de sc rape r a nd e ndsc rape r h ide -wo rk ing i mp lemen t s a nd f l ake k n ive s , a nd w h ich make u p mo re t han 8 5 p e rcen to ft h e l i th ic a r t if ac t s , mos t l i ke ly r ef le c t w omen 's t a sk s . D av i s a nd G re ise r ( 1992 :266 ) t he refo re i n te rpre ted t he F o lsom c omponen t a sr ep re sen t ing as ho r t te rm b a se c amp t h a tw a s o ccup ied a l ong as t ream i n ad ec iduous f o re s t s e t t ing w he re t h ese v a r iou s " dome s t ic" a c t iv i t ies o ccu r red d u r ing l a te s p r ing o re a r ly s umme r .

T he I nd ian C reek s i te ( F igu re 3 ; T ab le 1 ) i s a mu l t ic omponen t s t ra t if ied c amps i te l o ca ted i n t he n o r the rn Mon tana R ock ie s , s i tua ted w i th in t h e a l luv ia l v a l ley o f I nd ian C reek o n t he s ou thea s te rn f l ank o f t h e E lkho rn Moun ta ins ( s ee D av is a nd G re ise r 1 992 ) . Two l o ca l i t ie s , i d en t if ied a s t h e Downs t ream l o ca l i ty a nd t he Ups t ream l o ca l i ty ,h ave b een e xcava ted , w i th t h eD owns t ream l o ca l i ty p roduc ing 2 8 s t ra t if ied p reh is to r ic o ccupa t iona l e ven t s , i n c lud ing n ume rou s d eep ly b u r ied P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions . Wh i le p oss ib le F o lsom o ccupa t ions h ave b een i d en t if ied a t b o th l o ca l i t ies , o n ly t he F o lsom c omponen t f r om t he D own s t ream l o ca l i ty w i l lb ec on s ide red h e re i na ny d e ta i l .

O bv iou s ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins a tt h e I nd ian C reek s i te r ep re sen t a c t iv i t ie s t ha t c ou ld h ave b een p e rfo rmed b y P a leo ind ian w omen a nd o lde r c h i ld ren ; h oweve r , D av is a nd G re ise r 's ( 1992 ;D av i s 1 993 ) a s soc ia t ions o fP a leo ind ian m en w i th t o o l p roduc t ion a nd h un t ing a nd P a leo ind ian w omen w i th c amp a c t iv i t ie s s uch a sh ide w o rk ing c l ea r ly r ef lec tt h e t r ad i t iona ld ome s t ic /pub l ic d i cho tomy . A sp rev iou s ly a r gued , P a leo ind ian w omen c once ivab ly c ou ld h ave b een i n vo lved w i th v a r iou s a spec t so ft h ee n t i re t oo lp roduc t ion p roce s sa nd c yc le ,i n c lud ing l o ca t ing ,p rocu r ing , a nd t r anspo r t ing t h er aw ma te r ia l , a c tua l ly manufac tu r ing t h e t oo ls , o r a s s is t ing i n m ak ing d ec is ions c once rn ing t h e n eed f o r t o o ls f o r s pe c if ic t a sks a s w e l l a s t he b es t d es ign f o r t hose t oo ls , a nd r e sha rpen ing a nd ma in ta in ing t oo ls . T he re fo re , t h e w a s te f l akes r e cove red f r om t h e s i te a nd i n te rp re ted b y D av is ( 1993 )a sr e p re sen t ing ma le t o o lp roduc t ion a nd m a in tenance r e s idue sc ou ld b ed e r ived f r om t h ea c t iv i t ie so fw omen .

A l though n o u nm i s takab le F o lsom p o in t s w e re d i scove red , t h e e a r l ies t s amp led c u l tu ra l l a ye r ( Occupa t ion 1 ) a tt he D owns t ream l o ca l i ty i si n te rp re ted a s aF o lsom o ccupa t ion , b a sed o nt h ed i scove ry o fc hanne l f l ake s o ft h eF o lsom t y pe . B u lk c ha rcoa l c o l lec ted f r om ab u r ied s u rface t h a t w a s i n c on tac t w i th l i th ic a r t if ac t s a nd u t i l ized b one p rov ided a n i n d i rec t r ad ioca rbon a ge o f 1 0 ,980±110 y ea r s B .P . f o r t h e D own s t ream l o ca l i ty F o lsom c omponen t ( Dav is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :239 ) . S ince t h i s a ge i sb a sed o n f o re s t -f i re c a rbon t h a t h a s b een w a shed d owns t ream , i ti sc on s ide red amax imum a ge f o r O ccupa t ion 1 ,a nd t h e a c tua l a ge o ft h e o ccupa t ion w ou ld b ey ounge r( Dav is a nd G re i se r 1 992 :239 ) . T he D owns t ream F o lsom c omponen t p roduced 3 7 l i th ic t o o ls , s even c hanne l f l akes , a nd 2 , 504 f l akes , f l ake f r agmen t s ,a nd s ha t te r( s ee D av is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :239 -265 ) . T he t o o ls i n c luded 1 5 e ndsc rape r s , 1 3 s i de sc rape r s , t h ree f l ake k n ive s , t wo g r ave r s , a nd o ne b i f ac ia l c o re . I na dd i t ion , t wo b a sa lp o in tf r agmen ts , o ne o fw h ich r e semb led aF o lsom f l u ted p o in t , w e re r e cove red , a s w e l l a s ac omp le te p o in t i d en t if ied a s ar ewo rked C lov is p o in t .T he c o -occu r rence o fa C lov is p o in t w i th F o lsom c hanne l f l ake s a nd af r agmen ta ry F o lsom p o in t i n O ccupa t ion 1 h as c omp l ica ted t he a s s ignmen t o f c u l tu ra l a f f i l ia t ion f o r D av is a nd G re ise r ( 1992 :276 -277 ) ; h oweve r , s i nce n o f l ake s o f t he s ame l i tho logy a s t he C lov is p o in t w e re r ecove red f r om t h e a s semb lage , t h ey s ugge s ted t h a t t h e C lov is p o in t m ay h ave b een c u ra ted a nd u sed b y s i te o ccupan ts who w e re t r an s i t iona l b e tween C lov is a nd F o lsom , o rw e re F o lsom i n a f f i l ia t ion ( Dav is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :277 ) .

C onve rse ly , t he a ssump t ion t ha t s i descrape rs a nd e nd sc rape rs , w i th w ea r i nd ica t ive o fh ide w o rk ing , r ef lec t w omen ' s t a sk s f a i ls t or ea l ize t h a t m en a nd o l de r c h i ld ren m ay h ave b een i nvo lved i na spec t s o fh ide w o rk ing a sw e l l . I n many c ases , men w e re p robab ly i nvo lved i n t h e a cqu is i t ion o f a n ima l r e sou rce s , a nd may h ave h ad s ome i npu t i n d ec is ions r e la t ing t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e r aw m a te r ia ls , w h ich w ou ld i n c lude t h e s k ins a nd h i de s , a nd t h e e ven tua l f unc t ion , u se , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h ose p roduc t s a f te r b e ing p roce ssed . Mo reove r , b o th m en a nd o lde r c h i ld ren c ou ld h ave p os s ib ly b een d i rec t ly i n vo lved i n p roce ss ing t h eh ide so ri nh e lp ing o t he r s w ho w e re d o ing t h e w o rk . Men may h ave a s s is ted i n t h e manuf ac tu re o f t h e v a r ious l i th ic a nd o rgan ic i mp lemen ts r e qu i red f o r h ide w o rk ing b y p rov id ing t h e r aw m a te r ia l f o r t h e t o o ls , b y m ak ing t h e f i na l i t em , o rb y b e ing i nvo lved i ns ome s t age o f t h em anuf ac tu re o ft h ei mp lemen t s .

M ic roscop ic e xam ina t ion o f w ea r p a t te rn , s t ud ie s o f e dge a ng le a nd e dge s hape , a nd h igh -powe r e xam ina t ion o f p o l ishe s o ft h ee ndsc rape r s f r om O ccupa t ion 1i nd ica ted t h e o ccu r rence o fh ide s c rap ing a nd b one a nd a n t le r w o rk ing a c t iv i t ie s ( Dav is e ta l . 1 985 ; D av is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :250 ) . D eb i tage w a s d om ina ted b y s ma l l f l ake s a nd f r agmen t s t h a t w e re b y -p roduc t so fb i f ace a nd u n if a ce manuf a c tu re a nd t o o l m a in tenance ( Dav is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :262 ) . F auna l r ema ins f r om O ccupa t ion 1c ons is ted o ft h eu t i l ized r ema ins o fb i son , b i gho rn s heep ,m a rmo t ,c o t ton ta i l , a nd r oden t s .T he d i ve r s i ty o fu t i l ized f ood r e sou rce s s ugge s ted t o Dav is a nd G re ise r ( 1992 :265 -266 ) as pr ing o r l a te s p r ing /ea r ly s u mme r o ccupa t ion . S tone t oo l a na lys is i nd ica ted t ha t t a sks a ppa ren t ly u nde r taken d u r ing t h i s o ccupa t ion i n c luded l i th ic s e lec t ion , p rocu remen t , t r anspo r t a nd c u ra t ion , l i th ic t oo l p roduc t ion a nd m a in tenance , f ood p rocu remen t , p roce s s ing , a nd p repa ra t ion ,h i de w o rk ing , a nd b one ,a n t le r , a nd /o rw ood w o rk ing . T o D av is a nd G re ise r ( 1992 :266 ) , t h e se t a sk s p r ima r i ly r ef lec t f ema le a c t iv i t ie s t h a t o ccu r red f o l low ing s uch m a le -dom ina ted o f f -s i te a c t iv i t ie s a s l i th ic a nd g ame p rocu remen t . Mo reove r , a cco rd ing t oD av is ( 1993 :271) , t h e w a s te f l ake s r e cove red f r om t he I nd ian C reek s i te a r e

T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd r e cove red f r om t h e I nd ian C reek s i te c l ea r ly s ugges ts t ha t a mu l t i tude o f t a sk s w e re u nde r taken , a c t iv i t ie s t h a t w e re n o t n eces sa r i ly t h e r e su l t o f p r ima r i ly o rs o le ly P a leo ind ian w omen 's w o rk , b u t t h a tw e re mo re l i ke ly p e rfo rmed b y m en , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren i na c omp lemen ta ry a nd i n te rdependen t manne r . T he t e rm " dome s t ic " a s u sed b y D av is a nd G re ise r ( 1992 :266 ) a nd o t he r a r chaeo log is t s t o d e sc r ibe c amp a c t iv i t ie s i sc l ose ly c onnec ted t o w e s te rn c onno ta t ions o f t h e h ou seho ld t h a t c r ea te i mages o f w omen b e ing c onf ined t o ah ome a nd p e rform ing r epe t i t ive t a sk s a nd manua l l a bou r . T h is c oncep t ion i si n app rop r ia te f o rp reh is to r ic h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions . P a leo ind ian c amp l i f el i ke ly w a sn o te n t i re ly t h e d oma in o fw omen , b u t i nvo lved t h e d ynam ic i n te rac t ion o f m en , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren , y oung a nd o l d i n d iv idua ls a l ike . T he se i nd iv idua ls w e re n o t o n ly w o rk ing t owa rd p rov id ing f ood , s he l te r , a nd o the r e s sen t ia l e l emen t s o f l i fe f o r t h em se lve s a nd o the r s , b u t a l so n ego t ia t ing w i th e a ch o t he r , l e a rn ing f r om e ach o the r , t e l l ing s t o r ie s , p lay ing a nd 8 9

r e lax ing , r e a ff i rm ing i d eo log ica l b e l ief s t h rough r i tua ls , a nd r e aff i rm ing a nd e s tab l ish ing i mpo r tan tr e la t ionsh ips a nd t i e s .

E ven i nc a se s w he re s phe re s o fa c t iv i t ie s o ve r lap , i ti ss t i l l r a the r p rob lema t ic t o b e c ompa r ing men , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren , a nd t h e i r s t a tus a nd a c t iv i t ie s . T hus i ti sb e t te r t o r e f ra in f r om e va lua t ing t h e t yp ica l r o le s a nd s t a tu se s o fo ne s ex i nt e rm so ft h o se o ft h eo t he rs ex .

7 .3 THE I SSUE OF GENDER EQUALITY AND S TATUS FOR PALEOINDIAN POPULAT IONS

I na dd i t ion , t h ec oncep t o fe ga l i ta r ian ism i si mp l ic i t ly t i ed t o i d ea s o f s oc ia l e vo lu t ion a nd i mage s o f al i nea r s equence p rog re ss ing f r om e ga l i ta r ian b ands t o m o re h i e ra rch ica l c h ie fdom s a nd s t a te s . B u tt h e re i sg rea te rd i ve r s i ty i nh uman o rgan iza t ion t h an a l lowed b y t h ese t r ad i t iona l a nd v e ry s imp le c l a ss if ica t ions ( Hays 1 993 :89 ) . B y i d en t ify ing a s oc ie ty u s ing t h e se c oncep t s a nd c l a s s if ica t ions , i n c lud ing c a tego r iz ing i ta s" e ga l i ta r ian , " o ne a s sume st h a ti mmed ia te ly e ve ry th ing t h e re i st ok now a bou t i ti sk nown . I n f a c t , a ny i n te rna l v a r iab i l i ty a nd f l ex ib i l i ty i nt h a t s o c ie ty a r e c l ea r ly o ve r looked , p o s s ib le a noma l ie s a nd d i f f e rence s a r e e a s i ly o bscu red , a nd , i nt h e p roce ss , ad ive r se a nd d ynam ic e n t i ty s uch a s as oc ie ty i sr educed t o as imp l is t ic a nd c onf in ing l a be l ( s ee r e la ted d i scuss ion i nY of f ee 1 993 ) . T he c a tego ry " e ga l i ta r ian" d oe sn o tn e ce s sa r i ly mean e qua l i ty o rs amene s s , a nd i sg rea t ly m isunde r s tood a nd m isused . Wh i le many a n th ropo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s v iew e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s a sr ea l e n t i t ie s , i ti sa c tua l ly t h er e sea rche r w ho h a s c r ea ted a nd d ef ined t h e t e rm " ega l i ta r ian" a nd u sed i ta r t if ic ia l ly t o c l a s s ify s oc ie t ie s .

I n ab r ie fp re l im ina ry r e cons truc t ion o fN o r thwe s te rn H igh P la ins P a leo ind ian g ende r s y s tems , K o rnf e ld a nd F ranc is ( 1991 :446 -447 )i mp l ied t h a te a r ly P a leo ind ian g roup s , w h ich t hey s ee a s b e ing c ha rac te r ized b y h igh r e s iden t ia l a nd f o rag ing mob i l i ty , l a ck o f s t o rage , a nd t h e u se o f h igh ly c u ra ted t e chno logy , l i ke ly e xh ib i ted a n e ga l i ta r ian s oc ia l s t ruc tu re , w i th e qua l a cce s s t or e sou rce s a nd p owe r f o r a l l a du l t m embe rs , a nd u nd if f e ren t ia ted a nd f l u id t a sk g roup o rgan iza t ion a nd g ende r r o les . Wh i le f l u id a nd f l ex ib le g ende r r o le s w ou ld h ave b een a g rea t a dvan tage f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , a s n o ted a bove , t h e who le i s sue o f e ga l i t a r ian ism a nd i mp l ic i ta s sump t ions o fa s soc ia ted g ende r e qua l i ty a nd i n d iv idua l a u tonomy f o r P a leo ind ian p eop le s i s m o re q ue s t ionab le . F o r m any ( e .g . , E h renbe rg 1 989 ; L eacock 1 992 ) , i d en t ify ing as oc ie ty a s " ega l i ta r ian" i mp l ie s t h e c omp le te a bsence o f a ny h i e ra rchy , a nd i n s tead t h e e x is tence o f at y pe o f" go lden a ge " i nw h ich e qua l v a lue , s t a tus ,p res t ige , a nd a u tonomy i s g i ven t oa l w i th in t h a ts oc ie ty . H oweve r , t h e re i st h ei s sue o f w he the ro rn o te qua l i ty b e tween a l l membe r so f as oc ie ty a nd ag o lden a ge s t a te o fe ga l i ta r ian ism a c tua l ly c an e x is t , e i the r p resen t ly , o r i fi td id s o i n t he p reh is to r ic p a s t . L amphe re ( 1 977 :613 ,c i ted i n We is t 1 980 :257 )p ropo sed t h a t as i tua t ion o f s exua l e qua l i ty w ou ld b e o ne i n w h ich a l l men a nd w omen ,r e ga rd le s s o fs oc ia l g roup s o rs exua l i d en t i ty , w ou ld b e a b le t om ake d ec is ions o ve r t h e s ame r ange o fa c t iv i t ie s a nd p eop le , t h a t i s , e xe rc ise t h e s ame k inds o fc on t ro l . T h i s v iew i s u n rea l is t ic . F o r many r ea sons ( s uch a s t a len t , c apab i l i t ie s , a nd p e r sona l s i tua t ions ) , i nd iv idua ls , w he the r m a le o rf ema le , f r equen t ly h ave d i f f e ren tr e spon s ib i l i t ie sa nd s phe re s o f a c t iv i t ies , a nd t he refo re , s l igh t ly d i f fe ren t k now ledge b a se s a nd d ec is ion -mak ing r ea lms . A s soc ia ted w i th t h e se d i f f e ren t s phe re s o fa c t iv i t ie s a r e d i f f e ren t a r ena s f o ro b ta in ing p r e s t ige a nd s t a tus . J us tb ecause i n d iv idua l sa r e o f ten d o ing d i f f e ren tt h ings , mak ing d i f f e ren t d ec is ion s , a nd o b ta in ing p re s t ige i nd i f f e ren t w ay s , d oe s n o t i mmed ia te ly s i gn ify g ende ri n equa l i ty . I n o t he r w o rd s , i n d iv idua ls d o n o t n eed t ob e d o ing t h e e xac t s ame t h ings t ob e c ons ide red o f e qua l v a lue .

I n s ome n on -s ta te s oc ie t ie s , i n wh ich w omen c on t r ibu te s i gn if ican t ly t ot h e s ubs is tence o f t h e g roup , h ave ah i gh d eg ree o fa u tonomy , a nd h ave f l ex ib le b u t c omp lemen ta ry a nd i n te rdependen t r o le s w i th men , t h ey a r e a cco rded h i gh v a lue a nd r e spec t b y a l l m embe r s o ft h e i r g r oup , t h e c l a s s ic e xamp le , o fc ou r se , b e ing t h e ! Kung . H oweve r ,j u s tb e cau se w omen c on t r ibu te a s much o re ven mo re t os ub s is tence ,h ave ah igh d eg ree o fa u tonomy , a nd h ave c omp lemen ta ry r o le s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly g ua ran tee t h a t w omen w i l l r e ce ive h i gh r ega rd i n t h a t s oc ie ty f r om a l l membe r s o f s oc ie ty . A s F enne l l ( 1992 :242 -243 ) a r gued , s imp ly b e cause w omen h ave ah i gh d eg ree o fa u tonomy i n ap a r t icu la r c u l tu re d oe s n o t n ecessa r i ly e nsu re t he a bsence o f as ex h ie ra rchy . F o r e xamp le , i ti sp o s s ib le f o r mu l t ip le i d eo log ie s t oe x is t i na s i ng le s oc ie ty c once rn ing v a lue , p re s t ige , a nd s t a tus o fm en a nd w omen a nd t h e i r r e spe c t ive wo rk . O ne p e r spe c t ive m ay s t re s s c omp lemen ta r i ty a nd c oope ra t ion , a nd o t he rs p e rhap s m ay empha s ize m a le d om inance a nd s upe r io r i ty . Mo reove r , t h e re a r e s ome n on -s ta te s oc ie t ie s i nw h ich e x is tb o th ar i g id a nd s t r ic t s e xua l d i v is ion o fl a bou r a nd v e ry s epa ra te w o r ld s f o rm en a nd w omen . T he re a r ee ven s ome s oc ie t ie s i nw h ich w omen a r e d en ied a cce ss t os pec if ic t e chno logy a nd t o o l s , a nd t hus n o t a l lowed p a r t ic ipa t ion i nc e r ta in a c t iv i t ie s t h a t a r e e xc lu s ive t om en , a nd t h e refo re d en ied a cce s s t oc e r ta in p res t ige p os i t ions . F o r e xamp le , a mong t he B im inK uskusm in o fP apua N ew G u inea , a du l t w omen h un t s ome l a rge g ame o n c e r ta in o cca s ions , b u t a r e d en ied a cce s s t o m a le i mp lemen t s o f t h e h un t , u s ing o n ly c rude c l ub s a nd s ma l l s t one a xe su sed b yw omen ( Poo le 1 98 1 :122 ) .

S ack s ( 1976 ) p rov ided e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s t h a t i lu s t ra te t h a t n ume rou s n on -s ta te s oc ie t ie s i n te rp re t t h e p re sence o f s epa ra te ma le a nd f ema le s phe re s o f a c t iv i ty o r f o rm s o f d e c is ion -mak ing a ss epa ra te b u t e qua l ; t ha t i s , e ach s ex m ay e xe rc ise a u tho r i ty t h rough p os i t ions a pp rop r ia te t ow omen o r t om en . F u r the rmo re , s he c l a imed t h a t , i ng ene ra l , f o r b and s oc ie t ie s w i th a c ommuna l mode o f p roduc t ion ( e .g . , t h e Mbu t i ) , a l though m en a nd w omen d id d i f fe ren t t h ings , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i rw o rk w a s o rgan ized i nt h e s ame w ay a nd t h a t t h ey s t ood i nt h e s ame r e la t ionsh ip t ot he b and 's m eans o f p roduc t ion s u s ta ined a g ende r le ss s t anda rd o f e conom ic , p o l i t ica l , a nd p e rsona l a u tonomy a nd e qua l i ty ( Sack s 1 979 :113 , 1 33 ) . D if f e ren t ia l p re s t ige d oes n o t n ece s sa r i ly f o l low f r om t h e e x is tence o fd i f f e ren t s phe re s o f d ec i s ionmak ing . F o r e xamp le , B r iggs ( 1974 :288 ) w a s c ons is ten t ly t o ld t h a tE sk imo m en w e re n o tc ons ide red mo re i n te l l igen to r i nhe ren t ly s upe r io r , b u t r a the r t h a t men h ad b e t te rj udgmen t c once rn ing t h et h ings t h ey h ad b een t a ugh t a nd w omen h ad b e t te rj udgmen tc once rn ing t h e t h ings t hey h ad b een t a ugh t .

A s d i scu s sed e a r l ie r , i nv i ew o fp re sen t -day e xamp le s s u ch a s t he ! Kung ( s ee D rape r 1 975 ) , h igh r e s iden t ia l a nd i n d iv idua l m ob i l i ty f r equen t ly t e nds t op romo te a u tonomy , r e spec t , a nd h i gh v a lue f o rb o th m en a nd w omen in e s sence , s ome k i nd o f g ende r " equa l i ty ." F o r e a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s o n t h eN o r the rn P la in s , w i th t h e i rr e la t ive ly h i gh i n d iv idua l m ob i l i ty , f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty , a nd f l ex ib le g ende rr o le s( a sp os tu la ted i nt h em ode l o u t l ined a bove ) , t h i s " equa l i ty " m ay h ave b een t he c a se . H oweve r , a s R o sa ldo 9 0

7 . 4 SU M MARY

( 1980 :400 ) c l a imed , aw oman 's p l ace i nh uman s oc ia l l i f e i s n o t ap roduc t o ft h e t h ings s he d oe s , b u t o ft h e mean ing h e r a c t iv i t ies a cqu i re t h rough c onc re te s oc ia l i n te rac t ions . Wi thou t r esor t ing t o a na log ies a nd s uppos i t ions , a r chaeo log is ts w i l l n eve r b e a b le t o d i scove r t h e a c tua l m ean ing a nd v a lue t h a tw a sg iven t op reh is to r ic s oc ia l a c to r s b y t h e i r s oc ie t ie s . I n o the r w o rds , t h e " s ta tus " a nd v a lue g iven t o men a nd w omen a nd t h e i r c on t r ibu t ions , a sw e l l a s t h e e xac t n a ture o fg ende r r e la t ion s f o r P a leo ind ian t ime s , w i l l n eve r b e k nown f o r c e r ta in , b ecause o bv ious ly t h e se k inds o f i deo log ies , s oc ia l c ons t ruc t ions , a nd v a lue j udgmen t s , wh ich a re e x t reme ly v a r iab le a nd c on tex td ependen tb e tween a nd w i th in s oc ie t ie s , a r e n o tr e co rded i n d i re c tp hy s ica lw ay si nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

7 . 4 .1 T he I mpor tanc eo ft he A cqu i s i t ion a nd E xchange o f I n forma t ion f o rN or thern P la in s P a leo ind ian s T he i mpo r tance o ft h ea cqu is i t ion o fi n fo rma t ion f o rh un t ing g a the r ing g roups i se v iden t s i nce , a s M i then ( 1990 :16 ) r ema rked , t he a va i lab i l i ty o f i n forma t ion i s a ma jo r c ons t ra in t o n d ec is ion -mak ing . S imp ly p u t , p eop le n eed r e l iab le , a dequa te , a nd a pp rop r ia te i n fo rma t ion i n o rde r t o make a ny d ec is ion , l e t a l one a g ood o ne . A cqu i r ing i n fo rma t ion a bou t aw ide r ange o f r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b een a c ruc ia l e l emen t i n s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d e c is ion -mak ing f o rN o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ians , p r ima r i ly b ecause o f t h e i n c rea s ing v a r iab i l i ty o f l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t st h a tw ou ld h ave n ece s s i ta ted t h ea b i l i ty t os h if t q u ick ly t ot h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a no the r p a tch t ype , o r t ot h e u se o f ad i f f e ren tr e sou r ce a cqu is i t ion m e thod i fr equ i red ( s ee r e la ted d i scu s s ion i nM i then 1 990 :225 ) .

B e cau se o fs pa r se d a ta ,i ti sd i f f icu l tt oe xam ine s ymbo ls a nd s ymbo l ic a s soc ia t ions , a r t , i c onog raphy , b u r ia ls , a nd g rave g ood s f o r No r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ians t o t h e e x ten t a nd d eg ree o t he r sh ave d one f o r v a r iou sp reh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s ( e .g . , G e ro 1 992 ; G ibb s 1 987 ; McCaf f e r ty a nd McCa f f e r ty 1 994 ) ; t h e refo re , t h e mode l o u t l ined i n t h is c hap te r m u s t , o u t o fn ece s s i ty , d ea l mo re w i th g ende r r o le s a nd t a sk s , a nd p a r t ic ipa t ion a nd d ec is ion -mak ing i n s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s , t han w i th g ende r r e la t ions , v a lue , s t a tu s , a nd g ende rc ons t ruc t s , c onf l ic t s a nd n ego t ia t ion , a nd t h ep os s ib i l i ty o ft h i rd g ende r s . Wh i le i tc an b e p o s tu la ted t ha tt h e re mus th ave b een c omp lemen ta ry a nd f l ex ib le t a sks f o r P a leo ind ian m en a nd women f o r b o th s u rv iva l a nd t h eg ood o ft h eg roup ,t h ev a lues a nd v i ew sh e ld b y p eop le i nt he p a s t c an n eve r b e k nown . A rchaeo log is t s c an , h oweve r , p reven t t h emse lve s f r om p ro jec t ing p re sen t d ay v a lue so n to t he i ri n te rp re ta t ions a bou tt he p a s t .

I na dd i t ion t ot h ea cqu i s i t ion o fi n f o rma t ion , t h eu se o fs t o red k now ledge ( M i then 1 990 :73 -79 ) a nd t he s ha r ing a nd e xchange o fi n f o rma t ion ( M i then 1 990 :66 -73 ) a ppea r t ob e i mpo r tan t f a c to r s f o r h un t ing -ga the r ing p opu la t ions . A s M i then ( 1990 :73 ) i nd ica ted , many h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s p o sse s s a n e x tens ive a moun t o fs t o red i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t o t h e i r e nv i ronmen t a nd a va i lab le r e sou rces , i n c lud ing m emo r ie s a nd m en ta l maps d e r ived f r om p rev ious s ubs is tence e xpe r ience s t h a t w ou ld h ave b een e s sen t ia l f o r mak ing s ubs is tence d ec is ions . T h is s t o red i n fo rma t ion c ons is t s o f t wo b a s ic t ypes : t h a t r e la t ing t o t h e g ene ra l b ehav iou r a nd c ha rac te r is t ic s o fa n ima ls , p lan t s , g eog raphy , l a nd scape a nd c l ima te , a nd t h a t r e la t ing t o mo re f a c tua l i n fo rma t ion c once rn ing t h e a c tua l l o ca t ion a nd d ens i ty o f r e sou rce s ( M i then 1 990 :73 ) . T h is l a t te r t ype o f s t o red i n fo rma t ion , t h ough , w ou ld f r equen t ly u nde rgo c hange , a nd w ou ld n eed t ob ec on t inua l ly r e v ised a nd b rough tu p t od a te .

F u r the rmo re , c an a r chaeo log is ts a s sume t h a t g ende r , a s a c u l tu ra l c ons t ruc t wh ich h as d ynam ica l ly s t ruc tu red c on tempo ra ry a nd mo re r e cen t s oc ie t ies , a l so s t ruc tu red p reh is to r ic s oc ie t ie s , a nd , i nt h is c a se , P a leo ind ian s oc ie t ie s , i n t h e s ame manne r a nd t o as im i la r d eg ree? G ende r a s a c u l tura l c ons t ruc t i n e a r ly h om in id p opu la t ions p robab ly p layed am uch d i f f e ren t a nd p e rhap s mo re l im i ted r o le , i fa t a l l , i n s t ruc tu r ing t h e i r l i ves . P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions i n N o r th Ame r ica , h oweve r , w e re f u l ly mode rn Homo s ap iens s ap ien s , c ha rac te r ized b y t h e c apab i l i t ie s f o r l a nguage , a nd t e chno log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ; t he refo re , t h ey w e re mos tl i ke ly c ha rac te r ized a nd i n f luenced b y g ende rr e la t ions , whe the r t o t h e s ame d eg ree o r m anne r a s c on tempo ra ry s oc ie t ies c anno t b e d e term ined . P e rhaps g ende r d i f fe ren t ia t ion wa s n o t a s ma jo r a nd r e levan t as t ruc tu r ing f o rce i n P a leo ind ian c u l tu re s a s i ti s t oday i n w es te rn c u l tu re s ,i nw h ich t h ed i cho tomou sa s pec t sb e tween m en a nd w omen a r e f r equen t ly empha s ized . A s B r iden tha l e t a l . ( 1987 :4 ) n o ted , t he n o t ion o fa n i nf lex ib le p o la r i ty b e tween m a le a nd f ema le , wh ich w a s p e rva s ive d u r ing t h e c l a s s ica l e r a i nG ree ce a nd R ome a nd l i ke ly i no the r wo r ldw ide s t a te o rgan iza t ion s a sw e l l , h ad b een r ev ived d u r ing t h et h i r teen th c en tu ry , a nd h a s r ema ined u n t i l q u i te r e cen t ly a sp a r t o ft h e " men ta l e qu ipmen t " o f E u ropeans a nd A s ians . N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian g roups , b ecau se o ft h ei mpo r tan tn eed f o r o ve r lapp ing a nd f l ex ib le r o les , m ay h ave s t res sed i n s tead a f l u id i ty o fg ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ion s . I n a dd i t ion , a ge a nd a b i l i ty may h ave b een m o re i mpo r tan tf a c to r st h an g ende rf o r d ef in ing a nd s t ruc tu r ing e conom ic p roduc t ion , d ec is ion m ak ing ,a nd s oc ia l l i f ef o rP a leo ind ian s .

H un te r -ga the re r st e nd t op a s s o n s t o red k now ledge a bou tt h e d i s t r ibu t ion , c ha rac te r is t ics , a nd b ehav iou r o f v a r ious r e sou rce s f r om g ene ra t ion t og ene ra t ion . T h is i n fo rma t ion i s f r equen t ly r e la ted t oy ounge r m embe r s o ft h eg roup t h rough s t ory te l l ing a nd r ecoun t ings o f a c tua l s ubs is tence e xped i t ions ( M i then 1 990 :74 -75 ) . H oweve r , i tm ay n o th ave b een a dvan tageous o r p os s ib le f o r P a leo ind ians t o make s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ions b a sed e n t i re ly o n p a s t e xpe r ience s o ft h e e nv i ronmen t , s i nce t h e re m ay h ave b een i n c rea s ing u nce r ta in ty a nd f l uc tua t ions i nr e sou rce y i e lds d u r ing t h e l a te P le is tocene ( s ee M i then 1 990 :39 ) . T hus , i n s tead o f d epend ing s o le ly u pon c u l tu ra l t r ansm is s ion o f e nv i ronmen ta l k now ledge a nd t r ia l a nd e r ro r e xpe r ience , P a leo ind ian p eop les l i ke ly a l so r e l ied g rea t ly u pon i n fo rma t ion e xchange a mong i n d iv idua ls i nt h e s ame g roup a nd , a s w e l l , a mong m embe rs f r om d i f fe ren t g roups a s a m e thod f o ra cqu i r ing r e levan tr e sou rce i n fo rma t ion . H ayden ( 1982 ) s ugges ted t ha t t he d ependence u pon u np red ic tab le a nd u n re l iab le r e sou rce s , e spec ia l ly k se lec ted s pec ie s ( i . e . , l a rge a n ima ls w i th l o nge r ma tu ra t ion p e r iods a nd t h e refo re l owe r p opu la t ion d ens i t ie s a nd o f ten h igh mob i l i ty ) s uch a s m ammot h a nd b i son , e ncou raged N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ians t o f o rm a nd m a in ta in i n te r -g roup a l l iance s a nd o b l iga t ions i n c a se o f r e sou rce f a i lu re . F ur the rmo re , a ccord ing t o H ayden ( 1982 ) , t h e h igh p ropo r t ion o fe xo t ic l i t h ics d i scove red i nm any P a leo ind ian a s semb lage s w as a cqu ired t h rough e xchange i n t hese 9 1

w ide sp read i n te rac t ion n e two rk s . I n t h is a r gumen t , t h en , a s s ugge s ted b y Y e l len ( 1976 :96 , c i ted i n M i then 1 990 :69 ) , e xchange a nd t r ade i t ems may h ave h ad l i t t le e conom ic u t i l i ty ; r a the r , t hey w e re b a s ica l ly d ev ice s t o m a in ta in c on tac ts b e tween g roups a nd i nd iv idua ls , a l low ing i n f o rma t ion e xchange t oo ccu r , a nd p rov id ing i n su rance i n c ase s o f r e sou rce s t ress . A l though t h e d ependence o f P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions o n b ig g ame i sq ue s t ionab le , i ti s p robab le t ha t g iven t he h igh ly v a r iab le r e sou rces o f l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen ts , No r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian g roups r e l ied h eav i ly o n i n fo rma t ion s ha r ing w i th o the r P a leo ind ian g roup s . Mo reove r , t h is e xchange o fi n f o rma t ion w a s p robab ly a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f ma t ing , e xchange , a nd s oc ia l n e two rk s a nd a l l iance s e s tab l ished w i th o the r g roups ( s ee r e la ted d i scus s ion i n Mand ryk 1 993 :47 -48 ) .

r e sou rce a nd e nv ironmen ta l i n forma t ion . T he f a c t t h a t P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions h ave b een i den t if ied i n av a r ie ty o f N ew Wo r ld e nv i ronmen ts , f r om t he i c e m a rg ins t o t h e t r op ics a nd d e se r t s , i nd ica te s t h a t t he se p opu la t ions w e re v e ry r e sou rcefu l , a nd a b le t ol e a rn q u ick ly a nd t r ansm i t a nd e xchange e s sen t ia l i n fo rma t ion n eeded f o r mak ing g ood d ec is ion sr e ga rd ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t . 7 .4 .2 D ec is ion - Mak ing D i s tr ibu t ion o fR esources

C oncern ing S torage

a nd

Wh i le i ti sb eyond t h e s cope o ft h is r e sea rch t oc ons ide r i n d e ta i l d ec is ion -mak ing r e la t ing t o t he p roce ss ing , s t o rage , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f f ood r e sou rce s , t h e re a r e n ume rou s e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s t os ugge s t aw ide r a nge o fv a r iab i l i ty i n t h is r ea lm o f d ec is ion -mak ing . I n s ome s oc ie t ie s , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ep roduc t s o ft h eh un t f o l lowed s t r ic t s o c ia l r u le s ; f o r e xamp le , a mong t h e ! Kung , h un te rs h ad l i t t le c on t ro l o ve rt h el a rge g ame t h a t t h ey b rough ti n to c amp ( s ee D rape r 1 975 :84 , 1 06 ) . I n o the r c ase s , a s among t h e C h ipewyan ( Sha rp 1 981) a nd n ume rou s o t he r s oc ie t ie s ( s ee d i scu ss ion i n C hap te r 3 ) , o nce t he mea t w a s b rough t i n to c amp , i tb e longed t ot h e w omen a nd t h ey h ad t he r i gh t t o d i s t r ibu te t h ep roduc t sa st h ey w ished .

T he s ub jec t o f P a leo ind ian i n fo rma t ion e xchange a nd t h e t r ansm is s ion o fs t o red k now ledge r equ i re s t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e e n t i re i s sue o f s ca le ; t ha t i s , w ha t w a s t h e r a te a nd s peed o f t he e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s d u r ing t he l a te P l e is tocene i nr e la t ion t oh uman g ene ra t ions? P e rhaps i nt h e a ve rage p e r son 's l i f e t ime , t he re w ou ld n o t h ave b een a ny e x t reme a nd d rama t ic v i s ib le c hange s . Wi th in s eve ra l P a leo ind ian g ene ra t ions , h oweve r , t h e re w ou ld h ave b een a c l ea r r e cogn i t ion t ha t t h e n a tu re a nd s easona l i ty o f t h e e nv i ronmen t a r ound t hem w a s c hang ing , o ne o f t h e mo re o bv iou s a nd v i s ib le c hange s b e ing t h e d i sappea rance o f m ammo th a nd o t he r l a rge l a te P le is tocene f a una . Mo reove r , i ns ome a r ea s , e v idence i n d ica tes t h a tl a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene c hange s i n v ege ta t ion w e re v e ry d rama t ic a nd r a p id , o ccu r r ing w i th in t h ree o r f ou r g ene ra t ions ( Cha r le s S chwege r ,p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion 1 995 ) .O ra lh i s to r ie sa nd t h e t r ansm iss ion o f k now ledge a nd b e l ief s f r om o ne g ene ra t ion t ot h e n ex t w ou ld h ave i d en t if ied a nd r e co rded t h e se c hange s .

C once rn ing s t o rage , Ko rnf e ld a nd F ranc is ( 1991 :447 ) i mp l ied t h a t t h e p rac t ice o f s ome f o rm o fs t o rage s t ra tegy w ou ld i n d ica te s ome s o r to fa b i l i ty t oc on t ro l t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se s t o red r e sou rces . Mo re c omp lex g ende r r o le s a nd r e la t ions , mo re s pec ia l iza t ion , a nd g rea te r g ende r d i f f e ren t ia t ion w ou ld t h us b ee xpe c ted ( Ko rnf e ld a nd F ranc i s 1 991 :447 ) . F o r P la ins P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , t h e re i sn o d i rec t o rc onc lu s ive e v idence f o r a ny t y pe o fs t o rage o ff o od r e sou rce s . K o rnf e ld a nd F ranc is ( 1991 :447 ) s ugges ted , t h e refo re , t h a t g ende r r o le s l i ke ly h ad b een m o re f l u id a nd u nd if f e ren t ia ted . H oweve r , t h ea bsence o fi d en t if ied p hy s ica l s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s d oe s n o tn ece s sa r i ly i n d ica te t h e a bsence o f as t o rage s t ra tegy . Mea t a nd p l an tp roduc t sc an b ed r ied , a nd t h en s t o red a nd t r anspo r ted i ni t ems o rb ag sm ade o fo r gan ic m a te r ia ls a nd p l aced i ne l eva ted c ache s , a l o fw h ich w ou ld n o t l e ave a ny o bv ious p hys ica l a r chaeo log ica l t r ace s . Mo reove r , s t o rage d oe sn o to n ly e n ta i lp hy s ica l me thod s ,b u t c an a l so o ccu r i n t h e f o rm o f o b l iga t ions . Adm i t ted ly , a r chaeo log is t s may n eve r b e a b le t o d e r ive c onc lu s ive e v idence a bou t h ow r esources w e re c on t ro l led a nd d i s t r ibu ted b y P a leo ind ian p eop le s . H oweve r , b a sed o n t h e c u r ren t a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , w i th e v idence s ugge s t ing f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l m ob i l i ty a nd i nd ica t ing n o e x tens ive a nd s t a t iona ry s t o rage m e thods , a nd g iven t h e n a tu re o ft h e l a te P le is tocene e nv ironmen t , at e n ta t ive s ugges t ion m ay b e o f f e red t h a t t h e c on t ro l a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou rce s w a s f l ex ib le , a nd c on tex tua l ly d ependen t u pon h ow a nd w ho c o l lec ted t h er e sou rce s , a nd t h e g roup 's c ond i t ion , l o ca t ion , a nd c i rcums tances . S t ra teg ies wou ld h ave r anged f r om c ommuna l a nd p ub l ic d ec is ions t od e te rm ine t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fr e sou rce s , t h er e la t ive ly i n fo rma l s ha r ing o fr e sou rce s , t o mo re f o rma l s t r ic t s oc ia l r u les f o r t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r e sou rce sa nd r aw m a te r ia ls .

Wh i le t h er e la t ive ly r ap id e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s o ft h e l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly H o locene d id n o t l i ke ly d i re c t ly a f f ec t a n i n d iv idua l ' s d a i ly a c t iv i t ie s , t h e r e su l t ing v a r iab i l i ty i nl a te P le is tocene e nv ironmen t s w ou ld h ave i n t roduced n ew a nd a dd i t iona lc ha l lenge s f o rP a leo ind ian g roup sa nd i n d iv idua ls , mak ing t h e p o ten t ia l s o lu t ions t os ub s is tence p rob lems a nd g oa ls a s w e l l a s t he a c tua l s ubs is tence d ec is ion -mak ing p roce s ses mo re c omp lex ( Raymond L e B lanc , p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion 1 995 ) . T he b e s tw ay f o rP a leo ind ians t od ea l w i th t h is v a r iab i l i ty i nr e sou rce l o ca t ion s a nd y i e ld s w ou ld h ave b een t h rough i nnova t ion , c r ea t ive t h ough t i nm ak ing d ec is ions , a nd e xpe r imen ta t ion w i th t h e e nv i ronmen t , a l ong w i th a n e mpha s is o n i nd iv idua l a nd r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty , a nd e xchange b e tween i n d iv idua ls a nd g roup st og a the re s sen t ia l i n fo rma t ion . Mo reove r , w i th t h e s h if t f r om a " P la ids " e nv i ronmen tc ha rac te r ized b yn ume rous h ab i ta t sw i th d i ve r se r e sou rce s t o a" S t r ipe s " e nv i ronmen t c ha rac te r ized b y f ewe r h ab i ta ts w i th l e ss r e sou rce d ive rs i ty , t h e empha s is i n t h e k now ledge b a se w ou ld n eed t os h if ta sw e l l .O ve ra l l , g ene ra l a nd f undamen ta l e nv ironmen ta l k now ledge w as l i ke ly a f f ec ted v e ry l i t t le b yl a te P le is tocene c hange s . Mo re s pec if i c k now ledge , h oweve r , c once rn ing t he p resence a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fl a te P le is tocene a n ima l a nd p l an tr e sou rce s i n d i s t inc t g eog raph ic a rea s wou ld h ave b een c on t inua l ly c hang ing , a st h e se r e sou rce s w ou ld h ave b e en c ha rac te r ized b y much g rea te r v a r iab i l i ty i n c ompa r ison t o t he r e sou rce v a r iab i l i ty t h a th ad b een p rev ious ly w i tne ssed a nd p robab ly w e l l k nown b y p opu la t ions p r io r t o l a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s . P a leo ind ian i n fo rma t ion e xchange , t h en , w ou ld n ece s sa r i ly h ave f o cused o n t h is t y pe o fs pec if ic

7 . 4 .3 P a leo ind ian G ender Ro les a nd D ec is ion - Mak ing : Wha tC an We S ay? I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t t h e r ea l i ty o f w omen 's a nd m en 's l i ve s , i n c lud ing N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian s ,w i l ln o t f i ti n to s t a t ic m ode l s s uch a st h ose t h a t a r gue f o rp reh is to r ic w omen b e ing r e spon s ib le f o r g a the r ing a nd d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s w h i le m en 9 2

w e re t h e mo re mob i le membe rs o f s oc ie ty , h un t ing a nd c onduc t ing t r ade a nd o t he rp re s t ig iou sa nd h i gh s t a tus p ub l ic d u t ies . P a leo ind ian l i f e w a s u ndoub ted ly m o re c omp l ica ted t h an t h i sp o r t raya l . I th a sb een p ropo sed h e re t h a ti no rde rt o mee t t h ed emands o ft h er ap id ly c hang ing e nv i ronmen t a nd i n c rea s ing v a r iab i l i ty i nr e sou rce s , P a leo ind ian g roup s w e re c ha rac te r ized b y o ve r lapp ing g ende r r o le s a nd d ec is ion mak ing r ea lms , w i th a n empha s is o n f l ex ib i l i ty a nd i n te rdependency . G iven t h e a s sumed l ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty , s ma l l g roup s i ze , a nd t he n a tu re o f t he e nv i ronmen t , P a leo ind ian w omen w e re l i ke ly a s mob i le a nd v i s ib le a s men .U ndoub ted ly , a sw e l l , w omen c on t r ibu ted g r ea t ly t ot h e s ubs is tence o f t he g roup b y p a r t ic ipa t ing d i rec t ly i na c tua l s ubs is tence t a sk s a nd b y a cqu i r ing i n f o rma t ion c once rn ing k ey r e sou rce s a nd e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ions . I th a s b een a rgued i n t h i s c hap te r t ha t r e cogn iz ing t h e mu l t if ace ted n a ture o f s ubs is tence t a sks , a nd e xam in ing s ubs is tence /se t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o f g ende r , d ec is ion -mak ing , a nd i n fo rma t ion a cqu is i t ion , r evea ls t h a t a l l P a leo ind ian i nd iv idua ls , i n c lud ing m en , w omen , a nd o l de r c h i ld ren , w e re l i ke ly i n vo lved t ov a r ious d eg ree s i n a cqu ir ing i n fo rma t ion t h a t w a s e s sen t ia l f o r mak ing s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ion s . Mo reove r , i t w ou ld h ave b een a dvan tageous , i fn o t i mpe ra t ive , t h a t mos t i nd iv idua ls m ake i mpo r tan t e conom ic c on t r ibu t ions t ot h e s ubs is tence b a se o ft h e g roup . A s n o ted b y G e ro ( 1992 :25 ) f o r A ndean w omen , t h e a c t iv i t ie s a nd w o rk o fP a leo ind ian w omen , a sw e l l a s m en a nd o l de r c h i ld ren , w ou ld n o t h ave b een p r iva te a nd u nde r taken s o le ly f o r t h e s u rv iva l o f t h e i s o la ted n uc lea r f am i ly . P a leo ind ian w omen w ou ld h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h e n eed s a nd c on t inua t ion o f am uch b roade r h ou seho ld b a se i nc lud ing k i n r e la t ions , a nd u l t ima te ly e x tend ing t ot h ee n t i re c ommun i ty .

a c t iv i t ie s , c h i ldbea r ing a nd c h i ld r ea r ing l i ke ly w ou ld n o t h ave p rec luded P a leo ind ian w omen 's i nvo lvemen t i nm o re f a r rang ing s ubs is tence t a sk s t ot h ed eg ree i ta ppea r s t oh ave a f f ec ted C h ipewyan w omen t o day . P a leo ind ian w omen l i ke ly h ad r e la t ive ly a u tonomous a nd p ub l ic r o le s . Mo reove r , r a the rt h an af o cus o n t h ed i cho tomy a nd c ompa r ison o fm en a nd w omen , i ti sh i gh ly p o s s ib le t h a t P a leo ind ian i n d iv idua ls , r ega rd le ss o f s ex , w e re v a lued f o r t h e i r s k i l ls , e xpe r ience , a nd c on t r ibu t ions , c on t r ibu t ions t h a t w e re s een a s c omp lemen ta ry , i n te rdependen t , a nd mos t i mpo r tan t ly , n ece ssa ry f o r t h e s u rv iva l o f t h e g roup . T h is s ugge s t ion d oe s n o t i mp ly s ome s o r t o f " ega l i ta r ian g o lden a ge " f o r P a leo ind ian w omen , a si ti sr e cogn ized t h a t mu l t ip le i d eo log ie s a nd d i f f e ren t ia l p re s t ige a nd a cce s s t ok now ledge m igh t h ave p re sen t w i th in P a leo ind ian s oc ie ty . G iven t h e n a tu re o fl a te P le is tocene e nv i ronmen t s , h oweve r , i tc an b e s ugge s ted w i th s ome c e r ta in ty t h a t t he k ey e l emen t f o r P a leo ind ian s oc ia l r e la t ions , s ub s is tence o rgan iza t ion , a nd g ende r s ys tems w ou ld h ave b een f l ex ib i l i ty : f l ex ib i l i ty i n r o les , d ec is ion -mak ing , g ende r r e la t ions , a nd s phe re s o f a c t iv i t ie s .

A sw e l l , i tm us tb er emembe red t h a tl i f ec yc le d ynam ic sm ay h ave i nf luenced t he l e ve l a nd k i nd o f i nvo lvemen t o f P a leo ind ian i n d iv idua ls , b o th m a le a nd f ema le ,i ns ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s t h roughou t t he i r l i ves . C u r ren t ly a mong t he C h ipewyan o f n o r the rn S a ska tchewan , B rumbach a nd J a rvenpa ( 1997 :22 ) o bse rved t ha t o f ten w omen 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h e i n tens i ty o f t h a t i nvo lvemen ta r ec l ose ly r e la ted t oa nd v a ry a cco rd ing t ot h e i r p os i t ion i n t h e f am i ly l i f e c yc le . A do le scen t a nd y ounge r w omen a r e v e ry a c t ive i nf a r rang ing h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s , b u t w i th i n c rea sed f am i ly r e spons ib i l i t ie s ,t h ey t e nd t os h if tt h e i r f ocu s f r om l o ng d i s tance t r ave l f o rp u r su ing l a rge a n ima ls t o af o cus o n a nd c on t inua t ion o f t h e i r m anagemen t o f s na re l i ne s a nd f i sh n e t s c l ose r t oh ome . W i th l a te r y ea r s a nd a d ec l ine i nc h i ld rea r ing r e spons ib i l i t ie s , w omen , h oweve r , o nce a ga in i n c rease t h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i nh un t ing a c t iv i t ie s . Among t h e E fe h un te r -ga the re r s o f t he I t u r i f o res t , p regna ncy ,l a c ta t ion , a nd c h i ld c a re d oh ave as ma l le f f ec to n w omen 's w o rk ( s ee P eacock 1 991) ; h oweve r , E f e w omen who a r ep regnan t , l a c ta t ing , o ri nvo lved i ns ome w ay w i th c h i ld c a re , i n a dd i t ion t o mak ing a h igh c on t r ibu t ion t o s ubs is tence , a l so p e rf o rm a c t iv i t ie s , s u ch a sc a r ry ing h eavy l o ad s a nd t r ave l l ing l o ng d i s tance s ,t h a ta r ea s sumed b ys ome r e sea rche r s ( e .g . , B rown 1 979a ) t ob e " i ncompa t ib le " w i th c h i ld c a re . P a leo ind ian women p robab ly d id n o t h ave c h i ldbea r ing a nd c h i ld rea r ing r e spon s ib i l i t ie sc ompa rab le t o t hose o f c on tempo ra ry C h ipewyan , i n t h a t c h i ld c a re w a s mos t l i ke ly c ommuna l t o s ome d eg ree a nd w omen w ou ld h ave t e nded t oh ave f ewe r n umbe r so fc h i ld ren a sc ompa red t o w omen i n mo re s eden ta ry g roups . Wh i le l i fe c yc le d ynam ics w ou ld h ave i n f luenced t os ome e x ten t P a leo ind ian women 's a nd men 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n v a r ious s ubs is tence 9 3

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION c omp lemen ta ry g ende r r o les a nd r e la t ions w e re a f u ndamen ta l a nd i mpo r tan tc ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e i rl i f e s ty le s .

8 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION T he m a jo r g oa ls o f t h is r e sea rch h ave b een t o a t temp t t o i n co rpo ra te p eop le b ack i n to d e -cu l tu red a nd h un t ing d om ina ted , f u nc t iona l is t mode ls o fP a leo ind ian l i f eway s , t o make mo re a ppa ren t P a leo ind ian i nd iv idua ls , men , w omen , a nd c h i ld ren a sp reh is to r ic a c to r s , a nd t oi d en t ify s ome o ft h e p os s ib le d ynam ics s u r round ing g ende r r e la t ions . Ad e ta i led a nd c r i t ica l r ev iew o f c ur ren t me thodo log ies a nd i n te rpre ta t ions o f P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence /se t t lemen t s t ra teg ie sr evea led t h en eed f o r a n a l te rna t ive p e r spec t ive f o r a pp roach ing t he t a sk o f c ons t ruc t ing a No r the rn P la in s P a leo ind ian s ub s is tence / se t t lemen t mode l . H ence , t h is s t udy f o cu sed o n e xam in ing s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s f r om t h ep e r spec t ive o fg ende r a nd i n fo rma t ion a cqu is i t ion a nd d ec i s ion -mak ing , w i th mo re r e a l is t ic r e cogn i t ion o ft h e mu l t iface ted n a tu re o f s ubs is tence t a sk s . B ased o n l a te P le is tocene p a leoenv i ronmen ta l d a ta , t he i nc reas ing a r chaeo log ica le v idence t h a ts uppo r t s amo re g ene ra l ized a nd d ive r s if ied l i f eway f o r P la ins P a leo ind ian h un te r -ga the re r s , a nd e t hnog raph ic a nd g ende rs t ud ie s , t h e mode l o u t l ined h e re p roposed t h a te a r ly P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions mus th ave b een c ha rac te r ized b y i n te rdependency a nd c omp lemen ta r i ty i n g ende r r o le s , w i th a n e mpha s is o n f l ex ib i l i ty a nd f l u id i ty i n t h e i r g ende rr o le s , r e la t ions , a nd d ec is ion -mak ing p roce s se s . A l l P a leo ind ian i nd iv idua ls , i n c lud ing men , w omen , a nd o l de rc h i ld ren , w ou ld h ave b een i nvo lved i ns ome w ay w i th a cqu i r ing i n fo rma t ion t h a t w a s b o th e s sen t ia l f o r m ak ing s ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lemen t d e c is ions a nd v i ta l i nt h ec on tex t o f i n c rea s ing v a r iab i l i ty a nd c hang ing e nv i ronmen t s o f t h e l a te P l e i s tocene .

A l though t h roughou t t h is w o rk r e fe rence h a s b een m ade t o e t hnog raph ic a ccoun ts o f N o r th Ame r ican P la ins g roup s , No r th Ame r ican s uba rc t ic h un te r -ga the re r s , a nd ! Kung h un te r -ga the re r s , Ia m n o t c l a im ing t h a t a ny o ft h e se g r oup s r ep resen t a pprop r ia te t o ta l a na logue s f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions . G iven t h a tl a te P le is tocene P a leo ind ians l i ved i n a n e nv ironmen t d ra s t ica l ly d if fe ren t f r om mo re r e cen t e nv i ronmen t s , i n e s sence w ha t c an b e v i ewed a s an ona na logue e nv i ronmen t a nd c l ima te w i th m o re h ab i ta t s a nd m o re s pec ie s , s ome o fw h ich a r e e x t inc tt o day , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t a ny e t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted h un t ing -ga the r ing g roup w ou ld p rov ide ac omp le te a na logue f o rr e cons t ruc t ing N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian l i f eways a nd g ende r r e la t ions . T he se e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s , n eve r the le ss , c an p rov ide p a r t ia l a na logue s a nd , p e rhaps mo re i mpo r tan t ly , i n d ica te a p o r t ion o ft h er a nge o fp oss ib i l i t ie s r e ga rd ing t h e r e spon se s o f h un te r -ga the re rs t o b o th t he ir s oc ia l a nd p hy s ica l e nv i ronmen t s . I n a dd i t ion t o t he u se o f p a r t ia l a na logues a nd t h e c ons ide ra t ion o f aw ide v a r ie ty o fe t hnog raph ica l ly r e co rded s oc ie t ie s , my w o rk d i f f e rs f r om many t r ad i t iona l u se s o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy i n t h a t i ti nvo lve s a mo re c r i t ica l r e ad ing o ft h ee t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re i nt e rms o fw omen a nd g ende r . Ia mn o tc r i t ic iz ing t h eu se o fe t hnog raph ic a na logy , w h ich i sa n e s sen t ia l p a r t o fa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion . I d o , h oweve r , o b je c t t ot h e u se o f mode l s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s t ha t h ave b een b ased e n t ire ly a nd u ncr i t ica l ly o n i n app rop r ia te a na log ie s , o n e t hnog raph ic a c coun t s t h a t m ay i n c lude o n ly p a r t ia l d e sc r ip t ions w i th r e spec t t ow omen a nd g ende r , o n v a lue j udgmen ts w i th in e t hnograph ic a ccoun t s t h a t may b e b i a sed , o r o n as ma l l , s e lec t ive , a nd n a r row s amp le o fe t hnog raph ic c a ses t h a ta ppea rt os uppo r tp rev iou s w e s te rn a nd s t a te leve l a s sump t ions a bou t g ende r r e la t ions a nd w omen ( s ee s im i la rc l a im i nK ehoe 1 99 1 :431 ) .

8 .2 A CRITICAL REVIE W OF THE RESULTS OF THIS S TUDY T he q ue s t ion a r ise sa st ow he the ro rn o t , a s aw h i te , w e s te rn , m idd le -c la s s f ema le , Ih ave e s sen t ia l ly p roduced ap o l i t ica l g ende r f em in is t v i ew o f P a leo ind ian l i f eway s a nd g ende r r o le st h a ti sj u s ta ss pecu la t ive , l im i t ing ,b i a sed , a nd d i s to r ted a s t h e t r ad i t iona l m an the -hun te r a nd b ig g ame h un t ing mode ls a nd i n te rp re ta t ions t ha t Iw ish t or ep lace . Ic l ea r ly r e cogn ize t h a t my w o rk i sn o t t o ta l ly u n inf luenced b y t h e s oc ia l c on tex ti nw h ich i th a s b een p roduced , b y my c u l tu ra l b ackg round a nd e xpe r iences , b y my s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s i tua t ion a nd p os i t ion i nl i f e , a nd b y my p reconce ived b e l ief s a nd p e r spec t ive s . A l l a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ions a r e i n ev i tab ly i nf luenced b y s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s . I n t h e e a r ly a nd m idd le t wen t ie th c en tu ry , s ex r o les a nd b ehav iou r f o rs t a te s oc ie t ie s ,e spec ia l ly No r th Ame r ica , w e re m o re w e l l d ef ined a nd i n f lex ib le , w i th men s een a s t h e p ub l ic f i gu re s a nd " b readw inne r s " a nd w omen a sd ome s t ic h ousew ive s a nd mo the r s ; p reh is to r ic g ende r a nd s ex r o le s w e re o f ten i n te rp re ted i n much t h e s ame manne r . I n r ecen t y ea r s , h oweve r , r o les , a c t iv i t ies , a nd b ehav iou r s c ons ide red a pp rop r ia te f o r ap a r t icu la r s ex ( e spec ia l ly women ) h ave b ecome much mo re f l ex ib le a nd v a r iab le , a nd i ti sp oss ib le t h a t t h is c hange i sn ow a l low ing a r chaeo log is t s , i n c lud ing my se lf , t ov i ew p reh is to r ic g ende r r o le s i n amuch d i f fe ren t manne r . B u t i ti sn o t s imp ly ama t te r o f an ew m ind -se t o r p e r spec t ive c on t ro l l ing i n te rp re ta t ions a nd r econs t ruc t ions ; i n s tead , t h e re a r e a bundan t e t hnog raph ic d a ta t os uppo r t t h e i d ea t h a t f o r m any h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie t ie s , f l ex ib le a nd

H ence , Ic on s ide r my w o rk , n o ta se i the re x t reme a nd r a d ica l f em in is t o rp o s t -p roce ssua l a r chaeo logy w i th a n u nde r ly ing p o l i t ica l a genda , n o r a s a n o p t ion t oc u r ren t i n te rp re ta t ion s b a sed o n u nques t ioned v i ew s o fr i g id g ende rr o le s , b u t a sa n i mp rovemen t o ve r t hese s t anda rd i n te rp re ta t ions a nd r e cons t ruc t ion s . My e xam ina t ion o fP a leo ind ian s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s h a s b een c r i t ica l a nd r i go rou s w i th r ega rd t ot h e s i te d a ta , a nd h a s d emons t ra ted t h a t t h e b i g g ame h un t ing mode l a nd many o f i t s a ssoc ia ted a ssump t ions , r e cons t ruc t ions t h a t w e re p rev ious ly c on s ide red v a l id a nd a ccu ra te , a r e , i n f a c t , i n adequa te a nd q ue s t ionab le . I n t h e p roces s , Ih ave e xposed t he f o l low ing : t he p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th r e ly ing u pon u nque s t ioned s t e reo type s a nd s e lec t ive a na log ie s a nd u s ing t hem t os uppo r t u n ive r sa l i t ie s a nd p r econce ived a s sump t ion s ; t h ei n accu ra c ie sa r is ing f r om t h e a pp l ica t ion o f r e s t r ic t ive , i napp rop r ia te , a nd o f ten mean ing less d i cho tom ie s s uch a s d omes t ic /pub l ic a nd h un t ing /ga the r ing t o d e sc r ibe a nd o rgan ize a r chaeo log ica l v i ews o f n on -s ta te p reh is to r ic s oc ie t ie s ; a nd t h e p rob lem s w i th u s ing h i e ra rch ica l p e r spec t ive s a nd a pp roache s t h a t f r equen t ly a t tach i mp l ic i t v a lue j udgmen t s b a sed o n s t a te l e ve l s t anda rds t o p reh is to r ic g ende r r o les a nd r e la t ion s . Mo reove r , r a the rt h an r educ ing g ende rt o as i ng le , s t a t ic , a nd 9 4

r i go rous me thodo log ie s a r e a pp l ied t ot h e s t udy o fr e l iab le d a ta .

ma te r ia l d imens ion , a s o ccu r s w hen e qua t ing a s i ng le s ex w i th s pe c if ic t a sk s a nd t o o ls , my r e cons t ruc t ion , t h rough a n e mpha s is o n i n fo rma t ion a cqu is i t ion a nd d ec is ion -mak ing p roce s se s a nd t he mu l t if ace ted n a tu re o fs ubs is tence t a sk s , h a s v iewed g ende r a s ad ynam ic s oc ia l a nd i n te rac t ive c ons t ruc t ion . As ea rch f o r r egu la r i t ie s , p red ic tab le p a t te rns , a nd u n ive rsa l i t ies t e nds t o d i sm iss " anoma l ies" a nd i n d iv idua lv a r ia t ion a si n s ign if ican t , a sH ayden ( 1992 :34 ) d i d w i th h i s c l a im t ha t t h e f a c t t ha t w omen h un ted w a s n o t i mpor tan t u n le ss t hey h ad p e rfo rmed s uch a c t iv i t ie s o n a r egu la r b a s is . Howeve r , a s P oppe r ( 1969 :49 ) s t a ted , t h is t e ndency t o s ea rch f o r r egu la r i t ie s a nd i mpose l aws a nd u n ive r sa l i t ie s l e ads t o d ogma t ic t h ink ing . F u r the rmo re , c u l ture i sn o t as imp le , o rde r ly , r egu la r , p red ic tab le s y s tem b u t r a the r i nvo lves c omp lex , d ynam ic , a nd c on t inua l ly c hang ing p a t te rns , v a r ia t ions , a nd p rocesses . H ence , a r chaeo log is t s c anno t s imp ly a pp ly u n ive rsa l i t ies , s t a t ic d i cho tom ie s , a nd w e s te rn o r s t a te leve l c oncep t s w i thou t o bscu r ing d ive rs i ty , l im i t ing t h e e xam ina t ion o f c hange , i n te rac t ion , a nd d ynam ics i n p reh is to ry , a nd , u l t ima te ly , f a i l ing t oa dvance o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ep a s t .

I nt h is r e sea rch , Ih ave a t temp ted t og o b eyond ac r i t ique o f t h e t r ad i t iona l P a leo ind ian b ig g ame h un t ing mode l b y p re sen t ing c on t rad ic to ry e v idence t ot r ad i t iona l v iew s a nd a ssump t ions , a nd b y f o rmu la t ing a n a l te rna t ive i n te rp re ta t ion , o ne t h a ti so pen t oc hange , f o rN o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ie s . T he q ue s t ion i mmed ia te ly a r ise s a st ot h e w ide r i mp l ica t ions o f t h is mode l , t ha t i s , i ft h e mode l c an b e a pp l ied t o o the r a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . A rchaeo log is ts mus t a dm i t t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i sl im i ted i nt h ed a ta i tc on ta ins a nd t h e i n fo rma t ion i t c an p rov ide a bou t t he p a s t . Mo reove r , e spec ia l ly c once rn ing P a leo ind ian a rchaeo logy , t he p os s ib i l i ty e x is t s t h a t i n many c a se s l im i ted a c t iv i ty o rs ho r t d u ra t ion o ccupa t ions w i l l l e ave v e ry s pa rse , i f a ny , a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . H ence , a s a r e su l t o f t he c omb ina t ion o f f a c to rs o f p oo r p rese rva t ion a nd s i te v i s ib i l i ty , much o f t he d a ta a cqu i red b y a r chaeo log is t s p rov ides o n ly a v e ry r e s t r ic ted a nd s e lec ted p ic tu re o f P a leo ind ian l i f e( s ee d i scu ss ion i nD i l lehay 1 989 ) .

B yc l a im ing t h a t my mode l i sa ni mp rovemen t o ve rp rev iou s w o rk , Ia m n o t s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e a pp roach t ha t h a s b een e mp loyed i nt h is r e sea rch i st h e o n ly v a l id a nd a pp rop r ia te w ay f o r d ea l ing w i th t he q ue s t ion o f r econs t ruc t ing P a leo ind ian g ende r r o le s a nd s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies . I t i s a ppa ren t t ha t a r chaeo log is ts n eed t o e xpe r imen t w i th d i f f e ren t , b u t n ece s sa r i ly r i go rou s w ay s o f p re sen t ing t h e p as t r a the r t h an s o le ly r e ly ing u pon s t a t ic t axonom ic , s ys tems a na lys is , a nd h ypo theses tes t ing p rocedu re s t h a t t e nd t op roduce p a s t s t h a tn eg lec t t h e a c tua l p eop le w ho l i ved a nd c r ea ted t h a t p a s t . A c r i t ica l a nd r i go rou sa pp roa ch t oa r chaeo logy b eg ins w i th n o t p ro jec t ing p reconce ived u nque s t ioned a s sump t ions , u n ive r sa l i t ie s , a nd f i xed a nd r e s t r ic t ive w e s te rn o r s t a te leve l d i cho tom ie s a nd c oncep t si n to t h ep reh is to r ic p a s t .

C ons ide r ing t h e l im i ta t ions o ft h eN o r the rn P la ins d a ta ( i . e . , o f t h e v e ry f ew e a r ly P a leo ind ian s i tes i d en t if ied , f ew a r e c amp l o ca t ions a nd t h e ma jo r i ty a r ek i l l o rp roce s s ing s i te s o r s ho r t te rm o ccupa t ions ) , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t t h e mode l a nd a pp roach u sed h e re c ou ld b e mo re e a s i ly a pp l ied t o P a leo ind ian d a ta f r om o t he r g eog raph ic a r ea s w i th in N o r th Ame r ica , s uch a s t h e e a s te rn a r ea o f t h e c on t inen t . T he e a s te rn P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l d a tabase , w h i le l a ck ing k i l l s i te s , c ons is t s p r ima r i ly o fc amp l o ca t ions e xh ib i t ing i n m any c a se s a r t if ac t c oncen t ra t ions o r a c t iv i ty a r eas , a nd e v idence f o r a much mo re d ive r se r ange o f s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s t h an e v iden t i n mos t N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian s i te s , i n c lud ing l i th ic p rocu remen t , s t one t o o l manuf ac tu re , wood /bone p rocess ing , b u tche r ing , c ook ing , p lan t p rocu remen t a nd p roce ss ing , a nd f i sh p rocu remen t ( e .g . , t h e D ebe r t s i te , s ee MacDona ld 1 968 ; t h e S hawnee -M in is ink s i te , s ee McNe t t 1 985 ; a nd t h e S hoop s i te , s e eC ox 1 986 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s , b o th e nv i ronmen ta l r e cons t ruc t ions a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , i n c lud ing t h e l a ck o f s i gn if ican t e v idence s ugges t ing a n e mpha s is o n t h e h un t ing o f l a te P l e is tocene m ega f auna , i nd ica te t h a tP a leo ind ian s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e se r e g ions l i ke ly i n vo lved t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f aw ide rr ange o fr e sou r ce s i n c lud ing p l an t s , s eeds , n u t s , f i sh , s ma l le r g ame , a nd a n o cca s iona l l a rge mamma l ( Leppe r a nd Me l tze r 1 991 :178 ) . I nt h is c on tex t , t h e mode l a nd a pp roach o u t l ined i n t h is r e sea rch c ou ld p robab ly b e a pp l ied v e ry e f fec t ive ly a nd p roduc t ive ly t o P a leo ind ian d a ta f r om t h e e a s t , s i nce a w ide r r a nge o f d ec is ions a nd a c t iv i t ies a r e a r chaeo log ica l ly r ep re sen ted a t t h ese s i tes , w i th w h ich P a leo ind ian w omen a nd c h i ld ren , a s w e l l a s men , mus t n ece s sa r i ly h ave b een i n t ima te ly i n vo lved .

Mo reove r , Ia m n o t c l a im ing t h a t my i n te rp re ta t ion i s c onc lus ive a nd t r u thfu l w i th r ega rd t oh ow No r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian men a nd women i n te rac ted a nd made s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t d ec is ions . A l l a cadem ic r e sea rche r s a nd s c ien t is t s s e lec t ive ly u se a nd p re sen t d a ta a nd f a c t s , a nd Ia m c e r ta in ly n o te xemp t f r om t h is p rob lem . H oweve r , a l l a cadem ic w o rk i se xam ined , r ev iewed , a nd c r i t iqued b y o t he r r e sea rche r s . I ti sa l so c ons t ra ined b y t h e c u r ren t d a ta , a sw e l l a sn ew d a ta a nd i n f o rma t ion a nd n ew t e chn ique sa nd p e rspec t ive st oe va lua te t h a td a ta ; t h e ref o re , a r e t rea ti n to t o ta l r e la t iv ism i sh igh ly u n l ike ly . Ic ons ide r my w o rk t ob e ap a r t o f t h is c r i t ique , ap roce ss t ha t , Ih ope , r e su l t si nd i scu ss ion ,d i a logue , c hang ing i d ea sa nd v i ews , t h e a dop t ion o f n ew p e r spec t ive s , n ew a venue s a nd t op ics o f r e sea rch , a nd t h e g row th a nd e xpans ion o f k now ledge a nd u nde rs tand ing o ft he p a s t . T hus Ir e ga rd my c ons t ruc t ion o f N o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ian g ende rr o le sa nd s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen t s t ra teg ies a s a n o pen -ended p rov is iona l i n te rp re ta t ion , n o t af i na l a nd f i xed m ode l , t h a tw i l l l i ke ly b e m od if ied a nd i mp roved u pon a sn ew d a ta a nd i n te rp re ta t ions e me rge .I ti sa n i lus ion t ot h ink t h a ta r chaeo log is t sw i l l e ve r b e a b le t o" d iscove r " o rr e cons t ruc t as i ng le f i xed , o b jec t ive , a nd c omp le te p as t . I n s tead , u s ing c u r ren t ly a va i lab le e v idence a nd me thods , a r chaeo log i s t s c r ea te p laus ib le a nd b e s te xp lana t ions ,r econs t ruc t ion s , a nd i n te rp re ta t ions f o rt h e p a s t . T h is c r ea t ion i s ac on t inuous a nd n eve r -end ing p roce s s , b u t o ne t h a t i sc ha rac te r ized b y a n i n c rea se i nk now ledge , a nd b e t te ra nd mo re p l au s ib le c ons t ruc t ions o ft he p a s tw hen

T o c ompensa te f o r t h e l im i ta t ions o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a r chaeo log is t s mus tb roaden t h e i rp e r spec t ive s ,r a the r t h an a pp roach t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i n ar e s t r ic ted a nd n a r row m anne r . A rchaeo log is t sn eed t ob e a wa re o ft h ew ide v a r ie ty o fl i f eways a nd c u l tu ra l s t ra teg ie s a nd i n te rp re ta t ions i ne thnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted a nd p re sen t -day c u l tu re s , a nd t hus t h e w ide a r ray o fp o ten t ia l p oss ib i l i t ie s t oa ccoun t f o r t he p a s t . A s w e l l , t h ey s hou ld c ons ide r t h e v a lue o f mu l t ip le ,b u tc r i t ica l a nd r i go rou s f r amewo rk sa nd t h eo re t ica l p e r spec t ive s i np roduc ing d i f f e ren t v i ews o f t h e p a s t . I ti s t h is p lu ra l i ty o f i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e p a s t t h a t u l t ima te ly 9 5

f o rt h eh ou se sa nd k ash im ( men 's h ou se ) a tt h eC row V i l lage s i te w e re v e ry s im i la rt ot h ose r eco rded e t hnog raph ica l ly f o r t he I nga l ik b y O sgood ( 1970 ) . F u r the r , a nd mo re i mpo r tan t ly , h i s s t udy i nd ica ted t h a t t h e p reva i l ing s e xua l d iv is ion o fl a bou r , i nt e rm s o f who made a nd u sed d i f f e ren t t y pe so ft o o ls , c ond i t ions i np a r tt he v a r iab i l i ty i np a t te r ns o f m a te r ia l a s soc ia t ion a c ros s a n o ccupa t ion s u rf ace ( Bo ism ie r 1 991 :211) . B o ism ie r 's ( 1991 :211) i n ten t ions w e re n o t t o d eve lop as oc ia l t h eo ry f o r p a t te rn f o rma t ion , b u t r a the r t o i lu s t ra te h ow t h i s a spec t o ft e chno log ica l o r gan iza t ion , t h a t i s , t h e s exua l d i v is ion o f l a bou r , may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o f o rma t ion p a t te rns o f a s soc ia t ion a c ros s a n o ccupa t ion s u rf ace .

a l low s f o rd i scus s ion a nd g row th i no u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e p a s t . F u r the rmo re , i nr e cen ty ea r si th a s b ecome i n c rea s ing ly a ppa ren t t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e p a s t i s o n ly o ne me thod f o r c ons truc t ing a nd v i ew ing t h e p a s t . Na t ive g roups , w ho h ave h ad l i t t le d i rec t i nvo lvemen t i n p roduc ing a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge a bou t t h e i r p a s t , o f ten h ave t he i r o wn v e rs ions o ft h e p a s t t h a t a r e v e ry d i f fe ren t f r om t r ad i t iona l a rchaeo log ica l i n terpre ta t ions ( s ee d i scuss ion i n S pec to r 1 993 :12 -18 ) . A rchaeo log is ts , a s p roduce r s o fp ub l ic k now ledge a bou t o t he r p eop le a nd t h e i r p as t s , h o ld p owe rfu l a nd p r iv i leged p os i t ions ( Spec to r 1 993 :13 ) ; t h ey mus t n ow d ea l w i th t h e i s sue o f p lu ra l i n te rp re ta t ions o ft h e p a s t , a nd h ow t oi n co rpo ra te mu l t ip le v o ice s a nd v i ew si nt h e i rp roduc t ion o fi n te rp re ta t ion s a bou t t h ep a s t . 8 .3 L IN KIN G GENDER ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RECORD

WIT H

T he n ex t c ruc ia l s t ep n eeded t o e xp lo re g ende r b eyond s imp ly a s s ign ing s ex t ot o o ls o r ma te r ia l i t em s w ou ld b e t o b eg in c ons ide r ing g ende r s ys tem s a nd t h e a c tua l s oc ia l d ynam ic s o f p roduc t ion , u se , a nd d i sca rd , i n p a r t icu la r , v i ew ing t e chno logy a s as oc ia lp henomenon i n vo lv ing s o c ia l a c to r sa nd s oc ia lr e la t ions ( s e e McGaw 1 996 ; Wr igh t 1 996 ) . A s i se v iden t f o r t h eI nga l ik i nO sgood 's ( 1 970 ) w o rk , m any t oo ls a nd o t he r m a te r ia l c u l tu re i t ems w e re o f ten m ade s t r ic t ly b yo ne s e x , a nd t h en u sed a nd o wned b yt h eo t he rs e x o r b o th s exe s . F o r e xamp le , an e t s hu t t le w a s m ade b y I nga l ik men , b u t u sed a nd o wned b y w omen , w he rea s a b eave r n e t w a s m ade b y w omen , a nd u sed a nd o wned b y men . I nga l ik w omen p repa red c l o th ing a nd b a ske t ry f o r men 's u se a s w e l l a s t h e i r own . T h is s i tua t ion c l ea r ly d emons t ra te s t h a ta s s ign ing as i ng le s ex t o as pec if ic t o o l o r ma te r ia l c u l tu re i t em ma sk s t h e d ynam ic s i nvo lved i nt h e p roduc t ion , u se , o wne r sh ip , a nd d i sca rd o f t h a t i t em . Mo reove r , g i ven w ha t i sg ene ra l ly k nown a bou t s ma l l sca le e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s , i np a r t icu la rt h e f a c tt h a t a l though m any t oo ls a nd i t ems a r e " owned" b y i nd iv idua ls , t h ey a r e f r equen t ly l o aned t o o the r s a nd i n o ne s ense c ou ld b e c ons ide red c ommuna l p rope r ty , c an t o o ls e ve r b e u sed t o d e s igna te g ende ro rs ex? Wh i le t he d a ta p r ov ided b yO sgood ( 1970 ) a r e p o ten t ia l ly v a luab le r e sou rce s f o r p rov id ing i n fo rma t ion r e la t ing t ot h e m anufac tu re r , u s e r , a nd o wne r o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re i t em s f ound i nn o r the rn a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s , a r chaeo log is t s m u s t r em ind t h emse lve s t h a t t h e re i sm o re t o g ende r s t ud ie s t h an s imp ly l a be l l ing at o o l a se i the r m a le o r f ema le . I n mo s tc a se s , r i ch e t hnog raph ic d a ta , c ompa rab le t o t h a ta va i lab le f o rt h eI nga l ik ( Osgood 1 970 ) , a nd s pec if ica l ly o u t l in ing t h e m ake r s a nd u se rs o f m a te r ia l c u l tu re , i sn o t a va i lab le f o ro t he re t hnog raph ica l ly d ocumen ted p opu la t ion s , o r , f o r t h a t m a t te r , f o r e a r l ie r p reh is to r ic g roup s . H ence , i n t he se s i tua t ions , a r chaeo log is ts n eed t o b roaden t h e i r a t ten t ion t oi n c lude o t he r q ues t ions o fg ende r t h a t a r e m o re a menab le t oa r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l a na ly s i sa nd s t udy , r a the r t h an s o le ly f o cu s ing u pon t h eo f ten s t e r i le a nd s t a t ic d eba te o ve rt a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion .

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I ti se v iden t t h a t g ende r r e la t ions a nd d ynam ics mus t h ave b een o pe ra t ing a t m any p reh is to r ic a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w he re i n hab i tan t s l i ved , w o rked , a nd i n te rac ted ( s ee s im i la r c l a im i n C onkey 1 993 :9 ) . G iven t h a t a r chaeo log is ts d ea l p r ima r i ly w i th t h e m a te r ia l r ema ins o f p a s t s oc ie t ies , i ti s o n ly n a tu ra l t h a tt h ey w ou ld s ea rch f o r aw ay t ol i nk g ende r d i rec t ly t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . Howeve r , t h e re a r e q ue s t ions a s t ow he the r o rn o t ad i rec t l i nkage c an e ve r b e f ound . N o r the rn P l a ins P a leo ind ians h ave b een c ha rac te r ized i n t h is mode l a s l og is t ica l ly o rgan ized h un te r -ga the re r s c ons is t ing o f s ma l l g roup s o f k i n re la ted i nd iv idua ls who p rac t ised f l ex ib le r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty t ha t a t t ime s w as ma rked b y r educed mob i l i ty a nd a to the r t ime s , r e la t ive ly h igh g roup m ob i l i ty . T h is v a r iab le s e t t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty s t ra tegy m igh th ave r e su l ted i nt h eb lu r r ing o ft a sk l o ca t ions i n t h e P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a t c e r ta in s i te s . S eden ta ry o ccupa t ions a r e o f ten c ha rac te r ized b y r e la t ive ly p e rmanen ta nd s e pa ra te s pa ce s f o rp e rfo rm ing s pec if ic t a sk s , w he rea s mo re t empo ra ry o ccupa t ions , b ecau se o ft h e o pen , p ub l ic , a nd s ho r t te rm n a tu re o ft h e o ccupa t ion , f r equen t ly h ave f ewe r o ft h e se d i s t inc t t a sk -spec if ic l o ca t ions . F u tu re s t ud ie sc ou ld e xp lo re t h ep os s ib le e f f ec t sa nd i mp l ica t ions o f r e s iden t ia l mob i l i ty u pon a c t iv i ty a r ea s i n P a leo ind ian s e t t lemen t s i te st h rough u se -wea r a na lys is o fl i th ic a r t if ac t s . T hese t ypes o f s t ud ies o f a c t iv i ty a reas a nd s pa t ia l p a t te rn ings o f a r t ifac ts c ou ld t hen p oss ib ly f u r the r i n co rpo ra te h ypo the se s r e la t ing t og ende r d ynam ic s ( F igu re 7 ) . Howeve r , t he re s t i l l r ema ins t he p rob lema t ic a nd q ue s t ionab le m a t te r o f a t tach ing g ende r o r s ex t o s pec if ic t o o ls a nd a c t iv i t ie s . Wh i le i n mos tc a se s , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t i t w i l l e ve r b e k nown f o r c e r ta in w he the r a man o r w oman m ade a nd u sed as pe c if ic a r t if ac t o rp e rfo rmed ap a r t icu la r t a sk i n p a s t s oc ie t ies , t h e re may b e af ew e xcep t ions . B o ism ie r ( 1 991) d eve loped as e t o f p ropo s i t ions , b a sed o n O sgood 's ( 1970 ) d e ta i led s t udy o fI nga l ik ma te r ia l c u l tu re , t ha t w e re c once rned w i th h ow ma te r ia l i t ems w e re d i f f e ren t ia l ly p roduced , u sed , a nd d i sca rded i nr e sponse t o t h e o rgan iza t ion o f t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r . H e t hen t e s ted t h e se p ropos i t ions u s ing e xcava t ion d a ta f r om t he C row V i l lage s i te , a w in te r v i l lage s i te l o ca ted i n s ou thwe s te rn A la ska . O fh i s e i gh t p ropos i t ions c once rn ing t he i n t ra -s i te d i s t r ibu t ions o f i t ems , s even w e re u nequ ivoca l ly c onf i rmed , w h i le o ne w a s o n ly p a r t ia l ly c onf i rmed ( Bo ism ie r 1 991 :210 ) . B o ism ie r ( 1991 :210 ) w a s t h u s a b le t od emons t ra te t h a t t h eb ehav iou ra l c on tex t s o fu se

B ecau se o ft h i sd i f f icu l ty a s soc ia ted w i th a s s ign ing g ende rt o a c t iv i t ie s a nd i t ems o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re , af ew a r cha eo log is t s a r eb eg inn ing t oe xpe r imen tw i th v e ry d i f f e ren ts t ra teg ie s f o r e xam in ing g ende r r e la t ions a r chaeo log ica l ly . F o r i n s tance , u s ing , a s a n e xamp le , h e r a r chaeo log ica l e xam ina t ion o f h ouseho ld c yc les o f c ons t ruc t ion , d es t ruc t ion , a nd r ep lacemen t a t aL a te N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t i nY ugo s lav ia , T r ingham ( 1 991 )i n c luded b o th as t o ry o fh ow i n hab i tan t s , i n p a r t icu la r , w omen , may h ave r eac ted t ot h e d e s t ruc t ion o fa h ouse , a sw e l l a s af i c t iona l d i a logue a mong s ta r chaeo log i s t s p rac t is ing d i f f e ren t r e sea rch s t ra teg ie s , b u t e xam in ing t h e s ame a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t h e s i te . H e r g oa ls w e re t o d emons t ra te t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e h ouseho ld s c a le o f 9 6

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a nd m is s iona r ie s t h a t t h e D ako ta p eop le h ad e ncoun te red ( Spec to r 1 993 :18 ) . T he se s t ud ie s r ef lec t n o t o n ly t h e r e cen t i n te re s ti ng ende rt o p ics i na r chaeo logy ,b u ta l so t h eg r ow ing e mpha s i s a nd i mpo r tance b e ing g i ven t oe xpe r imen t ing w i th d i f f e ren t p e r spec t ive s f o r e xam in ing a nd w r i t ing a bou t t h e p a s t , a nd t h ed e s i re t om ake p r eh is to r ic a c to r sm o re v i s ib le i n a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion s .

a na ly s i s f o r m ak ing w omen v i s ib le a nd t h e r i chne s s o f e t hnog r aph ic a nd h i s to r ica l l i t e ra tu re f o r e xam in ing s o c ia l a nd g ende r r e la t ions , a nd u l t ima te ly t o " a dd f a ce s " t o p reh is to r ic h ouseho lds . S im i la r ly , i n r e sponse t o t h e i n adequa cy o f t h e t a sk d i f f e ren t ia t ion a pp roa ch a nd t h e c on s t ra in t s o ft r ad i t iona l a r chaeo log ica l w r i t ing s t y le s a nd t h eu se o ft a xonom ic d ev ice si nd e sc r ib ing a r t if ac t s , S pe c to r ( 1 993 ) w ro te a s t o ry a bou t h ow a n a w l , w h ich h ad b een r e cove red i n at r a sh a r ea o f an i ne teen th -cen tu ry E a s te rn D ako ta p l an t ing v i l lage s i te i nM inne so ta , m igh t h ave b een u sed a nd l o s t . I nt h ep roce s s , s he w a s n o t o n ly a b le t ob r ing t ot h e f o re w omen 's l i ve s a nd t h e i rp r ac t ice o fi n sc r ib ing a w l h and le s t od i sp lay p ub l ic ly t h e i r a c comp l ishmen t s , b u t a l so a b le t oi n co rpo ra te v o ice s a nd v i ewpo in t s o f t h e D ako ta p eop le ,a sw e l l a st h ose o ft h eo f f ic ia ls , f u rt r ade r s ,e xp lo re r s ,

A rchaeo log is t s mu s t n ece s sa r i ly c onc lude t h a t g ende r a sa s oc ia lc on s t ruc t , i n c lud ing g ende rr o le s a nd g ende rr e la t ion s , i sn o tt o ta l ly r e cove rab le f r om t h ep r eh is to r ic a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .C u r ren t ly i ti se x t reme ly d i ff icu l tt ot e s td i rec t ly m o s t s t a temen t sm ade a bou tp r eh i s to r ic g ende r ,p r ima r i ly b e cau se s o l i t t le i sk nown a bou t t h e d ynam ic s o f g ende r a nd h ow t h e se d ynam ics a r e r e f lec ted a nd e xp re s sed i n m a te r ia l 9 7

c u l tu ra l i t ems a nd t he p a t te rn ing o f a c t iv i t ies w i th in a s e t t lemen t . I t i s p oss ib le t ha t a t s ome f u tu re t ime , a n i n c rea sed u nde rs tand ing o f g ende r d ynam ics a nd t he ir r ef lec t ion i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord w i l l a l low a r chaeo log is t s t o f o rmu la te s ome s t a temen t s t h a t a r e mo re amenab le t o t e s t ing d i rec t ly a ga ins t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . A l though a r chaeo log is ts ,e i the rn ow o ri nt h e f u tu re , m ay n o t e ve r b e a b le t or e cons t ruc t e n t i re ly g ende r d ynam ics b a sed o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , t h e p reh is to r ic p a s t c an , a s d emons t ra ted i n t h is s t udy , s t i l l b e s t ud ied f r om ag ende r p e r spec t ive ( F igu re 7 ) . Mo reove r , a r chaeo log ica l g ende r s t ud ie s mus t n o t c oncen t ra te s o le ly o n mak ing p reh is to r ic w omen mo re v i s ib le , s t udy ing t h em s epa ra te ly f r om men , b ecause t h is a pp roach wou ld me re ly r ep lace c u r ren t i n adequa te mode ls w i th o nes t h a t w ou ld b ec ha rac te r ized b y a n e qua l ly i mba lanced v i ew . R a the r , a r chaeo log is ts mu s t i n c lude ac ons ide ra t ion o fb o th ma le a nd f ema le p reh is to r ic a c to r s i nt h e i ra na ly se s , e mpha s iz ing t h ed ynam ics o fg ende r r e la t ions a nd n ego t ia t ions a nd t he s i gn if ican t f a c to rs s t ruc tu r ing t hose r e la t ionsh ips ( s ee s im i la r c l a ims i n D onuna sne s 1 992 :8 , 1 2 a nd S O rensen 1 992 :31-34 ) .

i nc on junc t ion w i th u se -wea r s t ud ie s o fP a leo ind ian a r t if ac t s a nd a r chaeo log ica l a na ly se s o f a c t iv i ty a r e a s a tP a leo ind ian s i te s , a nd t h u s c on t r ibu te t ot he d eve lopm en t o f mode ls o f P a leo ind ia n g ende rd ynam ic s . I tmu s tb er emembe red t h a t ,u l t ima te ly ,i ti st h ea r chaeo log is t w ho c r ea te st h ep a s t . A sK o rnf e ld ( 1988 :215 ) i n d ica ted , o n ly w hen P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log is t s b roaden t h e i r p e r spec t ive s a nd e xp lo re b eyond t h e h un t ing s y s tem t o i n c lude o t he r a spec t s o f h un t ing -ga the r ing l i fe c an t h e f u l l r ange o f P a leo ind ian l i f eway s b e c ons ide red . T ha tr a nge i n c lude s t h e f o l low ing : t h e g a the r ing o f p lan t r e sou rce s a nd r aw m a te r ia ls ; t h e p roduc t ion a nd r epa i r o fs he l te r s , c l o the s a nd c a r ry ing e qu ipmen t ; t h er a i s ing o fc h i ld r en ;t h ei n te rac t ion o f i n d iv idua ls a nd g roups ; t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f r e la t ionsh ip s a nd t i e s ; a nd t h e r e a f f i rma t ion o f i d eo log ica l b e l ief s . I ti s h oped t h a t t h e s t udy p re sen ted h e re h a s b egun t o d o t h is " e xp lo ra t ion b eyond t h eh un t ing s ys tem " t or e s to re s ome s o r t o fb a lance t ot h eP a leo ind ian p a s t , a nd t h a ti tw i l l s e rve a sa b a s is f o r a pp roach ing o t he rr e la ted a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem s a nd r e sea rch f ocus ing o n p reh is to r ic g ende r r o les a nd r e la t ions , n o t o n ly f o r t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod b u t f o r o the r t ime f r ame sa sw e l l .

8 . 4 SU M MARY I ti s a ppa ren t t ha t i n c reas ing ly mo re a r chaeo log is t s a r e r e a l iz ing t h e s i gn if icance o f g ende r i ns hap ing s oc ia l r o le s , r e la t ion s , a nd p rac t ice s , a nd t h e i mpo r tance o f c ons ide r ing g ende r t op ics i n a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ies . H oweve r , a s S o rensen ( 1992 :36 ) r ema rked , t h e p rob lem o f me thodo logy r ema ins , " i t sp rac t ica lr ea l iza t ion . . . lagg ing b eh ind . " T he f i r s t s t ep i nN o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian a r chaeo logy i st os t op r e ly ing u pon mechan ica l mode ls b a sed o n u nques t ioned s t a te leve l a s sump t ions t h a tp o r t ray ar i g id s exua l d i v i s ion o f l a bou r . T he se mode ls a r e n o t d ynam ic ; t h ey a r e r e s t r ic t ive a nd f a i l t o r evea l a nd a t temp t t o u nde rs tand p reh is to r ic g ende rr e la t ions . T he d ive r s i ty o fg ende rs y s tem s , w h ich h a s b een d ocumen ted b y g ende rr e sea rch i nr e cen ty ea r s , c l ea r ly p o in t s t o t h e f a c t t ha t s ea rch ing f o r a nd a pp ly ing a l l e ncompa s s ing mode ls a nd u n ive r sa l c l a ims a bou t m en a nd w omen i s u nsa t isfac to ry a nd l i ke ly d i s tor t ing (Wy l ie 1 992b :53 ) . O n ly w hen P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log is t sg ob eyond u n ive rsa l s a nd c ommon u nque s t ioned n o t ions a r e t h ey i nt h e p os i t ion t oc ons ide r t h e p o ten t ia l v a r iab i l i ty i nr o le s f o r m en a nd w omen ,g ende rr e la t ions a nd s t ra teg ie s , t h ep os s ib i l i ty o f a l te rna te p owe r , a u tho r i ty , v a lues , a nd b e l ief s , a nd , mos t e spec ia l ly , a l te rna te r o le s f o rp reh is to r ic w omen b eyond t h a t o fw ife , mo the r , a nd " dome s t ic " w o rke r . W i th t h is a ccep tance o ft h e d ive r s i ty o fg ende r s y s tem s a nd t h e s exua l d iv is ion o f l a bou r , f u r the r a r chaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ies , s uch a s s ke le ta l a na lyse s , c ou ld p rov ide v a luab le i n fo rma t ion a bou t a spec t s o f P a leo ind ian g ende r s y s tems . I ti sr e cogn ized , t hough , t ha t o n ly as ma l l n umbe ro fs i te si nN o r th Ame r ica c on ta in h uman r ema ins o f s i gn if ican t a n t iqu i ty ; t hose s i te s t h a t d o , o f ten c on ta in r ema ins t h a t a r e f r agmen ta ry i n n a tu re ( S tee le a nd P owe l l 1 992 :303 ) . S tee le a nd P owe l l ( 1992 :303 ) e s t ima ted t h a t n o m o re t h an 2 5N o r th Ame r ican s i tes c on ta ined h uman r ema in s t h a t w e re i d en t if ied a sp robab ly b e ing o l de rt han 8 , 500 y ea r s B .P . R ecogn iz ing t h is l im i ted s amp le , s t ud ies o f l a te P le is tocene -ea r ly Ho locene s ke le ta l ma te r ia l c ou ld s t i l l p o ten t ia l ly p rov ide s ome i n i t ia l d a ta a bou t t he p os s ib le d i f fe rences b e tween ma le s a nd f ema le s w i th r e spec t t o h ea l th , d i sease , n u t r i t ion , a c t iv i ty , p hys ica l s t ress o r w o rk load ,r i sk ,a nd mo r ta l i ty ( Cohen a nd B enne t t 1 993 :275 ) . T h i s i n f o rma t ion c ou ld b e b o th c omp lemen ta ry t oa nd u sed 9 8

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Ma laby P re s s ,L ondon . A rd rey , R . 1 96 1 A f r ican G ene s i s : AP er sona lI n ves t iga t ion i n to t h eA n ima l O r ig in sa nd N a tur eo f Man .A theneum , N ew Y o rk . 1 976 T he H un t ing H ypo the s i s : AP er sona l C onc lus ion C oncern ing t h eE vo lu t iona ry N a tur eo f Man . A theneum , N ew Y o rk . A r thu r ,G .W . 1 975 A nI n t roduc t ion t ot h eE co logy o fE ar ly H i s tor ic C ommuna lB i son H un t ing Among t h eN or th ern P la ins I nd ians . N a t iona l Museum o f Man Me rcu ry S e r ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o fC anada P ape rN o . 3 7 . N a t iona l Mu seum so fC anada ,O t tawa . A s che r , R . 1 96 1 A na logy i nA rchaeo log ica l I n te rp re ta t ion . S ou thwes t ern J ourna lo fA n thropo logy 1 7 :317 -325 . B acho f en ,J .1 86 1 D a s Mu t t er r ech t . B enno S chwabe ,B a se l . 1 967 My th , R e l ig ion , a nd Mo ther R igh t : S e lec t ed W r i t ings o f J . J . B achof en . T rans la ted b y R a lph Manhe im . P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , P r ince ton . B ake r , V . R . 1 983 L a te -P le is tocene F luv ia l S ys tem s . I n L a t e -Qua ternary E nv ironmen t s o ft h e U n i ted S t a t e s . V o lume 1 .T he L a t e P l e i s toc ene , e d i t ed b y S .C . P o r te r , p p . 15 -129 . Un ive rs i ty o f M inneso ta P ress , M inneapo l is . B amf o r th , D . B . 1 985 T he T echno log ica l O rgan iza t ion o f P a leo Ind ian Sma l l -G roup B ison H un t ing o n t h e L lano E s ta cado . P la in sA n thropo log i s t3 0 (109 ) :243 -258 . 1 988 E co logy a nd H uman O rgan i za t ion o n t h e G r ea t P la in s . P l enum P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 990 A n Emp i r ica l P e rspec t ive o n L i t t le I c e A ge C l ima t ic C hange o n t he G rea t P la ins . P la in s A n thropo log i s t3 5 (132 ) :359 -366 . 1 991 F l in tknapp ing S k i l l , C ommuna l H un t ing , a nd P a leo ind ian P ro jec t i le P o in t T ypo logy . P la in s A n thropo log i s t3 6 (137 ) :309 -322 . B a rbou r , E . H . , a nd C . B . S chu l tz 1 932 T he S co t t sb luf f B i son Q ua r ry a nd i t sA r t if a c t s . B u l le t in o ft h eN ebra ska S t a t e Mu seum 1 : 283 -286 . B a rno sky , C . W . 1 989 P o s tg la c ia l V ege ta t ion a nd C l ima te i n t h e N o r thwes te rn G rea t P la ins o f Mon tana . Q ua t erna ry R es ear ch 3 1 :57 -73 . B a rno sky , C . W . , P .M . A nde r son , a nd P .J .B a r t le in 1 987 T he No r thwes te rn U .S . d u r ing D eg lac ia t ion ; V ege ta t iona l H i s to ry a nd P a leoc l ima t ic I mp l ica t ion s . I n N or th Amer ica a nd A d jacen t O ceans d ur ing t h e L a s t D eg lac ia t ion , e d i ted b y W . F . R udd iman a nd H . E . Wr igh t ,J r . ,p p . 2 89 -321 . G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , B ou lde r . B a rno sky , C . W . , E .C . G r imm , a nd H . E . Wr igh t , J r . 1 987 T owa rds aP o s tg lac ia l H is to ry o f t h e N o r the rn G rea t P l a in s : AR ev iew o ft h eP a leoe co log ic P rob lem s . A nna l s o ft h e C arneg ie Mus eum 5 6 :259 -273 . B ea ls , R .L . 1 957 F a the rA co s ta o n t h eF i r s tP eop l ing o ft h e N ew Wo r ld . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 3 (2 ) :182 -183 . B eaudo in , A . B . 1 993 A C ompend ium a nd E va lua t ion o f P o s tg lac ia lP o l len R e co rd si nA lbe r ta . C anad ian J ourna l o fA r chaeo logy 1 7 :92 -112 . B e l l , D . 1 980 D e se r t P o l i t ic s : C ho ice s i nt h e " Ma r r iage Ma rke t . " I nW omen a nd C o lon i za t ion : A n thropo log ica l P er spec t iv e s , e d i ted b yM . E t ienne a nd E .L eacock , p p . 2 39 -269 . P raege r ,N ew Y o rk . B e l l , J .A . 1 994 R econs truc t ing P r eh is tory : S c ien t if ic Me thod i n A rchaeo logy . T emp le U n ive r s i ty P re s s , P h i lade lph ia . 9

B ened ic t , J .B . 1 992 A long t h e G rea t D iv ide : P a leo ind ian A rchaeo logy o ft h e H igh C o lo rado F ron t R ange . I nI ce A ge H un t er so ft h eR ock ies ,e d i ted b yD .J .S t anf o rd a nd J .S .D ay , p p . 3 43 -359 . Un ive rs i ty P re ss o f C o lo rado , N iwo t ,C o lo rado . B enson ,L . , a nd R . S .T hompson 1 987 T he P hys ica l R eco rd o f L ake s i n t he G rea t B as in . I n N or th Amer ica a nd A d jacen tO ceans d ur ing t h eL a s tD eg lac ia t ion ,e d i ted b y W . F . R udd iman a nd H . E . Wr igh t , J r . , p p . 2 41-260 . G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , B ou lde r . B e rnd t , C . H . 1 981 I n te rp re ta t ions a nd " Fac ts" i n A bo r ig ina l A us t ra l ia . I n W oman t h e G a ther er ,e d i ted b y F .D ah lbe rg , p p . 1 53 -203 . Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew H aven . 1 986 D igg ing S t ick s a nd S pea rs , o r , t h e Two -Sex Mode l . I n Woman ' s R o le i nA bor ig ina l S oc ie ty , e d i ted b y F . G a le , p p . 6 4 -84 . 3 rd e d . A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina lS tud ie s , C anbe r ra . B e t t inge r , R . L . 1 991 H un ter -Ga ther er s :A rchaeo log ica l a nd E vo lu t ionary T heory . P lenum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . B info rd , L . R . 1 962 A rchaeo logy a s A n th ropo logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 :217 -225 . 1 965 A rchaeo log ica l S ys tema t ics a nd t h e S tudy o f C u l tu re P roce s s . Am er ican A n t iqu i ty 3 1 :203 -210 . 1 967 Smudge P i t s a nd H ide Smok ing : T he U se o f Ana logy i n A rchaeo log ica l R eason ing . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 2 (1) :112 . 1 968 Me thodo log ica l C ons ide ra t ions o f t he A rcheo log ica l U se o fE thnog raph ic D a ta . I n Man t h e H un t er , e d i ted b yR . B .L ee a nd I .DeVo re ,p p . 2 68 -273 . A ld ine ,C h icago . 1 978 N unamu i t E thnoarchaeo logy . A cadem ic P res s , N ew Y o rk . 1 980 W i l low Smoke a nd D ogs ' T a i ls : Hun te r -Ga the re r S e t t lemen tS ys tem s a nd A rchaeo log ica l S i te F o rma t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 ( 1) :4 -20 . 1 981 B ones : A nc ien t Men a nd Modern My ths . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982 T he A rchaeo logy o f P lace . J ourna l o f A n th ropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 1 : 5 -31 . 1 983 I n P ursu i t o f t he P as t : Decod ing t he A r chaeo log ica lR ecord . T hame sa nd H udson ,L ondon . 1 988 F ac t a nd F ic t ion a bou t t h e Z in jan th ropus F loo r : Da ta , A rgumen ts a nd I n terpre ta t ions . C ur r en t A n th ropo logy 2 9 (1) :123 -149 . B info rd , L . R . ( ed i to r ) 1 977 F or T heory B u i ld ing i n A r chaeo logy . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . B i rd , C . F .M . 1 993 Woman t h e T oo lmake r : E v idence f o r Women 's U se a nd Manu f ac tu re o fF laked S tone T oo ls i n A u s t ra l ia a nd N ew G u inea . I n W om en i nA rchaeo logy :A F em in is t C r i t ique , e d i ted b y H . d u C ros a nd L . Sm i th , p p . 2 2 -30 . O cca s iona l P ape rs i n P reh is to ry N o . 2 3 , D epa r tmen t o f P reh is to ry , R e sea rch S choo l o f P ac if ic S tud ie s .T he A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty , C anbe r ra . B i rdse l l , J .B . 1 968 S ome P red ic t ions f o r t h e P le is tocene B a sed o n E qu i l ib r ium S y s tem s a mong R ecen t H un te rG a the re r s .I n Man t h eH un t er , e d i ted b yR . B .L ee a nd I . D eVo re ,p p . 2 29 -240 . A ld ine , C h icago . B le ie r , R . 1 984 S c ience a nd G end er : AC r i t ique o fB io logy a nd I t s T heor ies o n Women . P e rgamon P re ss , N ew Y o rk . B l iss , L . C . , a nd J .H . R icha rd s 1 982 P resen t -day A rc t ic V ege ta t ion a nd E cosy s tem s a s aP red ic t ive T oo l f o r t h e A rc t ic -S teppe Mammo th B iome . I n P a leoeco logy o f B er ing ia , e d i ted b y D . M . H opk ins , J .V . Ma t thew s , J r . , C . E . S chwege r , a nd S . B . Y oung , p p . 2 41-257 . 1 00

A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . B lumensch ine , R .J . 1 986 C a rca ss C on sump t ion S equence s a nd t h e A rchaeo log ica l D is t inc t ion o fS caveng ing a nd H un t ing . J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 5 :639 -659 . 1 987 C ha rac te r is t ics o fa n E a r ly H om in id S caveng ing N iche . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 8 (4 ) :383 -407 . 1 989 A L andscape T aphonom ic Mode l o ft h e S ca le o f P reh is to r ic S caveng ing O ppo r tun i t ie s .J ou rna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 8 (4 ) :345 -37 1 . B lumensch ine , R . J . , a nd J .A . C ava l lo 1 992 S caveng ing a nd H uman E vo lu t ion . S c ien t if ic Am er ican 2 67 (4 ) :90 9 6 . B odenho rn , B . 1 990 " I 'm n o t t he G rea t H un te r , My W if e i s " : I f i up ia ta nd A n th ropo log ica l Mode l so fG ende r . I n u i t S t ud ie s 1 4 (1-2 ) :55 -74 . B o ism ie r , W . A . 1 991 S i te F o rma t ion a mong S uba rc t ic P eop les : An E thnoh is tor ica l A pproach . I n E thnoar chaeo log ica lA pproaches t o Mob i le C amp s i t es : H un ter -Ga ther er a nd P a s tora l is tC ase S t ud ie s ,e d i ted b y C . S . G amb le a nd W . A . Bo ism ie r , p p . 1 89 -214 . I n te rna t iona l Monog raph s i n P reh is to ry , A nn A rbo r , M ich igan . B o ldu r ian ,A . T . 1 991 F o lsom Mob i l i ty a nd O rgan iza t ion o f L i th ic T echno logy : A V iew f r om B lackwa te r D raw , N ew Mex ico . P la ins A n thropo log i s t3 6 (137 ) :281 -295 . B o len , K . M . 1 99 1 C hang ing G ende rR o le s a tt h eG a the re r H un te r T rans i t ion t o F a rme r . I n T he A rchaeo logy o f G end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 4 00 -405 . Un ive rs i ty o f Ca lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . 1 992 P reh is tor ic C ons t ruc t ion o f Mo the r ing . I n E xp lor ing G ender T hrough A rchaeo logy : S e lec ted P aper sf rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf er ence , e d i ted b y C . C laassen , p p . 4 9 -62 . P reh is tory P re ss , Mad ison , W iscons in . B onn ichsen , R . ,M . B ea ty ,M .D . T u rne r ,J .C .T u rne r , a nd D . D oug la s 1 992 P a leo ind ian L i th ic P rocu remen t a tt h e S ou th F o rk o fE ve r son C reek , S ou thwe s te rn Mon tana : A P re l im ina ry S ta temen t . I n I ce A ge H un ter s o f t h e R ock ies , e d i ted b yD . J .S t anfo rd a nd J .S .D ay , p p . 2 85 3 21 . U n ive r s i ty P res s o fC o lo rado ,N iwo t ,C o lo rado . B onn ichsen , R . , D . S tanfo rd , a nd J . L . F a s took 1 987 E nv i ronmen ta l C hange a nd Deve lopmen ta l H is to ry o f H uman A dap t ive P a t te rns ; t he P a leo ind ian C a se . I n N or th Amer ica a nd Ad jacen t O cean s d ur ing t h e L a s t Deg lac ia t ion , e d i ted b y W . F . R udd iman a nd 1 I . E . Wr igh t ,J r . ,p p . 4 03 -424 . G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , B ou lde r . B onn ich sen , R . , a nd K . L . T u rnm ire ( e d i to r s ) 1 991 C lov i s : O r ig ins a nd Adap ta t ions . P eop l ing o f t h e Ame r ica s P ub l ica t ions , C en te r f o r t he S tudy o f t h e F i r s t Ame r ican s ,O regon S ta te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l is . B rad ley , B . A . 1 993 P a leo Ind ian F laked S t one T e chno logy i nt h eN o r th Ame r ican H igh P la ins . I nF rom K o s t enk it o C lov is : U pper P a leo l i th ic -P a leo -I nd ian Adap ta t ion s , e d i ted b y 0 . S of fe r a nd N . D . P ra s lov , p p . 2 51-262 . P l enum P r e s s , N ew Y o rk . B ra in , C . K . 1 981 T he H un ter s o r t h e Hun ted? A n I n t roduc t ion t oA f r ican C ave T aphonomy . U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s , C h icago . B r iden tha l , R . , C . K oonz , a nd S .S tua rd 1 987 I n t roduc t ion . I n B ecom ing V is ib le : Women i n E uropean H is tory , e d i ted b y R .B r iden tha l , C . Koonz , a nd S .S tua rd , p p . 1 1 2 . 2 nd e d . H ough ton M if f l in , B os ton . B r iggs , J .L . 1 974 E sk imo Women : Make rs o f Men . I n Many S i s ter s : Women i n C ros s -Cu l tura l P er spec t ive ,

C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . C a r lson , D . L . , a nd D . G . S t ee le 1 992 H uman - Mammo th S i te s : P rob lem s a nd P ro spec t s . I n P robosc id eans a nd P a leo ind ian I n terac t ions , e d i ted b y J .W . F ox , C . B . Sm i th , a nd K . T .W i lk ins , p p . 1 49 -169 . Ma rkham P r e s s F und o fB ay lo rU n ive r s i ty P re s s , Waco . C a r tm i l l , M . 1 983 " Fou r L eg s G ood , Two L eg s B ad " : Man 's P lace ( i f A ny ) i n N a tu re . N a tura l H i s to ry 9 2 (11 ) :64 -79 . C h ipp inda le , C . 1 993 Amb i t ion , D e f e rence , D i sc repancy , C onsump t ion : T he I n te l lec tua l B ackg round t o aP os t P roce ssua l A rchaeo logy . I n A rchaeo log ica l T heo ry : Who S e t s t h e A genda? , e d i ted b y N . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 2 7 -36 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . C laa s sen , C . 1 992 Q ue s t ion ing G ende r : A n I n t roduc t ion . I n E xp lor ing G ender T hrough A rchaeo logy : S e lec ted P aper sf rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf er ence , e d i ted b y C . C laa s sen ,p p . 1 9 .P reh is to ry P re s s , Mad i son ,W i scon s in . C laa s sen , C . ( e d i to r ) 1 992 E xp lor ing G end er T hrough A rchaeo logy : S e lec ted P aper sf rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf er ence .P r eh is to ry P re s s , Mad i son ,W is con s in . C laa s sen , C . , a nd R . A . J oyce ( e d i to r s ) 1 997 W omen i n P reh is tory : N or th Amer ica a nd Mesoamer ica . U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P r e s s ,P h i lade lph ia . C l ique t , R . L . 1 984 T he R e levance o f S oc iob io log ica l T heo ry f o r Emanc ipa to ry F em in i sm . J ourna lo fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 3 :117 -127 . C ohen , M . N . , a nd S .B enne t t 1 993 S ke le ta l E v idence f o r S ex R o le s a nd G ende r H ie ra rch ie s i nP r eh is to ry . I n S e x a nd G end er H ierarch ies , e d i ted b y B . D . M i l le r , p p . 2 73 -296 .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . C o lbe r t , E . H . 1 937 P le is tocene Mamma ls o f N o r th Ame r ica a nd T he i r R e la t ions t o E u ra s ian F o rm s . I n E ar ly Man , e d i ted b y G . G . Ma cCu rdy , p p . 1 73 184 . J . B .L ipp inco t t ,L ondon . C o l l ie r , J .F . 1 974 Women i nP o l i t ic s . I nW oman , C u l tur e , a nd S oc i e ty , e d i ted b yM . Z .R o sa ldo a nd L .L amphe re , p p . 8 9 -96 . S t a nf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , S t anfo rd . C o l l ie r , J .F . , a nd M . Z .R osa ldo 1 981 P o l i t ics a nd G ende r i nS imp le S oc ie t ie s . I n S exua l Mean ing s : T he C u l tura l C on s t ruc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty , e d i ted b y S .B . O r tne r a nd H . Wh i tehead , p p . 2 75 -329 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . C ona ty , G . T . 1 995 E conom ic Mode ls a nd B lack f oo t I d eo logy . Amer ican E thno log i s t2 2 (2 ) :403 -409 . C onkey ,M . W . 1 99 1 D oe s i tMake aD if f e rence ? F em in is t T h ink ing a nd A rchaeo log ie s o f G ende r . I n T h e A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 2 4 -33 . U n ivers i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . 1 993 Mak ing t h e C onnec t ion s : F em in is t T heo ry a nd A rchaeo log ie so fG ende r . I nW om en i nA rchaeo logy :A F em in i s t C r i t ique , e d i ted b y H . d u C ro s a nd L . Sm i th , p p . 3 15 . O cca s iona l P ape r s i n P reh is to ry N o . 2 3 , D epa r tmen t o f P reh is to ry , R e sea rch S choo l o fP ac if ic S t ud ie s .T he A u s t ra l ian N a t iona lU n ive r s i ty ,C anbe r r a . C onkey ,M . W . , a nd J .M . G e ro 1 99 1 T en s ion s , P l u ra l i t ie s , a nd E ngende r ing A rchaeo logy : A n I n t roduc t ion t o Women a nd P r eh is to ry . I n E ngende r ing A r chaeo logy : W omen a nd P r eh i s to ry , e d i ted b yJ .M . G e ro a nd M . W . C onkey ,p p . 3 30 . B a s i lB lackwe l l ,O x f o rd . C onkey , M . W . , a nd J .D . S pec to r 1 984 A rchaeo logy a nd t h e S tudy o f G ende r . I n A d vances i nA rchaeo log ica l M e thod a nd T heory ,v o l . 7 ,e d i ted b yM .B .S ch if f e r ,p p . 1 38 .A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk .

e d i ted b y C . J . Ma t th ia s son , p p . 2 61-304 . F ree P re s s , N ew Y o rk . B rown , J .K . 1 975 I r oquo is Women : A n E thnoh is to r ic N o te . I n T oward a nA n thropo logy o f Women , e d i ted b y R . R .R e i te r , p p . 2 35 -251 . Mon th ly R ev iew P re s s , N ew Y o rk . 1 979a A N o te o n t h e D iv i s ion o f L abo r B y S ex . R ep r in t ed . I n Wom en a nd S oc i e ty : A nA n thropo log ica l R ead e r , e d i ted b y S .W . T i f f any , p p . 3 6 -47 . E den P re s s Women 's P ub l ica t ion s , Mon t rea l . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 970 , Am er ican A n thropo log i s t7 2 (5 ) :1073 1078 . 1 979b E conom ic O rgan iza t ion a nd t h e P o s i t ion o f Women Among t h eI r oquo is .I nW omen a nd S oc ie ty :A n A n thropo log ica lR ead er , e d i ted b y S .W . T if f any , p p . 4 8 -74 .E den P re s s Women 's P ub l ica t ions , Mon t rea l . B rown , J .S .H . 1 990 S t ranger s i n B lood : F ur T rad e C ompany F am i l ies i n I nd ian C oun tr y . R ep r in ted . U n ive r s i ty o f B r i t ish C o lumb ia P re ss , V ancouve r . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 980 , U n ive r s i ty o f B r i t ish C o lumb ia P re s s . B ruhn s , K . 0 . 1 991 S exua l A c t iv i t ie s : S ome T hough t s o n t h e S exua l D iv is ion o f L abo r a nd A rchaeo log ica l I n te rp re ta t ion . I nT h eA rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N .D .W i l low s ,p p .4 20 -429 .U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . B rumba ch ,H .J . ,a nd R .J a rvenpa 1 997 Woman t h eH un te r : E thnoa rchaeo log ica l L e ssons f r om C h ipewyan L if e C yc le D ynam ics . I n Women i n P reh is tory : N or th Amer ica a nd Me soamer ica , e d i ted b y C . C laa s sen a nd R . A . J oyce , p p . 1 7 -32 . U n ive r s i ty o f P ennsy lvan ia P re s s , P h i lade lph ia . B ryan , A . L . 1 991 T he F lu ted -Po in t T rad i t ion i n t h e Ame r ica s -One o f S eve ra l A dap ta t ions t o L a te P l e i s tocene Ame r ican E nv i ronmen t s . I n C lov i s : O r ig in s a nd A dap ta t ions , e d i ted b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K . L . T u rnm i re , p p . 1 5 -33 . C en te r f o r t h e S tudy o ft h e F i r s t Ame r ican s ,O regon S t a te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l is . B ryan , A . L . , R . M . C a sam ique la , J .M . C ruxen t , R . G ruhn , a nd C . O ch sen iu s 1 978 A n E lJ obo Ma s todon K i l l a t T a ima -Ta ima , V enezue la . S c i ence 2 00 :1275 1277 . B ryan , K . 1 937 G eo logy o ft h e F o lsom D epo s i t s i nN ew Mex ico a nd C o lo rado . I n E ar l y Man , e d i ted b y G . G . Ma cCu rdy ,p p . 1 39 -152 .J .B .L ipp inco t t ,L ondon . B uenaven tu ra -Po sso , E . , a nd S .E . B rown 1 980 F o rced T ran s i t ion f r om E ga l i ta r ian i sm t o Ma le D om inance : T he B a r i o f C o lomb ia . I n Women a nd C o lon iza t ion : A n th ropo log ica lP er spec t ive s ,e d i ted b yM .E t ienne a nd E .L ea cock ,p p . 1 09 133 . P r aege r ,N ew Y o rk . B u l l , W . B . 1 991 G eomorph ic R espon ses t o C l ima t ic C hange .O x f o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . B unn , H . T . 1 986 P a t te rns o fS ke le ta l R ep re sen ta t ion a nd H om in id S ubs is tence A c t iv i t ie s a t O lduva i G o rge , T anzan ia , a nd K oob i F o ra , K enya . J ourna l o fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 5 :673 -690 . B unn , H . T . , L . E . B a r t ram , a nd E . M . K ro l l 1 988 V a r iab i l i ty i nB one A s semb lage F o rma t ion f r om H adza H un t ing , S caveng ing , a nd C a r ca s s P roce s s ing . J ourna l o fA n th ropo log ica lA r chaeo logy 7 : 412 -457 . B ye rs , D . S . 1 954 B u l l B rook -A F lu ted P o in t s i te i n I p sw ich , Ma ssachu se t t s . Amer i can A n t iqu i ty 1 9 (4 ) :343 3 51 . 1 955 A dd i t iona l I n f o rma t ion o n t h e B u l l B rook s i te , Ma s sa chu se t t s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 0 (3 ) :274 -276 . C annon ,A . 1 991 G ende r , S t a tu s , a nd t h eF ocu so f Ma te r ia l D i sp lay . I n T he A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 1 44 -149 . U n ive r s i ty o f 1 0 1

C ook , H . J . 1 925 Def in i te E v idence o fH uman A r t if ac t s i n t h e Ame r ican P l e is tocene . S c ience 6 2 :459 -460 . C o t te r , J .L . 1 937 T he S ign if icance o fF o lsom a nd Y uma A r t ifac t O ccu r rence s i n t h e L igh t o f T ypo logy a nd D is t r ibu t ion . Twen ty -f if th A nn iversary S tud ies , P h i lade lph ia A n thropo log ica l S oc ie ty V o l . 1 : 27 -35 . U n ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia P re s s , P h i lade lph ia . C oue s , E . ( e d i to r ) 1 965 N ew L igh t o n t h e E ar ly H is tory o f t h e G r ea ter N or thwes t : T he Manuscr ip t J ourna l s o f A lexand er H enry a nd o f Dav id T hompson , 1 799 -18 14 . R ep r in ted . 3v o ls . R oss a nd Ha ine s , M inneapo l is . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 897 , F ranc is P . H a rpe r , N ew Y o rk . C ox , S . L . 1 986 A R e -ana lys is o f t h e S hoop s i te . A rchaeo logy o fE as tern N or th Amer ica 1 4 :101-170 . C ru ikshank , J . 1 979 A thapaskan Women : L ives a nd L egend s . N a t iona l Museum o f Man Me rcu ry S e r ie s , C anad ian E thno logy S e rv ice P ape r No . 5 7 . N a t iona l Mu seum so fC anada ,O t tawa . 1 990 L if e L ived L ike a S t o ry : L if e S tor ies o f T hree Y ukon N a t ive E lder s . Un ive r s i ty o f B r i t ish C o lumb ia P re s s , V ancouve r . C ucch ia r i , S . 1 981 T he G ende r R evo lu t ion a nd t he T rans i t ion f r om B isexua l H o rde t oP a t r i loca l B and : T he O r ig ins o fG ende r H ie ra rchy . I nS exua l Mean ings : T he C u l tura l C ons truc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty , e d i ted b y S . B . O r tne r a nd H . Wh i tehead , p p . 3 1-79 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ,C amb r idge . C u r ran , M . L . , a nd J . R . G r imes 1 989 E co log ica l I mp l ica t ions f o r P a leo ind ian L i th ic P rocu remen t E conomy i n N ew E ng land . I n E as tern P a leo ind ian L i th ic R esource U se , e d i ted b y C . J .E l l is a nd J .C . L o th rop ,p p .4 1-74 . We s tv iew P re s s , B ou lde r . D ah lbe rg , F . 1 981 I n t roduc t ion . I n Woman t h e G a therer , e d i ted b yF . Dah lbe rg , p p . 1 33 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re ss , N ew H aven . D ah lbe rg , F . ( e d i to r ) 1 981 Woman t h e G a therer . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven . D amm , C . 1 991 F rom B u r ia ls t oG ende r R o le s : P rob lem s a nd P o ten t ia l i n P os t -P roce ssua l A rchaeo logy . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 1 30 -135 . Un ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . D a r t , R . A . 1 953 T he P reda to ry T rans i t ion f r om A pe t o Man . I n terna t iona lA n thropo log ica lL ingu i s t ic sR ev iew 1 : 20 1 -2 19 . D a rw in , C . 1 874 T he D escen t o f Man a nd S e lec t ion i n R e la t ion t oS ex , 2v o ls . 2 nd e d . P .F . C o l l ie r a nd S on , N ew Y o rk . D av id , P . P . 1 981 S tab i l ized Dune R idge s i n n o r the rn S a ska tchewan . C anad ian J ourna l o f E ar th S c iences 1 8 :286 -310 . D av is , L . B . 1 993 P a leo Ind ian A rchaeo logy i nt h e H igh P la ins a nd R ocky Moun ta ins o f Mon tana . I n F rom K os tenk i t o C lov i s : U pper P a leo l i th ic -P a leo -Ind ian A dap ta t ions , e d i ted b y 0 . S of f e r a nd N . D . P ra s lov , p p . 2 63 -277 .P lenum P re ss ,N ew Y o rk . D av is , L . B . , a nd S . T . G re ise r 1 992 I nd ian C reek P a leo ind ians : E a r ly O ccupa t ion o f t he E lkho rn Moun ta ins S ou thea s t F lank , We s t -Cen t ra l Mon tana . I n I c eA ge H un ter so ft h eR ock ie s , e d i ted b yD . J .S tanfo rd a nd J . S . D ay , p p . 2 25 -283 . Un ive rs i ty P ress o f C o lo rado ,N iwo t ,C o lo rado . D av is , L . B . , S .T . G re ise r , a nd N . T o th 1 985 U se -wea r A na ly se s o fP a leo ind ian Un if ace s f r om t h e I n i t ia l L a teG lac ia l O ccupa t ion a t t he I nd ian C reek s i te . C ur r en t

R e search i nt h eP l e is tocene 2 : 45 -46 . D av is , L . B . , a nd M . W i lson ( ed i to rs ) 1 978 B i son P rocuremen t a nd U t i l i za t ion : A S ympos ium . P l a ins A n th ropo log is t Memo i r 1 4 , V o lume 2 3 , No . 8 2 ,P a r t2 . D ee tz ,J . 1 965 T he D ynam ics o fS t y l i s t ic C hange i nA nkara C eram ics . I l ino is S tud ie s i n A n th ropo logy N o . 4 . U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino is P re s s , U rbana . D empsey , H . A . 1 980 R ed C row , W ar r ior C h ief . We s te rn P roduce rP ra i r ie B ook s , S aska toon , S a ska tchewan . D empsey , J . 1 993 E f f ec t s o n A bo r ig ina l C u l tu re s D ue t o C on tac t w i th H en ry K e lsey . I n T hr ee H undr ed P ra ir ie Y ear s :H enr yK e l sey ' s " I n land C oun t ry o fG ood R epor t , " e d i ted b y H . E pp , p p . 1 31-135 . C anad ian P l a ins R e sea rch C en te r ,U n ive r s i ty o fR eg ina ,S a ska tchewan . D en ig , E . T . 1 930 I nd ian T r ibes o ft h e U pper M i s sour i , e d i ted b y J .N . B . H ew i t t , p p . 3 75 -628 . F o r ty s ix th A nnua l R epo r t o f t h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . D en t , R . J . , a nd B . K aufman 1 985 A bo r ig ina l S ub s i s tence a nd S i te E co logy a sI n te rp re ted f r om F ine S ca le F l o ra l R ema ins . I nS hawnee -M in is ink , e d i ted b y C . McNe t t , p p . 5 5 -79 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . D eSme t , P . J . 1 904 L if e , L e t ter s a nd T rave l s o fF a ther P ier re -J ean D eSme t , S .J . 1 801 -1873 . 4v o ls . E d i ted b y H . M . C h i t tenden a nd A . T . R icha rdson . F ranc is P . H a rpe r , N ew Y o rk . D evens , C . 1 991 G ende r a nd C o lon iza t ion i n N a t ive C anad ian C ommun i t ies : E xam in ing t he H is to r ica l R eco rd . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 5 10 -515 . Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . D eve reux , G . 1 950 T he P sycho logy o fF em in ine G en i ta l B leed ing . I n terna t iona l J ourna l o f P sychoana ly s is 3 1 :237 -257 . d iL eona rdo , M . ( e d i to r ) 1 991 G end er a tt h e C ros s road so f K now ledge : F em in i s tA n thropo logy i nt h e P os tmod ern E ra . U n ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia P re s s , B e rke ley . D i l lehay , T . D . 1 989 Mon te V erd e : AL a te P le i s tocene S e t t lemen ti nC h i l e , v o l . I .Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P r e s s , Wa sh ing ton . D incauze , D . F . 1 984 A n A rchaeo -Log ica l E va lua t ion o f t h e C a se f o r P re -C lov is O ccupa t ion s . I n Advances i n W or ld A r chaeo logy , v o l . 3 ,e d i ted b yF . Wendo r fa nd A . E .C lose ,p p .2 75 -323 . A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 993 F lu ted P o in t s i n t h e E a s te rn F ores t s . I n F rom K os tenk i t o C lov is : U pper P a leo l i th ic -P a leo Ind ian A dap ta t ions , e d i ted b y 0 . S of f e r a nd N . D . P ra s lov , p p . 2 79 -292 .P l enum P re s s , N ew Y o rk . Dobk in d e R ios , M . , a nd B . H ayden 1 985 O do rous D if f e ren t ia t ion a nd V a r iab i l i ty i nt h eS exua lD iv i s ion o f L abo r a mong H un te r /Ga the re r s . J ourna l o f H uman E vo lu t ion 1 4 :219 -228 . D odge , R . I . 1 959 O ur W i ld I nd ians : T h ir ty thr ee y ear s ' P er sona l E xper ience among t h e R ed Men o ft h e G r ea t W es t . A rche rH ouse , N ew Y o rk . Domma sne s , L . H . 1 992 Two D ecade s o f Women i n P reh is to ry a nd i nA rchaeo logy i nN o rway . AR ev iew . N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev iew 2 5 (1 ) :1-14 . D rape r , P . 1 975 ! Kung Women : C on t ras t s i n S exua l E ga l i ta r ian ism i nF o rag ing a nd S eden ta ry C on tex t s . I n T oward a n A n thropo logy o f W omen , e d i ted b y R . R . R e i te r , p p . 7 7 -109 . Mon th ly R ev iew P r es s , N ew Y o rk . d u C ros , H . , a nd L . Sm i th ( ed i to r s ) 1 993 Women i n A rchaeo logy : AF em in is tC r i t ique . O cca s iona l P ape r s i n P reh is to ry N o . 2 3 , D epa r tmen t o fP reh is to ry , R e sea rch S choo l o f P ac if ic S tud ie s . T he A us t ra l ian N a t iona l 1 02

S oc ia lA n th ropo logy , b yE .E . E vans -P r i tcha rd , p p . 3 7 5 8 .F abe ra nd F abe r ,L ondon . Ewe r s , J .C . 1 969 T he H or s e i nB lackf oo tI nd ian C u l tur e , w i th C ompara t iv e Ma t er ia lf rom o t her W es t ern T r ibes . R ep r in ted . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , Wa sh ing ton . O r ig ina l ly p ub l i shed 1 955 , B u l le t in 1 59 , B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , Sm i thson ian I ns t i tu t ion , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . 1 988 T he B lackf ee t : R a id er s o n t h e N or thwes tern P la in s . R ep r in ted . U n ive r s i ty o f Ok lahoma P ress , N o rman . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 958 , U n ive r s i ty o f O k lahoma P r e s s ,N o rman . F a i tho rn , E . 1 975 T he C oncep t o f P o l lu t ion Among t h e K ä f eo ft h eP apua N ew G u inea H igh land s .I n T oward a n A n thropo logy o fW omen ,e d i ted b yR .R .R e i te r ,p p . 1 27 1 40 . Mon th ly R ev iew P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . F ed igan , L . M . 1 986 T he C hang ing R o le o f Women i n Mode ls o f H uman E vo lu t ion . A nnua l R ev iew o f A n thropo logy 1 5 :25 -66 . F e c l je ,D . W . ,J .M . Wh i te , M .C .W i l son ,D .E .N e lson , J .S . V oge l , a nd J .R . S ou thon 1 995 V e rm i l ion L ake s S i te : A dap ta t ions a nd E nv i ronmen t s i nt h eC anad ian R ock ie s Du r ing t h e L a te s t P le is tocene a nd E a r ly H o locene . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 6 0 ( 1) :81108 . F enne l l , V . 1 992 C ommen t s o n : Women 's S ta tus i n E ga l i ta r ian S oc ie ty : I mp l ica t ion s f o r S oc ia l E vo lu t ion , b y E . L ea cock . I n I nqu iry a nd D eba t e i nt h e H uman S c ience s : C on t r ibu t ions f rom C ur r en t A n thropo logy 1 960 -1990 , e d i ted b y S . S i lve rman , p p . 2 42 -243 . U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s ,C h icago . F e r r ing , C . R . 1 995 T he L a te Q ua te rna ry G eo logy a nd A rchaeo logy o f t h e A ub rey C lov is S i te , T exa s : A P r e l im ina ry R epo r t .I nA nc ien tP eop l es a nd L and scape s , e d i ted b y E . J ohn son , p p . 2 73 -28 1 . Mu seum o fT exa s T e ch U n ive r s i ty ,L ubbock . F i enup -R io rdan , A . 1 990 T he B i rd a nd t h e B ladde r : T he C o smo logy o fC en t ra l Y up ' ik S ea lH un t ing .I n u i tS t ud ie s 1 4 (1 -2 ) :23 -38 . F igg ins , J .D . 1 927 T he A n t iqu i ty o f Man i n Ame r ica . N a tura lH i s tor y 2 7 (3 ) :229 -239 . 1 933 A F u r the rC on t r ibu t ion t ot h eA n t iqu i ty o f Man i n Ame r ica . P roceed ings o f t h e C o lorado Museum o f N a tura lH i s to ry 1 2 (2 ) :4 -8 . F i she r ,D . C . 1 987 Ma s todon tP rocu remen tb yP a leo ind ia ns o ft h e G rea tL ake s R eg ion : H un t ing o rS caveng ing? I n T he E vo lu t ion o fH uman H un t ing , e d i ted b y M . H . N i teck i a nd D . V . N i teck i , p p . 3 09 -421 . P l enum P re s s , N ew Y o rk . F i she r ,J .W . ,J r . 1 992 O b se rva t ion so n t h eL a te P l e i s tocene B one A s semb lage f r om t h eL amb S p r ing s i te , C o lo rado . I n I c e A ge H un t er s o f t h e R ock ies , e d i ted b y D . J . S t anf o rd a nd J .S .D ay , p p . 5 1 -8 1 . U n ive r s i ty P re s s o f C o lo rado ,N iwo t ,C o lo rado . F l anne ry ,K . V . 1 967 C u l tu re H i s to ry v .C u l tu ra l P roce s s : A D eba te i n Ame r ican A rchaeo logy . S c ien t if i c Amer ican 2 17 (2 ) : 19 122 . 1 973 A rcheo logy w i th aC ap i ta l " S ." I nR e sear ch a nd T heor yi nC ur r en tA r cheo logy , e d i ted b yC .L .R edman , p p .4 7 -53 .J ohn W i ley a nd S ons ,N ew Y o rk . F l anne ry , R . 1 932 T he P os i t ion o f Woman a mong t h e Me sca le ro A pa che . P r im i t iv e Man 5 ( 2 -3 ) :26 -32 . 1 935 T he P o s i t ion o f Woman a mong t h eE a s te rn C re e . P r im i t iv e Man 8 ( 3 ) :81-86 . F lax , J . 1 987 P o s tmode rn ism a nd G ende r R e la t ion s i n F em in is t T heo ry . S i gn s : J ourna l o fW omen i n C u l tur e a nd S oc ie ty 1 2 (2 ) :621-643 .

U n ive r s i ty , C anbe r ra . D uke , P . 1 991 R ecogn iz ing G ende r i n P la ins H un t ing G roups : I s i tP os s ib le o r e ven N ece ssa ry? I n T h e A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 2 80 -283 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A r cha eo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . D uke , P . , a nd M . C . W i lson ( e d i to r s ) 1 995 B eyond S ub s i s t enc e :P la ins A r chaeo log ya nd t h eP os tproce s sua l C r i t ique .U n ive r s i ty o fA labama P r e s s ,T u sca loo sa . D unba r , J .S . 1 991 R e sou rce O r ien ta t ion o f C lov is a nd S uwannee A ge P a leo ind ian S i t e s i nF lo r ida . I n C lov i s : O r ig in s a nd A dap ta t ions , e d i te d b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K .L .T u rnm i re ,p p . 1 85 -213 .C en te rf o rt h eS tudy o ft h e F i r s t Ame r ican s ,O regon S t a te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l i s . E a r le , T . K . , a nd R . W . P reuce l 1 987 P roce ssua l A rchaeo logy a nd t h e R ad ica l C r i t ique . C ur r en t A n th ropo logy 2 8 :50 1 -538 . E b iha ra , M . 1 974 K hme r V i l lage Women i nC ambod ia : A H appy B a lance . I n Many S i s t er s : Women i n C ros s C u l tura lP er spec t iv e , e d i ted b y C . J . Ma t th ia s son , p p . 3 0 5 -347 .F ree P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . E h renbe rg , M . 1 989 Women i nP r eh i s tory . Un ive r s i ty o f O k lahoma P re s s ,N o rman . E i se ley , L .C . 1 945 My th a nd Mammo th i nA rchaeo logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1(2 ) :84 -87 . 1 946 Men , Ma s todons , a nd My th . T he S c ien t if ic Mon th ly 6 2 :517 -524 . E i sne r , W . R . 1 991 T he C onsequence s o fG ende r B ia s i n Mo r tua ry A na ly s is : AC a se S t udy . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 3 52 -357 . Un ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . E ld redge , N . , a nd I .T a t te r sa l l 1 982 T he My th s o fH uman E vo lu t ion .C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . E l l is , C . J . , a nd J .C . L o th rop ( e d i to r s ) 1 989 E as tern P a leo ind ian L i th ic R esource U se . We s tv iew P re s s , B ou lde r . E nge lb re ch t , W . E . , a nd C . K . S ey f e r t 1 994 P a leo ind ian Wa te rc ra f t : E v idence a nd I mp l ica t ions .N or th Amer ican A r chaeo log i s t 1 5 (3 ) :221 -234 . E nge l s ,F . 1 972 T he O r ig in o ft h eF am i l y , P r iva t eP rope r ty a nd t h e S t a te : I nL igh t o ft h e R e searches o fL ew i s H . Morgan .W i th I n t roduc t ion a nd N o te sb yE .B .L ea cock . I n te rna t iona l ,N ew Y o rk . E nge ls tad , E . 1 99 1 F em in is t T heo ry a nd P os t -P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy . I nT he A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N .D .W i l low s ,p . 16 -120 .U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . E pp , H . ( e d i to r ) 1 993 T hree H und r ed P ra ir ie Y ear s : H enr y K e l sey ' s " I n land C oun t ry o fG ood R epor t ." C anad ian P la ins R esea rch C en te r , U n ive rs i ty o f R eg ina , S a sk a t chewan . E s t ioko -G r iff in , A . , a nd P . B . G r i f f in 1 98 1 Woman t h e H un t e r : T he A g ta . I n Woman t h e G a th er er ,e d i ted b yF . D ah lbe rg , p p . 1 21-151 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew H aven . E t ienne , M . , a nd E .L eacock 1 980 I n t roduc t ion . I n W omen a nd C o lon i za t ion :A n thropo log ica lP er spec t ive s , e d i ted b yM . E t ienne a nd E .L eacock ,p p . 1 24 . P raege r , N ew Y o rk . E t ienne , M . , a nd E . L eacock ( e d i to r s ) 1 980 Women a nd C o lon i za t ion : A n thropo log ica l P er spec t ives . P raege r , N ew Y o rk . E vans -P r i t cha rd , E . E . 1 965 T he P os i t ion o f Women i n P r im i t ive S oc ie t ie s a nd i nO u r Own . I n T he P os i t ion o f W omen i n P r im i t ive S oc ie t ie s a nd O ther E s say s i n 1 03

F o rb i s , R .G . , a nd J .D . S pe r ry 1 952 A n E a r ly Man S i te i n Mon tana . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1 8 (2 ) :127 133 . F ra t t ,L . 1 991 A P re l im ina ry A na ly s is o fG ende rB ia si nt h e S ix teen th a nd S even teen th C en tu ry S pan ish C o lon ia l D ocumen ts o f t h e Ame r ican S ou thwe s t . I n T h e A rchaeo logy o fG end e r , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 2 45 -251 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . F reeman , L . G . , J r . 1 968 A T heo re t ica l F ramewo rk f o r I n te rp re t ing A rchaeo log ica l Ma te r ia ls . I n Man t h e H un t er , e d i ted b yR .B .L ee a nd I .D eVo re ,p p . 2 62 -267 . A ld ine ,C h icago . F r ied l , E . 1 967 T he P os i t ion o f Women : A ppea rance a nd R ea l i ty . A n thropo log ica lQ ua r ter ly 4 0 (3 ) :97 108 . 1 975 W omen a nd Men :A nA n thropo log i s t ' s V i ew .H o l t , R ineha r ta nd W ins ton ,N ew Y o rk . F r ison , G . C . 1 976 C u l tu ra l A c t iv i ty A ssoc ia ted w i th P reh is to r ic Mammo th B u tche r ing a nd P roces s ing . S c ience 1 94 :728 -730 . 1 977 P a leo ind ian S i te s a nd E conom ic O r ien ta t ion s i n t h eB ig H o rn B a s in . I n P a leo ind ian L if eway s , e d i t ed b y E .J ohn son , p p . 9 7 116 . T he Mu seum J ou rna l 1 7 , We s t T exa s Mu seum A s soc ia t ion ,L ubbock . 1 978 P r eh i s tor ic H un t er so ft h eH igh P la in s . A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982a P a leo Ind ian W in te r S ub s is tence S t ra teg ie s o n t h e H igh P l a in s . I n P la ins I nd ian S t ud ie s : AC o l l ec t ion o fE s say s i nH onor o fJ ohn C . Ewer s a nd W a ldo R . W ed e l , e d i ted b y D . H . U be lake r a nd H e rman J .V io la , p p . 1 93 -201 . Sm i thson ian C on t r ibu t ions t o A n th ropo logy N o . 3 0 . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , C i ty o f Wa sh ing ton . 1 982b B ison P rocu remen t . I n T he A ga te B a s in S i t e : A R ecord o f t h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h e N or thwe s t e rn H igh P la in s , e d i ted b yG .C .F r ison a nd D . J .S t anf o rd ,p p .2 63 -269 . A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982c R ad ioca rbon D a te s . I n T he A ga t e B as in S i t e : A R ecord o f t h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h e N or thwe s te rn H igh P la ins ,e d i ted b yG .C .F r ison a nd D . J .S t anf o rd ,p p . 1 78 -180 . A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982d F o l som C omponen t s . I n T he A ga te B a s in S i t e :A R ecord o f t h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h e N or thwe s te rn H igh P la in s ,e d i ted b yG .C .F r ison a nd D . J .S t anf o rd ,p p .3 7 -76 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982e B i son D en t i t ion S t ud ie s .I n T he A ga t eB a s in S i t e : A R ecord o f t h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h e N or thwe s te rn H igh P la ins ,e d i ted b yG .C .F r ison a nd D . J .S t anf o rd ,p p .2 40 -260 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 984 T he C a r t e r /Ke r r - McGee P a leo ind ian S i te : C u l tu ra l R e sou rce Managemen t a nd A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch . Am er ican A n t iqu i ty 4 9 (2 ) :288 -314 . 1 986a H uma n A r t if ac t s , Mammo th P rocu remen t , a nd P l e i s tocene E x t inc t ion s a sV iewed f r om t h e C o lby S i te . I n T he C o lby Mammo th S i te : T aphonomy a nd A rchaeo logy o f aC lov i s K i l l i nN or thern W yom ing , e d i ted b y G . C . F r ison a nd L . C . T odd , p p . 9 1 -114 . U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s ,A lbuque rque . 1 986b Mammo th H un t ing a nd B u tche r ing f r om a P e r spec t ive o fA f r ican E lephan t C u l l ing . I n T he C o lby Mammo th S i t e : T aphonomy a nd A r chaeo logy o f aC lov i s K i l li nN or thern W yom ing ,e d i ted b yG . C .F r ison a nd L . C .T odd ,p p . 15 -134 .U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P r e s s , A lbuque rque . 1 987 P reh is to r ic , P la ins - Moun ta in , L a rge - Mamma l , C ommuna l H un t ing S t ra teg ie s . I n T he E vo lu t ion o f H uman H un t ing , e d i ted b y M . H . N i teck i a nd D . V . 1 04

N i te ck i ,p . 1 77 -223 . P l enum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 988 P a leo ind ian S ub s is tence a nd S e t t lemen t d u r ing P os t -C lov i s T ime s o n t h e N o r thwe s te rn P l a in s , t h e A d ja cen t Moun ta in R ange s , a nd I n te rmon tane B a s in s .I n Am er ican sB ef or e C o lumbus :I c e -Age O r ig in s ,e d i ted b y R . C .C a r l i s le , p p . 8 3 -106 . E thno logy Monog raph s N o . 1 2 , D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f P i t t sbu rgh ,P enn sy lvan ia . 1 989 E xpe r imen ta l U se o fC lov is Weapon ry a nd T oo l s o n A f r ican E lephan t s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 4 (4 ) :766 7 84 . 1 990a C lov i s , G oshen , a nd F o lsom : L if eway s a nd C u l tu ra l R e la t ionsh ips . I n Megaf auna a nd Man : D iscove ry o f Amer ica ' s H ear t land , e d i ted b y L . D . A genb roa d , J .I .Mead , a nd L . W . N e l son , p p . 1 00 108 . T he Mammo th S i te o f H o t S p r ing s S c ien t if ic P ape r s V o lume 1 ,H o tS p r ings ,S ou th D ako t a . 1 990b T he N o r th Ame r ican H igh P l a in s P a leo ind ian : A n O ve rv iew . R ev i s ta d eA rqueo log ia Amer icana 2 : 95 4 . 1 991a P r eh i s tor ic H un t er s o ft h e H igh P la in s . 2 nd e d . A cadem ic P r e s s ,S an D iego . 1 991b T he G o shen P a leo ind ian C omp lex :N ew D a ta f o r P a leo ind ian R esea rch . I n C lov i s : O r ig ins a nd A d ap ta t ion s , e d i ted b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K . L . T u rnm i re ,p p . 1 33 -151 . C en te r f o rt h eS t udy o ft h eF i r s t Ame r ican s ,O regon S t a te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l is . 1 992 T he F oo th i l ls -Mou n ta in sa nd t h eO pen P l a in s : T he D icho tomy i n P a leo ind ian S ubs is tence S t ra teg ie s B e tween Two E cosy s tem s . I n I c e A ge H un ter s o ft h e R ock i es , e d i t ed b yD .J .S t anfo rd a nd J .S .D ay ,p p . 3 23 3 42 .U n ive r s i ty P re s s o fC o lo rado ,N iwo t ,C o lo rado . 1 993 N o r th Ame r ican H igh P l a ins P a leo Ind ian H un t ing S t ra teg ie s a nd Weapon ry A s semb lage s . I n F rom K o s t enk i t o C lov i s : U pper P a l eo l i th ic -P a l eo I nd ian A dap ta t ions , e d i ted b y O . S of f e r a nd N . D . P ra s lov ,p . 2 37 -249 . P l enum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . F r ison , G . C . , a nd B . A . B rad ley 1 980 F o l som T oo l s a nd T echno logy a tt h eH an son S i te , W yom ing . U n ive r s i ty o f N ew Mex ico P r e s s , A lbuque rque . F r ison ,G . C . , a nd C . C ra ig 1 982 B one , A n t le r , a nd I v o ry A r t if ac t s a nd Manuf ac tu re T echno logy . I n T he A ga t e B a s in S i t e : AR ecord o ft h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h eN or thwe s t ern H igh P la in s , e d i ted b y G . C . F r ison a nd D . J .S t anf o rd , p p . 1 57 -173 . A cadem ic P r e s s , N ew Y o rk . F r ison , G . C . , a nd D . J .S t anf o rd ( e d i to r s ) 1 982 T he A ga t e B a s in S i t e : AR ecord o ft h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h e N or thwe s t ern H igh P la ins . A cadem ic P r e s s , N ew Y o rk . F r ison , G . C . , a nd L . C . T odd ( e d i to r s ) 1 986 T he C o lby Mammo th S i t e : T aphonomy a nd A r cha eo logy o f aC lov i s K i l l i nN or th ern W yom ing . U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P r e s s ,A lbuque rque . F unk , R .E . , G .R . Wa l te r s , a nd W . F .E h le r s ,J r . 1 969 T he A r chaeo logy o fD u tche s sQ ua r ry C ave , O range C ou n ty , N ew Y o rk . P enn sy lvan ia A r chaeo log i s t3 9 (1 -4 ) :7 -22 . G adame r , H -G . 1 975 T ru th a nd Me thod . S heed a nd Wa rd , L ondon . G a le ,F .( e d i t o r ) 1 986 Woman ' sR o l e i nA bor ig ina lS oc i e ty . 3 rd e d . A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina l S t ud ie s , C anbe r r a . G a lvan ,M .E . 1 976 T he V ege ta t iv eE co logy o ft h eM ed ic ine L odge C r e ek S i t e :A nA pproach t oA r cha ic S ub s i s t ence P rob l em s . U npub l ished Ma s te r ' s t h e s i s , D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f Wyom ing ,L a ram ie .

G o t t l ieb , A . 1 990 R e th ink ing F ema le P o l lu t ion : T he B eng C a se ( Cö te d ' Ivo i re ) . I n B eyond t h e S econd S ex : N ew D ir ec t ion s i nt h eA n thropo logy o fG end e r , e d i ted b y P . R . S anday a nd R . G . G oodenough , p p . 15 -138 . U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P re s s ,P h i lade lph ia . G ough , K . 1 975 T he O r ig in o ft h e F am i ly . I n T oward a n A n th ropo logy o fW omen , e d i ted b y R .R .R e i te r , p p . 5 1 7 6 . Mon th ly R ev iew P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . G ou ld , R . A . 1 980 L iv ing A rchaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . G ou ld , R . A . , a nd P .J . Wa t son 1 982 A D ia logue o n t h e Mean ing a nd U se o f A na logy i nE thnoa r chaeo log ica l R ea son ing . J ourna l o fA n thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 1 : 355 -38 1 . G raham , E . 1 991 Women a nd G ende ri n Maya P r eh is to ry . I nT h eA r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 4 70 -478 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . G raham , R . W . , C .V . H ayne s , D . L . J ohn son , a nd M . K ay 1 98 1 K imm sw ick : AC lov is - Ma s todon A s soc ia t ion i n E a s te rn M is sou r i .S c ience 2 13 :1115 1117 . G raham , R . W . , a nd E . L . L unde l ius , J r . 1 984 C oevo lu t iona ry D isequ i l ibr ium a nd P le is tocene E x t inc t ion s . I n Q ua t ernary E x t inc t ions : AP r eh i s tor ic R evo lu t ion , e d i ted b y P .S . Ma r t in a nd R .G . K le in , p p . 2 23 -249 .U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,T uc son . G raham , R . W . , a nd J .I . Mead 1 987 E nv i ronmen ta l F luc tua t ions a nd E vo lu t ion o f Mamma l ian F auna s Du r ing t h e L as t D eg lac ia t ion i n N o r th Ame r ica . I n N or th Amer ica a nd A d jacen t O ceans d ur ing t h e L as t D eg lac ia t ion , e d i ted b y W . F . R udd iman a nd H . E . Wr igh t ,J r . ,p p . 3 71 -402 . G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , B ou lde r . G rayson , D . K . 1 980 V ic i s s i tude s a nd O ve rk i l l : T he D eve lopmen t o f E xp lana t ions o f P le is tocene E x t inc t ions . I nA d vance si nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , v o l . 3 ,e d i ted b y M . B . S ch if f e r , p p . 3 57 -403 . A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . G rego ry , J .R . 1 984 T he My th o f t h e Ma le E thnog raphe r a nd t h e Woman 's Wo r ld . Amer ican A n thropo log is t 8 6 :316 -327 . G re ise r , S .T . 1 977 M ic ro -A na lys is o f Wea r P a t te rn s o n P ro jec t i le P o in t s a nd K n ive s f r om t h e J u rgens S i te , K e r sey ,C o lo rado . P la in sA n thropo log i s t2 :107 116 . 1 985 P r ed ic t ive Mod e l so fH un t er -Ga ther er S ub s i s t enc e a nd S e t t l emen t S t ra t eg ie s o n t h e C en tra l H igh P la ins . P l a in s A n th ropo log i s t Memo i r2 0 , V o lume 3 0 , N o . 10 , P a r t2 . G r if f in , J .B . 1 965 L a te Q ua te rna ry P reh is to ry i n t h e N o r thea s te rn Wood lands . I n T he Q ua t erna ry o f t h e U n i t ed S t a t es , e d i ted b y H . E . Wr igh t , J r . , a nd D . G . F rey , p p . 6 55 -667 . P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s , P r ince ton . 1 978 T he M id land s a nd N o r thea s te rn U n i ted S t a te s . I n A nc i en tN a t ive Amer ican s , e d i ted b yJ .D . J e nn ing s ,p p . 2 2 1-279 .W .H .F reeman , S an F ranc i s co . G r inne l l , G . B . 1 923 T he C h eyenne I nd ian s : T he i rH i s to ry a nd Way s o fL if e , v o l . 1 .Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew H aven . 1 962 B lackf oo t L odge T a le s : T he S t or y o f aP ra ir ie P eop l e .U n ive r s i ty o fN eb ra ska P re s s ,L inco ln . G rume t , R . S . 1 980 S unk squaws , S hamans , a nd T rade swomen : M idd le A t lan t ic C oa s ta l A lgonk ian Women D u r ing t h e 1 7 th a nd 1 8 th C en tu r ie s . I n W omen a nd C o lon i za t ion :A n thropo log ica lP er spec t iv e s , e d i ted b yM .E t ienne a nd E .L ea cock ,p p .4 3 -62 . P r aege r ,N ew

G a the rco le , P . , a nd D . L owen tha l ( e d i to r s ) 1 990 T h e P o l i t ic so ft h eP a s t .U nw in H yman ,L ondon . G e ro , J .M . 1 983 G ende r B ia s i nA r cha eo logy : AC ro s s C u l tu ra l P e r spec t ive . I n T he S oc io -Po l i t ics o f A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y J .G e ro , D . L a cy , a nd M . L . B lakey ,p p . 5 1 -57 . A n th ropo log ica lR e sea rch R epo r tN o . 2 3 .U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachu se t t s , Amhe r s t . 1 985 S oc io -Po l i t ic s a nd t h e Woman -a t -Home I d eo logy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 0 (2 ) :342 -350 . 1 991a G ende rD iv is ions o fL abo ri nt h eC on s t ruc t ion o f A rchaeo log ica l K now ledge . I n T he A rchaeo logy o f G end e r , e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N .D .W i l low s , p p . 9 6 1 02 . U n ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . 1 991b G ende r l i th ic s : Women 's R o le s i n S t one T oo l P roduc t ion . I nE ngend er ing A rchaeo logy : W om en a nd P r eh i s tor y ,e d i ted b yJ .M . G e ro a nd M .W .C onkey ,p p . 1 63 -193 .B a s i lB lackwe l l ,O xf o rd . 1 992 F ea s ta nd F ema le s : G ende rI d eo logy a nd P o l i t ica l Mea l s i nt h e A nde s . N orweg ian A r chaeo log ica lR ev i ew 2 5 (1 ) :15 -30 . 1 993 T he S oc ia l Wo r ld o fP reh i s to r ic F a c t s : G ende ra nd P owe r i n P a leo ind ian R esea rch . I n Women i n A rchaeo logy : AF em in i s tC r i t ique ,e d i ted b yH . d uC ro s a nd L .S m i th ,p p . 3 1 -40 . O cca s iona lP ape r si nP r eh is to ry N o . 2 3 , D epa r tmen t o fP reh is to ry , R e sea rch S choo l o f P a c if ic S tud ies . T he A us t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty , C anbe r r a . G e ro ,J .M . , a nd M .W . C onkey ( e d i to r s ) 1 991 E ngend er ing A r chaeo logy : Women a nd P r eh i s to ry . B a s i l B lackwe l l , O x f o rd . G e ro , J . M . , D . M . L acy , a nd M . L . B lakey 1 983 I n t roduc t ion . I n T he S oc io -Po l i t ics o fA rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y J .G e ro , D . L acy , a nd M . L . B lakey , p p . 1 4 . A n th ropo log ica l R e sea rch R epo r tN o . 2 3 . U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachu se t t s , Amhe r s t . G e ro , J .M . , D . M . L acy , a nd M . L . B lakey ( e d i to r s ) 1 983 T he S oc io -Po l i t ics o fA rchaeo logy . A n th ropo log ica l R e sea r ch R epo r t N o . 2 3 . U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachu se t t s , Amhe r s t . G ibbs , L . 1 987 I den t ify ing G ende r R ep re sen ta t ion i nt h e A rchaeo log ica l R eco rd : A C on tex tua l S t udy . I n T h e A rchaeo logy o f C on tex tua l Mean ings , e d i ted b y I . H odde r , p p . 7 9 -89 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . G iovann in i , M . 1 992 C ommen t s o n : Women 's S t a tus i n E ga l i ta r ian S oc ie ty : I mp l ica t ion s f o r S oc ia l E vo lu t ion , b y E leano r L eacock . I n I nqu iry a nd D eba te i n t h e H uman S c iences : C on tr ibu t ions f rom C urren t A n thropo logy 1 960 -1990 , e d i ted b y S . S i lve rman , p . 2 43 .U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s ,C h icago . G ladw in , H . S . 1 937 T he S ign if icance o fE a r ly C u l tu re si n T exa s a nd S ou thea s te rn A r izona . I nE ar ly Man , e d i ted b y G . G . MacCu rdy , p p . 1 33 -138 . J .B . L ipp inco t t , L ondon . G o ldf rank , E . S . 1 943 H is to r ic C hange a nd S oc ia l C ha rac te r : A S tudy o f t h e T e ton D ako ta . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t4 5 (1 ) :67 -83 . G ooda le , J .C . 1 971 T iw i W ive s : AS t ud yo ft h e W omen o f Me lv i l le I s land , N or th A us tra l ia . U n ive r s i ty o f Wa sh ing ton P re s s ,S ea t t le . G oodyea r , A . C . 1 989 A H ypo the s is f o r t h e U se o f C ryp toc ry s ta l l ine R aw Ma te r ia ls Among P a leo ind ian G roup so fN o r th Ame r ica . I nE a s tern P a l eo ind ian L i th i c R e sour c e U se ,e d i ted b yC .J .E l l is a nd J .C .L o th rop ,p p . 1 9 . We s tv iew P re s s ,B ou lde r . 1 05

V en tana C ave ,A r izona .T he Un ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s a nd Un ive r s i ty o f N ew Mex ico P ress , T ucson a nd A lbuque rque . 1 953 A r t if ac t sw i th Mammo th R ema in s , N a co ,A r izona . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1 9 (1 ) : 114 . H au ry , E .W . ,E .B . S ay le s , a nd W . W . Wa s ley 1 959 L ehne r Mammo th S i te , S ou theas te rn A r izona . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 5 :2 -30 . H aven , S . F . 1 856 A rchaeo logy o f t h e U n i ted S ta tes . Sm i thson ian C on t r ibu t ions t o K now ledge , v o l . 8 . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . H ayden , B . 1 977 S tone T oo l F unc t ions i n t h e We s te rn D e se r t . I nS tone T oo ls a s C u l tura l Marker s : C hange , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty , e d i ted b y R . V . S . Wr igh t , p p . 1 78 188 . A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S t ud ie s , C anbe r ra . 1 979 P a laeo l i th ic R ef l ec t ions : L i th ic T echno logy a nd E thnograph ic E xcavat ions among A us tra l ian A bor ig ine s . A us t ra l ian I ns t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina l S tud ie s , C anbe r ra . 1 982 I n te rac t ion P a rame te rs a nd t h eD em ise o fP a leo I nd ian C raf tsmansh ip . P la ins An thropo log is t 2 7 (96 ) :109 -123 . 1 992 O bse rv ing P reh is tor ic Women . I n E xp lor ing G end er T hrough A rchaeo logy : S e lec ted P aper sf r om t h e 1 991 B oone C onf erence , e d i ted b y C . C laa ssen , p p . 34 7 . P reh is to ry P re s s , Mad ison , W iscons in . H ayden , B . , M . D ea l , A . C annon , a nd J . C a sey 1 986 E co log ica l D e te rm inan t s o f Women ' s S ta tus Among H un te r /Ga the re r s .H uman E vo lu t ion 1 : 449 -473 . H aynes , C . V . , J r . 1 966 E lephan t H un t ing i n N o r th Ame r ica . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 14 (6 ) :104 112 . 1 969 T he E a r l ie s t Ame r icans . S c ience 1 66 :709 -715 . 1 970 G eoch rono logy o f Man - Mammo th s i te s a nd t h e i r b ea r ing o n t he O r ig in o f t he L lano C omp lex . I n P le is tocene a nd R ecen t E nv ironmen t s o ft h e C en tra l G r ea tP la ins , e d i ted b yW . Do r t , J r . a nd J .K . J one s , J r . , p p . 7 7 -92 .U n ive r s i ty P re ss o fK ansa s ,L aw rence . 1 980 T he C lov is C u l tu re . C anad ian J ourna l o f A n thropo logy 1 : 115 -121 . 1 982 We re C lov is P rogen i to rs i n B e r ing ia? I n P a leoeco logy o fB er ing ia , e d i ted b y D . M . H opk in s , J . V . Ma t thew s , J r . , C . E . S chwege r , a nd S .B . Y oung ,p p . 3 83 -398 .A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Y o rk . 1 991 G eoa rchaeo log ica l a nd P a leohyd ro log ica l E v idence f o r aC lov is -Age D rough t i nN o r th Ame r ica a nd i t s B ea r ing o n E x t inc t ion . Q ua terna ry R e search 3 5 :438 -450 . 1 993 C lov is -Fo lsom Geoch rono logy a nd C l ima t ic C hange .I nF rom K os tenk it oC lov is : U pper P a l eo l i th ic P a leo lnd ian Adap ta t ions , e d i ted b y0 . S of f e r a nd N .D . P ra s lov ,p p . 2 19 -236 . P lenum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . H ayne s , C . V . , J r . , a nd G . A . A gog ino 1 966 P reh is to r ic S p r ing s a nd G eoch rono logy o f t h e C lov is s i te , N ew Mex ico . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 1(6 ) :812 -821 . H ayne s , C . V . , a nd E .T .H emm ing s 1 968 Mammo th -Bone S haf t Wrench f r om Mu r ray S p r ing s , A r izona . S c i ence 1 59 :184 186 . H ayne s , G . 1 991 Mammo ths , Mas todon t s , a nd E l ephan t s : B io logy , B ehav ior , a nd t h e F os s i l R ecord . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . H ays , K . A . 1 993 When i s aS ymbo l A rchaeo log ica l ly Mean ing fu l? : Mean ing , F unc t ion , a nd P reh is to r i c V i sua l A r t s . I nA rchaeo log ica l T heory : Who S e t st h eA genda? , e d i ted b y N . Y of fee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 8 1-92 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge .

Y o rk . G uen the r , T . R . 1 991 T he Ho rse C reek S i te : S ome E v idence f o r G ende r R o le s i n aT rans i t iona l E a r ly t o M idd le P la ins A rcha ic B a se C amp . I nA pproaches t o G end er P rocesses o n t he G rea t P la in s , e d i ted b y M . K o rnf e ld , p p . 9 -23 . P l a ins A n th ropo log is t Memo i r2 6 . G u th r ie , R . D . 1 980 B ison a nd Man i n No r th Ame r ica . C anad ian J ourna lo fA n thropo logy 1 : 55 -73 . 1 982 Mamma ls o f t he Mammo th S teppe a s P a leoenv ironmen ta l I nd ica to r s . I n P a leoeco logy o f B er ing ia , e d i ted b yD . M . H opk ins ,J .V . Ma t thew s , J r . , C . E . S chwege r , a nd S . B . Y oung , p p . 3 07 -326 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 984 Mosa ics , A l le lochem ics , a nd Nu t r ien t s : A n E co log ica l T heo ry o f L a te P le is tocene Mega fauna l E x t inc t ions . I n Q ua ternary E x t inc t ions : AP reh is tor ic R evo lu t ion , e d i ted b y P .S . Ma r t in a nd R . G . K le in , p p . 2 59 -298 .U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,T ucson . 1 990 L a te P le is tocene F auna l R evo lu t ion -A N ew P e r spec t ive o nt h eE x t inc t ion D eba te . I n Megaf auna a nd Man :D i scove ry o f Amer ica ' sH ear t land , e d i ted b yL .D . A genb road , J .I . Mead , a nd L . W . N e lson , p p . 4 2 -53 . T he Mammo th S i te o f Ho t S p r ings S c ien t if ic P ape r s V o lume 1 ,H o tS p r ings , S ou th D ako ta . H a ig , B . ( e d i to r ) 1 991 A L ook a tP e ter F id ler ' s J ourna l : J ourna l o f aJ ourney o ver L and f rom B uck ingham H ouse t o t h e R ocky Moun ta in s i n 1 792 &3 . 3 rd e d . H is to r ica lR esea rch C en t re ,L e thb r idge , A lbe r ta . H a l l , S . A . 1 988 E nv i ronmen t a nd A rchaeo logy o f t h e C en tra l O sage P la ins . P la ins A n thropo log is t 3 3 (120 ) :203 -218 . H a ls tead , P . , a nd J . O 'Shea ( ed i to rs ) 1 989 B ad Y ear E conom ic s : C u l tura lR esponses t oR i sk a nd U ncer ta in ty . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ,C amb r idge . H am i l ton , A . 1 980 Dua l S oc ia l S ys tems : T echno logy , L abou ra nd Women ' sS ec re tR i te si nt h ee a s te rn We s te rn D e se r to fA u s t ra l ia . O cean ia 5 1 (1 ) :4 19 . H anen , M . P . , a nd J . H . Ke l ley 1 983 S oc ia l a nd P h i losoph ica l F ramewo rks f o r A rchaeo logy . I n T h e S oc io -Po l i t ics o fA rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y J .G e ro , D . L acy , a nd M . L . B lakey , p p . 1 07 -117 . A n th ropo log ica l R e sea rch R epo r t N o . 2 3 . Un ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachuse t t s , Amhe r s t . H annus ,L .A . 1 990a T he L ange -Fe rguson S i te : AC a se f o r Mammo th B one -Bu tche r ing T oo ls . I n Megaf auna a nd Man :D i scove ry o f Amer ica ' sH ear t land ,e d i ted b yL .D . A genb road , J .I . Mead , a nd L . W . N e lson , p p . 8 6 -99 . T he Mammo th S i te o f Ho t S p r ings S c ien t if ic P ape r s V o lume 1 ,H o tS p r ing s , S ou th D ako ta . 1 990b Mammo th Hun t ing i n t h e N ew Wo r ld . I n H un ter so ft h eR ecen tP as t , e d i ted b yL .B .D av is a nd B . 0 . K . R eeve s ,p p .4 7 -67 . Unw in H yman ,L ondon . H anson , J .R . 1 986 A d jus tmen t a nd A dap ta t ion o n t h e N o r the rn P la ins : T he C a se o fE que s t r ian ism a mong t h e H ida t sa . P la ins A n th ropo log i s t3 1 (112 ) :93 -107 . H a r r is , A . H . 1 977 B io t ic E nv i ronmen t s o ft h eP a leo ind ian . I nP a leo ind ian L if eways , e d i ted b yE .J ohnson ,p p . 1 12 . T he Museum J ou rna l 1 7 , Wes t T exas Museum A s soc ia t ion ,L ubbock . H a r r is , M . 1 993 T he E vo lu t ion o f Human G ende r H ie ra rch ie s : AT r ia l F o rmu la t ion . I n S ex a nd G end er H i erarch ies , e d i ted b y B . D . M i l le r , p p . 5 7 -79 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ,C amb r idge . H a r t , C . W . M . , a nd A . R . P i l l ing 1 960 T he T iw io fN or th A us tra l ia . H o l t , R ineha r t , a nd W ins ton , N ew Y o rk . H au ry , E . W . 1 950 T he S t ra t igraphy a nd A rchaeo logy o f 1 06

H ea rne , S . 1 971 A J ourney f r om P r ince o f Wa l es ' s F o r t i n H ud son ' s B ay t ot h e N or ther n O cean . U nd er taken b y O rd er o ft h e H ud son ' s B ay C ompany f or t h eD i s cover y o fC opper M ine s , AN or th W e s t P a s sage , & c . I n t h e Y ear s 1 769 , 1 770 , 1 771 , & 1 772 . M . G . H u r t ig , E dmon ton . H e l lson , J .C . , a nd M . G add 1 974 E thnobo tany o f t h e B lackf oo tI nd ian s . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Me r cu ry S e r ie s , C anad ian E thno logy S e rv ice P ape r N o . 1 9 . N a t iona l Museum so fC anada ,O t t awa . H emm ing s , E . T . , a nd C . V . H ayne s 1 969 T he E scapu le Mammo th a nd A s soc ia ted P ro jec t i le P o in t s , S an P ed ro V a l ley , A r izona .J ourna lo fA r i zona A cad emy o fS c ience 5 ( 3 ) :184 188 . H en ry , T . R . 1 955 I c e A ge Man , T he F i r s t Ame r ican . N a t iona lG eograph ic 1 08 (6 ) :78 1 -806 . H e rd t , G . ( e d i to r ) 1 994 T h ird S ex , T h ird G end er : B eyond S exua l D imorph i sm i n C u l tur e a nd H i s tory . Z one B ook s ,N ew Y o rk . H e s te r , J . J . 1 967 T he A gency o f Man i n A n ima l E x t inc t ion s . I nP le i s tocene E x t inc t ion s : T he S ear ch f or a C au s e , e d i ted b yP .S . Ma r t in a nd H . E . Wr igh t , J r . , p p . 1 69 192 .Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew H aven . 1 972 B lackwa t er L oca l i ty N o . 1 :AS t ra t if i ed E ar ly Man s i t e i nE a s tern N ew Mex ico . F o r t B u rgw in R e sea rch C e n t r e ,N ew Mex ico . 1 975 P a leoa rchaeo logy o ft h eL lano E s tacado . I nL a t e P l e i s tocene E nv ironmen t so nt h e S ou thern H igh P la in s , e d i ted b yF . Wendo rf a nd J .J .H e s t e r , p p . 2 47 -256 . F o r t B u rgw in R e sea rch C en t e r ,N ew Mex ico . H e s te r ,J .J . ,a nd J .G rady 1 977 P a leo ind ian S oc ia l P a t te rn s o n t h eL lano E s ta cado . I nP a l eo ind ian L if eway s , e d i ted b yE .J ohn son ,p p . 7 8 -96 .T he Mu seum J ou rna l 1 7 , We s t T exa s Mu seum A s soc ia t ion ,L ubbock . H ew le t t , B . S . 1 997 T he C u l tu ra l N exus o f A ka F a the r I n fan t B ond ing . I n G end er i n C ross -Cu l tura l P e r sp ec t iv e , e d i ted b y C . B . B re t t e l l a nd C .F .S a rgen t , p p . 4 2 -53 . 2 nd e d . P ren t ice H a l l , U ppe r S add le R ive r , N ew J e r sey . H i l l , A . 1 984 Hyaena s a nd H om in ids : T aphonomy a nd H ypo the s is T es t ing . I n H om in id E vo lu t ion a nd C ommun i ty E co logy , e d i ted b y R . F o ley , p p . 11 128 . A cadem ic P re s s ,L ondon . H odde r , I . 1 982 S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tura l A rchaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . 1 985 P os tp roce s sua l A rcha eo logy . I n A dvance s i n A r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , v o l . 8 ,e d i ted b y M .B .S ch if f e r ,p p . 1 26 . A cadem ic P r e s s ,O r la ndo . 1 986 R ead ing t h e P as t : C ur ren t A pproaches t o I n t erpr e ta t ion i nA r chaeo logy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . 1 991 G ende r R ep re sen ta t ion a nd S oc ia l R ea l i ty . I n T he A r cha eo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 1-16 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A r cha eo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . H oebe l , E .A . 1 940 T he P o l i t ica l O rgan i za t ion a nd L aw W ays o f t he C omanche I nd ians . Memo i r s o f t h e Ame r ica nA n th ropo log ica l A s soc ia t ion N o .5 4 . H of fmann ,R .S .a nd J .K .J one s ,J r . 1 970 I nf luence o fL a te G la c ia l a nd P o s t -G la c ia l E ven t s o n t h e D is t r ibu t ion o f R e cen t Mamma ls o n t h e N o r the rn G rea t P l a ins . I n P l e is tocene a nd R ecen t E nv ironm en t s o ft h e C en tra l G r ea tP la ins , e d i ted b yW .D o r t ,J r .a nd J .K .J one s ,J r . , p p . 3 55 -394 .U n ive r s i ty P re s so fK an sa s ,L aw rence . H ofman , J .L . 1 992 R ecogn i t ion a nd I n te rp re ta t ion o f F o lsom T echno log ica l V a r iab i l i ty o n t h e S ou the rn 1 07

P l a in s .I nI c eA ge H un t er so ft h eR ock ie s , e d i ted b yD .J . S t anfo rd a nd J .S .D ay , p p . 1 93 -22 ' 4 . U n ive r s i ty P r e s s o f C o lo rado ,N iwo t ,C o lo rado . H ofman , J .L . , a nd E . I ngba r 1 988 A F o lsom H un t ing O ve r look i nE a s te rn Wyom ing . P la in s A n thropo log i s t 3 (12 1) :337 -350 . H o l l imon , S .E . 1 991 H ea lt hC on sequence s o fD iv i s ions o f L abo r Among t h e C huma sh I nd ians o f S ou the rn C a l if o rn ia . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 4 62 -469 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . 1 997 T he T h i rd G ende r i nN a t ive C a l if o rn ia : TwoS p i r i t U nde r take r s Among t h e C huma sh a nd t h e i r N e ighbo r s . I nW om en i nP r eh i s tor y :N or th Am er ica a nd Mesoamer ica , e d i ted b y C . C laa s sen a nd R . A . J oyce , p p . 1 73 -188 . Un ive rs i ty o f P ennsy lvan ia P re ss , P h i lade lph ia . H o lme s , W . H . 1 890 A Q ua r ry Wo rk shop o ft h e F l akeds t one I mp lemen t Make r s i nt h e D is t r ic t o f C o lumb ia . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t3 ( 1) :1 -26 . 1 892 Mode rn Qua r ry R e fu se a nd t h e P a leo l i th ic T heo ry . S c ienc e2 0 :295 -297 . 1 919 H andbook o fA bor ig ina l Amer ican A n t iqu i t ies : P ar t I .I n t roduc to ry , T he L i th ic I ndus t r ie s . B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy B u l le t in 6 0 , Wa sh ing ton . H owa rd , E . B . 1 935 E v idence o f E a r ly Man i n N o r th Ame r ica ,b a sed o n G eo log ica l a nd A r chaeo log ica l Wo rk i nN ew Mex ico . T he Mu s eum J ourna l 2 4 (2 -3 ) :61175 . U n ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia ,T he U n ive r s i ty Mu seum . H ughe s , S .S . 1 991 D iv i s ion o fL abo r a t aB e san tH un t ing C amp i nE a s te rn Mon tana . I nA pproaches t o G end er P roce s s es o n t h e G r ea tP la in s , e d i ted b y M . K o rnf e ld , p p .2 5 -49 . P l a in sA n th ropo log i s t Memo i r2 6 . H un t sman , J . , a nd A . H oope r 1 979 Ma le a nd F ema le i n T oke lau C u l tu re . I n Women a nd S oc ie ty : A n A n th ropo log ica lR ead er , e d i ted b y S .W . T i f f any , p p . 2 80 -303 .E den P re s s Women ' sP ub l ica t ions , Mon t rea l . I n gba r , E . E . 1 992 T he H anson S i te a nd F o lsom o n t h e N o r thwe s te rn P l a in s . I nI c eA ge H un t er so ft h eR ock ies , e d i ted b y D . J .S t anfo rd a nd J .S .D ay , p p . 1 69 -192 . U n ive r s i ty P re s so fC o lo rado ,N iwo t ,C o lo rado . I rw in , C . , H . I rw in , a nd G . A gog ino 1 962 Wyom ing Muck T e l l s o fB a t t le : I c e A ge Man v s . Mammo th . N a t iona l G eog raph ic 1 2 1 (6 ) :828 -837 . I rw in -W i l l iam s , C . 1 967 A s soc ia t ion s o fE a r ly Man w i th H o r se , C ame l , a nd Ma s todon a tH ueya t la co , V a l sequ i l lo ( Pueb lo Mex ico ) .I nP l e i s tocene E x t inc t ion s : T h eS ear ch f or aC ause ,e d i ted b yP .S . Ma r t in a nd H .E .W r igh t ,J r . , p p . 37 -347 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew H aven . I rw in -W i l l iam s , C . , H . I rw in , G . A gog ino , a nd C . V .H ayne s 1 973 H e l l G ap : P a leo Ind ian O ccupa t ion o n t h e H igh P l a in s .P la in sA n thropo log i s t1 8 (59 ) :40 -53 . I s aac , G . 1 978 F ood S ha r ing a nd H uman E vo lu t ion : A rchaeo log ica l E v idence f r om t h e P l io -P le is tocene o f E a s t A f r ica . J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica l R esearch 3 4 :311-325 . 1 979 T he F ood -Sha r ing B ehav io r o f P ro tohuman H om in id s . R ep r in ted .I nH uman A nc e s tor s , e d i ted b y G . I s aa ca nd R .E .F .L ea l cey , p p . 10 -123 .W . H .F reema n , S an F ranc isco . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 978 , S c ien t if ic Ame r ican 2 38 :90 -108 . J ab low , J . 1 951 T he C heyenne i n P la ins I nd ian T rade R e la t ion s , 1 795 -1840 . Monog raph s o f t h e Ame r ican E thno log ica l S oc ie ty N o . 1 9 .J .J .A ugu s t in ,N ew Y o rk . J e l ine l c , A .J . 1 967 Man 's R o le i nE x t inc t ion o fP l e is tocene F auna s . I n P le is tocene E x t inc t ion s : T he S ear ch f or a

J oyce , R . A . 1 993 Women 's Wo rk : I mage s o fP roduc t ion a nd R ep roduc t ion i n P re -H ispan ic S ou the rn C en t ra l Ame r ica .C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 4 (3 ) :255 -274 . J udge , W . J . 1 973 P a leo lnd ian O ccupa t ion o ft h e C en t ra l R io G rand e V a l l ey i nN ew Mex ico . U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico ,A lbuque rque . K abe r ry , P . M . 1 939 A bor ig ina l W oman : S acr ed a nd P rof ane .B lak i s ton , P h i lade lph ia . 1 952 W omen o f t h e G rassf i e ld s . A S tudy o f t h e E conom ic P os i t ion o f Women i n B amenda , B r i t i sh C ameroon s . C o lon ia l O ff ice , R e sea r ch P ub l ica t ion N o . 1 4 ,L ondon . K eene , A . S . 1 981 O p t ima l F o rag ing i n aN onma rg ina l E nv i ronmen t : A Mode l o f P reh i s to r ic S ubs is tence S t ra teg ie s i nM ich igan . I n Hun t er -Ga ther er F orag ing S t ra teg ie s : E thnograph ic a nd A r cheo log ica l A na ly s i s , e d i t ed b yB .W in te rha lde ra nd E .A . Sm i th ,p p . 1 7 1 193 . U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s , C h icago . K ehoe , A . B . 1 983 T he S hack le s o f T rad i t ion . I n T h e H idd en H a lt S t ud ies o fP la in sI nd ian W omen ,e d i t ed b y P .A lbe r sa nd B . Med ic ine , p p . 5 3 -73 .U n ive r s i ty P r e s s o f Ame r ica ,L anham , Ma ry land . 1 99 1 T he Weave r 's Wra i th . I n T he A r cha eo logy o f G end e r , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 4 30 -435 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . 1 992 T he Mu ted C la s s : Unshack l ing T rad i t ion . I n E xp lor ing G end er T hrough A rchaeo logy : S e lec ted P aper sf r om t h e 1 991 B oone C onf er ence , e d i ted b y C . C laa ssen , p p . 2 3-32 . P reh is to ry P re ss , Mad ison , W i scons in . 1 993 H ow t h e A nc ien t P e igan s L ived . R esearch i n E conom i cA n th ropo logy 1 4 :87 -105 . K e l le r ,E .F . 1 982 F em in i sm a nd S c ience .S i gn s :J ourna lo f W omen i nC u l tur ea nd S oc ie ty 7 ( 3 ) :589 -602 . K e l ley , J .H . , a nd M . P .H anen 1 988 A r cha eo logy a nd t h e Me thodo logy o f S c ience . Un ive r s i ty o f N ew Mex ico P r e s s ,A lbuque rque . K e l ly , R . L . 1 983 H un te r -Ga the re r Mob i l i ty S t ra teg ie s . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lR esear ch 3 9 :277 -306 . 1 986 H un t ing a nd Mens trua l T aboos : A R ep ly t o D obk in d e R ios a nd H ayden . H uman E vo lu t ion 1 ( 5 ) :475 -478 . K e l ly ,R .L . , a nd L .C .T odd 1 988 C om ing i n to t h eC oun t ry : E a r ly P a leo ind ian H un t ing a nd Mob i l i ty . Am er i can A n t iqu i ty 5 3 (2 ) :231 -244 . K e rn s , V . , a nd J .K . B rown ( e d i to r s ) 1 992 I nH er P r ime : N ew V i ew so fM idd l e -Aged Women . 2 nd e d . U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino i sP r e s s ,U rbana . K e s s le r , E . S . 1 976 Women : A n A n thropo log ica l V i ew . H o l t ,R ineha r t , a nd W in s ton ,N ew Y o rk . K idde r , A . V . 1 924 A n I n troduc t ion t o t h e S t ud y o f S ou thwe s t ern A r chaeo logy , w i th aP r e l im ina ry A c coun t o ft h eE x cava t ion sa tP ecos . P ape r so ft h eS ou thwe s t e rn E xped i t ion , P h i l l ip s A cademy , N o . 1 .Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew H aven . 1 927 S ou thwe s te rn A r chaeo log ica lC onf e rence . S c i enc e 6 6 :486 -49 1 . K la s sen , R . W . 1 994 L a te Wiscon s inan a nd H o locene H is to ry o f S ou thwes te rn S aska t chewan . C anad ian J our na lo fE a r th S c ienc es 3 1 :1822 1837 . K le in , A . M . 1 983 T he P o l i t ica l -Economy o fG ende r : A 1 9 th C en tu ry P la ins I nd ian C a se S t udy . I n T he H idd en H a lt S t ud ie s o f P la in s I nd ian W om en , e d i ted b y P . A lbe r s a nd B . Med ic ine , p p . 1 43 173 . U n ive r s i ty P r e s s o f Ame r ica ,L anham , Ma ry land .

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K le in , L . F . 1 980 C on tend ing w i th C o lon iza t ion : T l ing i t Men a nd Women i n C hange . I n Women a nd C o lon i za t ion : A n thropo log ica lP er spec t ives , e d i ted b y M . E t ienne a nd E . L eacock , p p . 8 8 -108 . P raege r , N ew Y o rk . K le in , L . F . , a nd L . A . A cke rman ( e d i to r s ) 1 995 W omen a nd P ower i n N a t ive N or th Amer ica . U n ive r s i ty o f O k lahoma P re s s ,N o rman . K l ima , G . 1 979 J u ra l R e la t ions B e tween t h eS exe s Among t h e B a raba ig . I n Women a nd S oc ie ty : A n A n thropo log ica lR ead er , e d i ted b y S .W . T i f f any , p p . 1 45 -162 .E den P re s s Women ' sP ub l ica t ion s , Mon t rea l . K oh l , P .L . 1 993 L im i t s t o aP os t -P roce s sua l A rchaeo logy ( o r , T he D ange r s o f aN ew S cho la s t ic ism ) . I n A r chaeo log ica l T heory : Who S e t s t h eA genda? , e d i ted b y N . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 1 3 -19 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . K o r nf e ld ,M . 1 988 T he R ocky F oo l sm s i te : A Sma l lF o l som A s semb lage f r om t h e N o r thwes te rn P la ins . N or th Ame r ican A r chaeo logy 9 ( 3 ) :197 -222 . 1 991 A pp roache s t o G ende r S tud ie s i n P la ins A n th ropo logy : A n I n t roduc t ion . I n A pproache s t o G end er P roces ses o n t h e G r ea t P la in s , e d i ted b y M . K o rnf e ld ,p p . 1 7 . P l a in sA n th ropo log is t Memo i r2 6 . K o rnf e ld , M . ( ed i to r ) 1 991 A pproaches t o G end er P r oces se s o n t h e G rea t P la ins . P la ins A n th ropo log i s t Memo i r2 6 , V o lume 3 6 ,N o . 1 34 . K o rnf e ld , M . , a nd J .F ranc i s 1 991 A P re l im ina ry H i s to r ica l O u t l ine o fN o r thwe s te rn H igh P l a in sG ende rS y s tem s .I n T h eA r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 4 44 -451 . Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A r cha eo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . K u tzba ch , J .E . 1 987 Mode l S imu la t ions o ft h e C l ima t ic P a t te rn s d u r ing t h e D eg lac ia t ion o fN o r th Ame r ica . I n N or th Amer ica a nd A d jacen t O cean s d ur ing t h e L a s t D eg lac ia t ion , e d i ted b y W . F . R udd iman a nd H . E . W r igh t ,J r . ,p p .4 25 -446 .G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , B ou lde r . K u tzba ch , J .E . , a nd P .J .G ue t te r 1 986 T he I nf luence o f C hang ing O rb i ta l P a rame te r s a nd S u rf ace B ounda ry C ond i t ions o n C l ima te S imu la t ions f o r t h e P a s t 1 8 ,000 y ea r s .J ourna lo ft h eA tmospher ic S c ienc e s4 3 (16 ) :1 726 1 7 59 . K u tzba ch , J .E . , a nd H . E . Wr igh t , J r . 1 985 S imu la t ion o f t h e c l ima te o f 1 8 ,000 y r BP ; R e su l ts o f t h e N o r th Ame r ican /No r th A t lan t ic /Eu ropean S ec to r . Q ua t erna r y S c i enc eR ev iew s 4 : 147 -187 . L ah ren , L . A . , a nd R . B onn ich sen 1 974 B one F o re sha f t s f r om aC lov is B u r ia l S i te i n S ou thwe s te rn Mon tana . S c ien c e 1 86 :147 -150 . L amb , R . S . 1 992 O n D isa ssemb l ing a n E lephan t : A na tom ica l O bse rva t ions B ea r ing o n P a leo ind ian E xp lo i ta t ion o f P robosc idea . I n P robosc id ean s a nd P a leo ind ian I n terac t ions , e d i ted b y J .W . F ox , C . B . Sm i th , a nd K . T . W i lk ins , p p . 9 9 -109 . Ma rkham P re s s F und o fB ay lo rU n ive r s i ty P re s s , Waco . L amphe re , L . 1 974 S t ra teg ie s , C oope ra t ion , a nd C onf l ic t Among Women i n Dome s t ic G roups . I n Woman , C u l tur e , a nd S oc ie ty , e d i ted b y M . Z . R o sa ldo a nd L . L amphe re , p p . 9 7 -112 . S tanfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss , S t a n f o rd . 1 977 A n th ropo logy .S i gn s 2 : 612 -627 . L anda l s , A . 1 990 T he Map le L ea fS i te : I mp l ica t ion s o ft h e A na ly s i s o f Sma l l -Sca le B ison K i l ls . I n H un t er s o ft h e R ecen tP a s t , e d i ted b yL .B .D av is a nd B . 0 . K . R eeve s , p p . 1 22 -151 .U nw in H yman ,L ondon . 1 09

L andau ,M . 1 984 H uman E vo lu t ion a sN a r ra t ive . Am e r ican S c i en t i s t 7 2 (3 ) :262 -268 . L ande s , R . 1 938 T he O j ibwa W oman .C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 968 T he Mys t ic L ake S ioux : S oc io logy o f t h e Md ewakan tonwan S an tee . U n ive r s i ty o f W iscon s in P r e s s , Mad i son . L a r son , M . A . 1 991 D e te rm in ing t h eF unc t ion o f a" Men ' s H ou se . " I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 1 65 175 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . L a s t , W . M . , a nd D . J .S auchyn 1 993 M ine ra logy a nd L i thos t ra t igraphy o f H a r r is L ake , S ou thwe s te rn S a ska t chewan , C anada . J our na lo fP a l eo l imno log y9 : 23 3 9 . L augh l in , W . S . 1 968 H un t ing : A n I n teg ra t ing B iobeh av io r S y s tem a nd i t s E vo lu t iona ry I mpo r tance . I n Man t h e H un t er ,e d i ted b yR .B .L ee a nd I .D eVo re ,p p . 3 04 -320 . A ld ine ,C h icago . L eacock , E . 1 972 I n t roduc t ion . I n T he O r ig in s o ft h e F am i ly , P r iva t e P roper ty a nd t h e S t a t e , b y F rede r ick E nge l s .I n te rna t iona l ,N ew Y o rk . 1 978 Women 's S ta tus i n E ga l i ta r ian S oc ie ty : I mp l ica t ions f o rS o c ia lE vo lu t ion . C ur r en tA n th ropo logy 1 9 :247 -275 . 1 980 Mon tagna is Women a nd t h e J e su i t P rog ram f o r C o lon iza t ion . I n Women a nd C o lon iza t ion : A n thropo log ica lP er spec t iv e s , e d i ted b yM .E t ienne a nd E .L ea cock ,p p . 2 5 -42 . P raege r ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982 R e la t ions o f P roduc t ion i n B and S oc ie ty . I n P o l i t ic s a nd H i s to ry i n B and S oc i e t ie s , e d i ted b y E . L ea cock a nd R .L ee ,p p . 1 59 170 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . 1 992 Women 's S ta tus i n E ga l i ta r ian S oc ie ty : I mp l ica t ions f o rS oc ia l E vo lu t ion . R ep r in ted . I nI n qu i r y a nd D eba te i nt h eH uman S c ienc es : C on t r ibu t ion sf r om C ur ren t A n thropo logy 1 960 -1990 , e d i ted b y S . S i lve rman , p p . 2 25 -259 . U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s , C h icago . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 978 , C u r r en t A n thropo logy 1 9 (2 ) :247 -275 . L ede rman ,R . 1 990 C on te s ted O rde r : G ende ra nd S oc ie ty i n t h e S ou the rn N ew G u inea H igh land s . I n B eyond t h e S econd S ex : N ew D irec t ions i n t h e A n thropo logy o f G end e r , e d i ted b y P .R . S anday a nd R .G . G oodenough , p p . 4 5 -73 . U n ive rs i ty o f P ennsy lvan ia P re ss , P h i lade lph ia . L ee , R . B . 1 968 Wha tH un te r sd o f o r aL iv ing , o r , H ow t o Make O u t o n S ca rce R e sou rce s . I n Man t h e H un t er , e d i ted b y R . B . L ee a nd I .D eVo re , p p . 3 0 -48 . A ld ine , C h icago . 1 982 P o l i t ic s , S exua l a nd N on -Sexua l ,i na nE ga l i ta r ian S oc ie ty .I nP o l i t ic sa nd H i s tor yi nB a nd S oc i e t ie s ,e d i ted b y E . L eacock a nd R . L ee , p p . 3 7 -59 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . 1 992 Wo rk , S exua l i ty , a nd A g ing Among ! Kung Women . I n I n H er P r im e : N ew V i ew s o fM idd l e -Aged W omen ,e d i ted b yV . K e rns a nd J .K . B rown . p p . 3 5 -46 . U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino is ,U rbana . L ee , R . B . , a nd I .D eVo re 1 968 P rob lem s i nt h e S t udy o f H un te r sa nd G a the re r s .I n Man t h e H un t er , e d i ted b yR . B .L ee a nd I .D eVo re ,p p . 3 12 . A ld ine ,C h icago . L ee , R . B . , a nd I .D eVo re ( e d i to r s ) 1 968 Man t h e H un t er . A ld ine ,C h icago . L e ibow i tz , L . 1 975 P e r spec t ive s o n t h e E vo lu t ion o fS ex D if f e rence s . I n T oward a n A n thropo logy o f W omen , e d i ted b y R . R . R e i te r , p p . 2 0 -35 . Mon th ly R ev iew

P re s s , N ew Y o rk . L epowsky , M . 1 990 G ende r i na n E ga l i ta r ian S oc ie ty : A C a se S tudy f r om t h e C o ra l S ea . I n B eyond t h e S econd S ex : N ew D irec t ions i n t h e A n thropo logy o fG ender , e d i ted b yP .R . S anday a nd R . G . G oodenough ,p p . 1 712 23 . U n ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia P re s s , P h i lade lph ia . L eppe r , 1 3 . T . , a nd D . J . Me l tze r 1 991 L a te P le is tocene Human O ccupa t ion o f t h e E a s te rn Un i ted S ta te s . I n C lov is : O r ig ins a nd Adap ta t ions , e d i ted b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K . L .T u rmn i re , p p . 1 75 -184 .C en te rf o r t h e S tudy o f t he F irs t Ame r icans , O regon S ta te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l is . L ew in , R . 1 987 B ones o fC on ten t ion : C on trover s ies i nt h e S earch f or H uman O r ig ins . S imon a nd S chus te r , N ew Y o rk . L ew is , 0 . 1 941 Man ly -Hea r ted Women a mong t h e N o r th P i egan . Am e r ican A n thropo log i s t 4 3 :173 -187 . 1 942 T he Ef ec t s o f Wh i te C on tac t U pon B lackf oo t C u l ture , w i th S pec ia l R ef erence t ot h e R o le o ft h e F ur T r ad e . Monog raphs o f t he Ame r ican E thno log ica l S oc ie ty N o .6 .J .J .A ugus t in ,N ew Y o rk . L imbaugh , R . H . 1 973 C heyenne a nd S ioux : T he R em in iscences o fF our I nd ians a nd a Wh i te S o ld ier , c omp l ied b y T homa s B . Ma rqu is . P ac if ic C en te r f o r We s te rn H is to r ica l S tud ies Monog raph 3 . Un ive r s i ty o f t h eP ac if i c , S t ock ton ,C a l if o rn ia . L in ton , S . 1 971 Woman t he G a the re r : Ma le B ias i n A n th ropo logy . I n Women i nP er spec t ive : AG u id ef or C ro ss -Cu l tura lS tud ies , e d i ted b y S .E .J acobs , p p . 9 21 . U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino is P re s s , U rbana . L ou randos , H . 1 988 P a leopo l i t ics : R e sou rce I n tens if ica t ion i n A bo r ig ina l Aus t ra l ia a nd P apua N ew Gu inea . I n H un ter sa nd G a ther er sI :H i s tory , E vo lu t ion , a nd S oc ia l C hange , e d i ted b y T . I ngo ld , D . R iche s , a nd J . Woodbu rn ,p p . 1 48 -160 . B e rg ,N ew Y o rk . L ove joy , C . 0 . 1 981 T he O r ig in o f Man . S c ience 2 11 :34 13 50 . McBrea r ty , S . , a nd M . Mon iz 1 991 P ros t i tu te s o r P rov ide r s? Hun t ing , T oo l U se , a nd S ex R o le s i nE a r l ie s t Homo . I n T he A rchaeo logy o f G ender , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . Wi l lows , p p . 7 1-82 . Un ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . McCa f f e r ty , S .D . , a nd G . G . McCa f f e r ty 1 994 E ngende r ing T omb 7 a t Mon te A lbän : R esp inn ing a n O ld Y a rn . C ur ren tA n thropo logy 3 5 (2 ) :143 166 . McC l in tock , W . 1 992 T he O ld N or th T ra i l o rL if e , L egend s a nd R e l ig ion o f t he B lackf ee t I nd ians . R ep r in ted . U n ive rs i ty o f N eb ra ska P ress , L inco ln . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 910 , Mac M i l lan ,L ondon . MacDona ld , G . F . 1 968 D eber t : AP a laeo -Ind ian S i te i n C en tra l N ova S co t ia . A n th ropo logy P ape rs N o . 1 6 . N a t iona l Mu seums o fC anada ,O t tawa . 1 971 A R ev iew o fR e sea rch o n P a leo Ind ians i nE a s te rn No r th Ame r ica , 1 960 -1970 . A rc t ic A n thropo logy 8 ( 2 ) :32 -41 . McGaw , J . A . 1 996 R econce iv ing T echno logy : Why F em in ine T echno log ies Ma t te r . I n G ender a nd A rchaeology , e d i ted b y R . P . Wr igh t , p p . 5 2 -75 . U n ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia P re s s , P h i lade lph ia . MacGowan , K . 1 950 E ar ly Man i n t h e N ew Wor ld . Ma cM i l lan ,N ew Y o rk . McKe rn , W . C . 1 939 T he M idwe s te rn T axonom ic Me thod a sa n A id t oA rchaeo log ica l S tudy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 :3 01-313 . MacNe ish , R . S . 1 964 A nc ien t Me soame r ican C iv i l iza t ion . S c ience 1 43 (3606 ) :531-537 . 10

McNe t t , C . W . , J r . ( e d i to r ) 1 985 S hawnee -M in is ink : A S t ra t if ied P a leo ind ian -Archa ic S i te i n t h e U pper D e lawar e V a l ley o fP enn sy lvan ia . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Ma l inow sk i , B . 1 913 T he F am i ly Among t h e A us t ra l ian A bor ig ine s .U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon P re s s ,L ondon . Mande lbaum , D . G . 1 990 T he P la ins C ree : A n E thnograph ic , H is tor ica l , a nd C ompara t iv e S tudy . R ep r in ted . C anad ian P la ins S tud ie s 9 .C anad ian P l a ins R e sea rch C en te r , U n ive r s i ty o fR eg ina , S a ska tchewan . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 979 , C anad ian P la ins R e sea rch C en te r , U n ive r s i ty o fR eg ina , S a ska tchewan . Mand ryk , C . A . S . 1 992 P a leoeco logy a s C on tex tua l A rchaeo logy : H uman V iab i l i ty o ft h e L a te Q ua ternary I c e -F r ee C or r id or , A lber ta , C anada .U npub l ished P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion , D epa r tmen t o fA n th ropo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o f A lbe r ta ,E dmon ton . 1 993 H un te r -Ga the re rS oc ia l C o s t sa nd t h eN onv iab i l i ty o f S ubmarg ina l E nv iron men ts . J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica lR e search 4 9 :39 -71 . Ma randa , E .K . 1 974 L au , Ma la i ta : " A Woman i sa n A l ien S p i r i t ." I n Many S i s ters : Women i n C ros s -Cu l tura l P er spec t ive , e d i ted b y C . J . Ma t th ia s son , p p . 1 77 -202 . F ree P re s s , N ew Y o rk . Ma rkg raf , V . , a nd T . L ennon 1 986 P a leoenv i ronmen ta l H is to ry o ft h eL a s t 1 3 ,000 Y ea r s o ft h e E a s te rn P owde r R ive r B as in , Wyom ing , a nd i t s I mp l ica t ions f o r P reh is to r ic C u l tu ra l P a t te rns . P la ins A n thropo log i s t 3 1 (111) :1-12 . Ma rk s , S .A . 1 976 L arge Mamma l s a nd a B rave P eop le : S ubs is tence Hun ters i n Z amb ia . Un ive rs i ty o f Wa sh ing ton P re s s , S ea t t le . 1 982 A rgu ing f r om t he P resen t t o t he P a s t : A C on tempo ra ry C a se S tudy o f H uman P reda t ion o n A f r ican B uf f a lo . I nP a leoeco logy o fB er ing ia , e d i ted b y D . M .H opk ins , J .V . Ma t thews , J r . , C .E .S chwege r , a nd S .B .Y oung , p p .4 09 -423 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Ma r t in , L .D . , R . A . R oge r s , a nd A . M . N eune r 1 985 T he E f f ec t o f t h e e nd o f t he P le is tocene o n Man i nN o r th Ame r ica . I n E nv ironmen ts a nd E x t inc t ion s : Man i nL a te G lac ia lN or th Amer ica , e d i ted b y J .I . Mead a nd D . J . Me l tze r , p p . 1 5 -30 . P eop l ing o f t h e Ame r ica s S e r ie s , C en te rf o rt h eS tudy o fE a r ly Man ,O rono , Ma ine . Ma r t in ,M .K . , a nd B . V oo rh ie s 1 975 F ema le o ft h eS pec ies . C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew Y o rk . Ma r t in , P .S . 1 958 P l e is tocene E co logy a nd B iogeog raphy o f N o r th Ame r ica . I n Z oogeography , e d i ted b y C . L . H ubbs , p p . 3 75 -420 . Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion f o r t h e A dvancemen to fS c ience , Wa sh ing ton . 1 963 T he L as t1 0 ,000 Y ear s : AF os s i lP o l len R ecord o f t h e Amer ican S ou thwes t . U n ive rs i ty o f A r izona P re s s , T uc son . 1 967 P reh is to r ic O ve rk i l l . I n P l e is tocene E x t inc t ions : T he S earch f or aC ause , e d i ted b yP .S . Ma r t in a nd H .E . Wr igh t , J r . , p p . 7 5 -120 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s , N ew H aven . 1 973 T he D i scove ry o f Ame r ica . S c ience 1 79 :969 -974 . 1 982 T he P a t te rn a nd Mean ing o fH o la rc t ic Mammo th E x t inc t ion .I nP a leoeco logy o fB er ing ia , e d i ted b yD .M . H opk ins , J .V . Ma t thews , J r . , C . E .S chwege r , a nd S .B . Y oung ,p p . 3 99 -408 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Ma r t in , P .S . , a nd R . G . K le in ( ed i to r s ) 1 984 Q ua t ernar y E x t inc t ions : AP reh is tor ic R evo lu t ion . U n ive rs i ty o f A r izona P re s s ,T uc son . Ma r t in , P . S . , a nd H . E . Wr igh t , J r . ( ed i to r s ) 1 967 P l e i s toc ene E x t inc t ions : T he S ear ch f or a C au se . Y a le

U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven . Ma son , R . J . 1 962 T he P a leo ind ian T rad i t ion i nE a s te rn N o r th Ame r ica . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 ( 3 ) :227 -278 . Ma t th ia s son , C . J . 1 974 C onc lu s ion . I n Many S i s ter s : W om en i nC ros s -Cu l tura l P er spec t iv e , e d i ted b y C . J . Ma t th ia s son ,p p .4 21 -437 .F re eP r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . Ma t th ia s son , C . J .( e d i to r ) 1 974 Many S i s t er s : Women i n C r o s s -Cu l tura lP er sp ec t iv e .F r ee P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Mau re r , B . 1 991 F em in is t C ha l lenge s t o A rchaeo logy : A vo id ing a n E p is temo logy o f t h e " O the r ." I n T h e A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 4 14 -419 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A r cha eo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . Mead , M . 1 935 S ex a nd T emperamen t i nT hr ee P r im i t ive S oc i e t i e s .W i l l iam Mo r row ,N ew Y o rk . 1 949 Ma le a nd F ema le : AS t ud y o ft h e S exes i n a C hang ing Wor ld .W i l l iam Mo r row ,N ew Y o rk . Med ic ine , B . 19 83 "Wa r r io r Women" -Sex R o le A l te rna t ive s f o r P l a ins I nd ian Women . I n T he H idd en H a lt S t ud ies o f P la in s I nd ian W omen , e d i ted b y P . A lbe r s a nd B . Med ic ine , p p . 2 67 -280 . U n ive r s i ty P re s s o f Ame r ica ,L anham , Ma ry land . Meh r inge r ,P .J . ,J r . 1 988 C lov i sC a che F ound : Weapons o f A nc ien t Ame r icans . N a t iona l G eograph ic 1 74 (4 ) :500 5 0 3 . 1 989 O fA pp le sa nd A rchaeo logy . U n iv er s e 1 ( 2 ) :2 -8 . Me igs ,A . 1 990 Mu l t ip le G ende rI d eo log ie sa nd S t a tu se s .I n B eyond t h e S econd S ex : N ew D ir ec t ions i n t h e A n th ropo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y P .R .S anday a nd R . G . G oodenough , p p . 1 01-112 . U n ive rs i ty o f P enn sy lvan ia P re s s , P h i lade lph ia . Me l tze r , D . J . 1 983a P reh i s to ry , P owe r a nd P o l i t ics i nt h e B u reau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , 1 879 -1906 . I n T he S oc io -Po l i t ics o fA rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y J .G e ro , D . L a cy , a nd M . L . B lakey , p p . 6 7 -77 . A n th ropo log ica l R e sea r ch R epo r t N o . 2 3 . U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachuse t t s , Amhe r s t . 1 983b T he A n t iqu i ty o f Man a nd t h eD eve lopmen t o f Ame r ican A rchaeo logy . I nA d vanc es i nA r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heor y , v o l .6 ,e d i t ed b yM . B .S ch if f e r ,p p . 1 51 .A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 988 L a te P le is tocene H uman A dap ta t ions i nE a s te rn N o r th Ame r ica .J ourna lo fW or ld P r eh i s tor y 2 ( 1 ) :1-52 . 1 989 Wa s S tone E xchanged a mong E a s te rn N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ians? I n E a s t ern P a leo ind ian L i th ic R e sour ce U se ,e d i ted b yC .J .E l l is a nd J .C .L o th rop ,p p . 1 -39 . We s tv iew P re s s , B ou lde r . 1 991 O n " Pa rad igms " a nd " Pa rad igm B ia s " i n C on t rove r s ie so ve rH uman A n t iqu i ty i n Ame r ica . I n T h e F i r s t Amer icans : S earch a nd R e search , e d i ted b y T .D . D i l lehay a nd D . J . Me l tze r ,p p . 1 3 -49 . CRC P re s s , B oca R a ton . 1 993a I sT he re aC lov is A dap ta t ion? I nF rom K os t enk i t oC lov i s : U pper P a leo l i th ic -P a l eo I nd ian A dap ta t ion s , e d i ted b y 0 . S of f e r a nd N . D . P ra s lov , p p . 2 93 -310 . P l enum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 993b P le is tocene P eop l ing o f t h e Ame r ica s . E vo lu t ionar yA n thropo logy 1 ( 5 ) :157 169 . M ich lov ic , M . G . 1 986 C u l tu ra l E vo lu t ion ism a nd P la in s A r ch a eo logy . P la in sA n thropo log i s t3 1 ( 113 ) :207 -218 . M i lankov i t ch ,M .M . 1 941 C anon o fI n so la t ion a nd t h eI c e A g eP r ob l em .K on ig l ich S e rb i s che A kadem ie ,B eog rad . M i l le r , B .D . 1 993 T he A n th ropo logy o fS ex a nd G ende r H ie ra r ch ie s . I n S ex a nd G end er H ierar ch ies , e d i ted b y B . D . M i l le r , p p . 3 -31 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . 11

M i l le r , B . D . ( e d i to r ) 1 993 S ex a nd G end er H ierarch ies . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . M i l ton ,K . 1 979 Ma le B ia s i nA n th ropo logy . Man ( n .s . ) 1 4 ( 1 ) :40 -54 . M i t che l l , C . 1 992 A c t iva t ing Women i nA nka ra C e ram ic P roduc t ion . I nE xp lor ing G end er T hr ough A r chaeo logy : S e lec ted P aper s f rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf er ence , e d i ted b y C . C laa ssen , p p . 8 9 -94 . P reh i s to ry P re ss , Mad i son ,W i scon s in . M i then , S . J . 1 990 T hough tf u l F orager s : A S t udy o f P r eh is tor ic D ec i s ion Mak ing . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . Mon tagu , M . F . A . 1 937 C om ing i n to B e ing Among t h e A u s t ra l ian A bor ig ine s . R ou t ledge ,L ondon . Moogk ,S . 1 99 1 T he C ons t ruc t ion o f "Woman " i nt h eN uu c hah -nu l th G i r l s ' P ube r ty C e remony i n 1 910 . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 1 03 -107 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . Moo re ,H .L . 1 988 F em in i sm a nd A n thropo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta P r e s s ,M inneapo l i s . Mo rgan , E . 1 985 T he D e scen t o f Woman . R ev ised e d . S ouven i r P re s s , L ondon . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 972 , S ouven i rP re s s ,L ondon . Mo rgan , L . H . 1 965 H ouses a nd H ouse -L if e o f t h e Am er ican A bor ig ines . U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re ss , C h icago . Mo rgan , R . G . 1 979 A n E co log ica l S t ud y o ft h e N or thern P la in s a s S een T h rough t h e G ar ra t t S i te . O cca s iona l P ape r si nA n th ropo logy 1 .D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fR eg ina , S a ska t chewan . Mo r lan , R . E . 1 991 P eop l ing o f t h e N ew Wo r ld : A D iscu s s ion . I nC lov is : O r ig in s a nd A dap ta t ion s , e d i ted b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K . L . T u rnm i re , p p . 3 03 -307 . C en te r f o r t h e S tudy o f t h e F i r s t Ame r icans , O regon S t a t eU n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l i s . Mo s imann ,J .E . , a nd P .S . Ma r t in 1 975 S imu la t ing O ve rk i l l b yP a leo ind ian s . Amer ican S c ien t i s t6 3 :304 -313 . Mu rdoch ,J . 1 892 E thno log ica lR e su l t so ft h eP o in tB ar row E xped i t ion . N in th A nnua l R epo r t o f t h e B u reau o f E thno logy t o t h e S ec re ta ry o f t h e Sm i thson ian I n s t i tu t ion 1 887 -1888 .U .S . G ove rnmen tP r in t ing O ff ice , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . Mu rdock , G . P . 1 937 C ompa ra t ive D a ta o n t h eD iv is ion o f L abo rb yS ex . S oc ia lF or c es 1 5 (4 ) :551 -553 . Mu rdock , G . P . , a nd C . P rovos t 1 973 F ac to r s i n t h e D iv is ion o fL abo r b y S ex : AC ro s s -Cu l tu ra l A na ly s is . E thno logy 1 2 (2 ) :203 -225 . Mu r ray , T . 1 993 C ommun ica t ion a nd t h e I mpo r tance o f D isc ip l ina ry C ommun i t ie s : Who Owns t h e P a s t? I n A rchaeo log ica l T heor y : Who S e t s t h e A genda? , e d i ted b yN . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 1 05 116 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . N ade lson , L . 1 98 1 P i g s , Women , a nd t h e Men 's H ouse i n Amazon ia : A n A na lys is o f S i x Mundu rucü My th s . I n S exua l Mean ing s : T he C u l tura l C on s truc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty , e d i t ed b yS .B .O r tne r a nd H . Wh i tehead , p p .2 40 -272 .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . N agy , M . I . 1 994 Y ukon N or th S l ope I nuv ia lu i t O ra l H i s to ry . O cca s iona l P ape r s i n Y ukon H is to ry N o . 1 , Y ukon H e r i tage B ranch . N e lson , C . 1 974 P ub l ic a nd P r iva te P o l i t ic s : Women i nt h e M idd le E a s te rn Wo r ld . Ame r ican E thno log i s t 1 ( 3 ) :5515 63 . N e l son , R . K . 1 973 H un t er s o f t h e N or thern F ores t : D e s igns f or S urv iva l a mong t h e A laskan K u tch in .

U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s ,C h icago . 1 983 Mak e P rayer s t ot h e R aven : AK oyukon V i ew o f t h e N or thern F ores t . U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re ss , C h icago . N e lson , S . M . 1 997 G end er i nA rchaeo logy : A na ly z ing P ower a nd P res t ige . A l tam ira , Wa lnu t C reek , C a l i f o rn ia . O 'Br ien , P .J . 1 991 E v idence f o rt h e A n t iqu i ty o f Women ' s R o le s i n P awnee S oc ie ty . I n A pproache s t o G end er P roces s es o n t h e G r ea tP la in s , e d i t ed b y M . K o rnfe ld , p p . 5 1 -64 . P l a in sA n th ropo log i s t Memo i r2 6 . O 'Conne l l , J .F . , K . H awke s , a nd N . B . J one s 1 988 H adza S caveng ing : I mp l ica t ion s f o r P l io /P le is tocene H om in id S ub s is tence . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 9 (2 ) :356 -363 . O de l l , G . H . 1 981 T he Mo rpho log ica l E xp re s s a tF unc t ion J unc t ion : S ea rch ing f o r Mean ing i nL i th ic T oo l T ype s . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lR e sea r ch 3 7 (4 ) :319 -342 . O lsen , S .J . 1 990 Wa s E a r ly Man i nN o r th Ame r ica aB ig G ame H un t e r? I nH un ter so ft h eR ecen tP a s t , e d i ted b y L . B . D av i s a nd B . 0 . K . R eeve s , p p . 1 03 -110 . U nw in H yman ,L ondon . O r tne r , S . B . 1 974 I sF ema le t o Ma le a s N a tu re i st o C u l tu re? I nW oman , C u l tur e , a nd S oc ie ty , e d i ted b y M . Z . R o sa ldo a nd L . L amphe re , p p . 6 7 -87 . S tanfo rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , S t an f o rd . O r tne r , S . B . , a nd H . Wh i tehead 1 981 I n t roduc t ion : A ccoun t ing f o r S exua l Mean ing s . I nS exua l Mean ings : T h e C u l tura l C ons truc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty , e d i ted b y S . B . O r tne r a nd H . Wh i tehead , p p . 1 27 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . O r tne r , S . B . , a nd H . Wh i tehead ( e d i to r s ) 1 98 1 S exua l Mean ing s : T he C u l tura l C ons truc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . O sgood , C . 1 970 I nga l ik Ma ter ia l C u l tur e . R ep r in ted . H uman R e la t ions A rea F i les P re s s , N ew H aven . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 940 ,Y a le U n ive r s i ty P ub l ica t ion s i nA n th ropo logy , Numbe r2 2 . P eacock , N . R . 1 991 R e th ink ing t h e S exua l D iv is ion o f L abo r : R ep roduc t ion a nd Women 's Wo rk a mong t h e E f e . I n G end er a t t h e C ros sroad s o f K now ledge : F em in i s tA n thropo logy i nt h eP os tmod ern E ra ,e d i ted b y M . d iL eona rdo , p p . 39 -360 . U n ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia P re s s ,B e rk e ley . P o l lak , J .S . 1 991 E xcava t ing A ue l : T he G ende r R o le s o f E a r th ' s C h i ld ren . I nT he A r chaeo logy o fG end e r , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 2 97 -300 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion , C a lga ry . P oo le , F . J .P . 1 981 T ransf o rm ing " Na tu ra l " Woman : F ema le R i tua l L eade r s a nd G ende r I d eo logy Among B im in -Ku s l cusm in . I n S exua l Mean ing s : T he C u l tura l C ons t ruc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty , e d i ted b y S .B . O r tne r a nd H . Wh i tehead , p p . 16 -165 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . P oppe r , K . R . 1 959 T he L og ic o fS c ien t if i c D i scove ry . H u t ch in son ,L ondon . 1 969 C on jec tures a nd R ef u ta t ions : T h e G row th o f S c ien t if ic K now ledge . 3 rd e d . R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l ,L ondon . 1 972 O b j ec t ive K now l edg e :A nE vo lu t iona ry A pproach . C la rendon P r e s s , O x f o rd . R au tman , A . E . 1 993 R e sou rce V a r iab i l i ty , R isk , a nd t h e S t r uc tu re o f S oc ia l N e two rk s : A n E xamp le f r om t h e P reh is to r ic S ou thwe s t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 8 (3 ) :403 4 24 . R edmann , R . E . 1 982 P roduc t ion a nd D ive rs i ty i n 12

C on tempo ra ry G ra s s land s . I n P a l eoeco logy o fB er ing ia , e d i ted b y D . M . H opk ins , J .V . Ma t thew s , J r . , C . E . S chwege r , a nd S . B . Y oung , p p . 2 23 -239 . A cadem ic P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . R e ed ,L .J . 1 991 Women i nt h eS uba r c t ic : Wa sG a the r ing a V iab le E conom ic A c t iv i ty? I n T he A rchaeo logy o f G end e r , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 2 92 -296 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . R eeve s , B . 0 . K . 1 990 C ommuna l B i son H un te r s o ft h e N o r the rn P l a in s . I nH un t er so ft h eR ec en tP as t ,e d i ted b y L .B . D av i s a nd B . 0 . K . R eeve s , p p . 1 68 194 . U nw in H yman ,L ondon . 1 993 I n i sk im : AS a c red N i t s i tap i i R e l ig iou s T rad i t ion . I nK una i tup i i : C om ing T oge ther o nS a cr ed S i t e s ,e d i ted b y B . 0 . K . R eeve s a nd M . A . K enne dy , p p . 1 94 -259 . A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty o fA lbe r t a ,C a lga ry . R ehe r , C . A . , a nd G . C . F r ison 1 980 T he V or e S i te , 4 8CK302 : AS t ra t if i ed B uf f a lo J ump i nt h e W yom ing B lack H i l l s . P l a ins A n th ropo log i s t Memo i r 1 6 , V o lume 2 5 (88 ) , P a r t2 . R e i te r , R . R . 1 975a I n t roduc t ion . I n T oward a n A n th ropo logy o f Women , e d i ted b yR .R .R e i te r , p . 1 1 9 . Mon th ly R ev iew P r e s s , N ew Y o rk . 1 975b Men a nd Women i nt h e S ou th o fF rance : P ub l ic a nd P r iva te D oma in s . I n T oward a n A n thropo logy o f W om en , e d i ted b y R . R . R e i te r , p p . 2 52 -282 . Mon th ly R ev iew P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . R e i te r , R . R . ( e d i to r ) 1 975 T oward a nA n thropo logy o f W omen . Mon th ly R ev iew P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . R enaud , E . B . 1 932 Y uma a nd F o lsom A r t ifac t s . P roceed ing s o f t h e C o lorado Mu s eum o f N a tura l H i s tor y 1 (2 ) .D enve r . R icha rds , C . E . 1 974 O nondaga Women : Among t h e L ibe ra ted . I n Many S i s t er s : Women i nC ros s -C u l tura l P er spec t iv e , e d i ted b y C . J . Ma t th ia s son , p p . 4 0 1-419 . F r ee P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . R i tch ie , W . A . 1 953 A P robab le P a leo Ind ian s i te i n V e rmon t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 1 8 (3 ) :249 -258 . R obe r t s ,F .H .H . ,J r . 1 935 A F o lsom C omp lex : P r e l im ina ry R epo r t o n I n ve s t iga t ions a t t h e L indenme ie r s i te i n N o r the rn C o lo rado . Sm i thson ian M isce l laneous C o l l ec t ion s 9 4 (4 ) . 1 936 A dd i t iona l I n f o rma t ion o n t h e F o l som C omp lex : R epo r t o n t h e S econd S ea son 's I n ve s t iga t ions a tt h e L indenme ie r s i te i nN o r the rn C o lo rado . Sm i th son ian M i sc e l lan eou sC o l l ec t ion s 9 5 (10 ) . 1 937 T he F o lsom P rob lem i n Ame r ican A rchaeo logy . I nE ar ly Man , e d i ted b y G . G . Ma cCu rdy , p p . 1 53 -162 . J . B .L ipp inco t t ,L ondon . 1 940 D eve lopmen t s i n t h e P rob lem o f t h e N o r th Ame r ican P a leo Ind ian . Sm i th son ian M isce l laneous C o l lec t ion s 1 00 :51-116 . R obe r t s , M . F . 1 970 L a te G la c ia l a nd P os tg lac ia l E nv ironmen ts i n S outheas te rn Wyom ing . P a laeogeography , P a laeoc l ima to logy , P a laeoeco logy 8 : 5 17 . R oge r s , S .C . 1 975 F ema le F o rm so fP owe ra nd t h e My th o f Ma le D om inance : A Mode l o fF ema le /Ma le I n te ra c t ion i nP ea san tS oc ie ty . Am e r ican E thno log i s t 2 : 727 -756 . 1 978 Woman 's P lace : A C r i t ica l R ev iew o f A n th ropo log ica lT heo ry . C ompara t iv eS t ud i es i nS oc ie ty a nd H i s t o r y2 0 ( 1) :123 162 . R oh r l ich -Leav i t t , R . , B . S yke s , a nd E . Wea the r fo rd 1 975 A bo r ig ina l Woman : Ma le a nd F ema le A n th ropo log ica l P e rspec t ive s . I n T owa rd a n A n th ropo logy o f W om en ,

A n thropo logy o fG end er . U n ive r s i ty o f P enn sy lvan ia P r e s s , P h i lade lph ia . S a s saman , K . E . 1 992 G ende r a nd T echno logy a tt h e A rcha ic - Wood land " T ran s i t ion . " I n E xp lor ing G end er T hrough A r chaeo logy : S e lec t ed P aper sf rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf er ence , e d i ted b y C . C laa ssen , p p . 7 1 -79 . P r eh i s to ry P r e s s , Mad ison ,W i s con s in . S auchyn , M . A . , a nd D . J .S auchyn 1 99 1 AC on t inuou s R eco rd o f H o locene P o l len f r om H a r r is L ake , S ou thwe s te rn S a sk a t chewan ,C anada . P a la eog eog raphy , P a laeoc l ima t o logy , P a laeoeco logy 8 8 :13 -23 . S aunde r s , J . J . 1 977 L ehne r R anch R ev i s i ted . I n P a l eo ind ian L tf eway s , e d i ted b y E .J ohnson , p p . 4 8 -64 . Mu seum J ou rna l 1 7 , We s tT exa s Mu seum A s soc ia t ion , L ubbo ck . 1 978 /79 E lephan t H un te r s i n N o r th Ame r ica : N ew T hough t s o n a n A nc ien t A c t iv i ty . T he L iv ing Mu s eum 4 1 ( 1 ) :7 10 . 1 980 A Mode lf o r Man -Mammo th R e la t ion sh ip si nL a te P l e is tocene N o r th Ame r ica . C anad ian J ourna l o f A n thropo logy 1 : 87 -98 . 1 990 I mmanence , C onf igu ra t ion , a nd t h eD iscove ry o f Ame r ica 's P a s t . I n Megaf auna a nd Man : D i scov er y o f Amer ica ' s H ear t land , e d i ted b y L . D . A genb road , J .I . Mead , a nd L . W . N e lson , p p . 1 36 143 . T he Mammo th S i te o f H o t S p r ings S c ien t if ic P ape r s V o lume 1 ,H o t S p r ing s , S ou th D ako ta . 1 992 B lackwa te r D raw s : Mammo th s a nd Mammo th H un te r s i nt h eT e rm ina l P l e i s tocene . I nP robosc id ean s a nd P a leo ind ian I n terac t ions ,e d i ted b yJ .W .F ox ,C .B . Sm i th , a nd K . T .W i lk ins , p p . 1 23 -147 . Ma rkham P r e s s F und o fB ay lo rU n ive r s i ty P r e s s , Waco . S aunde r s , J .J . , a nd E . B . D aesch le r 1 994 D e sc r ip t ive A na ly se s a nd T aphono rn ic O b se rva t ions o fC u l tu ra l ly Mod if ied Mammo th s E xcava ted a t " The G rave l P i t , " N ea r C lov is , N ew Mex ico i n1 936 . P roceed ing s o ft h e A cad emy o fN a tura lS c ienc es o fP h i lad e lph ia 1 45 : 1-28 . S ch lege l , A . 1 990 G ende r Mean ing s : G ene ra l a nd S pec if i c . I n B eyond t h e S econd S ex : N ew D ir ec t ions i n t h e A n th ropo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y P .R . S anday a nd R . G . G oodenough , p p . 2 3 -4 1 . U n ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia P r e s s , P h i lade lph ia . S chm i t t , D . N . , a nd K . D . L upo 1 995 O n Mamma l ian T aphonomy , T axonom ic D ive r s i ty , a nd Mea su r ing S ubs is tence D a ta i n Z ooa rchaeo logy . Am er ican A n t iqu i ty 6 0 (3 ) :496 -514 . S choo lc ra f t , H . R . 1 851-57 H is tor ica l a nd S t a t i s t ica l I n f orma t ion R espec t ing t h e H is tory , C ond i t ion a nd P r ospec t s o ft h e I nd ian T r ibes o ft h e U n i ted S t a t e s . 6 v o ls .L ipp inco t t ,G rambo , P h i lade lph ia . S chu l tz ,C .B . 1 943 S ome A r t if a c tS i te s o fE a r ly Ma n i nt h e G rea t P l a in s a nd A d jacen t A rea s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 : 242 -249 . S chu l tz ,J .M . 1 992 T he U se - Wea rG ene ra ted b yP roce s s ing B i son H ide s .P la in sA n thropo log i s t3 7 (141 ) :333 -351 . S chwege r , B . F . 1 983 Documen ta t ion a nd A na ly s i so ft h e C lo th ing Worn b y N on -na t ive Men i n t h e C anad ian A r c t ic p r ior t o1 920 , w i th a n Emphas i s o n F oo tw ear . U npub l ished Ma s te r 's t h e s is , C lo th ing a nd T ex t i le s , F a cu l ty o f H ome E conom ic s , U n ive r s i ty o f A lbe r ta , E dmon ton . S chwege r , C . E . , a nd M . H ickman 1 989 H o locene P a leohyd ro logy o fc en t ra l A lbe r ta : T e s t ing t h eG ene ra lC i rcu la t ion -Mode l C l ima te S imu la t ions . C anad ian J our na lo fE a r th S c iences 2 6 :1826 -1833 . S chwege r ,C . E . , J .V . Ma t thew s , J r . ,D .M . H opk in s , a nd S .

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B .Y oung 1 982 P a leoeco logy o fB e r ing ia -A S yn the s is . I nP a l eoeco logy o fB er ing ia , e d i ted b yD . M . H opk in s , J .V . Ma t thew s , J r . , C . E . S chwege r , a nd S .B . Y oung , p p .4 25 -444 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . S co t t , J .W . 1 988 G ender a nd t h e P o l i t ic s o fH i s tory . C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . S eeman ,M .F . 1 994 I n te r c lu s t e rL i th ic P a t te rn ing a tN ob le s P ond : AC a se f o r " D isembedded " P rocu remen t a mong E a r ly P a leo ind ian S oc ie t ie s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 9 (2 ) :273 -288 . S e l la rd s ,E .H . 1 917 O n t h eA s soc ia t ion o fH uman R ema ins a nd E x t inc t V e r teb ra tes a tV e ro , F lo r ida . J ourna l o f G eo logy 2 5 :4 -24 . 1 937 T he V e ro F inds i n t h e L igh t o f P re sen t K now ledge . I nE ar ly Man , e d i ted b y G . G . MacCu rdy , p p . 1 93 -2 10 .J .B .L ipp inco t t ,L ondon . 1 952 E ar ly Man i n Amer ica : AS t udy i nP r eh is tory . U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP re s s ,A u s t in . S e rv ice ,E .R . 1 966 T he H un t er s .P ren t ice -Ha l l ,E ng lewood C l i f f s ,N ew J e r sey . S ha f e r , H . J . 1 977 E a r ly L i th ic A s semb lage s i nE a s te rn T exa s . I n P a leo ind ian L if eway s , e d i ted b yE .J ohn son , p p . 1 87 -197 . Museum J ou rna l 1 7 , We s tT exa s Mu seum A s soc ia t ion ,L ubbock . S hank s , M . , a nd C . T i l ley 1 987 S oc ia l T heory a nd A r cha eo logy . P o l i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . 1 989 A rchaeo logy i n to t h e 1 990 s . Norwegian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 2 2 (1 ) :1 -54 . 1 992 R e -Cons truc t ing A rchaeo logy : T heory a nd P rac t ic e . 2 nd e d . R ou t ledge ,L ondon . S ha rp , H . S . 1 981 T he Nu l l C a se : T he C h ipewyan . I n W oman t h e G a ther er , e d i ted b y F .D ah lbe rg , p p . 2 2 12 44 .Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven . S hennan , S . 1 986 T owa rds a C r i t ica l A rchaeo logy? P roc eed ing so ft h eP r eh is tor ic S oc ie ty 5 2 :327 -338 . 1 993 A f te r S oc ia l E vo lu t ion : AN ew A rchaeo log ica l A genda ? I n A rchaeo log ica l T heo ry : Who S e t s t h e A g end a? , e d i ted b y N . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 5 3 5 9 .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . S h ipman , P . 1 983 E a r ly H om in id L if e s ty le : H un t ing a nd G a the r ing o rF o rag ing a nd S caveng ing? I nA n ima l sa nd A rchaeo logy : H un ter s a nd T he ir P r ey , e d i ted b y J . C lu t ton -Brock a nd C . G r igson , p p . 3 1-49 . BAR I n te r na t iona l S e r ie s 1 63 . 1 984 S cavenge rH un t .N a tura lH i s to ry 9 3 (4 ) :20 -27 . 1 986 S caveng ing o r H un t ing i n E a r ly H om in ids : T heore t ica l F ramewo rk a nd T es ts . Amer ican A n th ropo log i s t8 8 :27 -43 . S ho t t ,M . 1 986 T e chno log ica l O rgan iza t ion a nd S e t t lemen t Mob i l i ty , a n E thnog raph ic E xam ina t ion . J ourna l o f A n th ropo log ica lR e sear ch 4 2 :15 -52 . S i lbe rbaue r , G . 1 982 P o l i t ica l P roce ss i nG /w i B ands . I n P o l i t ic s a nd H is tory i n B and S oc ie t ies , e d i ted b y E . L ea cock a nd R . L ee , p p . 2 3 -35 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . S k inne r , G . W . 1 993 C on juga l P owe r i n T okugawa J apane se F am i l ie s : A Ma t te r o f L if e o rD ea th . I n S e x a nd G end er H ierarch ies , e d i ted b y B . D . M i l le r , p p . 2 36 -270 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . S locum , S . 1 975 Woman t h e G a the re r : Ma le B ia s i n A n th ropo logy . R ep r in ted .I nT owa rd a nA n thropo logy o f W om en , e d i ted b y R . R . R e i te r , p p . 3 6 -50 . Mon th ly R ev iew P re ss , N ew Y o rk . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 971 , u nde r S .L in ton , i nW om en i nP er spec t iv e : AG u id ef or C ro s s -Cu l tura lS t ud ie s , e d i t ed b yS .E .J a cob s ,p p . 9 21 . U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino i sP re s s ,U rbana .

Smed ley , A . 1 974 Women o f Udu : S u rv iva l i n aH a r sh L and . I n Many S i s ter s : Women i n C ros s -C u l tura l P er spec t iv e , e d i ted b y C . J . Ma t th ia s son , p p . 2 0 5 -228 . F ree P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Sm i th , E . A . 1 988 R i sk a nd Unce r ta in ty i nt h e " O r ig ina l A ff luen t S oc ie ty " : E vo lu t iona ry E co logy o fR e sou r ce S ha r ing a nd L and T enu re . I n H un t er sa nd G a th e r er sI : H i s tory , E vo lu t ion , a nd S oc ia l C hange , e d i t ed b y T . I n go ld , D . R iche s , a nd J . Woodbu rn , p . 22 -251 .B e rg , N ew Y o rk . 1 99 1 I nu j juam iu t F orag ing S t ra t eg i es : E vo lu t ionary E co logy o f a n A rc t ic H un t ing E conomy . A ld ine d e G ruy te r ,N ew Y o rk . Sm i th , J .C . 1 991 G ende r a nd t h e C on s t ruc t ion o fR ea l i ty . I nT he A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 8 4 -95 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . S of f e r , 0 . 1 983 P o l i t ic s o ft h e P a leo l i th ic i nt h eU SSR : A C a se o f P a rad igm s L os t . I n T he S oc io -Po l i t ics o f A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y J .G e ro , D . L a cy , a nd M . L . B lakey , p p . 9 1 -105 . A n th ropo log ica l R e sea r ch R epo r t N o .2 3 .U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sachu se t t s , Amhe r s t . 1 985 T he U pper P a leo l i th ic o ft h e C en t ra l R u s s ian P la in . A cadem ic P re s s ,O r lando . 1 993 U ppe r P a leo l i th ic Adap ta t ion s i n C en t ra l a nd E a s te rn E u rope a nd Man - Mammo th I n te rac t ions . I n F rom K os t enk i t o C lov i s : U pper P a l eo l i th ic -P a l eo I nd ian A dap ta t ions , e d i ted b y 0 . S of f e r a nd N . D . P ra s lov ,p p .3 1 -49 . P l enum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . S of f e r , 0 . , a nd N . D . P r a s lov ( e d i to r s ) 1 993 F rom K o s tenk i t oC lov i s : U pper P a l eo l i th ic -P a leo I nd ian A dap t a t ions . P l enum P r e s s ,N ew Y o rk . S o lway , J .S . 1 992 M idd le -Aged Wome n i nB akga lagad i S oc ie ty ( Bo t swana ) . I n I n H er P r ime : N ew V i ew s o f M idd le -Aged Women , e d i ted b y V . K e rn s a nd J .K . B rown ,p p .4 9 -58 .U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino i s ,U rbana . S o rensen , M . L . S . 1 991 T he C on s t r uc t ion o f G ende r T h rough A ppea rance . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 1 2 1129 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . 1 992 G ende r A rchaeo logy a nd S cand inav ian B ronze A ge S tud ies . N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 2 5 (1) :31 -49 . S pec to r , J .D . 1 983 Ma le /Fema le T a sk D if f e ren t ia t ion Among t h e H ida t sa : T owa rd t h e D eve lopmen t o f a n A r cheo log ica l A pp roach t ot h e S t udy o fG ende r . I nT h e H idd en H a lf :S t ud i es o fP la ins I nd ian W omen ,e d i ted b y P .A lbe r s a nd B . Med ic ine , p p . 7 7 -99 . U n ive r s i ty P r e s s o f Ame r ica ,L anham , Ma ry land . 1 993 Wha t T h i s Aw l Mean s : F em in i s tA r chaeo logy a ta W ahpe ton D ako ta V i l lag e .M inne so ta H is to r ica lS oc ie ty P r e s s ,S t .P au l . S pence r - Wood , S .M . 1 991 T owa rd aF em in is t H i s to r ica l A r chaeo logy o f t h e C ons t ruc t ion o f G ende r . I n T h e A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 2 34 -244 . Un ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . S t a ck , C . B . 1 974 S ex R o le s a nd S u rv iva l S t ra teg ie si na n U rban B lack C ommun i ty . I n W oman , C u l tur e , a nd S oc i e ty , e d i t ed b y M . Z .R osa ldo a nd L .L amph e re , p p . 13 -128 .S t anf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s , S t anf o rd . S t a f f o rd , C . R . 1 994 S t ruc tu ra l C hange s i n A rcha ic L andscape U se i n t he D issec ted Up land s o f S ou thwe s te rn I nd iana . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 9 (2 ) :2 19 2 37 . 14

S taf fo rd , T . W . , J r . 1 990 L a te P l e i s tocene Mega f auna E x t inc t ions a nd t h e C lov is C u l tu re : A b so lu te A ge s B a sed o n A cce le ra to r 1 4 CD a t ing o fS ke le ta l R ema in s . I n Megaf auna a nd Man : D iscovery o f Amer ica ' s H ear t land , e d i t ed b y L . D . A genb road , J .I .Mead , a nd L . W . N e lson , p p . 18 -122 . T he Mammo th S i te o fH o t S p r ing sS c ien t if i cP ape r s V o lume 1 ,H o tS p r ings , S ou th D ak o t a . S tah l , A . B . 1 993 C oncep t s o fT ime a nd A pp roache s t o A na log ica l R eason ing i n H is to r ica l P e rspec t ive . Amer i can A n t iqu i ty 5 8 (2 ) :235 -260 . S t anfo rd ,D . J . 1 978 T he J one s -M i l le rS i t e : A n E xamp le o f H e l l G ap B ison P rocu remen t S t ra tegy . I n B i son P r ocur emen ta nd U t i l i za t ion : AS ympo s ium ,e d i ted b yL . B . D av is a nd M . Wi lson , p p . 9 0 -97 . P la ins A n th ropo log is t Memo i rN o . 1 4 . 1 979 B ison K i l l b y I c e A ge H un te r s . Nat iona l G eogr aph ic 1 55 ( 1 ) :114 -121 . S t anfo rd , D . , R . B onn ich sen , a nd R .E . Mo r lan 1 981 T he G in sbe rg E xpe r imen t : Mode rn a nd P reh i s to r ic E v idence o f aB one -F lak ing T e chno logy .S c i enc e 2 12 :438 -440 . S tee le , D . G . , a nd J .F . P owe l l 1 992 P eop l ing o f t h e Ame r ica s : P a leob io log ica l E v idence . H uman B io logy 6 4 (3 ) :303 -336 . S t ine , L .F . 1 991 E a r ly Twen t ie th C en tu ry G ende r R o le s : P e rcep t ions f r om t h e F a rm . I n T he A rchaeo logy o f G end e r , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 4 96 -501 . Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . S to rck , P . L . 1 991 I mpe r ia l is t s W i thou t aS ta te : T he C u l tu ra lD ynam ic so fE a r ly P a leo ind ian C o lon iza t ion a s S een f r om t h e G rea t L ake s R eg ion . I n C lov i s : O r ig in s a nd A dap ta t ion s , e d i ted b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K . L . T u rnm i re , p p . 1 53 162 . C en te rf o rt h eS t udy o ft h eF i r s t Ame r icans ,O regon S t a te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l is . S t ra the rn , M . 1 981 C u l tu re i n aN e tbag : T he Manuf a c tu re o f aS ubd isc ip l ine i n A n th ropo logy . Man ( n .s . ) 1 6 (4 ) :665 -688 . T anne r , A . 1 979 B r ing ing H ome A n ima l s : R e l ig ious I d eo logy a nd Mod eo fP roduc t ion o ft h eM i s tas s in i C r ee H un t e r s .S t . Ma r t in ' sP re s s ,N ew Y o rk . T anne r ,N . , a nd A . Z ih lman 1 976 Women i nE vo lu t ion . P a r t I :I n nova t ion a nd S e lec t ion i nH uman O r ig in s . S i gn s : J ourna l o f Women i n C u l tur e a nd S oc ie ty 1 ( 3 , P t . 1 ) :585 -608 . T ay lo r , W . W . , J r . 1 948 A S t ud yo fA r chaeo logy . Memo i r S e r ie s o f t h e Ame r ican A n th ropo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , N o .6 9 . Mena sha ,W i scon s in . T h is t le , P . C . 1 993 D ependence a nd C on t ro l : I nd ianE u ropean T rade R e la t ion s i nt h e P o s t -Ke lsey E ra . I n T h r ee H undr ed P ra ir ie Y ear s : H enry K e l sey ' s " I n land C oun t ry o fG ood R epor t , " e d i ted b y H . E pp , p p . 1 24 1 30 . C anad ian P l a in s R e sea rch C en te r , U n ive rs i ty o f R eg ina ,S a ska t chewan . T homa s ,D . H . 1 983 T h eA r chaeo logy o f Mon i tor V a l l ey 2 . G a t ec l if f S he l t er . A n th ropo log ica l P ape rs o f t h e Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H is to ry V o lume 5 9 , P a r t 1 .N ew Y o rk . T homp son , J .E . S . 1 958 T he F i r s t P eop l ing o f t h e N ew Wo r ld . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 4 (2 ) :184 . T if f any , S .W . 1 979 I n t roduc t ion : T heo re t ica l I s sue s i nt h e A n th ropo log ica l S tudy o f Women . I n Women a nd S oc i e ty : A nA n thropo log ica l R ead er , e d i ted b y S .W . T i f f any , p p . 1 35 . E den P re s s Women 's P ub l ica t ion s , Mon t re a l . T if f any , S . W . ( ed i to r ) 1 979 W omen a nd S oc ie ty : A n 15

A n thropo log ica l R eader . E den P re ss Women 's P ub l ica t ion s , Mon t rea l . T ige r , L . 1 969 Men i nG roup s . T homa s N e l son a nd S on s , L ondon . T i l ley ,C . 1 990a M iche lF oucau l t : T owa rd sa nA r chaeo logy o f A rchaeo logy . I n R ead ing Ma ter ia l C u l ture : S t ruc tura l i sm , H ermeneu t ic s a nd P os t -S t ruc tura l i sm , e d i ted b y C . T i l ley , p p . 2 80 -347 . B a s i l B lackwe l l , O xf o rd . 1 990b C laude L ev i -S t rau s s : S t ruc tu ra l ism a nd B eyond . I n R ead ing Ma ter ia l C u l ture : S truc tura l ism , H ermeneu t ics a nd P os t -S truc tura l ism , e d i ted b y C . T i l ley ,p p . 3 8 1 .B a s i lB la ckwe l l ,O xf o rd . 1 991 Ma t er ia lC u l tur ea nd T ex t : T he A r to f Amb igu i ty . R ou t ledge ,L ondon . T i l ley , C . ( e d i to r ) 1 990 R ead ing Ma ter ia l C u l tur e : S t ruc tura l i sm , H ermeneu t ic s a nd P os t -S t ruc tura l i sm . B a s i lB la ckwe l l ,O xf o rd . T odd , L .C . 1 987 A na ly s i s o fK i l l -Bu tche ry B onebed s a nd I n te rp re ta t ion o fP a leo ind ian H un t ing . I nT he E vo lu t ion o fH uman H un t ing , e d i ted b y M . H . N i teck i a nd D . V . N i te ck i ,p p .2 25 -266 .P l enum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . T odd , L . C . , a nd G . C . F r ison 1 986 T aphonom ic S t udy o f t h e C o lby S i te Mammo th B one s . I n T he C o lby Mammo th S i t e : T aphonomy a nd A r chaeo logy o f aC lov i s K i l li nN or the rn W yom ing ,e d i ted b yG .C .F r ison a nd L . C . T odd , p p . 2 7 -90 . U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s , A lbuque rque . T odd , L . C . , J . L . H ofman , a nd C . B . S chu l tz 1 990 S ea sona l i ty o f t h e S co t t sb luf f a nd L ipscomb B ison B onebeds : I mp l ica t ions f o r Mode l ing P a leo ind ian S ub s is t ence . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 (4 ) :813 -827 . 1 992 F auna l A na ly s is a nd P a leo ind ian S tud ie s : A R eexam ina t ion o ft h eL ipscomb B i son B onebed . P la in s A n th ropo log i s t3 7 (139 ) :137 -165 . T r igge r ,B .G . 1 978 T he s t ra tegy o fI r oquo ian P r eh is to ry . I n A rchaeo log ica l E s say s i n H onor o fI r v ing B . R ous e , e d i ted b y R . C . D unne l l a nd E . S . H a l l , p p . 2 75 -310 . Mou ton ,T he H ague . 1 986 P r eh i s to r ic A r chaeo logy a nd Ame r ican S oc ie ty . I n Amer ican A r cha eo logy :P a s ta nd F u tur e , e d i ted b yD .J . Me l tze r , D . D . F ow le r , a nd J .A . S ab lof f , p p . 1 87 -215 . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , Wa sh ing ton . 1 989a A H i s to ry o fA r chaeo log ica lT hough t . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . 1 989b H is to ry a nd C on tempora ry Ame r ican A rchaeo logy : AC r i t ica l A na lys is . I n A r chaeo log ica l T hough t i n Amer ica , e d i ted b y C . C . L ambe rg K a r lov sky , p p . 1 9 -34 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . T r ingham , R . E . 1 991 H ouseho lds w i th F aces : T he C ha l lenge o f G ende r i n P reh is to r ic A rch i tec tu ra l R ema ins . I n E ngend er ing A rchaeo logy : W omen a nd P r eh i s tor y ,e d i t ed b yJ .M . G e ro a nd M . W .C onkey ,p p . 9 3 -131 .B a s i lB la ckwe l l ,O xf o rd . T roco l l i , R . 1 992 C o lon iza t ion a nd Women 's P roduc t ion : T he T imucua o fF lo r ida . I nE xp lor ing G end er T hrough A rchaeo logy : S e lec t ed P aper sf rom t h e 1 991 B oone C onf erence , e d i ted b y C . C laa ssen , p p . 9 5 -102 . P r eh i s to ry P r e s s , Mad ison ,W i s con s in . T u rnbu l l , C . M . 1 961 T he F or es t P eop le . S imon a nd S chu s te r ,N ew Y o rk . 1 981 Mbu t i Womanhood . I n W oman t h e G a ther er , e d i ted b y F . D ah lbe rg , p p . 2 05 -219 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven . T u rne r , E . 1 990 T he Wha le D ec ides : E sk imos ' a nd

E thnog raphe r 's S ha red C onsc iou sne s s o n t h e I c e . I nu i t S t ud ie s 1 4 (1 -2 ) :39 -52 . V an A l len ,J . 1 979 " S i t t ing o n aMan " : C o lon ia l i sm a nd t h e L os t P o l i t ica l I n s t i tu t ions o f I gbo Women . I n W omen a nd S oc ie ty : A n A n thropo log ica l R ead er , e d i ted b y S . W . T if fany , p p . 1 63 -187 . E den P re ss Women 's P ub l ica t ion s , Mon t rea l . V ance , R . E . , J .J .C lague , a nd R . W . Ma thewe s 1 993 H o locene P a leohyd ro logy o f a Hype r sa l ine L ake i n s ou thea s te rn A lbe r ta .J ourna lo fP a l eo l imno logy 8 : 103 1 20 . V ance , R .E . , R . W . Ma thewe s , a nd J .J .C lague 1 992 7 000 Y ea r R eco rd o f L ake -Leve l C hange o n t h e N o r the rn G rea tP l a ins : AH igh -Re so lu t ion P roxy o fP a s tC l ima te . G eo logy 2 0 :879 -882 . V icke r s , J .R . 1 986 A lber ta P la ins P r eh i s tory : AR ev iew . A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o fA lbe r ta O cca s iona l P ape r No . 2 7 . A lbe r ta C u l tu re ,E dmon ton . Wa lde , D . , a nd N . D . W i l low s ( ed i to r s ) 1 991 T he A r chaeo logy o fG end er .P roceed ing so ft h e2 2nd A nnua l C hacmoo l C onfe rence . Un ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . Wa lke r , D . N . 1 982a E a r ly H o locene V e r teb ra te F auna . I n T he A ga te B as in S i te : AR ecord o f t h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o ft h eN or thwes tern H igh P la in s , e d i ted b y G . C .F r ison a nd D . J .S tanfo rd , p p . 2 74 -308 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 982b C u l tu ra l Mod if ica t ion o fB one f r om P rongho rn ( An t i locapra Amer icana) a nd o t he r Sma l l Mamma ls . I n T he A ga te B as in S i t e : AR ecord o f t h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o ft h eN or thwes tern H igh P la ins , e d i ted b y G . C .F r ison a nd D . J .S tanfo rd , p p . 2 70 -274 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Wa l l , D . d iZe rega 1 994 T he A rchaeo logy o f G ender : S epara t ing t h e S pheres i n U rban Amer ica . P lenum P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Wa rn ica , J .M . 1 966 N ew D iscove r ie s a tt h e C lov is S i te . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 1(3 ) :345 -357 . Wa shbu rn , S .L . , a nd C . S .L anca s te r 1 968 T he E vo lu t ion o fH un t ing . I n Man t h e Hun ter , e d i ted b y R . B .L ee a nd I .D eVo re ,p p . 2 93 -303 .A ld ine ,C h icago . Wa te r s , M . R . 1 986a T he G eoarchaeo logy o f Wh i tewa ter D raw , A r izona . A n th ropo log ica l P ape rs No . 4 5 . U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s , T uc son . 1 986b T he S u lphu r S p r ing S tage a nd i t s P lace i nN ew Wo r ld P reh is to ry . Q ua ternary R esear ch 2 5 :251 -256 . Wa t son , P .J . , a nd M . F o t iad is 1 990 T he R azo r 's E dge : S ymbo l ic -S t ruc tu ra l is tA rcheo logy a nd t h eE xpan s ion o f A rcheo log ica l I n f e rence . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 9 2 : 6 13 -630 . Wa tson , R . A . 1 990 O zymand ias , K ing o f K ings : P os tp rocessua l R ad ica l A rchaeo logy a s C r i t ique . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 5 (4 ) :673 -689 . Webb , S . D . 1 992 A B r ief H is to ry o f N ew Wo r ld P robo sc idea w i th Empha s is o n t h e i r A dap ta t ions a nd I n te rac t ions w i th Man . I n P robosc ideans a nd P a leo ind ian I n terac t ions , e d i ted b y J .W . F ox , C . B . Sm i th , a nd K . T . W i lk ins , p p . 1 5 -34 . Ma rkham P re s s F und o fB ay lo rU n ive r s i ty P res s , Waco . Webs te r , P . 1 975 Ma t r ia rchy : A V is ion o f P owe r . I n T oward a n A n thropo logy o f Women , e d i ted b y R . R . R e i te r ,p p . 1 4 1-156 . Mon th ly R ev iew P re s s , N ew Y o rk . Wede l , W . R . 1 961 P r eh i s tor ic Man o n t h e G rea tP la ins . U n ive r s i ty o f Ok lahoma P res s ,N o rman . 1 982a T owa rd a H is to ry o f P la ins A rcheo logy . I n E s say s i nt h e H is tory o fP la in s A rcheo logy , b y W . R .

Wede l , p p . 7 8 -131 . R ep r in t s i n A n th ropo logy V o lume 2 4 , J& L R ep r in tC ompany ,L inco ln ,N eb ra ska . 1 982b S ome E a r ly E u ro -Ame r ican P e r cep t s o ft h eG rea t P la ins a nd T he i rI n f luence o n A n th ropo log ica l T h ink ing . R ep r in ted . I n E ssays i n t he H i s tory o f P la ins A rcheo logy , b y W . R . Wede l , p p . 1 32 -149 . R ep r in t s i n A n th ropo logy V o lume 2 4 , J& L R ep r in t C ompany , L inco ln ,N eb ra ska .O r ig ina l ly p ub l i shed 1 975 , i nI mage s o ft h e P la ins : T he R o le o f Human N a ture i nS e t t lemen t , e d i ted b y B . W . B loue t a nd M . P .L awson , p p . 1 3 -20 . U n ive r s i ty o fN eb ra ska P re s s . 1 982c T he E duca t ion o f aP la ins A rcheo log is t . R ep r in ted . I n E ssays i n t he H is tory o f P la ins A rcheo logy , b y W . R . Wede l , p p . 1 50 -173 . R ep r in t s i n A n th ropo logy V o lume 2 4 , J& L R ep r in t C ompany , L inco ln , N eb ra ska . O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished 1 977 , P la in s A n thropo log i s t2 2 (75 ) :111 . 1 986 C en tra l P la ins P reh is tory : Ho locene E nv ironmen t s a nd C u l ture C hange i nt h e R epub l ican R iv er B a s in .U n ive r s i ty o fN eb ra sk aP r e ss ,L inco ln . We ine r , A . B . 1 980 S tab i l i ty i n B anana L eave s : C o lon iza t ion a nd Women i n K i r iw ina , T rob r iand I s lands . I n W omen a nd C o lon i za t ion : A n thropo log ica l P er spec t iv es , e d i ted b y M . E t ienne a nd E . L eacock , p p . 2 70 -293 . P raege r , N ew Y o rk . We is t , K . M . 1 980 P la ins I nd ian Women : A n A s se ssmen t . I nA n thropo logy o n t h e G rea t P la in s , e d i ted b y W . R . Wood a nd M . L ibe r ty , p p . 2 55 -271 . U n ive r s i ty o f N eb ra ska ,L inco ln . 1 983 B ea s t s o fB u rden a nd Men ia l S l ave s : N ine teen th C en tu ry O bse rva t ions o f Nor the rn P la ins I nd ian Women . I nT he H idd en Ha lf : S tud ie s o fP la ins I nd ian W omen , e d i ted b y P .A lbe r s a nd B . Med ic ine ,p p . 2 9 -52 . U n ive r s i ty P re s so f Ame r ica , L anham , Ma ry land . Wendo r f , F . 1 961 P a leoeco logy o f t h e L lano E s tacado . P ub l ica t ion N o . 1o ft h eF o r t B u rgw in R e sea rch C en te r , S an ta F e . Wendo rf , F . , a nd J .J .H e s te r 1 962 E a r ly Man 's U t i l iza t ion o f t h e G rea t P la ins E nv i ronmen t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 8 (2 ) :159 17 1 . We s t , F . 1 983 T he A n t iqu i ty o f Man i n Ame r ica . I nL a t eQ ua ternar y E nv ironmen t s o ft h e U n i t ed S ta te s . V o lume I .T he L a t e P le i s tocene , e d i ted b y S .C .P o r te r , p p . 3 64 3 82 .U n ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta P re s s ,M inneapo l is . Whea t , J . B . 1 971 L if eways o f E a r ly Man i n N o r th Ame r ica .A r c t ic A n thropo logy 8 (2 ) :22 -31 . 1 972 T he O l sen -Chubbuck S i te : AP a leo -Ind ian B i son K i l l . S oc ie ty f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy , Memo i r N o . 2 6 . Whe lan , M . K . 1 991 G ende r a nd A rchaeo logy : Mo r tua ry S tud ie s a nd t h e S ea rch f o r t he O r ig ins o f G ende r D if fe ren t ia t ion . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . Wi l low s , p p . 3 58 -365 . Un ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . 1 995 B eyond H ea r th a nd H ome o n t h eR ange : F em in is t A pproaches t o P la ins A rchaeo logy . I n B eyond S ub s is t enc e :P la ins A rchaeo logy a nd t h eP os tproce s sua l C r i t ique , e d i ted b y P .D uke a nd M . C .W i lson , p p . 4 66 5 .U n ive r s i ty o fA labama P res s ,T u s ca loosa . Wh i te , J .P . , a nd J .F . O 'Conne l l 1 982 A P reh i s tory o f A us tra l ia , N ew G u inea a nd S ahu l . A cadem ic P re ss , S ydney . Wh i te , L . A . ( e d i to r ) 1 959 L ew is H . Morgan : T he I nd ian J ourna l s1 859 -1862 .U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan P re s s , A nn A rbo r . 16

Wh i t ehead ,H . 1 98 1 T he B ow a nd t h eB u rden S t rap : AN ew L ook a tI n s t i tu t iona l ized H omo sexua l i ty i nN a t ive N o r th Ame r ica . I n S exua l Mean ings : T he C u l tura l C on s t ruc t ion o fG end er a nd S exua l i ty , e d i ted b y S .B . O r tne r a nd H . Wh i tehead , p p . 8 0 -115 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . Wh i t ley , D . S . , a nd R . I .D o rn 1 993 N ew P e r spe c t ive s o n t h e C lov is v s . P re -C lov is C on t rove r sy . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 8 (4 ) :626 -647 . Why te ,M . K . 1 978 T h e S t a tus o fW om en i nP r e indu s t r ia l S oc i e t i e s . P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,P r ince ton . W ie s sne r , P . 1 982 R isk , R ec ip roc i ty a nd S oc ia l I nf luence s o n ! Kung S an E conom ics . I n P o l i t ic s a nd H i s tory i n B and S oc ie t ies ,e d i ted b yE .L ea cock a nd R .L ee ,p p .6 18 4 .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . W i l ley , G . R . 1 966 A n I n troduc t ion t o Amer ican A r chaeo logy : N or th a nd M idd le Amer ica , v o l . 1 . P r en t ice -Ha l l ,E ng lewood C l if f s ,N ew J e r sey . W i l ley ,G .R . , a nd J .A .S ab lof f 1 980 A H i s to ry o fAmen ican A r cha eo logy . 2 nd e d .W .H .F reeman ,N ew Y o rk . W i l l iam s ,S . 1 987 T he " A rchaeo logy " o fT u rkana B ead s .I n T h eA rchaeo logy o fC on t ex tua l Mean ing s , e d i ted b y I . H odde r , p p . 3 1-38 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . W i l l iam s , S . , a nd J .B . S to l tman 1 965 A n O u t l ine o f S ou thea s te rn U n i ted S t a te s P reh is to ry w i th P a r t icu la r Empha s is o n t h e P a leo ind ian E ra . I n T he Q ua ternary o f t h e U n i ted S ta te s ,e d i ted b yH .E . Wr igh t ,J r . , a nd D . G . F rey , p p . 6 69 -683 . P r ince ton U n ive rs i ty P re ss , P r ince ton . W i l l ig ,J .A . 1 991 C lov i sT echno logy a nd A dap ta t ion i nF a r We s te rn Nor th Ame r ica : R eg iona l P a t te rn a nd E nv i ronmen ta l C on tex t . I n C lov is : O r ig ins a nd A d ap ta t ions , e d i ted b y R . B onn ich sen a nd K . L . T u rnm i re , p p . 9 1 -118 . C en te r f o r t h e S t udy o ft h eF i r s t Ame r ican s ,O regon S t a te U n ive r s i ty ,C o rva l l is . W i l low s , N . D . 1 991 H om in id F e r t i l i ty P a rame te r sD u r ing t h e P l io -P le is tocene . I n T he A rchaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 5 5 -63 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion , C a lga r y . W i lm sen , E .N . 1 965 A n Ou t l ine o fE a r ly Man S tud ie s i n t h eU n i ted S ta te s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 1 (2 ) :172 -192 . 1 970 L i th ic A na ly s i sa nd C u l tura lI n f er ence : AP a l eo I nd ian C ase . A n th ropo log ica l P ape r s o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona N o . 1 6 .U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,T uc son . 1 974 L ind enme ier : A P l e i s tocene H un t ing S oc ie ty . H a rpe ra nd R ow ,N ew Y o rk . W i lmsen , E . N . , a nd F . H . H . R obe r t s , J r . 1 978 L indenme ier , 1 934 -1974 : C onc lud ing R epor t o n I nves t igat ions . Sm i thson ian C on t r ibu t ions t o A n th ropo logy N o . 2 4 . Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . W i l son , E . N . , a nd H . F .D r iggs 1 9 19 T he Wh i te I nd ian B oy . Wo r ld B ook ,Y onke r s -on -Hud son ,N ew Y o rk . W in te rha lde r , B . 1 980 E nv i ronmen ta l A na ly s i s i nH uman E vo lu t ion a nd A dap ta t ion R e sea rch . H uman E co logy 8 : 135 -170 . W i s s le r , C . 1 910 T he Ma ter ia l C u l tur e o ft h e B lackf oo t I n d ian s . A n th ropo log ica l P ape r s V o l . 5 , No . 1 . Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry ,N ew Y o rk . 1 9 16 T he P re sen t S t a tus o f t h e A n t iqu i ty o f Man i n N o r th Ame r ica . T he S c ien t if ic Mon th ly 2 ( 3 ) :234 -238 . W i t thof t , J . 1 952 A P a leo Ind ian s i te i n E a s te rn P e nn sy lvan ia : A nE a r ly H un t ing C u l tu re .P roceed ing so f t h e Amer ican P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty 9 6 :464 -495 .

Wob s t , H . M . 1 974 B ounda ry C ond i t ion s f o r P a leo l i th ic S oc ia l S y s tem s : A S imu la t ion A pp roach . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 9 :147 -178 . Wood , W . R . 1 972 C on t ra s t ive F ea tu re s o fN a t ive N o r th Ame r ican T rade S y s tem s . I n F or t h e C h ief : E s say s i n H onor o fL u ther S .C r es sman , e d i ted b y F .W . V oge t a nd R . L . S t ephenson , p p . 1 53 -169 . U n ive r s i ty o f O regon A n th ropo log ica l P ape r s N o . 4 .U n ive r s i ty o f O regon P r e s s . 1 974 N o r the rn P la ins V i l lage C u l tu re s : I n te rna l S tab i l i ty a nd E x te rna l R e la t ionsh ips . J ourna l o f A n thropo log ica lR e sear ch 3 0 ( 1 ) :1 16 . Woo s ley , A . I . ,a nd M . R . Wa te r s 1 990 R eeva lua t ion o f E a r ly C och ise A r t if ac t A s soc ia t ions w i th P l e i s tocene L ake C och ise , S ou theas te rn A r izona . Am er ican A n t iqu i ty 5 (2 ) :360 -366 . Wo rm ing ton , H . M . 1 949 A nc ien t Man i nN or th Amer ica . D enve r Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry ,D enve r . 1 957 A nc ien t Man i nN or th Amer ica . 4 t h e d . P opu la r S e r ie sN o .4 .T he C o lo rado Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H is to ry , D enve r . Wr igh t , H . E . , J r . 1 970 V ege ta t iona l H is to ry o ft h eC en t ra l P l a ins . I nP l e i s tocene a nd R ecen tE nv ironmen t s o ft h e C en tra l G r ea t P la in s , e d i ted b y W . D o r t , J r . a nd J .K . J one s , J r . , p p . 1 57 -172 . U n ive r s i ty P re s s o f K ansa s , L aw rence . 1 987 S yn the s i s ; T he L and S ou th o ft h e I c e S hee t s . I n N or th Amer ica a nd A d jacen t O ceans d ur ing t h e L a s t D eg lac ia t ion , e d i ted b y W . F . R udd iman a nd H . E . Wr igh t ,J r . ,p p .4 79 -488 . G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o f Ame r ica , B ou lde r . Wr igh t , R . P . 1 996 T echno logy ,G ende r , a nd C la s s : Wo r ld s o f D if f e rence i nU r I I Me sopo tam ia . I n G end er a nd A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y R . P . Wr igh t , p p . 7 9 -110 . U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P r e s s ,P h i lade lph ia . Wr igh t , R . P . ( e d i to r ) 1 996 G end er a nd A rchaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia P r e s s ,P h i lade lph ia . Wy l ie , A . 1 98 1 P os i t iv ism a nd t h e N ew A rcheo logy . U npub l ished P h .D . d i sse r ta t ion , D epa r tmen t o f P h i lo sophy ,S t a te U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Y o rk ,B ingham ton . 1 983 C ommen ts o n t he " Soc io -Po l i t ics o f A rchaeo logy " : T he D e -My s t if ica t ion o ft h e P rof e s s ion . I nT he S oc io -Po l i t ic so fAr chaeo logy , e d i t ed b yJ .G e ro , D . L acy , a nd M . L . B lakey , p p . 19 -130 . A n th ropo log ica l R e sea rch R epo r tN o . 2 3 . U n ive r s i ty o f Ma s sa chu se t t s , Amhe r s t . 1 985 T he R ea c t ion A ga ins t A na logy . I nA dvance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry ,v o l . 8 ,e d i ted b yM . B .S ch if f e r ,p p .6 3 -111 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . 1 991a G ende r T heo ry a nd t h e A rchaeo log ica l R eco rd : Why i s t h e re N o A rchaeo logy o f G ende r? I n E ngend er ing A rchaeo logy : W omen a nd P reh is tory , e d i ted b y J .M . G e ro a nd M . W . C onkey , p p . 3 1 -54 . B a s i lB la ckwe l l ,O xfo rd . 1 991b F em in is t C r i t iques a nd A rchaeo log ica l C ha l lenge s .I nT he A r cha eo logy o fG end er ,e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 1 7 -23 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . 1 992a T he I n te rp lay o f E v iden t ia l C ons t ra in t s a nd P o l i t ica l I n te re s t s : R ecen t A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch o n G ende r . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 7 (i ) :15 -35 . 1 992b F em in is t T heo r ie s o f S oc ia l P owe r : S ome I mp l ica t ions f o r aP roce s sua l A r chaeo logy .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 2 5 (1 ) :51 -68 . 1 993a A P ro l i f e ra t ion o fN ew A r chaeo log ie s : " Beyond O b je c t iv i sm a nd R e la t iv i sm . "I nA r chaeo log ica lT heo r y : 17

Who S e t s t h e A genda? , e d i ted b y N . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 2 0 -26 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . 1 993b F a c t s a nd F ic t ions : Wr i t ing A r chaeo logy i na D if f e ren t V o ice . C anad ian J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy 1 7 :5 -25 . Y ansa , C . H . 1 995 A P os tg la c ia l R eco rd o f V ege ta t ive C hange i n s ou the rn S a ska tchewan . S a ska tchewan A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty N ew s l e t t er 1 6 (2 ) :38 . Y a te s , T . 1 990 J a cque s D e r r ida : " The re i sn o th ing o u t s ide o ft h et e x t . "I nR ead ing Ma t er ia lC u l tur e :S t r uc tura l i sm , H ermeneu t ics a nd P os t -S truc tura l ism , e d i ted b y C . T i l ley ,p p .2 06 -280 .B a s i lB lackwe l l , O x f o rd . Y e l len , J .E . 1 976 S e t t lemen t P a t te rns o f t h e ! Kung . I n K a lahar i H un t er -Ga ther er s : S t ud ies o ft h e ! K ung a nd t h e ir N e ighbour s , e d i ted b y R . L ee a nd I .D eVo re , p p . 4 7 -72 . H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . 1 977 A rchaeo log ica l A pproaches t o t h e P r esen t : Mod e l sf or R econ s truc t ing t h e P as t . A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Y o rk . 1 989 T he P re sen t a nd t h e F u tu re o f H un te r -Ga the re r S tud ie s . I nA r chaeo log ica l T hough t i n Amer ica , e d i ted b y C . C . L ambe rg -Ka r lov sky , p p . 1 03 -116 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,C amb r idge . Y en t sch , A . 1 991 A cces s a nd S pace , S ymbo l ic a nd Ma te r ia l , i nH i s to r ica l A rcha eo logy . I n T he A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 2 52 -262 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A rchaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . Y of f ee , N . 1 993 T oo Many C h ie f s? ( o r , S af eT ex t s f o rt h e ' 9 0 s ) . I nA r chaeo log ica lT heor y : Who S e t st h eA gend a? , e d i ted b y N . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 6 0 -78 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . Y of f ee ,N . , a nd A . S he r ra t t 1 993 I n t roduc t ion : T he S ou rce s o fA rchaeo log ica l T heo ry . I nA rchaeo log ica l T heory : W ho S e t s t h e A genda? , e d i ted b y N . Y of f ee a nd A . S he r ra t t , p p . 1 -9 . C amb r idge U n ive rs i ty P re ss , C amb r idge . Y oung ,F .W . , a nd A . A . B acdayan 1 965 Mens t rua l T aboo s a nd S oc ia lR ig id i ty .E thno logy 4 : 225 -240 . Z e imens , G . M . 1 982 A na ly s is o f P os tc ran ia l B ison R ema ins . I n T he A ga te B as in S i te : AR ecord o ft h e P a leo ind ian O ccupa t ion o f t h e N or thwes t ern H igh P la ins , e d i ted b y G . C . F r ison a nd D . J .S t anf o rd , p p . 2 13 -240 . A cadem ic P re s s ,N ew Y o rk . Z ih lman , A . L . 1 98 1 Women a s S hape r s o f t h e H uman A dap ta t ion . I n Woman t h e G a therer , e d i ted b y F . D ah lbe rg , p p . 7 5 -120 . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P res s , N ew H aven . 1 991a G ende r : T he V iew f r om P hy s ica l A n th ropo logy . I nT he A r chaeo logy o fG end e r , e d i ted b yD . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l lows , p p . 4 -10 . U n ive rs i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion ,C a lga ry . 1 99 1b D id t h e A us t ra lop i thec ine s H ave aD iv i s ion o f L abo r? I n T he A r chaeo logy o fG end er , e d i ted b y D . Wa lde a nd N . D . W i l low s , p p . 6 4 -70 . U n ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry A r chaeo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , C a lga ry . 1 993 S ex D if f e rence s a nd G ende r H ie ra rch ie s Among P r ima te s : A n E vo lu t iona ry P e rspec t ive . I n S ex a nd G end er H ierar ch ies , e d i ted b y B .D . M i l le r , p p . 3 2 -56 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge . Z ih lman , A . L . , a nd N .M . T anne r 1 978 G a the r ing a nd t h e H om in id A dap ta t ion . I n F ema l e H ierarch ie s , e d i t ed b y L .T ige ra nd H .T .F ow le r ,p p . 1 63 194 .B e re s f o rd B ook S e rv ice ,C h icago . 18

APPEND IX A CHRONOLOG ICAL L IST OF S ELECTED MAJOR PALEO IND IAN S TUD IES AND I NTERPRETAT IONS C lov i s ,i n c luded f l u ted p o in t sl a rge ra nd t h icke rt h a nF o lsom p o in t s ( Howa rd 1 935 ) . I np rov id ing d e ta i led d e s c r ip t ions o f t h e t h ree t y pe s o f e a r ly p o in t s ( i . e . , F o lsom , Y uma , a nd F o lsom l ike ) , a l l w h ich h ad b een e xc lus ive ly f o und i n a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc ta n ima lr ema in s , H owa rd ( 1 935 :121) n o ted t h a t Y uma a nd F o lsom p o in t s , w h i le h av ing s im i la r d i s t r ibu t ions , w e re n o t a s w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e c on t inen ta sw e re t h eF o l som l ike p o in t s .

R e f erence a nd P a leo ind ian S tudy , Mode l ,o rI n t erpre ta t ion I

C ook 1 925 I nh i s p r e l im ina ry r e po r t o n t h eL one Wo lf C reek b i son k i l l s i te , H a ro ld C ook ( 1925 ) a rgued t h a t t h e e x t inc t b i son r ema in sa s soc ia ted w i th p ro jec t i le p o in t si d en t if ied a tt h es i te p rov ided t h e f i rs t d ef in i te e v idence f o r P le is tocene p opu la t ions i n t h e Ame r icas . H e a l so p rov ided a n i n te rp re ta t ion f o rt h ed epos i t , s t a t ing t h a ti tw a sp robab le t h a t " t he b i son h ad b een s ho t a nd c a r r ied t h e se f l i n tp o in t s w i th h im t ot h e p l ace w he re h e f i na l ly d i ed a nd w a s e n tombed " ( Cook 1 925 :460 ) .

R obe r t s 1 940 F rank R obe r t s ( 1940 ) i n t roduced t h et e rm " Pa leo Ind ian " i n t h e t i le o fh i s c umu la t ive s yn the se s o fw o rk d ea l ing w i th " e a r ly m an "s t ud ie si n Ame r ica ( W i lm sen 1 974 :10 ) .

F i gg in s 1 927

Wo rm ing ton 1 949

F igg in s ( 1 927 ) p re sen ted n ew e v idence f o r t h e a n t iqu i ty o f " man " i n Ame r ica . I na dd i t ion t on o t ing t h e e v idence f r om t h eL one Wo lf C reek s i te i nT exa s ,h ed e sc r ibed f o rt h ef i r s t t i me t h e f i nd ing s f r om t h e n ew ly d i scove red F o lsom s i te i n N ew Mex ico . I n 1 926 , af ew p ro jec t i le p o in t s , s im i la r t o t h ose r e cove red f r om t h e L one Wo lf C reek s i te , w e re i d en t if ied a tF o lsom i nd i re c t a s soc ia t ion w i th e x t inc tb i son r ema in s . T he se a s soc ia t ions s ugge s t ed aP l e is tocene a ge f o r t h ep o in t sa nd t h eh uman p opu la t ion sw ho m ade t h em .

I n h e r s yn the ses o f a nc ien t " man " i n N o r th Ame r ica , Wo rm ing ton ( 1949 ) o u t l ined e v idence f r om s i te s s uch a s F o lsom , D en t , a nd L indenme ie r t h a t d emons t ra ted am uch g r ea te r a n t iqu i ty o f " man " i nN o r th Ame r ica ( i . e . , 1 0 ,000 y ea r s o ro l de r ) t h an p r ev iou s ly b e l ieved . S he s ugge s ted t h a t C lov is f l u ted p o in t s h ad b een e s pec ia l ly m ade f o r h un t ing l a rge a n ima ls ( i . e . , m ammo th ) . T ak ing h e r a r gumen t e ven f u r the r , s h ep roposed t h a t t h e m ake r s o fa l f l u ted p o in t s o n t h e H igh P la ins h ad b een d ependen t u pon b i son a nd m ammo th ( Wo rm ing ton 1 949 :35 ) .

R enaud 1 932

S e l la rd s 1 952

R enaud ( 1 932 ) w a s t h e f i r s t t oc l a s s ify e a r ly P a leo ind ian p o in t s i n to a s imp le t wo -fo ld d i v is ion o f F o lsom p o in t s ( t ho se p o in t s w i th f l u t ing ) a nd Y uma p o in t s ( t ho se w i thou t f l u t ing ) , w i th e a ch t y pe h av ing a dd i t iona l s ubd iv is ion sb a sed o nt h es h ape o ft h ep o in tb a se ( W i lm sen 1 965 :182 ) .

S e l la rd s ( 1 952 :113 ) , i nh i s d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f " e a r ly m an" i n Ame r ica , s ugge s ted t h a t i tw a s r e a sonab ly c e r ta in t h a t t h e " Pa leo Ind ian " o f 1 0 ,000 y ea r s a go h ad l i ved a nd h un ted o n t h e P l a in s m uch t h e s ame a s e t hnog raph ica l ly k nown P l a in sb i son h un te r s , e xcep t t h a t " e a r ly m en " h ad n o d og s , a nd h ence n o t r avo is , a nd n o b ow a nd a r row , b u t i n s tead h ad h un ted w i th as pea r a nd a t la t l . I n a dd i t ion , h e p ropo sed t h a t t h e se e a r ly p opu la t ion s l i ke ly u sed a w ide v a r ie ty o fp l an t a nd a n ima ls s p ec ie s ,b u tw he re a n ima l sw e re p l en t if u l , m ea tb ecame a ni mpo r tan tp a r to ft h ed i e t( S e l la rd s 1 952 :17 ) .

H owa rd 1 935 I n o ne o ft h e e a r l ie s t s t ud ie s d ea l ing w i th t h e e v idence f o r " e a r ly m an " i nN o r th Ame r ica ,H owa rd ( 1 935 )e xam ined t wo o ccu r rence s i nN ew Mex ico ( Bu rne t C ave a nd B lackwa te r D raw ) t h a t h ad e s tab l ished a s soc ia t ion s o fe x t inc t a n ima ls a nd s t one a r t if ac t s . H e c onc luded t h a t n o l o nge r w a s t h e re a ny q ue s t ion t h a t i n Ame r ica , " ma n " w a s c on tempo raneou s w i th t y pe so fa n ima l st h a ta r en ow e x t inc t ,a nd t h a tt h e se l a te g l a c ia l h uman p opu la t ions , w ho l i ved a bou t 1 0 ,000 y ea r s a go ,w e re ah un t ing p eop le ( Howa rd 1 935 :149 , 1 51) .

S e l la rd s ( 1 952 :23 -26 ) a l so p r e sen ted i nt h i s v o lume t h e f i r s t a t temp t a t mode l l ing h uman -mammo th i n te rac t ion i n a n e xp lana to ry a nd p roce ssua l m anne r ( Saunde r s 1 980 :88 ) , s pec if ica l ly t o a ccoun t f o r t h e r ema ins d i scove red a tt h e M iam i l o ca l i ty i nT exa s . E xcava t ion s i n1 937 a tt h i s e x t inc t w a te rho le h ad r evea led t h e r ema ins o f f i ve m ammo th a s soc ia ted w i th t h ree p o in t s a nd as c rape r( S e l la rd s 1 952 :18 2 6 ) . S e l la rds ( 1952 ) a r gued t h a t s t a rva t ion , d i sea se , o r d r ough th ad c au sed t h ed ea th o ft h em ammo th s ,w h i le C lov i s p eop le s h ad s a lvaged w ha t t h ey c ou ld , a nd i nt h e p roce s s , l o s ts ome a r t if ac t s .

I d en t if y ing a nd a t temp t ing t oc l a r ify t h e c onfu s ion a r is ing f r om t h e r e cen t d ef in i t ion o f F o lsom a nd c l a s s if ica t ion o f e a r ly p o in t t y pe s , H owa rd ( 1935 ) a dded t h e " Fo lsom l ike " p o in t t y pe t ot h e t wo -f o ld c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem p ropo sed b y R enaud ( 1 932 ) .T h is n ew t y pe , w h ich l a te rb ecame k nown a s 1 T h i s l i s t ing o f P a leo ind ian s t ud ie s i sn o t c omp le te a nd e xhau s t ive , b u th a s a t temp ted t oi n c lude t h e m a jo r a nd mo s t i nf luen t ia l s t ud ie so ve rt h ec ou r se o fP a leo ind ian r e sea r ch .

19

I rw in e ta l . ( 1 962 ) v i ewed l a te P le is tocene h umans a s al i t t le mo re r ugged t h an h i s to r ic Ame r ican I nd ian s , l i nked t o ge the r b y k i nsh ip t i e s i n s ma l l b ands , f a c ing a n u nce r ta in f o od s upp ly .W i th o n ly s t one , b one , a nd w ooden t o o ls , t h e se e a r ly g roup sw e re l im i ted i nt h e i rh un t ing t oa mbushe s , d r ive s , a nd s t a lk ing ; t hu s am ammo th k i l l w as s een a s aw indfa l l , " a v e r i tab le m oun ta in o f mea t ," t h e d i f fe rence b e tween " me re s u rv iva l a nd p l en ty f o r w eek s , p e rhaps e ven m on th s " ( I rw in e ta l . 1 962 :836 ) .

H au ry 1 953 I n v i ew o ft h e 1 952 d i scove ry o fe i gh t C lov is f l u ted p o in t s d i re c t ly a s soc ia ted w i th o ne a du l t e l ephan t a tt h e N aco s i te , l o ca ted i n s ou thea s te rn A r izona , H au ry ( 1953 ) c onc luded t h a t , b ecau se mos t o ft h e p o in t s w e re l o ca ted i nv i ta l t a rge t a r ea s ( i .e . , b e tween t he s ku l l b a se a nd r i b c a se ) , t h is mammo th h ad b een k i l led b y C lov is h un te r s who h u r led e i gh t p ro jec t i le p o in ted s pea rs a t i t a nd s ubsequen t ly s a lvaged d e s i red p a r t s a f te r t h e mammo th h ad f a l len o n a s and b a r . T he s i te a r ea , af oss i l ized s t ream b ed , w a s c ons ide red t h es c ene o f" a t tack ."

H enry 1 955 I n aN a t iona lG eog raph ic a r t ic le d ea l ing w i th " I ce A ge Man , t h e F i r s t Ame r ican ," H en ry ( 1955 ) p re sen ted a n i mage o f a c t ive b ig g ame h un te r s f o r No r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions .T he f i r s tm ig ran t sh ad c ome i n to N o r th Ame r ica s t a lk ing m ammo th a nd o t he r l a rge P le is tocene g ame a r ound 2 0 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ( Hen ry 1 955 :782 ) . T he w eapons l e f t a mong m ammo th b one sp roved t h a tp eop le h ad h un ted t h em , p robab ly b y t r app ing t h em i n b ogs a nd s l oughs ( Henry 1 955 :783 , 7 97 ) . Mo reove r , i tw as b e l ieved t ha t C lov is F o lsom " man " mus th ave l i ved a" hand t o mou th " e x is tence , c on t inua l ly mov ing , w i th l i t t le l e isure t ime ( Hen ry 1 955 :793 ) , a nd w i th " a h igh d eg ree o f i n te l l igence a nd c ou rage t o p u t h i s f e eb le b ody a ga ins t t he m ammo th a nd b i son a nd ' make al i v ing ' o u to ft h em " ( Hen ry 1 955 :797 ) .

H au ry ,S ay le s ,a nd Wa s ley 1 959 I n 1 955 -1956 , e xcava t ions a t aC lov is s i te i n s ou thea s te rn A r izona ,t h eL ehne rR anch , p roduced t h i r teen p o in t s , m os t ly C lov is f l u ted ,e i gh tb u tche r ing t o o ls , c ha rcoa l f r om t wo f i re s , n ine i mma tu re Mammu thus c o lumb i r ema ins , a nd t he r ema ins o f h o rse , b i son , a nd t a p i r . H au ry e t a l . ( 1959 ) b e l ieved t h a t t h e p resence o f o n ly y oung mammo th s w a s d e l ibe ra te , a nd t hus t h ey p roposed a n a ge -se lec t ive c u l l mode l i nw h ich L lano h un te r sh ad c u l led y ounge rm ammo th s f r om t h eh e rd b ecause t h ey w e re e a s i ly i s o la ted a nd k i l led , a nd p roved t a s t ie r . T hey f u r the r a rgued t h a t t h e " s laugh te r " h ad o ccu r red o n ag rave l b a r o f a n a nc ien t s t ream ; mos t l i ke ly t h e k i l l ing h ad b een o ve r i n te rva ls b ecause o f t h e d i spe r sa la nd u nequa lp re se rva t ion o fb one .

Wendo rf a nd H e s te r 1 962 Wendo rf a nd H e s te r ( 1962 ) r e cons t ruc ted t h es ou the rn G rea t P la ins e nv i ronmen t t h rough p o l len a nd i n ve r teb ra te s t ud ie s , w i th a n a im t o a na lyze h ow e a r ly " man" u sed t h is e nv ironmen t . T hey e xam ined t he t ype s a nd l o ca t ions o f P a leo ind ian s i te s o nt h eL lano E s tacado , t h et y pe so fa n ima l s h un ted b y P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , t h e i r h un t ing a nd b u tche r ing t e chn ique s , o the r e conom ic p ur su i t s , a nd t o o l m anuf a c tu re . Wendo rf a nd H e s te r ( 1962 ) c onc luded t h a tt h e P a leo ind ian c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion p rac t ised t h roughou t t h eG rea t P la ins f r om L lano , F o lsom , t o P a ra l le l F laked t ime s h ad r ema ined r e la t ive ly u nchanged a nd c on t inuous o ve r t ime , a nd t h a tt h eP a leo ind ian g roup sh ad a dap ted t ot h eu se o ft h is e nv ironmen t p r ima r i ly t h rough b ig g ame h un t ing . F u r the rmo re , t hey s uppo r ted t he b e l ief i n t h e d iv is ion b e tween L lano /C lov is b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th mammo th h un t ing , a nd F o lsom a nd f o l low ing t r ad i t ions b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th b i son h un t ing . T he a cqu is i t ion o f o t he r a n ima l s pec ie s a nd g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s w e re c ons ide red b y t h em t ob e o n ly m ino r s upp lemen t s t ot h e m a in s ou rce o f mea t ( i .e . , b i son a nd mammo th ) . T hey a l so b e l ieved t h a t P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions u t i l ized a c t ive h un t ing m e thod s , i n c lud ing s t a lk ing a t w a te r l o ca t ions a nd s t ampede s , f o r a cqu i r ing b i gg ame .

C . V . H ayne s 1 966 I n ar ev iew o f m ammo th s i tes a nd h un t ing t e chn ique s , H ayne s ( 1966 ) c onc luded t h a t C lov is h un te r s h ad b een s pec ia l is t s i n t h e p u r su i t o f m ammo th s , b u t h ad n o t b een u nw i l l ing t ot a ke o t he rk i nds o fq ua r ry , a sw a s s ugge s ted b y b i son b one sa tC lov is a nd L ehne rs i te s ( Hayne s 1 966 :111 ) .

W i l ley 1 966 I rw in , I rw in , a nd A gog ino 1 962

W i l ley ( 1966 :37 -51) p rov ided as umma ry o ft h e p reva i l ing v i ew d u r ing t h e e a r ly a nd m id -1960 s o f " The B ig -Game Hun t ing T rad i t ion ," e ncompass ing t hose e a r ly c u l tu ra l c omp lexes a dap ted t o g rass land e nv i ronmen t o f t h e l a te P le is tocene , a nd c ha rac te r ized b y d i s t inc t ive l a nceo la te p ro je c t i le p o in tt y pe s( i . e . , C lov is ,F o lsom , s i ng le shou lde red S and ia , a nd P l ano t y pe s ) a nd o t he r a s soc ia ted l i t h ic r ema ins . W i l ley ( 1966 ) b e l ieved t h a t t h e l i f eway s o fC lov is , F o lsom , a nd P lano c omp lexe s h ad b een p r ima r i ly c en t red o n t h e k i l l ing o f l a rge g ame a n ima ls , a nd t h a t s pec ia l ized a nd s k i l led h un te r s o fb i g g ame h ad s t a lked a nd t r apped a n ima ls a tw a te rho le s . T he c o l lec t ion o fs ma l l g ame a nd p l an ti t em s , h oweve r , w a s s een a s " oppo r tun is t ic " w he rea s b i g g ame h un t ing w a s o fp r ima ry i mpo r tance . W i th r e f e rence t ot h e L indenme ie rs i te , aF o lsom s i te , h ea r gued t h a tt h e " weapons a nd t o o ls w e re c l ea r ly a n a r t ifac t a s semb lage o f p eop le s d ependen t o n t he h un t a nd t he u t i l iza t ion o f a n ima l

I n aN a t iona l G eograph ic a r t ic le e n t i t led "Wyom ing Muck T e l ls o f B a t t le : I c e A ge Man v s . Mammo th ," I rw in e ta l . ( 1962 ) d i scussed t h e d i scove ry i n 1 960 o f Mammuthus c o lumb i b one s a s soc ia ted w i th s c rape rs , c hoppe r s , f l ake s , q ua r tz r o ck s ,p e rf o ra to r s , a nd ab one a w l a tt h eU n ion P ac if i c Mammo th s i te l o ca ted i n Wyom ing . No p ro jec t i le p o in t s w e re r e cove red , b u t t h e a ppa ren t p re sence o f b u tche r ing ma rk s o n b one a s w e l l a sc rushed a r ea s o n t h e s ku l ls w e re b e l ieved t o i nd ica te h uman i nvo lvemen t . T he s cena r io p rov ided b yI rw in e ta l . ( 1962 ) t oa ccoun t f o r t h is d i scove ry a tU n ion P a c if ic w a st h a t t h e mammo th h ad b een d r iven i n to ab og a nd h ad b ecome m i red i n muck . P a leo ind ian h un te r s t h en s l augh te red t h e a n ima l b y p oss ib ly u s ing f i re -ha rdened w ood p o in t so rl a rge c obb le st os t one t h ea n ima l t od ea th ; t h e h un te r st h en b u tche red t h em ammo th . 1 20

s k ins .. . the a w ls , e yed n eed le s , s pa tu la s , a nd k n ive s o r ' f l eshe r s ' a lr ef lec t t h eh un t ing p r eo ccupa t ion o ft h ec u l tu re " ( W i l ley 1 966 :43 ) .

t h e n eed f o r a r chaeo log is t s t oi n qu i re mo re d eep ly i n to t h e n a tu re o f P a leo ind ian l i f e , r a the r t h an f o cu s ing s o le ly o n p r o je c t i le p o in tt y po logy ,c h rono logy , a nd h un t ing .

H e s te r 1 967

H e s t e r 1 972

H e s te r ( 1 967 :169 ) a r gued t h a to n ly m ammo th a nd b i son h ad b een h un ted i nq uan t i ty b y e a r ly p opu la t ions , a nd t h a t t h e s t ap le f o od f o rL lano c u l tu re sh ad b een mammo th a nd , l a te r , b i son ( 1 967 :179 ) , a l though e v idence s ugge s ted t h a t e a r ly " man " h ad h un ted w ha teve r a n ima l s " he " c ou ld . Mo reove r , h e b e l ieved t h a t P a leo ind ian s h ad h un ted b y s t ampede , f i re d r ive , a nd d i f f e ren t ia l s e lec t ion o f y oung o f t h e s pec ie s ( He s te r 1 967 :179 ) . H e s te r ( 1967 :170 ) a l so c onc luded t h a t P le is tocene " man " c ou ld h ave c aused t h e e x t inc t ion o f m ega f auna o n ly a f te rn a tu ra lc au se s , e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s , a nd c hang ing e co log ica l n i che sh ad r educed t h e p opu la t ion o ft h es p e c ie s .

I n ad i scus s ion o fB lackwa te rD raw L oca l i ty N o . 1 ,H e s te r ( 1 972 ) c onc luded t h a tt h ep ond h ad b een af a vou red h un t ing s po t o f P a leo ind ian s . H e f u r the r s ugge s ted t h a t a bundan t e v idence i nd ica ted t h a t m ammo ths h ad b een a mbu shed , k i l led i n d iv idua l ly a st h ey s t ood i ns ha l low w a te rb yp eop le s u s ing C lov is p o in t s , a nd s ubsequen t ly b u tche red . E v idence a l so s ugge s ted t oH e s te r ( 1972 ) t h e p re sence o f an ea rby c amp w he re t o o l sh ad b een m ade a nd m ea th ad b een c ooked . Mo reove r , t h e r e cove ry o f ag r ind ing s t one i n d ica ted t o H e s te r( 1 972 :178 )t h a tp l an tf o od sh ad s upp lemen ted t h ed i e t o ft h e se e a r ly P a leo ind ian s .

J udge 1 973 Ma r t in 1 967 , 1 973

J udge ( 1973 ) f o cused o n a n a na lys is o f P a leo ind ian " s e t t lemen t t e chno logy " t h rough ar e g iona l s u rvey o f t h e c en t ra l R io G rande V a l ley i nN ew Mex ico . H e c on s ide red s e t t lemen t t e chno logy a st h e p r ima ry v eh ic le / sub sys tem o f a r t icu la t ion b e tween t h e t o ta l c u l tu ra l s y s tem a nd i t s e nv i ronmen t . H i s w o rk w a s c l ea r ly i nf luenced b y t h e N ew A rchaeo logy ,L ew is B inf o rd , a nd s y s tem st h eo ry . J udge f i r s t d e sc r ibed a r t if ac t t y pe s a nd l i th ic t e chno logy , a nd t h en d i scu s sed s e t t lemen t /env i ronmen ta ld a t af o re a ch P a leo ind ian c omp lex ( C lov is , F o lsom , B e len , a nd C ody ) . H e u sed s t a t is t ica la na ly s is t oc ompa re l i t h ic sa nd t e chno logy b e twe en c omp lexe s . J udge ( 1 973 ) p ropo sed t h ree c onc lus ions : t h a t t h ed i f f e rence i np o in tt y pe sm ay h ave b een d ue t ov a r ia t ion s i n t h e t y pe s o f f o re sha f t s u sed ; t h a t C lov is h ad b een t h e g ene ra l ized b a se f r om w h ich an umbe r o fl a nceo la te p o in t s d eve loped ; a nd t h a t w a te r /ove rv iew h ad b e en k ey v a r iab le s i nP a leo ind ian s e t t lemen tp a t te rns .

P au l S . Ma r t in , o ne o ft h em a jo rs uppo r te r s o ft h e " ove rk i l l " m ode l ,a r gued t h a tb i gg ame h un te r sf r om S ibe r ia h ad m ov ed a c ro ss B e r ing ia i n to N o r th Ame r ica , t h rough t h e i c e -f ree c o r r ido r . I n 1 , 000 y ea r s , t h ey h ad r e ached t h e t i p o f S ou th Ame r ica a nd l e f t b eh ind a l a nd d evo id o f P le is tocene m ega f auna . H e b e l ieved t h a t , w i th t h e c omb ina t ion o f t h e i n expe r ience a nd a bundance o f p r ey , a nd t h e p opu la t ion e xp los ion o fh umans a s t h ey s p read t h rough t h e Ame r ica s , t h e r e su l t w a s t h e r ap id r a te o f k i l l ing o f p rey a n ima ls . Ma r t in ( 1 967 , 1 973 )m a in ta ined t h a to ve rk i l l a l one e xp la ined t h eg l oba lp a t te rn o fP l e is tocene e x t inc t ion o fm ega f auna .

H emm ing sa nd H ayne s 1 969 H emm ing s a nd H aynes ( 1969 ) i n d ica ted t h a t e v idence c l ea r ly d emons t ra ted t h a t m ammo th s h ad b een k i l led a nd b u tche red b y C lov is h un te r s a tt h e s i te s o fL ehne r , N aco , L iekum , a nd Mu r ray S p r ing s . A tt h eE scapu le s i te ,h oweve r , t wo C lov i s p o in ts w e re r e cove red , b u t n o e v idence o f b u tche r ing w a s i d en t if ied . T hey t h e re f o re c onc luded f o r t h e E scapu le r ema ins t h a t al a rge i mma tu re m ammo th h ad b een w ounded a nd e ven tua l ly k i l led b y t h eC lov is p o in t s , b u tt h e r ema in sh ad n eve r b e en u sed b y C lov is h un te r s ( Hemm ing s a nd H ayne s 1 969 :188 ) .

J e nn ing s 1 974 I n a n i n t roduc to ry t e x t d ea l ing w i th N o r th Ame r ican p reh is to ry , J enn ings ( 1974 :90 -91) n o ted t h a t t h e f ew a r cha eo log ica lr ema ins d a t ing t ot h eP a leo ind ian t ime p e r iod s e emed t os ugge s tt h a to n ly l a rge a n ima ls w e re t a ken , a nd a l t e chno logy a ppea red t ob ed i rec ted t owa rd t h eh un t . H ed i d , t h ough , s ugge s t t h a t P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions m ay h ave p r a c t ised aw ide rs ub s is tence b a se t h an t h eP a leo ind ia n f i nd s i n d ica ted , a nd t h a t m ammo th k i l ls h ad b een p o s s ib ly t h e e xcep t ion , a nd t h a t l e s se r a n ima ls h ad b een m o re u sua l ly h un ted ( J enn ing s 1 974 :91) . H oweve r , h e m ade o n ly v e ry b r ie fr e f e rence t ow ha tt h a tw ide rs ub s is tence b a se m ay h ave e n ta i led ( i . e . , o t he ra n ima ls ,w a t e r f ow l , a nd v ege ta l f o od s ) .

W i lm se n 1 9 70 W i lm sen ( 1 970 ) f o cu sed o n ar i go rous l i th ic a na ly s is o f a s semb lage s f r om P a leo ind ian s i te sl o ca ted f r om t h e P l a in s t ot h ee a s te rn p a r to fN o r th Ame r ica ,a nd r a ng ing i na ge f r om 1 ,000 t o6 , 000 y ea r s B .P . H ea dop ted aN ew A rchaeo logy a pp roa ch t og ene ra te h ypo the se s f o r t e s t ing , w i th a n a im t o r e cons t ruc t g ene ra l l aws o fc u l tu ra lp roce ss . F ocu s ing u pon r aw m a te r ia l s , s i te a c t iv i t ie s , s ub s is tence , a nd f u nc t iona l a nd t e chno log ica l v a r ia t ion o ft o o l s , W i lm sen ( 1 970 ) e xam ined s t ruc tu re i nP a leo ind ian c u l tu re , s p ec if ica l ly o r gan iza t ion o f P a leo ind ian l i f e ( band s , s t ruc tu re , a dap ta t ions , w o rk ing / ta sk p a r t ie s , t e r r i tor ies , s ubs is tence ) . H e c onc luded t h a t t e chno log ica l , f unc t iona l , s oc ia l , a nd e co log ica l p roce s se s h ad b een s t ruc tu ra l ly i n te r re la ted i n P a leo ind ian c u l tu ra l s y s tem s . Mo re s i gn if ican t ly ,W i lm sen ( 1970 :81 ) p o in ted o u t

J enn ing s ( 1974 :9 1 -92 ) a l so p ropo sed al o ne -hun te r a na logy t oc ha ra c te r ize L lano h un t ing p r ac t ice s , a nd u sed t h e O na t r ibe f r om S ou th Ame r ica a s ac ompa r ison , t h a t i s , t h e s t a lk ing o fl a rge a n ima l sb yl o ne i n d iv idua l s , w h ich r e qu i red g r ea t s k i l l a nd p a t ience f o r ah un te rt og e tc l o se e nough t oa l a rge a n ima l a nd w ound i t .H ea r gued t h a ti ft h el o ne -hun te r a na logy w a s s ound , t h en i tw a s r e a sonab le t op o s tu la te t h e f o l low ing c ha rac te r is t ic s f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s : t h e n uc lea r o r e x tended f am i ly a s t h e e f f ec t ive s oc ia l a nd e conom ic u n i t ; s p a r se p opu la t ion a nd t h u sn oc ompe t i t ion o r 1 21

f i gh t ing ; t h e c on t inuous q ue s t f o r f o od e xcep t w hen l u cky w indfa l ls s uch a s amammo th p rov ided s u rp lus f o r af ew d ay s ; f ew m a te r ia lp os se s s ions , p r ima r i ly c ons is t ing o ft o o ls a nd w eapons ; a nd r ov ing a nd s ca t te red t empo ra ry c amps ( Jenn ings 1 974 :92 ) . J enn ings ( 1974 :94 ) , h oweve r , a cknow ledged t h a t t h is p os tu la ted l i f eway w en t " f a rb eyond t h ee mp i r ica le v idence ."

a t temp tt or e cons t ruc td emog raphy ,h ee s t ima ted p opu la t ion s f r om t h e n umbe r o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s , a nd b and r a nge f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fq ua r ry s i te s a nd t h er aw ma te r ia ls u sed a t P a leo ind ian s i te s o n t h e L lano E s tacado ( He s te r 1 975 :255 2 56 ) . H e s te r ( 1 975 :256 ) c onc luded t h a t t h em a jo rg ove rn ing f a c to ri nt h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween h uman p opu la t ions a nd t h e e nv ironmen t o n t he L lano E s tacado h ad b een t he p resence /absence o f s u rf ace w a te r , w i th t he s econd g ove rn ing f a c to r b e ing t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f s t one f o r t o o l manuf ac tu re .

J enn ing s ( 1974 :104 -105 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e re h ad b een n o g rea t c hange i nl i f eways f r om L lano t ime s t oF o lsom t ime s , d e sp i te s ome a r t if a c tc hange sa nd t h ei n t roduc t ion o ft h en ew f a l l / jump h un t ing t e chn ique . H e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e F o l som c u l tu re h ad b een c ha rac te r ized b y al a rge r h un t ing g roup , mo re c oope ra t ion , s oc ia l g roups c ons is t ing o f s eve ra l f am i l ies , a nd a c amp ing p a t te rn a nd s imp le s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion r e semb l ing t h a t o ft h e L lano c u l tu re ( J enn ings 1 974 :109 ) .

F r ison 1 976

W i lm sen 1 974 Wi lm sen ( 1974 ) b e l ieved t h a t P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions h ad l i ved i n a n e nv ironmen t s l igh t ly c oo le r t han t oday 's i n a l a nd scape m o re v a r ied b u ts im i la rt ot h a to ft o day . Mo reove r , t he ir e n t ire l i ve l ihood w a s d e r ived f r om h un t ing a nd g a the r ing w i ld r e sou rce s , a nd t h ey u sed t h e k ind o f s pea r p o in t t h a t w a s o ne o f t h e f i ne s t p roduc t s o f f l in tknapp ing t e chno logy e ve rc r ea ted (W i lm sen 1 974 :15 ) . W i lmsen ( 1974 ) , f o cu s ing o nt h eL indenme ie rs i te , e xam ined t he o rgan iza t iona l s t ruc tu re o fP a leo ind ian p opu la t ion s , t h a t i s , t h e w ay s i nw h ich t h ey h ad a r ranged t h em se lve s t oc ope w i th s oc ia l a nd e co log ica l c ond i t ions t h rough p opu la t ion movemen t s , r e sou rce p rocu remen t s t ra teg ies , a nd g roup f o rma t ion a nd ma in tenance . H ew a sc l ea r ly i nf luenced b yt h e e a r ly g oa ls o f t h e N ew A rchaeo logy ; t h is i nf luence w a s a ppa ren t i nh i s a r gumen t s f o r t h e n eed t of o rmu la te mode l s b y m eans o f as ys tema t ic s e r ie s o fh ypo the se s i n o rde r t o c onnec t p hys ica l r ema ins , t h a t i s , a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , t o t heo re t ica l c oncep ts . H e p roposed s eve ra l h ypo theses c once rn ing t h e v a r ia t ions i n p ro jec t i le p o in ts f r om t h e L indenme ie r a s semb lage . U s ing s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is o f t h is p ro jec t i le p o in t v a r ia t ion , W i lm sen c onc luded t ha t p o in t s hape s w e re d i s t inc t ive ly d i f f e ren tb e tween t wo a r ea s o ft h e s i te . Mo reove r , a na lys is o f r aw m a te r ia l a l so i nd ica ted d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e t wo s i te a r ea s (W i lm sen 1 974 :114 ) . H ec onc luded t h a tt wo s oc ia l ly d i s t inc tg roups h ad o ccup ied L indenme ie r , a nd t h e o r ig in o fr aw m a te r ia ls s ugge s ted t h a t t he se g roups h ad moved i n d i f f e ren t g eog raph ic a r eas (W i lmsen 1 974 :114 ) . W i lmsen ( 1974 :116 ) n o ted , h oweve r , t ha t a t t h e p resen t t ime t he re w a s n o w ay t o t e s t t h is s e t t lemen t mode l b ecause t h e re w e re f ew s i te s i nt h e a r ea o f t he s ame a ge . H e a l so t u rned t o e t hnog raph ica l ly k nown h un t ing s oc ie t ie s s uch a s G rea t B a s in g roups a nd ! Kung B u shmen b and s i n o rde r t oo b ta in af u l le r p i c tu re o fb and o rgan iza t iona ls t ruc tu re s (W i lm sen 1 974 :117 118 ) .

F r ison ( 1976 ) d e sc r ibed w ha t a ppea red t ob e d e l ibe ra te ly s t acked mammo th b ones t h a t h ad b een d i scove red a tt h e C o lby s i te , Wyom ing . I n a dd i t ion , ap o in t s im i la r t o t h e C lov is f l u ted p o in t t ype w as f ound b enea th a b one p i le . F r ison ( 1976 :730 ) s ugges ted t h a t t h is f l u ted p o in t h ad b een p os s ib ly p laced a s a n o f fe r ing , o r l o s t o r l odged i n b one t i ssue . H e a l so m a in ta ined t h a t b one s t ack ing h ad b een c ommon i nP a leo ind ian b i son k i l l s ( F r i son 1 976 :730 ) .

F r ison 1 977 I n ad i scus s ion o fe a r ly P a leo ind ian e conom ic o r ien ta t ions i n t h e B igho rn B a s in o f Wyom ing , F r ison ( 1977 :112 ) a r gued t h a t t h e H anson s i te d a ta s ugge s ted t h a t " t he F o lsom p e r iod w a s l i t t le mo re t h an a no the r g roup o fh un t e r s a nd g a the re r s w ho p o s se s sed ah i gh ly s oph is t ica ted f l i n tt e chno logy ."

H e s te ra nd G rady 1 977 U s ing s t a t is t ics , H e s te r a nd G rady ( 1977 ) a t temp ted t o d e te rm ine b and a nd t e r r i to ry s i ze , p a t te rn o fr e sou rce u se , k i nd so fs i te s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd b and s o c ia lc ha rac te r is t ic s f o r P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions o n t h e L lano E s tacado . F o r e xamp le , t hey u sed t h e n umbe r o f p o in ts , h ea r th s , a nd b u tche r ing a r ea s t oe s t ima te b and s i ze . T hey a s sumed t h a t t h e i r s amp le o fP a leo ind ian s i te s f r om t h e L lano E s tacado w a s a dequa te a nd r ef lec t ive o f P a leo ind ia n p a t te rns o f s i te d i s t r ibu t ion ; t h us , t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a taba se a l lowed i n f e rence s t o b e m ade a bou t p a s t b ehav iou r ( Hes te r a nd G rady 1 977 :80 ) . H e s te r a nd G rady ( 1 977 :92 -94 ) c onc luded f r om t h ed a ta t h a tf o rP a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions , b and s i ze h ad b een 2 5 membe r s , c omposed o f s i x f am i l ie s ( f ive t o t e n h un te r s ) w i th at e r r i to ry o f a9 0 t o 1 20 m i le r ad iu s . T hey c onc luded t h a t t h e i r s t a t is t ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta s uppo r ted t h e h un te r -ga the re r m ode l t h a t t h ey i n i t ia l ly h ad o u t l ined a nd h ad d eve loped f r om e t hnog raph ic d a ta f r om L ee a nd D eVo re ( e d . 1 968 ) .

S aunde r s 1 977 I n v iew o f h i s r e ana lys is a nd t a phonom ic s t udy o f t h e a ssemb lage r e cove red f r om t he L ehne r s i te , S aunde r s ( 1977 :58 , 6 2 ) p roposed t ha t L ehne r r ep resen ted a s i ng le mammo th f am i ly u n i tt h a th ad b een c a ta s t roph ica l ly c r opped b y C lov is h un te r s w ho k new a nd e xp lo i ted t h e b ehav iou ra l p a t te rn s o fm ammo th .

H e s te r 1 975 H e s te r ( 1975 ) c onduc ted ap a leo -a rchaeo log ica l s t udy o ft h e L lano E s ta cado v e ry s im i la r t o t h e s t udy a nd c onc lus ions p re sen ted e a r l ie r b y Wendo rf a nd H es te r ( 1962 ) . H e s te r ( 1975 :252 ) s uppo r ted t h e b e l ief t h a t b ig g ame h un t ing h ad b een o fp r ima ry i mpo r tance f o r e a r ly P a leo ind ians , d e sp i te t h er a re e v idence f o rt h eu se o fo t he r g ame a nd p lan t s . I na n 1 22

F r ison 1 978 I n h i s c omp rehens ive v o lume d ea l ing w i th N o r thwe s te rn P l a ins p r eh is to ry , F r ison ( 1978 ) p r e sen ted ac onven ience c u l l ing m ode l t oa ccoun t f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema ins a t t h eC o lby s i te . S ing le i n d iv idua lm ammo th sw e re s e le c ted b y C lov is h un te r s , w ounded , a nd l e f tt ow ande rt owa rd a nd d i e a tw a te r ing a r ea s w he re e ven tua l ly t h ey w e re u t i l ized b y h un t e r s .

J e nn ing s 1 978 I nd i scu s s ing t h e L lano c u l tu re , w h ich h e d a ted a t1 2 ,000 1 ,200 y ea r sB .P . ,J e nn ing s( 1 978 ) a r gued t h a tL lano h un te r s h ad p r e f e r red m ammo th , a nd h ad h un ted i n a mbu she s o r b oggy l o ca t ions b y s t a lk ing i n d iv idua l m ammo th s a nd b u tche r ing t h em o n t h e s po t . Mo reove r , l i f e f o r t h e se e a r ly P a leo ind ian sw a sr ov ing a nd c yc l ica l ,w i th 1 0t o2 0p eop le a s t h e s o c io -econom ic u n i t . A l l e v idence , i n c lud ing t o o l t y pe s , i n d ica ted t h a t P a leo ind ian s h ad b een h un te r s o f b i g g ame ( i . e . ,m ammo th ,b i son , mu skox ,c a r ibou ,c ame l ,h o r se ,s l o th ) , a nd t h a t t h is h ad b een t h e i r b a s ic e conomy . I n a dd i t ion , J e nn ing s ( 1 978 ) v i ewed " man " a st h e w o r ld 's m o s te f f ic ien t p reda to r w ho h ad h un ted m ammo th a nd o the r l a te P l e i s tocene g ame i nN o r th Ame r ica i n to e x t inc t ion i no n ly 1 , 000 y e a r s , a l though t h e " s laugh t e r " w ou ld h ave b een e a sy , a st h ec on t inen th ad b een r i ch i ng ame .

C lov is s i te s w e re r e la t ive ly s ma l l a nd f ewe r i n n umbe r c ompa red t ol a te rF o lsom s i te s ; t h is o b se rva t ion i n d ica t ed a n i n c rea se i np opu la t ion a nd c u l tu ra ld i ve r s i ty . H ep o in ted o u t t h a t t h e d eg ree t ow h ich v ege ta l f o od s h ad b een u sed b y C lov i sp eop le sw a su nknown d ue t ol a ck o fp r e se rva t ion ,b u t p re sumab ly i th ad b een g rea t ( Hayne s 1 980 :119 ) . T he e v idence f r om t h e Mu r ray S p r ing sa nd L ehne rs i t e si n d ica ted t h a th o r se , c ame l , b ea r , a nd t a p i r , a nd r a bb i t m ay a l so h ave b een h un ted b yC lov is h un te r s( Hayne s 1 980 :117 ) .H oweve r , i tw a s c l ea r t oh im t h a t t h e s ubs is tence h ad b e en p r ima r i ly b a sed o nb i gg ame ,w i th a ne mpha s is o n mammo th a nd b i son f o r f o od a nd m a te r ia l r e sou rce s ( Hayne s 1 980 :115 , 17 ; 1 982 :383 , 3 90 ) . I ta l so a ppea red t h a t , f o r C lov i s s i te s , m ammo th c a rca s se s h ad b een o n ly p a r t ia l ly u t i l ized a nd d i sa r t icu la t ed ( Hayne s 1 980 :119 , 1 982 :390 ) . I tw a s d i ff i cu l t f o rH ayne st oi mag ine t h ec r opp ing o fe n t i re f am i ly u n i t s , a sS aunde r sh ad s ugge s ted , a s as u cce s s f u l a nd v i ab le m ammo th p rocu remen ts t ra t egy .I n s tead ,h es u gge s ted t h a t m ammo th s h ad b een a t tacked i n d iv idua l ly b y C lov is h un te r s( Hayne s 1 980 :119 , 1 982 :391 ) , a nd h ad b een s e lec ted a c co rd ing t o t h e i r b ehav iou r a nd n o t t h e i r a ge ( Hayne s 1 982 :392 ) . Mo reove r , h e b e l ieved t h a t C lov is p eop le s h ad s t ud ied a nd t a ken a dvan tage o ft h ep r ed ic tab le b ehav iou r o f i n d iv idua l m ammo ths t o h un t s ucce ssfu l ly ( Hayne s 1 980 :118 , 1 982 :392 ) . Mo s t mammo th k i l ls w e re s i tua ted a t s p r ing s a nd p ond s , a nd t h is d i s t r ibu t ion s ugge s ted t oH ayne s t h a t t h e a n ima ls h ad b een a mbushed a t w a te r ing p l ace s ( Hayne s1 982 :392 ) . H ayne s a r gued t h a tt h eb a s ic C lov i s t o o l k i t w a s e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame i nt h e e a s te rn a nd w e s te rn p a r t s o ft h e c on t inen t ; t h is s im i la r i ty i mp l ied ah i gh d eg ree o f mob i l i ty a nd l a ck o f d ependence u pon a r e s t r ic ted e nv i ronmen t ( Hayne s 1 980 :119 ) . I tw a s c l ea r t oH ayne s t h a t C lov is h un te r s h ad m oved o ve re x ten s ive a r ea s f o rl i t h ic s ou rce s , a nd h ad u sed b o th l o ca l s ou rce s a nd e xo t ic s u p t o3 00 k i lome t re s a way ( Hayne s 1 980 :118 119 ) . T he d eve lopmen t o f t h e C lov is c u l tu re w a s s een a s o ccu r r ing d u r ing a t ime o f g rea t e nv i ronmen ta l c hange ( Hayne s 1 982 :398 ) . Mo reove r , H ayne s s ugge s ted t h ep os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ep r e sen ce o fs k i l led l a te P a leo l i th ic h un te r sa t at ime o fs u ch g r ea te nv i ronmen ta l s t re s sh ad p r ov ided af a ta lc omb ina t ion t h a tl e dt ol a rge -sca le m ega f auna le x t inc t ion ( Hayne s 1 982 :398 ) .

W i lmsen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 I n t h e c onc lud ing r epo r t o n t h e i nve s t iga t ions a t t h e L indenme ie r s i te , W i lmsen ( W i lm sen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 ) d i scove red t h a t s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion a mong p ro jec t i le p o in t s w a sh i gh ly s i gn if i can ta nd s pa t ia l ly d i sc re te , l o ca l ized i nt wo a r ea s o ft h es i te . T o a c coun tf o rt h is , W i lm sen p ropo sed t h a t t wo g eog raph ica l ly d i s t inc t b u t i n te rac t ing g roups , e ach i d en t if ied w i th o ne o ft h e s t y l is t ic s e t s o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s , h ad p a r t ic ipa t ed i nc ommon s o c ia la nd p rocu remen ts y s tem s , b u t h ad b een s uf f ic ien t ly i n dependen t t o m a in ta in s ome d eg ree o f s t y l is t ic d i s t inc t ion (W i lmsen a nd R obe r t s 1 978 :179 ) . T he t e r r i to r ia l r a nge s o ft h e se t wo P a leo ind ian g r oup so ve r lapped a tL indenme ie r ,w he re t h ey c ame t o ge the r t o c oope ra te i n b i son h un t s a nd t r ansac t ions s uch a s m a r r iage , i n i t ia t ion r i te s , a nd o t he rc e remon ia l a s pec t s .T hu s , W i lm sen a nd R obe r t s ( 1 978 ) v i ewed L indenme ie r a sb e ing o ne o f t h e l a rge r c amp u n i t s w i th in a s e t t lemen t s y s tem c ha ra c te r ized b y ag rea te r n umbe r o f s ma l le r t empo ra ry c amps i te sa tw h ich al e s se rv a r ie ty o ft a sk sw a sc a r r ied o u t .

S aunde r s 1 980 S aunde r s ( 1 980 :95 -96 ) a r gued t h a t t h e b e s t a na log ie s f o r m ammo th h un t ing w e re n on -na t ive p rac t ice s o f e l ephan t h un t ing s u ch a sr e duc ing d ens i t ie s i ng ame p a rk s . H e a l so s ugge s ted t h a t m ammo th h un t ing h ad b een o n ly o ne c omponen t b u t a n i mpo r tan t o ne i n am ixed s u b s is tence s y s tem f o rP a leo ind ian p opu la t ions ( Saunde r s1 980 :87 ) .

S aunde r s 1 978 /79 S aunde r s( 1 978 /79 :8 )a r gued t h a tt h e re w a sd ef in i te e v idence t h a t C lov is p eop le s h ad h un ted m ammo th ; h oweve r , t h e C lov i sh un te rh ad b een r evea led t ob e aw i l l ing o ppo r tun is t a nd s c avenge ra sw e l l( Saunde r s 1 978 /79 :10 ) .

S aunde r s ( 1 980 ) p rov ided a mode l f o r " man " -mammo th r e la t ionsh ips i n l a te P le is tocene N o r th Ame r ica . H e e xam ined m ode rn e l ephan t a ge s t ruc tu re d a ta f r om A f r ica a nd c ompa red i tt ot h ea ge s t ruc tu re s o fC lov i ss i t e si nN o r th Ame r ica .S aunde r s( 1 980 ) c onc luded t h a tt h es i t e so fL ehne r , D en t , a nd M iam i r e p re sen ted s i ng le f am i ly u n i t s t h a t h ad b een c onf ron ted , c on ta ined , a nd c r opped c a ta s t roph ica l ly b y C lov is P a leo ind ians , w he rea s t h e Mu r ray S p r ing s s i te a nd B lackwa te r D raw l o ca l i t ie s r ep re sen ted n on -na tura l g r oup ings o f m a tu re m ammo th s f r om t h e a c cumu la t ion o f i s o la ted k i l ls a nd s cavengeab le mammo th c a rcasse s .

C .V . H ayne s 1 980 , 1 982 B a s ing h i s a r gumen t o n r ad ioca rbon d a tes , H ayne s ( 1 980 :115 )c onc luded t h a tt h eC lov i sc omp lex w a sr e s t r ic ted t o 1 ,000 -11 ,500 y ea r s B .P . a nd F o lsom t o 1 0 ,000 -11 ,000 y ea rs B .P . I n a dd i t ion , H ayne s ( 1 980 :118 -119 ) n o ted t h a t 1 23

S aunde r s ( 1980 :97 ) c onc luded t h a t C lov is h un te rs h ad e ff ic ien t ly e xp lo i ted t h e p red ic tab le b ehav iou r o fm ammo th f am i ly u n i t s , a nd t h a tt h ey h ad b een s ucce s sfu l , e ff ic ien t ,b u t w as tefu l h un te rs who w e re k eyed p r ima r i ly t o t he c a ta s t roph ic c ropp ing o f c omp le te f am i ly u n i t s . S aunde r s ( 1980 :96 ) c onc luded t ha t , b ecause t h e p opu la t ions o f m ammo th w e re h ea l thy a tb o th t h e L ehne r a nd D en t s i te s , a nd t h e refo re n o t u nde r a ny s t re s s , h uman p opu la t ions h ad b e en af a c to ri ne x t inc t ions o f Mammu thus c o lumb i .

m ea t , t h e c u l tu ra l g roup o f 1 00 c ou ld h ave e a s i ly l i ved o n o ne m a tu re a n ima l ad ay ( F r ison 1 984 :309 ) .

F r ison 1 982a F r ison ( 1 982a ) p roposed t h a t P a leo ind ians h ad u sed c ache s o ff r ozen m ea t t os u rv ive t h e h a r sh w in te rs o ft h e N o r the rn P la ins . H e a r gued t h a t d a ta f r om t h e A ga te B a s in , H ome r , a nd C a r te r -Ke r r /McGee s i te s( i . e . , t h ep r e sence o fb one p i le s a nd s e a sona l i ty s t ud ie s ) s uppo r ted t h i s m ode l t h a tb i son h ad b een k i l led i nt h e l a te f a l l o r e a r ly w in te r a nd s t acked f o r w in te r u se . H e a rgued t ha t , s i nce t he s easona l i ty d e te rm ina t ions o fP a leo ind ian b i son k i l ls w e re p r ima r i ly f a l l a nd w in t e r ,t h e mode l o ff r ozen m ea tc ache sb e s t f i tt h ed a ta , a s o ppo sed t o t h e mode l o f p emm ican m ak ing a nd m ea t d ry ing o f t h e l a te P reh is to r ic /h is to r ic t ime s , w h ich w a s c ha rac te r ized b yv e ry d i f f e ren ts e a sona l i ty a nd f e a tu re s .

H ayden 1 982 H ayden ( 1982 ) e xam ined t h e i n te rac t ion a nd t h e t r ans i t ion f r om P a leo ind ian t o A rcha ic s t age s i nN o r th Ame r ica . H e a r gued t h a tP a leo ind ian t ime sh ad b een c ha rac te r ized b y t h e u se o f e xo t ics , f i ne q ua l i ty t oo l c r a f t smansh ip , s t y l is t ic h omogene i ty o ve r l a rge a r ea s , a nd l ow s t y l is t ic d i ve r s i ty . T hu s , h e c onc luded t ha t P a leo ind ian n e two rk s h ad b een e x tens ive . H ayden ( 1982 ) a rgued t h a t t h e se w idesp read i n te ra c t ion n e two rk s a nd e xchange d u r ing t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod h ad b een t h e r e su l t o f ar e l iance o n u np red ic tab le , u n re l iab le r e sou rce s o rk se lec ted s pec ie s ( i . e . , l a rge a n ima ls w i th l o ng m a tu ra t ion t e rm s a nd l ow p opu la t ion d ens i t ies , s uch a sb i son a nd mammo th , w h ich w e re a n u n re l iab le a nd f l uc tua t ing r e sou rce b a se a nd t hus e a sy t oo ve rexp lo i t ) , a nd a l so b e cause o ft h en eed t o ma in ta in a l l iance n e two rk st of a l l b ack o n w hen r e sou rces f a i led . H ayden ( 1982 ) a r gued t h a t t h e a c tua l e xchange h ad b een o fl i t t le o rn o b enef i t ; r a the r , i t w a s p r ima r i ly u sed t o ma in ta in s oc ia l c on tac t a nd m u tua l o b l iga t ions . I n a dd i t ion , h e r e f e r red t o e thnog raph ic e xamp le st os uppo r tt h ei d ea o ft h ei mpo r tance o fa l iance st o h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups w i th u np red ic tab le p oo r r e sou rce b a se s . H ayden ( 1982 :119 -120 ) c onc luded t h a t d u r ing t h e A rcha ic , t h i s e xchange h ad b roken d own d ue t ot h ei n c rea se i nt e chno log ica l i n nova t ions a nd t h e s w i tch t o ar e l iance o n r se le c ted s pe c ie s , w h ich w e re m o re r e l iab le a nd n ume rous .

F r ison 1 984 I n as t udy o f t h e P a leo ind ian C a r te r /Ke r r - McGee s i te i n Wyom ing , F r ison ( 1984 :305 ) c onc luded t ha t t he s i te r ef lec ted a n e conom ic o r ien ta t ion t owa rd c ommuna l p rocu remen t o f l a rge u ngu la te s t h rough t h e c on t inua l u se , o ve r 2 , 000 y ea r s , o fa n a r royo t r ap . H ee s t ima ted t h a t 7 5 t o 1 00 p e r sons may h ave b een i nvo lved w i th t h e s i te 's p rocu remen t o pe ra t ions ; t h is e s t ima te a l lowed f o r 1 5 t o2 0 g rown m a le s t oc a r ry o u t t h e c ommuna l h un t f r om s t a r t t o f i n ish ( F r ison 1 984 :309 ) . Wi th a n e xc lu s ive d i e t o fb uf f a lo 1 24

F r ison ( 1984 ) a l so a r gued t h a t , i nv i ew o ft h e c u r ren t d a ta , P a leo ind ian P la ins c ommuna l b i son h un t ing h ad b een c onduc ted d u r ing c o ld w ea the r mon ths , t h a t l a te f a l l a nd w in te rh ad b een f a vou rab le t ime s f o rc ommuna lh un t ing , a nd t h a t f r ozen mea tc ache sh ad b een u sed t os t o re s u rp lu s m ea t . I n a dd i t ion , i n d iv idua l a nd s ma l l g roup h un t ing w e re p rac t ised t h roughou t t h e y ea r ( F r ison 1 984 :308 ) . F r ison ( 1984 :308 ) c ons ide red t h e h un t t o b e ma le a c t iv i ty , w h i le b u tche r ing a nd p rocess ing p robab ly i nvo lved m o s t o f t h e g roup . B a s ing h i s a r gumen t o n e t hnog raph ic e v idence , h e s ugge s ted t h a t s upe rna tu ra l h e lp h ad b een i nvoked b y r e l ig ious s pec ia l is t s o f P a leo ind ian t ime s t o i n c rea se t h e c hance o fs ucce s s o ft h e c ommuna l h un t ( F r ison 1 984 :308 ) . H e a l so s ugges ted r i tua l is t ic c onnec t ions b e tween k i l l ing l a rge a n ima ls a nd f l u t ing F o lsom p ro je c t i le p o in t s ; t h is i n te rp re ta t ion w a sb a sed o n t h ee v idence i n d ica t ing p ro jec t i le p o in t f l u t ing a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h e p re sence o fr e d o ch re i nt h e G oshen /C lov is a nd F o lsom l e ve ls a tt h e C a r te r /Ke r r - McGee s i te a nd a tt h e A ga te B a s in s i te , a s w e l l a s i nt h e F o lsom l e ve l a t t he H anson s i te ( F r ison 1 984 :309 ) . T he N o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian h un te r w as , a cco rd ing t o F r ison ( 1984 :306 ) , v e ry i n nova t ive a nd r e sou rcefu l c once rn ing e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s , a nd " s e le c t ive i nt h ea n ima l sh et o ok a nd w a s a b le t o l i ve q u i te w e l l . H e w a s n o t t h e p oo r n omad c on t inua l ly f a c ing s t a rva t ion b u ti n s tead , w a s a b le t od eve lop a nd c on t inue al i f e s ty le t h a tw a ss ucce s sf u l a nd c hanged l i t t le f o rn ea r ly t wo m i l lenn ia ."

B amf o r th 1 985 B amf o r th ( 1985 ) f o cused o n t h e t e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion o f P a leo ind ian n on -communa l b i son h un t ing o n t h e L lano E s ta cado . H e a r gued t h a t f o cu s ing o n ma s s c ommuna l k i l ls ( a s r e sea rche r s s uch a s F r ison 1 978 a nd Whea t 1 972 h ad d one ) m ay h ave o n ly ma sked t h e t r ue v a r iab i l i ty i nP l a ins P a leo ind ian l i f e s ty le s , n eg lec ted s ma l l g roup n on -communa l p a t te rns o f p rocu remen t , a nd f ocused o n ly o n h igh ly s pe c ia l ized a nd o r gan ized e ven t sa nd t e chno log ie s( Bamf o r th 1 985 :243 ) . H es ugge s ted t h a ti tw a s p oss ib le t h a t c ommuna l h un t ing m ay n o t h ave b een a s i mpo r tan t a s i tw a s o n t h e N o r the rn P l a in sd u r ing t h e P ro toh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p e r iods ; i n s tead , h e a r gued t h a t n on -communa l h un t ing m ay h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t o n t h e s ou the rn H igh P la ins d u r ing t h eP a leo ind ian p e r iod ( Bamfo r th 1 985 :244 ) . B amfo r th ( 1985 ) e xam ined t h e L ubbock L ake s i te d a ta a nd e i gh t s ma l l b i son k i l l f e a tu re s , a nd f o cused u pon l i t h ic u se w ea r , t e chno logy , a nd l i th ic s ou rces . H e c onc luded t h a t a t L ubbock L ake , r e l iance o n l ow q ua l i ty a nd u nmod if ied a nd m in ima l ly m od if ied f l ake s h ad b een ac on s i s ten t p a r t o ft h e P a leo ind ian a dap ta t ion ( Bamfo r th 1 985 :253 ) , w i th n o e mpha s is a nd r e l iance o n h igh q ua l i ty e xo t ic s , s t y l ized t o o ls , a nd s oph is t ica ted t e chno logy a sm any h ad p rev iou s ly a r gued f o r P a leo ind ian s t ra teg ie s ( Bamfo r th 1 985 :252 ) . H e n o ted t h a t e v idence a tL ubbock L ake s howed t h a t t o o l s h ad b een t r ea ted i n t wo w ay s d epend ing o n r aw m a te r ia l ; n on loca l s t one h ad b een c u ra ted , a nd l o ca l s t one h ad b een e xped ien t ly u sed ( Bamfo r th 1 985 :254 -255 ) . H e c onc luded t h a t s ma l l g roup h un t ing m u s th ave b een r e la t ive ly u np red ic tab le ; t h u s , t h e s o lu t ion h ad b een t oc a r ry t oo ls n eeded t om ake u se o f l o ca l m a te r ia ls w hen n ece s sa ry , a s a mong t h e N unamu i t ( Bamf o r th 1 985 :256 ) . T h is p rac t ice r e su l ted i n ap r ed ic tab le

w ou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted h e rd b ehav iou r a nd m ig ra t ions , a nd t hus e ncou raged m ass c ommuna l k i l ls . Ma r t in e t a l . ( 1985 :27 ) a l so a r gued f o r al owe red p o ten t ia l f o rh un t ing b ig g ame a nd f o r g r ea te rr e sou rce s pec ia l iza t ion d ue t os ea sona l d i f f e rence sa nd ad ec rea se i nr e sou rce d i ve r s i ty .

s e t o f e qu ipmen t b e ing c a r r ied o n h un ts ( Bamfo r th 1 985 :256 ) .

G re ise r 1 985 G re ise r ( 1985 ) a t temp ted t o r e cons t ruc t ap ic tu re o f P a leo ind ian l i feways f o r t he C en t ra l H igh P la ins o f n o r thea s te rn a nd c en t ra l C o lo rado , s ou thwe s te rn Wyom ing , a nd w e s te rn N eb ra ska a nd K ansa s . S he r e l ied p r ima r i ly u pon J och im 's ( 1976 ) mode l o f h un te r -ga the re r s ubs is tence a nd s e t t lemen tp a t te rns i no rde r t or e cons t ruc t ,u s ing c l ima t ic a nd a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , P a leo ind ian a dap ta t ions . G re ise r ( 1 985 )b e l ieved t h a td u r ing t h el a te g l ac ia l , t h eh igh e quab le c l ima te a nd c oo l mo is t c ond i t ions h ad r e su l ted i n a bundan t , d ive rse , a nd d i spe rsed f l o ra a nd f auna , al ong g row ing s eason , a nd l i t t le m ig ra to ry b ehav iou r . S he p red ic ted t h a t l a te g l ac ia l h un te r -ga the re r s h ad p rac t ised a m ixed s t ra tegy , c ha rac te r ized b y ab road -ba sed e conomy , l e ss empha s is o n s t o rab le r e sou rce s , a nd , b ecause o f c o ld w in te r t empe ra tu re s , a n empha s is o n l a rge g ame . G re ise r ( 1985 ) a l so a r gued t h a t ac ons ide rab le p ropo r t ion o ft h e d i e t h ad c ome f r om l a rge h e rb ivo re s , e spec ia l ly r e l iab le m ammo th a nd b i son . S he p red ic ted t ha t l a te P le is tocene p opu la t ions h ad emphas ized s ma l l g ame d u r ing t h e l a te s p r ing , v ege ta l p roduc t s d u r ing t h e s umme r a nd e a r ly f a l l , a nd l a rge h e rb ivo re s i nt h e l a te f a l l a nd w in te r . I n a dd i t ion , t h e se e a r ly P a leo ind ians moved a bou tt h el a ndscape i ns ma l l f am i ly g r oup so fa bou t2 5p eop le ,a nd w e re r e la t ive ly m ob i le d u r ing s p r ing , s umme r , a nd f a l l . G re ise r ( 1985 ) p os tu la ted t h a t l a te g l ac ia l h un t ing -ga the r ing g roups h ad c ong rega ted f o r c oope ra t ive h un t ing i n t h e l a te f a l l a nd e a r ly w in te r , a t ime w hen t h eh e rds c ong rega ted f o rb r eed ing . A tt h ee nd o ft h eP le is tocene ,w i th i n c rea s ing s ea sona l i ty a nd a r id i ty o n t h e P la ins , t he v a r ie ty o f f l o ra w a s r educed . M ig ra to ry b ehav iou ra l so b ecame e s tab l ished . G re ise r( 1985 ) t hus v i ewed P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions a t t h is t ime o n t h e P la ins a ss h if t ing t o am ixed s t ra tegy e conomy t h a tw a s l e s s b road -ba sed .T h is e conomy w a sc ha rac te r ized b y a n i n c rea se i n e xp lo i ta t ion o f f a una l r e sou rce s a s ar e sponse t o mo re s eve re w in te r s , i n a dd i t ion t o a n empha s is o n s t o rab le r e sou rce s . S i te sw e re l o ca ted n ea rr e l iab le r e sou r ce s a nd n ea r r i ve rs a nd s p r ings b ecause o f t h e d ec rease i n w a te r , a nd m ovemen t sw e re mo re s t ruc tu red a nd l e s sr andom .

Ma r t in ,R oge r s , a nd N eune r 1 985 Ma r t in e ta l . ( 1985 ) a na lyzed P a leo ind ian a dap ta t ions a nd f o cu sed s pec if ica l ly u pon t h e e f f ec t o ft h ed rama t ic c hange s i nb iogeog raphy t ha t h ad o ccu r red d u r ing t h e P le is tocene H o locene t r ans i t ion . T hey s uppo r ted t h e h ypo the s is o f a n e a r ly a r r iva l o f h uman p opu la t ions i n to t h e N ew Wo r ld . Ma r t in e ta l . ( 1985 ) a r gued t h a t c l ima t ic c hange s b e tween 1 2 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000 y ea r s B .P . , w i th i n c rea s ing s ea sona l i ty a nd d ec rea s ing mo is tu re , h ad r e su l ted i n t h e b reakup o f c omp lex P l e is tocene f l o ra l a nd f a una l a s semb lage s . W i th f a una l e x t inc t ion a nd t h e se o ve ra l l e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s , P a leo ind ian c u l tu re s w e re s eve re ly s t re ssed , a nd f o rced t o a dop t n ew a dap ta t ions a nd s t ra teg ies . T hey v iewed i n c rea s ing s e a sona l i ty a sr e su l t ing i nm o re s ea sona lg a the r ing f o r P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions , s i nce t h e re w ou ld b e s ea sona l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nr e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty . I n c rea sed s ea sona l i ty w ou ld a l so h ave e ncou raged t h e d eve lopmen t o f s ea sona l p lann ing , a nd me thods t o s t o re a nd p re se rve f oods , a nd

F r ison 1 986a F r ison ( 1986a :104 ) a r gued t h a t t h ee v idence f r om t h e C o lby s i te f u r the red t h ec a se f o r C lov i s c u l tu ra l g roups a se ff ic ien t mammo th h un te rs , r a the r t han a s s cavenge rs a nd o ppo r tun is ts a b le o n ly t o t ake mammo ths who w e re i n capac i ta ted . Mo reove r , h e p os tu la ted t h a t , i n a dd i t ion t o mammo th p rocu remen t b e ing p lanned , p a t te rned , a nd p red ic t ive , i tw ou ld h ave r e qu i red ar e l ig iou s s pe c ia l is t t o e nhance t h e s ucce s s o f t h e v en tu re i n t h e s ame w ay t h a t c ommuna l b i son h un t ing a nd p rongho rn h un t ing h ad b een o rgan ized a nd e xecu ted i n e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s ( F r ison 1 986a :106 ) . D esp i te h i s b e l ief t ha t C lov is p o in ts w e re e f f ic ien t w eapons d e s igned a nd u sed t o k i l l mammo th , h e v i ewed S aunde r s ' ( 1977 ) m ode l o f d i rec t c onf ron ta t ion a nd c r opp ing o fe n t i re h e rd s a sh i gh ly i mp robab le w i th C lov is w eapon ry ( F r ison 1 986a :107 109 ) . I n s tead ,h es ugge s ted t h a t C lov is h un te r s mon i to red h e rds a nd maneuve red i n d iv idua l m ammo th s i n to l o ca t ions w he re t h e h un te r s c ou ld s pea r o r d a r t t h em a nd w a i t u n t i l t h ey w e re w eak e nough t o f i n ish t h em o f f .

B onn ich sen , S tanf o rd , a nd F a s took 1 987 B onn ichsen e t a l . ( 1987 ) a rgued t ha t ap ronounced e nv i ronmen ta l t h re sho ld e ven t a t1 ,200 -10 ,800 y ea r s B .P . w a s i mpo r tan t f o re xp la in ing t h es ynch ronou s e x t inc t ion a nd o r ig ina t ion o f P a leo ind ian a dap t ive p a t te rns i n No r th Ame r ica . T hey p roposed t h a t t he d eve lopmen t o f t he Ame r ican p ro jec t i le p o in t p a t te rn r epresen ted a n i n tens if ica t ion o f b ig g ame h un t ing . Moreove r , t h is d eve lopmen t h ad b een a r e sponse t o r a p id ly c hang ing e nv i ronmen t s a nd d ec l in ing m egaf auna l p opu la t ions ( i .e . , C lov is , N enana , E l J obo p o in ts a l l a ppea red p r io r t o e x t inc t ion ; t h e re fo re , h umans f r om g eog raph ica l ly s epa ra te e nv i ronmen t s h ad r e sponded w i th s im i la r s t ra teg ie s ) . A f te r e x t inc t ion , t h e re w a s an ea r ly s ynch ronou sa ppea rance o ft h e P a leo -A rc t ic t r ad i t ion i nt h en o r th , t h eD a l ton t r ad i t ion i nt h e s ou thea s t , a nd t h e A ga te B a s in , H e l l G ap , a nd F o lsom t r ad i t ions o n t h eP la in s .T hey a r gued t h a tm any o ft h e se l i th ic p a t te rns h ad r ema ined s im i la r t op re -ex t inc t ion p a t te rns , b u t w e re a s soc ia ted w i th n ew p rocu remen t s y s tems a nd af o cus o n n ew s pec ie s ( e .g . , i n t h e P la ins , b i son a nd moun ta in s heep ; i nt h en o r th ,c a r ibou ; a nd i nt h es ou th , S ou thwe s t , a nd G rea tB a s in , s ma l l g ame ) .

D .F i she r 1 987 D an ie l F ishe r ( 1987 ) c ompa red t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ex , a ge , a nd s eason o f d ea th w i th in a nd b e tween s amp le s o f b u tche red a nd n on -bu tche red ma s todon i nd iv idua ls t o e va lua te t h e r e la t ive i n c idence o f h un t ing a nd s caveng ing a s soc ia ted w i th P a leo ind ian u t i l iza t ion o fm a s todon t s i nt h e G rea tL ake sr eg ion d u r ing t h el a te P le is tocene .H ec onc luded t h a t t h e p a t te rns w e re d i f f e ren t , a nd h e a r gued t h a t t h is d i f f e rence c ons t i tu ted s t rong s uppo r t f o r p rocu remen t o fa l b u tche red c a rca sse sb yh un t ing ( F ishe r 1 987 :359 ) . 1 25

r e sou rce s o ve r l a rge a r ea s . H e a r gued f o r l ow p opu la t ion d ens i t ie s o n t h e P la ins d u r ing P a leo ind ian t ime s . T h is l ow p opu la t ion , c oup led w i th h igh mob i l i ty , r e su l ted i n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f l a rge t e r r i to r ies . B amfor th ( 1988 :161) s ugge s ted t h a t h igh mob i l i ty h ad b een r e la ted t or e sou rce s t ruc tu re a nd a cqu is i t ion , a nd t o t h e n eed f o r ma in ta in ing s oc ia lc on tac t sw i th w ide ly s epa ra ted s o c ia lg roup s .

F r ison 1 987 F r ison ( 1987 ) v i ewed t h e C lov is c u l tu ra l c omp lex , d a ted a t 1 ,200 t o 1 ,500 y ea rs B .P . , a s t he e a r l ie s t u nd ispu ted e v idence o fs oph is t ica ted h un t ing g roups o n t h eH igh P la ins . H en o ted t h a tC lov i sh un te r sh ad p os se s sed h igh ly d eve loped s t one t o o ls a nd w eapon ry , a nd h ad b een a b le t ot a ke aw ide v a r ie ty o f l a rge u ngu la te s , a l though t he f u l l r ange o f t h e i r h un t ing a nd g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s s t i l l r ema ined u np roven ( F r i son 1 987 :181) .F r ison ( 1987 :184 ) a l so a r gued t h a tC lov i s h un te r s h ad d ef in i te ly h un ted mammo th ; t h e p re sence o f C lov is p o in t s i nm ammo th c a rca s se s p rov ided e v idence f o r t h e ir u se i n k i l l ing . Howeve r , i tw a s d i ff icu l t t o s ay h ow much o f t h e i r e conomy w a s d ependen t u pon mammo th p rocu remen t . F r ison ( 1987 :189 ) w a s s kep t ica l o fS aunde r s ' f am i ly u n i tc ropp ing , a nd i n s tead h et h ough tt h eb e s ts t ra tegy h ad b een t o b ecome f am i l ia r w i th t h e movemen ts o f m ammo th f am i ly g roups a nd p i ck o f f i nd iv idua l s t rays o ppo r tun is t ica l ly . F r ison ( 1987 ) ma in ta ined t ha t l a te r P a leo ind ian g roups h ad s h if ted t he i r f ocus t o b i son , p rongho rn , a nd moun ta in s heep p rocu remen t . Mo reove r , h e b e l ieved t h a tp reh is to r ic h un te r sh ad b een f o rced t o move i n r e sponse t oa n ima l movemen t s( F r i son 1 987 :2 17 ) .

A t e nd o f t h e P le is tocene , a cco rd ing t o B amfo r th ( 1988 ) , u ngu la te s , mov ing i n r egu la r p a t te rns , w e re a bundan t a nd d i spe r sed a c ro ss t h e l a ndscape . B amfo r th ( 1988 :164 -165 ) a r gued t h a tC lov i sp opu la t ion s t h en h ad a l so b een d i spe r sed , s ma l l i ns i ze , a nd w i thou t e x tens ive f o rma l mechan ism s o f s oc ia l c on t ro l . W i th t h e c l ima t ic c hange s a tt h e P l e is toceneH o locene b ounda ry , h oweve r , f o rage p roduc t ion d ec l ined a nd b ecame m o re s ea sona l , a nd f a una l d i ve r s i ty d ec rea sed . I na dd i t ion , f ewe ra n ima l s pec ie sw e re c oncen t ra ted i nl a rge r h e rd s , a nd t h u s w e re i n c rea s ing ly m o re p a tch i ly d i s t r ibu ted , mo re mob i le , a nd l e ss p red ic tab le . T hus , B amf o r th ( 1 988 ) p ropo sed t h a tt h e re s hou ld h ave b een ac ons tan t i n c rea se i n h uman a gg rega t ion s i ze f r om C lov is t h rough l a te P a leo ind ian t ime s i nr e sponse t ot h is i n c rea s ing ly p a tchy u np red ic tab le d i s t r ibu t ion o f a n ima ls . S oc ia l c omp lex i ty w ou ld h ave i n c rea sed f r om C lov is ( 1 1 ,500 -11 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ) t oF o lsom ( 1 1 ,000 -10 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ) t ime s , a nd t h is i n c rea se w ou ld h ave r e su l ted i nl a rge r s i te s w i th d ense r a nd mo re d i ve r se a r t if ac t a s semb lage s f o r F o lsom t ime s ( Bamfo r th 1 988 :164 1 66 ) . B amfor th ( 1988 :182) a rgued t ha t a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w e re c ons is ten t w i th t h is mode l , a l though n o t ar i go rous t e s t o f i t .D a ta , w i th r ega rd t os i te t y pe s a nd d i s t r ibu t ions , f r om 8 3 P a leo ind ian s i te s s howed t h a t mu l t ip le a c t iv i ty s i te s w e re a b sen t d u r ing C lov is t ime s ( wh ich i sc ons is ten t w i th a h ighe r d eg ree o f p opu la t ion d i spe r s ion p r ed ic ted f o r C lov is ) a nd m o re f r equen t d u r ing F o lsom t ime s ;t h is p a t te rn i n d ica ted a ni n c rea se i nt h ed eg ree o fs oc ia l a gg rega t ion a tt h ee nd o ft h eP l e is tocene .

T odd 1 987 I n ad e ta i led t a phonom ic a na lys is o f N ew Wo r ld k i l l b u tche ry s i tes , T odd ( 1987 ) d emons t ra ted t ha t t he P a leo ind ian h un t ing p a t te rn w a s much d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t p rev iou s ly b e l ieved , a nd t h a t w h ich w as b a sed o n P la in s e t hnog raph ic o r e t hnoh is to r ic c a se s a nd o n i n te rp re ta t ions d eve loped f r om L a te P reh is tor ic b i son k i l l s i tes . H e d emons t ra ted t h a t P a leo ind ians h ad b een r e spons ib le f o r r e la t ive ly f ew o ft h ee x tens ive b one b eds o r ig ina l ly c l a imed t ob e t h er e su l t o fh uman a c t iv i ty , a nd t h a t t h e se b one b ed s d i d n o t s how a ny i n tens ive p roce s s ing o fm ea t c a rca sse s a s d id L a te P reh is to r ic o nes . T odd ( 1987 ) a l so c onc luded t h a t t h eP a leo ind ian g oa lh ad n o tb een s t o rage a nd e x tens ive f o od p roce s s ing , a sw a st h ec a se f o r L a te P reh is to r ic a nd H is to r ic P la ins b i son h un te rs ; r a the r , t he ir g oa l h ad b een f ood p rocu remen t a nd p rocess ing o f mea t f o r r e la t ive ly s ho r t p e r iods o ft ime .

F r ison 1 988 I na ne xam ina t ion o fp os t -C lov is P a leo ind ia n s ub s is tence a nd s e t t lemen to nt h eN o r thwe s te rn P la ins a nd a d jacen tm oun ta in r eg ions , F r ison ( 1988 ) d i scussed i n d e ta i l t h e G oshen P a leo ind ian c u l tura l c omp lex , w h ich h ad b een f i r s t r e cogn ized a tt h e H e l l G ap s i te i nt h ee a r ly 1 960 s a nd , m o re r e cen t ly , i d en t if ied a t t h e M i l l I r on s i te i n Mon tana . I t s r e la t ionsh ip t oC lov is a nd F o lsom w a su nc lea r ,b u ti nv i ew o f t h et e chno logy o fp ro jec t i le p o in t manuf a c tu re ,F r i son ( 1 988 ) s ugge s ted t h a t G oshen c ou ld h ave b een a n i mmed ia te p r ecu r so ro fF o lsom , a l though many G o shen s t one t o o l sw e re r em in i scen t o fC lov is . H e a l so p roposed t h e d eve lopmen t o f a d icho tomy i n s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies b e tween t he f oo th i l ls /moun ta ins a nd t h e p l a ins r eg ions b y 1 0 ,000 y ea r s B .P . a s ar e su l t o ft h e e co log ica l c hange s a tt h e e nd o ft h e P le is tocene . T hese t wo s t ra teg ies , h e a r gued , h ad b een mu tua l ly e xc lus ive , w i th s ma l l mamma ls a nd p l an t p rocu remen ta nd t h eu se o fc ave s a nd r o ck s he l te r sp r ac t ised b y f oo th i l l /moun ta in P a leo ind ians , a nd a b i son h un t ing e conomy p rac t ised o n t h e p la ins . T h is d icho tomy a nd s e pa ra t ion b e tween t h et wo e co log ica l ly i mposed s ubs i s tence s t ra teg ie s b egan t od i sappea rn ea r t h e e nd o fC ody c omp lex t ime s , a r ound 8 , 000 y ea r s a go , w i th i n c reas ing a r id i ty a nd t h e l o ss o fs u ff ic ien t n umbe r s o fb i son t os u s ta in c ommuna l p rocu remen tp r ac t ice s ( F r ison 1 988 :10 1) .

B am f o r th 1 988 B amfo r th ( 1988 ) , i n h i s r ev iew o f e co logy a nd h uman o rgan iza t ion o n t h e G rea t P la ins , e xam ined t he a ppa ren t c on t ra s t b e tween e nv ironmen ta l c hange a nd c u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty i nt h eP a leo ind ian p e r iod , a nd a r gued t h a tc hange s s hou ld h ave o ccu r red i no rgan iza t ion . H ee s sen t ia l ly f o cused o n g ra ss land a nd u ngu la te e co logy , a nd P a leo ind ian e nv i ronmen t sa nd a dap ta t ions . B amfo r th ( 1988 ) v iewed P a leo ind ian l i feways a s c ha rac te r ized b y ar e l iance o n l a rge r g ame , w i th s ome s ma l le r a n ima ls a nd p lan t s b e ing e xp lo i ted . F auna l d a ta s ugge s ted t h a t c ommuna l h un t ing h ad b een p rac t ised f r om f a l l t h rough s p r ing ; h oweve r , t h e p roduc t s o f P a leo ind ian k i l ls s e emed t ob eu sed l e s s c omp le te ly . Mo reove r , t h e l a ck o fr e pea ted s ho r t te rm r euse o fs pec if ic k i l l s i te ss ugge s ted t o B amfo r th ( 1988 ) h igh mob i l i ty f o r P a leo ind ians , a nd r aw m a te r ia l sa l so i n d ica ted t h a tP a leo ind ians h ad a cce s st ol i th ic

F r ison 1 26

( 1988 :92 )

v iewed

F o lsom

g roups

a s b e ing

s oph is t ica ted h un t ing g roups w ho h ad r e l ied ma in ly o nb i son , w i th l e s se r e mpha s is o n p rongho rn . H e a l so a rgued t h a t t h e P a leo ind ian p e r iod s hou ld b e r ega rded a s mo re t han a s e quence o fc u l tu ra l g roups i nN o r th Ame r ican i d en t if iab le b y p ro jec t i le p o in t t ypes ( F r ison 1 988 :103) . Mo reove r , P a leo ind ians w e re n o t m embe r s o f ac on t inen t -w ide c u l tu ra l g roup . I ns tead , t he re w e re d i f f e ren t g roups i n d i f fe ren t e co log ica l a r ea s ; t he refo re , S ou the rn P la ins g roups w ou ld h ave b een d i f f e ren tf r om N o r the rn P la ins P a leo ind ian g roup s ( F r ison 1 988 :103 ) .F r ison ( 1988 :103 )a l so s ugges ted t h a t , f o r P a leo ind ians , t he a l te rna t ion f r om t r ue h un t ing t oh un t ing a nd g a the r ing h ad r equ i red mo re f l u id s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion t h an i su sua l ly s een a mong t r ue h un t ing s oc ie t ies ; t h e re f o re , h e c ons ide red i tp os s ib le t ha t s ome P a leo ind ian g roup s h ad b een o rgan ized s oc ia l ly a l ong l i nes s im i la r t o t hose d ocumen ted f o r c e r ta in A f r ican B ushmen s oc ie t ie s , who w e re a b le t os h if t f r om o ne e conom ic s t ra tegy t oa no the r i n r e spon se t os ho r t te rm s ubs is tence b a se c hanges .

H ofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 H ofman a nd I ngba r ( 1988 ) p rov ided a mode l o f F o lsom s ubs is tence a nd mob i l i ty f o r t h e N o r thwe s te rn P la ins . T hey a r gued t ha t e v idence f r om F o lsom s i te s s ugges ted a s ubs is tence w i th a s t rong e mpha s is o n b i son , o f ten o n ly m in ima l ly b u tche red ( Hofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 :343 ) . T hey f u r the r a rgued t h a t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fh igh mob i l i ty w i th e conom ic s e cu r i ty g a ined b y c l ose ly mon i to r ing b i son m ovemen t s w a s s uppo r ted b y l e s s t h an m ax imum i n tens i ty u t i l iza t ion o fb i son , a nd t h e r epea ted e v idence f o r l im i ted c amps i te o r o ccupa t ion a c t iv i ty a d jacen t t o k i l ls ( Hofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 :343 ) . H ofman a nd I ngba r ( 1988 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h is p a t te rn o fh igh mob i l i ty w ou ld h ave r e su l ted i nt h e n eed f o r ah i gh ly p o r tab le , v e r sa t i le , a nd c l ose ly c u ra ted t e chno log ica ls y s tem , a nd t h e o ccu r rence o f many s ho r t te rm c amps a s soc ia ted w i th o ve r look s a nd h un t ing s t ands . T hey m a in ta ined t h a tt h eF o lsom d a ta i n d ica ted e xp lo i ta t ion o fa l t h e ma jo r h i gh q ua l i ty l i th ic s ou rce s i n t h e w e s te rn P la ins r e g ion ; t h i s o bse rva t ion s ugge s ted t h a tF o lsom g roup s h ad a d e ta i led f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e t e r ra in , a nd c ou ld n o t b e c ons ide red " un info rmed n ewcome rs " ( Hofman a nd I ngba r 1 988 : 3 45 ) .

K e l ly a nd T odd 1 988 K e l ly a nd T odd ( 1988 ) d i scus sed i nd e ta i l e a r ly P a leo ind ian ( 1 2 ,000 -10 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ) h un t ing a nd mob i l i ty p a t te rns i n N o r th Ame r ica . T hey v iewed P a leo ind ian l i feways a s c ha rac te r ized b y ad ependence o n h un t ing , w i th h igh r e s iden t ia l , l o g is t ica l , a nd r ange m ob i l i ty b ecau se o fp os t P l e i s tocene e nv i ronmen ta lc hange sa nd l ow i n i t ia lp opu la t ion o ft h e c on t inen t . I n a dd i t ion , K e l ly a nd T odd ( 1988 ) a r gued t h a tN o r th Ame r ican P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence t e chno logy h ad i n c luded t h e u se o f h igh q ua l i ty l i th ic r aw ma te r ia ls , a r e l iance o nb i f ac ia l t e chno logy , l im i ted u se o fc ave a nd r ock s he l te r s , a nd a l ow l e ve l o f p roce s s ing f ood p roduc t s f o r s t o rage . T o e xp la in t h ese s im i la r i t ie s i nP a leo ind ian f l u ted p o in t a s semb lage s a c ross No r th Ame r ica , K e l ly a nd T odd ( 1 988 ) a rgued t h a tP a leo ind ians h ad e n te red a n u npopu la ted c on t inen t . T he b es t l i feway s u i ted t o t h e u t i l iza t ion o f a n u nknown t e r r i to ry w ou ld h ave b een r e l iance o n f a una l r a the r t h an p l an tr e sou rce s . T hey a l so m a in ta ined t ha tP a leo ind ians h ad s h if ted t h e i rt e r r i to r ie s f r equen t ly a sf auna l c ompos i t ion s a nd d i s t r ibu t ions h ad c hanged ; t h is s h if t ing r e su l ted i nh igh 1 27

r e s iden t ia l a nd l o g is t ica l mob i l i ty . K e l ly a nd T odd ( 1988 ) l i s ted f ou r m a jo r i mp l ica t ion s o ft h is mode l o f f auna l d ependency a nd h igh mob i l i ty . F i r s t , P a leo ind ian b ehav iou r s hou ld h ave b een r e la t ive ly c ons is ten t a c ros s t h e c on t inen t r ega rd le s s o f t he e nv i ronmen t . T h is c ons is tency , t h ey a r gued , w a s s een i n t h e s im i la r a r t if ac t t y pes i n P a leo ind ian a s semb lages . S econd , P a leo ind ians s hou ld h ave made u se o ft h e l a ndscape i n as ho r t te rm a nd r e dundan tf a sh ion b ecause t h ey d i dn o tk now t h er e g ion ; t h is p a t te rn p reven ted t he s ubs tan t ia l a ccumu la t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d eb r is , a nd a ccoun ted f o r t h e m any s u rf ace f i nd s o ff l u ted p o in t s a nd l a ck o fP a leo ind ian s i te s i nN o r th Ame r ica . T h ird , P a leo ind ians w ou ld h ave r equ i red a t e chno logy t h a t w a s h igh ly p o r tab le a nd o r ien ted t owa rd h un t ing . T h is p rem ise w a s s uppo r ted b y t h eh i gh n umbe r o f b i f ace s , t h e u se o f h igh q ua l i ty e xo t ic r aw m a te r ia ls , t h e p re sence o ft oo l s w i th l ong , v a r iab le u se l ive s ( r e sha rpen ing a nd r e cyc l ing ) , a nd t h e p re sence o f g rave r s , s c rape r s , a nd b u r ins s ugge s t ing manufac tu re o f b one , w ood , a nd a n t le r t o o ls . F ou r th , b ecause r e sou rce s w e re n o t c oncen t ra ted a nd r e l iab le , al o ng te rm , r e pea ted s t o rage s t ra tegy w ou ld n o tb e e xpe c ted i nP a leo ind ian s t ra teg ie s . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion , t h ey a r gued , w a ss uppo r ted b y e v idence f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s ( p r ima r i ly w e s te rn P la ins s i te s ) t h a t i nd ica ted a n ima ls w e re n o tb u tche red a nd p roce s sed e x tens ive ly .

K o rnf e ld 1 988 K o rnf e ld ( 1988 ) d i scussed t h e R ocky F oo lsm s i te l o ca ted i n n o r thea s te rn Wyom ing ,i t s s ma l lF o lsom a s semb lage , a nd t h e i mp l ica t ions f o r F o lsom c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s . H e n o ted t h a t e t hnog raph ic e v idence i n d ica ted t h a t , a t al a t i tude e qu iva len t t ot h e N o r thwe s te rn P la ins , mode rn h un te r -ga the re rs w e re h igh ly d ependen t o n f l ora l r e sou rce s ; h oweve r , P la ins h un te r -ga the re r sh ad b een a lmo s tu n ive r sa l ly d ep ic ted a sb i g g ame h un te r s , p a r t ly b ecause o f t h e e x tens ive P l a ins b i son h un t ing f o lk lo re . K o rnfe ld ( 1988 ) a r gued t h a t ad i f f e ren t p i c tu re o f F o lsom l i feways f r om t h e b i son -dependen t s ubs is tence v i ew w ou ld e me rge w i th d ocumen ta t ion a nd a na lys is o fo the r s uch s ma l l s i te s , a nd c ons ide ra t ion o f t h e n on -hun t ing i mp l ica t ions o ft h e d a ta . H e d emons t ra ted t h a t t o o ls t yp ica l ly a s soc ia ted s o le ly w i th t h e r e a lm o fh un t ing , s uch a s p ro jec t i le p o in t s a nd s c rape r s , w e re , i n f a c t , m o re r e a l is t ica l ly s een a s a l so b e ing c onnec ted t o t h e r e a lm s o f p l an tg a the r ing , m anuf a c tu r ing o fo t he rt o o l s , s k in p roce s s ing t e chno logy , a nd t he mak ing o f c lo th ing a nd c a r ry ing e qu ipmen t .

G oodyea r 1 989 G oodyea r ( 1989 ) p rov ided a d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f P a leo ind ian s t one t e chno log ie sa nd t h e i ru se o fr aw m a te r ia l . B a s ing h i s a r gumen to n e t hnog raph ic d a ta , h e s ugge s ted t h a t P a leo ind ians h ad d i rec t ly a cqu i red l i th ics ; t h e refo re , t h e p re sence o fe xo t ics i nP a leo ind ian a s semb lage s f r om a c ro s s N o r th Ame r ica s ugge s ted t h a t h i gh ly mob i le s t ra teg ie s h ad b een p rac t ised b y P a leo ind ians . I n a dd i t ion , h e a r gued t h a t t h e P a leo ind ian u se o f c ryp toc rys ta l l ine s a l lowed g rea t p rec is ion a nd r e l iab i l i ty i n f l ak ing . Goodyea r ( 1989 ) t h u s p roposed t h a t , among mob i le P a leo ind ians , p rob lems o f mob i l i ty h ad b een s o lved b y a dop t ing t h e u se o f c ryp toc rys ta l l ine r aw ma te r ia ls f o r c rea t ing p o r tab le a nd f l ex ib le t e chno log ies w i th l o ng l i fe s pans t o o f f se t

g eog raph ic i n congruence sb e tween r e sou rce s a nd c on sume r s . F u r the rmo re , a cco rd ing t o Goodyea r ( 1989 ) , e v idence o f a bundan t r e sha rpen ing a nd r ecyc l ing i n P a leo ind ian a s semb lage ss uppo r ted t h is h ypo the s i s .

T odd , H ofman , a nd S chu l tz 1 990 T odd e ta l . ( 1990 ) r epo r ted t h e r e su l t s o fa n e xam ina t ion o f t oo th e r up t ion a nd w ea r o fb i son m and ib le s r e cove red f r om t h eb one b eds o ft wo P a leo ind ian b i son k i l l s i te s , S co t t sb luf f a nd L ipscomb . T he i r s t ud ie s i nd ica ted t h a t t h e S co t t sb luf f b i son h ad d i ed i n l a te s p r ing / summe r . A t L ip scomb , t h e b i son h ad d i ed i nl a te s umme rt oe a r ly f a l l . T he se p a t te rns o f s ea sona l mo r ta l i ty w e re v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se g ene ra l ly r e po r ted a nd a s sumed f o rP a leo ind ian k i l ls , t h a ti s ,l a te f a l l o r w in te r( e .g . ,F r ison 1 982a ) . T odd e ta l . ( 1990 )c onc luded t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t s ome s i te s d id n o t f i t t h e p re sumed w in te r k i l l p a t te rn d id n o t w a r ran t a n i n te rpre ta t ion t h a t t hese d i f fe rences r ef lec ted s easona l d i f fe rence s , a s t he l a te P le is tocene w a s c ha rac te r ized b y l e s s e x t reme s e a sona l i ty . I n s tead , t h ey s ugge s ted t h a ts ea sona lv a r ia t ion i nP a leo ind ian a c t iv i ty m ay h ave n o tb een a ss t rong ly p a t te rned a si tw a s f o r l a te r h un te r -ga the re r s o n t h e P la ins ( Todd e ta l . 1 990 :824 ) . P a leo ind ian s t ra teg ie s m ay h ave b een d i s t inc t ive ly d i f f e ren t f r om t h e f am i l ia re t hnog raph ic " s ea sona l r ound " t h a t f o rmed t h e b a s is o fm any P a leo ind ian s ubs is tence mode ls ( Todd e t a l . 1 990 :824 ) .

F r ison 1 990a F r ison ( 1990a :101) a rgued t h a t t h e C lov is a s semb lage h ad b een w e l l d e s igned f o r b ig g ame h un t ing . H e a l so a r gued a ga ins t t h e i d ea t h a t C lov is h un te rs h ad d r iven m ammo th s i n to b ogs , b ecause i tw ou ld h ave b een i mpos s ib le t ob u tche r t h em . Mo reove r , h e b e l ieved t ha t C lov is h un te rs h ad b een s k i l led e nough t h a tt h ey c ou ld h ave d r iven m ammo th s a way f r om b ogs a nd k i l l t h em o n f l a t d ry l a nd w he re b u tche r ing w ou ld h ave b een much e a s ie r ( F r ison 1 990a :102 ) .

F r i son 1 990b B a s ing h i s a r gumen to n t h e S imon a nd A nz ick a s semb lage s , w h ich p os s ib ly h ad b een b u r ia l o f f e r ing s , F r ison ( 1990b :16 ) s ugge s ted t h a tC lov is c aches h ad b een a n i n teg ra l p a r to ft h e C lov is c omp lex . H ea l so b e l ieved t h a tP a leo ind ians h ad b een s uccessfu l i n h un t ing mammo th , a nd , h av ing a dequa te w eapons , t h ey w ou ld s pea r s t rays a nd f o l low t h em u n t i l t h ey w e re d ead r a the r t h an b u tche r ing t h em i n b ogs ( F r ison 1 990b :17 -18 ) . F r ison ( 1990b ) a l so s uppo r ted t h e u se o ft h e A f r ican e l ephan t a s a mode l f o r P a leo ind ian -mammo th i n te rac t ions . H is w o rk r evea led ap reoccupa t ion w i th d a t ing c u l tu re s a nd c h rono log ie s , e spec ia l ly w i th r e f e rence t ot h e r e la t ion sh ips b e tween C lov is , G oshen , a nd F o lsom . F r ison ( 1990b :29 ) v i ewed P a leo ind ian p opu la t ions a s l o ca l ly o r ien ted ,i s o la ted ,a nd t e r r i to r ia l g roup s .

A nd ref sky 1 991 A nd re f sky ( 1991) a na lyzed l i th ic p roduc t ion t e chno logy i n o rde r t oe xam ine c hang ing t r ends i n s e t t lemen t b ehav iou r f r om P a leo ind ian t oL a te P reh is to r ic t ime s o n t h e S ou the rn P l a ins . H is e xam ina t ion o ft o o l t y pe sa sw e l l a st h ee xped ien t o r f o rma l ized n a ture o f t oo ls s ugges ted t o h im t ha t p reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion sh ad b een r e la t ive ly m ob i le d u r ing t h e P a leo ind ian s t age ; a l so e v iden tw a s at r end t owa rd i n c rea s ing s eden t ism . A nd ref sky ( 1991) a r gued f o r ag ene ra li n c rea se i n e xped ien tc o re sa nd t o o ls o ve rt ime .

J one s 1 990 B ruce J one s ( 1990 ) u sed o p t ima l f o rag ing a nd p rey s e lec t iv i ty mode ls t o e xam ine t he i n te rac t ion b e tween P a leo ind ians a nd mammo ths , a nd t he e co log ica l d e te rm inan t s o f s e lec t iv i ty i nt he Ame r ican S ou thwe s t . H e c onc luded t h a t p res t ige h ad b een a p r ima ry c once rn i n h un t ing m ammo th . A cco rd ing t oJ one s ( 1990 ) , p rocu remen t o f m ammo ths w a s s e lec t ive a nd f a vou red t h e t a k ing o f s o l i ta ry m a le s a nd o lde r a n ima ls o f b o th s ex . Mo reove r , J ones ( 1990 ) a rgued t ha t t he re h ad b een n o s ea sona l m ammo th m ig ra t ions ; t hus , t he re h ad b een h igh d ens i ty l o ca l ized h e rd st h a tw e re h igh ly c onduc ive t ou se b yh umans .

B amf o r th 1 991 I n ad i s cus s ion o fp rob lem s w i th P a leo ind ian p o in tt y po logy , B amfo r th ( 1991) a r gued t h a t , t r ad i t iona l ly , a r chaeo log is t s h ad r e cons truc ted P a leo ind ian c u l tu re h i s to r ica l p a t te rns b y e xam in ing p ro jec t i le p o in t s f r om c ommuna l k i l ls ; h oweve r , h e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e f o cus o n P a leo ind ian p ro je c t i le p o in t s f r om c ommuna l k i l ls may b e o b scu r ing t h e f u l l r ange o f p ro je c t i le p o in t v a r ia t ion i n f o rm a nd t e chno logy , b ecause o n ly t h e b e s t l c nappe r s s upposed ly h ad m ade p o in ts f o r c ommuna lk i l ls . H ea l so p o in ted o u tt h a tt h e re w a s ap rob lem w i th p ro jec t i le p o in t t y po log ie s b ecause o ft h e t e ndency f o r s p l i t te r s t oa s sume t h a t a l l v a r ia t ion c ou ld b e o rgan ized i n to t y pe s ; t h is a s sump t ion r e su l ted i nt h e c r ea t ion o fn ume rous t y pe s .

S aunde r s 1 990 S aunde rs ( 1990 ) d i scussed t he u se o f u n if o rm i ta r ian a nd a na log ica l t h eo ry a nd p rocedu re i nh i s to r ica l r e cons t ruc t ion o f t h e l a te P le is tocene t ime p e r iod o f 1 2 ,000 -10 ,000 y ea r s B .P . ; h e a r gued t h a t i tc or robo ra ted t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t C lov is h un te r s , o pe ra t ing c ommuna l ly a nd e qu ipped w i th l e tha l t h ru s t ing w eaponry , wou ld h ave b een f o rm idab le m ammo th p reda to r s who a ch ieved s ucce s se s t h a th ave b een r eco rded i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a s ma ss k i l ls . F u r the rmo re ,h ea r gued t h a tb i son h un t ing b y l a te p reh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic P la ins I nd ians , a nd n on -na t ive h un t ing o f e l ephan t f am i l ie s , p rov ided s upe r io r u n ifo rm i ta r ian m ode l s f o r mammo th p rocu remen t i n No r th Ame r ica ( Saunde r s 1 990 :139 ) .

B o ldu r ian 1 991 B o ldu r ian ( 1991) d i scu ssed t h er o le o fb i f ace sa sc o re si nt h e o rgan iza t ion o fF o lsom l i th ic t e chno logy f o r g roups o n t h e i n te r io r S ou the rn P la ins . H e c onc luded t h a t F o lsom g roups o n t h e S ou the rn P la ins h ad b een h igh ly mob i le , a nd t h a t t h e manufac tu re o f l a rge b i face c o re s h ad b een a n a dap t ive r e sponse t os o lve p rob lem s o fs t one s ca rc i ty a nd h i gh g roup mob i l i ty a nd i mp lemen tn eeds . 1 28

a n ima lr e sou rce u t i l iza t ion .

G . H ayne s 1 991 G a ry H ayne s ( 1991 )e xam ined s im i la r i t ie sb e twe en p a s ta nd p r esen tp r obo sc idean si na na t temp tt os t reng then t h ec a se f o r u s ing a c tua l is t ic s t ud ie s o f mode rn e l ephan t s t os t udy f o s s i l m ammo th a nd ma s todon t a s semb lage s . A f te r ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f a c tua l is t ic s t ud ie s o fm a s s d ea th s a nd m a s s k i l ls , h e e xam ined t h e f o ss i l r e co rd t od i scove r p a t te rns i n e l ephan t a s semb lage s . H e a r gued t h a t " s to r ie s , " b a sed o n ly o n s e le c t ive s amp le s a nd u np roven a s sump t ions t h a t h ad b een t r ansf o rmed i n to t r u th s , h ad b een c r ea ted a bou t m ammo th h un t ing s pec ia l i s t s w o r ld -w ide . A cco rd ing t oG . H ayne s ( 1 991) , a r chaeo log is t s h ad n eve r c ons ide red t h e p os s ib i l i ty o fm ammo th s i te s b e ing s mea red , t ime -ave raged p a l imp se s t s . I n s tead , t h ey v i ewed t h em a ss i ng le e ven t s t h a t w e re t h e r e su l t o f h uman i n vo lvemen t . H e a r gued t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s n eeded t o r eexam ine t h e se a s semb lage s c r i t ica l ly . F ocu s ing o n N o r th Ame r ican m ammo th s i te s , G . H ayne s ( 1 991 ) a r gued t h a t t h e re w a s n o u nequ ivoca l p roof t h a t h uman s h ad s l a in p robosc idean s b e f o re p roce s s ing t h e c a rca s s e s . H e c onc luded t h a t m os t m ammo th a s semb lage s r e semb led n on -cu l tu ra l m ammo th d i e -of f a s semb lage s t h a t w e re m o s tl i ke ly c au sed b ye nv i ronmen ta ls t re s sa tt h ee nd o f t h e P l e i s tocene . T hu s , G . H ayne s ( 1991) s ugge s ted t h a t C lov is p eop le s h ad b een m e re ly s pec ta to r s w ho h ad e xp lo i t ed t h e se m ammo th d i e -o f f s .T he m ammo th 's a ppea la s p r ey i n c rea sed , a nd a lowed C lov i sp eop le st oe xpand r a p id ly a nd e xp lo i t t h e se d i e -of f s . G a ry H ayne s ( 1 991) c onc luded t h a tt h i ss c aveng ing e xp la ined w hy c a rca s se sh ad b een l i t t le u sed , n o t b roken f o r m a r row , a nd l o ca ted i n w a te rho le s : b ecaus et h em ammo th sh ad s t a rved t od ea th .

D av i sa nd G re ise r1 992 I na ne xam ina t ion o ft h ee a r ly P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ion sa tt h e d eep ly s t ra t if ied I nd ian C reek s i te i nt h e n o r the rn Mon tana R ock ie s , D av is a nd G re ise r ( 1 992 :266 ) s uppo r ted t h e i d ea t h a t t h e a r t if ac t a s semb lage a ppea red t or e p re sen t p r ima r i ly f ema le d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s t ha t s ucceeded s uch m a led om ina ted o f f -s i te a c t iv i t ie s a sl i t h ic a nd g ame p rocu remen t . T hey f u r the r n o ted t h a t " b ig -game re l ian t h un te r -ga the re r s a l so c o l lec ted a nd u t i l ized d i ve r se l e s se rs p ec ie s " ( Dav is a nd G re ise r 1 992 :276 ) .T he e v idence f o r ab r oad spec t rum u se o f f a una i n t h e P a leo ind ian o ccupa t ions a t I nd ian C reek i n d ica ted t oD av is a nd G re i se r ( 1 992 :280 ) t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o f f o od r e sou rce m a rg ina l i ty .

J .F i she r 1 992 J ohn F i she r( 1 992 )e xam ined t h eb one a s semb lage r e cove red f r om t h e L amb S p r ing s i te i n C o lo rado t o d e te rm ine i f h uman i n vo lvemen th ad p l ayed ar o le i nt h ef o rma t ion o ft h e a s semb lage . H eu sed , a s ab a s i s ,e xpe r imen ta l a nd a c tua l is t ic r e sea rch o n e l ephan t b u tche r ing a nd p roce s s ing i nt h e I t u r i f o re s t o f Z a i re . F i she r ( 1992 ) a r gued t h a t I t u r i e l ephan t b u tche r ing c ou ld b e u sed a s a n a na logy f o r p reh is to r ic mammo th b u tche r ing /p roce ss ing t o s ome d eg ree . H e c onc luded t h a t t h e re w a s i n conc lus ive e v idence t os uppo r t h uman i n vo lvemen ta tt h eL amb S p r ing s i t e , b u ts t re s sed t h e i mpo r tance o fe xpe r imen ta l a nd a c tua l i s t ic s t ud ie s .

J ohnson 1 99 1 F r i son 1 992 E i leen J ohnson ( 1991 ) p ropo sed a n e nv i ronmen ta l -cu l tu ra l c ons tr uc t f o r t h e S ou the rn P l a in sd u r ing t h e l a te P l e is tocene b a sed o n e t hnog raph ic h un te r -ga the re r t h eo ry a nd d a ta , a nd p a leoc l ima t ic a nd e co sy s tem ic d a t a . S he a r gued t h a t C lov i s p eop le s h ad b een o r gan ized a s f o rage r s ; t h a t i s , t h ey w e re g ene ra l i s t s i n t h e i r a pp roach t o s ub s i s tence . T hey h ad a b road spec tr um , m ea t re la ted s ub s is tence b a se o rgan ized a r ound af o rag ing s t ruc tu re b a sed o n o ppo r tun is t ic b ehav iou r p a t te rns t h a t a l lowed f o r b o th h un t ing a nd s c aveng ing o f a n ima l s , a nd t h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fb one r e sou rce s , w i th t h eu s e o f am in ima ll i t h ic t o o lk i t , a nd g ene ra lc on se rvancy o fl i t h ic m a te r ia l s . I n v iew o f t h e a na ly se s o f s c a r s , r ewo rk ing , d amage /u se , a nd p o in t mo rpho logy , J ohnson ( 1991 :227 ) c on s ide red t h e C lov is p o in t a s am u l t ipu rpo se t o o l t h a th ad b een u s ed a s aw eapon , a nd u sed i nb u t che r ing a nd p l an t g a the r ing . Am ixed a ge -sex p a t te rn f o r C lov is s i te f a una l a s semb lage s o n t h e S ou the rn P l a ins s ugge s ted t oJ ohnson ( 1991 :228 ) as caveng ing mode o f p rocu r ing i n d iv idua l m ammo th s a s o pposed t o a n a c t ive h un t ing mode . S he c onc luded t h a t t h e e va lua t ion o ft h e f i to ft h e c ons t ruc t s h e h ad d eve loped w i th t h e a c tua l d a ta w a s h ampe red b y d i spa ra te f i e ld m e thodo log ie s a nd r e sea rch a pp roache s t h a t h ad l e d t ov a r iab le q ua l i ty a nd ab i a sed n a tu re o ft h e d a ta , t h a t i s , al a ck o fr e s iden t ia l s i te s , a nd al a ck o fd a ta o n p l an t g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s a nd o n t h e r o le o f p lan t s i n t h e s ub s is tence b a se . J ohnson ( 199 1) c onc luded t h a t t h e re w a s s t rong s uppo r t f o r af o rag ing o r gan iza t ion s t ruc tu re f o r C lov i s p opu la t ion s , e spec ia l ly w i th e v idence i n d ica t ing a n e qu i tab le c l ima te , d a ta d emons t ra t ing t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f a v a r ie ty o fp o ten t ia l g ame a n ima l r e sou rce s , a nd t h e e a r ly P a leo ind ian a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd r e f lec t ing b road -ba sed 1 29

F r ison ( 1992 ) p rov ided ad e ta i led r e v iew a nd d i scu s s ion o f t h ed i cho tomy i nP a leo ind ian s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie sb e tween t h ef o o th i l ls /moun ta in r e g ion a nd t h eo pen p l a in sr e g ion , t h a t i s , t h e e mpha s is o n s oph is t ica ted c ommuna l b i son h un t ing m e thod s o n t h ep l a in s , a nd t h e f o cu s o n t h e p r ocu remen t o f m oun ta in s heep , mu le d ee r , a nd p l an t r e sou rce s i n t h e f o o th i l ls /moun ta in r e g ion s . H e a r gued t h a tb y 1 0 ,000 y ea r s a go , a n e co log ica l b ounda ry b e tween t h e f o o th i l ls /moun ta in r eg ion a nd t h e p l a ins h ad d eve loped ; t h is b ounda ry , c onsequen t ly , s e pa ra ted t h e c u l tu ra l g roup s . F u r the rmo re , F r ison ( 1 992 :337 -338 ) s ugge s ted t h a tt h ed i f f e ren tp ro je c t i le p o in t s b e tween t h e t wo r e g ions s e emed t oi n d ica te t h a t t h e f oo th i l l /moun ta in g roup s h ad b een r e la t ive ly i s o la ted . Mo reove r , t h eu se o fl o ca l l i t h ic s b y t h e se g r oup s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e f oo th i l l /moun ta in g roups h ad b een mo re l o ca l ly o r ien ted ( F r ison 1 992 :338 ) . O n ly b y a pp rox ima te ly 8 , 000 y ea r sa go d i dt h i sd i cho tomy b reak d own .

H o fman 1 992 I n as t udy o fF o l som t e chno log ica l v a r ia t ion o nt h eS ou the rn P l a in s ,H ofman ( 1 992 )e xam ined t h el i t h ic a s semb lage s f r om t h ree F o lsom s i te s , w i th a f o cus o n a spe c t s o f r e cyc l ing , r euse , a nd r e too l ing e ven t s i n r e la t ion t o m ob i l i ty a nd l o ca t ion o fl i th ic s ou rce s . H ofman ( 1992 :197 -198 ) v i ewed F o lsom g roups a s h i gh ly mob i le , a s s ugge s ted b y t h e p r e sence o fa r t if ac t s m ade f r om n on loca l l i t h ic m a te r ia l , t h e u se o fc ompo s i te t o o l s w i th mu l t ip le f u nc t iona l e dge s , t h e h i gh p ropo r t ion o fa r t if ac t s a sc ompa red t od eb i tage a tm os t

n on -wo rk shop s i tes , a nd t h e l a ck o f m iddens a nd t he p re sence o f s ma l l c omponen t s . F o lsom h un te rs w ou ld t h e ref o re h ave b een f o rced t or e too l f o l low ing k i l ls a ts ome d i s tance f r om g ood l i th ic s ou rce s , a nd w ou ld h ave n eeded t o c u ra te a nd m a in ta in t h e i r t oo l s a nd l i th ic m a te r ia ls ( Hofman 1 992 :198 ) . T he u se o fl a rge b i f ac ia l c o re sb yF o lsom g roups w ou ld h ave p rov ided a n e xped ien t a nd v e r sa t i le w ay t o t r anspo r t g ood l i th ic ma te r ia l o ve r s ubs tan t ia l d i s tances ( Hofman 1 992 :201) . B as ing h is i n te rpre ta t ion o n a s sump t ions made a bou t r e too l ing e ven ts a nd c yc les , H ofman ( 1992 :208 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a s semb lage o f ak i l l t h a t h ad o ccu r red i mmed ia te ly a f te r t h e g roup h ad v i s i ted a q ua r ry w ou ld h ave b een d om ina ted b y c l a s s ic b i fac ia l ly f l u ted F o lsom p o in t s , w he rea s a n a s semb lage u sed b y a g roup a f te r n ume rous k i l l a nd p rocess ing e ven t s h ad o ccu r red w i thou t aq ua r ry v i s i t , w ou ld h ave c on ta ined p r ima r i ly u nf lu ted a nd h eav i ly r ewo rked p o in t s .

( Todd e ta l . 1 992 :142 ) . T hey c onc luded t h a t t h e L ip scomb s i te p rov ided a no the r c a se d emons t ra t ing t h a t P a leo ind ian h un t ing a nd s ubs is tence p a t te rns d id n o t n ecessa r i ly c o r re spond w i th m ode ls d e r ived e n t i re ly f r om l a te r P la ins b i son h un t ing g roup s( Todd e ta l . 1 992 :162 ) .

B rad ley 1 993 B rad ley ( 1993 :255 -256 ) p roposed t h a t t h e c omp lex f l u t ing p roce s s m ay h ave o r ig ina ted a sa n e xped ien tw ay t ot h in t h e b a se o fp ro jec t i le p o in t s , b u t t ha t i te ven tua l ly t o ok o n l e s s u t i l i ta r ian m ean ing , a nd d eve loped i n to a n i n teg ra l p a r t o fa p re -hun t p red ic t ive r i tua l . H e a rgued t h a t t h is i n te rp re ta t ion e xp la ined t h e d i sca rded a nd i n ten t iona l ly b roken f l u ted p refo rms r e cove red f r om n ume rous F o lsom s i te s . B rad ley ( 1993 :256 ) c ons ide red t h e e x t reme a r t is t ry a nd c a re e xp re s sed i nm any P a leo ind ian p o in t s t ob e s ymbo l ic o ft h e p owe rb e l ieved t ob ei n ve s ted i nt hem .

I ngba r 1 992 I ngba r ( 1992 ) p re sen ted a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e u se o fr aw ma te r ia ls i nt e rm s o fh un te r -ga the re r mob i l i ty a ss ugge s ted b y t h ea r chaeo log ica la s semb lage r e cove red f r om t h eH anson s i te , aF o lsom w o rk shop -qua r ry l o ca t ion o nt h eN o r thwe s te rn P la in s . H e d i scove red t h a t l o ca l l i th ic m a te r ia ls i n t h e H anson a s semb lage w e re p redom inan t ly i ne a r l ie rr educ t ion s t age s , w he rea s t h e n on loca l m a te r ia l w a s mo s t ly i n l a te r s t age s o f r educ t ion ( I ngba r 1 992 :183 ) . I ngba r ( 1992 :187 ) c onc luded t h a tt h es t ag ing o fl i t h ic r educ t ion s e emed t oh ave b een a p a r t o f ap lanned r educ t ion s t ra tegy i n wh ich r educ t ion h ad b een s t aged b e tween d i f fe ren t r aw ma te r ia l s ou rce s , s o t h a t r aw ma te r ia ls f o r t oo ls h ad a r e la t ive ly c on t ro l led a nd a n t ic ipa ted l i f ec yc le w i th in t h e mob i l i ty a nd a c t iv i ty s t ra tegy .

F r ison 1 993 F r ison ( 1993 ) a r gued t h a tb o th C lov is a nd F o l som p o in t sa nd t h us C lov is a nd F o lsom c u l tu ra l g roup s h ad b een p r e sen t a t h ighe r a l t i tude s i nt h e f oo th i l ls a nd m oun ta ins w e s t o f t h e N o r the rn P la ins . B u t a f te r F o lsom , f o r a tl e a s t 1 , 000 y ea r s , t he re w e re d i f f e ren t c u l tura l g roups i n t he f oo th i l lsmoun ta ins f r om t h ose o n t h e o pen p l a ins , e ach p rac t is ing d i f f e ren t s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s : t r ue h un te r -ga the re r s i nt h e f o o th i l l -moun ta in a r ea s f o cus ing o n s ma l l a n ima l a nd p l an t r e sou rce s , a nd l a rge mamma l h un te r s o n t h e o pen p l a ins ( F r ison 1 993 :240 ) . F r ison ( 1993 :240 ) n o ted t h a t t h is c onc lus ion h ad b een b ased o n t ypo log ica l ly d i f f e ren t s e quence so fp ro jec t i le p o in ta nd t oo l a s semb lage sr e cove red f r om s i te si ne a ch a r ea .

S aunde r s 1 992 C . V . H ayne s 1 993 S aunde r s ( 1992 ) d i scussed t he i s sue o f mammo th e xp lo i ta t ion i n t h e l a te P le is tocene , r e s ta ted h i s h e rd c onf ron ta t ion mode l ( i .e . , t h e p rocu remen t o f c omp le te f am i ly u n i t s ) , a nd a r gued t h a ta l though t h ed a ta d i d n o tp rove o r d i sp rove i t , t he mode l p rov ided ar ea l is t ic , l i ke ly , a nd , mo reove r , b es t e xp lana t ion f o r C lov is a nd mammo th a s semb lage s . H ea l so r e pea ted h i sc l a im t h a t m ode rn c u l l ing o fe l ephan t sb yE u ropean A f r icans p rov ided amuch s upe r io r mode l f o r i n fe r r ing P le is tocene me thods o f mammo th p rocu remen ti nN o r th Ame r ican a so pposed t om ode rn n a t ive p rac t ice so fe l ephan tp rocu remen t( Saunde r s 1 992 :129 131) .

B a s ing h i s i n te rp re ta t ions o n g eo log ic e v idence , H ayne s ( 1993 ) p o s tu la ted t h a t a r ound 1 ,000 y ea r s B .P . , d u r ing t h e C lov is o ccupa t ion , m any p a r t s o f N o r th Ame r ica h ad b een s ub jec ted t o d rough t c ond i t ions a nd e x t inc t ions o f m ega f auna . T hu s C lov is a r t if ac ts w e re c ommon ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l a s t r emnan ts o f P le is tocene m egaf auna u nde r d rough t c ond i t ions , w h i le t h e f o l low ing F o lsom -M id land o ccupa t ions w e re a s soc ia ted w i th i mp roved h yd ro log ica l c ond i t ions a tm any s i te s .

Me l tze r 1 993a

T odd ,H ofman ,a nd S chu l tz 1 992 T odd e t a l . ( 1992 ) p rov ided t he r e su l t s o f ar e cen t r eexam ina t ion o f t h e b i son b one b ed a s soc ia ted w i th t h e L ipscomb F o l som s i te i nT exa s , w h ich h ad b een o r ig ina l ly i n te rp re ted a s as ma l l F o lsom k i l l . I n v i ew o ft h e i r d e ta i led a na ly s is o f t h e f auna l r ema ins , t hey c onc luded t h a t t h e a s semb lage r e p re sen ted al a te rs umme r mo r ta l i ty , mos tl i ke ly as i ng le e ven t o rs eve ra l e ven t s c l ose ly s pa ced ( Todd e ta l . 1 992 :142 ) . Mo reove r , t h e l im i ted p roce ss ing a nd u t i l iza t ion o ft h e c a rca s se s r e cove red f r om t h e b one b ed ( a s e v idenced a tn ume rou s o t he r P a leo ind ian s i te s a sw e l l ) w a s ap os s ib le i nd ica to r t h a t l ong te rm f ood s t o rage h ad n o t b een a s i gn if ican t c omponen t o fP a leo ind ian s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s 1 30

Me l tze r ( 1993a ) , i n ac r i t ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e " C lov is A dap ta t ion ," c onc luded t h a tC lov is h ad n o tb een ac on t inen tw ide a dap ta t ion a sh ad b een t r ad i t iona l ly a s sumed , b u tr a the r l i ke ly h ad c on s is ted o fd i s t inc t ive a nd m u l t ip le o ccupa t ions a nd a dap ta t ion s . H e a l so o u t l ined t h e i n c rea s ing d a ta t h a t i n d ica ted t h a tn o ta l C lov is p opu la t ions h ad b een s pec ia l ized b ig g ame h un te r s . I n s tead , m any o ft h e se e a r ly P a leo ind ian g roups h ad p ra c t ised g ene ra l ized s ubs is tence s t ra teg ie s , a nd h ad e xp lo i ted aw ide v a r ie ty o fp lan t a nd a n ima lr e sou r ce s .

J ohn son a nd H o l l iday 1 997 J ohn son a nd H o l l iday ( 1997 ) r e eva lua ted f a una l c o l lec t ion s f r om t wo l a rge ly u n repo r ted P a leo ind ian b onebed si d en t if ied a tt h eC lov i ss i te d u r ing e xcava t ion si nt h e 1 940 s a nd 1 950 s . T hey e xam ined a genc ie s o fb one m od if ica t ion ( i . e . , f l uv ia l a b ra s ion , c a rn ivo re a c t iv i ty , w ea the r ing , h uman b u tche r ing ) a nd s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se s i na n a t temp t t od e te rm ine t h e e x ten t o f h uman i nvo lvemen t i n c r ea t ing t h e f auna l a s semb lage s . F o r t h eJ e l inek b onebed , d a ted a t1 0 ,800 y ea r s B .P . ( a round t h eC lov is -Fo lsom t r an s i t ion t ime p e r iod ) , t h ey d e te rm ined t h a tt h ed epos i th ad n o tb een d i s tu rbed b yf l uv ia l a c t ion , t h a t t h e a ccumu la t ion o f t h e b i son a nd m ammo th r ema in sr e p re sen ted s e pa ra te e ven t s b o th o fw h ich i n vo lved h uman s ( a s i n d ica ted b y t h e f ew c u t a nd b l ow m a rk s a nd f r a c tu re s ) , t h a t t h e m ammo th r ema in s m ay r e p re sen t b one q ua r ry ing , a nd t h a t t h e i n i t ia l k i l l / scavenge e ven t f o r b i son m ea th ad b een f o l lowed b y as e cond l a te r s c aveng ing e ven t f o rm a r row .

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